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= Valkyria Chronicles III =
Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Unrecorded Chronicles ( Japanese : 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 ) , commonly referred to as Valkyria Chronicles III outside Japan , is a tactical role @-@ playing video game developed by Sega and Media.Vision for the PlayStation Portable . Released in January 2011 in Japan , it is the third game in the Valkyria series . Employing the same fusion of tactical and real @-@ time gameplay as its predecessors , the story runs parallel to the first game and follows the " Nameless " , a penal military unit serving the nation of Gallia during the Second Europan War who perform secret black operations and are pitted against the Imperial unit " Calamaty Raven " .
The game began development in 2010 , carrying over a large portion of the work done on Valkyria Chronicles II . While it retained the standard features of the series , it also underwent multiple adjustments , such as making the game more forgiving for series newcomers . Character designer Raita Honjou and composer Hitoshi Sakimoto both returned from previous entries , along with Valkyria Chronicles II director Takeshi Ozawa . A large team of writers handled the script . The game 's opening theme was sung by May 'n .
It met with positive sales in Japan , and was praised by both Japanese and western critics . After release , it received downloadable content , along with an expanded edition in November of that year . It was also adapted into manga and an original video animation series . Due to low sales of Valkyria Chronicles II , Valkyria Chronicles III was not localized , but a fan translation compatible with the game 's expanded edition was released in 2014 . Media.Vision would return to the franchise with the development of Valkyria : Azure Revolution for the PlayStation 4 .
= = Gameplay = =
As with previous Valkyira Chronicles games , Valkyria Chronicles III is a tactical role @-@ playing game where players take control of a military unit and take part in missions against enemy forces . Stories are told through comic book @-@ like panels with animated character portraits , with characters speaking partially through voiced speech bubbles and partially through unvoiced text . The player progresses through a series of linear missions , gradually unlocked as maps that can be freely scanned through and replayed as they are unlocked . The route to each story location on the map varies depending on an individual player 's approach : when one option is selected , the other is sealed off to the player . Outside missions , the player characters rest in a camp , where units can be customized and character growth occurs . Alongside the main story missions are character @-@ specific sub missions relating to different squad members . After the game 's completion , additional episodes are unlocked , some of them having a higher difficulty than those found in the rest of the game . There are also love simulation elements related to the game 's two main heroines , although they take a very minor role .
The game 's battle system , the BliTZ system , is carried over directly from Valkyira Chronicles . During missions , players select each unit using a top @-@ down perspective of the battlefield map : once a character is selected , the player moves the character around the battlefield in third @-@ person . A character can only act once per @-@ turn , but characters can be granted multiple turns at the expense of other characters ' turns . Each character has a field and distance of movement limited by their Action Gauge . Up to nine characters can be assigned to a single mission . During gameplay , characters will call out if something happens to them , such as their health points ( HP ) getting low or being knocked out by enemy attacks . Each character has specific " Potentials " , skills unique to each character . They are divided into " Personal Potential " , which are innate skills that remain unaltered unless otherwise dictated by the story and can either help or impede a character , and " Battle Potentials " , which are grown throughout the game and always grant boons to a character . To learn Battle Potentials , each character has a unique " Masters Table " , a grid @-@ based skill table that can be used to acquire and link different skills . Characters also have Special Abilities that grant them temporary boosts on the battlefield : Kurt can activate " Direct Command " and move around the battlefield without depleting his Action Point gauge , the character Reila can shift into her " Valkyria Form " and become invincible , while Imca can target multiple enemy units with her heavy weapon .
Troops are divided into five classes : Scouts , Shocktroopers , Engineers , Lancers and Armored Soldier . Troopers can switch classes by changing their assigned weapon . Changing class does not greatly affect the stats gained while in a previous class . With victory in battle , experience points are awarded to the squad , which are distributed into five different attributes shared by the entire squad , a feature differing from early games ' method of distributing to different unit types .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place during the Second Europan War . Gallian Army Squad 422 , also known as " The Nameless " , are a penal military unit composed of criminals , foreign deserters , and military offenders whose real names are erased from the records and thereon officially referred to by numbers . Ordered by the Gallian military to perform the most dangerous missions that the Regular Army and Militia will not do , they are nevertheless up to the task , exemplified by their motto , Altaha Abilia , meaning " Always Ready . " The three main characters are No.7 Kurt Irving , an army officer falsely accused of treason who wishes to redeem himself ; Ace No.1 Imca , a female Darcsen heavy weapons specialist who seeks revenge against the Valkyria who destroyed her home ; and No.13 Riela Marcellis , a seemingly jinxed young woman who is unknowingly a descendant of the Valkyria . Together with their fellow squad members , these three are tasked to fight against a mysterious Imperial unit known as Calamity Raven , consisting of mostly Darcsen soldiers .
As the Nameless officially do not exist , the upper echelons of the Gallian Army exploit the concept of plausible deniability in order to send them on missions that would otherwise make Gallia lose face in the war . While at times this works to their advantage , such as a successful incursion into Imperial territory , other orders cause certain members of the 422nd great distress . One such member , Gusurg , becomes so enraged that he abandons his post and defects into the ranks of Calamity Raven , attached to the ideal of Darcsen independence proposed by their leader , Dahau . At the same time , elements within Gallian Army Command move to erase the Nameless in order to protect their own interests . Hounded by both allies and enemies , and combined with the presence of a traitor within their ranks , the 422nd desperately move to keep themselves alive while at the same time fight to help the Gallian war effort . This continues until the Nameless 's commanding officer , Ramsey Crowe , who had been kept under house arrest , is escorted to the capital city of Randgriz in order to present evidence exonerating the weary soldiers and expose the real traitor , the Gallian General that had accused Kurt of Treason .
Partly due to these events , and partly due to the major losses in manpower Gallia suffers towards the end of the war with the Empire , the Nameless are offered a formal position as a squad in the Gallian Army rather than serve as an anonymous shadow force . This is short @-@ lived , however , as following Maximilian 's defeat , Dahau and Calamity Raven move to activate an ancient Valkyrian super weapon within the Empire , kept secret by their benefactor . Without the support of Maximilian or the chance to prove themselves in the war with Gallia , it is Dahau 's last trump card in creating a new Darcsen nation . As an armed Gallian force invading the Empire just following the two nations ' cease @-@ fire would certainly wreck their newfound peace , Kurt decides to once again make his squad the Nameless , asking Crowe to list himself and all under his command as killed @-@ in @-@ action . Now owing allegiance to none other than themselves , the 422nd confronts Dahau and destroys the Valkyrian weapon . Each member then goes their separate ways in order to begin their lives anew .
= = Development = =
Concept work for Valkyria Chronicles III began after development finished on Valkyria Chronicles II in early 2010 , with full development beginning shortly after this . The director of Valkyria Chronicles II , Takeshi Ozawa , returned to that role for Valkyria Chronicles III . Development work took approximately one year . After the release of Valkyria Chronicles II , the staff took a look at both the popular response for the game and what they wanted to do next for the series . Like its predecessor , Valkyria Chronicles III was developed for PlayStation Portable : this was due to the team wanting to refine the mechanics created for Valkyria Chronicles II , and they had not come up with the " revolutionary " idea that would warrant a new entry for the PlayStation 3 . Speaking in an interview , it was stated that the development team considered Valkyria Chronicles III to be the series ' first true sequel : while Valkyria Chronicles II had required a large amount of trial and error during development due to the platform move , the third game gave them a chance to improve upon the best parts of Valkyria Chronicles II due to being on the same platform . In addition to Sega staff from the previous games , development work was also handled by Media.Vision. The original scenario was written Kazuki Yamanobe , while the script was written by Hiroyuki Fujii , Koichi Majima , Kishiko Miyagi , Seiki Nagakawa and Takayuki Shouji . Its story was darker and more somber than that of its predecessor .
The majority of material created for previous games , such as the BLiTZ system and the design of maps , was carried over . Alongside this , improvements were made to the game 's graphics and some elements were expanded , such as map layouts , mission structure , and the number of playable units per mission . A part of this upgrade involved creating unique polygon models for each character 's body . In order to achieve this , the cooperative elements incorporated into the second game were removed , as they took up a large portion of memory space needed for the improvements . They also adjusted the difficulty settings and ease of play so they could appeal to new players while retaining the essential components of the series ' gameplay . The newer systems were decided upon early in development . The character designs were done by Raita Honjou , who had worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When creating the Nameless Squad , Honjou was faced with the same problem he had had during the first game : the military uniforms essentially destroyed character individuality , despite him needing to create unique characters the player could identify while maintaining a sense of reality within the Valkyria Chronicles world . The main color of the Nameless was black . As with the previous Valkyria games , Valkyria Chronicles III used the CANVAS graphics engine . The anime opening was produced by Production I.G.
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , who had also worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When he originally heard about the project , he thought it would be a light tone similar to other Valkyria Chronicles games , but found the themes much darker than expected . An early theme he designed around his original vision of the project was rejected . He redid the main theme about seven times through the music production due to this need to reassess the game . The main theme was initially recorded using orchestra , then Sakimoto removed elements such as the guitar and bass , then adjusted the theme using a synthesizer before redoing segments such as the guitar piece on their own before incorporating them into the theme . The rejected main theme was used as a hopeful tune that played during the game 's ending . The battle themes were designed around the concept of a " modern battle " divorced from a fantasy scenario by using modern musical instruments , constructed to create a sense of atonality . While Sakimoto was most used to working with synthesized music , he felt that he needed to incorporate live instruments such as orchestra and guitar . The guitar was played by Mitsuhiro Ohta , who also arranged several of the later tracks . The game 's opening theme song , " If You Wish for ... " ( もしも君が願うのなら , Moshimo Kimi ga Negauno Nara ) , was sung by Japanese singer May 'n . Its theme was the reason soldiers fought , in particular their wish to protect what was precious to them rather than a sense of responsibility or duty . Its lyrics were written by Seiko Fujibayashi , who had worked on May 'n on previous singles .
= = = Release = = =
In September 2010 , a teaser website was revealed by Sega , hinting at a new Valkyria Chronicles game . In its September issue , Famitsu listed that Senjō no Valkyria 3 would be arriving on the PlayStation Portable . Its first public appearance was at the 2010 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) , where a demo was made available for journalists and attendees . During the publicity , story details were kept scant so as not to spoil too much for potential players , along with some of its content still being in flux at the time of its reveal . To promote the game and detail the story leading into the game 's events , an episodic Flash visual novel written by Fujii began release in January 2011 . The game was released January 27 , 2011 . During an interview , the development team said that the game had the capacity for downloadable content ( DLC ) , but that no plans were finalized . Multiple DLC maps , featuring additional missions and recruitable characters , were released between February and April 2011 . An expanded edition of the game , Valkyria Chronicles III Extra Edition , released on November 23 , 2011 . Packaged and sold at a lower price than the original , Extra Edition game with seven additional episodes : three new , three chosen by staff from the game 's DLC , and one made available as a pre @-@ order bonus . People who also owned the original game could transfer their save data between versions .
Unlike its two predecessors , Valkyria Chronicles III was not released in the west . According to Sega , this was due to poor sales of Valkyria Chronicles II and the general unpopularity of the PSP in the west . An unofficial fan translation patch began development in February 2012 : players with a copy of Valkyria Chronicles III could download and apply the patch , which translated the game 's text into English . Compatible with the Extra Edition , the patch was released in January 2014 .
= = Reception = =
On its day of release in Japan , Valkyria Chronicles III topped both platform @-@ exclusive and multi @-@ platform sales charts . By early February , the game sold 102 @,@ 779 units , coming in second overall to The Last Story for the Wii . By the end of the year , the game had sold just over 152 @,@ 500 units .
Famitsu enjoyed the story , and were particularly pleased with the improvements to gameplay . Japanese gaming site Game Watch Impress , despite negatively noting its pacing and elements recycled from previous games , was generally positive about its story and characters , and found its gameplay entertaining despite off @-@ putting difficulty spikes . 4Gamer.net writer Naohiko Misuosame , in a " Play Test " article based on the game 's PSN demo , felt that Valkyria Chronicles III provided a " profound feeling of closure " for the Valkyria Chronicles series . He praised its gameplay despite annoying limitations to aspects such as special abilities , and positively noted its shift in story to a tone similar to the first game .
PlayStation Official Magazine - UK praised the story 's blurring of Gallia 's moral standing , art style , and most points about its gameplay , positively noting the latter for both its continued quality and the tweaks to balance and content . Its one major criticism were multiple difficulty spikes , something that had affected the previous games . Heath Hindman of gaming website PlayStation Lifestyle praised the addition of non @-@ linear elements and improvements or removal of mechanics from Valkyria Chronicles II in addition to praising the returning gameplay style of previous games . He also positively noted the story 's serious tone . Points criticized in the review were recycled elements , awkward cutscenes that seemed to include all characters in a scene for no good reason , pacing issues , and occasional problems with the game 's AI .
In a preview of the TGS demo , Ryan Geddes of IGN was left excited as to where the game would go after completing the demo , along with enjoying the improved visuals over Valkyria Chronicles II . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis was highly positive about the game , citing is story as a return to form after Valkyria Chronicles II and its gameplay being the best in the series . His main criticisms were its length and gameplay repetition , along with expressing regret that it would not be localized .
= = Legacy = =
Kurt and Riela were featured in the Nintendo 3DS crossover Project X Zone , representing the Valkyria series . Media.Vision would return to the series to develop Valkyria : Azure Revolution , with Ozawa returning as director . Azure Revolution is a role @-@ playing video game for the PlayStation 4 that forms the beginning of a new series within the Valkyria franchise .
= = = Adaptations = = =
Valkyria Chronicles 3 was adapted into a two @-@ episode original video animation series in the same year of its release . Titled Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Taga Tame no Jūsō ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア３ 誰がための銃瘡 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Wound Taken for Someone 's Sake ) , it was originally released through PlayStation Network and Qriocity between April and May 2011 . The initially @-@ planned release and availability period needed to be extended due to a stoppage to PSN during the early summer of that year . It later released for DVD on June 29 and August 31 , 2011 , with separate " Black " and " Blue " editions being available for purchase . The anime is set during the latter half of Valkyria Chronicles III , detailing a mission by the Nameless against their Imperial rivals Calamity Raven . The anime was first announced in November 2010 . It was developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures , produced by Shinji Motoyama , directed by Nobuhiro Kondō , and written by Hiroshi Ōnogi . Sakimoto 's music for the game was used in the anime .
The anime 's title was inspired by the principle purpose of the Nameless : to suffer in battle for the goals of others . A subtitle attached to the project during development was " The Road to Kubinka " , which referenced the Kubinka Tank Museum in Moscow . The game 's main theme was how the characters regained their sense of self when stripped of their names and identities , along with general themes focused on war and its consequences . While making the anime , the production team were told by Sega to make it as realistic as possible , with the consequence that the team did extensive research into aspects such as what happened when vehicles like tanks were overturned or damaged . Due to it being along the same timeline as the original game and its television anime adaptation , the cast of Valkyria Chronicles could make appearances , which pleased the team . The opening theme , " Akari ( Light ) -Tomoshibi- " ( 灯 @-@ TOMOSHIBI- ) , was sung by Japanese singer Faylan . The ending theme , " Someday the Flowers of Light Will Bloom " ( いつか咲く光の花 , Itsuka Saku Hikari no Hana ) , was sung by Minami Kuribayashi . Both songs ' lyrics were written by their respective artists .
Two manga adaptations were produced , following each of the game 's main female protagonists Imca and Riela . They were Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Namo naki Chikai no Hana ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 名もなき誓いの花 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Flower of the Nameless Oath ) , illustrated by Naoyuki Fujisawa and eventually released in two volumes after being serialized in Dengeki Maoh between 2011 and 2012 ; and Senjō no Valkyria 3 : -Akaki Unmei no Ikusa Otome- ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 -赤き運命の戦乙女- , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 -The Valkyrie of the Crimson Fate ) , illustrated by Mizuki Tsuge and eventually released in a single volume by Kadokawa Shoten in 2012 .
= Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal =
The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal , also known as U.S. Arsenal Building , is a building located in MacArthur Park in downtown Little Rock , Arkansas . Built in 1840 , it was part of Little Rock 's first military installation . Since its decommissioning , The Tower Building has housed two museums . It was home to the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities from 1942 to 1997 and the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History since 2001 . It has also been the headquarters of the Little Rock Æsthetic Club since 1894 .
The building receives its name from its distinct octagonal tower . Besides being the last remaining structure of the original Little Rock Arsenal and one of the oldest buildings in central Arkansas , it was also the birthplace of General Douglas MacArthur , who became the supreme commander of US forces in the South Pacific during World War II . It was also the starting place of the Camden Expedition . In 2011 it was named as one of the top 10 attractions in the state of Arkansas by Arkansas.com.
= = Construction = =
The arsenal was constructed at the request of Governor James Sevier Conway in response to the perceived dangers of frontier life and fears of the many Native Americans who were passing through the state on their way to the newly established Oklahoma Territory . Thirty @-@ six acres were appropriated on the outskirts of Little Rock by Major Robert B. Lee of the U.S. Army . The land had been previously used as a racetrack by the local jockey club . John Wormley Walker , a builder for the Federal Government , supervised the construction . Originally $ 14 @,@ 000 was allocated for the construction of the arsenal , but proved inadequate . The budget was later increased to $ 30 @,@ 000 . Work began on the Tower Building in 1840 , and it was the first permanent structure of the arsenal to be built . Being originally constructed to store ammunition , the building was designed with 3 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) exterior walls . The original plans called for it to be built of stone , however , masonry was used instead . The Arkansas Gazette referred to the structure as " A splendid specimen of masonry " .
= = Civil War = =
For several years the arsenal , which was owned by the federal government , served as a simple arms depot and was staffed with only a handful of soldiers . But in November 1860 , with the American Civil War on the horizon , a company of the Second United States Artillery , consisting of sixty @-@ five men , was transferred to Little Rock under the command of Captain James Totten . On January 15 , 1861 , the state legislature decided to hold a referendum to determine if a state convention should be held to consider the issue of secession and to elect delegates to such a convention . It was planned for February 18 ; however , events at the arsenal , would not wait . On January 28 , then Governor Henry Massey Rector informed Captain Totten that he and his soldiers would be " permitted to remain in the possession of the Federal officers until the State , by authority of the people , shall have determined to sever their connection with the General Government , " Totten responded to this by telling the Governor that his orders came from the United States Government and began a desperate but ultimately futile dispatch of letters and telegrams asking for reinforcements , although rumors were widely spread that they were already coming . The first telegraph wire to span between Little Rock and Memphis had recently been completed . Local attorney John M Harrel was asked to compose the first telegraph dispatched from Arkansas 's capital . In his message , Harrel reported unconfirmed rumors that more federal troops had been sent to reinforce the Little Rock Arsenal .
The United States troops at the outposts of the western frontier of the state and in the Indian nation have all been recalled from winter quarters to reinforce the garrison at Fort Smith . The garrison at Fort Smith had been previously transferred to the United States Arsenal in this city ( Little Rock ) . The arsenal is one of the richest depositories of military stores in the United States and is supposed to be the ultimate destination of the tropps [ sic ] ordered from the frontier .
-John M Harrel Telegram , January 31 , 1861
The item was intended simply as a piece of news , but telegraph lines quickly spread the news throughout the state , fueling procession sentiment . The rumor was interpreted by some Arkansans as a call from the governor to assemble to help expel the federal troops from the arsenal . By February 5 , six militia units , consisting of 1 @,@ 000 men , with a guarantee that the numbers could be increased to 5 @,@ 000 if the situations deemed it necessary , had assembled in Little Rock . Governor Rector vehemently denied ordering the troops to assemble or giving any order at all in connection with the troops . Faced with the fact that the military had assembled believing they were following his orders and the consensus of the citizens of Little Rock against any armed conflict between the civilian army and federal troops , Governor Rector was forced to take control of the situation . On February 6 , he sent a formal demand for surrender of the arsenal to Captain Totten ,
This movement is prompted by the feeling that pervades the citizens of this State that in the present emergency the arms and munitions of war in the Arsenal should be under the control of the State authorities , in order to their security . This movement , although not authorized by me , has assumed such an aspect that it becomes my duty , as the executive of this Sate , to interpose my official authority to prevent a collision between the people of the State and the Federal troops under your command . I therefore demand in the name of the State the delivery of the possession of the Arsenal and munitions of war under your charge to the State authorities , to be held subject to the action of the convention to be held on the 4th of March next .
Perhaps because Abraham Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated as President , Captain Totten received no instructions from his superiors and was forced to withdraw his troops . He agreed to surrender the arsenal as long as the governor agreed to three provisions :
The governor would take possession of the arsenal in the name of the United States .
The soldiers would be allowed safe passage in any direction carrying any personal and public property besides munitions of war .
The soldiers would be allowed to march away as men leaving under orders , not as conquered and surrendering soldiers .
On the morning of February 8 , 1861 , Rector and Totten signed an agreement placing the arsenal in the hands of state officials . That afternoon , the citizen militia marched to the arsenal with Governor Rector at its head . All of the federal troops had left at this point , except Totten who had stayed behind to listen to the Governor 's speech and to hand the arsenal over in person .
The Little Rock Arsenal was classified in 1860 as an " arsenal of deposit , " meaning that it was simply a warehouse for the storage of weapons intended for the use of the state militia in times of crisis . Thus there were no substantial operations for ordnance fabrication or repairs , nor for the manufacture of cartridges at the time the Arsenal fell into State hands . Most of these operations were started from scratch through the efforts of the Arkansas Military Board .
Inside the Little Rock Arsenal after its seizure in February , 1861 , the Confederates inventoried some 10 @,@ 247 weapons , 250 @,@ 000 musket cartridges , and 520 @,@ 000 percussion caps , as well as the four bronze cannon of Totten 's battery . Long arms in the Arsenal 's inventory consisted of :
M1822 .69 cal ( flintlock ) 5 @,@ 625
M1822 .69 cal ( percussion @-@ converted ) 53
M1842 .69 cal smoothbore ( percussion ) 357
M1855 .58 cal rifle @-@ muskets 900
M1817 common rifles 125
M1841 rifle ( " Mississippi Rifle " ) 54
M1847 musketoon 2
Hall 's carbines 267
Hall 's rifles ( flintlock ) 2 @,@ 864
Total 10 @,@ 247
Of this number , approximately 9600 weapons were serviceable , or ready @-@ for @-@ issue . Note there were only 1 @,@ 364 percussion weapons available . Disposition of the weapons found in the Arsenal is somewhat sketchy , but from various records it can be surmised that the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 8th Arkansas Infantry Regiments , mustered in June , 1861 , were issued M1816 / M1822 .69 caliber flintlocks . The 9th and 10th Arkansas , four companies of Kelly 's 9th Arkansas Battalion , and the 3rd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment were issued flintlock Hall 's Rifles . The units comprising the infantry force of Van Dorn 's Army of the West were the 1st and 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles were also armed with M1822 flintlocks from the Little Rock Arsenal . By the time the 11th and 12th Arkansas Infantry Regiments mustered in at Little Rock , the supply of arms had been almost completely exhausted , and only old " junker " weapons were left .
Most of the equipment , arms , and machinery at the Little Rock Arsenal was removed to east of the Mississippi River by order of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn in April and May 1862 , and accountability for it is lost at that point . By all appearances , the equipment was sent down the river to Napoleon , Arkansas , and from there to Jackson Mississippi , where it was probably destroyed during the Vicksburg campaign in the early summer of 1863 .
Major General Thomas C. Hindman , sent to command the district of Arkansas in May , 1862 , found the state nearly destitute of military material . Hindman established another armory at Arkadelphia , and revived the Little Rock Arsenal as a collection point and depot for armaments and ammunition manufacture for small arms . Hindman recorded :
" Machinery was made for manufacturing percussion caps and small arms , and both were turned out in small quantity , but of excellent quality . Lead mines were opened and worked , and a chemical laboratory was established and successfully operated in aid of the Ordnance Department and in the manufacture of calomel , castor oil , spirits of nitre , the various tinctures of iron , and other valuable medicines . Most of these works were located at or near Arkadelphia on the Ouachita River , 75 miles south from Little Rock . The tools , machinery , and the material were gathered piecemeal or else made by hand labor . Nothing of this sort had been before attempted on Government account in Arkansas to my knowledge , except for the manufacture of small arms , the machinery for which was taken away by General Van Dorn and there was neither capital nor sufficient enterprise among the citizens to engage in such undertakings � A further supply , along with lead and caps , was procured from the citizens of Little Rock and vicinity by donation , purchases , and impressments .
This ammunition , and that which I brought with me , was rapidly prepared for use at the Laboratory established at the Little Rock Arsenal for that purpose . As illustrating as the pitiful scarcity of material in the country , the fact may be stated that it was found necessary to use public documents of the State Library for cartridge paper . Gunsmiths were employed or conscripted , tools purchased or impressed , and the repair of the damaged guns I brought with me and about an equal number found at Little Rock commenced at once . But , after inspecting the work and observing the spirit of the men I decided that a garrison 500 strong could hold out against Fitch and that I would lead the remainder - about 1500 - to Gen 'l Rust as soon as shotguns and rifles could be obtained from Little Rock instead of pikes and lances , with which most of them were armed . Two days elapsed before the change could be effected . "
The Confederate ordnance establishment at Little Rock was reactivated in August , 1862 . Looking around for a suitable person to head this activity , General Hindman turned to the Confederate Navy and borrowed Lieutenant John W. Dunnington . Lt. Dunnington was the commander of the gunboat C.S.S. Ponchartrain , which had been brought to Little Rock in hopes of converting it to an ironclad . Dunnington was selected to head the ordnance works at Little Rock , and although he continued to draw his pay from the Confederate Navy Department , he was placed in charge of all Confederate ordnance activities ( which included artillery functions ) there with the rank of lieutenant colonel .
Lt. Col. Dunnington 's " Returns for the month of August , 1862 , at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. , " are found in Vol . 149 , Chapter IV of the " Captured Rebel Ordnance Records , " and are most enlightening as to the scope of Confederate ordnance activities at Little Rock during this crucial time . According to Dunnington , " When I assumed command at this Post , all material had been removed to Arkadelphia . There were no persons employed . No shops were open for repair of arms or for fabricating ammunition . Material , tools , etc . , had to be procured as well as the employment of laborers . Work commenced the last part of the month . "
The military force at Little Rock under Dunnington 's command consisted of four officers : himself , Major John B. Lockman , Captain C.C. Green , and 2nd Lt. W.W. Murphy . In addition to these , he had 20 enlisted men and a civilian force composed of a foreman , 2 clerks , 3 gunsmiths for repairing small arms , a laboratorian , 26 laborers in the ammunition laboratory , and a carpenter for making packing boxes .
During the month of August , 1862 , the following work was performed : " Fabricated : one pair of musket bullet moulds ; 10 @,@ 000 buck & ball shot cartridges ; repaired : 750 muskets , shotguns , and rifles ; received and repaired : ordnance stores and ordnances ; performed : guard , office , and police duties ; inspected : Posts at Camden and Arkadelphia . "
Lt. Col. Dunnington continued to build up his works at Little Rock until November 1862 , when Captain Sanford C. Faulkner ( composer of The Arkansas Traveler ) was placed in charge of the Arsenal . Dunnington presumably returned to his naval duties and the Ponchartrain .
A " Summary of the Work Done for November , 1862 , Little Rock Arsenal " shows : Fabrication :
75 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - percussion
14 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - flint
275 paper fuzes
117 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder canister shot
130 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder ball shot
96 ammunition packing boxes
Repaired :
2 @,@ 236 shotguns and rifles ( repaired mostly for troops in service )
23 pistols ( repaired mostly for troops in service )
Received & Issued :
752 packages of ordnance and ordnance stores received and mostly issued to troops in service .
Repaired and painted :
4 gun carriages
Performed :
Guard , office , and police duties .
Perhaps the most illuminating points of the above " Summary of Work " and those for following months are that the standard ammunition made was . " buck & ball " , indicating that the .69 caliber smoothbores and shotguns remained the predominant caliber weapon in use , and of this , nearly one sixth or more of all small arms ammunition was still for flintlock weapons , indicating that no less than a sixth of the Confederate troops in this vicinity were still armed with obsolete flintlock weapons .
The " Summaries of Work done at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. " continue at about the same pace and scale from August 1862 until August 1863 . Appended to the " Summary " for August , 1863 is the ominous notation , " During the last week in the month , nearly all stores at the Arsenal have been packed and sent to Arkadelphia , in obedience to orders from Chief of Ordnance , District of Arkansas . " This then marks the beginning of the evacuation of ordnance activities from Little Rock , with the city being surrendered to the advancing Federal troops of Frederick Steele 's Arkansas Expedition on September 11 , 1863 .
In 1864 , after Little Rock fell to the Union Army and the arsenal had been recaptured , General Fredrick Steele marched 8 @,@ 500 troops from the arsenal beginning the Camden Expedition .
The arsenal was briefly seized once more by Joseph Brooks loyalists during the Brooks @-@ Baxter War of 1874 .
= = Decommissioning = =
In 1873 , the building was renamed Little Rock Barracks and used as a barracks for married officers and their families . The building was drastically altered the inside and outside . Prior to renovation , a rear basement door provided the only entrance to the building , while the tower served as a hoist to move munitions between floors . By 1868 , front and rear porches had been added to the building , as well as interior walls and stairs , some of which remain today , including the central staircase . In 1880 , Douglas MacArthur was born on the northwest upper floor of this building while his father , Captain Arthur MacArthur , was stationed there .
In the 1880s , the federal government began closing many small arsenals around the country in favor of smaller ones built near railroads for quick deployment . The arsenal commander received word from Washington that the Little Rock site must be abandoned " not later than October 1 , 1890 . " On April 12 , 1893 the tower building and the surrounding buildings were traded to the city of Little Rock for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in North Little Rock under the condition that the building and land be " forever exclusively devoted to the uses and purposes of a public park " for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in Big Rock Mountain on the north side of the Arkansas River , present day North Little Rock . That site later became Fort Logan H. Roots . All of the original buildings surrounding the Tower Building were demolished .
= = Æsthetic Club = =
In 1894 the Little Rock Æsthetic Club , one of the oldest women 's societies west of the Mississippi River , moved into the Tower Building . This was prompted due to increased membership and a need for larger , more permanent quarters . The previous year , club members working with women 's organizations throughout the state , raised money to furnish the Arkansas Building of the Columbian Exposition at The Chicago World 's Fair . At the fair 's conclusion , artifacts from the exhibit were displayed in the Tower Building , with the Æsthetic Club invited to meet in the " Columbian Room . "
Except for Æsthetic Club meetings , the Tower Building remained largely unoccupied for almost fifty years and suffered significant deterioration . The Æsthetic Club provided much @-@ needed financial support during the period and even paid the electric bill during the Great Depression . The Æsthetic Club is still headquartered in the Tower Building .
= = Public use = =
The building and the surrounding park were used for many public purposes throughout the early 20th century . The Tower Building served as headquarters for the United Confederate Veterans Reunion , May 15 – 18 , 1911 . Over 106 @,@ 000 Civil War veterans , the largest popular gathering in the history of the city up to that time , attended and were housed in the building or camped in the park , which had also become a popular camping area . Later the building served as an armory for the Arkansas National Guard . In 1912 , the second floor of the Tower Building became Little Rock 's first public library . In 1917 , Little Rock built a fire station in the park , that building is now gone . A band shell named for H. H. Foster also was built in the park during this time , but also no longer exists . In 1936 , Works Progress Administration built the Museum of Fine Arts , now called the Arkansas Arts Center , just south of the Tower Building .
The arsenal was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Due to its association with the Camden Expedition of 1864 , the arsenal may be included in the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark designated in 1994 .
In 1942 , the Tower Building was renovated due to the efforts of the Æsthetic Club , Little Rock philanthropist Frederick W. Allsop , and the Works Progress Administration . It became the new home of The Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities , which had been located in Little Rock City Hall . The museum remained in the tower building for approximately fifty @-@ five years . The area surrounding the Tower Building had been known as Arsenal Park when the first decommissioned and then later renamed City Park . Due to the efforts of Bernie Babcock , however , the city finally named it MacArthur Park in 1942 in honor of Douglas MacArthur .
In 1997 , the Museum of Science and Natural History merged with the Little Rock Children 's Museum , which had been located in Union Station , to form the Arkansas Museum of Discovery . The new museum was relocated to a historic building in the Little Rock River Market District . The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History opened on May 19 , 2001 in the Tower Building . The new museum 's goal is to educate and inform visitors about the military history of Arkansas , preserve the Tower Building , honor servicemen and servicewomen of the United States and commemorate the birthplace of Douglas MacArthur .
= Cicely Mary Barker =
Cicely Mary Barker ( 28 June 1895 – 16 February 1973 ) was an English illustrator best known for a series of fantasy illustrations depicting fairies and flowers . Barker 's art education began in girlhood with correspondence courses and instruction at the Croydon School of Art . Her earliest professional work included greeting cards and juvenile magazine illustrations , and her first book , Flower Fairies of the Spring , was published in 1923 . Similar books were published in the following decades .
Barker was a devout Anglican , and donated her artworks to Christian fundraisers and missionary organizations . She produced a few Christian @-@ themed books such as The Children ’ s Book of Hymns and , in collaboration with her sister Dorothy , He Leadeth Me . She designed a stained glass window for St. Edmund 's Church , Pitlake , and her painting of the Christ Child , The Darling of the World Has Come , was purchased by Queen Mary .
Barker was equally proficient in watercolour , pen and ink , oils , and pastels . Kate Greenaway and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites were the principal influences on her work . She claimed to paint instinctively and rejected artistic theories . Barker died in 1973 . Though she published Flower Fairy books with spring , summer , and autumn themes , it wasn 't until 1985 that a winter collection was assembled from her remaining work and published posthumously .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Barker was born the second daughter and youngest child of Walter Barker , a partner in a seed supply company and an amateur artist , and his wife Mary Eleanor ( Oswald ) Barker on 28 June 1895 at home at 66 Waddon Road in Croydon , Surrey , England . Barker was an epileptic as a child , and cared for at home by her parents . Later , her sister and elder by two years , Dorothy Oswald Barker , continued the care .
The family of four was moderately well off , and belonged to the lower end of the upper middle class . A nanny , a governess , and a cook to prepare special meals for Barker were hired . She spent much time in bed at home amusing herself with painting books and a nursery library that included the works of Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott – two artists who exerted strong influences on her later art .
= = = Art education and first professional work = = =
Barker took correspondence courses in art , probably until about 1919 . In 1908 at 13 years , she entered an evening class at the Croydon School of Art , and attended the school into the 1940s . In time , she received a teaching position .
In 1911 , Raphael Tuck & Sons bought four of Barker 's " little drawings " for half a sovereign , and published them as postcards . In October 1911 , she won second prize in the Croydon Art Society 's poster competition , and shortly afterward was elected the youngest member of the Society . The art critic for the Croydon Advertiser remarked , " Her drawings show a remarkable freedom of spirit . She has distinct promise . "
Following her father ’ s death in June 1912 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Barker submitted art and poetry to My Magazine , Child ’ s Own , Leading Strings , and Raphael Tuck annuals in an effort to support both her mother and sister . Her sister Dorothy taught kindergarten in two private schools before opening a kindergarten at home . She brought in some money for the family 's support while supervising the household .
= = = Flower Fairies of the Spring , 1923 = = =
Fairies became a popular theme in art and literature in the early 20th century following the releases of The Coming of the Fairies by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie , and the fairy @-@ themed work of Australian Ida Rentoul Outhwaite . Queen Mary made such themes even more popular by sending Outhwaite postcards to friends during the 1920s . In 1918 , Barker produced a postcard series depicting elves and fairies .
In 1923 , Barker sent her flower fairy paintings to various publishers . Blackie paid £ 25 for 24 paintings with accompanying verses , but it wasn 't until publication of Flower Fairies of the Summer in 1925 that Barker received royalties for her work . Mary Violet Clayton Calthrop , wife of author Dion Clayton Calthrop , wrote in April 1925 about Barker and Flower Fairies of the Spring : " She has such exquisite taste , besides draughtsmanship . "
= = = The Waldrons = = =
In 1924 , the family moved into a four @-@ level , semi @-@ detached Victorian house at 23 The Waldrons . Barker had a studio built in the garden and her sister conducted a kindergarten in a room at the back of the house . The family lived frugally and attended both St. Edmund 's and St. Andrew 's in Croydon – " low " churches for the less privileged . Barker sometimes incorporated portraits of her fellow parishioners in her religious works . She was described by Canon Ingram Hill as " one of the pillars " of St. Andrew 's .
The children in the kindergarten modelled for the Flower Fairies until the kindergarten closed in 1940 . In an interview in 1958 , Barker said , " My sister ran a kindergarten and I used to borrow her students for models . For many years I had an atmosphere of children about me – I never forgot it . " She also painted the children of relatives as well as Gladys Tidy , the Barkers ' young housekeeper , who posed for the Primrose Fairy in 1923 . The plants were painted from life , and if a specimen was not readily at hand , Kew Gardens staff would provide her the specimens needed . Barker designed and built the Flower Fairy costumes , and based each on the flowers and leaves of the particular plant to be illustrated . The costumes were kept in a trunk in her studio along with wings made of twigs and gauze . Each was broken down after an illustration was completed and the parts recycled for other costumes . She often referred to Dion Clayton Calthrop 's English Costume .
= = = Middle years = = =
In the late 1920s , Barker began to doubt she was doing enough for the church and considered focusing solely on sacred works . Family and friends recommended she continue secular and sacred works , which she did .
Barker continued to attend evening classes at the Croydon Art School between the 1920s and the 1940s , eventually receiving a teaching position . She took sketching trips to Amberley and Storrington in Sussex and to Cornwall and the southern coast with family and friends . She visited and stayed with artist Margaret Tarrant in Gomshall , Surrey and with family in Ugglebarnby , Near Whitby , North Yorkshire .
In 1940 , the Barker 's live @-@ in maid retired , and Dorothy Barker closed her school at the back of the house in The Waldrons . She continued to supervise the household , and to give both her mother and sister the care they needed . Dorothy and her sister collaborated upon only two books : Our Darling 's First Book and the Christian @-@ themed , He Leadeth Me . In 1954 Dorothy Barker died of a heart attack . Barker was unable to pursue her art to any significant extent following her sister 's death , as all the care of her aged mother devolved upon her , but she did manage to begin planning a stained glass window design in her sister 's memory for St. Edmund 's , Pitlake .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Barker 's mother died in 1960 , and , in 1961 , Barker moved from 23 The Waldrons to 6 Duppas Avenue in Croydon . She restored a maisonette in Storrington , Sussex , England , bequeathed by her friend Edith Major , and named it St. Andrew 's . After taking up residence , her health began to deteriorate . She was in and out of nursing and convalescent homes , and tended by relatives and friends .
Barker died at Worthing Hospital on 16 February 1973 , aged 77 years . Two funeral services were held – one in Storrington Church and one in Barker 's maisonette . Her ashes were scattered in Storrington churchyard . In 1989 , Frederick Warne , a division of Penguin Books since 1983 , acquired the Flower Fairies properties .
= = Art = =
Barker worked principally in watercolor with pen @-@ and @-@ ink , but she was equally competent in black @-@ and @-@ white , in oils , and in pastels . She carried a sketchbook with her for capturing interesting children . She once indicated , " I have always tried to paint instinctively in a way that comes naturally to me , without any real thought or attention to artistic theories . "
Kate Greenaway was a childhood favorite and an influence on her art . Barker 's child subjects wear nostalgic clothing as Greenaway 's children do , though Barker 's children are less melancholy and less flat in appearance , due perhaps to advances in printing technology . Barker studied flowers with an analytical eye and was friend to children 's illustrator , Margaret Tarrant . Along with Greenaway , illustrator Alice B. Woodward also influenced Barker 's work .
The Pre @-@ Raphaelites were a strong , lifelong influence on Barker . She once indicated , " I am to some extent influenced by them — not in any technical sense , but in the choice of subject matter and the feeling and atmosphere they could achieve . " She admitted a fondness for the early paintings of John Everett Millais and " the wonderful things " of Edward Burne @-@ Jones .
= = = Depictions of children = = =
Barker 's sketches , drawings , and paintings of children were given to friends or to the parents of the subjects , donated to charitable institutions and church sponsored events , or exhibited through various art organizations . She illustrated magazine covers , dust jackets , and produced series of postcards for Raphael Tuck and other publishers such as Picturesque Children of the Allies ( 1915 ) , Seaside Holidays ( 1918 ) , and Shakespeare 's Boy and Girl Characters ( 1917 , 1920 ) . Her own Old Rhymes for All Times ( 1928 ) and The Lord of the Rushie River ( 1938 ) , a tale about a girl who lives among swans on a riverbank , were critically well received . Set about 1800 , Groundsel and Necklaces ( 1943 ) tells of a girl named Jenny who rescues her family from poverty through the agency of the fairies . The story features an old Scrooge @-@ like man called Mr. Petercoo and tonally suggests a Dickensian social consciousness . Simon the Swan , intended as a sequel to Rushie River was outlined in 1943 with Groundsel , but only developed in 1953 . It was published posthumously in 1988 and is critically considered less successful than Groundsel .
= = = Christian @-@ themed works = = =
Barker was a devout Christian , and produced religious @-@ themed works throughout her life . She published eight postcards and five guardian angel birthday cards for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1916 and in 1923 respectively . Christmas cards were designed for The Girls ' Friendly Society over a 20 @-@ year period , and the first three designs sold out a combined printing of 46 @,@ 500 in 1923 . An original design for the society called The Darling of the World Has Come was purchased by Queen Mary for ₤ 5 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 in 1926 . The Croydon Art Society hung Barker 's booklet cover design for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in its November 1919 exhibition .
Religious @-@ themed books include The Children 's Book of Hymns ( 1929 ) and He Leadeth Me ( 1933 ) , the latter written in collaboration with her sister . Major religious works include the triptychs in oil , The Feeding of the Five Thousand ( 1929 ) , for the chapel in Llandaff House , a home for destitute women at Penarth , Wales , and The Parable of the Great Supper ( 1934 ) for St. George 's Chapel , Waddon . The Feeding has since disappeared , and only a black @-@ and @-@ white photograph dated 1929 reproduces the work . In 1941 , she completed oil panels on the subject of the seven sacraments for the baptismal font at St. Andrew 's , South Croydon . She designed baptismal rolls for the wall behind the font in 1948 and 1962 . In 1946 , she completed the 4 x 7 ft. oil painting , Out of Great Tribulation , for the Memorial Chapel of Norbury Methodist Church . Following the death of her sister in 1954 , Barker began designs for a stained glass memorial window depicting Christ preparing to wash the feet of his disciples . Her last religious @-@ themed work , it was installed in St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , in 1962 .
= = Works = =
= = = Cards = = =
Picturesque Children of the Allies ; J. Salmon , 1916
National Mission ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1916
Shakespeare 's Boy Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1917
Shakespeare 's Girl Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1920
Seaside Holiday ; J. Salmon , 1918 , 1921
Elves and Fairies ; S. Harvey , 1918
Guardian Angel ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1923
Christmas cards ; Girls ' Friendly Society , 1920s , 1930s
Christmas cards ( US ) ; Barton @-@ Colton , 1920s , 1930s
Beautiful Bible Pictures ; Blackie , 1932
= = = Books = = =
Flower Fairies of the Spring ; Blackie , 1923
Spring Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1923
Flower Fairies of the Summer ; Blackie , 1925
Child Thoughts in Picture and Verse ( by M. K. Westcott ) ; Blackie , 1925
Flower Fairies of the Autumn ; Blackie , 1926
Summer Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1926
The Book of the Flower Fairies ; Blackie , 1927
Autumn Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1927
Old Rhymes for All Times ; Blackie , 1928
The Children ’ s Book of Hymns ; Blackie , 1929 ; rep . 1933
Our Darling ’ s First Book ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1929
The Little Picture Hymn Book ; Blackie , 1933
Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1933
A Flower Fairy Alphabet ; Blackie , 1934
A Little Book of Old Rhymes ; Blackie , 1936
He Leadeth Me ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1936
A Little Book of Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1937
The Lord of the Rushie River ; Blackie , 1938
Flower Fairies of the Trees ; Blackie , 1940
When Spring Came In at the Window ; Blackie , 1942
A Child ’ s Garden of Verses ( Robert Louis Stevenson ) ; Blackie , 1944
Flower Fairies of the Garden ; Blackie , 1944
Groundsel and Necklaces ; Blackie , 1946 ; reprinted as Fairy Necklaces
Flower Fairies of the Wayside ; Blackie , 1948
Flower Fairies of the Flowers and Trees ; Blackie , 1950
Lively Stories ; Macmillan , 1954
The Flower Fairy Picture Book ; Blackie , 1955
Lively Numbers ; Macmillan , 1957
Lively Words ; Macmillan , 1961 .
The Sand , the Sea and the Sun ; Gibson , 1970
= = = = Posthumously published = = = =
Flower Fairies of the Winter ; Blackie , 1985
Simon the Swan ; Blackie , 1988
Flower Fairies of the Seasons ; Bedrick / Blackie , 1988
A Little Book of Prayers and Hymns ; Frederick Warne , 1994
A Flower Fairies Treasury ; Frederick Warne , 1997
Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2005
Wild Cherry Makes A Wish ; ( collaboration with Pippa Le Quesne ) Frederick Warne , 2006
How to find Flower Fairies ; Frederick Warne , 2007
Return to Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2008
= = = Book covers = = =
A New Epiphany ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1919
43 Annuals ; Blackie , 1920s , 1930s
= = = Religious works = = =
St. Cecily 's Garden ; 1920
Cradle roll design ; St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1922
Banner design ; St. Mary 's , Sanderstead , 1923
The Feeding of the Five Thousand ; reredos triptych , chapel at Penarth , Wales ; 1929
The Parable of the Great Supper ; triptych , St. George 's chapel , Waddon
The Seven Sacraments ; baptismal font panels , St. Andrew 's , Croydon
St. John the Baptist ; central banner panel , Abesford church , 1943
Lettering , sword , and shield ; mount for a list of men and woman serving in the Forces , St. Andrews , Croydon , 1943
Baptismal rolls ; St. Andrews , Croydon , 1948 , 1962
The font in St Andrew 's Church , South Croydon
Out of Great Tribulation ; memorial chapel , Norbury Medthodist church , 1948
I Am Among You As He That Serveth ; stained glass window design , St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1962
= Gambia women 's national football team =
The Gambia women 's national football team represents the Gambia in international football competition . The team , however , has not competed in a match recognised by FIFA , the sport 's international governing body , despite that organised women 's football has been played in the country since 1998 . The Gambia has two youth teams , an under @-@ 17 side that has competed in FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup qualifiers , and an under @-@ 19 side that withdrew from regional qualifiers for an under @-@ 19 World Cup . The development of a national team faces challenges similar to those across Africa , although the national football association has four staff members focusing on women 's football .
= = The team = =
In 1985 , few countries had women 's national football teams . While the sport gained popularity worldwide in later decades , the Gambia 's national team only played its first game in 2007 . That game was not FIFA @-@ recognised . As of March 2012 , the team was unranked by FIFA , and as of the following month the Gambia had not played in a FIFA @-@ sanctioned match . The team has not participated in major regional and international tournaments , including the Women 's World Cup , the 2010 African Women 's Championship or the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games .
The country did not have a FIFA @-@ recognised youth national team until 2012 , when the Gambia under @-@ 17 women 's team competed in Confederation of African Football qualifiers for the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , to be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012 . The Gambia had fielded an under @-@ 17 team of 24 players , narrowed from an initial pool of 49 young women . Two girls from the SOS Children ’ s Village Bakoteh were chosen as a members of the team . The Gambia first played Sierra Leone in a pair of qualifying matches for the tournament . Gambia won the first match 3 @-@ 0 in Banjul , the Gambia 's capital . The return match was delayed in for 24 hours and played in Makeni . The Gambia beat Sierra Leone 4 @-@ 3 to qualify for the final round . The Gambia then beat Tunisia 1 @-@ 0 at home and won 2 @-@ 1 in Tunisia . Adama Tamba and Awa Demba scored the Gambia 's goals . Tunisia 's only goal was a Gambian own goal . The win qualified Gambia for the 2012 Azerbaijan World Cup .
The Gambia also has an under @-@ 19 team that was to play in the African Women 's U @-@ 19 Championship in 2002 . The Gambia 's first match was against Morocco , but the team withdrew from the competition .
= = Background and development = =
The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women . Funding is another issue impacting the game in Africa , where most financial assistance comes from FIFA and not national football associations . Another challenge is the retention of football players . Many women footballers leave the continent to seek greater opportunity in Europe or the United States .
Gambia 's national football association was founded in 1952 , and became affiliated with FIFA in 1968 . Football is the most popular women 's sport in the country , and was first played in an organized system in 1998 . A national competition was launched in 2007 , the same year FIFA started an education course on football for women . Competition was active on both the national and scholastic levels by 2009 . There are four staffers dedicated to women 's football in the Gambia Football Association , and representation of women on the board is required by the association 's charter .
= Plain maskray =
The plain maskray or brown stingray ( Neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in shallow , soft @-@ bottomed habitats off northern Australia . Reaching 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond @-@ shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc . Its short , whip @-@ like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below . There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth . While this species possesses the dark mask @-@ like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays .
Benthic in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on caridean shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes . It is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build . As it also has a limited distribution and low fecundity , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific description of the plain maskray was authored by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) researcher Peter Last in a 1987 issue of Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria . The specific name annotatus comes from the Latin an ( " not " ) and notatus ( " marked " ) , and refers to the ray 's coloration . The holotype is a male 21 @.@ 2 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) across , caught off Western Australia ; several paratypes were also designated . Last tentatively placed the species in the genus Dasyatis , noting that it belonged to the " maskray " species group that also included the bluespotted stingray ( then Dasyatis kuhlii ) . In 2008 , Last and William White elevated the kuhlii group to the rank of full genus as Neotrygon , on the basis of morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence .
In a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , the plain maskray and the Ningaloo maskray ( N. ningalooensis ) were found to be the most basal members of Neotrygon . The divergence of the N. annotata lineage was estimated to have occurred ~ 54 Ma . Furthermore , the individuals sequenced in the study sorted into two genetically distinct clades , suggesting that N. annotata is a cryptic species complex . The two putative species were estimated to have diverged ~ 4 @.@ 9 Ma ; the precipitating event was likely the splitting of the ancestral population by coastline changes .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the plain maskray is thin and diamond @-@ shaped with narrowly rounded outer corners , measuring 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 times longer than wide . The leading margins of the disc are gently concave and converge at a broad angle to the pointed tip of the snout . The small eyes are placed close together , and behind them are the spiracles . The nostrils are elongated and have a skirt @-@ shaped flap of skin between them . The small mouth bears prominent furrows at the corners and contains two slender papillae on the floor . Small papillae are also found around the outside of the mouth . There are five pairs of gill slits . The pelvic fins are fairly large and pointed .
The tail is short , barely exceeding the length of the disc when intact , and has a broad and flattened base leading to usually two stinging spines . After the stings , the tail becomes slender and bears a long ventral fin fold and a much shorter , lower dorsal fin fold . Most of the body lacks dermal denticles ; a midline row of 4 – 13 small , closely spaced thorns is present behind the spiracles , and another row of 0 – 4 thorns before the stings . The dorsal coloration is grayish green , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins ; there is a dark mask @-@ like shape around the eyes and a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles . The tail behind the stings has alternating black and white bands of variable width , ending with black at the tip . The underside is plain white and the ventral fin fold is light grayish in color . This species grows to 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) across and 45 cm ( 18 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The plain maskray inhabits the continental shelf of northern Australia from the Wellesley Islands in Queensland to the Bonaparte Archipelago in Western Australia , including the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Timor and Arafura Seas . There are unsubstantiated reports that its range extends to southern Papua New Guinea . It is the least common of the several maskray species native to the region . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller that prefers habitats with fine sediment . It has been recorded from between 12 and 62 m ( 39 and 203 ft ) deep , and tends to be found farther away from shore than other maskrays in its range .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The plain maskray generally hunts at the surface of the bottom substrate , rather than digging for prey . Its diet consists predominantly of caridean shrimp and polychaete worms . Small bony fishes are also eaten , along with the occasional penaeid prawn or amphipod . Larger rays consume a greater variety of prey and relatively more polychaete worms when compared to smaller rays . This species is parasitized by the tapeworm Acanthobothrium jonesi .
Like other stingrays , the plain maskray is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Mature females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the left . Litter size is one or two ; the newborns measure 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) and 18 – 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 9 years for males and 13 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
The main conservation threat to the plain maskray is incidental capture by commercial bottom trawl fisheries . In the present day , this is mostly caused by Australia 's Northern Prawn Fishery , which operates throughout its range . Although this species is discarded when caught , it is more delicate @-@ bodied than other maskrays and is thus unlikely to survive encounters with trawling gear . Historically , this species may also have been negatively affected by Japanese , Chinese , and Taiwanese trawlers that fished intensively off northern Australia from 1959 to 1990 . These factors , coupled with the plain maskray 's limited distribution and low reproductive rate , have resulted in its being assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season =
The 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season was the team 's 12th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Blue Jackets ' record of 29 – 46 – 7 [ note 1 ] was the worst record in the NHL for 2011 – 12 and the first time in franchise history they finished in last place . It also marked the third straight year that they missed the playoffs . Consequently , they had the best chance to receive the first overall selection in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft lottery , but lost out to the Edmonton Oilers and received the second pick instead .
The Blue Jackets began the year with the worst start in franchise history and the worst by any team in an NHL season in 19 years . After an 11 – 25 – 5 start , Head Coach Scott Arniel was fired and replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards . The poor season prompted several personnel changes including the trade of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter , who was acquired with much fanfare during the off @-@ season . With the prospect of another rebuild looming the Blue Jackets ' captain and best player , Rick Nash , requested to be traded , though he would remain with the team for the entire season .
The team was involved in a controversial loss to the Los Angeles Kings , when the Staples Center clock appeared to freeze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds allowing the Kings time to score the tying goal , before winning in overtime . During the season Columbus managed only two winning streaks of three or more games . One of which came towards the end of the year helping the Blue Jackets finish with 65 points , the third worst point total in franchise history .
= = Off @-@ season = =
In the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets ' approach to building their team changed , moving from a team of young developing players into one with established players . The first deal General Manager Scott Howson made was the acquisition of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter on June 23 , 2011 . The deal sent Jakub Voracek , Columbus ' first @-@ round draft choice , the eighth overall , and their third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for Carter . The trade received a positive response in Columbus from fans and management who felt they finally had a number one center to play alongside of their best player , Rick Nash . Next , they traded for the negotiating rights of soon to be free agent James Wisniewski . Wisniewski scored a career high 51 points during the 2010 – 11 season , splitting time between the New York Islanders and Montreal Canadiens . The point total was fifth @-@ highest in the league for defenseman scoring , tying Tobias Enstrom . The Blue Jackets came to terms with Wisniewski , just an hour prior to the start of free agency , signing him to a six @-@ year , $ 33 million deal .
Columbus also traded former first round draft pick Nikita Filatov to the Ottawa Senators for a third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft . Filatov had failed to live up to expectations in Columbus , playing in only 44 games over three seasons scoring six goals . Prior to the start of the season , the Blue Jackets were questioned for not signing a veteran back @-@ up to starting goaltender Steve Mason , as the former Calder Memorial Trophy winner had struggled in consecutive seasons . The Blue Jackets signed Mark Dekanich as the back @-@ up who had only 50 minutes of NHL experience prior to the start of the season . Columbus did sign a veteran Curtis Sanford to be their third string goaltender and to start for their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . Sanford had not played in the NHL since 2009 . During training camp , Dekanich suffered a high ankle sprain that was expected to keep him out of the line @-@ up for a month . Additionally , Sanford suffered a groin injury , leaving Allen York as the back @-@ up . York had only played four professional games , all in the AHL , entering the season .
= = Regular season = =
= = = October – December = = =
After the first five games , all losses , Jeff Carter suffered a broken foot that kept him out of the line @-@ up for 10 games . While Carter was injured , the Blue Jackets continued to lose games . In the eighth game of the year , they had a chance to end the losing streak against the Ottawa Senators . Columbus held a 3 – 2 lead with under a minute to play . Jason Spezza tied the game on a late power play , and with just 4 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Milan Michalek notched the winning goal for the Senators . The loss helped set a franchise record for futility with a 0 – 7 – 1 record to start a season . [ note 1 ] The losing streak came to an end three days later with a win over the Detroit Red Wings . During the game , several milestones were reached . James Wisniewski made his Columbus debut , Ryan Johansen and John Moore scored their first career NHL goals and Grant Clitsome had a career @-@ high three assists . Columbus was unable to create any momentum from the win , however , and continued to struggle , culminating in a 2 – 12 – 1 record , which was the worst start to an NHL season for any team in 19 years . With the team struggling , management attempted to " shake things up " by making some roster moves . The first move was the acquisition of center Mark Letestu from the Pittsburgh Penguins . Next , they traded defenseman Kris Russell to the St. Louis Blues for Nikita Nikitin . As the clubs slow start continued , there were rumors that Head Coach Scott Arniel would be fired and replaced with Ken Hitchcock . Hitchcock had previously coached the Blue Jackets to their only playoff appearance in club history and was still under contract with the franchise through to the end of the season . Before any of these rumors came to fruition , the St. Louis Blues asked Columbus for permission to hire Hitchcock , which the Blue Jackets allowed . Hitchcock began his Blues coaching career with a 6 – 1 – 2 record in his first nine games , while Columbus amassed a 6 – 13 – 3 record to start the season .
During the same time frame as the Hitchcock rumors , goaltender Curtis Sanford returned from his groin injury on November 13 . He made his first start of the season against the Boston Bruins , losing 2 – 1 in a shootout . Sanford continued his strong play , posting a 3 – 1 – 2 record , 1 @.@ 38 goals against average and .947 save percentage over his next six games . Sanford started 12 consecutive games before Steve Mason made his next start . The number of starts might not have been as numerous , but prior to the November 23 game , Mason was hit in the head by a shot from Rick Nash during pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups and suffered a concussion . Mason returned from his concussion after two games , making a start against the Vancouver Canucks . Mason allowed only one goal in the game despite suffering from cramping in the third period , temporarily being replaced by Sanford for just over three minutes . Columbus won the game 2 – 1 in a shootout , breaking a nine @-@ game losing streak to the Canucks . After the game , Arniel stated that Sanford was still seen as the team 's number one goaltender . However , Mason started four of the next six games with the Blue Jackets going 0 – 5 – 1 during that stretch .
= = = January – February = = =
With the losing continuing , more rumors began to surface . Unlike before , the rumors were about player moves rather than coaching changes . The majority of rumors were that the Blue Jackets would trade Rick Nash . While Howson stated that he had never brought up trading Nash in discussions , other teams had inquired about his availability . Nash stated that if Columbus felt it would make the franchise better than he would be willing to waive his no @-@ trade clause . Howson publicly stated that he had no intention of trading Nash . More rumors came to light when reports attributed to Réseau des sports stated that Carter was unhappy in Columbus and demanded a trade . Howson , Carter and his agent all denied that a trade request was ever made , and they were unsure where the reports were coming from . With the trade deadline approaching , speculation picked up on the Blue Jackets trading Carter . Reports were that Columbus was trying to trade Carter and that he was " 100 percent available . "
At the halfway point of the season , with the Blue Jackets barely into double digit wins with an 11 – 25 – 5 record , worst in the league , and sitting 20 points out of playoff position , Columbus fired Arniel . He was replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards on an interim basis . Richards had previously coached the Minnesota Wild . He recorded his first coaching victory for the Blue Jackets in his second game , a 4 – 3 win over the Phoenix Coyotes . The change in coaching did not change the fortunes of the team , as they reached the All @-@ Star break with a 13 – 30 – 6 record . At the break , Blue Jackets ' owner John P. McConnell sent out a letter to fans stating his understanding of their frustration . He added that action would be taken around the trade deadline , the Entry Draft and free agency to take the team in a new direction . When speaking of the season , McConnell stated " disappointing is not a strong enough word " and that he was committed to giving fans a team of which they can be proud of . He also thanked them for their dedication and passion , while reiterating that the team goal was to " win consistently and compete for the Stanley Cup . " Days later , a 250 @-@ person protest occurred outside of Nationwide Arena . Fans were upset with the Blue Jackets ' management and were calling for changes at the top . The same day the fans protested , it was announced that the franchise would host the 2013 All @-@ Star Game . Columbus was without a representative for the 2012 All @-@ star Game , but Ryan Johansen represented the club as a rookie participant in the Super Skills Competition . In the competition , Johansen participated in the Allstate Insurance NHL Breakaway Challenge , a shootout themed event judged by the fans . He received just 1 % of the vote and finished last .
Following the break , the Blue Jackets were on the road playing the Los Angeles Kings , and with the score tied late in the game , Kings ' defenseman Drew Doughty scored with just 0 @.@ 4 seconds remaining to win the game . Upon review of the goal it , was determined that the clock at Staples Center froze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds for over a full second , which would have resulted in time expiring prior to the goal being scored . Kings ' General Manager Dean Lombardi stated that the clock was correct and no extra time had been added due to the way the clock self @-@ corrects at various times . Howson stated on the team 's blog that " It is an amazing coincidence that with the Kings on a power play at Staples Center and with a mad scramble around our net in the dying seconds of the third period of a 2 – 2 hockey game that the clock stopped for at least one full second , " adding that , " Either there was a deliberate stopping of the clock or the clock malfunctioned . " NHL Senior Vice President of Hockey Operations Colin Campbell stated that the Blue Jackets were wronged , but that the outcome of the game could not be changed , and that the delay was not noticed by the off @-@ ice officials or the situation room in Toronto . To determine the true cause of the clock pause , the NHL launched an investigation , talking with the clock 's manufacturer and interviewing Staples Center staff .
Two weeks prior to the NHL trade deadline , Columbus announced that unlike earlier in the season , they would listen to trade proposals involving Rick Nash , though they were not actively shopping him . Howson stated that the team was open to all options for improving the team , including trading Nash . Speculation was that in return for Nash the Blue Jackets would ask for a " combination of young , proven players , high @-@ end prospects and draft picks . " Leading up to the trade deadline , the Blue Jackets dealt Antoine Vermette to the Phoenix Coyotes for two draft picks and goaltender Curtis McElhinney . Despite being injured at the time , the acquisition of McElhinney was believed to give Columbus the flexibility to trade Curtis Sanford . The following day , on February 23 , Columbus traded Jeff Carter to the Kings . In the deal , Columbus acquired defenseman Jack Johnson and a first @-@ round draft pick ; the team was given the choice of taking the pick in either 2012 or 2013 . At the deadline , Columbus was unable to come to terms on a deal involving Nash , but they did make one more move ; they sent center Samuel Pahlsson to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for two fourth @-@ round draft picks and minor league defenseman Taylor Ellington . Following the trade deadline , Howson announced that the team had attempted to trade Nash at the player 's request . Nash stated that he had requested the trade after being informed that the franchise was going into another rebuilding phase . He further noted that he felt that he " could be a huge part of that towards bringing assets in , " and in his view " it was the best thing for the team , the organization , and personally for [ his ] career . " After the personnel changes , the Blue Jackets closed out the month with a three @-@ game losing streak .
= = = March – April = = =
Columbus started March with a 2 – 0 shutout against the Colorado Avalanche . They proceeded to win their next game against the Phoenix Coyotes 5 – 2 , which marked the first time that the Blue Jackets posted back @-@ to @-@ back regulation victories during the season . Columbus again defeated the Coyotes three days later to earn their first three @-@ game win streak of the season . They extended the streak to four with a win over the Los Angeles Kings before it came to an end with a 4 – 1 loss to the St. Louis Blues . It was the only four @-@ game win streak of the season for the Blue Jackets . They immediately matched their four @-@ game win streak with a four @-@ game losing streak and with ten games remaining , the Blue Jackets were the first team eliminated from playoff contention . Shortly after being eliminated , they were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers 6 – 3 ; the loss clinched last place in the NHL for Columbus . It was the first time in franchise history the Blue Jackets finished in 30th place .
Three days later , on March 28 , goaltender Steve Mason was injured in the morning skate when a shot from Colton Gillies hit him in the mask . With Sanford again injured , York made an emergency start . Playing against the Detroit Red Wings , York made 29 saves , including 17 in the third period , helping Columbus to a 4 – 2 victory and giving York his first career NHL win . York remained the starter and led the Blue Jackets to a second three @-@ game winning streak . In his fourth start , Columbus was shutout by the Coyotes despite a franchise @-@ record 54 shots on goal , losing 2 – 0 . The 54 saves by Phoenix goaltender Mike Smith set an NHL record for a regulation shutout . Mason returned to the starter 's role for the final two games , winning both . The two victories gave Columbus 65 points for the year , their third @-@ lowest total in franchise history .
The Blue Jackets struggled in shorthanded situations , allowing the most power @-@ play goals in the League , with 64 , and having the lowest penalty @-@ kill percentage , at 76 @.@ 64 %
= = Post @-@ season = =
Finishing with the worst record in the NHL , Columbus had the best chance of receiving the first overall pick in the 2012 draft . With the NHL 's weighted draft lottery the Blue Jackets had a 48 @.@ 2 % chance of drafting first overall . However , the lottery was won by the Edmonton Oilers , who proceeded to leapfrog Columbus and secure the number one draft pick for a third consecutive year . It was the fifth time that the Blue Jackets were dropped one draft position in the franchise 's 12 lottery participations .
A month later , on May 14 , the Blue Jackets announced that Richards would remain as head coach and signed him to a two @-@ year contract . During the press conference , Howson noted , " Our team continuously improved under Todd and he has earned the opportunity to build upon the work he started . " Columbus posted an 18 – 21 – 2 record under Richards , including winning seven of their final 11 games .
= = Standings = =
Since being founded as an expansion team , the Blue Jackets have played in the Central Division of the Western Conference . Division rivals Chicago Blackhawks , Detroit Red Wings , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues , all made the playoff during the 2011 – 12 season , which helped Columbus finish 36 points behind fourth place Chicago and 44 points out of first .
Divisions : CE – Central , NW – Northwest , PA – Pacific
bold - qualified for playoffs , y – Won division , p – Won Presidents ' Trophy ( best record in NHL )
= = Schedule and results = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
= = = Regular season = = =
Green background indicates win ( 2 points ) .
Red background indicates regulation loss ( 0 points ) .
Silver background indicates overtime / shootout loss ( 1 point ) .
= = Player statistics = =
In ice hockey , a combination of a player 's goals and assists are collectively called points . Penalty minutes are the total number of minutes assigned to a player for infractions assessed during the season.Plus @-@ minus is a statistic that tracks when a player was on the ice while goals were scored , both for and against their team , though some in game situations will not effect the statistic . Below is a listing of all player statistics for the Blue Jackets during the season .
= = = Skaters = = =
Note : Pos
= Position ; GP =
Games played in ; G
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts
= Points ; PIM =
Penalty minutes ; + / - = Plus / minus
= = = Goaltenders = = =
Note : GP
= Games Played ; TOI =
Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W
= Wins ; L =
Losses ; OT
= Overtime Losses ; GA =
Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV
= Saves ; Sv % =
Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts
† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Blue Jackets . Stats reflect time with the Blue Jackets only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season
= = Milestones = =
When Mason was injured in warm @-@ ups late in the year , Columbus was without an active goaltender on their roster . To remedy the situation , the team signed former University of Michigan goaltender Shawn Hunwick to a one @-@ day , amateur tryout contract . After being eliminated from the NCAA Tournament just days prior , Hunwick skipped an astronomy class and drove his worn down 2003 Ford Ranger to Columbus to make the game . He served as the back @-@ up to Allen York during the game , and the following day , he signed a contract for the remainder of the year . With Mason returning from injury , Hunwick was third on the team 's depth chart when an injury to York allowed Hunwick to remain as the back @-@ up for the final two games of the year . In the final game of the season , the Blue Jackets were leading the Islanders 7 – 3 with 2 : 33 remaining when , at the behest of his teammates , Head Coach Todd Richards put Hunwick in to finish the game . He did not face a shot . Hunwick was the franchise record ninth player to make his NHL debut during the season . Conversely , Vaclav Prospal played in his 1,000th NHL game during the year .
= = Transactions = =
During the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets parted ways with defensemen Jan Hejda , Anton Stralman , Sami Lepisto and Mike Commodore . Hejda , who played four of his first five NHL seasons with the Blue Jackets , was offered a contract by Columbus , but felt that the organization undervalued him and left via free agency . Columbus had offered him a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract . He instead signed a four @-@ year , $ 13 million deal with the Colorado Avalanche . Stralman and Lepisto were not given qualifying offers which made them unrestricted free agents , and both signed with other teams . Commodore had originally signed a big contract with the Blue Jackets in 2008 , but fell out of favor . He was waived , sent to the minors and eventually had his contract bought out . In order to replace the departed players , Columbus not only acquired James Wisniewski , but also signed ten @-@ year NHL veteran Radek Martinek . Martinek played only seven games with the Blue Jackets before suffering a concussion and missing the remainder of the season . Brett Lebda was brought in to replace him .
= Gregorian Tower =
The Gregorian Tower ( Italian : Torre Gregoriana ) or Tower of the Winds ( Italian : Torre dei Venti ) is a round tower located above the Gallery of Maps , which connects the Villa Belvedere with the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City . The tower was built between 1578 and 1580 to a design by the Bolognese architect Ottaviano Mascherino ( who was credited with building the Apostolic Palace ) mainly to promote the study of astronomy for the Gregorian Calendar Reform which was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII and promulgated in 1582 . It was then also known as the Tower of Winds . The tower is now called the " Specola Astronomica Vaticana " , the Vatican Observatory . Four stages of progressive development have occurred since it was first established . The tower was an edifice of great value for astronomical observations made using a sundial as they provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar .
= = Early history = =
The first stage of building of the tower , as recorded by Leo XIII in his motu proprio Ut mysticam of 1891 , is credited to Pope Gregory XIII , Pope from 1572 to 1585 . The directive was to build a tower at a suitable location in the Vatican and equip it with the " greatest and best instruments of the time " . The design was effected after a series of meetings of the experts who had been appointed to reform the Julian calendar , in use since 45 BC , to verify their proposed reforms . Fr . Christoph Clavius , a Jesuit mathematician from the Roman College , was the expert on the committee who suggested the new system for the observations . The 73 metres ( 240 ft ) tower was then built above the museum and library , flanked by the Belvedere and della Pigna courtyards . The instrumentation for the observation of the sun rays falling over it consisted of a meridian line designed by Ignazio Danti of Perugia . It was in the form of a circular marble plate in the centre , embellished with scientific designs . The tower still remains today , but has undergone improvements over the centuries .
= = Second stage = =
The second stage of construction in the 17th and 18th centuries , when the tower was under the charge of the Vatican librarian , involved Mgr . Filippo Luigi Gilii , a clergyman of St. Peter 's Basilica . Earlier in 1797 , Pius VI gave approval to placing a Latin inscription Specula Vaticana at the entrance to the upper part of the tower , which was implemented by Cardinal Zelada with plans to enhance the instrumentation system in the tower 's observatory . The original observatory was then set up above the second level of the tower with the agreement of Pope Pius VI . Its instrumentation , apart from many normal devices ( such as meteorological and magnetic equipment , with a seismograph and a small transit and pendulum clock , ) was noted for the Dolland Telescope . The instrumentation facilitated recording of occurrences of eclipse , appearance of comets , Satellites of Jupiter and Mercury ’ s transit . As an addition , under the patronage of Pope Pius X , four rotary observatory domes were also added at strategic locations on the 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long fortification walls , more than a thousand years old . Mgr . Gilii , highly respected as a polyglot with a knowledge of physics , biology , archeology and the Hebrew language , was in charge of the observatory from 1800 to 1821 . He carried out continuous meteorological observations ( twice a day at 6 AM and 2 PM ) conforming to the programme of the Mannheim Meteorological Society . While the observation records for seven years were published , the balance data in a manuscript form was preserved in the Vatican Library . Subsequent to Gilii 's death in 1821 , the observatory on the tower was discontinued and the instruments were moved to the observatory at the Roman College . Established in 1787 , it was considered more suitable for making observations than the Vatican .
= = Third stage = =
The revival of the observatory on the Gregorian Tower was initiated by the Barnabite Francesco Denza with the approval of Pope Leo XIII . High quality instruments were procured , partly with generous donations from Hicks of London , and the automatic recording instruments were procured from Richard in Paris . A four @-@ inch equatorial , a three @-@ inch transit instrument , and four pendulum clocks with two chronometers , were also procured from the observatory at Modena . In 1888 , the gift of a 16 inch long telescope to Pope Leo XIII , became a part of the observatory . Father Denza joined the observatory in 1889 after it was upgraded with more modern instruments . The same year , a second tower was built some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away from the main Gregorian Tower , overlooking the Vatican Gardens behind St. Peter 's Basilica on the south @-@ west border . It was built to a diameter of 17 metres ( 56 ft ) with a lower wall thickness of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , which could bear the load of a 13 inch photographic refractor , newly procured from Paris . Augustinian Father Rodriguez was the expert meteorologist who held the post of director from 1898 to 1905 . In 1891 , Pope Leo XIII , promulgating the motu proprio Ut mysticam , designated the second tower as the seat of the newly established Vatican Observatory , a decision which required altering the roof to provide a flat terrace for astronomical observations .
= = Fourth stage = =
The fourth stage involved remedying the problem of communicating between the two towers during the time of Pope Pius X. His plans were to make the Gregorian Tower into a historical tower and to record and carry out observations at the second tower by linking the two towers along the fortified wall with a 83 metres ( 272 ft ) iron bridge spanning the gap . At the west end of this bridge , a four @-@ inch equatorial was installed on semicircular bastion . The east end of the bridge , above the barracks of the gendarmes , had a heliograph , with a camera attached , used to photograph the Sun ( photoheliograph ) . A new 16 @-@ inch visual telescope , called Torre Pio X , was erected in the second tower . As a result of these modifications , the original library was moved to the Pontifical Academy Lincei , and the old meteorological and seismic instruments were shifted to the Valle di Pompei observatory . The new Astronomical Library was housed in two rooms of the building . The two new Repsold machines were used for recording on the astrographic plates . The recorded observations were published along with explanatory notes together with the last two series of the atlas of stars . Charts were printed on silver bromide paper .
= = Features = =
The tower had two floors and a mezzanine . On the first floor was the famous Sundial Room or Meridian Room , which was initially an open loggia . Pope Urban VIII had it enclosed and it was subsequently decorated with long sequences of frescoes painted between 1580 and 1582 by Simon Lagi and the two Flemish artists Paul and Matthijs Bril . Today the tower has paintings by Cristoforo Roncalli and Matteino da Siena .
The Sundial Room , also called the Meridian Hall , was once the residence of Queen Christina of Sweden , then newly converted to Catholicism . The room was further modified by two additions which gave it its current name : a sundial , and a delicate but sophisticated anemoscope which was fixed to the ceiling of the Meridian Hall . These were created by Ignazio Danti , the papal cosmographer , in association with the Gregorian Calendar Reform . The sundial consisted of a straight line in white marble running across the floor in a north @-@ south direction , intended to measure the height of the Sun at noon according to the seasons of the year . The observations made with the sundial provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . The anemoscope , in contrast , was a complex mechanism attached to the ceiling which was used to measure the strength and direction of the wind but soon stopped functioning . The instrument may have led to the other name of the tower , Tower of the Winds ; however , an ancient observatory at Athens was also called the Tower of the Winds and might have been the source for inspiration .
The interior walls and ceiling of the hall were richly decorated , in some cases with gaudy frescoes of the hills and Roman countryside , the Pantheons , religious themes , the buildings surrounding the area , and naval shipwrecks with Jesus calming the storm and so forth .
= There 's Got to Be a Way =
" There 's Got to Be a Way " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . Columbia released it as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It was one of four songs Carey wrote with Ric Wake during their first recording session together , but " There 's Got to Be a Way " was the only composition to make the final track listing . It is a socio @-@ political conscious R & B @-@ pop song which addresses the existence of poverty , racism and war in the world which gradually becomes more aspirational and positive as it progresses . The track garnered a mixed reception upon the album 's release in 1990 . While Carey 's vocals were praised , it was seen as too political . An accompanying music video highlights social injustices . The song reached number 54 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background and release = =
" There 's Got to Be a Way " was written by Mariah Carey and Ric Wake for Carey 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . It was written during Carey and Wake 's first recording session together . They composed four songs , but only " There 's Got to Be a Way " was chosen for the final track listing . Co @-@ produced by Wake and Narada Michael Walden , it appears as the second of ten songs on the track listing . The track was recorded and engineered by Bob Cadway at Cove City Sound Studios and The Power Station , both located in New York City . He was assisted by Dana Jon Chappelle . It was mixed by David Frazer at Tarpan Studios in San Rafael . The keyboards , bass and rhythm engineering was carried out by Louis Biancaniello , while Joe Franco performed the percussion , Vernon " Ice " Black played the guitar , and Rich Tancredo also performing on the keyboards . Walter Afanasieff played the synth horns . Carey provided her own background vocals along with Billy T. Scott , Jamiliah Muhammed and The Billy T. Scott Ensemble . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It is available to purchase as a CD single while the remixes are available on vinyl .
= = Composition = =
" There 's Got to Be a Way " is an R & B @-@ pop music song with elements of gospel . The theme of social activism can be heard in the lyrics " There ’ s got to be a way / to connect this world today . " The song begins with Carey publicly denouncing the existence of poverty and racism in the world , and she uses the bridge to shift the lyrics towards an uplifting and aspirational tone . Carey suggests we should be more tolerant of each other and not resort so readily to war in the lyrics " Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . "
= = Critical reception = =
Music critic Robert Christgau felt that Carey was being too political in her " brave , young , idealistic attack " on war and destitution . Ralph Novak , David Hiltbrand and David Grogan of People wrote that it is a " testimony to her talent that she does so much with so little . " They continued to write that Carey 's " tone and clarity " makes " There 's Got to Be a Way " a " mesmerizing " track . To mark twenty @-@ five years since the release of Mariah Carey in June 1990 , Billboard writer Trevor Anderson wrote a track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album in June 2015 . He noted that " There 's Got to Be a Way " follows the same melodic tone as the album 's opener " Vision of Love " but highlighted their stark lyrical differences , as the former is about social activism and the latter is about love . Although he praised Carey 's vocals , writing that she " deploys " one of her best whistle notes of her career , he felt that " the aim for broad appeal comes at the expense of memorable lyrics . "
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video begins with a shot of an empty street , followed by clips of disadvantaged and poorer members of society going about their daily activities . Two men play dominoes on a wooden crate outside a building , a gang make fun of an elderly man hanging newspapers outside his store and an obese woman walks down the street . Clips of Carey leaning against a wall and sitting on some steps looking on at what is happening are shown . As the first chorus begins , everyone starts to dance joyfully in the street and help those in need . A gospel choir comes out of one of the buildings as the street becomes more crowded with people of all ages and backgrounds rejoicing and getting along with each other . One of the shops in the background has a neon light outside the entrance which says " Jesus Saves " .
= = Track listings = =
" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Original album version ) – 4 : 52
" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 7 " remix )
" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 12 " remix )
" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Alternative Vocal Dub Mix )
= = Charts = =
= Nebraska Highway 88 =
Nebraska Highway 88 ( N @-@ 88 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . It has a western terminus at Wyoming Highway 151 ( WYO 151 ) at the Wyoming – Nebraska state line . The road travels eastward to N @-@ 71 , where it turns south . N @-@ 88 continues east to south of Bridgeport . The road turns north , ends at an intersection with U.S. Highway 385 ( US 385 ) and N @-@ 92 in Bridgeport . The route was designated in 1937 , before the official state highway system was created . It was extended to the state line in 1986 .
= = Route description = =
N @-@ 88 starts at the Nebraska – Wyoming state line in Banner County , where WYO 151 ends , and travels northeast . The road quickly bends east after less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and continues in a straight line . For the next twenty miles ( 32 km ) , N @-@ 88 intersects minor streets , through rural farmland . The route turns south at N @-@ 71 , and becomes concurrent . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) later , N @-@ 88 turns east , ending the concurrency with N @-@ 71 . The route continues to travel through farmland for sixteen miles ( 26 km ) , where it enters Morrill County . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek four times , and enters the unincorporated community of Redington . Two rock formations , Courthouse and Jail Rocks , become visible from the road . N @-@ 88 turns north toward Bridgeport soon after . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek for the fifth time , and enters into Bridgeport five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . The road intersects a railroad owned by BNSF Railway . N @-@ 88 turns northeast soon after , and ends at the intersection of US 385 and N @-@ 92 . In 2012 , Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 2 @,@ 410 vehicles traveling on the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency , and as few as 315 vehicles traveling east of the Banner – Morrill county line . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . Only the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .
= = History = =
N @-@ 88 was unofficially designated around 1937 , connecting from N @-@ 29 , to N @-@ 86 and N @-@ 19 in Bridgeport . The route remained relatively the same as the state highway system was officially designated . Before 1955 , Nebraska did not have an adequate legal instrument to define the state highway system . By 1960 , N @-@ 19 was renumbered to US 385 , and US 26 was rerouted north near Bridgeport . The old alignment became part of N @-@ 92 . Two years later , N @-@ 29 was renumbered to N @-@ 71 . Between 1981 @-@ 82 , a road appeared on the official state map , extending from WYO 151 to N @-@ 71 . That road became part of N @-@ 88 by 1986 . No significant changes have been made since .
= = Major intersections = =
= USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) =
Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union Navies during the American Civil War . She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia . After several failed attempts to attack Union blockaders , the ship was captured by two Union monitors in 1863 when she ran aground . Atlanta was floated off , repaired , and rearmed , serving in the Union Navy for the rest of the war . She spent most of her time deployed on the James River supporting Union forces there . The ship was decommissioned in 1865 and placed in reserve . Several years after the end of the war , Atlanta was sold to Haiti , but was lost at sea in December 1869 on her delivery voyage .
= = Description and career as Fingal = =
Fingal was designed and built as a merchantman by J & G Thomson 's Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at Govan in Glasgow , Scotland , and was completed early in 1861 . She was described by Midshipman Dabney Scales , who served on the Atlanta before her battle with the monitors , as being a two @-@ masted , iron @-@ hulled ship 189 feet ( 57 @.@ 6 m ) long with a beam of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a draft of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and a depth of hold of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . He estimated her tonnage at around 700 tons bm . Fingal was equipped with two vertical single @-@ cylinder direct @-@ acting steam engines using steam generated by one flue @-@ tubular boiler . The engines drove the ship at a top speed of around 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . They had a bore of 39 inches ( 991 mm ) and a stroke of 30 inches ( 762 mm ) .
The ship briefly operated between Glasgow and other ports in Scotland for Hutcheson 's West Highland Service before she was purchased in September 1861 by James D. Bulloch , the primary foreign agent in Great Britain for the Confederacy , to deliver the military and naval ordnance and supplies that he had purchased . To disguise his control of Fingal , and the destination of her cargo , Bulloch hired an English crew and captain and put out his destination as Bermuda and Nassau in the Bahamas . The cargo was loaded in Greenock in early October , although Bullock and the other passengers would not attempt to board until they rendezvoused with the ship at Holyhead , Wales . On the night 14 / 15 October , as she was slowly rounding the breakwater at Holyhead , Fingal rammed and sank the Austrian brig Siccardi , slowly swinging at anchor without lights . Bulloch and the passengers embarked in the steamer while Bulloch dispatched a letter to his financial agents instructing them to settle damages with the brig 's owners because he could not afford to take the time to deal with the affair lest he and Fingal be detained . The ship reached Bermuda on 2 November and , after leaving port on 7 November , Bulloch informed the crew that the steamer 's real destination was Savannah , Georgia ; he offered to take anyone who objected to the plan to Nassau . However , all of the crew agreed to join in the effort to run the Union blockade . Fingal was able slip safely into the Savannah estuary in a heavy fog on the night of 12 November without sighting any blockaders .
While Fingal was discharging her cargo , Bulloch went to Richmond to confer with Stephen Mallory , Secretary of the Navy . Mallory endorsed Bulloch 's plan to load Fingal with cotton to sell on the Navy Department 's account to be used to purchase more ships and equipment in Europe . He returned to Savannah on 23 November and it took him almost a month to purchase a cargo and acquire enough coal . He made one attempt to break through the blockade on 23 December , but it proved impossible to do as the Union controlled every channel from Savannah , aided by their occupation of Tybee Island at the mouth of the Savannah River . Bulloch reported to Mallory in late January 1862 that breaking out was hopeless so Mallory ordered him to turn the ship over to another officer and to return to Europe some other way .
= = As Atlanta = =
The brothers Asa and Nelson Tift received the contract to convert the blockade runner into an ironclad in early 1862 with the name of Atlanta , after the city in Georgia . This was largely financed by contributions from the women of Savannah . Fingal was cut down to her main deck and large wooden sponsons were built out from the sides of her hull to support her casemate . After the conversion , Atlanta was 204 feet ( 62 @.@ 2 m ) long overall and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 m ) . Her depth of hold was now 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) and she now had a draft of 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . Atlanta now displaced 1 @,@ 006 long tons ( 1 @,@ 022 t ) and her speed was estimated at 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) .
The armor of the casemate was angled at 30 ° from the horizontal and made from two layers of railroad rails , rolled into plates 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 7 inches ( 180 mm ) | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
per game ( rpg ) . He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All @-@ American First Team in both his sophomore ( 1983 ) and junior ( 1984 ) seasons . After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984 , Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft . The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick , after Hakeem Olajuwon ( Houston Rockets ) and Sam Bowie ( Portland Trail Blazers ) . One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center . However , the Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center , but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan , in part because Portland already had a guard with similar skills to Jordan , Clyde Drexler . ESPN , citing Bowie 's injury @-@ laden college career , named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history . Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Early NBA years ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = =
During his first season in the NBA , Jordan averaged 28 @.@ 2 ppg on 51 @.@ 5 % shooting . He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas , and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading " A Star Is Born " just over a month into his professional career . Jordan was also voted in as an All @-@ Star starter by the fans in his rookie season . Controversy arose before the All @-@ Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players , led by Isiah Thomas , were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving . This led to a so @-@ called " freeze @-@ out " on Jordan , where players refused to pass him the ball throughout the game . The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play , and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year . The Bulls finished the season 38 – 44 , and lost in the first round of the playoffs in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks .
Jordan 's second season was cut short by a broken foot in the third game of the season , which caused him to miss 64 games . Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 – 52 record ( at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history ) , the Bulls made the playoffs . Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return . Against a 1985 – 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history , Jordan set the still @-@ unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2 . The Celtics , however , managed to sweep the series .
Jordan had recovered completely by the 1986 – 87 season , and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history . He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3 @,@ 000 points in a season , averaging a league high 37 @.@ 1 points on 48 @.@ 2 % shooting . In addition , Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess , as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season . Despite Jordan 's success , Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award . The Bulls reached 40 wins , and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year . However , they were again swept by the Celtics .
= = = Pistons roadblock ( 1987 – 1990 ) = = =
Jordan led the league in scoring again in the 1987 – 88 season , averaging 35 @.@ 0 ppg on 53 @.@ 5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award . He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year , as he had averaged 1 @.@ 6 blocks and a league high 3 @.@ 16 steals per game . The Bulls finished 50 – 32 , and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career , as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games . However , the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons , who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the " Bad Boys " .
In the 1988 – 89 season , Jordan again led the league in scoring , averaging 32 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 8 % shooting from the field , along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game ( apg ) . The Bulls finished with a 47 – 35 record , and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals , defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way . The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series . However , the Pistons again defeated the Bulls , this time in six games , by utilizing their " Jordan Rules " method of guarding Jordan , which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball .
The Bulls entered the 1989 – 90 season as a team on the rise , with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant , and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson . Jordan averaged a league leading 33 @.@ 6 ppg on 52 @.@ 6 % shooting , to go with 6 @.@ 9 rpg and 6 @.@ 3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 – 27 record . They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers . However , despite pushing the series to seven games , the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season .
= = = First three @-@ peat ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = =
In the 1990 – 91 season , Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 9 % shooting , 6 @.@ 0 rpg , and 5 @.@ 5 apg for the regular season . The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season . With Scottie Pippen developing into an All @-@ Star , the Bulls had elevated their play . The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs . They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival , the Detroit Pistons , awaited them . However , this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four @-@ game sweep . In an unusual ending to the fourth and final game , Isiah Thomas led his team off the court before the final seconds had concluded . Most of the Pistons went directly to their locker room instead of shaking hands with the Bulls .
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face Magic Johnson and James Worthy and beat the Los Angeles Lakers four games to one , compiling an outstanding 15 – 2 playoff record along the way . Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when , attempting a dunk , Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid @-@ air to lay the shot in . In his first Finals appearance , Jordan posted per game averages of 31 @.@ 2 points on 56 % shooting from the field , 11 @.@ 4 assists , 6 @.@ 6 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 steals and 1 @.@ 4 blocks . Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award , and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy .
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 – 92 season , establishing a 67 – 15 record , topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91 . Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game on 52 % shooting . After winning a physical 7 @-@ game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games , the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals . The media , hoping to recreate a Magic – Bird rivalry , highlighted the similarities between " Air " Jordan and Clyde " The Glide " during the pre @-@ Finals hype . In the first game , Jordan scored a Finals @-@ record 35 points in the first half , including a record @-@ setting six three @-@ point field goals . After the sixth three @-@ pointer , he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside . Marv Albert , who broadcast the game , later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying , " I can 't believe I 'm doing this . " The Bulls went on to win Game 1 , and defeat the Blazers in six games . Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35 @.@ 8 ppg , 4 @.@ 8 rpg , and 6 @.@ 5 apg , while shooting 53 % from the floor .
In the 1992 – 93 season , despite a 32 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 7 rpg and 5 @.@ 5 apg campaign , Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley . Coincidentally , Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals . The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game @-@ winning shot by John Paxson and a last @-@ second block by Horace Grant , but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader . He averaged a Finals @-@ record 41 @.@ 0 ppg during the six @-@ game series , and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards . He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series , including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games . With his third Finals triumph , Jordan capped off a seven @-@ year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships , but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non @-@ basketball hassles in his life .
= = = = Gambling controversy = = = =
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993 , controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City , New Jersey , the night before a game against the New York Knicks . In that same year , he admitted to having to cover $ 57 @,@ 000 in gambling losses , and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $ 1 @.@ 25 million from Jordan on the golf course . In 2005 , Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions . Jordan stated , " Yeah , I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope . Is that compulsive ? Yeah , it depends on how you look at it . If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family , then yeah . " When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family , Jordan replied , " No . "
= = = First retirement and baseball career ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = =
On October 6 , 1993 , Jordan announced his retirement , citing a loss of desire to play the game . Jordan later stated that the murder of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision . Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23 , 1993 , at a highway rest area in Lumberton , North Carolina , by two teenagers , Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery . The assailants were traced from calls they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone , caught , convicted , and sentenced to life in prison . Jordan was close to his father ; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work . He later adopted it as his own signature , displaying it each time he drove to the basket . In 1996 , he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father .
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game , Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992 . The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever @-@ growing celebrity status . Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world .
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7 , 1994 . He reported to spring training in Sarasota , Florida , and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31 , 1994 . Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father , who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player . The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf , who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball .
In 1994 , Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons , a Double @-@ A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox , batting .202 with three home runs , 51 runs batted in , 30 stolen bases , 114 strikeouts , 51 base on balls , and 11 errors . He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League , batting .252 against the top prospects in baseball . On November 1 , 1994 , his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center .
= = = " I 'm back " : Return to the NBA ( 1995 ) = = =
In the 1993 – 94 season , the Bulls , without Jordan , achieved a 55 – 27 record , and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs . But the 1994 – 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier . Struggling at mid @-@ season to ensure a spot in the playoffs , Chicago was 31 – 31 at one point in mid @-@ March . The team received help , however , when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls .
In March 1995 , Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike , as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player . On March 18 , 1995 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two @-@ word press release : " I 'm back . " The next day , Jordan wore jersey number 45 ( his number with the Barons ) , as his familiar 23 had been retired in his honor following his first retirement . He took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis , scoring 19 points . The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975 .
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half , Jordan played well upon his return , making a game @-@ winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back . He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28 , 1995 . Boosted by Jordan 's comeback , the Bulls went 13 – 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic . At the end of Game 1 , Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind , leading to the game @-@ winning basket for the Magic ; he would later comment that Jordan " didn 't look like the old Michael Jordan " and that " No. 45 doesn 't explode like No. 23 used to . " Jordan then returned to wearing his old number in the next game , scoring 38 points in a Bulls win . The Bulls were fined $ 30 @,@ 000 for the game : $ 25 @,@ 000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Jordan wearing different shoes . Jordan averaged 31 points per game in the series , but Orlando won the series in 6 games .
= = = Second three @-@ peat ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = =
Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat , Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 – 96 season . Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman , the Bulls dominated the league , starting the season 41 – 3 , and eventually finishing with the then @-@ best regular season record in NBA history ( later surpassed by the 2015 – 16 Golden State Warriors ) : 72 – 10 . Jordan led the league in scoring with 30 @.@ 4 ppg , and won the league 's regular season and All @-@ Star Game MVP awards .
In the playoffs , the Bulls lost only three games in four series ( Miami Heat 3 @-@ 0 , New York Knicks 4 @-@ 1 , Orlando Magic 4 @-@ 0 ) . They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 @-@ 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship . Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time , surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards . He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All @-@ Star Game , regular season and NBA Finals , Willis Reed having achieved the first , during the 1969 – 70 season . Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder , and it was won on Father 's Day , Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title , including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball .
In the 1996 – 97 season , the Bulls started out 69 – 11 , but missed out on a second consecutive 70 @-@ win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 – 13 . However , this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone . The Bulls again advanced to the Finals , where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz . The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career . He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer @-@ beating jump shot . In Game 5 , with the series tied at 2 , Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus . In what is known as the " Flu Game " , Jordan scored 38 points , including the game @-@ deciding 3 @-@ pointer with 25 seconds remaining . The Bulls won 90 – 88 and went on to win the series in six games . For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances , Jordan received the Finals MVP award . During the 1997 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Jordan posted the first triple double in All @-@ Star Game history in a victorious effort ; however , he did not receive the MVP award .
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 – 20 record in the 1997 – 98 season . Jordan led the league with 28 @.@ 7 points per game , securing his fifth regular @-@ season MVP award , plus honors for All @-@ NBA First Team , First Defensive Team and the All @-@ Star Game MVP . The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season , including surviving a seven @-@ game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals ; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks . After winning , they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals .
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14 , 1998 , leading the series 3 – 2 . Jordan executed a series of plays , considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history . With the Bulls trailing 86 – 83 with 41 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter , Phil Jackson called a timeout . When play resumed , Jordan received the inbound pass , drove to the basket , and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders , cutting the Utah lead to 86 – 85 . The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone , who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman . Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass , but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal . Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused , eyeing his defender , Jazz guard Bryon Russell . With 10 seconds remaining , Jordan started to dribble right , then crossed over to his left , possibly pushing off Russell , although the officials did not call a foul . With 5 @.@ 2 seconds left , Jordan gave Chicago an 87 – 86 lead with a game @-@ winning jumper , the climactic shot of his Bulls career . Afterwards , John Stockton missed a game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer . Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three @-@ peat . Once again , Jordan was voted the Finals MVP , having led all scorers averaging 33 @.@ 5 points per game , including 45 in the deciding Game 6 . Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record ; Shaquille O 'Neal , Magic Johnson , LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece . The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history . Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history .
= = = Second retirement ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring , the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming , and being in the latter stages of an owner @-@ induced lockout of NBA players , Jordan retired for the second time on January 13 , 1999 . On January 19 , 2000 , Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player , but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards . Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive . He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations , and had the final say in all personnel matters . Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed . He managed to purge the team of several highly paid , unpopular players ( such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland ) , but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown , who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons .
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was " 99 @.@ 9 % certain " that he would never play another NBA game , in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback , this time with his new team . Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter , Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training , holding several invitation @-@ only camps for NBA players in Chicago . In addition , Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach , Doug Collins , as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season , a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return .
= = = Washington Wizards comeback ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
On September 25 , 2001 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards , indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . In an injury @-@ plagued 2001 – 02 season , he led the team in scoring ( 22 @.@ 9 ppg ) , assists ( 5 @.@ 2 apg ) , and steals ( 1 @.@ 42 spg ) . However , torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games , the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 – 95 season . Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season , averaging 24 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 4 assists , and 6 @.@ 0 rebounds , and shooting 41 @.@ 9 % from the field in his 53 starts . His last seven appearances were in a reserve role , in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game .
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All @-@ Star Game in 2003 , Jordan passed Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar as the all @-@ time leading scorer in All @-@ Star Game history ( a record since broken by Kobe Bryant ) . That year , Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games , starting in 67 of them . He averaged 20 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 1 rebounds , 3 @.@ 8 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 steals per game . He also shot 45 % from the field , and 82 % from the free throw line . Even though he turned 40 during the season , he scored 20 or more points 42 times , 30 or more points nine times , and 40 or more points three times . On February 21 , 2003 , Jordan became the first 40 @-@ year @-@ old to tally 43 points in an NBA game . During his stint with the Wizards , all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out , and the Wizards were the second most @-@ watched team in the NBA , averaging 20 @,@ 172 fans a game at home and 19 @,@ 311 on the road . However , neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards , and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him . At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media , citing their lack of focus and intensity , notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft , Kwame Brown .
With the recognition that 2002 – 03 would be Jordan 's final season , tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA . In his final game at his old home court , the United Center in Chicago , Jordan received a four @-@ minute standing ovation . The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11 , 2003 , even though Jordan never played for the team . At the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson , but refused both . In the end he accepted the spot of Vince Carter , who decided to give it up under great public pressure .
Jordan 's final NBA game was on April 16 , 2003 in Philadelphia . After scoring only 13 points in the game , Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers , 75 – 56 . Just after the start of the fourth quarter , the First Union Center crowd began chanting " We want Mike ! " . After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins , Jordan finally rose from the bench and re @-@ entered the game , replacing Larry Hughes with 2 : 35 remaining . At 1 : 45 , Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow , and stepped to the line to make both free throws . After the second foul shot , the 76ers in @-@ bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons , who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later , stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench . Jordan received a three @-@ minute standing ovation from his teammates , his opponents , the officials and the crowd of 21 @,@ 257 fans .
= = Olympic career = =
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal @-@ winning American basketball teams . As a college player he participated , and won the gold , in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing , Sam Perkins , Chris Mullin , Steve Alford , and Wayman Tisdale . Jordan led the team in scoring , averaging 17 @.@ 1 ppg for the tournament .
In the 1992 Summer Olympics , he was a member of the star @-@ studded squad that included Magic Johnson , Larry Bird , and David Robinson and was dubbed the " Dream Team " . Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics . Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts , Jordan averaged 14 @.@ 9 ppg , finishing second on the team in scoring . Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold as amateurs and professionals .
= = Post @-@ retirement = =
After his third retirement , Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards . However , his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard " Rip " Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse ( although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002 ) . On May 7 , 2003 , Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations . Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed , and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards .
Jordan kept busy over the next few years by staying in shape , playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments , spending time with his family in Chicago , promoting his Jordan Brand clothing line , and riding motorcycles . Since 2004 , Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports , a professional closed @-@ course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association ( AMA ) until the end of the 2013 season . Jordan and his then @-@ wife Juanita pledged $ 5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School in 2006 , and the Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America .
= = = Charlotte Bobcats / Hornets = = =
On June 15 , 2006 , Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the team 's second @-@ largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson . As part of the deal , Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation , with the title " Managing Member of Basketball Operations . " Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser , he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns . A decade earlier , Jordan had made a bid to become part @-@ owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team , the Charlotte Hornets , but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations .
In February 2010 , it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats . As February wore on , it emerged that the leading contenders for the team were Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos . On February 27 , the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group , MJ Basketball Holdings , to buy the team pending NBA approval . On March 17 , the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase , making him the first former player ever to become the majority owner of an NBA team . It also made him the league 's only African @-@ American majority owner .
During the 2011 NBA lockout , The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners wanting to cap the players ' share of basketball @-@ related income at 50 percent and as low as 47 . Journalists observed that , during the labor dispute in 1998 , Jordan had told Washington Wizards then @-@ owner Abe Pollin , " If you can 't make a profit , you should sell your team . " Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a " sellout " wanting " current players to pay for his incompetence . " He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison .
During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , which was shortened to 66 games , the Bobcats posted a 7 – 59 record . Their .106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history . " I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year . It 's very , very frustrating " , Jordan said later that year .
On May 21 , 2013 , Jordan filed papers to change the Bobcats ' name to the Hornets , effective with the 2014 – 15 season . The Hornets name had become available when the original Hornets , who had moved to New Orleans in 2002 , changed their name to the New Orleans Pelicans for the 2013 – 14 season . The NBA approved the change on July 18 . The name change became official on May 20 , 2014 . On the same day , the team announced that it had reclaimed the history and records of the original 1988 – 2002 Hornets .
= = Player profile = =
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward ( the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards ) , and as a point guard . Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer . With the Bulls , he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds , including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests . His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash @-@ talk and well @-@ known work ethic . As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan , management had to trade away players who were not " tough enough " to compete with him in practice . To help improve his defense , he spent extra hours studying film of opponents . On offense , he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time . Noted as a durable player , Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 – 87 to 2001 – 02 , when he injured his right knee . He played all 82 games nine times . Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson , Walter Davis , and Jerry West as influences . From the start of his career , Jordan was unique among NBA players in that he had a special " Love of the Game Clause " written into his contract , which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time , anywhere .
Jordan had a versatile offensive game . He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket , as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate ; his 8 @,@ 772 free throw attempts are the ninth @-@ highest total of all time . As his career progressed , Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot , using his leaping ability to " fade away " from block attempts . According to Hubie Brown , this move alone made him nearly unstoppable . Despite media criticism as a " selfish " player early in his career , Jordan 's 5 @.@ 3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates . In later years , the NBA shortened its three @-@ point line to 22 feet ( from 23 feet , 9 inches ) , which coupled with Jordan 's extended shooting range to make him a long @-@ range threat as well — his 3 @-@ point stroke developed from a low 9 / 52 rate ( .173 ) in his rookie year into a stellar 111 / 260 ( .427 ) shooter in the 1995 – 96 season . For a guard , Jordan was also a good rebounder ( 6 @.@ 2 per game ) .
In 1988 , Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career ( since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon , David Robinson , and Kevin Garnett ; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season ) . In addition he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard , and combined this with his ball @-@ thieving ability to become a standout defensive player . He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2 @,@ 514 , trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd . Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones . He was also known to have strong eyesight ; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 @-@ inch television clearly from about 50 feet away .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Legacy = =
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season . In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks , Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation , a rarity for an opposing player . After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20 , 1986 , Celtics star Larry Bird described him as " God disguised as Michael Jordan . "
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons ( NBA record ) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles . He was also a fixture on the NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team , making the roster nine times ( NBA record shared with Gary Payton , Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant ) . Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30 @.@ 1 and 33 @.@ 4 points per game , respectively . By 1998 , the season of his Finals @-@ winning shot against the Jazz , he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer . In the regular season , Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs , Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time . Jordan 's total of 5 @,@ 987 points in the playoffs is the highest in NBA history . He retired with 32 @,@ 292 points in regular season play , placing him fourth on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Karl Malone , and Kobe Bryant .
With five regular @-@ season MVPs ( tied for second place with Bill Russell ; only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar has won more , six ) , six Finals MVPs ( NBA record ) , and three All @-@ Star MVPs , Jordan is the most decorated player ever to play in the NBA . Jordan finished among the top three in regular @-@ season MVP voting a record 10 times , and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 . He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal ( doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams ) .
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . In 1999 , an ESPN survey of journalists , athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century , above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali . Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes . In addition , the Associated Press voted him as the basketball player of the 20th century . Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times . In the September 1996 issue of Sport , which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue , Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years .
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability , highlighted in his back @-@ to @-@ back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988 , is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players . Several current NBA All @-@ Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up , including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade . In addition , commentators have dubbed a number of next @-@ generation players " the next Michael Jordan " upon their entry to the NBA , including Anfernee " Penny " Hardaway , Grant Hill , Allen Iverson , Kobe Bryant , LeBron James , Vince Carter , and Dwyane Wade . Although Jordan was a well @-@ rounded player , his " Air Jordan " image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills , defense , and fundamentals of young players , a fact Jordan himself has lamented .
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan ; the marketing of Michael Jordan . Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see , which was scoring and dunking . That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all @-@ around game , but it was never really publicized .
Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game , some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting . Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league , and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship @-@ winning season .
In August 2009 , the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield , Massachusetts , opened a Michael Jordan exhibit containing items from his college and NBA careers , as well as from the 1992 " Dream Team " . The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in baseball . After Jordan received word of his being accepted into the Hall of Fame , he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him . As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009 , growing up in North Carolina , he was not a fan of the Tar Heels , and greatly admired Thompson , who played at rival North Carolina State . He was inducted into the Hall in September , with several former Bulls teammates in attendance , including Scottie Pippen , Dennis Rodman , Charles Oakley , Ron Harper , Steve Kerr , and Toni Kukoč . Former coaches of Jordan 's , Dean Smith and Doug Collins , were also among those present . His emotional reaction during his speech , when he began to cry , was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme .
= = Personal life = =
He married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989 , and they have two sons , Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James , and a daughter , Jasmine . Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4 , 2002 , citing irreconcilable differences , but reconciled shortly thereafter . They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29 , 2006 , commenting that the decision was made " mutually and amicably " . It is reported that Juanita received a $ 168 million settlement ( equivalent to $ 197 million in 2015 ) , making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement in history at the time on public record .
In 1991 , Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park , Illinois , to build a 56 @,@ 000 square foot mansion , which was completed four years later . Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy , a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette , Illinois . Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11 , 2007 , for the University of Illinois . After two seasons , Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009 . He later rejoined the team for a third season , then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida , where Marcus was attending . Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009 . He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009 , and played three seasons of basketball for the school .
On July 21 , 2006 , a judge in Cook County , Illinois , determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $ 5 million in a breach of contract claim . Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $ 250 @,@ 000 to keep their relationship a secret . Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $ 5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991 . A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child .
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend , Cuban @-@ American model Yvette Prieto , on Christmas Eve , 2011 , and they were married on April 27 , 2013 , at Bethesda @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea Episcopal Church . It was announced on November 30 , 2013 , that the two were expecting their first child together . Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012 . On February 11 , 2014 , Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel .
Jordan 's private jet features a stripe in Carolina blue , the " Air Jordan " logo on the tail , and references to his career in the identification number .
= = Media figure and business interests = =
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history . He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike , Coca @-@ Cola , Chevrolet , Gatorade , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , Rayovac , Wheaties , Hanes , and MCI . Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade , appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991 , including the " Be Like Mike " commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan .
Nike created a signature shoe for him , called the Air Jordan . One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon . In the commercials Lee , as Blackmon , attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that " it 's gotta be the shoes " . The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of " shoe @-@ jackings " where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint . Subsequently , Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the " Jordan Brand " . The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers . The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina , Cal , Georgetown , and Marquette .
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters . A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball . The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam , which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball . They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI . Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's " Jam " ( 1992 ) .
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars . In addition , when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point , the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games . Due to this , Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $ 30 million per season . An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $ 1 billion .
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals , including his first deal with Nike , were engineered by his agent , David Falk . Jordan has described Falk as " the best at what he does " and that " marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' "
In June 2010 , Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th @-@ most powerful celebrity in the world with $ 55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010 . According to the Forbes article , Jordan Brand generates $ 1 billion in sales for Nike . In June 2014 , Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire , after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89 @.@ 5 % . On January 20 , 2015 , Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014 . As of November 2015 , his current net worth is estimated at $ 1 @.@ 1 billion by Forbes . Jordan is the second @-@ richest African @-@ American in the world as of 2015 .
= = Awards and honors = =
= Polish culture during World War II =
Polish culture during World War II was suppressed by the occupying powers of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union , both of whom were hostile to Poland 's people and cultural heritage . Policies aimed at cultural genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists , and the theft and destruction of innumerable cultural artifacts . The " maltreatment of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another " , wrote British historian Niall Ferguson .
The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly .
Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war .
= = Background = =
In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers .
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic .
= = Destruction of Polish culture = =
= = = German occupation = = =
= = = = Policy = = = =
Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of Generalplan Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the Inhabitants of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political Standpoint . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be Germanized , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government .
Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at Łódź on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or cabarets ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began .
In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( Hauptabteilung Propaganda ) . Further directives issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . Spectacles of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn .
In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " subhumans " ( Untermenschen ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . Restrictions on education , theater and music performances were eased .
Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , fueling tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and Ukrainians . In Łódź , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz Kościuszko , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . "
= = = = Plunder = = = =
In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ Ahnenerbe , Einsatzgruppen units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of Haupttreuhandstelle Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of Veit Stoss and paintings by Raphael , Rembrandt , Leonardo da Vinci , Canaletto and Bacciarelli . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos .
= = = = Destruction = = = =
Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact .
Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as AB @-@ Aktion . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its physicians and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was exterminated altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi gauleiter : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . "
As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for extermination .
To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( Bezirk Bialystok , Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , Belorussian , and Lithuanian . In the Bezirk Bialystok region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % .
The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows :
Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour .
In the General Government , the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers .
The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland .
Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the Przedziecki Estate Library , the Zamoyski Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the Rapperswil Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of purges rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war .
Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In Toruń , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities .
= = = = Censorship and propaganda = = = =
The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels .
Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public indexes of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Stanisław Wyspiański , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Door @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and bookstores — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed .
Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . Cinemas , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda newsreels . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " spectacles . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract ghetto inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate .
Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and sculptors , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes .
The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes .
= = = Soviet occupation = = =
After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ 299 million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " .
The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to Gulag concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres .
The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , Esperantists , philatelists , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , bankers , industrialists , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society .
The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in Belorussian , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland .
All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government .
The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the Russification policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland .
Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanisław Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Pański , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Słobodnik , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer .
Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some writers , such as Władysław Broniewski , after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan .
= = Underground culture = =
= = = Patrons = = =
Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a Department for Elimination of the Effects of War ( under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan Matejko that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( bibuła ) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts .
Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war .
= = = Education = = =
In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , Radom and Lublin ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance .
In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations . Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher , and Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research .
The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp .
= = = Print = = =
There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , Sztuka i Naród ) . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans . Books were also sometimes printed . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats .
The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy Rutkowski ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . ( Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground couriers distributed the publications . According to some statistics , these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans .
Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Leslaw Bartelski , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria Dąbrowska , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , future Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz , Zofia Nałkowska , Jan Parandowski , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Wyka , and Jerzy Zawieyski . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Stefan Flukowski , Leon Kruczkowski , Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria Gisges , Halina Gołczowa , Zofia Górska ( Romanowiczowa ) , Tadeusz Hołuj , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Wacław Berent , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz Kaden @-@ Bandrowski , Stefan Kiedrzyński , Janusz Korczak , Halina Krahelska , Tadeusz Hollender , Witold Hulewicz , Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski , Włodzimierz Pietrzak , Leon Pomirowski , Kazimierz Przerwa @-@ Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz .
= = = Visual arts and music = = =
With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theatrical Council . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the Gestapo 's Pawiak prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol Adwentowicz , Elżbieta Barszczewska , Henryk Borowski , Wojciech Brydziński , Władysław Hańcza , Stefan Jaracz , Tadeusz Kantor , Mieczysław Kotlarczyk , Bohdan Korzeniowski , Jan Kreczmar , Adam Mularczyk , Andrzej Pronaszko , Leon Schiller , Arnold Szyfman , Stanisława Umińska , Edmund Wierciński , Maria Wiercińska , Karol Wojtyła ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian Wyrzykowski , Jerzy Zawieyski and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners .
Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam Didur , Zbigniew Drzewiecki , Jan Ekier , Barbara Kostrzewska , Zygmunt Latoszewski , Jerzy Lefeld , Witold Lutosławski , Andrzej Panufnik , Piotr Perkowski , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia Umińska , Jerzy Waldorff , Kazimierz Wiłkomirski , Maria Wiłkomirska , Bolesław Woytowicz , Mira Zimińska ) performed in restaurants , cafes , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while evading German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as Siekiera , motyka , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Jewish musicians ( e.g. Władysław Szpilman ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre Tansman in the United States , and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union .
Visual arts were practiced underground as well . Cafes , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Polish underground artists included Eryk Lipiński , Stanisław Miedza @-@ Tomaszewski , Stanisław Ostoja @-@ Chrostowski , and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example kotwica ) . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and Benito Mussolini , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German bans on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Underground postage stamps were designed and issued . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and Poznań , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture .
= = = Warsaw Uprising = = =
During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle .
Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; Sylwester Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived .
= = Culture in exile = =
Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . Arkady F | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
iedler , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Other writers working abroad included Jan Lechoń , Antoni Słonimski , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a Polska Parada cabaret were Henryk Wars and Irena Anders . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino ( The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino ) , composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski , Adam Kossowski , Marian Kratochwil , Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp .
= = Influence on postwar culture = =
The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Norman Davies wrote in God 's Playground : " In 1945 , as a prize for untold sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . The multicultural nation was no more .
The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of Columbuses " . The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland .
Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk Grynberg , Miron Białoszewski , Hanna Krall and others ; films , including those by Andrzej Wajda ( A Generation , Kanał , Ashes and Diamonds , Lotna , A Love in Germany , Korczak , Katyń ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( Powstanie Warszawskie ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996 :
Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly .
= Arihant @-@ class submarine =
The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of Enemies ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . They were developed under the US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines .
The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council .
= = History = =
In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . Following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( DME ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project 932 ) .
The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . Then Defence Minister George Fernandes confirmed the project in 1998 . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad .
= = Description = =
The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) pressurised water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged .
The submarines have four launch tubes in their hump and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 Sagarika missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . The submarines are similar to the Akula @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS Chakra , an Akula @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 .
= = Development = =
The submarines are powered by a pressurised water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . The miniaturized version of the reactor was designed and built by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( IGCAR ) in Kalpakkam . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The reactor subsystems were tested at the Machinery Test Center in Visakhapatnam . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established .
The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & Toubro 's submarine design center at their Hazira shipbuilding facility . Tata Power SED built the control systems for the submarine . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by Walchandnagar Industries . The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included submersion tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials .
= = Ships in class = =
Exact number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by 2023 . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS Aridhaman is being prepared for sea trials . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 K4 and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . A larger follow on class to the arihant class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles .
= = Timeline = =
= SMS Markgraf =
SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English Margrave , or Marquess .
Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay .
= = Construction and design = =
Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Weissenburg and built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .
Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors .
She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Markgraf 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank .
In the aftermath of the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to Terschelling on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a minelaying operation off Texel . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October .
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .
Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . The main deck was buckled and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Markgraf fired both her 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking .
Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was deflected downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , ricocheted upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning .
Around 19 : 30 , Admiral John Jellicoe 's main force of battleships entered the battle ; Orion began firing at Markgraf at 19 : 32 ; she fired four salvos of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ( APC ) shells and scored a hit with the last salvo . The shell exploded upon impacting the armor protecting the No. 6 15 cm gun casemate . The shell failed to penetrate but holed the armor and disabled the gun . The explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . A heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced Markgraf 's crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian John Campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . Her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20 or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line .
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the German battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Markgraf fired primarily 15 cm shells . In this period , Markgraf was engaged by Agincourt 's 12 @-@ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . The shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @-@ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . Two of the adjoining 14 @-@ inch plates directly below the 8 @-@ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away . Due to her reduced speed , Markgraf turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced Grosser Kurfürst to fall out of formation . Markgraf fell in behind Kronprinz while Grosser Kurfürst steamed ahead to return to her position behind König . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . Several British light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the German line around 21 : 20 . In the ensuing short engagement Markgraf hit the cruiser Calliope five times with her secondary guns . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships .
Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line . Markgraf initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . But gunners aboard Grosser Kurfürst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes , which prompted Markgraf to follow suit . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . At 05 : 06 , Markgraf and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine .
The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Markgraf went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 20 July . In the course of the battle , Markgraf had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and 214 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by five large @-@ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following repairs in July 1916 , Markgraf went into the Baltic for trials . The ship was then temporarily assigned to the I Scouting Group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 August . Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and Derfflinger at Jutland , the only battlecruisers available for the operation were Von der Tann and Moltke , which were joined by Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the new battleship Bayern . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close engagement at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Markgraf was present for the uneventful advance in the direction of Sunderland on 18 – 20 October . Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . During the operation , the British submarine J1 torpedoed both Grosser Kurfürst and Kronprinz and caused moderate damage . For most of 1917 , Markgraf was occupied with guard duties in the North Sea , interrupted only by a refit period in January and periodic unit training in the Baltic .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The II Squadron consisted of the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The IV Squadron consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men .
Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . Three British C @-@ class submarines where also stationed in the Gulf . The Irben Strait , the main southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . The garrison on Ösel numbered nearly 14 @,@ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength .
The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke and the four König @-@ class ships covered the landing of ground troops by suppressing the shore batteries covering Tagga Bay . Markgraf fired on the battery located on Cape Ninnast . After the successful amphibious assault , III Squadron steamed to Putziger Wiek , although Markgraf remained behind for several days . On the 17th , Markgraf left Tagga Bay to rejoin her squadron in the Gulf of Riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to Kalkgrund . The ship was quickly freed , and she reached the III Squadron anchorage north of Larina Bank on the 19th . The next day , Markgraf steamed to Moon Sound , and on the 25th participated in the bombardment of Russian positions on the island of Kynö . The ship returned to Arensburg on 27 October , and two days later was detached from Operation Albion to return to the North Sea .
Markgraf struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the Irben Strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . The ship continued on to Kiel via Neufahrwasser in Danzig ; she then went on to Wilhelmshaven , where the mine damage was repaired . The work was completed at the Imperial Dockyard from 6 to 23 November . After repairs were completed , Markgraf returned to guard duty in the North Sea . She missed an attempted raid on a British convoy on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as she was in dock in Kiel from 15 March to 5 May for the installation of a new foremast .
= = = Fate = = =
Markgraf and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Markgraf , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Markgraf sank at 16 : 45 . The British soldiers in the guard detail panicked in their attempt to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; they shot and killed Markgraf 's captain , Walter Schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned .
Markgraf was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Markgraf and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wrecks were sold to Britain in 1962 . Owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hulls was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , Markgraf and her sisters are among the few accessible sources of low @-@ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . Markgraf and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks .
= Coldrum Long Barrow =
The Coldrum Long Barrow , also known as the Coldrum Stones and the Adscombe Stones , is a chambered long barrow located near to the village of Trottiscliffe in the south @-@ eastern English county of Kent . Constructed circa 4000 BCE , during Britain 's Early Neolithic period , today it survives only in a ruined state .
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe . Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe , the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Medway , now known as the Medway Megaliths . Of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both Addington Long Barrow and Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river . Three further surviving long barrows , Kit 's Coty House , the Little Kit 's Coty House , and the Coffin Stone , are located on the Medway 's eastern side .
Built out of earth and around fifty local sarsen megaliths , the long barrow consisted of a sub @-@ rectangular earthen tumulus enclosed by kerb @-@ stones . Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic . Osteoarchaeological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men , women , children and adults . At least one of the bodies had been dismembered prior to burial , potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of excarnation and secondary burial . As with other barrows , Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor veneration , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural connotations and uses .
After the Early Neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dilapidation , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by Christian zealots or treasure hunters . Local folklore grew up around the site , associating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . The ruin attracted the interest of antiquarians in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . After limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity The National Trust . It is open without charge to visitors all year around .
= = Name and location = =
The Coldrum Stones are named after a nearby farm , Coldrum Lodge , which has since been demolished . The monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @-@ east of the nearby village of Trottiscliffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the Pilgrim 's Way . The tomb can be reached along a pathway known as Coldrum Lane , which is only accessible on foot . The nearest car park to Coldrum Lane can be found off of Pinesfield Lane in Trottiscliffe . Another nearby village is Addington , which is located one and a quarter miles away .
= = Context = =
= = = Early Neolithic Britain = = =
The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history . Beginning in the fifth millennium BCE , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period . Archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental Europe or because the indigenous Mesolithic Britons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . Either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental Europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between Mesolithic people living in south @-@ east Britain and Linear Pottery culture ( LBK ) communities in north @-@ eastern France . The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent .
Between 4500 and 3800 BCE , all of the British Isles came to abandon its former Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the Neolithic Age . Although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . Throughout most of Britain , there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herding cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic way of life . Although witnessing some land clearance , Britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of deforestation the area of Kent had experienced in the Early Neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the chalklands of south @-@ east Britain in the Late Bronze Age . Environmental data from the area around the White Horse Stone supports the idea that the area was still largely forested in the Early Neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , hazel / alder and Maloideae .
= = = The tomb building tradition = = =
Across Western Europe , the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " megaliths " . Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden and megalithic , began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE .
The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done . Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . Archaeologist Robin Holgate stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the Medway Megaliths were " communal mouments fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them . " Thus , it has furthermore been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . For this reason , historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments " tomb @-@ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose .
In Britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb @-@ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society . Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways . Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in mindset brought about by Neolithicisation . Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers .
Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles . Passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland . Alternately , across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated , while in the east and south @-@ east of Britain , earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend . These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain ; archaeologist Aubrey Burl argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @-@ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , flamboyantly painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . The Medway Megaliths represent just one of these regional groups within the wider West European tradition of tomb building in this period .
= = = The Medway Megaliths = = =
Although now all in a ruinous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the Medway Megaliths would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing Early Neolithic funerary monuments in Britain . Grouped along the River Medway as it cuts through the North Downs , they constitute the most south @-@ easterly group of megalithic monuments in the British Isles , and the only megalithic group in eastern England . Archaeologists Brian Philp and Mike Dutto deemed the Medway Megaliths to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in Kent , while archaeologist Paul Ashbee described them as " the most grandiose and impressive structures of their kind in southern England " .
They can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the River Medway and the other on Blue Bell Hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . The western group includes Coldrum Long Barrow , Addington Long Barrow , and the Chestnuts Long Barrow . The eastern group consists of Kit 's Coty House , Little Kit 's Coty House , the Coffin Stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chambered tombs . It is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy in their usage .
The Medway long barrows all conformed to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . Each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . The chambers were constructed from sarsen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout Kent , having formed out of silicified sand from the Eocene . Early Neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected .
Such common architectural features among these tomb @-@ shrines indicate a strong regional cohesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the British Isles . For instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @-@ shrines in Britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . Nevertheless , as with other regional groupings of Early Neolithic tomb @-@ shrines ( such as the Cotswold @-@ Severn group ) , there are also various idiosyncrasies in the different monuments , such as Coldrum 's rectilinear shape , the Chestnut long barrow 's facade , and the long , thin mounds at Addington and Kit 's Coty . This variation might have been caused by the tomb @-@ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures .
It seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @-@ existing tomb @-@ shrines that they were already aware of . Whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the Medway area from elsewhere is not known . Based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , Stuart Piggott thought that they had originated in the area around the Low Countries , while Glyn Daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an influence from Scandinavia . John H. Evans instead suggested an origin in Germany , and Ronald F. Jessup thought that their origins could be seen in the Cotswold @-@ Severn megalithic group . Ashbee noted that their close clustering in the same area was reminiscent of the megalithic tomb @-@ shrine traditions of continental Northern Europe , and emphasised that the Medway Megaliths were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across Early Neolithic Europe . He nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence .
= = Design and construction = =
The monument originally consisted of a sarsen stone chamber , covered by a low earthen mound , which was bounded by prostrate slabs . As such , the archaeologist Paul Ashbee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sarsen stone surround . It is located on the edge of a large lynchet scarp , although it is difficult to ascertain what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . However , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have been possible . The monument 's axis points toward both the North Downs and the Medway Valley , which is similar to the other Medway Megaliths . Archaeologist Sian Killick suggested that the Coldrum Long Barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . "
It had been built using about 50 stones . The barrow is sub @-@ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . At its broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . As such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @-@ shape " . The megalithic builders responsible for the Coldrum Stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the North Downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the River Medway .
The chamber of the monument measures 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . The chamber 's internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . In its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . Conversely , the chamber 's southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth at its thicker , eastern end . The western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . A collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . It is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . Excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sarsens ; twentieth @-@ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright .
It is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chambered tombs in Britain , such as West Kennet Long Barrow and Wayland 's Smithy . It is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at Kit 's Coty House and Lower Kit 's Coty House . Many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal .
The earthen mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an undulation approximately 1 foot , 6 inches in height . In the nineteenth @-@ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sarsens beneath during the 1920s . It is likely that in the Early Neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the kerb @-@ stones now sit .
The kerb @-@ stones around the tomb display some patterning ; those on the northern side are mostly rectilinear , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . It is probable that there was an ancillary dry @-@ stone wall constructed using blocks of ironstone from the geological Folkestone beds , as is evident at Chestnuts Long Barrow . Given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been quarried .
A concave line of abrasion and polishing can be found on both one of the central kerb @-@ stones on the western end of the monument and a kerb @-@ stone on the south @-@ east of the monument . These have been attributed to the sharpening of flint and other stone axe @-@ blades on these sarsens . It is possible that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber levers and struts which would have been used in erecting the stones and constructing the tomb . Similar evidence for the sharpening of tools has been found at West Kennet Long Barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as Stonehenge .
Coldrum Long Barrow is comparatively isolated from the other Medway Megaliths ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . However , it is possible that another chambered tomb was located nearby ; a razed , elongated earthen mound with an east @-@ west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the Coldrum Stones . It may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . Several large sarsens to the south of the Coldrums might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed .
= = Human remains = =
= = = Demographics = = =
Ashbee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrows , such as Fussell 's Lodge , the Coldrum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals . Excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the methodical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @-@ two human individuals . These remains were examined by Sir Arthur Keith , the conservator of the museum at the Royal College of Surgeons . He published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with discerning racial characteristics of the bodies .
A subsequent re @-@ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society in 2013 : the project presented " osteological analysis , Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates , and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the demography , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the Coldrum population " . Disputing earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . These were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @-@ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) .
Keith had suggested that the crania he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family - or several families united by common descent . " Similar observations had been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain , although osteoarchaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . Instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were interrelated .
Wysocki 's team noted that in all but one case , the fracture morphologies are consistent with dry @-@ bone breakage . Three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ; a probable adult female had an unhealed injury on the left frontal , while an adult of indeterminate sex had an unhealed fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a healed depressed fracture on the right frontal .
Isotope analysis of the remains revealed δ13C values that were typical of those found at many other Southern British Neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of δ15C , which grew over time . Although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or estuarine foods . In the case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the dentine had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns .
Radiocarbon dating of the remains suggested Early Neolithic activity began at the site during 3980 – 3800 calibrated BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3960 – 3880 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . It then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further depositions of human remains were made inside the tomb . This second phase probably began in 3730 – 3540 cal BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3670 – 3560 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) . The radiocarbon dating of the human remains does not provide a date for the construction of Coldrum Long Barrow itself ; it is possible that the individuals died either some time before or after the monument 's construction .
= = = Post @-@ mortem deposition = = =
Cut @-@ marks were identified on a number of the bones ( two femora , two innominates , and one cranium ) , with osteoarchaeological specialists suggesting that these had been created post @-@ mortem as the bodies were dismembered and the bones removed from their attached ligaments . However , they further suggested that the lack of such cut @-@ marks on certain bones was suggestive that the body had already undergone partial decomposition or the removal of soft tissues prior to the process of dismemberment . The precision of the cut @-@ marks suggests that this dismemberment was done carefully ; " they do not suggest frenzied hacking or mutilation . " None of the criteria that osteoarchaeologists deem diagnostic of cannibalism were found on the bones .
This cut @-@ marked human bone assemblage represented the largest yet identified from within a Neolithic long barrow in Southern Britain , although similar evidence for dismemberment has been found from a number of other Neolithic British sites , such as West Trump , Eyford , Aldestrop , and Haddenham . There are two possibilities for how this material developed . The first is that the bodies of the dead were excarnated or exposed to the elements , followed by a secondary burial within the tomb . The second is that they were placed in the tomb , where the flesh decomposed , before the bodies were then rearranged within the tomb itself . These practices may have been accompanied by necrophagy , shamanism , or magical practices , direct evidence for which does not survive .
The inclusion of occupational debris over the bones was not unique to the site but common in chambered tombs from southern England . On the basis of an example discovered at Kit 's Coty House , Ashbee thought it apparent that the contents of the Coldrum 's chamber would have been compartmentalised by medial slabs , which served the same purpose as the side chambers of West Kennet and Wayland 's Smithy .
= = Damage and dilapidation = =
All of the surviving megalithic tombs from the Early Neolithic period have suffered from neglect and the ravages of agriculture . Although archaeologist Paul Ashbee noted that the Coldrum Stones represent " Kent 's least damaged megalithic long barrow " , it too has suffered considerable damage , having become dilapidated and fallen apart over the six millennia since its original construction . Most prominently , the eastern side has largely collapsed , with the stones that once helped to hold up the side of the barrow having fallen to the bottom of the slope . Conversely , it is possible that the sarsens at the bottom of the slope were not part of the original monument , but were stones found in nearby fields which were deposited there by farmers .
Excavation of Chestnuts Long Barrow revealed that it had been systematically destroyed in one event , and Ashbee suggested that the same may have happened to the Coldrum Stones . He believed that the kerb @-@ stones around the barrow were toppled , laid prostrate in the surrounding ditch , and then buried during the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century , by Christians seeking to obliterate non @-@ Christian monuments . Conversely , the archaeologist John Alexander — who excavated Chestnuts — suggested that the Medway tombs were destroyed by robbers seeking to locate treasure within them . As evidence , he pointed to the Close Roll of 1237 , which ordered the opening of barrows on the Isle of Wight in search for treasure , a practice which may have spread to Kent around the same time . Alexander believed that the destruction n Kent may have been brought about by a special commissioner , highlighting that the " expertness and thoroughness of the robbery " at Chestnuts would have necessitated resources beyond that which a local community could likely produce . Ashbee further suggested that in subsequent centuries , locals raided the damaged Coldrum tomb for loamy chalk and stone , which was then re @-@ used as building material .
= = Folklore and folk tradition = =
In a 1946 paper published in the Folklore journal , John H. Evans recorded the existence of a local folk belief that a battle was fought at the site of the Coldrum Stones , and that a " Black Prince " was buried within its chamber . He suggested that the tales of battles taking place at this site and at other Medway Megaliths had not developed independently among the local population but had " percolated down from the theories of antiquaries " who believed that the Early Medieval Battle of Aylesford , which was recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , took place in the area .
Evans also recorded that there was a folk belief in the area that applied to all of the Medway megaliths and which had been widespread " up to the last generation " ; this was that it was impossible for any human being to successfully count the number of stones in the monuments . This " countless stones " motif is not unique to this particular site , and can be found at various other megalithic monuments in Britain . The earliest textual evidence for it is found in an early sixteenth @-@ century document , where it applies to the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although in an early seventeenth @-@ century document it was being applied to The Hurlers , a set of three stone circles in Cornwall . Later records reveal that it had gained widespread distribution in England , as well as a single occurrence each in Wales and Ireland . The folklorist S. P. Menefee suggested that it could be attributed to an animistic understanding that these megaliths had lives of their own .
In the early twenty @-@ first century , a tradition developed in which the Hartley Morris Men , a morris dancing side , travel to the site at dawn every May Day in order to " sing up the sun " . This consists of a number of dances performed within the stones on top of the barrow , followed by a song performed at the base of the monument .
= = Antiquarian and archaeological investigation = =
= = = Early antiquarian descriptions = = =
The earliest antiquarian accounts of Coldrum Long Barrow were never published . There are claims that at the start of the nineteenth century , the Reverend Mark Noble , Rector of Barming , prepared a plan of the site for Gentleman 's Magazine , although no copies have been produced to verify this . Between 1842 and 1844 , the Reverend Beale Post authored Druidical Remains at Coldrum , in which he described the monument , although it remained unpublished at the time . Associating the site with the druids of Britain 's Iron Age , Post 's suggestion was that the name " Coldrum " derived from the linguistically Celtic " Gael @-@ Dun " , and that the chiefs of some of the Belgic Gauls were interned there . He further reported that in both 1804 and 1825 , skulls had been found at the site . In 1844 , an antiquarian named Thomas Wright published a note on the Coldrum Stones and other Medway Megaliths in The Archaeological Journal . Wright had been alerted to their existence by a local vicar , the Reverend Lambert B. Larking , and proceeded to visit them with him . Describing the Coldrums , Wright mentioned " a smaller circle of stones " to the others in the area , with " a subterranean cromlech in the middle " . He further added that " it is a tradition of the peasantry that a continuous line of stones ran from Coldrum direct to the well @-@ known monument called Kit 's Cotty [ sic ] House " , attributing this belief to the variety of megaliths which were scattered throughout the landscape .
In 1857 , the antiquarian J. M. Kemble excavated at the site with the help of the Reverend Larking , providing a report of their findings to the Central Committee of the British Archaeological Association . Describing the monument as a stone circle , they asserted that they discovered Anglo @-@ Saxon pottery at the site , and noted that as well as being called the Coldrum Stones , the monument also had the name of the Adscombe Stones , which Kemble believed originated with the Old English word for funeral pile , ad . In August 1863 , the Archaeological Institute , who were then holding their week @-@ long meeting in Rochester , took a tour to visit the site , guided by the antiquary Charles Roach Smith . That year , the monument was described in a copy of Gentleman 's Magazine by Yorkshire antiquary Charles Moore Jessop , who believed it to be a " Celtic " stone circle .
In 1869 , the antiquarian A. L. Lewis first visited the site , and was informed by locals that several years previously a skull had been uncovered from inside or near to the chamber , but that they believed it to be that of a gypsy . A later account elaborated on this , stating that two individuals excavated in the centre of the dolmen without permission , discovering a human skeleton , the skull of which was then re @-@ buried in the churchyard at Meopham . In an 1878 note published in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Lewis noted that while many tourists visited Kit 's Coty House , " very few goes to or ever hears of a yet more curious collection of stones at Colderham or Coldrum Lodge " . He believed that the monument consisted of both a " chamber " and an " oval " of stones , suggesting that they were " two distinct erections " . In 1880 , the archaeologist Flinders Petrie included the existence of the stones at " Coldreham " in his list of Kentish earthworks ; although noting that a previous commentator had described the stones as being in the shape of an oval , he instead described them as forming " a rectilinear enclosure " around the chamber . He then included a small , basic plan of the monument .
In August 1889 , two amateur archaeologists , George Payne and A. A. Arnold , came across the monument , which they noted was known among locals as the " Coldrum Stones " and " Druid Temple " ; according to Payne , " the huge stones were so overgrown with brambles and brushwood that they could not be discerned " . He returned the next year , noting that at this point , the brushwood had been cut away to reveal the megaliths . In his 1893 book Collectanea Cantiana , Payne noted that although it had first been described in print in 1844 , " since that time no one seems to have taken the trouble to properly record them or make a plan " , an unusual claim given that a copy of Petrie 's published plan existed in his library . For this reason , after gaining permission from the landowner , he convinced Major A. O. Green , Instructor in Survey at Brompton , to conduct a survey of the monument in August 1892 . He also wrote to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , encouraging him to schedule the Coldrum Stones as a legally protected site under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . Payne described the Coldrum Stones as " the finest monument of its class in the county , and one worthy of every care and attention . " Comparing it to other monuments of its type in Britain , he asserted that it was undoubtedly " of sepulchral origin , belonging to a period anterior to the Roman domination of Britain . " Payne also noted a folk tradition that there were stone avenues connecting Coldrum to the Addington Long Barrow , although added that he was unable to discover any evidence for the existence of this feature .
In 1904 , George Clinch published a note on the Medway Megaliths in the Royal Anthropological Institute 's journal , Man , in which he referred to the Coldrum Stones as " at once the most remarkable and the least known of the whole series . " Suggesting that its design indicates that it was built during " a late date in the neolithic age " , he compared the workmanship in producing the megaliths to that at the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although noted that they differed in that the Coldrum Stones clearly represented " a sepulchral pile " . Ultimately , he ended his note by urging for the site to be protected under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 . In that same issue , Lewis included an added note in which he rejected the idea that the monument had once been covered by an earthen tumulus because he could see " no evidence that anything of that kind ever existed " , and instead he interpreted the site as a stone circle , comparing it to the examples at Avebury , Arborlow , and Stanton Drew , suggesting that the central chamber was a shrine .
= = = Archaeological excavation = = =
The Coldrum Stones have been excavated on multiple occasions . On 16 April 1910 , the amateur archaeologist F. J. Bennett began excavation at the site , after previously having uncovered some Neolithic lithics from Addington Long Barrow . He soon discovered human bones " under only a few inches of chalky soil " . He returned to the site for further excavation in August 1910 , this time with his niece and her husband , both of whom were dentists with an interest in craniology ; on that day they discovered pieces of a human skull , which they were able to largely reconstruct . A few days later he returned to excavate on the north @-@ west corner of the dolmen with the architect E. W. Filkins ; that day , they found a second skull , further bones , a flint tool , and pieces of pottery .
Later that month , George Payne and F. W. Reader met with Bennett to discuss his finds . With the aid of two other interested amateur archaeologists , Mr Boyd and Miss Harker , both from Malling , excavation resumed in early September . In 2009 , the archaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley asserted that Bennett 's excavations had taken heed of the advice of Pitt @-@ Rivers that excavations should be recorded in full . They noted that Bennett had provided " clear plan and section drawings , photographs of the monument and careful attempts to consider site formation processes . " Suggesting that the monument was constructed on agricultural land , in his published report Bennett cited the ideas of anthropologist James Frazer in The Golden Bough to suggest that the Coldrum Stones " monument may at one time have been dedicated , though not necessarily initially so , to the worship of the corn god and of agriculture . " He proceeded to theorise that the human remains found at the site were the victims of human sacrifice killed in fertility rites . However , Evans later stated that " we have no means of knowing " whether human sacrifice had taken place at the site .
In September 1922 , Filkins once again began excavating at the site , this time with the aid of a resident of Gravesend , Charles Gilbert . Their project was financed through grants provided by the British Association and the Society of Antiquaries , with Filkins noting that at the time of its commencement , " a miniature jungle " had grown up around the site which had to be cleared . Excavation continued sporadically until at least 1926 . Human remains were discovered , and placed into the possession of Sir Arthur Keith of the Royal College of Surgeons . This excavation revealed all the existing sarsens surrounding the monument , a number of which had previously been buried beneath earth . The stones of the dolmen were shored up with concrete foundations where Filkins deemed it necessary . Although Filkins ' excavation was comprehensive , it did ignore stone holes , packing stones , and their relationship to the mound . In 1998 , Ashbee noted that while from " a present @-@ day perspective , it is possible to see shortcomings [ ... ] in terms of the general standards of the early part of this century , there is much to commend . "
= = = Management by The National Trust = = =
In his 1924 publication dealing with Kent , the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford , then working as the archaeological officer for the Ordnance Survey , listed the Coldrum Stones alongside the other Medway Megaliths . In 1926 , the Coldrum Stones were given to The National Trust , who dedicated it as a memorial to the Kentish historian Benjamin Harrison . A plaque was erected to mark this , which erroneously termed the monument a stone circle ; in 1953 , the archaeologist Leslie Grinsell expressed the view that " it is hoped that this error may be rectified in the near future " . Still owned by the Trust , the site is open to visitors all year round , free of charge . On their website , the Trust advises visitors to look for " stunning views from the top of the barrow " . John H. Evans characterised the site as " the most impressive " of the Medway Megaliths , while Grinsell described it as " the finest and most complete " of the group .
= Soviet cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz =
Krasnyi Kavkaz ( from Russian : " Красный Кавказ " - " Red Caucasus " ) was a cruiser of the Soviet Navy that began construction during World War I , but was still incomplete during the Russian Revolution . Her design was heavily modified by the Soviets and she was completed in 1932 . During World War II she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April 1942 . She was reclassified as a training ship in May 1947 before being used as a target in 1952 .
= = Service history = =
Laid down on 18 October 1913 at the Rossud Dockyard as Admiral Lazarev for the Imperial Russian Navy as a cruiser of the Svetlana class , she was launched on 8 June 1916 . Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was 63 % complete . In the second half of 1918 , the Marine Department of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi was engaged in completion of ship . On 25 January 1919 , the ship was formally renamed in " Hetman Petro Doroshenko " , but Mykolaiv was captured shortly afterward by the Entente . The hull was relatively undamaged and the Soviets decided to finish the ship to a modified design . She was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz on 14 December 1926 , and completed to a modernized design , being commissioned on 25 January 1932 .
Krasnyi Kavkaz was initially intended to accommodate eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns in four twin turrets , but this was impossible given her small and lightly constructed hull . Three twin turrets mounting the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun under development also proved impracticable and the Soviets had to settle for four MK @-@ 1 @-@ 180 single 180 mm gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to fit these turrets and all of the original casemated 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns were removed . As completed her secondary armament was only four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns mounted between her funnels . Her original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts mounted on each side of the main deck abaft the forecastle break . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines .
The light cruiser Komintern collided with her in May 1932 , shortly after her commissioning , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 metres ( 36 ft ) . In 1933 she made port visits in Turkey , Greece and Italy .
She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns were exchanged for four Italian Minizini twin gun 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted , one on each side of the quarterdeck just aft of the rearmost main gun turret . Some of these guns may have been received earlier , the sources are unclear . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more Minizini mounts salvaged from the sunken cruiser Chervona Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon .
= = = World War II = = =
Krasnyi Kavkaz , in company with the cruisers Chervona Ukraina , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces defending Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She also transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . She escorted convoys from 3 — 6 October that evacuated the 157th Rifle Division from Odessa to Sevastopol and escorted the final evacuation convoy during the night of 15 – 16 October . During the Siege of Sevastopol she provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She helped to transport the 388th Rifle Division from Novorossiysk and Tuapse to Sevastopol between 7 and 13 December and the 354th Rifle Division between 21 and 22 December , bombarding German positions in the interim .
During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation Krasnyi Kavkaz sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 and disembarked reinforcements and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . She was hit seventeen times by Axis artillery and mortar fire in retaliation . On 1 and 3 January she ferried supplies and reinforcements for the Soviet bridgehead on the Kerch Peninsula . On the return voyage she was severely damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from II . / StG 77 . Four near @-@ misses close to her stern damaged her steering , her left propeller shaft , blew off one propeller and put enough holes in her stern that flooding caused her draft to increase by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer Sposobnyi , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament .
She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , Krasnyi Kavkaz , her half @-@ sister Krasnyi Krym , and three destroyers ferried 12 @,@ 600 men of the 8th , 9th and 10th Guards Rifle Brigades from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Krym , Krasnyi Kavkaz , and three destroyers provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February , although one secondary landing was successful . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of Krasnyi Kavkaz 's active participation in the war .
= = = Post @-@ war history = = =
Little is known about her activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 12 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 .
= Rhode Island Route 4 =
Route 4 , also known as the Colonel Rodman Highway , is a 10 @.@ 37 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 69 km ) long numbered state highway located in Washington County and southern Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a major north – south freeway in the southern Providence metropolitan area , directly linking Providence with eastern Washington County , the beaches of Narragansett and South Kingstown , and the city of Newport . Route 4 begins as a two @-@ lane divided highway at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the town of North Kingstown , becoming a limited @-@ access freeway after 1 @.@ 89 miles ( 3 @.@ 04 km ) . The route has four numbered interchanges before terminating in the city of Warwick , where the northbound lanes merge into Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) .
The origins of Route 4 date back to 1952 , when construction began on a short , unnumbered arterial from US 1 to the modern location of exit 5 at Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . In 1965 , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works began work on a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) freeway from modern exit 6 north to the merge with I @-@ 95 . The freeway , designated as Route 4 , was completed in 1972 . At that time , the Route 4 designation was also applied to the Wickford arterial . In 1988 , the missing link in Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 was completed and opened . The Rhode Island Department of Transportation has long @-@ term plans to upgrade the southernmost portion of Route 4 to freeway status by constructing overpasses at Oak Hill Road and West Allenton Road and a grade separation with US 1 . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely .
= = Route description = =
Route 4 begins at a fork in the alignment of U.S. Route 1 in the community of North Kingstown ; the two left lanes of US 1 default onto Route 4 north , with the right @-@ hand lane carrying Tower Hill Road and US 1 north into the village of Wickford . Route 4 heads in a northwestern direction as a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing West Allenton Road at an at @-@ grade intersection with a traffic signal after approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . The highway continues on a northwesterly projection , passing to the northeast of Kettle Hole Pond and to the southwest of Secret Lake in a heavily forested region . After Secret Lake , the highway curves to the north , crossing Oak Hill Road at another at @-@ grade intersection .
Shortly after the intersection with Oak Hill Road , Route 4 transitions from a divided arterial highway into a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access freeway . The freeway passes to the west of Belleville Pond and begins to parallel the alignment of Route 102 ( Ten Rod Road ) near the community of Lafayette . Route 4 passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad before entering the business district of Wickford Junction . The freeway interchanges with Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the interchange , Route 4 bends to the northeast , beginning a parallel alignment with Route 2 that continues to its northern terminus . Route 4 crosses into the town of East Greenwich , passing under South Road before interchanging with Route 2 at exit 6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange .
After exit 6 , Route 4 passes the Rhode Island Army National Guard base to the east and to the Hunt River to the west . Route 4 northbound interchanges with Route 403 at exit 7 ; Route 403 , or the Quonset Freeway , is a four @-@ lane , limited access freeway and spur route of Route 4 that serves the Quonset Business Park and the village of Davisville . Heading southbound , exit 7 is split into exit 7B , which serves the Quonset Freeway , and exit 7A , which serves Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , another spur route connecting the highway to US 1 and Route 2 . After exit 7 , Route 4 continues northward as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing farmlands to the west and entering a suburban region of East Greenwich . The highway crosses under an overpass at Middle Road before interchanging with Route 401 , the freeway 's final spur , at another partial cloverleaf interchange . Exit 8 is also used to access Route 2 and I @-@ 95 south , which has no direct freeway connection with Route 4 north . Shortly after exit 8 , the Route 4 designation ends and the mainline of the highway defaults onto I @-@ 95 north .
= = History = =
In 1950 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 118 million in 2016 ) bond issue to fund the construction of a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , four @-@ lane divided arterial bypass of U.S. Route 1 in Wickford . Construction on the highway began in 1952 and was completed in 1954 , at which time the roadway opened as an unnumbered state highway leading from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford .
During the late 1950s , a few years after the completion of the arterial , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works ( RIDPW ) proposed a relocation of Route 2 , which , at the time , was the major thoroughfare in the area . No action was taken until 1964 , when the RIDPW introduced a study for the " Relocated Route 2 " proposal . During the study , drivers who used the Colonel Rodman Highway arterial and were bound for the state capital of Providence were redirected onto Route 2 , an accident @-@ prone , four @-@ lane undivided highway near the modern exit 5 . In 1965 , the planned Route 2 freeway was given the new number of Route 4 , leaving Route 2 on its existing alignment . A public hearing was held by the state of Rhode Island on the proposed freeway , which was to be four lanes and have a divided , grassy median . This proposal was later accepted , and construction began two years later .
Construction of a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) long section of Route 4 from what is now exit 6 in East Greenwich to I @-@ 95 in Warwick began in 1967 and was completed in 1972 . That year , the 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) arterial south of the modern exit 5 was also designated as part of Route 4 . The divided highway remains largely intact to this date as the stretch of Route 4 from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 ; the only piece of the arterial that has been significantly altered is the construction of a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor line . By the early 1970s , Route 4 was complete north of exit 6 and south of what would become exit 5 , but there was a still a missing piece in the highway between the two exits . In the 1970s , the state of Rhode Island faced several budget problems and environmental concerns , both of which delayed the construction of the missing link for nearly eleven years . Environmental studies on the missing link began in 1977 , and the state estimated that the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long section of freeway would cost $ 15 – 21 million ( equivalent to $ 59 – 82 million in 2016 ) to construct .
In 1983 , the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) began construction of the new segment of Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 . The project , which ultimately went over budget at $ 24 million ( equivalent to $ 52 million in 2016 ) ) , was financed from a $ 63 million federal grant . In 1986 , during excavation for the new right @-@ of @-@ way , the Department of Transportation found archeological items from the Narragansett Indians dating from about 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 years prior . Although the findings were not centralized in the area , this caused delays for the extension of the freeway . On August 6 , 1988 , RIODT completed construction and performed a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony for the new highway .
In January 1990 , two police cruisers were severely damaged during a chase on Route 4 . A driver was speeding in the southbound lanes of Route 4 near exit 7 ; when the driver exited at Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , two police officers got into serious accidents in their attempts to pursue the vehicle . After the crashes , the American Civil Liberties Union restarted efforts to amend police chase policy and avoid further crash @-@ related injuries for officers in the line of duty .
In 2000 , construction began on the Quonset Freeway , a relocated Route 403 that serves the Quonset Business Park from Route 4 . The project included the reconstruction and reworking of exit 7 off Route 4 , which was a southbound @-@ only exit serving both Route 403 and Route 402 when constructed . The exit was converted into a trumpet interchange with new ramps between Route 4 , Route 403 and Route 402 and was completed in December 2008 , one year ahead of schedule . The project included the construction of a new northbound exit 7 serving Route 403 east .
= = Future = =
The Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) has laid out long @-@ term plans for improvements to both the southern and northern termini of Route 4 . During the 1980s and 1990s , RIDOT announced plans to eliminate the three traffic lights along the southern end of the highway . The department planned to replace the existing signalized US 1 and Route 4 merge , converting it into a grade @-@ separated interchange with an extensive overpass . This would cut @-@ off access to three local roads that intersect US 1 near the signal . The plan also included the replacement of the two other signaled intersections at West Allenton Road and Oak Hill Road with overpasses ; the overpass for West Allenton Road is planned to be constructed as a new exit 4 . In the 1990s , the state purchased and demolished several houses in the region to allow for an expanded Route 4 right @-@ of @-@ way in the vicinity of West Allenton Road .
The upgrade proposal proved to be very unpopular with North Kingstown residents who lived on the affected local roads . Additionally , RIDOT laid the highway out so that Route 4 would cross through wetlands in the area . This sparked environmental concerns , as one of the large wetlands that would be affected , Froberg 's Marsh , was deemed to be of high value by Rhode Island environmentalists . Despite local and environmental concerns , RIDOT still considers the Route 4 upgrade to be the safest way to improve traffic flow in the region . While the Department of Transportation considered upgrading nearby Route 2 to freeway standards as a potential alternative , this plan was ultimately rejected because of its effects on wells in the area . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely .
RIDOT also has long @-@ range plans to construct direct freeway connections linking Route 4 north with I @-@ 95 south and I @-@ 95 north with Route 4 south . As of November 2010 , environmental studies are being prepared for a reconfiguration of the interchange .
= = Exit list = =
Italics denote future exit numbers .
= West End Girls =
" West End Girls " is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys . Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single . The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were inspired partly by T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land . It was generally well received by contemporary music critics and has been frequently cited as a highlight in the duo 's career .
The first version of the song was produced by Bobby Orlando and was released on Columbia Records ' Bobcat Records imprint in April 1984 , becoming a club hit in the United States and some European countries . After the duo signed with EMI , the song was re @-@ recorded with producer Stephen Hague for their first studio album , Please . In October 1985 , the new version was released , reaching number one in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1986 .
In 1987 , the song won Best Single at the Brit Awards , and Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , 20 years after its release , the song was awarded Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters . In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 12th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV .
The song was performed by Pet Shop Boys at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony and was included as part of the soundtrack of the 2013 game Grand Theft Auto V on the Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop radio station .
= = Background = =
= = = Recording and production = = =
In 1983 , Neil Tennant met producer Bobby Orlando , while on an assignment in New York interviewing Sting for Smash Hits . After listening to some demos , Orlando offered to produce for the duo .
In 1983 – 84 , the duo recorded eleven songs with Orlando , at Unique Studios in New York , " West End Girls " , " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " , " One More Chance " , " I Want A Lover " , " A Man Could Get Arrested " , " I Get Excited " , " Two Divided by Zero " , " Rent " , " It 's A Sin " , " Pet Shop Boys " , and " Later Tonite " . Orlando played most of the instruments on " West End Girls " , including the jazz riff at the end . Lowe played one chord and the bassline . It included a drum part lifted from Michael Jackson 's " Billie Jean " , and an arrangement involving what Tennant called " Barry White chords " . Orlando was thrilled by the song 's production ; his idea was to make a rap record in a British accent .
In April 1984 , " West End Girls " was released , becoming a club hit in Los Angeles and San Francisco , and a minor dance hit in Belgium , and France , but was only available in the United Kingdom as a 12 " import . In March 1985 , after long negotiations , Pet Shop Boys cut their contractual ties with Orlando , and hired manager Tom Watkins , who signed them with EMI . They re @-@ recorded " West End Girls " with producer Stephen Hague , and re @-@ released the song in late 1985 , topping the charts in both the UK and the U.S.
In an interview on BBC4 's Synth Britannia programme ( Video on YouTube at 1h 21m 19s ) , Neil Tennant explains the role of the then new sampling technology on the track and how every single sound came from the newly introduced E @-@ mu Emulator keyboard .
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
" West End Girls " is a synthpop song influenced by hip hop music . The song 's socially conscious streak , as well as the propulsive bass line , derives from Grandmaster Flash 's protest rap song " The Message " . Lowe and Hague created a " snaky , obsessive rhythm punch " for the music , replacing the song 's previously sparse beats and minimal keyboard lines .
Tennant started to write the song when he was staying at his cousin 's house in Nottingham while watching a gangster film . Just when he was going to sleep he came up with the lines : " Sometimes you 're better off dead , there 's a gun in your hand and it 's pointing at your head " . The lyrics were inspired by T.S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , particularly in the use of different narrative voices and arcane references . The song 's lyrics are largely concerned with class , inner @-@ city pressure . Tennant later said that some listeners had assumed the song referred to prostitutes , but was actually , " about rough boys getting a bit of posh . "
The lyric " From Lake Geneva to the Finland Station " refers to the train route taken by Vladimir Lenin when he was smuggled by the Germans to Russia during World War I , a pivotal event in the Russian Revolution . Indeed , it is highly likely the lyric was inspired by the book To the Finland Station by Edmund Wilson , a very famous work on the history of revolutionary thought and Socialism that Tennant would have at least heard of , if not read , as a student . The Bobby Orlando @-@ produced version of the single included another line , " All your stopping , stalling and starting , / Who do you think you are , Joe Stalin ? " which was removed for the 1985 version .
= = Critical reception = =
" West End Girls " has been generally well received by music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic in a review of the album Please called the song " hypnotic " , adding that " it 's not only a classic dance single , it 's a classic pop single " . In a review for the group 's second studio album Actually , Rob Hoerburger from Rolling Stone magazine commented that " West End Girls " was " as catchy as anything on the radio in 1986 " , praising " its enticing bass line and foreboding synth riffs " , but felt that it was almost " nullified by peevish spoken asides and the cryptic posturing of the duo 's lyrics " . In a review of the live album Concrete , Michael Hubbard from musicOMH said that " West End Girls " was one of the songs that " round out a collection that never feels too long or superfluous " , adding that it " goes some way to installing Tennant and Lowe as national treasures " .
Nitsuh Abebe from Pitchfork Media , in a review of their compilation album PopArt : Pet Shop Boys - The Hits commented that in the song " we meet Tennant not as a singer , but as a speaker " , adding that " he mumbles the verses to us not like a star , but like a stranger in a raincoat , slinking alongside you and pointing out the sights " .
In 1987 , " West End Girls " won for Best Single at The BRIT Awards , and for Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters gave to West End Girls the Ivor Novello Award for Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 .
= = Music video = =
The video was directed by Andy Morahan and Eric Watson , and consists of shots of the duo around London . At the beginning of the video , noises from the city can be heard , a camera passes Lowe on the street , and focus on two vintage dolls in a shop window . Then appears a sequence of quick cuts with shots of the city 's different sub @-@ cultures , the video freezes and cuts to Tennant and Lowe , who walk through an empty Wentworth Street in Petticoat Lane Market . They stand in front of a red garage door , Tennant is in front dressed with a long coat , white shirt and dark necktie , directly addressing the camera , with Lowe standing behind him with a blank expression . Lowe is filmed in double @-@ exposure and appears almost ghostlike . In other shots , Tennant walks imperiously while Lowe follows behind , as if one were a master and the other an apprentice .
Then the video shows various shots at Waterloo station , as the chorus starts . In slow motion , the camera pans across the WHSmith shop on the station concourse as the duo walk past . It cuts to a brief shot of a No. 42 red double @-@ decker bus , showing the destination as Aldgate , also advertising the stage @-@ show Evita , then black and white shots of the Tower Bridge , Westminster and the Westminster Palace Clock Tower from the sky . The duo poses on the South Bank of the River Thames in a pastiche of a postcard image , with the Houses of Parliament as a background .
The camera shows shots of young women , and passes through arcades and cinemas in Leicester Square . The camera now passes South Africa House showing protestors in the Non @-@ Stop Picket , an anti @-@ apartheid vigil . The video cuts to a closeup of Tennant singing the chorus , with a purple neon sign passing across his face . At the end the camera passes again through Leicester Square , where people queue to see Fletch and Desperately Seeking Susan . The video was nominated for Best New Artist in a Video at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to a @-@ ha 's Take On Me .
= = Chart performance = =
" West End Girls " was first released in April 1984 through writer and producer Bobby Orlando 's label . The song was a club hit in the United States , and in some European countries , such as Belgium , where it debuted at number 24 on the VRT Top 30 chart on 28 July 1984 , peaking at 17 four weeks later . In Canada , " West End Girls " first entered the RPM singles chart in April 1985 , reaching a peak position of 81 in June 1985 .
Having signed with EMI , the group released their first major label single " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " in mid @-@ 1985 , but it failed to attract attention . The Pet Shop Boys then decided to re @-@ record " West End Girls " , and issue this new version as a single . Producer Stephen Hague helmed the new , re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " .
The re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 , debuting on the UK Singles Chart at number 80 , and within eight weeks of its release it had reached the top of the chart . It maintained the number one position for two weeks and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in January 1986 . Across Europe , " West End Girls " also topped the singles chart in Norway , as well as peaking in the top three in Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland .
In Canada , where the original recording of " West End Girls " had already been a minor hit in 1985 , the re @-@ recorded version was issued as a single in early 1986 . The re @-@ recorded song entered the chart in March 1986 , peaking at number one for one week on 17 May 1986 . In the United States , West End Girls debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 71 , reaching the number one position on 10 May 1986 , and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . The song also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart for two weeks .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Neil Tennant – vocals , lyrics
Chris Lowe – keyboards , artwork design
Helena Springs – additional vocals
Bobby Orlando – producer , ( 1984 release )
Stephen Hague – producer ( 1985 release )
Steve Jerome – engineer – 1984 release
David Jacob – engineer
Frank Roszak – remixing
Eric Watson – photography
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart positions = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = East 17 version = =
In 1993 East 17 covered " West End Girls " for their album Walthamstow , with limited chart success .
= = = Track listings = = =
7 "
. West End Girls ( Faces on Posters Mix )
. West End Girls ( Kicking in Chairs )
= = = Charts = = =
= Wrapped in Red =
Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The Smoakstack Sessions Vol . 2 . Produced by Greg Kurstin , it is her first Christmas album and her first record to be solely released by RCA . Wrapped in Red consists of sixteen tracks , featuring five co @-@ penned original songs and eleven cover versions of Christmas standards and carols , two of which are duets featuring recording artists Ronnie Dunn , Reba McEntire and Trisha Yearwood .
Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , Clarkson had long @-@ desired to record a Christmas album as a means to defy genre limitations . She commissioned Kurstin , who had studied jazz music under the tutelage of Jaki Byard , to produce the entire album . Drawing inspirations from the soundtracks to the features A Charlie Brown Christmas and White Christmas , as well as the Christmas albums by Mariah Carey , McEntire , and Phil Spector , they experimented on various styles and sounds using Spector 's famed Wall of Sound technique to a create a contemporary holiday theme to classics . The Christmas music of Wrapped in Red comprises a variety of the genres such pop , jazz , country , and soul , marking a departure from the pop rock sound established from her previous studio albums ; while its lyrics share a singular theme of the color red , which represents a plethora of emotions during the holidays .
Wrapped in Red debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 and topped the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , Wrapped in Red stayed on the top ten of both charts and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and Music Canada . By the end of 2013 , it became the year 's best @-@ selling Christmas release in the United States and the second best @-@ selling Christmas release in Canada . Its lead single " Underneath the Tree " became an international top forty Christmas hit song and was radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 . In promoting Wrapped in Red , she appeared in red dresses on various televised appearances ; and filmed an accompanying television special , Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , at The Venetian Las Vegas , which premiered on NBC on December 11 , 2013 . In 2014 , Clarkson released the title track as the second single and hosted an annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena on December 20 , 2014 .
= = Background = =
Clarkson had expressed interest in recording a Christmas album for years , having recorded various Christmas songs such as " Oh Holy Night " and " My Grown Up Christmas List " on the American Idol : The Great Holiday Classics ( 2003 ) , " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " on iTunes Session ( 2011 ) , and being featured on Blake Shelton 's Christmas album Cheers , It 's Christmas ( 2012 ) . Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , she felt that recording a Christmas album would finally pave a way for her to explore other different genres . She remarked , " I always get asked what genre I 'm in : ' Is this country or pop or rock ? What are you ? ' And what 's cool about making the Christmas album was , ' Oh , there are no limitations ! We can do whatever we want ! ' " . She further added , " The thing about Christmas is that it almost doesn 't matter what mood you 're in or what kind of a year you 've had — it 's a fresh start . I 'm going to clear the air and take stock of the good that 's happened . "
Discussions about making her sixth studio album being a Christmas record began on December 2012 , a month after releasing her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One . Having found the opportunity to do so , Clarkson commissioned producer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Greg Kurstin , whom she had previously collaborated with on her albums Stronger and Chapter One , to solely produce the whole album . Despite having been raised in a Jewish faith and unfamiliar with Christmas songs , Kurstin still agreed to produce the project . As a result , the record marked the second time her studio album only had a single producer ( the first being David Kahne solely producing My December in 2007 ) . It also marked the fourth time Kurstin had solely produced an entire studio album apart from being a member of the musical groups The Bird and the Bee and Geggy Tah ( the first three being Lily Allen 's It 's Not Me , It 's You in 2009 , Sia 's We Are Born in 2010 , and The Shins ' Port of Morrow in 2012 ) .
= = Recording = =
Recording sessions of the basic instrumental tracks for Wrapped in Red took place in Kurstin 's Echo Studio in Los Angeles while orchestral sessions were recorded at EastWest Studios in Hollywood and featured vocals recorded in The Barn studio in Nashville . In recording tracks for the album , Clarkson and Kurstin wanted to showcase as many different styles as they could by experimenting in various sounds and styles to create fresh , contemporary sound to classic @-@ sounding music . He recalled , " It was a lot of fun for us because we got to go back to our roots . When Kelly started singing , it was clear she had the chops and had been trained to do anything . " Further adding , " We really experimented . It was so much fun and liberating . And it pays off . " Kurstin , who studied with jazz musician Jaki Byard at The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , recruited various jazz and soul musicians such as James Gadson , Kevin Dukes , Roy McCurdy , and Bill Withers to perform on the record to resonate a Memphis soul sound . He also collaborated with Joseph Trapanese to arrange and conduct a chamber orchestra .
In providing instrumentation for the record , Kurstin used all of his instruments such as a Mellotron and a Chamberlin , taping them from a distance to stimulate the Wall of Sound , a recording technique originally developed by Phil Spector that was popular in the early 1960s . He enlisted Clarkson to provide all the background vocals herself . Clarkson , who grew up singing in a chorus , was pleased with the aspect ; saying , " Blending is something I knew how to do from childhood . Sometimes I 'd have to do an alto instead of a soprano because they needed a bigger sound . But I 've never had to do anything like this before — doing all my backup vocals , essentially being my own choir . " Together , they began to record in May 2013 and continued through the summer of that year , beginning by recording " White Christmas " with Clarkson in the vocal booth and with Kurstin on a piano . She commented , " The production is all him . I would be just like ' Hey , can we make this more jazz ? Hey , can we make this more bluesy . And he just , like Harry Potter , made this happen . It 's so weird . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Theme and influences = = =
Clarkson has cited the color red as the album 's only theme . A color traditionally associated with Christmas , she affiliated the color to various emotions in the holidays . Wanting to stray away from her usual pop sound , she described Wrapped in Red 's music as a representation to explore different genres such as jazz , country and Memphis soul . She recalled , " What 's cool about Christmas albums is you can do jazz , rock and roll , you can do pop , you can do blues , like you can do all that stuff and it works — cause it 's all classic and it 's Christmasy sounding . " She also noted that the album 's multitude of styles positively contributes to her artistic goal , saying , " My best friend from childhood heard it and said , ' This is what you sound like , before everything else . ' And I agree , It 's my core sound . Back in the day , when artists came out with things like " Fall to Pieces " and " Bridge over Troubled Water " , those songs transcended genres . It wasn 't , ' Where is it going to fit ? ' You catered to whatever the song calls for . And that 's exactly what I did — without having to have an umbrella for everything . "
In gathering inspirations for Wrapped in Red , Clarkson started by listening to Bing Crosby 's and Rosemary Clooney 's soundtracks from the 1954 feature film White Christmas as well as Mariah Carey 's Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) and Merry Christmas to You ( 1997 ) by Reba McEntire . While Kurstin , who used to play in a jazz band , took influences from A Charlie Brown Christmas by the Vince Guaraldi Trio and A Christmas Gift for You by Phil Spector as his inspirations , which resulted to the album 's Wall of Sound resonance . Clarkson also cited that her relationship with her then @-@ fiancé Brandon Blackstock had inspired some of the album 's lyrical content .
= = = Song analysis = = =
Clarkson shares writing credits on all five original songs on Wrapped in Red , some of which were written in December 2012 to avoid writing Christmas tunes during the 2013 summer season . She co @-@ wrote the opening and the title track , " Wrapped in Red " , with Ashley Arrison , Aben Eubanks , and Shane McAnally . A Christmas ballad , the song was inspired by a scene in the holiday feature film Love Actually ( 2003 ) , in which someone confesses unrequited love towards another . Critics singled out the track the one that resonates the Wall of Sound the most . The second track , " Underneath the Tree " , was written by Clarkson and Kurstin , making it the first time they had co @-@ written a track together . Clarkson remarked , " Greg and I have worked a lot together , but usually I just come in and I just sing . We 've never have actually written a song together at this point . And he and I were like , ' Let 's just try to write something for the record . " RCA Records chief executive Peter Edge remarked that its release as a single was partly inspired by the success of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " by Carey . The following track is a rendition of the holiday standard " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , which Clarkson had selected for its saccharine content .
Clarkson favored " Run Run Rudolph " as her favorite classic , saying " Just because it got to be a little more rock and roll . " She also remarked that " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " , was the first song selected for inclusion after her mother 's recommendation and the song 's melancholic lyrics . Written by Clarkson and Eubanks , " Every Christmas " , was the first song to be written for the album . She revealed that the song narrates of her holiday life prior to meeting Blackstock , McEntire 's stepson , saying " Every Christmas , I was just like , ' This is going to be different , right ? I 'm going to actually find someone and not be pathetically alone for the rest of my life ? ' " . The seventh track is a cover of Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " . Its follow @-@ up , a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , features Ronnie Dunn . Clarkson had approached Dunn thinking that his personality suited the song 's content well , saying " Like , it 's straight @-@ up his personality to say all of that to try and get you to stay , and have a drink . " " Winter Dreams ( Brandon 's Song ) " was written by Clarkson , Arrison , and Eubanks as a companion piece to " Every Christmas " . Dedicated to Blackstock , the song accounts her holiday after meeting him . She remarked , " Christmas changes , it morphs , it comes to life a little more … It ’ s just a happier time . "
The tenth track , " White Christmas " , was the first song to be recorded for Wrapped in Red . A cover of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's " My Favorite Things " follows up as the eleventh track . Clarkson opted for the Broadway performance of the song to stray away from Julie Andrews 's version , citing " I think you shouldn 't go near anywhere of what she 's doing because she 's so good . " Clarkson and Kurstin co @-@ wrote " 4 Carats " with Cathy Dennis and Livvi Franc . Originally written a pop song , they converted it as a Christmas song to fit the album 's theme , describing it as a crossover between Eartha Kitt 's " Santa Baby " ( 1953 ) and Madonna 's " Material Girl " ( 1984 ) . A rendition of Imogen Heap 's " Just for Now " was described by Clarkson as her highly dysfunctional environment , saying " Can we just stop for like five minutes and have like a normal Christmas setting ? " The song begins by sampling the melody of the Christmas tune " Carol of the Bells " . The closing track , a rendition of the traditional carol " Silent Night " , features McEntire and Trisha Yearwood and ends in an a capella setting between the trio . In addition , two tracks were also included in the deluxe edition of the album : the first , Clarkson 's cover of " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " from iTunes Session ; and the second , her rendition of the first stanza of the ecclesiastical hymn " Oh Come , Oh Come Emmanuel " .
= = Release = =
Wrapped in Red was first released internationally on October 25 , 2013 by RCA Records through Sony Music Entertainment . It then received a North American release on October 29 , 2013 by RCA as part of its holiday promotional campaign with the soundtracks to the feature films Black Nativity and The Best Man Holiday , with Wrapped in Red being promulgated as the one that will transcend formats and become a new holiday classic . In an interview with Billboard , RCA marketing executive Aaron Borns remarked that the album was their main release of the holidays , quoting " The angle on this album is that , like all great Christmas records , it 's about amazing vocal performances . That 's what this is intended to be @-@ an album launched this year but timeless and genre @-@ defying . " In preparation for its release in the United States , RCA shipped a half @-@ million units on Amazon.com and Target , which exclusively released a deluxe edition . A red LP pressing of Wrapped in Red by United Record Pressing followed the CD release on November 25 , 2013 , marking the first time an album by Clarkson was released on a vinyl record . A deluxe LP and CD edition was also released on the Sony Music store which included a scarf , a holiday ornament , and a snow globe , all of which were decorated in red as inspired from the album . A international promotion campaign was also planned for Clarkson , but was later halted due her pregnancy . On October 21 , 2014 , Wrapped in Red was reissued by RCA with a special edition CD + DVD release exclusive to Walmart stores in the United States . A green LP pressing of the album will also have a limited 500 @-@ copy release on December 9 , 2014 .
= = = Promotion = = =
On October 15 , 2013 , " White Christmas " was released as a promotional single from Wrapped in Red . Three days after , " Underneath the Tree " premiered on Clarkson 's Vevo channel . A television Christmas special , titled Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , was filmed by concert director Hamish Hamilton on October 30 , 2013 , the eve after its street date , at The Venetian Las Vegas . A pastiche of A Christmas Carol , the Christmas special featured live performances of selections from Wrapped in Red ( one of which features McEntire and Yearwood ) . Produced by Done and Dusted , Cautionary Christmas Music Tale premiered on NBC in the United States and Global in Canada on December 11 , 2013 , being pegged by RCA as the album 's primary promotional medium . NBC 's premiere broadcast of the special was seen by 5 @.@ 31 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It also received a 1 @.@ 4 share among adults between the ages of 18 to 49 , generated NBC ’ s second biggest overall audience its time slot . NBC had also a rerun broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale on Christmas Day , which was seen by an additional 3 @.@ 54 million viewers .
Clarkson had also promoted Wrapped in Red in various televised performances , all of which she was dressed in red attire . She first performed " Underneath the Tree " on the The Today Show on November 26 , 2013 . On December 4 , 2013 , she performed " Run Run Rudolph " and " Blue Christmas " on the Christmas at Rockefeller Center television special . Clarkson had then performed " Underneath the Tree " on more televised events : such as on the fifth season of the The Voice on December 3 , 2013 , The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 5 , 2013 , and on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on December 12 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Clarkson returned to The Today Show on its Christmas Day broadcast , performing " Blue Christmas " . Selected tracks from the album were also used in advertisements , such as " Run Run Rudolph " , which was used in a Belk holiday advertisement , and " Underneath the Tree " , which was featured in an Amazon.com and Amazon Kindle Fire HDX advertisement with an appearance by Clarkson performing the song . On December 20 , 2014 , She will host a Christmas concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena . An annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , will feature live performances of various Christmas songs by McEntire , Yearwood , Garth Brooks , Ronnie Dunn , Kacey Musgraves , Hayley Williams , Charles Esten , and Meghan Trainor , some of whom will also join Clarkson in performing selections from Wrapped in Red .
Wrapped in Red 's lead single , " Underneath the Tree " , was released to radio airplay on November 5 , 2013 . Praised in its initial release , music critics approvingly compared the song to " All I Want for Christmas is You " and blazoned it as a future Christmas standard . Reviewing for Slant Magazine , Sal Cinquemani wrote that track is likely to become Clarkson 's very own contemporary standard ; while The Independent 's Hugh Montgomery applauded it as " a winner on all fronts . " After debuting on the Billboard Holiday 100 chart at number 34 , it became holiday top ten hit by peaking at number eight on the chart . It also topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart for four consecutive weeks , becoming Clarkson 's third track and the fifteenth holiday song to top the chart . " Underneath the Tree " also charted on the main Billboard Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ eight and became a top forty hit internationally : including the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , the Dutch Top 40 chart , and the Official UK Singles Chart . USA Today reported that " Underneath the Tree " was American radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 , while Edison Media Research reported that the single was the first holiday song to receive a considerable support on mainstream contemporary hit radio in almost 20 years . Wrapped in Red 's second single , the title track , was serviced to radio airplay on November 25 , 2014 . On the week ending December 28 , 2014 , it debuted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at number 11 on the week ending December 13 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 6 reviews , and scoring higher than any other album by Clarkson . AllMusic 's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave it a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . He described its uptempo arrangements , as well as Clarkson 's vocal performance , as " bold and brassy " and its mid @-@ tempo arrangements as " even more alluring " . He also noted the track selection " favors the bold , " but that " she fares well in this setting , always sounding like the strongest element in the mix " Towards the end of his review , he wrote that " Perhaps the concept and execution are conventional , but even in this utterly expected setting , Clarkson retains her fiery , individual spirit , and that 's what makes Wrapped in Red appealing : to the letter , it delivers what it promises . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave it a similar rating . He noted that the album " largely offers a respite from the pop @-@ rock template she 's been relentlessly pursuing since Breakaway , with less shouting and more of the varied range and texture on full display that helped coronate her the winner of the inaugural season of American Idol . For better or worse , a decade of recording and touring has roughed up the edges of her voice , lending a lived @-@ in quality that imbues lyrics about love and longing | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
flooding , and beach erosion . New York State and New England bore the brunt of the storm ; damage was extensive on Long Island , and in Connecticut , 130 @,@ 000 households lost electric power during the storm . Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts , where the storm generated 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves along the coast . Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm 's development , precipitation was limited to rain . Two people were killed , and damage amounted to at least $ 21 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
The storm originated in an upper @-@ level low pressure system that moved southeastward from the central Great Plains into the Deep South of the United States . After reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance underwent cyclogenesis , and the resultant system moved through Florida on December 22 in response to an approaching trough . National Hurricane Center forecaster Jack Beven noted that " as it moved out into the Bahamas , it appeared to take on the characteristics of a tropical storm . " The uncertain nature of the storm prevented the NHC from issuing advisories on it , and forecasters lacked sufficient data to fully assess the cyclone for potential tropical characteristics . The same trough that pushed the storm across Florida had moved to the north , allowing for high pressure to develop in the upper levels of the atmosphere .
Deemed a " hybrid storm " , the cyclone rapidly intensified in warm waters of up to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) from the Gulf Stream combined with a cold air mass over the United States . The system continued to rapidly intensify while moving within the Gulf Stream ; it developed central convection , an unusual trait for an extratropical cyclone , and at one point exhibited an eye . Despite these indications of tropical characteristics , " There was no front associated with it and it had a warm core , but the radius of maximum winds was more than 150 nautical miles ( 170 mi ; 280 km ) , so under the standard NHC criteria it didn 't qualify as a tropical storm . " On December 23 and 24 , the nor 'easter intensified to attain a barometric pressure of 970 mb ( 29 inHg ) . An upper @-@ level low pressure system that developed behind the storm began to intensify and grew to be larger in size than the original disturbance . In an interaction known as the Fujiwhara effect , the broad circulation of the secondary low swung the primary nor 'easter northwestward towards southern New York and New England . The original low passed along the south shore of Long Island , and made landfall near New York City on December 24 . Subsequently , it moved over southeastern New York State . On December 25 , the system began to rapidly weaken as it moved towards Nova Scotia , before the pair of low pressure systems moved out to sea in tandem in the early hours of December 26 .
= = Effects = =
= = = Southeast United States = = =
In South Carolina , flooding associated with the cyclone was considered to be the worst since 1943 . Over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while winds brought down trees and ripped awnings . In addition , the coast suffered the effects of beach erosion . Thousands of electric customers in the state lost power . As a result of the heavy rainfall , several dams became overwhelmed by rising waters . Extensive flooding of roads and highways was reported , many of which were closed as a result . Up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water flooded some homes in the region . Approximately 300 people in Florence County were forced to evacuate because of the flooding , and at least 200 homes were damaged . Two deaths were reported in the state . One woman was killed when her vehicle hydroplaned and struck a tree , and another person drowned after her car was struck by another vehicle . Total damage in South Carolina amounted to at least $ 4 million .
Strong winds occurred along the North Carolina coast . Diamond Shoals reported sustained winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , and offshore , winds gusted to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . On Wrightsville Beach , rough surf eroded an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ledge into the beach . On Carolina Beach , dunes were breached and some roads , including portions of North Carolina Highway 12 , were closed .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
As the primary storm entered New England , the secondary low produced minor coastal flooding in the Tidewater region of Virginia on December 23 . Winds of 35 to 45 miles per hour ( 56 to 72 km / h ) and tides to 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal were reported . In Sandbridge , Virginia Beach , Virginia , a beachfront home collapsed into the sea . Several roads throughout the region suffered minor flooding . Strong winds resulting from the tight pressure gradient between the nor 'easter and an area of high pressure located over the United States brought down a few utility poles , which sparked a brush fire on December 24 . The fire , quickly spread by the wind , burned a field . The winds brought down several trees .
Damage was light in Maryland . Some sand dunes and wooden structures were damaged , and above @-@ normal tides occurred . In New Jersey , high winds caused power outages and knocked down trees and power lines . Minor coastal flooding of streets and houses was reported . Otherwise , damage in the state was minor .
The storm brought heavy rainfall and high winds to New York State and New York City on December 23 and 24 . Gusts of 60 to 80 miles per hour ( 97 to 129 km / h ) downed hundreds of trees and many power lines on Long Island . Several homes , in addition to many cars , sustained damage . Roughly 112 @,@ 000 Long Island Lighting Company customers experienced power outages at some point during the storm . As the cyclone progressed northward into New York State , high winds occurred in the Hudson Valley region . Throughout Columbia , Ulster and Rensselaer Counties , trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed by the winds . At Stephentown , a gust of 58 miles per hour ( 93 km / h ) was reported . Ulster County suffered substantial impacts , with large trees being uprooted and striking homes . Across eastern New York State , 25 @,@ 000 households lost power as a result of the nor 'easter . On the North Fork of Long Island , in Southold , a seaside home partially collapsed into the water .
= = = New England = = =
In Connecticut , the storm was described as being more significant than anticipated . Gale @-@ force wind gusts , reaching 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) , blew across the state from the northeast and later from the east . Trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed , causing damage to property and vehicles . The high winds caused widespread power outages , affecting up to 130 @,@ 000 electric customers . As a result , electric companies sought help from as far as Pennsylvania and Maine to restore electricity . Bruno Ranniello , a spokesman for Northeast Utilities , reported that " We 've had outages in virtually every community . " In New Haven , the nor 'easter ripped three barges from their moorings . One of the barges traveled across the Long Island Sound and ran aground near Port Jefferson , New York . A man in Milford was killed indirectly when a tree that was partially downed by the storm fell on him during an attempt to remove it from a relative 's yard . Northeast Utilities , which reported the majority of the power outages , estimated storm damage in the state to be about $ 6 – $ 8 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 8 @.@ 8 – $ 11 @.@ 8 million 2008 USD ) .
Effects were less severe in New Hampshire and Vermont . In southern New Hampshire , a line of thunderstorms produced torrential rainfall , causing flooding on parts of New Hampshire Route 13 . Flash flooding of several tributaries feeding into the Piscataquog River was reported . In Maine , the storm brought high winds and heavy rain . Along the coast of southern Maine and New Hampshire , beach erosion was reported . Additionally , minor flooding was reported across the region , as a result of heavy surface runoff and small ice jams . In Rhode Island , the power outages were the worst since Hurricane Bob of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . Throughout the state , approximately 40 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power . As with Massachusetts , downed trees and property damage were widespread . There were many reports of roof shingles being blown off roofs and of damage to gutters . In Warwick , several small boats were damaged after being knocked into other boats . The highest reported wind gust in the state was 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Ashaway , Rhode Island . Statewide damage totaled about $ 5 million .
Massachusetts , particularly Cape Cod and Nantucket , bore the brunt of the nor 'easter . Reportedly , wind gusts approached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) on Cape Cod and , offshore , waves reached 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . At Walpole , wind gusts peaked at 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) , while on Nantucket gusts of 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) were reported . The winds left 30 @,@ 000 electric customers without power during the storm , primarily in the eastern part of the state . Power was out for some as long as 48 hours . Property damage was widespread and many trees , signs , and billboards were blown down . A large tent used by the New England Patriots was ripped and blown off its foundation . The winds also spread a deadly house fire in North Attleboro . Although not directly related to the storm , it caused seven fatalities . Because tides were low , little coastal flooding occurred . Outside the Prudential Tower Center in Boston , the storm toppled a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Christmas tree . Rainfall of 2 to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 to 89 mm ) was recorded throughout the eastern part of the state , contributing to heavy runoff that washed away a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) section of a highway . Total damage in Massachusetts was estimated at about $ 5 million .
= Sholay =
Sholay ( pronunciation , meaning " Embers " ) is a 1975 Indian Hindi @-@ language action @-@ adventure film directed by Ramesh Sippy and produced by his father G. P. Sippy . The film follows two criminals , Veeru and Jai ( played by Dharmendra and Amitabh Bachchan ) , hired by a retired police officer ( Sanjeev Kumar ) to capture the ruthless dacoit Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) . Hema Malini and Jaya Bhaduri also star , as Veeru and Jai 's love interests . Sholay is considered a classic and one of the best Indian films . It was ranked first in the British Film Institute 's 2002 poll of " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time . In 2005 , the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare Awards named it the Best Film of 50 Years .
The film was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , in the southern state of Karnataka , over a span of two and a half years . After the Central Board of Film Certification mandated the removal of several violent scenes , Sholay was released with a length of 198 minutes . In 1990 , the original director 's cut of 204 minutes became available on home media . When first released , Sholay received negative critical reviews and a tepid commercial response , but favourable word @-@ of @-@ mouth publicity helped it to become a box office success . It broke records for continuous showings in many theatres across India , and ran for more than five years at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre . By some accounts , Sholay is the highest grossing Indian film of all time , adjusted for inflation .
The film drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , and is a defining example of the masala film , which mixes several genres in one work . Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . The combined sales of the original soundtrack , scored by R. D. Burman , and the dialogues ( released separately ) , set new sales records . The film 's dialogues and certain characters became extremely popular , contributing to numerous cultural memes and becoming part of India 's daily vernacular . In January 2014 , Sholay was re @-@ released to theatres in the 3D format .
= = Plot = =
In the small village of Ramgarh , the retired policeman Thakur Baldev Singh ( Sanjeev Kumar ) summons a pair of small @-@ time thieves that he had once arrested . Thakur feels that the duo — Veeru ( Dharmendra ) and Jai ( Amitabh Bachchan ) — would be ideal to help him capture Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) , a dacoit wanted by the authorities for a ₹ 50 @,@ 000 reward . Thakur tells them to surrender Gabbar to him , alive , for an additional ₹ 20 @,@ 000 reward .
The two thieves thwart the dacoits sent by Gabbar to extort the villagers . Soon afterwards , Gabbar and his goons attack Ramgarh during the festival of Holi . In a tough battle , Veeru and Jai are cornered . Thakur , although he has a gun within his reach , does not help them . Veeru and Jai fight back and the bandits flee . The two are , however , upset at Thakur 's inaction , and consider leaving the village . Thakur explains that Gabbar had killed nearly all of his family members , and cut off both his arms a few years earlier , which is why he could not use the gun . He had concealed the dismemberment by always wearing a shawl .
Living in Ramgarh , the jovial Veeru and cynical Jai find themselves growing fond of the villagers . Veeru is attracted to Basanti ( Hema Malini ) , a feisty , talkative young woman who makes her living by driving a horse @-@ cart . Jai is drawn to Radha ( Jaya Bhaduri ) , Thakur 's reclusive , widowed daughter @-@ in @-@ law , who subtly returns his affections .
Skirmishes between Gabbar 's gang and Jai @-@ Veeru finally result in the capture of Veeru and Basanti by the dacoits . Jai attacks the gang , and the three are able to flee Gabbar 's hideout with dacoits in pursuit . Fighting from behind a rock , Jai and Veeru nearly run out of ammunition . Veeru , unaware that Jai was wounded in the gunfight , is forced to leave for more ammunition . Meanwhile , Jai , who is continuing the gunfight singlehandedly , decides to sacrifice himself by using his last bullet to ignite dynamite sticks on a bridge from close range .
Veeru returns , and Jai dies in his arms . Enraged , Veeru attacks Gabbar 's den and catches the dacoit . Veeru nearly beats Gabbar to death when Thakur appears and reminds Veeru of the promise to hand over Gabbar alive . Thakur uses his spike @-@ soled shoes to severely injure Gabbar and destroy his hands . The police then arrive and arrest Gabbar . After Jai 's funeral , Veeru leaves Ramgarh and finds Basanti waiting for him on the train . Radha is left alone again .
= = Cast = =
Dharmendra as Veeru
Sanjeev Kumar as Thakur Baldev Singh , usually addressed as " Thakur "
Hema Malini as Basanti
Amitabh Bachchan as Jai ( Jaidev )
Jaya Bhaduri as Radha , Thakur 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law
Amjad Khan as Gabbar Singh
Satyen Kappu as Ramlaal , Thakur 's servant
A. K. Hangal as Rahim Chacha , the imam in the village
Sachin as Ahmed , son of the imam
Jagdeep as Soorma Bhopali , a comical wood trader
Leela Mishra as Mausi , Basanti 's maternal aunt
Asrani as the Jailor , a comical character modelled after Charlie Chaplin in The Great Dictator ( 1940 )
Keshto Mukherjee as Hariram , prison barber and Jailor 's side @-@ kick
Mac Mohan as Sambha , Gabbar Singh 's sidekick
Viju Khote as Kaalia , another of Gabbar 's men whom he kills in a game of Russian roulette
Iftekhar as Inspector Khurana , Radha 's Father
Helen in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba "
Jalal Agha in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for Sholay began as a four @-@ line snippet which screenwriter pair Salim @-@ Javed told G. P. Sippy and Ramesh Sippy ; two other producer / director teams had earlier rejected the idea . Ramesh Sippy liked the concept and hired them to develop it . The original idea of the film involved an army officer who decided to hire two ex @-@ soldiers to avenge the murder of his family . The army officer was later changed to a policeman because Sippy felt that it would be difficult to get permission to shoot scenes depicting army activities . Salim @-@ Javed completed the script in one month , incorporating names and personality traits of their friends and acquaintances .
The film was loosely styled after Akira Kurosawa 's 1954 film Seven Samurai , and drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , especially Sergio Leone 's Spaghetti Westerns such as Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , and John Sturges ' film The Magnificent Seven ( 1960 ) . Sholay was also influenced by the westerns of Sam Peckinpah , such as The Wild Bunch ( 1969 ) and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid ( 1973 ) ; and by George Roy Hill 's Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ( 1969 ) . A scene depicting an attempted train robbery was inspired by a similar scene in North West Frontier ( 1959 ) , and a scene showing the massacre of Thakur 's family has been compared with the massacre of the McBain family in Once Upon a Time in the West . Some plot elements were borrowed from the Indian films Mera Gaon Mera Desh ( 1971 ) and Khote Sikkay ( 1973 ) .
The character Gabbar Singh was modelled on a real @-@ life dacoit of the same name who had menaced the villages around Gwalior in the 1950s . Any policeman captured by the real Gabbar Singh had his ears and nose cut off , and was released as a warning to other policemen . The character was also influenced by the villain " El Indio " ( played by Gian Maria Volontè ) of Sergio Leone 's For a Few Dollars More ( 1965 ) . Soorma Bhopali , a minor comic relief character , was based on an acquaintance of actor Jagdeep , a forest officer from Bhopal named Soorma . The real @-@ life Soorma eventually threatened to press charges when people who had viewed the film began referring to him as a woodcutter . The main characters ' names , Jai and Veeru , mean " victory " and " heroism " in Hindi .
= = = Casting = = =
The producers considered Danny Denzongpa for the role of bandit chief Gabbar Singh , but he could not accept it as he was committed to act in Feroz Khan 's Dharmatma ( 1975 ) , under production at the same time . Amjad Khan , who was the second choice , prepared himself for the part by reading the book Abhishapta Chambal , which told of the exploits of Chambal dacoits . The book was written by Taroon Kumar Bhaduri , the father of fellow cast member Jaya Bhaduri . As cast members had read the script ahead of time , many were interested in playing different parts . Pran was considered for the role of Thakur Baldev Singh , but Sippy thought Sanjeev Kumar was a better choice . Initially , Dharmendra was also interested to play the role of Thakur . He eventually gave up the role when Sippy informed him that Sanjeev Kumar would play Veeru if that happened , and would be paired with Hema Malini , who Dharmendra was trying to woo . Dharmendra knew that Kumar was also interested in Malini . Sippy wanted Shatrughan Sinha to play the part of Jai , but there were already several big stars signed , and Amitabh Bachchan , who was not extremely popular yet , lobbied hard to get the part for himself .
During the film 's production , four of the leads became romantically involved . Bachchan married Bhaduri four months before filming started . This led to shooting delays when Bhaduri became pregnant with their daughter Shweta . By the time of the film 's release , she was pregnant with their son Abhishek . Dharmendra had begun wooing Malini during their earlier film Seeta Aur Geeta ( 1972 ) , and used the location shoot of Sholay to further pursue her . During their romantic scenes , Dharmendra would often pay the light boys to spoil the shot , thereby ensuring many retakes and allowing him to spend more time with her . The couple married five years after the film 's release .
= = = Filming = = =
Much of Sholay was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , a town near Bangalore , Karnataka . The filmmakers had to build a road from the Bangalore highway to Ramanagara for convenient access to the sets . Art director Ram Yedekar had an entire township built on the site . A prison set was constructed near Rajkamal Studio in Mumbai , also outdoors , to match the natural lighting of the on @-@ location sets . One part of Ramanagara was for a time called " Sippy Nagar " as a tribute to the director of the film . As of 2010 , a visit to the " Sholay rocks " ( where much the film was shot ) was still being offered to tourists travelling through Ramanagara .
Filming began on location on 3 October 1973 , with a scene featuring Bachchan and Bhaduri . The film had a lavish production for its time ( with frequent banquets and parties for the cast ) , took two and a half years to make , and went over budget . One reason for its high cost was that Sippy re @-@ filmed scenes many times to get his desired effect . " Yeh Dosti " , a 5 @-@ minute song sequence , took 21 days to shoot , two short scenes in which Radha lights lamps took 20 days to film because of lighting problems , and the shooting of the scene in which Gabbar kills the imam 's son lasted 19 days . The train robbery sequence , shot on the Mumbai – Pune railway route near Panvel , took more than 7 weeks to complete .
Sholay was the first Indian film to have a stereophonic soundtrack and to use the 70 mm widescreen format . However , since actual 70 mm cameras were expensive at the time , the film was shot on traditional 35 mm film and the 4 : 3 picture was subsequently converted to a 2 @.@ 2 : 1 frame . Regarding the process , Sippy said , " A 70mm [ sic ] format takes the awe of the big screen and magnifies it even more to make the picture even bigger , but since I also wanted a spread of sound we used six @-@ track stereophonic sound and combined it with the big screen . It was definitely a differentiator . " The use of 70 mm was emphasised by film posters on which the name of the film was stylised to match the CinemaScope logo . Film posters also sought to differentiate the film from those which had come before ; one of them added the tagline : " The greatest star cast ever assembled – the greatest story ever told " .
= = = Alternate version = = =
The director 's original cut of Sholay has a different ending in which Thakur kills Gabbar , along with some additional violent scenes . Gabbar 's death scene , and the scene in which the imam 's son is killed , were cut from the film by India 's Censor Board , as was the scene in which Thakur 's family is massacred . The Censor Board was concerned about the violence , and that viewers may be influenced to violate the law by punishing people severely . Although Sippy fought to keep the scenes , eventually he had to re @-@ shoot the ending of the film , and as directed by the Censor Board , have the police arrive just before Thakur can kill Gabbar . The censored theatrical version was the only one seen by audiences for fifteen years . The original , unedited cut of the film finally came out in a British release on VHS in 1990 . Since then , Eros International has released two versions on DVD . The director 's cut of the film preserves the original full frame and is 204 minutes in length ; the censored widescreen version is 198 minutes long .
= = Themes = =
Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory .
Koushik Banerjea , a sociologist in the London School of Economics , notes that Sholay exhibits a " sympathetic construction of ' rogue ' masculinity " exemplified by the likeable outlaws Jai and Veeru . Banerjea argues during the film , the moral boundary between legality and criminality gradually erodes . Film scholar Wimal Dissanayake agrees that the film brought " a new stage in the evolving dialectic between violence and social order " to Indian cinema . Film scholar M. Madhava Prasad states that Jai and Veeru represent a marginalised population that is introduced into conventional society . Prasad says that , through the elements of revenge included in the plot and the application of Jai and Veeru 's criminality for the greater good , the narrative reflects reactionary politics , and the audience is compelled to accept feudal order . Banerjea explains that though Jai and Veeru are mercenaries , they are humanised by their emotional needs . Such dualism makes them vulnerable , in contrast to the pure evil of Gabbar Singh .
Gabbar Singh , the film 's antagonist , was well received by the audience , despite his pervasive sadistic cruelty . Dissanayake explains that the audience was fascinated by the dialogues and mannerisms of the character , and this element of spectacle outweighed his actions , a first for Indian melodrama . He notes that the picturisation of violence in the film was glamourised and uninhibited . He further notes that , unlike earlier melodramas in which the female body occupies the audience 's attention as an object of male fetish , in Sholay , the male body becomes the centrepiece . It becomes the battleground where good and evil compete for supremacy . Dissanayake argues that Sholay can be viewed as a national allegory : it lacks a comforting logical narrative , it shows social stability being repeatedly challenged , and it shows the devaluation of human life resulting from a lack of emotions . Taken together , these elements comprise the allegorical representation of India . The narrative style of Sholay , with its violence , revenge , and vigilante action , is occasionally compared by scholars to the political unrest in India at the time of its release . This tension culminated in the Emergency ( rule by decree ) declared by prime minister Indira Gandhi in 1975 .
Dissanayeke and Sahai note that , although the film borrowed heavily from the Hollywood Western genre , particularly in its visuals , it was successfully " Indianised " . As an example , William van der Heide has compared a massacre scene in Sholay with a similar scene in Once Upon a Time in the West . Although both films were similar in technical style , Sholay emphasised Indian family values and melodramatic tradition , while the Western was more materialistic and restrained in its approach . Maithili Rao , in Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema , notes that Sholay infuses the style of the Western genre into a " feudalistic ethos " . Ted Shen of the Chicago Reader notes Sholay 's " hysterical visual style " and intermittent " populist message " . Cultural critic and Islamist scholar Ziauddin Sardar lampoons the film in his book The Secret Politics of Our Desires : Innocence , Culpability and Indian Popular Cinema , both for its caricature and stereotyping of Muslim and women characters , and for what he calls mockery of innocent villagers . Sardar notes that the two most prominent Muslim characters in the film are Soorma Bhopali ( a buffoonish criminal ) , and an impotent victim of the bandits ( the imam ) . Meanwhile , the sole function of one female character ( Radha ) is to suffer her fate in silence , while the other female lead ( Basanti ) is just a garrulous village belle .
Some scholars have indicated that Sholay contains homosocial themes . Ted Shen describes the male bonding shown in the film as bordering on camp style . Dina Holtzman , in her book Bollywood and Globalization : Indian Popular Cinema , Nation , and Diaspora , states that the death of Jai , and resultant break of bonding between the two male leads , is necessary for the sake of establishing a normative heterosexual relationship ( that of Veeru and Basanti ) .
= = Music = =
R. D. Burman composed the film 's music , and the lyrics were written by Anand Bakshi . The songs used in the film , and released on the original soundtrack are listed below . Following that is a list of unused tracks and dialogues which were released later on an updated soundtrack . The album 's cover image depicts an emotional scene from the film in which Basanti is forced to sing and dance on the song " Haa Jab Tak Hai Jaan " on broken glass under the blazing sun to save Veeru 's life .
The song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " was sung by its composer , R. D. Burman , who received his sole Filmfare Award nomination for playback singing for his effort . The song , which is often featured on Bollywood hit song compilations , samples " Say You Love Me " by Greek singer Demis Roussos . " Mehbooba Mehbooba " has been extensively anthologised , remixed , and recreated . A version was created in 2005 by the Kronos Quartet for their Grammy @-@ nominated album You 've Stolen My Heart , featuring Asha Bhosle . It was also remixed and sung by Himesh Reshammiya , along with Bhosle , in his debut acting film Aap Kaa Surroor ( 2007 ) . " Yeh Dosti " has been called the ultimate friendship anthem . It was remixed and sung by Shankar Mahadevan and Udit Narayan for the 2010 Malayalam film Four Friends , and also in 2010 it was used to symbolise India 's friendship with the United States during a visit from President Barack Obama .
Several songs from the soundtrack were included in the annual Binaca Geetmala list of top filmi songs . " Mehbooba Mehooba " was listed at No. 24 on the 1975 list , and at No. 6 on the 1976 list . " Koi Haseena " was listed at No. 30 in 1975 , and No. 20 in 1976 . " Yeh Dosti " was listed at No. 9 in 1976 . Despite the soundtrack 's success , at the time , the songs from Sholay attracted less attention than the film 's dialogue — a rarity for Bollywood . The producers were thus prompted to release records with only dialogue . Taken together , the album sales totalled an unprecedented 500 @,@ 000 units , and became one of the top selling Bollywood soundtracks of the 1970s .
Music critic Oli Marlow reviewed the soundtrack in 2013 , calling it a unique fusion of religious , folk , and classical music , with influences from around the world . He also commented on the sound design of the film , calling it psychedelic , and saying that there was " a lot of incredible incidental music " in the film that was not included in the soundtrack releases . In a 1999 paper submitted to London 's Symposium on Sound in Cinema , film critic Shoma A. Chatterji said , " Sholay offers a model lesson on how sound can be used to signify the terror a character evokes . Sholay is also exemplary in its use of soundmatching to jump cut to a different scene and time , without breaking the continuity of the narrative , yet , intensifying the drama . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Sholay was released on 15 August 1975 , Indian Independence Day , in Mumbai . Due to lacklustre reviews and a lack of effective visual marketing tools , it saw poor financial returns in its first two weeks . From the third week , however , viewership picked up owing to positive word of mouth . During the initial slow period , the director and writer considered re @-@ shooting some scenes so that Amitabh Bachchan 's character would not die . When business picked up , they abandoned this idea . After being helped additionally by a soundtrack release containing dialogue snippets , Sholay soon became an " overnight sensation " . The film was then released in other distribution zones such as Delhi , Uttar Pradesh , Bengal , and Hyderabad on 11 October 1975 . It became the highest grossing Bollywood film of 1975 , and film ranking website Box Office India has given the film a verdict of " All Time Blockbuster " .
Sholay went on to earn a still @-@ standing record of 60 golden jubilees across India , and was the first film in India to celebrate a silver jubilee at over 100 theatres . It was shown continuously at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre for over five years . Sholay was the Indian film with the longest theatrical run until Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( 1995 ) broke its record of 286 weeks in 2001 .
Exact figures are not available on the budget and box office earnings of Sholay , but film trade websites provide estimates of its success . According to Box Office India , Sholay earned about ₹ 150 million nett gross ( valued at about US $ 16 @,@ 778 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) in India during its first run , which was many times its ₹ 30 million ( valued at about US $ 3 @,@ 355 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) budget . Those earnings were a record that remained unbroken for nineteen years , which is also the longest amount of time that a film has held the record . Its original gross was increased further with re @-@ releases during the late 1970s , 1980s , 1990s , and early 2000s . It is often cited that after adjusting the figures for inflation , Sholay is one of the highest grossing films in the history of Indian cinema , although such figures are not known with certainty . In 2012 , Box Office India gave ₹ 1 @.@ 63 billion ( US $ 24 million ) as Sholay 's adjusted net gross , whereas Times of India , in a 2009 report of business of Indian films , reported over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) as the adjusted gross .
= = = Critical response = = =
Initial critical reviews of Sholay were negative . Among contemporary critics , K.L. Amladi of India Today called the film a " dead ember " and " a gravely flawed attempt " . Filmfare said that the film was an unsuccessful mincing of Western style with Indian milieu , making it an " imitation western — neither here nor there . " Others labelled it as " sound and fury signifying nothing " and a " second @-@ rate take @-@ off " of the 1971 film Mera Gaon Mera Desh . Trade journals and columnists initially called the film a flop . In a 1976 article in the journal Studies : An Irish Quarterly Review , author Michael Gallagher praised the technical achievement of the film , but otherwise criticised it stating , " As a spectacle it breaks new ground , but on every other level it is intolerable : formless , incoherent , superficial in human image , and a somewhat nasty piece of violence " .
Over time , the critical reception to Sholay greatly improved ; it is now considered a classic , and among the greatest Hindi @-@ language films . In a 2005 BBC review , the well @-@ rounded characters and simple narrative of the film were commended , but the comical cameos of Asrani and Jagdeep were considered unnecessary . On the film 's 35th anniversary , the Hindustan Times wrote that it was a " trailblazer in terms of camera work as well as music , " and that " practically every scene , dialogue or even a small character was a highlight . " In 2006 , The Film Society of Lincoln Center described Sholay as " an extraordinary and utterly seamless blend of adventure , comedy , music and dance " , labelling it an " indisputable classic " . Chicago Review critic Ted Shen criticised the film in 2002 for its formulaic plot and " slapdash " cinematography , and noted that the film " alternates between slapstick and melodrama " . In their obituary of the producer G.P. Sippy , the New York Times said that Sholay " revolutionized Hindi filmmaking and brought true professionalism to Indian script writing " .
= = = Awards = = =
Sholay was nominated for nine Filmfare Awards , but the only winner was M. S. Shinde , who won the award for Best Editing . The film also won three awards at the 1976 Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards ( Hindi section ) : " Best Actor in Supporting Role " for Amjad Khan , " Best Cinematographer ( Colour ) " for Dwarka Divecha , and " Best Art Director " for Ram Yedekar . Sholay received a special award at the 50th Filmfare Awards in 2005 : Best Film of 50 Years .
= = Legacy = =
Sholay has received many " Best Film " honours . It was declared the " Film of the Millennium " by BBC India in 1999 . It topped the British Film Institute 's " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time poll of 2002 , and was voted the greatest Indian movie in a Sky Digital poll of one million British Indians in 2004 . It was also included in Time Magazine 's " Best of Bollywood " list in 2010 , and in CNN @-@ IBN 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in 2013 .
Sholay inspired many films and pastiches , and spawned a subgenre of films , the " Curry Western " , which is a play on the term Spaghetti Western . It was an early and most definitive masala film , and a trend @-@ setter for " multi @-@ star " films . The film was a watershed for Bollywood 's scriptwriters , who were not paid well before Sholay ; after the film 's success , script writing became a more respected profession .
Certain scenes and dialogues from the film earned iconic status in India , such as " Kitne aadmi the " ( How many men were there ? ) , " Jo dar gaya , samjho mar gaya " ( One who is scared is dead ) , and " Bahut yaarana laagta hai " ( Looks like you two are very close ) – all dialogues of Gabbar Singh . These and other popular dialogues entered the people 's daily vernacular . Characters and dialogues from the film continue to be referred to and parodied in popular culture . Gabbar Singh , the sadistic villain , ushered in an era in Hindi films characterised by " seemingly omnipotent oppressors as villains " , who play the pivotal role in setting up the context of the story , such as Shakal ( played by Kulbhushan Kharbanda ) of Shaan ( 1980 ) , Mogambo ( Amrish Puri ) of Mr. India ( 1987 ) and Bhujang ( Amrish Puri ) of Tridev ( 1989 ) . Filmfare , in 2013 , named Gabbar Singh the most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema , and four actors were included in its 2010 list of " 80 Iconic Performances " for their work in this film .
The film is often credited with making Amitabh Bachchan a " superstar " , two years after he became a star with Zanjeer ( 1973 ) . Some of the supporting actors remained etched in public memory as the characters they played in Sholay ; for example , Mac Mohan continued to be referred to as " Sambha " , even though his character had just one line . Major and minor characters continue to be used in commercials , promos , films and sitcoms . Amjad Khan acted in many villainous roles later in his career . He also played Gabbar Singh again in the 1991 spoof Ramgarh Ke Sholay , and reprised the role in commercials . The British Film Institute in 2002 wrote that fear of Gabbar Singh " is still invoked by mothers to put their children to sleep " . The 2012 film Gabbar Singh , named after the character , became the highest grossing Telugu film up to that point . Comedian Jagdeep , who played Soorma Bhopali in the film , attempted to use his Sholay success to create a spinoff . He directed and played the lead role in the 1988 film Soorma Bhopali , in which Dharmendra and Bachchan had cameos .
In 2004 , Sholay was digitally remastered and shown again to packed theatres in India , including Mumbai 's Minerva , where it had run successfully 29 years earlier . An attempt to remake Sholay , Ram Gopal Varma 's film Aag ( 2007 ) , starring Amitabh Bachchan as the villain , was a commercial and critical disaster . Because of television and home media , Sholay is widely available and still popular . Twenty years after its release , Sholay was first shown on the Indian DD National television channel , where it drew the highest ratings ever for a film broadcast . Video game producer Mobile2win released the " Sholay Ramgarh Express " game for mobile phones in 2004 , along with other Sholay themed content such as wallpapers , video clips , and ringtones .
Sholay has been the subject of two books and many articles . Wimal Dissanayake and Malti Sahai 's Sholay , A Cultural Reading ( 1992 ) attempts a comprehensive scholarly study that sets the film within the broader history of popular cinema in India . Anupama Chopra 's Sholay : The Making of a Classic ( 2000 ) provides an inside look at the film 's production based on interviews with the director , stars , and crew members .
Sholay has been labelled by Chopra as the gold standard in Indian cinema , and a reference point for audiences and trade analysts . Over the years , the film has reached a mythic stature in popular culture , and has been called the greatest Hindi film of all time . It belongs to only a small collection of films , including Kismet ( 1943 ) , Mother India ( 1957 ) , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) and Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) , which are repeatedly watched throughout India , and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance . The lasting effect of Sholay on Indian cinema was summarised by Anupama Chopra , when in 2004 she called it " no longer just a film , [ but ] an event " . In the 2000 book Sholay : The Making of a Classic , the noted director Shekhar Kapur stated " there has never been a more defining film on the Indian screen . Indian film history can be divided into Sholay BC and Sholay AD " . The film was jointly released in Pakistan by Geo films and Mandviwalla Entertainment on 17 April 2015 , almost 40 years after its theatrical release . The film 's premiere in the country was held in Karachi .
= = 3D re @-@ release = =
Filmmaker Ketan Mehta 's company Maya Digital was responsible for converting Sholay into the 3D format . Mehta was approached by G. P. Sippy 's grandson , Sasha Sippy , about the project in 2010 . In March 2012 , Shaan Uttam Singh , the grandson of producer G. P. Sippy , said that he would sponsor a conversion of the film to 3D , and release it in late 2012 ; this was later postponed to late 2013 , and eventually finalised for 3 January 2014 . It took ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) to convert Sholay to 3D .
Under the leadership of computer animator Frank Foster , 350 people worked to convert the film into the digital 3D format , for which every scene had to be individually restored , colour @-@ corrected and re @-@ composited in 3D to match the depth . New set @-@ pieces , particularly those suited to the new format were also included , such as digital logs which scatter in the direction of the camera during the first half of the film when the train collides with them , the gunshot scene which frees Jai and Veeru from their handcuffs , and panoramic views of Gabbar 's hideout in the caves .
The theatrical trailer and release date were unveiled by the original script @-@ writers Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar . The two original leads , Bachchan and Dharmendra , were also involved in promoting the re @-@ release . The film was released in 1 @,@ 000 screens in India , and additional screens overseas . It earned approximately ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) during its re @-@ release , not enough to recover its conversion cost .
= Adam Stansfield =
Adam Stansfield ( 10 September 1978 – 10 August 2010 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He competed professionally for Yeovil Town , Hereford United and Exeter City , and won promotion from the Football Conference to The Football League with all three teams .
Having played for three counties as a child , Stansfield began his career in non @-@ league with Cullompton Rangers and Elmore , and had unsuccessful trials at league teams . At the age of 23 , he signed his first professional contract with Yeovil Town , after impressing their manager Gary Johnson in a match against them . In his first season , he helped them win the FA Trophy , scoring in the 2002 final . The following season , Yeovil won the Conference and promotion into The Football League , although Stansfield was ruled out with a broken leg in the first game . In 2004 , he transferred to Hereford United , where he won promotion to The Football League via the 2006 play @-@ offs , and repeated the feat with Exeter City a year later . He also helped Exeter earn promotion into League One in 2008 . At international level , Stansfield played five matches and scored one goal for England 's national semi @-@ professional team , winning the 2005 Four Nations Tournament .
Stansfield was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in April 2010 . He returned to training after surgery and chemotherapy , but died on 10 August that year . A foundation in his name was posthumously set up by his family to provide sporting opportunities and raise awareness of colorectal cancer . He has posthumously been featured on a Flybe airliner livery and tourist currency in Exeter .
= = Early and personal life = =
Stansfield was born in Plymouth , Devon , as the third of four children , and supported Nottingham Forest . On 2 June 2001 he married Marie , with whom he had three sons . Devon journalist Gary Andrews remembered Stansfield as a man who would spend time with his family after matches while speaking to fans and the press . He wrote that " I had the pleasure of interviewing Adam on a regular basis ... I say pleasure , because his answers were thoughtful and intelligent and he came across as a man who was delighted to be back home with his friends and family " .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Stansfield 's first club was Evesham Colts under @-@ 10s . He played at county level for Worcestershire , Leicestershire and Devon . When his family settled back in Devon he joined Twyford Spartans , scoring 84 goals in 54 matches . He played in Tiverton Town 's youth team as a left back before reverting to being a striker at his first senior club , non @-@ League side Cullompton Rangers . He later moved to Elmore , where he attracted trials from Exeter City , Wolverhampton Wanderers and Torquay United , all of which were unsuccessful . His siblings joined the Royal Air Force and he thought of joining them , but continued searching for a breakthrough in professional football .
= = = Yeovil Town = = =
In October 2001 , Stansfield 's performances for Elmore impressed Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson to sign him . He made his debut in the Conference on 9 November , playing the entirety of a 3 – 0 loss away to Southport . His first goal came on 1 December , concluding a 3 – 1 victory at Northwich Victoria . His first season at Huish Park was a success , finishing as the top scorer with 16 goals , 8 of which came in the club 's victorious FA Trophy run . He scored twice in a fourth round replay at Doncaster Rovers , as Yeovil came from 0 – 3 down for an eventual 5 – 4 victory . In the final on 12 May he scored the second goal of a 2 – 0 win over Stevenage Borough at the Millennium Stadium .
On the first day of the following season , Stansfield was substituted through injury after 16 minutes of an eventual 2 – 2 home draw with Gravesend & Northfleet to be replaced by Abdoulai Demba . It was later confirmed to be a break of the tibia and fibula . He missed the remainder of the season , in which Yeovil won the Conference to be promoted to The Football League for the first time .
He recovered to feature in the next campaign , making his league debut on 16 August 2003 . In that match , Yeovil 's first in The Football League , he came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Kirk Jackson in a 3 – 0 win against Carlisle United . His first of six goals in the Third Division season came on 6 September , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . He was given a rare start in that match as first @-@ choice forward Kevin Gall was away with Wales under @-@ 21 .
= = = Hereford United = = =
On 14 June 2004 , Stansfield returned to the Conference with Hereford United , signed by Graham Turner to replace their previous season 's top scorer Steve Guinan , who had been sold to Cheltenham Town . He scored 20 goals across the season , including two on 25 March 2005 in a 6 – 0 win at Farnborough Town . In that match , he came on in the 77th minute for Daniel Carey @-@ Bertram , who had also scored two . Hereford reached the promotion play @-@ offs , where they lost in the semi @-@ finals to Stevenage . In the following season they won promotion by the play @-@ offs , with Stansfield starting in the final on 20 May 2006 at the Walkers Stadium in Leicester , a 3 – 2 extra @-@ time victory over Halifax Town .
= = = Exeter City = = =
On 12 June 2006 , with his contract expired , Stansfield decided to remain in the Conference , joining Exeter City . He told local radio that his aim was not to achieve promotion or reach a certain tally of goals , but to influence the club 's younger players .
He scored nine times in 40 league games in his first season , including two in a 2 – 1 home win over relegated Southport on 28 April 2007 in order to seal a play @-@ off place . Eleven days later , in the second leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final away to Oxford United , he scored a goal which took the match to extra time and eventually a penalty shootout which his side won . In the final on 20 May at Wembley Stadium , he came on as a 36th @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Lee Phillips in a 1 – 2 loss to Morecambe .
On 26 April 2008 , Stansfield scored in Exeter 's 4 – 4 draw at Burton Albion which qualified them for that season 's play @-@ offs . He started in the final , whereby the team returned to The Football League for the first time in five years with a 1 – 0 Wembley win over Cambridge United .
He scored 10 goals in 37 league games as they won a second consecutive promotion into League One in the 2008 – 09 season . This included consecutive braces on 27 September and 4 October , in wins over Macclesfield Town ( 4 – 1 away ) and Gillingham ( 3 – 0 home ) . The following campaign , despite never having previously played at as high a level , he was a regular starter for Exeter in League One , scoring eight goals in a season curtailed by his cancer diagnosis .
= = = International career = = =
Stansfield earned five caps and scored one goal for the England national semi @-@ professional team . He featured in the 2002 edition of the Four Nations Tournament , and made his debut in England 's opening match , a 1 – 1 draw with Wales at York Street in Boston on 14 May . Stansfield was injured in the first half of the last match , a 2 – 0 win against Scotland at Rockingham Road in Kettering on 18 May , while Wales won the title . In 2005 , while back in the Conference with Hereford , he was again called up for the tournament by manager Paul Fairclough . Stansfield played in two matches as England won the tournament with three wins .
= = Illness and death = =
Stansfield suffered from persistent abdominal pain in the early part of 2010 , and was admitted to hospital for tests at the end of March . On 8 April 2010 , Exeter City confirmed to the media that he had been diagnosed with a form of colorectal cancer . Manager Paul Tisdale told local news programme BBC Spotlight that " there 's little good on this subject " , but " if there 's someone who can deal with it and meet it head on with real purpose , Adam 's the man .
Later that month , Stansfield underwent surgery to remove part of his colon . Club vice @-@ chairman Julian Tagg reported that the operation was successful , and that Stansfield appeared happy and was making jokes . He joined the Exeter squad for the first day of pre @-@ season training in July , appearing weak from chemotherapy . His condition deteriorated rapidly and he died on 10 August , with his death being announced shortly after Exeter 's loss to Ipswich Town in the Football League Cup .
As a mark of respect , Dagenham & Redbridge postponed the game Exeter were due to play against them at Victoria Road four days after his death . Exeter retired his shirt number 9 for nine seasons .
Stansfield 's body was taken from St James Park to his funeral service at Exeter Cathedral on 25 August , attended by over 1 @,@ 000 mourners . A private family service was held later .
= = = Posthumous recognition = = =
Stansfield continues to be remembered by fans of Exeter . On 9 August 2014 , as they started the new season against Portsmouth , a giant flag resembling his club shirt was displayed by the crowd .
At his funeral , Stansfield 's widow Marie had an idea to set up the Adam Stansfield Foundation , which by the fourth anniversary of his death had raised over £ 150 @,@ 000 . It works in offering children football in Devon , Somerset and Herefordshire , the three counties in which he played professionally , as well as increasing opportunities for the disabled to take part in the sport . The foundation also aims to increase awareness of bowel cancer .
From 2011 to 2015 , an aeroplane belonging to Flybe bore an image of Stansfield , with other aeroplanes belonging to the company featuring such former footballers as George Best and Kevin Keegan . In 2015 , Stansfield was featured on £ 5 Exeter Pound notes in the city .
Exeter City and Yeovil Town agreed that on their meeting at St James Park on 8 August 2015 , there would be a minute 's applause in the seventh minute and ninth , for the numbers he wore at each club . Earlier the same day , there was also a match between the two clubs ' supporters in Topsham , Devon , to raise funds for his foundation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
Yeovil Town
FA Trophy : 2001 – 02
Football Conference : 2002 – 03
Hereford United
Conference National play @-@ offs : 2006
Exeter City
Conference National play @-@ offs : 2008
England semi @-@ professional
Four Nations Tournament : 2005
= Saprang Kalayanamitr =
General Saprang Kalayanamitr ( Thai : สพรั ่ ง กัลยาณมิตร ; rtgs : Sa @-@ phrang Kanlayanamit , also known as Poei ( Thai : เปย ) or Big Poei ( Thai : บิ ๊ กเปย ) , born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand ) is a retired officer of the Royal Thai Army , Assistant Secretary @-@ General of the Council for National Security , Commander of the junta 's 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man anti @-@ protest force , Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) , and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major Thai state @-@ owned telecommunication companies .
Saprang grew up in an aristocratic military family and graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . He served for nearly three decades in the Army cavalry corp , and was promoted to 3rd Army Region Commander in 2005 . He was a key leader of the September 2006 coup that overthrew the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra .
Saprang is one of the fiercest critics of Thaksin Shinawatra , calling him a " traitor " and claiming that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " Upon appointment to chair Airports of Thailand and TOT , he purged the management , initiated investigations into the overthrown government , and donated 200 million baht of the agency 's funds to the Army . He fired the President of TOT for questioning an 800 million baht donation that the agency made to the Army . As head of CAT Telecom , he was accused of blocking attempts to launch People 's Television , a new television station founded by ex @-@ leaders of Thaksin 's Thai Rak Thai party .
Saprang was considered one of the top contenders to lead the army and the junta after CNS @-@ leader Sonthi Boonyaratkalin 's mandatory retirement in 2007 . However , in September 2007 he was demoted to be Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Defense Ministry , while his rival , General Anupong Paochinda , was promoted to lead the Army . As a result , Saprang retired from the Army in 2010 .
= = Education and early career = =
= = = Education = = =
Born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand , Saprang graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School ( AFAPS ) and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . His classmates included General Paisan Katanyu ( appointed Deputy Army Commander after the coup ) , Admiral Bannawit Kengrien ( appointed to the National Legislative Assembly after the coup , and leader of its Suvarnabhumi Airport committee ) , and General Lertrat Rattavanich . He later graduated from the 43rd class of the National Defence College of Thailand in 2001 . His NDC thesis concerned the role of military forces in the control of illegal narcotics . His NDC classmates included Kraisi Karnasuta , governor of state energy company EGAT .
= = = Early career = = =
Saprang started his military career in 1969 as Rifle Platoon Leader in the 3rd Infantry Battalion , 4th Regimental Combat Team . He claims to have fought 200 battles during the course of his military career .
He was appointed Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion of the 4th Infantry Regiment in 1982 , stationed in Nakhonsawan ( on the northwestern border with Burma ) . In 1985 , he became Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion in the 19th Infantry Regiment , stationed in Surasee Fort , Kanchanaburi ( on the western border with Burma ) .
He was then promoted to be Regimental Commanding Officer of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School in 1990 . In 1991 , he began a six @-@ year stint as Regimental Commanding Officer of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy .
In April 1997 , Saprang was shortly transferred to the Ministry of Defense as a staff officer , before being promoted in October 1997 to Commanding General of the 15th Infantry Division , at the time stationed in Pran Buri , Prachuap Khiri Khan Province . In 2003 , he was promoted to 3rd Corps Commander . In 2004 , it was strongly rumored that Saprang might be promoted to command the 4th Army , replacing General Pongsak Ekbannasingh . General Pongsak had been criticized for ineffectually fighting the South Thailand insurgency , after 39 successful arson attacks occurred in just one night . Pongsak ended up being replaced in April 2004 by Pisarn Wattanawongkhiri .
= = = 2006 Coup = = =
In a surprise to many observers , Saprang was promoted to 3rd Army Area Commander in October 2005 , headquartered in Phitsanulok and responsible most of northern and northeastern Thailand . Analysts had expected Prime Minister Thaksin to promote his own classmates from AFAPS Class 10 to the powerful position instead . At the same time , also in a surprise move , Deputy Army Commander Sonthi Boonyaratkalin was promoted to Army Commander .
Saprang and Sonthi started planning for the coup 7 to 8 months in advance , in approximately February 2006 . Coup planning occurred prior to the April 2006 elections , during Thaksin 's controversial sale of Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings and the peak of the People 's Alliance for Democracy 's campaign to oust the government . In July 2006 , Saprang gave an interview where he stated that Thai politics was below standard and that the Kingdom 's leadership was weak . He also claimed that Thailand had a false democracy . He denied that such criticism constituted military interference in politics . At the same time , the Thai media speculated that in the October 2006 annual Army reshuffle , Saprang would not be promoted to Assistant Army Commander and would not be allowed to retain his position of 3rd Army Area Commander . In July , Saprang 's own Deputy Commander in the 3rd Army Area , Major General Manas Paorik , warned the media that " a certain military officer who aspires to become Assistant Army Commander " was planning a coup .
In the weeks leading up to coup , Saprang openly mobilised soldiers and northern residents to rebel against the government . Saprang played a key role on the evening of 19 September 2006 , securing Thaksin 's home town and power base of Chiang Mai . That same night , he was appointed assistant Secretary @-@ General of the CNS . The coup was executed just a week before the announcement of the Army 's annual reshuffle .
= = After the 2006 coup = =
A week after the coup , Saprang was promoted to Assistant Army Commander , alongside fellow coup leader Anupong Paochinda . His predecessor , General Pornchai Kranlert , had not taken part in the coup and was transferred to an inactive position . Saprang was also promoted from Lieutenant General to General .
= = = CNS Special Operations Center = = =
On 27 December 2006 , it was revealed that the Cabinet had approved over half a billion baht worth of funding for a 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man secret anti @-@ protest special operations force , of which General Saprang was Commander . The so @-@ called CNS Special Operations Center , funded with 556 million baht diverted from the Defense Ministry , Police Office , and government emergency reserve fund , had been secretly established by the CNS on 1 December 2006 in order to control protests .
= = = TOT and CAT Telecom = = =
Saprang was appointed by the junta to become Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . Saprang 's first move as TOT Chairman was to hand @-@ pick three Army colonels and vocal Thaksin @-@ critic Vuthiphong Priebjrivat to sit on the state enterprise 's Board of Directors . Saprang transferred TOT President Somkuan Bruminhent to an inactive position and appointed Vuthiphong new President . He then hand @-@ picked all 10 other directors .
Saprang noted in an interview that , " if telecommunication businesses are in private hands , the country won 't be safe . " The junta had earlier announced plans to cancel the initial public offering of both TOT and CAT Telecom and to merge the two state enterprises .
Under Saprang 's leadership , TOT reaffirmed its ownership rights to all existing backbone telecommunications networks under a new strategy to act as a " genuine " national telecom company . The new strategy was expected to increase political and business tensions . Under the Build @-@ Transfer @-@ Operate ( BTO ) concession agreements that TOT signed with private telecom operators , the TOT technically owns all fixed @-@ line , mobile , and optical fibre networks in Thailand . However , it had never exercised those rights in the past .
Vuthiphong was fired from the TOT board and his position of acting TOT President in June 2007 . He immediately accused the Army of using the TOT as an unmonitored slush fund . He claimed that an unnamed Army unit had requested that TOT buy it 800 million baht worth of electronic equipment . Upon receiving the request , Vuthipong demanded to know why neither the Army nor the Defence Ministry used their own secret budgets to purchase the equipment , and why an internal Army unit , rather than the Kingdom 's main national security organisations , had made the request . Saprang denied that there was any lack of transparency in the request for financial support . Vuthipong claimed that the equipment should only have cost 30 million baht , not 800 million baht . He was fired and expelled from the Board soon after refusing to sign off on the deal . The Board later appointed Col. Natee Sukolrat as the new TOT President and accepted the army 's donation request .
Under his leadership , TOT 's performance dropped . Revenues for the first half of 2007 fell 13 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while net profit fell 36 @.@ 1 % . Fixed line revenue dropped 16 % , while public telephone and international call revenue by 30 % each .
As Chairman of CAT Telecom , Saprang was accused by the founders of People 's Television ( PTV ) , a new satellite television station , of being behind CAT Telecom 's refusal to grant an internet link from Bangkok to a satellite up @-@ link station in Hong Kong . PTV was established by several ex @-@ executives of the Thai Rak Thai party . CAT Telecom claimed that it never received PTV 's application for internet access .
Under Saprang 's leadership , 80 @,@ 000 subscribers of Thai Mobile , a TOT / CAT joint venture mobile phone operator , were cut off temporarily in early May 2007 when owners TOT and CAT Telecom failed to pay the bills of a major supplier . Thai Mobile had accumulated significant losses and the company was not able to make its debt payments or supplier payments . The partners had stopped payments to the supplier , Samart Corporation , for nearly a year , until Samart threatened to suspend services within three days . After no payment , it delivered on its threat . TOT was subsequently able to negotiate with Samart to restart the service .
= = = Airports of Thailand = = =
= = = = Purging of AoT management = = = =
A week after Saprang hinted at a reshuffle of AoT top management , AoT President Chotisak Asapaviriya was forced to resign , citing health reasons , while the Directors of Suvarnabhumi Airport and AoT Commercial Operations were dismissed . Police Commissioner General Seripisut Temiyavej was appointed as an AoT Director .
= = = = Suvarnabhumi Airport = = = =
As AoT Chairman , Saprang spearheaded an effort to reopen Don Muang Airport in parallel with the newly opened Suvarnabhumi Airport , despite objections from the Civil Aviation Department , airlines , and internal studies within Airports of Thailand . 60 airlines threatened to halt flights to Thailand if they were forced to move back to Don Muang airport .
Saprang also refused to authorize urgent repairs on the airport tarmac , despite warnings from engineers . Karun Chandrarangsu , president of the Engineering Institute of Thailand noted , " Suvarnabhumi is like a patient in a coma who continues to suffer from severe bleeding . Stopping the blood flow now is more urgent and important than debating what caused the injury . " The Engineering Institute of Thailand sent a formal warning to AoT in November 2006 about the urgent need to drain water from beneath the tarmac , and noted that immediate action should be taken . " The AOT did nothing about the problem " , Suebsak Promboon of the EIT noted . " The situation might not have become this bad if the water had been drained then . " Suebsak Promboon , a senior foundation engineer and a member of the Tortrakul Yomnak @-@ led airport tarmac inspection panel , accused the AOT of refusing to take any actions to solve the problems at the airport .
The airport faced ongoing operational challenges , including a computer virus that shut down the automated luggage bomb @-@ scanning system in June 2007 . A study by the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) released in July 2007 found the airport unsafe , citing numerous spots where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checkpoints .
Serious security gaps at Suvarnabhumi Airport became known to the public beginning in early 2007 . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) found that there were many spots in the passenger terminal where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checks and could receive unchecked objects and then carry them on board aircraft . The IATA also suggested that AoT deploy its own security staff instead of contracting out the job to the Loxley @-@ ICTS consortium . AoT threatened the consortium with contract termination , but didn 't follow through with its threat , even though the consortium failed to live up to its contract . Six months later , AoT stated that it still couldn 't make up its mind on how it should improve airport security . AoT said it was open to all possible options , and has taken no action to upgrade the problem .
= = = = Trip to Europe = = = =
On Tuesday 27 February 2007 , Saprang led a 13 @-@ member delegation to Europe , on what was claimed to be a week @-@ long trip to study safety and security measures at major European airports . Many delegates and accompanying members shared the same surname , and the trip , which cost 7 @.@ 2 million baht was attacked for " squandering " state funds for personal pleasure , disbursing unrealistic expenses , and inflating costs . The travel agent along received a 500 @,@ 000 baht commission fee for booking the trip . Saprang denied any wrongdoing and claimed he was the victim of a smear campaign . He also noted that " If you knew my character , you would know that even if a relative joined the trip he should have realised that he should work hard . " He also noted that instead of being a viewed as a defendant , he should be viewed as a hero for bringing down the Thaksin government . Saprang then summoned the leader of the AoT labor union in order to identify who leaked information about the trip to his accusers .
= = = = Financial performance = = = =
The first quarter after Saprang was appointed Chairman , AoT profits plunged 90 % compared to the previous year , despite higher traffic volumes and increased passenger service charters and airline fees . Operating expenses surged 137 % , contributing to the AoT 's worst quarterly earnings report since it was listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand .
The AoT board also granted 200 million baht to the Army , which had requested a financial donation . AoT also lent some of its explosives detectors to the Army for use in the South Thailand insurrection .
Financial performance continued to spiral downwards in the 3rd quarter of 2007 . Net profit for the period ending June fell by 84 % from a year before , despite higher traffic and a 17 @.@ 9 % increase in revenue . The fall in profit was attributed to AoT 's court case against King Power , the operator of duty @-@ free shops within Suvarnabhumi Airport . King Power 's concession was suspended while the case was in court , forcing AOT to stop reporting earnings from the concessionaire .
= = = Thaksin Shinawatra = = =
Saprang had long been a fierce critic of Thaksin Shinawatra , and prior to the coup had even called Thaksin 's supporters within the military " evil . " After the coup , Saprang called Thaksin a " traitor " and said that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . "
He also accused Thaksin of spying on the military while he was Prime Minister .
Although Saprang and General Sonthi accused Thaksin of insulting and disrespecting King Bhumibol , he noted that the junta did not pursue lèse majesté charges against Thaksin because " the police corrupted the evidence " , and delivered such a weak case that the attorney @-@ general could not file a lawsuit . A vocal self @-@ proclaimed royalist , he insisted that various groups actively tried to challenge the monarchy , and that he " couldn 't stand it . " He noted , " I am a soldier , born to protect the Crown . They could only challenge the monarchy over my dead body . "
Saprang also suspected that Oliver Jufer , a Swiss man who was jailed for lèse majesté for spraying paint on a portrait of image of King Bhumibol , was hired by somebody to perform his vandalism . Saprang ordered a military investigation into the matter . The results have not been made public .
= = = 2007 New Years bombings = = =
Saprang had a public confrontation with former Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh regarding the 2006 Bangkok New Year 's Eve bombings after Chavalit accused him of incompetence . Saprang claimed that " the evidence and intelligence information proves that the bombs were the dirty work of politicians who lost power and benefits . Bad soldiers loyal to bad politicians collaborated with them with the intention to topple this government . " However , his claim was contradicted just an hour later by Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont .
In May 2007 , Saprang claimed that he had information regarding the seizure of instructional manual on terrorism in Bangkok from a London apartment by English soldiers and police . He said he could not disclose any further information , but told the public to connect the dots themselves . Days later , a bomb exploded outside of Chitrlada Palace . Saprang later clarified his remark , saying the Bangkok terrorism manual discovery had been made in the early 1990s . Deputy Chief of the British Mission in Bangkok Andy Pierce said he was " concerned " by Saprang 's remarks , which he insisted were " baseless " .
= = = Resignation of Pridiyathorn Devakula = = =
Saprang was implicated in the resignation of Finance Minister Pridiyathorn Devakula on 28 February 2007 . The Bangkok Post reported that Pridiyathorn resigned in protest after a CNS member lobbied him to sell shares of IRPC ( formerly known as Thai Petrochemical Industry ) back to a former shareholder . The newspaper identified Saprang as the unnamed CNS member . Saprang 's brother , Chienchuang , was a key financial advisor to Prachai Liaophairat , the estranged founder of TPI .
Chienchuang 's relations with the junta came under further public scrutiny when it was revealed that he was hired by the junta in order to lead a campaign to discredit deposed premier Thaksin Shinawatra . Politicians hired as part of the CNS campaign included Chat Pattana party leader Korn Dabbaransi , Democrats Korn Chatikavanij , Alongkorn Palabutr and Korbsak Sabavasu , Prapat Panya @-@ chatraksa , a key Thai Rak Thai member who defected to the Chat Thai party , plus ex @-@ senator Kraisak Choonhavan . Academics hired by the CNS included Wuttipong Piebjriya @-@ wat , Sophon Supapong , Narong Phet @-@ prasert , and Somkiat Osotspa .
= = = Mad dogs and machine guns = = =
Saprang was an extremely vocal critic of those who he perceived as his political opponents . In an interview with Thai Rath ( Thailand 's most popular newspaper ) on 8 April 2007 , he called an unspecified enemy a " mad dog " who he claimed was destroying the monarchy . He said that it was necessary to shoot the dog with a machine gun . In the same interview , he threatened violent response to the " bold words that came from the mouths of evil people who did not know restraint " . He urged decisive action , so that the public would believe that good had triumphed over evil .
= = = Post @-@ coup role = = =
Saprang was considered a strong contender to lead the junta given the mandatory retirement of Army commander @-@ in @-@ chief and CNS President Sonthi Boonyaratkalin in September 2007 . He unofficially competed with fellow Assistant Army Commander Anupong Paochinda , who , as 1st Army Area Commander , secured Bangkok on the night of the coup . The Bangkok Post reported in October 2006 that Sonthi was grooming Anupong to be his successor by giving him responsibilities over coup logistics , a greater task than had been assigned to Saprang . The Asia Times quoted a former MP as saying that " Anupong is seen as the real force behind the coup . Saprang is more vocal , but he has no real base . The only way he could be seen as a promising leader is by pushing the country to the brink . "
In an interview , Saprang warned that " the three pillars of society - the nation , the religion and the monarchy - might crumble ... If rogue politicians return to power following the next [ post coup ] general election . "
Saprang also held the opinion that military coups against the government " should never be ruled out . " The abrogated 1997 constitution had outlawed coups . A replacement constitution was , at the time of Saprang 's statement , being drafted by a military appointed panel .
Saprang was sidelined in security plans preceding the Constitutional Tribunal 's 20 May 2007 ruling on the dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat Parties . After the 2006 coup , Sonthi had delegated the task of securing Bangkok to Saprang . The pre @-@ ruling plan put Sonthi directly in charge of Bangkok crowd security , allying him with alum of AFPS Class 9 , including Army Chief of Staff General Montri Sangkhasap and First Army Region commander Lt General Prayuth Chan @-@ ocha .
Panitan Wattanayagorn , a military scholar at Chulalongkorn University and a personal adviser to Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont noted in early September 2007 that " if the army is going to take a full step into politics , then it will be Saprang . If only a half @-@ step , then Anupong . And if it intends to beat a full retreat or take one step back , it will be [ Army chief of staff ] Montri [ Sangkhasap ] . "
On 19 September 2007 , Saprang 's rival , Assistant Army Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Gen Anupong Paochinda , was appointed as the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army , replacing the retiring General Sonthi . Anupong 's mandatory retirement occurred 2010 . Sonthi was , after resignation , appointed Deputy Prime Minister . Saprang was transferred to become Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defense . Saprang 's ally , Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary Admiral Bannawit Kengrien , called Saprang 's transfer a " demotion " and a " punishment . " However , Saprang himself claimed that he did not feel slighted for being passed over , noting that " everything is over " for him . Bannawit himself was later transferred from Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary to be a Chief Adviser of the Ministry , replaced by Chief Advisor General Toosarat Muang @-@ am . Bannawit denied that his own transfer was the result of his criticism of Saprang 's transfer . Bannawit then announced that he would resign from the military and enter politics . There was also rampant speculation that Saprang himself would resign and enter politics . Although the Kyodo News Agency noted speculation that Saprang would stage a coup against Anupong , Saprang denied coup rumors , saying that another coup would be " suicide . "
= = Family = = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" , spewing the accelerant in a long stream over the sacrificial prop , setting it ablaze . Once the kerosene was exhausted , the water followed , streaming out his mouth in a long flow from up to six feet away , extinguishing the fire .
At some performances , a panel or " jury " from the audience was invited on stage to verify that no trick mechanism was being employed — that he was actually swallowing the items in question and delivering them back through acts of regurgitation . Sometimes Ali would stroll into the audience during his nut swallowing trick . His stomach exposed by his standard costume , he invited audience members to pat his stomach , allowing them to hear the nuts rattling within . One newspaper reported that Ali 's feats , essentially controlled vomiting , were performed in " a manner without the least bit of unpleasantness or anything bordering on repulsiveness . " Not everyone felt the same : at least one of Ali 's engagements was cut short once the proprietor realized that the nature of the act " was killing their supper shows " . Famed escapologist and magician Harry Houdini remarked in his 1920 work Miracle Mongers and Their Methods that water spouting was a " performance that could not fail to disgust a modern audience . "
The abilities of Ali fascinated the public and medical authorities . As reported in a 1928 Sheboygan Press article , at one of Ali 's acts a number of doctors attended and thoroughly examined him during the performance . They came away satisfied that he was actually imbibing and regurgitating the material and objects as claimed , but remained " mystified over his extraordinary performance . " According to an article appearing in the Naugatuck Daily News , " Physicians of three continents have puzzled over the gastronomical mechanism of this human ostrich without success . X @-@ ray experiments have been made during his exhibition without a plausible explanation forthcoming that satisfies the critical , in fact , the profession of surgery has thrown up its hands in amazement over this human ostrich . "
= = Film appearances = =
Ali 's act was captured in two films : the 1930 short Strange as It Seems , and Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the expanded Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Ali also had a bit part as the " Turkish landlord " in Warner Bros. ' 1932 film Scarlet Dawn starring Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and Nancy Carroll . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville , a documentary produced by KCTS @-@ TV that exhibits 90 vaudeville acts over a two @-@ hour running time . The documentary has since aired on the Public Broadcasting Service 's American Masters series numerous times .
Speaking about the democratic nature of the vaudeville performance circuit , Vaudeville 's writer and executive producer said in reference to Ali that the film " embraced everything from Caruso to a guy who threw up . " By contrast , in episode 30 of the Sundance Channel television program Iconoclasts , magician David Blaine speaks enthusiastically of Ali . During the episode , Blaine shows artist Chuck Close Ali 's kerosene and water finale footage from Politiquerias and comments that Ali is his " favorite magician ... it 's real but nobody 's been able to do it since ... his name was Hadji Ali ... he 's my favorite of all time . "
= = Death = =
Ali died on November 5 , 1937 , in Wolverhampton , England , from heart failure during a bout of bronchitis . Even before his death , a rumor had circulated that the Rockefeller Institute sought to procure Ali 's stomach upon his death , and would pay as much as $ 50 @,@ 000 for it . This claim appeared in a poster advertising Ali 's impending appearance at a theater during his lifetime . After Ali 's death was reported , the rumor resurfaced as an active offer of $ 10 @,@ 000 . When a Rockefeller Institute manager was interviewed about the story , he said the offer had never been made but that nevertheless , " we should very much like to see the body . " Almina and Julian transported Ali 's body back to the United States on board the Queen Mary . According to a November 29 , 1937 article in the New York Post , upon their arrival , Almina offered her father 's body to Maryland 's Johns Hopkins University for investigation by surgeons , after which it would be transported to Egypt for interment in a mausoleum . However , The Afro @-@ American newspaper reported on December 11 , 1937 , that Johns Hopkins ' officials had declined the offer .
= Battle of Tellicherry =
The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought off the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement , but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore . When a French convoy from Mahé passed the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791 , Commodore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to intercept the French ships .
As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Strachan approached the convoy , the escorting frigate Résolue opened fire . A general action followed , with Strachan succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within twenty minutes and both sides suffering damage and casualties . All of the French vessels were searched and subsequently returned to Mahé , the local French authorities reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of their neutral position . Messages were sent back to France reporting the action from Commodore Saint @-@ Félix but they evoked little response . Although under normal circumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic incident , the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution meant that the despatches had little effect .
= = Background = =
In December 1789 , after five years of diplomatic wrangling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that had ended the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the ruler of Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British East India Company and their allies in Southern India . For the next two years the war continued as British forces and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards the capital of Seringapatam . Both sides were reliant on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland : the British forces were supported from their major ports at Bombay and Madras , later stationing additional forces at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory . The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore by French ships . France had been an ally of the Tipu Sultan 's father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War and although the political instability caused by the French Revolution in Europe prevented active involvement , they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of equipment to Mysore throughout the war .
In an effort to eliminate French support Commodore William Cornwallis , the British naval commander in the region , stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry , where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean territory . The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS Minerva , Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix and HMS Perseverance under Captain Isaac Smith . The French operated a squadron of their own on the coast , led by Commodore Saint @-@ Félix and consisting of two frigates based at Mahé , a small French port 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Tellicherry . The French had communicated to the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any attempts to search their vessels , but Strachan and Cornwallis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Mangalore whatever the consequences .
= = Battle = =
In November 1791 , a French convoy sailed from Mahé on the short journey to Mangalore . The convoy included two merchant vessels and the frigate Résolue , a 36 @-@ gun warship under Captain Callamand . Passing northwards , the convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Strachan with Phoenix and Perseverance to stop and inspect the French ships to ensure they were not carrying military supplies . As Smith halted the merchant ships and sent boats to inspect them , Strachan did the same to Résolue , hailing the French captain and placing an officer in a small boat to board the frigate . The French captain was outraged at this violation of his neutrality , and responded by opening fire : British sources suggest that his initial target was the small boat , although Phoenix was the ship most immediately damaged .
Strachan was unsurprised at the French reaction , and returned fire immediately , the proximity of the ships preventing any manoeuvres . Within twenty minutes the combat was decided , the French captain hauling down his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men wounded or dead . The French ship carried significantly weaker cannon than Phoenix , with 6 and 12 pounder guns to the 9 and 18 pounders aboard the British squadron . In addition , Résolue was heavily outnumbered : no other French warships were in the area while the British had three large frigates within sight . French losses eventually totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded , Strachan suffering just six killed and 11 wounded in return .
= = Aftermath = =
With the enemy subdued , Strachan ordered a thorough search of the captured vessels , but could find no contraband and returned control to the French commander . The French officer however refused , insisting that he and his ship were treated as prisoners of war . Cornwallis ordered the merchant ships released to continue their journey and for the frigate to be towed back to Mahé , where it was anchored in the roads with its sails and topmasts struck . Provision was subsequently made at Mahé by Strachan for the wounded French sailors . Soon afterwards Saint @-@ Félix arrived at Mahé in his frigate Cybèle and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neutral ships had been attacked and captured by the British . When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting within their orders , Saint @-@ Félix promised reprisals if any of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both Cybèle and Résolue later in the day , followed by Minerva and Phoenix . One account reported that Saint @-@ Félix actually ordered his crew to fire on Cornwallis but that they refused . The British shadowed the French for several days , openly stopping and searching French merchant ships but without provoking a response from Saint @-@ Félix . Résolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their commanders , Cornwallis and Saint @-@ Félix remaining in contact for several more days before finally separating .
News of the encounter was conveyed back to France , but the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken of events in India . Historian William James notes that under normal political circumstances the action would have had more significant ramifications , while Edward Pelham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored the report out of fear of antagonising Britain . In Britain , the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis ' actions , suggesting that the French were deliberately using the guise of trade to support Mysore against Britain . The action had no effect on the ongoing war in India , which was now centred on the inland city of Seringapatam . As British forces closed on the city in February 1792 , the Tipu Sultan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end in exchange for concessions to the Company and its Indian allies .
= Loose ( Nelly Furtado album ) =
Loose is the third studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Nelly Furtado , released on 6 June 2006 by Geffen Records and the Mosley Music Group . Following the release of Furtado 's second album , Folklore ( 2003 ) through DreamWorks Records , it was announced that Universal Music Group would acquire DreamWorks Records , the later was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella where Furtado would release any new music . Timbaland and his protégé Danja produced the bulk of the album , which incorporates influences of dance , R & B and hip hop . The album explores the theme of female sexuality and has been described as introspective or even sad in parts .
The album received criticism because of the sexual image Furtado adopted for the recording , as some critics felt it was a ploy to sell more records . Further controversy rose over accusations of plagiarism on Timbaland 's part in the song " Do It " ( which contained the melody from Finnish musician Janne Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " without proper authorization ) when recordings were leaked onto YouTube . The record was seen generally as critically and commercially successful . It reached high positions on charts across the world , and according to an August 2009 press release , it had sold more than 12 million copies worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling album of 2006 – 07 and the twenty @-@ second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s .
The album was heavily promoted , released in several editions and supported by the Get Loose Tour , which is the subject of the concert DVD Loose : The Concert . " Loose " debuted at number one , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart along with eight singles were released from the album , including the US number @-@ one singles " Promiscuous " and " Say It Right " , which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , respectively . Other successful singles include the UK number @-@ one single " Maneater " and the European number one single " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " .
= = Background = =
Furtado 's second album , Folklore , was released in November 2003 . The lead single is " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " and the second single is the ballad " Try " . The album was not as successful as her debut , partly due to the album 's less " poppy " sound . " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " was later remixed , featuring Colombian rocker Juanes , who had previously worked with Furtado on his track " Fotografía " ( " Photograph " ) . The two would collaborate again on " Te Busqué " ( " I searched for you " ) , the single from Furtado 's album Loose . The album was underpromoted from her label DreamWorks Records ; it was announced on 11 November 2003 that Universal Music Group reached an agreement to acquire DreamWorks Records from DreamWorks SKG for " about $ 100 million " . The purchase came at a time when the music business was " going through major changes " as it struggled to " counter falling sales and the impact of unofficial online music sales " . DreamWorks Records was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella label in January 2004 . Furtado 's recording contract was then absorbed into Geffen Records .
= = Recording = =
Furtado began work on Loose by holding with emcee Jellystone what she referred to as a " hip @-@ hop workshop " , in which they would " write rhymes , dissect them , and try different flows over beats . " The first producers she worked with were Track & Field — who co @-@ produced her first two albums , Whoa , Nelly ! ( 2000 ) and Folklore ( 2003 ) — and by May 2005 , she had collaborated with Swollen Members and K 'naan . She worked with Nellee Hooper in London on reggae @-@ oriented material and with Lester Mendez in Los Angeles on acoustic songs . One of the tracks Mendez helped to create is " Te Busqué " , which is co @-@ written by and features Juanes , who collaborated with Furtado on his 2002 song " Fotografía " . During her time in Los Angeles , she worked with Rick Nowels , who co @-@ wrote and produced " In God 's Hands " and " Somebody to Love " .
In Miami , Florida , Furtado collaborated with Pharrell ( who introduced her to reggaeton and who gave her a " shout @-@ out " in his 2005 single " Can I Have It Like That " ) and Scott Storch ( with whom she recorded a " straight @-@ up rap song " ) before entering the studio with Timbaland . He and his protégé at the time , Danja , co @-@ produced eight of the tracks , with another produced solely by Danja . For some of the beats on the songs , Timbaland finished work on ones already present in the studio that were half @-@ developed or just " nucleuses " ; the rest were completely reworked . Furtado recorded around forty tracks for Loose , deciding which she would include based on the sonics of the album — she called Timbaland " a sonic extraterrestrial " who came up with a sequence of songs that flowed , and said that the one she had devised was supposedly unsatisfactory . She recorded an unreleased collaboration with Justin Timberlake , " Crowd Control " , which she described as " kind of sexy " and " a cute , clubby , upbeat , fun track " . Other songs considered for inclusion on the album include " Chill Boy " , " Friend of Mine " , " Go " , " Hands in the Air " , " Pretty Boy " , " Vice " and " Weak " .
Furtado said in her diary on her official website that she recorded a remix of " Maneater " with rapper Lil Wayne ; it was only released as part of a compilation album , Timbaland 's Remix & Soundtrack Collection , she also used the instrumental of the song during many television performances of " Maneater " . A version of " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " featuring vocals by Coldplay lead singer Chris Martin , who co @-@ wrote the song , was not released after a request from Martin 's label , EMI . The song was released on the album , but only Furtado 's vocals are featured . Furtado explained that " Loose was 90 percent written with a beat first , and then I ’ d write my melodies and songs to the beat . "
= = Post @-@ production = =
The " off @-@ the @-@ cuff " conclusion to production was one of the reasons the album was titled Loose . It was named partly after the spontaneous decisions she made when creating the album . The album is also called Loose because it is " the opposite of calculated " and came naturally to Furtado and Timbaland ; she called him her " distant musical cousin because he was always pushing boundaries and always carving out his own path " , which she believed she was doing with Loose . " I think you have to keep surprising people as an artist , and I like that — I love doing that " , she said . Loose was also named partly for the R & B girl group TLC , who Furtado said she admires for " taking back their sexuality , showing they were complete women . " She said she wanted the album to be " assertive and cool " and " sexy but fun " , like TLC , MC Lyte , Queen Latifah and Janet Jackson , who inspired Furtado because , as she put it , she was " comfortable in her sexuality and womanhood " when her 1993 single " That 's the Way Love Goes " was released .
During the recording of Loose , Furtado listened to several electro and rock musicians , including Bloc Party , System of a Down , M.I.A. , Feist , Queens of the Stone Age , Metric and Death from Above 1979 , some of whom influenced the " rock sound " present on the album and the " coughing , laughing , distorted basslines " that were kept in the songs deliberately . According to her , music by such bands is " very loud and has a garage theme " to it , some of which she felt she captured on the album . Furtado has said rock music is " rhythmic again " and hip hop @-@ influenced after it had become " so churning and boring . " Because the mixing engineers were aware of Timbaland and Furtado 's rock influences , the songs were mixed on a mixing board in the studio instead of " the fancy mixer at the end " . Furtado said she preferred the louder volume that process gave to the album because she wanted it to sound like her demo tapes , which she prefers to her finished albums . She said , " It didn 't have that final wash over it ; it didn 't have the final pressing at the end , save for a couple sounds " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Furtado said that with the release of her albums before Loose , she had wanted to prove herself as a musician and earn respect from listeners through using many different instruments on an album , which most hip hop musicians did not do . After she believed she had accomplished that , she felt she had freedom to make the type of music she " really love [ d ] " . Furtado said her previous problem with hip hop was that she did not think it was good enough to base one of her albums on , but that she then asked herself why she was being " pretentious " . The album represents her separating from such notions and , in her words , " jumping in the deep end of the pool — ' Ahh , screw it , this is fun ! ' " . Furtado said she considers herself " all over the map " and promiscuous musically because she is not faithful to one style .
For the first time , Furtado worked with a variety of record producers and followed a more collaborative approach in creating the album . Produced primarily by Timbaland and Danja , Loose showcases Furtado experimenting with a more R & B – hip hop sound and , as she put it , the " surreal , theatrical elements of ' 80s music " . She has categorized the album 's sound as punk @-@ hop , which she describes as Eurythmics @-@ influenced " modern , poppy , spooky music " and stated that " there 's a mysterious , after @-@ midnight vibe to [ it ] that 's extremely visceral " . Furtado has described the album as " more urban , more American , more hip @-@ hop , [ and ] more simplified " than her earlier work , which she said was more layered and textured because she " tend [ s ] to overthink things " . In contrast , during her studio time with Timbaland , she said she was " in the VIP boys club of just letting go " and being more impulsive . According to Furtado , instead of " pristine stuff " , the album features " really raw " elements such as distorted bass lines , laughter from studio outtakes and general " room for error " . Furtado has said Loose is not as much about the lyrics , which are not included in the liner notes , as it is about " indulging in pleasures — whether it 's dancing or lovemaking . " According to her , she wasn 't trying to be sexy with the album — " I think I just am sexy now " , she said .
= = Songs = =
The opening track , " Afraid " ( featuring rapper Attitude ) , is a description of Furtado 's fear of what people think of her , and she has said the chorus reminds her of " walking down the hall in high school ... because you live from the outside in . Now that I 'm an adult , I care about the inside of me ... Before I said I didn 't care about what people thought about me , but I really did . " " Maneater " is an uptempo electro rock song that combines 1980s electro synths and a more dance @-@ oriented beat . The up @-@ tempo song has prominent electropop and synthpop influences and is lyrically related to how people become " hot on themselves " when dancing in their underwear in front of a mirror . " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was inspired by a flirting exchange Furtado had with Attitude , who co @-@ wrote the song
She has characterised the fifth track , " Showtime " , as " a proper R & B slow jam " . " No Hay Igual " is a hip hop and reggaeton song , that has a Spanglish tongue twister over " future @-@ tropic " beats . The song contains a " sharp mix " of percussion and " empowered chanting " . In " No Hay Igual " , Furtado sings in Spanish and raps in Portuguese over a reggaeton rhythm . The album also features more introspective songs , and The Sunday Times wrote that it " has a surprising sadness to it . " The seventh track , " Te Busqué " , which features Latin singer Juanes , is about Furtado 's experiences with depression , which she said she has had periodically since she was around seventeen years old . Furtado said she was unsure what " Say It Right " is about , but that it encapsulates her feeling when she wrote it and " taps into this other sphere " ; in an interview for The Sunday Times , it was mentioned that it is about her breakup with DJ Jasper Gahunia , the father of her daughter . " In God 's Hands " , another song on the album , was also inspired by the end of their relationship .
= = Singles = =
In April 2006 , a remix of " No Hay Igual " featuring Calle 13 was issued as a club single in the US . During the same period , " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was released for digital download in North America . Promiscuous became Furtado 's first single to top the US Billboard Hot 100 and was released in Australia , where it reached the top five . The lead single in Europe and Latin America , " Maneater " , was released in late May to early June 2006 . It became Furtado 's first single to top the UK Singles Chart and made the top ten in other countries ; it reached the top five in Germany and the top twenty in France and Latin America . The second single in Europe , " Promiscuous " , was released in late August to early September 2006 but it did not perform as well as " Maneater " . It peaked inside the top five in the UK and the top ten in other countries , including Germany , and it reached the top twenty in France . During the same period , " Maneater " began its run as the second single in North America ; it was not as successful as " Promiscuous " , reaching number twenty @-@ two in Canada and the top twenty in the US , though it became a top five single on the ARIA Singles Chart .
Releases of the third North American single , " Say It Right " , and the third Europe single , " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " , took place in November and December , and the third Latin American single , " Promiscuous " , was released in January 2007 . " Say It Right " went to number one in the US and on the Nielsen BDS airplay chart in Canada ( where it was not given a commercial release ) , and it reached the top five in Australia . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " reached number one on the pan @-@ European singles chart and the top five in the UK , and it was the album 's most successful single in Germany , where it topped the chart , and in France , where it became a top ten hit . After the release of " Say It Right " in Europe in March 2007 , the single reached the top five in Germany and the top ten in the UK , where it was a download @-@ only release . The video for " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " was released in North America during this period . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " peaked in the top five in Canada and in the top twenty in Australia , though it only reached the lower half of the US Hot 100 .
The album 's fifth and final UK single was " In God 's Hands " , and the fifth and final single in North America was " Do It " . In May 2007 , Furtado mentioned the possibility of a sixth or seventh single , mentioning the examples of Nickelback 's All the Right Reasons and The Pussycat Dolls ' PCD as albums that were being supported by seven singles at the time . Furtado said she liked the possibility because she thought Loose was good and " want [ ed ] people to hear as much of it as possible " before she took time off . Two other songs , " Te Busqué " and " No Hay Igual " , were released as singles in other regions of the world . " Te Busqué " was the lead single in Spain because of the limited success hip @-@ hop / R & B @-@ influenced songs in the style of " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " achieved in the country . It was not released in the United States , but it was given airplay on Latin music radio stations and reached the top forty on Billboard 's Latin Pop Airplay chart . The " No Hay Igual " remix featuring Calle 13 was released in Latin America , and the music video debuted in September .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was first released in Japan on 7 June 2006 through Universal Music Group before being released two days later in Germany . In the United Kingdom Loose was released on 12 June 2006 via Geffen Records and was released eight days later on 20 June 2006 in Canada and the United States .
In 2007 the album was re @-@ released in Germany . The re @-@ release included bonus content .
During the promotion of Loose , Furtado performed at major music festivals and award shows . In Europe , she appeared at Rock am Ring and Rock @-@ im @-@ Park in Germany and the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands in June 2006 . She performed in Canada at the Calgary Stampede , the Ottawa Bluesfest in July , and at the Ovation Music Festival in September . Shortly after her August 2006 performance at the Summer Sonic in Japan , she sang at the Teen Choice Awards . In November , she contributed to the entertainment during the World Music Awards , the American Music Awards and the 94th Grey Cup halftime show . She performed at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards , held in January 2007 .
Furtado embarked on a world concert tour , the Get Loose Tour , on 16 February 2007 in the UK , in support of the album ; the tour included thirty @-@ one dates in Europe and Canada , with additional shows in the US , Japan , Australia and Latin America . Furtado described the show as a " full sensory experience " with " a beginning , middle and end ... [ it ] takes you on a journey " , also stressing the importance of crowd involvement and " spontaneity and rawness , because those are my roots , you know ? I started by doing club shows , and that 's the energy I love , the raw club energy of just feeling like you 're rocking out . " Though Furtado said choreographed dance routines were to be included in the show , she described it as " music @-@ based ... Everything else is just to keep it sophisticated and sensual and fun . " Furtado said she hoped to have Chris Martin , Juanes , Justin Timberlake , Timbaland and Calle 13 to guest on the tour , and have a " revolving door " of opening acts with Latin musicians opening in the US .
= = Commercial performance = =
Loose debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling more than 34 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , at that time the year 's strongest debut for a Canadian artist . In late July , after Furtado embarked on a short tour of Canada and made a guest appearance on the television show Canadian Idol , the album returned to number one . It subsequently stayed near the top of the album chart until late January 2007 , when it reached number one again for two weeks . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2006 in Canada , and the highest selling by a female solo artist , with 291 @,@ 700 copies sold . The Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) certified Loose five times platinum in May 2007 for shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . It stayed in the top twenty for fifty @-@ seven weeks .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart with first @-@ week sales of 219 @,@ 000 ; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and ranked sixty @-@ fourth on the Billboard 2006 year @-@ end chart . Loose exited the US top ten in August 2006 but re @-@ entered it in March 2007 , and according to Nielsen SoundScan in October 2007 , it had sold two million units . The album ranked thirty @-@ second on the Billboard 2007 year @-@ end chart .
In the United Kingdom , Loose entered the albums chart at number five ; in its forty @-@ third week , it reached number four , and it was certified double platinum for shipments to retailers of more than 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2007 , it had sold roughly 827 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The record was certified two times platinum in Australia for more than 140 @,@ 000 units shipped ; it reached number four there and was placed forty @-@ fourth on the Australian Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) list of 2006 bestsellers . The album entered the chart in Germany at number one , spent a record forty @-@ nine weeks in the German top ten , and was certified five times platinum . Loose reached number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart in early 2007 , spending ten non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one . By March 2007 , it had been certified gold or platinum in twenty @-@ five countries . According to a Geffen Records press release , Loose had sold more than seven million copies by November 2007 .
= = Critical reception = =
Loose received generally positive reviews from music critics ; it holds an average score of 71 out of 100 at aggregate website Metacritic . AllMusic and musicOMH cited the " revitalising " effect of Timbaland on Furtado 's music , and The Guardian called it " slick , smart and surprising . " Q found most of it to be " an inventive , hip @-@ hop @-@ inflected delight . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that " the music and the lyrics are mainly aimed at dance floors , and yet this album keeps reminding listeners that a dance floor is one of the most complicated places on earth . " In its review , AllMusic wrote " It 's on this final stretch of the album that the Furtado and Timbaland pairing seems like a genuine collaboration , staying true to the Nelly of her first two albums , but given an adventurous production that helps open her songs up ... Timbaland has revitalized Nelly Furtado both creatively and commercially with Loose " . She won her first BRIT Award — Best International Female — in 2007 .
In a mixed review , Nick Catucci of The Village Voice felt that Furtado " sauces up a bit too luridly " and lacks " chemistry " with Timbaland , writing that Loose " isn 't a love child , but a bump @-@ and @-@ grind that never finds a groove " . Vibe stated , " she loses herself in Gwen Stefani – like posturing , as on “ Glow , ” and ethnic fusions like “ No Hay Igual ” or “ Te Busqué . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album a " B " and named it " dud of the month " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . " Christgau viewed that its dance @-@ oriented tracks " might accomplish God 's great plan on the dance @-@ floor . But as songs they 're not much " .
= = Impact = =
Considerable attention was generated by the more sexual image of Furtado presented in promotion and publicity for the album , and in particular the music videos for " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " , in which she dances around with her midriff exposed . According to Maclean 's magazine , some said that Furtado 's progression was a natural transformation of a pop singer ; others believed that she had " sold out " in an effort to garner record sales , particularly after her second album was a commercial failure in comparison to her first . Maclean 's wrote that her makeover " seems a bit forced " and contrasted her with singers such as Madonna and Emily Haines of Metric : " [ they ] seem to be completely in control , even somewhat intimidating in their sexuality : they 've made a calculated decision for commercial and feminist reasons . In contrast , Furtado 's new , overt sexuality comes off as unoriginal — overdone by thousands of pouty pop stars with a quarter of Furtado 's natural talent ... the revamping feels as if it 's been imposed rather than chosen by the unique , articulate singer we 've seen in the past . "
Dose magazine wrote that Furtado 's new " highly sexualized " image was manufactured , and noted the involvement in the album 's development of Geffen 's Jimmy Iovine , who helped to develop the Pussycat Dolls , a girl group known for their sexually suggestive dance routines . The writer also criticised Furtado 's discussion of her buttocks and apparent rejection of feminism in a Blender magazine interview , writing : " Girls , do you hear that churning ? Those are the ideas of Gloria Steinem turning in their grave . " A writer for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said that cynics could attribute Furtado 's commercial success with Loose to her " amped @-@ up sex appeal . " The writer added that , the failure of Janet Jackson 's album Damita Jo ( 2004 ) indicated such a move was not infallible . Furtado was " still demure compared to many of her competitors " — she avoided sporting lingerie or performing " Christina Aguilera @-@ style gyrations or calisthenics " in the " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " videos . " Despite its dramatic arrival ... Furtado 's new image doesn ’ t feel calculated " , he said . " [ She ] seems to be thinking less and feeling more , to the benefit of her music . "
In early 2007 , a video hosted on YouTube led to reports that the song " Do It " , and the Timbaland @-@ produced ringtone " Block Party " that inspired it , used — without authorization — the melody from Finnish demoscene musician Janne " Tempest " Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " , winner of the Assembly 2000 oldskool music competition . Timbaland used the record of C64 adaptation of the song written by Glenn Rune Gallefoss ( GRG ) . Timbaland admitted sampling the song , but said that he had no time to research its intellectual owner . Hannu Sormunen , a Finnish representative of Universal which represents Nelly Furtado in Finland , commented the controversy as follows in the 15 January 2007 issue of Iltalehti ; " In case that the artist decides to pursue the matter further , it 's on him to go to America and confront them with the local use of law . It will require a considerable amount of faith and , of course , money . " On 9 February 2007 , Timbaland commented on the issue in an MTV interview : " It makes me laugh . The part I don 't understand , the dude is trying to act like I went to his house and took it from his computer . I don 't know him from a can of paint . I 'm 15 years deep . That 's how you attack a king ? You attack moi ? Come on , man . You got to come correct . You the laughing stock . People are like , ' You can 't be serious . ' "
On 12 June 2009 , Mikko Välimäki , who is one of the legal counsels of Kernel Records , the owner of the sound recording rights , reported that the case had been filed in Florida . In January 2008 , Turkish newspapers reported that Kalan Müzik , the record label that released Turkish folk singer Muhlis Akarsu 's album Ya Dost Ya Dost , pressed charges against Furtado for the Loose track " Wait for You " , which label officials said features the bağlama instrumental part of Akarsu 's song " Allah Allah Desem Gelsem . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = Reissues = = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
= = Personnel = =
= = = Production = = =
Credits adapted from the Loose liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= 2013 – 14 York City F.C. season =
The 2013 – 14 season was the 92nd season of competitive association football and 77th season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their 17th @-@ place finish in 2012 – 13 meant it was their second consecutive season in League Two . The season ran from 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014 .
Nigel Worthington , starting his first full season as York manager , made eight permanent summer signings . By the turn of the year York were only above the relegation zone on goal difference , before a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run saw the team finish in seventh @-@ place in the 24 @-@ team 2013 – 14 Football League Two . This meant York qualified for the play @-@ offs , and they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town . York were knocked out of the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , Football League Cup and Football League Trophy in their opening round matches .
35 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were 12 different goalscorers . Defender Ben Davies missed only five of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Wes Fletcher finished as leading scorer with 13 goals , of which 10 came in league competition and three came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Lanre Oyebanjo .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 2012 – 13 season was York City 's first season back in the Football League , having won the Conference Premier play @-@ offs in 2011 – 12 after eights years in the Football Conference . Manager Gary Mills was sacked in March 2013 following an 11 @-@ match run without a victory , and was replaced by former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington . Despite being in the relegation zone with three matches remaining , Worthington led the team to safety from relegation after a 1 – 0 win away to Dagenham & Redbridge on the final day of the season . York finished the season in 17th @-@ place in the 2012 – 13 League Two table .
Following the previous season 's conclusion Lee Bullock , Jon Challinor , Chris Doig , Ben Everson , Scott Kerr , David McDaid , Patrick McLaughlin , Michael Potts , Jamie Reed and Jason Walker were released by York , while Matty Blair departed for Fleetwood Town . David McGurk , Lanre Oyebanjo , Danny Parslow , Tom Platt and Chris Smith signed new contracts with the club . New players signed ahead of the start of the season were goalkeeper Chris Kettings on a season @-@ long loan from Blackpool , defender Ben Davies on loan from Preston North End , midfielders Craig Clay from Chesterfield and Lewis Montrose from Gillingham , winger Sander Puri from St Mirren and strikers Ryan Bowman from Hereford United , Richard Cresswell from Sheffield United , Wes Fletcher from Burnley and Ryan Jarvis from Torquay United . Defender Mike Atkinson and striker Chris Dickinson entered the first @-@ team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts .
York retained the previous season 's home and away kits . The home kit comprised red shirts with white sleeves , light blue shorts and white socks . The away kit included light blue shirts with white sleeves , white shorts and light blue socks . Benenden Health continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season .
= = Review = =
= = = August = = =
York began the season with a 1 – 0 home win over the previous season 's play @-@ off finalists , Northampton Town , with debutant Jarvis scoring the winning goal in the 90th @-@ minute . However , defeat came in York 's match against Championship side Burnley in the first round of the League Cup , going down 4 – 0 at home . The team endured their first league defeat of the season in the following game after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half . York then held Hartlepool United to a 0 – 0 home draw , before being beaten 3 – 2 away by Bristol Rovers , in which Jarvis scored twice before John @-@ Joe O 'Toole scored the winning goal for the home team in the 67th @-@ minute . Two signings were made shortly before the transfer deadline ; defender George Taft was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Leicester City , while Middlesbrough midfielder Ryan Brobbel joined on a one @-@ month loan . Midfielder John McReady , who had been told he had no future with the club , departed after signing for FC Halifax Town . Jarvis gave York the lead away at Exeter City before Alan Gow scored in each half to see the home team win 2 – 1 .
= = = September = = =
York suffered their first home league defeat of the season after AFC Wimbledon won 2 – 0 , with Michael Smith scoring in each half . Former Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson , who had a spell on loan with York the previous season , signed a contract until the end of 2013 – 14 and Sheffield United midfielder Elliott Whitehouse signed on a one @-@ month loan . Brobbel opened the scoring in the second minute of his home debut against Mansfield Town , although the away team went on to score twice to win 2 – 1 . York 's run of four defeats ended following a 1 – 1 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers , in which McGurk gave York the lead before the home team levelled through Dean Morgan . Taft was sent back to Leicester after he fell behind McGurk , Parslow and Smith in the pecking order for a central defensive berth . York achieved their first win since the opening day of the season after beating Portsmouth 4 – 2 at home , with Fletcher ( 2 ) , Montrose and Jarvis scoring .
= = = October = = =
Defender Luke O 'Neill was signed from Burnley on a 28 @-@ day emergency loan . He made his debut in York 's 3 – 0 win away at Torquay , which was the team 's first successive win of the season . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 3 – 0 at home by League One team Rotherham United , before their winning streak in the league was ended with a 3 – 0 defeat away to Newport County . York drew 2 – 2 away to Chesterfield , having taken a two @-@ goal lead through O 'Neill and Jarvis , before the home team fought back through Armand Gnanduillet and Jay O 'Shea . The team then hosted Fleetwood Town , and the visitors won 2 – 0 with goals scored in each half by Gareth Evans and Jamille Matt . Scunthorpe United were beaten 4 – 1 at home to end York 's three @-@ match run without a win , with all the team 's goals coming in the first half from Carson , Fletcher and Brobbel ( 2 ) .
= = = November = = =
Bowman scored his first goals for York away to Cheltenham Town , as York twice fought back from behind to draw 2 – 2 . York drew 3 – 3 away to Bristol Rovers to earn a first round replay in the FA Cup , taking the lead through Jarvis before Eliot Richards equalised for the home team . Carson scored a 30 yard volley to put York back in the lead , and after Bristol Rovers goals from Matt Harrold and Chris Beardsley , Fletcher scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser for York . Bowman scored with a header from an O 'Neill cross to open the scoring at home to Plymouth Argyle , which was the first goal the visitors had conceded in 500 minutes of action . However , Plymouth equalised 11 minutes later through Tope Obadeyi and the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers in a first round replay ; the visitors were 3 – 0 up by 50 @-@ minutes before Fletcher pulled two back for York with a penalty and a long @-@ range strike .
Defender Keith Lowe , of Cheltenham , and goalkeeper Nick Pope , of Charlton Athletic , were signed on loan until January 2014 . They both played in York 's first league defeat in four weeks , 2 – 1 away , to Southend United . Kevan Hurst gave Southend the lead early into the match and Bowman equalised for York with a low strike during the second half , before Luke Prosser scored the winning goal for the home side in stoppage time . With Pope preferred in goal , Kettings returned to Blackpool on his own accord , although his loan agreement would stay in place until January 2014 . York then drew 0 – 0 away to Morecambe . After Pope was recalled from his loan by Charlton , York signed Wolverhampton Wanderers goalkeeper Aaron McCarey on loan until January 2014 . McCarey kept a clean sheet in York 's 0 – 0 home draw with Rochdale .
= = = December = = =
Cresswell retired from playing as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . York drew 1 – 1 away to Burton Albion , with an own goal scored by Shane Cansdell @-@ Sherriff giving York the lead in the 64th @-@ minute before the home team equalised eight minutes later through Billy Kee . Atkinson was released after failing to force himself into the first team and signed for Scarborough Athletic , with whom he had been on loan . York drew 0 – 0 at home with second @-@ placed Oxford United , in which Carson came closest to scoring with a volley that flashed across the face of the goal . This was followed by another draw after the match away to Accrington Stanley finished 1 – 1 , with the home team equalising 10 minutes after a Fletcher penalty had given York the lead in the 35th @-@ minute . Striker Shaq McDonald , who had been released by Peterborough United , was signed on a contract until the end of the season . York 's last match of 2013 was a 2 – 1 defeat away at Bury , a result that ended York 's run of consecutive draws at five . The home team were 2 – 0 up by the 19th @-@ minute , before Michael Coulson scored York 's goal in the 73rd @-@ minute . This result meant York would begin 2014 in 22nd @-@ position in the table , only out of the relegation zone on goal difference .
= = = January = = =
Jarvis scored the only goal in York 's first win since October 2013 , a 1 – 0 home victory over Morecambe on New Year 's Day . McCarey was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers due to an injury to one of their goalkeepers , while O 'Neill was recalled by Burnley to take part in their FA Cup match . York achieved back @-@ to @-@ back wins for the first time since October 2013 after Dagenham & Redbridge were beaten 3 – 1 at home , with Bowman opening the scoring in the second half before Fletcher scored twice . Adam Reed , who had a spell on loan with York in the previous season , was signed on a contract until the end of the season after parting company with Burton . Davies ' loan was extended , while Brobbel and Whitehouse returned to their parent clubs . Cheltenham club captain Russell Penn , a midfielder , was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Lowe was subsequently signed permanently from Cheltenham on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Having been allowed to leave the club on a free transfer , Ashley Chambers signed for Conference Premier club Cambridge United .
York achieved three successive wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 after beating Northampton 2 – 0 away , with Bowman and Fletcher scoring in three @-@ second half minutes . Defender John McCombe was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract following his release from Mansfield , before Clay and Jamal Fyfield left York by mutual consent . Pope returned to York on loan from Charlton for the remainder of the season . York 's run of wins ended with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Bristol Rovers , before their first defeat of the year came after losing 2 – 0 away to Hartlepool . Preston winger Will Hayhurst , a Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21 international , was signed on a one @-@ month loan . York fell to a successive defeat for the first time since September 2013 after being beaten 2 – 0 at home by Chesterfield . Shortly after the match , Smith left the club by mutual consent to pursue first @-@ team football .
= = = February = = =
Fletcher scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for York away to Fleetwood in a 2 – 1 win , a result that ended Fleetwood 's five @-@ match unbeaten run . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to fellow mid @-@ table team Cheltenham , before beating Plymouth 4 – 0 away with goals from Fletcher , McCombe ( 2 ) and Carson as the team achieved successive away wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 . York went without scoring for a fourth consecutive home match after drawing 0 – 0 with Southend . Having worn the armband since an injury to McGurk , Penn was appointed captain for the rest of the season , a position that had earlier been held by Smith and Parslow .
= = = March = = =
York achieved their first home win in five matches after beating Exeter 2 – 1 , with first half goals scored by McCombe and Coulson . Hayhurst 's loan was extended to the end of the season , having impressed in his six appearances for the club . Coulson scored again with the only goal , a 41st @-@ minute header , in York 's 1 – 0 away win over AFC Wimbledon . Bowman scored the only goal with a 32nd @-@ minute penalty as York won 1 – 0 away against Mansfield , in which Fletcher missed the opportunity to extend the lead when his stoppage time penalty was saved by Alan Marriott . York moved one place outside the play @-@ offs with a 2 – 0 home win over Wycombe , courtesy of a second Bowman penalty in as many matches and a Carson goal from the edge of the penalty area . Coulson scored York 's only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over struggling Portsmouth with a low volley in the fifth @-@ minute ; this result meant York moved into the play @-@ offs in seventh @-@ place with eight fixtures remaining .
Striker Calvin Andrew , who had been released by Mansfield in January 2014 , was signed on a contract for the remainder of the season . He made his debut as a substitute in York 's 1 – 0 home win over bottom of the table Torquay , in which Hayhurst scored the only goal in the 11th @-@ minute with an 18 yard shot that deflected off Aaron Downes . Middlesbrough winger Brobbel rejoined on loan until the end of the season , following an injury to Carson . York 's run of successive wins ended on six matches after a 0 – 0 home draw with Burton , and this result saw York drop out of the play @-@ offs in eighth @-@ place . With the team recording six wins and one draw in March 2014 , including six clean sheets , Worthington was named League Two Manager of the Month .
= = = April = = =
Pope made a number of saves as York held league leaders Rochdale to a 0 – 0 away draw , with a point being enough to lift the team back into seventh @-@ place . York were prevented from equalling a club record of eight consecutive clean sheets when Accrington scored a stoppage time equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw , in which York had taken earlier taken the lead with a Coulson penalty . A 1 – 0 win away win over Oxford , which was decided by a second half Coulson penalty , resulted in York moving one place above their opponents and back into seventh @-@ place . York consolidated their place in a play @-@ off position after beating Bury 1 – 0 at home with a fifth @-@ minute goal scored by Lowe from a Hayhurst corner . The result meant York opened up a five @-@ point lead over eighth @-@ placed Oxford with two fixtures remaining . A place in the League Two play @-@ offs was secured following a 1 – 0 win over Newport at home , in which Coulson scored the only goal in the 77th @-@ minute with a 25 yard free kick . Pope earned a nomination for League Two Player of the Month for April 2014 , having conceded only one goal in five matches in that period .
= = = May = = =
The league season concluded with an away match against divisional runners @-@ up Scunthorpe ; having gone two goals down York fought back to draw 2 – 2 with goals scored by Brobbel and Andrew . This result meant York finished the season in seventh @-@ place in League Two , and would thus play fourth @-@ placed Fleetwood in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final on the back of a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run . York lost 1 – 0 to Fleetwood in the first leg at Bootham Crescent ; the goal came from former York player Matty Blair in the 50th @-@ minute , who scored from close range after Antoni Sarcevic 's shot was blocked on the line . A 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood in the second leg meant York were eliminated 1 – 0 on aggregate , ending the prospect of a second promotion in three seasons . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Oyebanjo was voted Clubman of the Year for 2013 – 14 .
= = Summary and aftermath = =
York mostly occupied the bottom half of the table before the turn of the year , and dropped as low as 23rd in September 2013 . During February 2014 the team broke into the top half of the table and with one match left were in sixth @-@ place . York 's defensive record was the third best in League Two with 41 goals conceded , bettered only by Southend ( 39 ) and Chesterfield ( 40 ) . Davies made the highest number of appearances over the season , appearing in 47 of York 's 52 matches . Fletcher was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with 10 league goals and 13 in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Jarvis with nine goals .
After the season ended York released Tom Allan , Andrew , Dickinson , McDonald , Puri and Reed , while McGurk retired from professional football . Bowman and Oyebanjo left to sign for Torquay and Crawley Town respectively while Coulson signed a new contract with the club . York 's summer signings included goalkeeper Jason Mooney from Tranmere Rovers , defenders Femi Ilesanmi from Dagenham , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders Lindon Meikle from Mansfield , Anthony Straker from Southend and Luke Summerfield from Shrewsbury and striker Jake Hyde from Barnet .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Football League Two = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = = Football League Trophy = = =
= = = Football League Two play @-@ offs = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loan in = = =
= = = Loan out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
= Antimony =
Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb ( from Latin : stibium ) and atomic number 51 . A lustrous gray metalloid , it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) . Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics ; metallic antimony was also known , but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery . In the West , it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540 , although in primitive cultures its powder has been used to cure eye ailments , as also for eye shadow , since time immemorial , and is often referred to by its Arabic name , kohl .
For some time , China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds , with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan . The industrial methods to produce antimony are roasting and reduction using carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron .
The largest applications for metallic antimony are as alloying material for lead and tin and for lead antimony plates in lead – acid batteries . Alloying lead and tin with antimony improves the properties of the alloys which are used in solders , bullets and plain bearings . Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine @-@ containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products . An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Properties = = =
Antimony is in the nitrogen group ( group 15 ) and has an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 05 . As expected from periodic trends , it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth , and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic . Antimony is stable in air at room temperature , but reacts with oxygen if heated , to form antimony trioxide , Sb2O3 .
Antimony is a silvery , lustrous gray metalloid that has a Mohs scale hardness of 3 . Thus pure antimony is too soft to make hard objects ; coins made of antimony were issued in China 's Guizhou province in 1931 , but because of their rapid wear , their minting was discontinued . Antimony is resistant to attack by acids .
Four allotropes of antimony are known : a stable metallic form and three metastable forms ( explosive , black and yellow ) . Elemental antimony is a brittle , silver @-@ white shiny metalloid . When slowly cooled , molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell , isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic . A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride . When scratched with a sharp implement , an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony is formed ; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar , a strong detonation occurs . Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of vapor derived from metallic antimony . It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic , it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously . At 100 ° C , it gradually transforms into the stable form . The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable . It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine ( SbH3 ) at − 90 ° C. Above this temperature and in ambient light , this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope .
Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure ( space group R3m No. 166 ) in which layers consist of fused ruffled six @-@ membered rings . The nearest and next @-@ nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex , with the three atoms in the same double layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next . This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 , but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Antimony has two stable isotopes : 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57 @.@ 36 % and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42 @.@ 64 % . It also has 35 radioisotopes , of which the longest @-@ lived is 125Sb with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 75 years . In addition , 29 metastable states have been characterized . The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 76 days . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions .
= = = Occurrence = = =
The abundance of antimony in the Earth 's crust is estimated at 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 parts per million , comparable to thallium at 0 @.@ 5 parts per million and silver at 0 @.@ 07 ppm . Even though this element is not abundant , it is found in over 100 mineral species . Antimony is sometimes found natively ( e.g. on Antimony Peak ) , but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) which is the predominant ore mineral .
= = Compounds = =
Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state : Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . The + 5 oxidation state is more stable .
= = = Oxides and hydroxides = = =
Antimony trioxide ( Sb
4O
6 ) is formed when antimony is burnt in air . In the gas phase , this compound exists as Sb
4O
6 , but it polymerizes upon condensing . Antimony pentoxide ( Sb
4O
10 ) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid . Antimony also forms a mixed @-@ valence oxide , antimony tetroxide ( Sb
2O
4 ) , which features both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic , these various oxides are amphoteric , do not form well @-@ defined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts .
Antimonous acid Sb ( OH )
3 is unknown , but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ( [ Na
3SbO
3 ]
4 ) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb
4O
6 . Transition metal antimonites are also known . Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb ( OH )
6 , forming salts containing the antimonate anion Sb ( OH ) −
6 . Dehydrating metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides .
Many antimony ores are sulfides , including stibnite ( Sb
2S
3 ) , pyrargyrite ( Ag
3SbS
3 ) , zinkenite , jamesonite , and boulangerite . Antimony pentasulfide is non @-@ stoichiometric and features antimony in the + 3 oxidation state and S @-@ S bonds . Several thioantimonides are known , such as [ Sb
6S
10 ] 2 − and [ Sb
8S
13 ] 2 − .
= = = Halides = = =
Antimony forms two series of halides : SbX
3 and SbX
5 . The trihalides SbF
3 , SbCl
3 , SbBr
3 , and SbI
3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry .
The trifluoride SbF
3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb
2O
3 with HF :
Sb
2O
3 + 6 HF → 2 SbF
3 + 3 H
2O
It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF −
4 and SbF2 −
5 . Molten SbF
3 is a weak electrical conductor . The trichloride SbCl
3 is prepared by dissolving Sb
2S
3 in hydrochloric acid :
Sb
2S
3 + 6 HCl → 2 SbCl
3 + 3 H
2S
The pentahalides SbF
5 and SbCl
5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase , but in the liquid phase , SbF
5 is polymeric , whereas SbCl
5 is monomeric . SbF
5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ( " H2SbF7 " ) .
Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than arsenic and phosphorus . Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and ( SbO )
2SO
4 .
= = = Antimonides , hydrides , and organoantimony compounds = = =
Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3 − . Antimony forms antimonides with metals , such as indium antimonide ( InSb ) and silver antimonide ( Ag
3Sb ) . The alkali metal and zinc antimonides , such as Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2 , are more reactive . Treating these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine , SbH
3 :
Sb3 − + 3 H + → SbH
3
Stibine can also be produced by treating Sb3 + salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride.Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature . Because stibine has a positive heat of formation , it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly .
Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents . A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) centers , including mixed chloro @-@ organic derivatives , anions , and cations . Examples include Sb ( C6H5 ) 3 ( triphenylstibine ) , Sb2 ( C6H5 ) 4 ( with an Sb @-@ Sb bond ) , and cyclic [ Sb ( C6H5 ) ] n . Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common , examples being Sb ( C6H5 ) 5 and several related halides .
= = History = =
Antimony ( III ) sulfide , Sb2S3 , was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic ( kohl ) as early as about 3100 BC , when the cosmetic palette was invented .
An artifact , said to be part of a vase , made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh , Chaldea ( part of present @-@ day Iraq ) , and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt . Austen , at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that " we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal , which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase , and therefore this remarkable ' find ' ( artifact mentioned above ) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable . "
Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase , mentioning that Selimkhanov , after his analysis of the Tello object ( published in 1975 ) , " attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony " ( i.e. native metal ) and that " the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments . " This weakens the evidence for a lost art " of rendering antimony malleable . "
The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History . Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between " male " and " female " forms of antimony ; the male form is probably the sulfide , while the female form , which is superior , heavier , and less friable , has been suspected to be native metallic antimony .
The Roman naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air . It is thought that this produced metallic antimony .
The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio ; this predates the more famous 1556 book by Agricola , De re metallica . In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony . The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii ( The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony ) , describing the preparation of metallic antimony , was published in Germany in 1604 . It was purported to have been written by a Benedictine monk , writing under the name Basilius Valentinus , in the 15th century ; if it were authentic , which it is not , it would predate Biringuccio .
The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide , salt and potassium tartrate . This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface .
With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides , oxides , and other compounds , as is the case with other metals .
The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth 's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783 ; the type @-@ sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala , Västmanland , Sweden .
= = = Etymology = = =
The ancient words for antimony mostly have , as their chief meaning , kohl , the sulfide of antimony .
The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt ; in hieroglyphs , the vowels are uncertain , but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is ميسديميت mesdemet . The Greek word , στίμμι stimmi , is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian stm
and is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC ; later Greeks also used στἰβι stibi , as did Celsus and Pliny , writing in Latin , in the first century AD . Pliny also gives the names stimi [ sic ] , larbaris , alabaster , and the " very common " platyophthalmos , " wide @-@ eye " ( from the effect of the cosmetic ) . Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium . The Arabic word for the substance , as opposed to the cosmetic , can appear as إثمد ithmid , athmoud , othmod , or uthmod . Littré suggests the first form , which is the earliest , derives from stimmida , an accusative for stimmi .
The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to Jöns Jakob Berzelius , who used this abbreviation of the name stibium . The medieval Latin form , from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony , is antimonium . The origin of this is uncertain ; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation . The popular etymology , from ἀντίμοναχός anti @-@ monachos or French antimoine , still has adherents ; this would mean " monk @-@ killer " , and is explained by many early alchemists being monks , and antimony being poisonous .
Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos , " against aloneness " , explained as " not found as metal " , or " not found unalloyed " . Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον anthemonion , which would mean " floret " , and cites several examples of related Greek words ( but not that one ) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence .
The early uses of antimonium include the translations , in 1050 – 1100 , by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises . Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form ; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid ; other possibilities include athimar , the Arabic name of the metalloid , and a hypothetical as @-@ stimmi , derived from or parallel to the Greek .
= = Production = =
= = = Top producers and production volumes = = =
The British Geological Survey ( BGS ) reported that in 2005 , China was the top producer of antimony with an approximately 84 % world share , followed at a distance by South Africa , Bolivia and Tajikistan . Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2 @.@ 1 million metric tons .
In 2010 , according to the US Geological Survey , China accounted for 88 @.@ 9 % of total antimony production with South Africa , Bolivia and Russia sharing the second place .
However , Roskill Consulting estimates for primary production show that in 2010 China held a 76 @.@ 75 % share of world supply with 120 @,@ 462 tonnes ( 90 @,@ 000 tonnes of reported and 30 @,@ 464 tonnes of un @-@ reported production ) , followed by Russia ( 4 @.@ 14 % share , 6 @,@ 500 tonnes of production ) , Myanmar ( 3 @.@ 76 % share , 5 @,@ 897 tonnes ) , Canada ( 3 @.@ 61 % share , 5 @,@ 660 tonnes ) , Tajikistan ( 3 @.@ 42 % share , 5 @,@ 370 tonnes ) and Bolivia ( 3 @.@ 17 % share , 4 @,@ 980 tonnes ) .
Roskill estimates that secondary production globally in 2010 was 39 @,@ 540 tonnes .
Antimony was ranked first in a Risk List published by the British Geological Survey in the second half of 2011 . The list provides an indication of the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current British economy and lifestyle .
Also , antimony was identified as one of 12 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2011 , primarily due to the lack of supply outside China .
Reported production of antimony in China fell in 2010 and is unlikely to increase in the coming years , according to the Roskill report . No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years , and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted .
The world 's largest antimony producers , according to Roskill , are listed below :
= = = Reserves = = =
According to statistics from the USGS , current global reserves of antimony will be depleted in 13 years . However , the USGS expects more resources will be found .
= = = Production process = = =
The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality of the ore and composition of the ore . Most antimony is mined as the sulfide ; lower @-@ grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation , while higher @-@ grade ores are heated to 500 – 600 ° C , the temperature at which stibnite melts and is separated from the gangue minerals . Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by a reduction with scrap iron :
Sb
2S
3 + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS
The sulfide is converted to an oxide and advantage is often taken of the volatility of antimony ( III ) oxide , which is recovered from roasting . This material is often used directly for the main applications , impurities being arsenic and sulfide . Isolating antimony from its oxide is performed by a carbothermal reduction :
2 Sb
2O
3 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 CO
2
The lower @-@ grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher @-@ grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces .
= = Applications = =
About 60 % of antimony is consumed in flame retardants , and 20 % is used in alloys for batteries , plain bearings and solders .
= = = Flame retardants = = =
Antimony is mainly used as its trioxide in making flame @-@ proofing compounds . It is nearly always used in combination with halogenated flame retardants , with the only exception being in halogen @-@ containing polymers . The formation of halogenated antimony compounds is the cause for the flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide , due to reaction of these compounds with hydrogen atoms and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals , thus inhibiting fire . Markets for these flame @-@ retardant applications include children 's clothing , toys , aircraft and automobile seat covers . It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers . The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed .
= = = Alloys = = =
Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead , increasing its hardness and mechanical strength . For most applications involving lead , varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal . In lead – acid batteries , this addition improves the charging characteristics and reduces generation of unwanted hydrogen during charging . It is used in antifriction alloys ( such as Babbitt metal ) , in bullets and lead shot , cable sheathing , type metal ( for example , for linotype printing machines ) , solder ( some " lead @-@ free " solders contain 5 % Sb ) , in pewter , and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes .
= = = Other applications = = =
Three other applications make up nearly all the rest of the consumption . One of these uses is as a stabilizer and a catalyst for the production of polyethyleneterephthalate . Another application is to serve as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass , mostly for TV screens ; this is achieved by the interaction of antimony ions with oxygen , interfering the latter from forming bubbles . The third major application is the use as pigment .
Antimony is being increasingly used in the semiconductor industry as a dopant for heavily doped n @-@ type silicon wafers in the production of diodes , infrared detectors , and Hall @-@ effect devices . In the 1950s , tiny beads of a lead @-@ antimony alloy were used to dope the emitters and collectors of n @-@ p @-@ n alloy junction transistors with antimony . Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid @-@ infrared detectors .
Few biological or medical applications exist for antimony . Treatments principally containing antimony are known as antimonials and are used as emetics . Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs . Potassium antimonyl tartrate , or tartar emetic , was once used as an anti @-@ schistosomal drug from 1919 on . It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel . Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate , which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants . Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues , at least in animals .
Antimony @-@ based drugs , such as meglumine antimoniate , are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals . Unfortunately , as well as having low therapeutic indices , the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow , where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside , and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult . Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine . It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination .
In the heads of some safety matches , antimony ( III ) sulfide is used . Antimony @-@ 124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources ; the gamma rays emitted by antimony @-@ 124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium . The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV . Antimony sulfides have been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials .
Antimony also is used in the making of bullets and bullet tracers . This element is also used in paint and glass art crafts and as opacifier in enamel .
= = Precautions = =
The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely . The massive antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health . Inhalation of antimony trioxide ( and similar poorly soluble Sb ( III ) dust particles such as antimony dust ) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer . However , these effects are only observed with female rats and after long @-@ term exposure to high dust concentrations . The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance , lung overload , inflammation and ultimately tumour formation , not to exposure to antimony ions ( OECD , 2008 ) . Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin . The effects of antimony are not comparable to arsenic ; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake , metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony .
For oral absorption , ICRP ( 1994 ) recommended values of 10 % for tartar emetic and 1 % for all other antimony compounds . Dermal absorption for metals is estimated at most 1 % ( HERAG , 2007 ) . Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb ( III ) substances ( such as antimony dust ) is estimated at 6 @.@ 8 % ( OECD , 2008 ) , whereas a value < 1 % is derived for Sb ( V ) substances . Antimony ( V ) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony ( III ) in the cell , and both species exist simultaneously .
Antimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine . Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects , with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate ( " tartar emetic " ) , a prodrug that is intentionally used to treat leishmaniasis patients .
Prolonged skin contact with antimony dust may cause dermatitis . However , it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin rashes observed are not substance @-@ specific , but most probably due to a physical blocking of sweat ducts ( ECHA / PR / 09 / 09 , Helsinki , 6 July 2009 ) . Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air ; when in a bulk solid it is not combustible .
Antimony is incompatible with strong acids , halogenated acids , and oxidizers ; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine ( SbH3 ) .
The 8 hour time weighted average ( TWA ) is set at 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) as a legal permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) in the workplace . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 as an 8 hour TWA . Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) production . Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids , but levels are below drinking water guidelines . Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher ( up to 44 @.@ 7 µg / L of antimony ) , but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations . The drinking water guidelines are :
World Health Organization : 20 µg / L
Japan : 15 µg / L
United States Environmental Protection Agency , Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment : 6 µg / L
EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment : 5 µg / L
The TDI proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) value for antimony is 50 mg / m3 .
= Mortimer Wheeler =
Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH , CIE , MC , TD , FSA , FRS , FBA ( 10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976 ) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army . Over the course of his career , he served as Director of both the National Museum of Wales and London Museum , Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , and the founder and Honorary Director of the Institute of Archaeology in London , further writing twenty @-@ four books on archaeological subjects .
Born in Glasgow to a middle @-@ class family , Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years . After studying Classics at University College London ( UCL ) , he began working professionally in archaeology , specializing in the Romano @-@ British period . During World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery , being stationed on the Western Front , where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross . Returning to Britain , he obtained his doctorate from UCL before taking on a position at the National Museum of Wales , first as Keeper of Archaeology and then as Director , during which time he oversaw excavation at the Roman forts of Segontium , Y Gaer , and Isca Augusta with the aid of his first wife , Tessa Wheeler . Influenced by the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , Wheeler argued that excavation and the recording of stratigraphic context required an increasingly scientific and methodical approach , developing the " Wheeler Method " . In 1926 , he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum ; there , he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection , successfully lobbied for increased funding , and began lecturing at UCL .
In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and Brahmagiri , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects .
Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or reinterpreted , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1890 – 1907 = = =
Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née Baynes ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch freethinker while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " Boberic " and Amy being " Totsy " .
When Wheeler was four , his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer . The family relocated to Saltaire , a village northwest of Bradford , a cosmopolitan city in Yorkshire , northeast England , which was then in the midst of the wool trade boom . Wheeler was inspired by the moors surrounding Saltaire and fascinated by the area 's archaeology . He later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup @-@ marked stone , searching for lithics on Ilkley Moor , and digging into a barrow on Baildon Moor . Although suffering from ill health , Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight . Mortimer remained emotionally distant from his mother , instead being far closer to his father , whose company he favoured over that of other children . His father had a keen interest in natural history and a love of fishing and shooting , rural pursuits in which he encouraged Mortimer to take part . Robert acquired many books for his son , particularly on the subject of art history , with Wheeler loving to both read and paint .
In 1899 , Wheeler joined Bradford Grammar School shortly before his ninth birthday , where he proceeded straight to the second form . In 1902 Robert and Emily had a second daughter , whom they named Betty ; Mortimer showed little interest in this younger sister . In 1905 , Robert agreed to take over as head of the London office of his newspaper , by then renamed the Yorkshire Daily Observer , and so the family relocated to the southeast of the city in December , settling into a house named Carlton Lodge on South Croydon Road , West Dulwich . In 1908 they moved to 14 Rollescourt Avenue in nearby Herne Hill . Rather than being sent for a conventional education , when he was 15 Wheeler was instructed to educate himself by spending time in London , where he frequented The National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum .
= = = University and early career : 1907 – 14 = = =
After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , commuting daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent classicist A. E. Housman . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the Slade School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude had adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class BA on graduating .
Wheeler began studying for a Master of Arts degree in classical studies , which he attained in 1912 . During this period , he also gained employment as the personal secretary of the UCL Provost Gregory Foster , although he later criticised Foster for transforming the university from " a college in the truly academic sense [ into ] a hypertrophied monstrosity as little like a college as a plesiosaurus is like a man " . It was also at this time of life that he met and began a relationship with Tessa Verney , a student then studying history at UCL , when they were both serving on the committee of the University College Literary Society .
During his studies , Wheeler had developed his love of archaeology , having joined an excavation of Viroconium Cornoviorum , a Romano @-@ British settlement in Wroxeter , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a studentship that had been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the studentship . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to analyse Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published .
At this period , there were very few jobs available within British archaeology ; as the later archaeologist Stuart Piggott related , " the young Wheeler was looking for a professional job where the profession had yet to be created . " In 1913 Wheeler secured a position as junior investigator for the English Royal Commission on Historical Monuments , who were embarking on a project to assess the state of all structures in the nation that pre @-@ dated 1714 . As part of this , he was first sent to Stebbing in Essex to assess Late Medieval buildings , although once that was accomplished he focused on studying the Romano @-@ British remains of that county . In summer 1914 he married Tessa in a low @-@ key , secular wedding ceremony , before they moved into Wheeler 's parental home in Herne Hill .
= = = First World War : 1914 – 18 = = =
After the United Kingdom 's entry into World War I in 1914 , Wheeler volunteered for the armed forces . Although preferring solitary to group activities , Wheeler found that he greatly enjoyed soldiering . For the next seven months , he was posted as an instructor in the University of London Officer Training Corps . It was during this period , in January 1915 , that a son was born to the Wheelers , and named Michael . Michael was their only child , something that was a social anomaly at the time , although it is unknown if this was by choice or not . In May 1915 , Wheeler transferred to the Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) and shortly thereafter was appointed captain . In this position he was stationed at various bases across Britain , often bringing his wife and child with him ; his responsibility was as a battery commander , initially of field guns and later of howitzers .
In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it had been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who had been poisoned by mustard gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained correspondences with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy .
Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian Riviera to reach Caporetto , where it had been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army refocused its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from Castelfranco to Vieux Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian Byng 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of Achiet and Sapignies , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not demobilised for several months , instead being stationed at Pulheim in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 .
= = Career = =
= = = National Museum of Wales : 1919 – 26 = = =
On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and cataloguing the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman Balkerne Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by Boudica 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; thenceforth until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he had had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment .
He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in disarray ; prior to the war , construction had begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This had ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 .
Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . Greatly influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for Archaeologia Cambrensis before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond .
Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y Gaer near Brecon , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , Nowell Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near Brecon . He then began excavations at Isca Augusta , a Roman site in Caerleon , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the folkloric and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book .
In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans Hoyle , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive testimonials from Charles Reed Peers , Robert Bosanquet , and H. J. Fleure . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy shipowner William Reardon Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to Whitehall , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 .
= = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = =
Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station .
Tessa 's biographer L.C. Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " professionalized the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , expurgated , and catalogued ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a tolerably rational institution " . Focusing on reorganising the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of cataloguing the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 .
Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely moribund Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid lectureship at University College London , where he established a graduate diploma course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler curated an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention .
Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports .
From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. Lowther . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby Catuvellauni settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A Belgic and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist Nowell Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and guesswork . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford .
= = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = =
Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " .
After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples .
In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East .
After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art .
Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed .
After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 .
= = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = =
Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 .
In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the RMS Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local kraals to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great Bitter Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery .
Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island .
Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies .
Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 .
= = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = =
Wheeler arrived in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gradational , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal .
= = Invalid and synonymous species = =
A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized .
Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a typo for Antrodemus valens accidentally used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932 ; Antrodemus valens itself may also pertain to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . Apatodon mirus , based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus .
= = Misassigned species = =
Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species Dryosaurus grandis , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to a new species , Dryptosaurus medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus sibiricus was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal , from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia , Russia . It was transferred to Chilantaisaurus in 1990 .
Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian .
There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus potens was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. sulcatus , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious ceratosaurian .
A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight .
= = Specimens misassigned to Allosaurus though not described as new species = =
Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 .
An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " , an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs .
= Astraeus hygrometricus =
Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 micrometers in diameter .
Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = =
Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ( as Geaster , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched capillitium threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's Geaster hygrometricum as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon Herriot Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining :
The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded .
Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the taxonomical authority MycoBank , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include Lycoperdon stellatus Scop . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum fibrillosum Schwein . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum stellatum ( Scop . ) Wettst . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus stellatus E.Fisch. ( 1900 ) .
Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 .
Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named .
A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by V.J. Stanĕk in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by Hanns Kreisel . As pointed out by Fangfuk and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea .
= = Description = =
Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and curls or uncurls the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll .
The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval locules — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity .
The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter .
= = = Edibility = = =
North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India .
A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus .
= = Similar species = =
Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium , G. corollinum , G. floriforme , G. recolligens , and G. kotlabae . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc , in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. mammosum , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter .
Astraeus pteridis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus .
The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio .
In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus .
Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride .
= = Traditional beliefs = =
This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events .
= Paul Thomas Anderson =
Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as P.T. Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . Interested in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker .
In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled Cigarettes & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office .
In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim .
Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew .
= = Early life = =
Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep .
Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a Betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a Bolex sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes , who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Anderson spent two semesters as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " homework or a chore " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " .
For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling winnings , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael Caton @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons .
= = = 1990s = = =
= = = = Hard Eight = = = =
While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career .
= = = = Boogie Nights = = = =
Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk Diggler Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally gaga " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay .
= = = = Magnolia = = = =
After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept blossoming " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . "
= = = 2000s = = =
= = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = =
After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or .
= = = = There Will Be Blood = = = =
There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David Denby of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard Schickel proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " .
= = = 2010s = = =
= = = = The Master = = = =
In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress .
= = = = Inherent Vice = = = =
Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , Jena Malone , Martin Short , Benicio Del Toro , Katherine Waterston , Josh Brolin , Peter McRobbie , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design .
= = = = Junun = = = =
In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century Mehrangarh Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival .
= = = = Future projects = = = =
Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 .
= = = Other work = = =
Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion .
= = Influences and style = =
= = = Influences = = =
Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker .
= = = Themes and style = = =
Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny , the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks such as constantly moving camera , steadicam @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and multilayered audiovisual imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood .
Within his first three films , Hard Eight , Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families , alienation and loneliness . Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts , which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice . In Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson explored similar themes but expressed a different visual style , shedding the influences and references of his earlier films , being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality . It was also short , compared to his previous two films , at 90 minutes .
There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films but shared similar themes and style such as flawed characters , moving camera , memorable music , and a lengthy running time . The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been , examining capitalism and themes such as savagery , optimism , and obsession . The Master dealt with " ideas about American personality , success , rootlessness , master @-@ disciple dynamics , and father @-@ son mutually assured destruction . " All of his films deal with American themes with business versus art in Boogie Nights , ambition in There Will Be Blood , self @-@ reinvention in The Master .
= = = Frequent collaborators = = =
Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson has referred to his regular actors as " my little rep company " that has included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. Macy , Melora Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis Guzmán is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin Breznahan , and Jim Meskimen , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert Elswit has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr . Jon Brion served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners JoAnne Sellar , Scott Rudin , Michael De Luca , and Daniel Lupi as well as casting director Cassandra Kulukundis .
= = Personal life = =
Anderson dated ( and frequently collaborated with ) singer Fiona Apple for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s . He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since 2001 . They live together in the San Fernando Valley with their four children : daughters Pearl Bailey ( born October 2005 ) , Lucille ( born November 2009 ) , and Minnie Ida ( born August 2013 ) and son Jack ( born July 2011 ) .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and recognition = =
Anderson has been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a wunderkind . In his 2002 interview with Jan Aghed , the director Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft has intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as " a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) .
= The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman =
The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , appended to it is a moralitas which elaborates on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the appropriateness of the moralitas for the tale itself has been questioned .
The tale combines two motifs . Firstly , a husbandman tilling the fields with his new oxen makes a rash oath aloud to give them to the wolf ; when the wolf overhears this , he attempts to make sure that the man fulfills his promise . The fox mediates a solution by speaking to them individually ; eventually he fools the wolf into following him to claim his supposed reward for dropping the case , and tricks him into a draw @-@ well . The moralitas connects the wolf to the wicked man , the fox to the devil , and the husbandman to the godly man . A probable source for the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina Clericalis , containing the same motifs , and William Caxton 's Aesop 's Fables — though the tale is a beast fable , not Aesopic .
= = Source = =
A probable source of the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina clericalis , which has the same three motifs : the rash promise of the husbandman ; the wolf mistaking the moon for cheese ; and the wolf that descends into the well via a bucket , thereby trapping himself and freeing the fox . However , the discussion of legality and the questioning of language that take place alongside these motifs are entirely Henryson 's invention . Whereas the moral of Alfonsi 's tale explains that the wolf lost both the oxen and the cheese because he " relinquished what was present for what was to come " ( Latin : pro futuro quod presens erat dimisit ) , Henryson 's moralitas more fully involves the husbandman .
Another source may be Aesop 's Fables as published by William Caxton — scholar John MacQueen considers this more likely than Disciplina clericalis — although the tale itself is not Aesopic but rather of the beast fable ( also beast @-@ epic ) genre . The plots of such works are more complicated than their Aesopic counterpart , tend more towards ribaldry , and feature the fox making a victim of the wolf .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Tale = = =
A husbandman tilling the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their wrecking of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " mot have you all at anis ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , overhearing it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman reproaches the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit coist and expence " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the fattest hens he has , to which the fox acedes and goes off . To the wolf he says that the husbandman has offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case .
The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the fruitlessness of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox has jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator professes that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end .
= = = Moralitas = = =
The wolf is likened to a wicked man who oppresses others . The fox is likened to the devil . The farmer is likened to the godly man , with whom the fiend finds fault . The woods where the wolf was cheated are corrupting goods that man longs to get . The cheese represents covetousness ; the well that contains it is fraud and fantasy , which draws men downwards into hell .
= = Analysis = =
As with other tales in the collection , the moralitas of The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman can be considered at odds with the tale itself . Lianne Farber highlights a number of these discrepancies , and says that the allegory " does not hold true in any traditional sense " . Amongst the inconsistencies is that the fox , not the wolf , is the figure that argues with and finds fault in the husbandman ; the " woods of the world " are not traversed by the husbandman , in spite of the moralitas suggesting it is applicable to all men ; Farber argues that even assuming the moral to be true is problematic , since it apparently suggests that the godly man must bribe the figure of the judge , and that this does not affect his godly status . Furthermore , the absence of the legal discussion and the binding quality of words from the moralitas suggests to Farber that the " intricate legal framework … has no impact whatsoever in resolving the issues with which it is supposed to deal " . In contrast , Philippa M. Bright considers that the moralitas of this tale , as well as several others , create " an additional sense which co @-@ exists with the literal narrative and extends and complements it thematically " ; treating literal details symbolically and establishing the sense through direct comparisons .
According to Dorothy Yamamoto , the significant themes in the tale are " solidity and vacancy , substance and illusion " . The cheese that apparently resides in the well is only an illusion , not a solid object , and similarly the fox creates a surface reconciliation between the wolf and the husbandman , but which betrays his real intentions . Through their frequent misuse , words that should convey real value are emptied of meaning . As an example , Yamamoto highlights the fox 's taill on which the wolf and husbandman make their pledge — which body part she says is used by the fox in other tales to blind his foes , and is thereby a highly inappropriate object to use .
= = = Modern edition = = =
Henryson , Robert ( 2009 ) . The Testament of Cresseid & seven fables . Trans. by Seamus Heaney . London : Faber and Faber . ISBN 9780571249282 .
= Joe Nathan =
Joseph Michael " Joe " Nathan ( born November 22 , 1974 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nathan started out his baseball career as a shortstop in high school and while at Stony Brook University , but converted to a pitcher after being drafted by the San Francisco Giants . He worked his way through the minor leagues , alternating between spots in the rotation and the bullpen . After a few years of splitting time between the majors and the minors , Nathan had a breakout season as a setup man for the Giants in 2003 . That offseason , Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins and became their closer .
From 2004 to 2009 , Nathan was considered one of the top closers in MLB with four All @-@ Star appearances and a league @-@ leading 246 saves . In 2010 , Nathan underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his throwing elbow and missed the entire season . On April 3 , 2011 , Nathan recorded his first save since his injury against the Toronto Blue Jays and later that year in July , Nathan regained the role as closer . On August 10 , 2011 , he became the Twins all @-@ time leader in saves with his 255th in a game against the Boston Red Sox . After the 2011 season , Nathan left the Twins via free agency to sign with the Texas Rangers , becoming an All @-@ Star again in 2012 and 2013 . On April 8 , 2013 , he earned his 300th save . After the 2013 season , Nathan left the Rangers via free agency to sign with the Detroit Tigers . Nathan is currently 8th on the all @-@ time saves list .
= = Early career = =
Nathan graduated from Pine Bush High School in Pine Bush , New York in 1992 , where he played basketball and baseball and ran track . Only Division III colleges showed minimal interest in him , and he ended up at Stony Brook University largely because his high school assistant coach Jeff Masionet and Stony Brook baseball coach Matt Senk knew each other as former teammates in the State University of New York at Cortland baseball program .
= = College career = =
He first played shortstop for the then Division III Stony Brook Patriots ( now Division I and called the Seawolves ) , at Stony Brook University in Long Island , New York . Nathan became a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ American and graduating as a member of the Golden Key International Honour Society . During his tenure there , professional baseball scouts began to notice his good arm and pitcher 's body , and on the day of a rainout , unfortunately , " literally someone from every organization " came to watch him pitch . He was drafted in the sixth round ( 159th overall ) of the amateur draft by the San Francisco Giants in 1995 , and signed the next day , June 2 . His college jersey number has since been retired , and he was awarded the University Medal , the highest recognition given by SUNY / Stony Brook . He also played for the Fairfield Stallions in the New England Collegiate Baseball League in 1994 .
In August 2008 , he gave the SUNY / Stony Brook athletics department $ 500 @,@ 000 for a new baseball facility . In recognition of this " lead gift " from the Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , the college named it " Joe Nathan Field . "
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor Leagues = = =
He began his minor league career in Class A for the Bellingham Giants . After an unsuccessful year at the plate the Giants tried to convert Nathan into a pitcher , but he refused and left to return to Stony Brook for a year , graduating with a degree in business management . He gave more thought to his future in baseball , however , and after graduation decided to return to the Giants organization and developed into a standout pitching prospect . After a season with the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes , he pitched for both the A and AA levels for ( the San Jose Giants and Shreveport Captains ) in 1998 as a starter . During his tenure with San Jose he started 22 games with an ERA of 3 @.@ 32 and 118 strikeouts , leading the Class A Giants to the California League championship . Promoted to AA Shreveport in 1999 , he pitched in only two games before being promoted to the parent club in 1999 .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
Nathan was promoted to the San Francisco Giants on April 20 , 1999 , taking the roster spot of superstar slugger Barry Bonds , who went on the disabled list after left elbow surgery . He made his major league debut the next day , pitching seven shutout innings and winning his first major league decision against the Florida Marlins , 4 – 0 . He then divided the rest of the season between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and the Giants , going 6 – 4 with the Griz and 7 – 4 and 4 @.@ 18 with the Giants , earning his first career save on May 16 against the Houston Astros .
After a short stint in the minors in 2000 , Nathan spent most of the season in the majors , finishing 5 – 2 and even hitting two home runs . But he struggled with his control , walking 63 in 931 ⁄ 3 innings and ending the season with a 5 @.@ 21 ERA . He was on the disabled list twice : from May 17 to June 6 for right shoulder tendinitis and from July 14 to August 18 for an inflamed right shoulder , necessitating arthroscopic surgery on the afflicted shoulder at the end of the season . Nathan divided 2001 between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and AA Shreveport both starting and relieving , finishing with a disappointing combined 3 – 11 record and an ERA over 7 . Nathan improved slightly in 2002 to 6 – 12 with an ERA of over 5 at Fresno , but finally overcame his postsurgical struggles to return to the Giants in September with 32 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in relief .
Nathan spent all of 2003 with the Giants in the bullpen after marrying Lisa Lemoncelli , his girlfriend of five years , in November 2002 . This was a breakout year for Nathan , starting the season with 23 scoreless innings en route to a 12 – 4 record in his first full year as a reliever . His 78 appearances put him high on the list of most @-@ used pitchers for the season as one of the best setup men in the NL , allowing no runs in 15 appearances from July 18 to August 20 . His 12 wins in relief led the majors . The Giants won the National League West by 151 ⁄ 2 games and drew the Florida Marlins , the National League 's wild card winner , in the NLDS . Nathan was hit hard in that series , blowing his only save opportunity . His team fared no better , winning Game 1 behind Jason Schmidt 's complete game shutout before dropping the next three .
= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = =
= = = = 2004 = = = =
Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins on November 16 , 2003 , in one of the more lopsided trades in San Francisco Giants history . The Giants sent Nathan to the Twins along with pitchers Boof Bonser and Francisco Liriano for catcher A. J. Pierzynski and cash . The Twins decided to make Nathan their closer starting in 2004 , risky move considering that Nathan had notched only one save in six opportunities as a Giant , but he won the job over J. C. Romero and Jesse Crain in spring training . He was signed to a three @-@ year deal on March 4 , 2004 and agreed to an incentive @-@ laden contract with a base salary of $ 440 @,@ 000 . He started off the season strong , allowing no runs in 20 appearances and earning 14 saves from April 15 to June 4 . He was named AL Co @-@ Player of the Week starting on May 10 with four saves in four innings and four appearances , facing the minimum number of batters each time . His credentials for the first half of the season , 23 saves in 24 opportunities with a 1 @.@ 19 ERA in 26 appearances , earned him his first All @-@ Star appearance in the 2004 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He was the only Twin on the squad and pitched a perfect seventh inning , getting Bobby Abreu to strike out , Mike Lowell to fly out and Miguel Cabrera to strike out . His numbers were impressive through the rest of the season , allowing no runs between June 9 and August 18 , and between August 25 and September 16 @.@ and finishing 2004 with 44 saves in 47 opportunities and an ERA of 1 @.@ 62 . The Twins won the AL Central division and faced the New York Yankees in the ALDS . Nathan picked up his first postseason save in Game 1 , but blew his second opportunity in Game 2 as the Twins went on to lose the ensuing three games . His outstanding season earned him MVP and Cy Young votes , finishing fourth for Cy Young and 12th for MVP . His first child , a son named Cole , was born on November 9 , 2004 .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
During spring training in 2005 , Nathan signed a two @-@ year deal that includes a club option for 2008 . He picked up from where he left off in 2004 , allowing no earned runs in 15 appearances from April 5 to May 10 . He also had streaks of 13 and 12 consecutive save opportunities converted between April and July . As a result , Nathan was named the American League Player of the Week for the week of June 27 . Nathan earned another All @-@ Star appearance in 2005 for his pitching in the first half of the season . Although his record was 1 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 57 ERA in 37 appearances , he had struck out 43 batters in 351 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and lead the AL with 23 saves in 25 opportunities . Nathan pitched in the 2005 MLB All @-@ Star Game alongside fellow pitcher Johan Santana . Pitching the eighth inning of the game , he got Morgan Ensberg to pop out for the first out , then gave out a double to Moisés Alou . Felipe López singled , and Nathan was able to get Miguel Cabrera and Luis Castillo out , but not before Alou scored . Nathan had a brilliant second half as he went 6 – 1 with 18 saves in 20 chances , and posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 76 . He finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , 43 saves in 48 opportunities , and 94 strikeouts . Nathan also became the third pitcher in club history to post consecutive 40 save seasons . The Twins however missed the playoffs .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Before the 2006 season began , Nathan participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic as one of the 30 players selected for the Team USA roster . He played the first game , a 2 – 0 win against Mexico , striking out the side while allowing one hit . He also pitched the 4 – 3 victory against Japan , again throwing a shutout inning . Nathan went on to pitch the last game for the United States in the ninth inning against Mexico , again not allowing a run and striking out two .
As the regular 2006 season began for the Twins , Nathan started off strong , allowing no runs from the start of the season to April 25 . He also converted 10 straight save opportunities from April 11 to June 17 . On June 24 , Nathan recorded his one hundredth career save against the Chicago Cubs , and 99th save with Minnesota . Four days later he got save number 101 , his hundredth save with Minnesota against the Los Angeles Dodgers , becoming the fifth pitcher in Twins history to achieve that mark . Despite putting up great numbers during the 2006 season , Nathan was not selected to the All @-@ Star Game . He continued to pitch well throughout the season , passing Eddie Guardado for second on the Twins ' all @-@ time save list when he earned his 117th save against the Detroit Tigers on September 9 . Nathan was also given the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month award for July , going nine for nine in save opportunities and posting a 0 @.@ 75 ERA for the month . He finished the season with some of his best numbers to date : a 7 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 58 ERA , 95 strikeouts , 36 saves , an 18th @-@ place finish in MVP voting , and a fifth @-@ place finish in Cy Young voting . His 61 games finished were also good for the AL lead and opponents batted just .158 against him , a career high . With 36 saves in 38 opportunities , Nathan also became the first pitcher for the organization to earn 35 saves in three straight seasons . The Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season , but were swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS as Nathan made one scoreless appearance .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Nathan continued as the Twins ' closer for the 2007 season . He had a stretch between July and August where he gave up just two earned runs and converted all 12 save chances . Once again despite Nathan 's numbers , he was not picked for the All @-@ Star team . Nathan finished the year by converting 37 of 41 save opportunities with a record of 4 – 2 and an ERA of 1 @.@ 88 . The Twins however had a disappointing season and missed the playoffs .
On September 25 , 2007 , Nathan was named as one of 10 finalists for the " DHL Delivery Man of the Year Award " , the third year in a row that he has been a finalist . On October 29 , the Twins exercised Nathan 's club option for 2008 .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Though Nathan was slated to make $ 6 million in 2008 , on March 24 , 2008 , the Minnesota Twins re @-@ signed Nathan to a four @-@ year , $ 47 million contract through 2011 . The deal also includes a $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option for 2012 with a $ 2 million buyout .
Nathan started the season with 13 consecutive saves but blew his first save of the season on May 27 by giving up a three @-@ run inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on a misplayed fly ball by teammate Delmon Young ; however , Nathan got two outs to end the 9th inning and the Twins went on to win the game . By converting 27 of 29 save opportunities prior to the All @-@ Star break , Nathan was selected as a reserve player for the American League in the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . Nathan finished the year with 39 saves and a career best 1 @.@ 33 ERA . He also had a career high six blown saves and surrendered his first career walk @-@ off home run to Victor Martinez on September 16 . Nathan ranked seventh in the majors in saves and had the lowest ERA of the top 30 save leaders in 2008 .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Nathan had a strong season , as he was selected as an All @-@ Star for the 2009 MLB All Star Game , and he finished the year with 2 @.@ 10 ERA with 47 saves in 52 opportunities , which was a franchise record . He shared honors for the AL Rolaids Relief Man award with Mariano Rivera . However , Nathan did not fare as well in the postseason ; in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the New York Yankees , with the Twins leading 3 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning , Nathan blew the save when he surrendered a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run to Alex Rodriguez . It was the first home run Nathan had allowed with men on base all year . The Yankees later won the game in the 11th inning and swept the series . On October 11 , 2009 , after the Twins lost the final game at the Metrodome ( a 4 – 1 playoff loss to the Yankees that eliminated them ) , Nathan took a pile of dirt from the mound as a keepsake from the Metrodome .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
On March 9 , 2010 , it was reported that Nathan had a tear in his ulnar collateral ligament . On March 21 , after attempting to pitch without having surgery , Nathan decided to undergo Tommy John surgery , missing the entire 2010 season .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Nathan earned his first save at Target Field on April 8 , 2011 . He emptied the container of dirt he took from the Metrodome on the mound at Target Field before pitching . On April 18 , Nathan was replaced at closer by Matt Capps after going 3 for 5 in save opportunities . On May 28 , 2011 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a right flexor muscle strain . Chuck James was called up to take his place .
On August 10 , 2011 , against the Boston Red Sox , Nathan became the Twins all @-@ time saves leader with 255 , passing Rick Aguilera .
After the Twins declined his $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option and exercised a $ 2 million buyout , Nathan became a free agent at the end of the 2011 season .
Nathan is currently the Minnesota Twins leader in career saves .
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
On November 21 , 2011 , Nathan agreed to terms on a two @-@ year deal with the Texas Rangers worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million guaranteed with an option for a third year at $ 9 million or a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout .
Nathan had a strong first season with the Rangers , as he was selected to the represent the Rangers at the 2012 MLB All Star Game , the fifth all star selection of his career . He finished his 2012 campaign with 37 saves and an ERA of 2 @.@ 80 . During a game against the Tampa Bay Rays on April 8 , 2013 , Nathan earned his 300th career save after striking out Ben Zobrist looking on a controversial strike call made by home plate umpire Marty Foster . TV cameras captured Nathan saying " Wow ! " after the call .
Nathan was selected to his sixth All Star Game in 2013 , and earned the save for the American League . Nathan improved on his 2012 campaign , finishing his 2013 season with 43 saves and an ERA of 1 @.@ 39 . Nathan finished his Rangers career with an overall record of 9 – 7 , 80 saves , a 2 @.@ 08 ERA and 0 @.@ 98 WHIP .
= = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
On December 4 , 2013 , the Tigers signed Nathan to a two @-@ year , $ 20 million contract , with a club option for 2016 . This reunited him with former teammate and fellow ex @-@ Twins great , Torii Hunter along with Rangers teammate Ian Kinsler . On May 5 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 347th career save , tying him with Randy Myers for ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . Two days later , Nathan recorded career save number 348 , putting him alone at ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . On June 9 , Nathan recorded career save 358 , tying him with Troy Percival for 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . On August 23 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 368th career save , passing up Jeff Reardon for 7th place on the all @-@ time saves list . In a September 16 game against the Minnesota Twins , Nathan blew his seventh save of the season , surpassing his previous career high of six blown saves when he pitched for the Twins in 2008 . Nathan finished his first season with the Tigers making 62 appearances and recording 35 saves in 42 chances , while posting an ERA of 4 @.@ 81 . He made one postseason appearance in 2014 , retiring all three batters he faced in a non @-@ save situation in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles . The Tigers were swept in the series , 3 – 0 .
On April 8 , 2015 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained right elbow . During a rehab start with the Toledo Mud Hens on April 22 , Nathan re @-@ injured his elbow after throwing only 10 pitches . The same night , Nathan underwent MRIs , which tested positive revealing tears in his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow and his pronator teres muscle , and would undergo Tommy John surgery , ending Nathan 's 2015 season . Sources projected that this surgery could end Nathan 's career , but he was not planning to retire yet .
During the 2015 offseason , the Tigers declined the $ 10 million club option for Nathan for the 2016 season , and exercised a $ 1 million buyout .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On May 17 , 2016 , Nathan signed with the Chicago Cubs . He was immediately placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list upon signing to continue recovery from his previous Tommy John surgery . Nathan made his Cubs debut on July 24 , 2016 against the Milwaukee Brewers . He pitched one inning and struck out the side , allowing one hit and one walk .
= = Records and notable statistics = =
= = Personal life = =
Nathan is married to Lisa ( nee Lemoncelli ) . They have two children . Nathan 's foundation , Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , also called " Save It " , helps raise money and awareness for many different charities . The Nathan 's reside in Knoxville , Tennessee in the offseason .
= = Pitching style = =
Nathan throws a mix of four pitches . His main pitch , a four @-@ seam fastball was once thrown in the mid @-@ to @-@ upper 90s , but now settles between 91 and 94 mph . His main breaking ball is a hard slider in the upper 80s , occasionally even touching 90 . He uses the slider less frequently against left @-@ handed hitters , preferring to use a curveball in the low 80s . He also uses a two @-@ seam fastball against lefties . His slider is his best swing @-@ and @-@ miss pitch , with a whiff rate of 42 % since 2007 .
= Art Ross =
Arthur Howey " Art " Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 . Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass it to a forward . He was on Stanley Cup championship teams twice in a playing career that lasted thirteen seasons ; in January 1907 with the Kenora Thistles and 1908 with the Montreal Wanderers . Like other players of the time , Ross played for several different teams and leagues , and is most notable for his time with the Wanderers while they were members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1911 he led one of the first organized player strikes over increased pay . When the Wanderers ' home arena burned down in January 1918 , the team ceased operations and Ross retired as a player .
After several years as an on @-@ ice official , he was named head coach of the Hamilton Tigers for one season . When the Boston Bruins were formed in 1924 , Ross was hired as the first coach and general manager of the team . He would go on to coach the team on three separate occasions until 1945 and stayed as general manager until his retirement in 1954 . Ross helped the Bruins finish first place in the league ten times and to win the Stanley Cup three times ; Ross personally coached the team to two of those victories . After being hired by the Bruins , Ross , along with his wife and two sons , moved to a suburb of Boston , and became an American citizen in 1938 . He died near Boston in 1964 .
Outside of his association with the Bruins , Ross also helped to improve the game . He created a style of hockey puck still used today , and advocated an improved style of goal nets , a change that lasted forty years . In 1947 Ross donated the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer of the NHL regular season . Ross was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 .
= = Early life = =
Ross was born January 13 , 1885 , in Naughton , Ontario . His father , Thomas Barnston Ross , was the head of a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post in the area . The ninth of ten children , Ross grew up speaking both English and Ojibwe , a native Canadian language . Ross moved to Montreal in 1902 to play in organized hockey leagues , living in the affluent Westmount district . He played high school and junior hockey with Lester and Frank Patrick , both of whom were later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Ross and Lester had a financially successful ticket resale business at the Montreal Arena , buying tickets for thirty @-@ five cents and selling them for up to a dollar .
= = Playing career = =
= = = 1905 – 09 = = =
The best hockey players on their high school team , Ross and the Patrick brothers were invited to play occasional games for local league teams in Montreal . Ross first played in an organized league in 1905 , joining Montreal Westmount of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) , the top amateur league in Canada . He scored ten goals in eight games during the season . His opponents regarded him as one of the best rushing defencemen . Most defenders at the time either shot the puck down the ice or passed to a forward ; in contrast , Ross skated up the ice , taking the puck into the offensive zone . Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon Elks of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province . In 1906 , his first season , he scored six goals in seven games while he recorded six goals in ten games in 1907 . Around this time , the Kenora Thistles , the Manitoba League champions , wanted to strengthen their team for the Stanley Cup challenge against the Montreal Wanderers in Montreal during January 1907 . They paid Ross $ 1 @,@ 000 to play both matches , a common practice at the time , and the Thistles won the Cup . While failing to score , Ross started many plays and proved an important part of the team . Although he played for the opposing team , he received a good reception from the Montreal crowd . Ross did not play for the Thistles when the two teams played for the Cup again in March , which the Wanderers won to take back the Cup .
The following year Ross moved back to Montreal . He joined the Wanderers , the team he had helped to defeat , who played in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , the successor league to the CAHL as the premier league in the country . He scored eight goals in ten games over the two @-@ month season that lasted from January to March . He helped the team to finish first in the ECAHA and retain the Cup in 1908 with challenges from Ottawa , Winnipeg and Toronto . The Wanderers were Cup champions throughout these challenges , so Ross became the second player to win the Cup with different teams in consecutive years , after Jack Marshall in 1901 and 1902 . In January 1908 , he participated in the first all @-@ star game in sports history , a benefit for the family of former Wanderer defender Hod Stuart , who died the previous summer . Aside from his time with the Wanderers , Ross repeated his practice of playing for other teams who paid for his services in important matches . For the 1909 season Ross demanded a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 . Although he settled for $ 1 @,@ 200 , the average salary of hockey players at the time was $ 600 . Ross received a cash bonus of $ 400 to play in a Stanley Cup challenge against a team from Edmonton in December 1908 , in which the Wanderers won the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series 13 – 10 . He finished the season with two goals in nine games .
= = = 1909 – 18 = = =
A new league , the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , was formed in late November 1909 . One of the teams , the All @-@ Montreal Hockey Club , hired Ross as a playing @-@ manager , but the league only lasted to mid @-@ January 1910 before disbanding . Ross , who scored four goals in four games in the CHA , then signed with the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , a league formed in December 1909 , which proved to be the stronger replacement to the ECAHA as the highest level of hockey in Canada . He received $ 2 @,@ 700 to play in the 1910 season , which lasted from January to March , playing twelve games for the team and finishing with six goals . Before the following season , the NHA imposed a salary cap of $ 5 @,@ 000 per team . The players , including Ross , were unhappy as this would result in a pay decrease , and began looking to form their own league without a cap . Ross wrote to the Montreal Herald , stating " all the players want is a fair deal ... The players are not trying to bulldoze the NHA , but we want to know where we get off at . " The plans were abandoned when they realized all the suitable arenas would be unavailable as they were owned or leased by the NHA . Ross scored four goals in eleven games with the Wanderers , who finished fourth in the five team league . During a match against the Quebec Bulldogs on February 25 , 1911 , Ross knocked out Eddie Oatman in a fight , provoking a massive brawl between the two teams , which the police had to break up . The fight helped to increase the reputation Ross had as a tough player unwilling to back down from any opponent . The following season Ross had eleven goals in nineteen games as the Wanderers improved to second in the league .
Prior to the 1913 – 14 NHA season , Ross refused to sign a contract for the Wanderers , requesting a salary increase . As one of the top players on the team , the Wanderers agreed to his demands of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the forthcoming season , in which he finished with four goals and nine points in eighteen games . The next season Ross , again concerned with his salary , began negotiating with other players in the NHA to leave their teams and form a new league that would offer higher wages . These actions resulted in his suspension in November 1914 by Emmett Quinn , president of the NHA . Ross responded by declaring himself a free agent and claiming his contract with the Wanderers was no longer valid . Consequently , although having no technical power to do so , Quinn suspended Ross from all organized hockey . The proposed new league failed to materialize and Ross applied for reinstatement to the NHA , which was granted at a meeting of the team owners on December 18 , 1914 . The owners realized if they suspended Ross , they would also have to suspend all those he signed , hurting the league . However , Ross 's actions led to his release by the Wanderers . At first he trained with the Montreal Canadiens , then joined the Ottawa Senators .
At the conclusion of the 1914 – 15 season , the Senators and Wanderers finished with identical records of fourteen wins and six losses . A two @-@ game , total goal series was played to determine the NHA league champion who would contest the Stanley Cup with the Pacific Coast Hockey Association winner , the Vancouver Millionaires . Ross , who finished with three goals in sixteen games in the season , scored one goal in the first match against the Wanderers , a Senators 4 – 0 victory , and though Ottawa lost the second game 1 – 0 , they won the series , 4 – 1 . To help the Senators stop the Wanderers , who were known for their speed , Ross created a new system of defence . Termed " kitty bar the door " , it required three defenders to align themselves across the ice 30 feet in front of the goaltender to stop offensive rushes . This style of defence would later be used in a modified version known as the neutral zone trap , later used widely to stop opposition offensive chances .
The following year Ross , who had eight goals and eight assists in twenty @-@ one games , was the second highest paid player on the team ; his salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 was $ 100 less than Frank Nighbor made . Even so , Ross left the team in 1916 , returning to Montreal in order to look after his sporting @-@ goods store , and rejoining the Wanderers . He scored six goals and had two assists in sixteen games for the team . The Wanderers , along with the Montreal Canadiens , Toronto Arenas , Quebec Bulldogs and Ottawa Senators dissolved the NHA and founded the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 . Ross became coach of the Wanderers , but a fire on January 2 , 1918 , destroyed their home , the Montreal Arena , and forced them to fold after four games . However , the NHL insisted the team continue to play , and recorded two additional scheduled matches as defaulted losses for the Wanderers , even though the matches were not played . With the Wanderers disbanded , Ross retired as a player . His NHL career yielded one goal in three games played .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = 1918 – 36 = = =
Ross began his career as a hockey coach in the midst of his playing days , when at age 24 he led the McGill University Redmen to a 4 – 2 – 1 record during the 1910 – 11 season . Following his playing career , Ross became a NHL referee . He was hired to coach the Hamilton Tigers for the 1922 – 23 season , and adopted new methods in training camp that emphasized physical fitness , including work off the ice . However , the Tigers finished with a record of six wins and eighteen losses , last in the NHL for the third successive year , and Ross did not return the next season . His next coaching appointment arose from meeting Boston grocery store magnate Charles Adams during the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals . Before the 1924 season , the NHL awarded Adams an expansion team . Adams ' first move was to hire Ross as vice president , general manager , coach and scout . Adams instructed Ross to come up with a nickname portraying an untamed animal displaying speed , agility and cunning . With this in mind , Ross named the team the Boston Bruins , after the Old English word for a bear . The team 's nickname went perfectly with the original colours of brown and yellow , which were the same colours of Adams ' grocery chain , First National Stores .
Ross utilized his many hockey connections throughout Canada and the United States to sign players . Even so , the team started poorly . Early in the first season the University of Toronto hockey team was in Boston for matches against local universities . The team 's manager , Conn Smythe , who later owned and managed the Toronto Maple Leafs , said that his team could easily defeat the Bruins — Ross 's team had won only two of their first fifteen NHL games . This began a feud between Smythe and Ross which lasted for over 40 years , until Ross ' death ; while mostly confined to newspaper reports , they refused to speak to each other at NHL Board of Governor meetings . The Bruins finished their first season with six wins in thirty games , one of the worst records in the history of the league . Several records were set over the course of the season ; the three home wins are tied for the second fewest ever , and an eleven @-@ game losing streak from December 8 , 1924 , until February 17 , 1925 , set a record for longest losing streak , surpassed in 2004 and now second longest in history . With 17 wins in 36 games the following season , the team greatly improved , and finished one point out of a playoff spot .
In 1926 the Western Hockey League , the other top professional hockey league , was in decline . The Patrick brothers , who controlled the league , offered to sell the remaining five teams for $ 300 @,@ 000 . Ross realized the potential talent available and convinced Adams to pay the money . As a result , the Bruins acquired the rights to several future Hall of Fame players , the most notable being defender Eddie Shore . Ross signed goaltender Cecil " Tiny " Thompson in 1928 , who was with a team in Minnesota , despite never watching him play ; Ralph " Cooney " Weiland was also brought over from Minnesota . Ross acquired Cy Denneny from Ottawa and made him a player @-@ assistant @-@ coach while he assumed the role of coach and team manager . On November 20 , 1928 , the Bruins moved to a new arena when the Boston Garden opened . The team played the Canadiens who won the match 1 – 0 in front of 16 @,@ 000 fans . The players signed by Ross helped the Bruins to improve quickly , and they won the Stanley Cup in 1929 . Denneny retired after the Cup win , Ross guiding the team to several league records in the 1929 – 30 season . The team won 38 of 44 games for an .875 winning percentage , the highest in league history ; the five losses tied a record for fewest ever , and the four road losses tied a record for second fewest . The Bruins also only finished one game in a tie , a record for fewest ties in a season since the NHL began recording the record in 1926 . One of the longest winning streaks was also set during the season . From December 3 , 1929 , until January 9 , 1930 , the team won fourteen games in a row , a record that lasted until 1982 and now tied for third longest , as of October 2010 . A home winning streak began the same day and lasted for twenty games , until March 18 , 1930 , which was tied for the longest of its kind in 1976 . In 1930 – 31 , the Bruins again lost only one home game , which equalled their previous record .
On March 26 , 1931 , Ross substituted a sixth skater for goaltender Tiny Thompson in the final minute of play in a playoff game against the Montreal Canadiens . Although the Bruins lost the game 1 – 0 , Ross became the first coach to replace his goaltender with an extra attacker , a tactic which became widespread practice in hockey . Stepping aside as coach in 1934 to focus on managing the team , Ross hired Frank Patrick as coach with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 500 , which was high for such a role . However rumours spread during the season that Patrick was drinking heavily and not being as strict with the players as Ross wanted . After the Bruins lost their playoff series with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1936 playoffs , the result of an 8 – 1 score in the second game , a newspaper claimed that Patrick had been drinking the day of the game and had trouble controlling the team . Several days later , Ross relieved Patrick of his duties and once again assumed the role of coach .
= = = 1936 – 54 = = =
Ross took over an improved team . He had recently signed three players , Milt Schmidt , Bobby Bauer and Woody Dumart , who all grew up together in Kitchener , Ontario , and had them play on the same line , soon nicknamed the Kraut Line in reference to the German heritage of all three . Along with them , Ross had acquired a new goaltender in 1938 , Frank Brimsek ; after Brimsek earned six shutouts in his first eight games , the Bruins traded away Tiny Thompson to allow Brimsek to play . With these players the Bruins finished first in the league in 1937 – 38 ; Ross was named as the second best coach in the league , selected for the end of season All @-@ Star Second Team . The next season the Bruins won 36 of 48 games , and won the Stanley Cup in the playoffs ; Ross was named to the First All @-@ Star Team as the best coach in the league for the season and the team only tied two games , which is tied for the second fewest in a season . He hired the recently retired Cooney Weiland to coach the Bruins for the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The Bruins would win the Cup again in 1941 , and tied their record of only four away losses all season . Ross once again took over as coach of the team before the 1941 – 42 season began , as Weiland became coach of the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League , and led the team to 25 wins in 48 games , which was enough to earn third place in the league . By this time the Second World War had caused several Bruins players , including the entire Kraut Line and goaltender Brimsek , to enlist in their respective armed forces . The Bruins finished second in the NHL during the 1942 – 43 season with 24 wins in 50 games and Ross was again named in the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team as second best coach in the league . The Bruins missed the playoffs in 1943 – 44 , the first time in ten years they failed to qualify , but returned to the playoffs the next season , something they did for five straight years .
In 1949 , Ross had signed Georges Boucher as coach , but Boucher did not work well with Ross and team president Weston Adams . Looking to hire a new coach in the summer of 1950 , Ross phoned Lynn Patrick , the son of Lester , who had just resigned from the New York Rangers after coaching the team to the Stanley Cup Final . Lynn had moved his family back to Victoria , British Columbia , where he grew up as a child , with the intention of coaching the Victoria Cougars , a team in the minor professional Pacific Coast Hockey League . Though reluctant to move back to the eastern United States , Lynn was hired by Ross after he was offered a salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . He would coach the team for the next four seasons and become the second general manager of the Bruins when Ross retired at the end of October 1954 .
= = = Legacy = = =
Aside from his career in hockey , Ross was interested in improving the game . Prior to the start of the 1927 – 28 season , the NHL adopted a new style of goal net created by Ross . With the back molded into a B @-@ shape , it was better designed to catch pucks and the net was used until 1984 , when a modified version was adopted . He also improved the design of the puck . Ross ' design had bevel edges , which prevented it bouncing too much , and used synthetic rubber , rather than the natural rubber previously in vogue . Along with New York Rangers coach Frank Boucher , Ross helped to create the red line , which was introduced to help speed up the game by removing the ability for defenders to pass the puck from the defensive to offensive zone ; until 2006 it was against the rules of hockey to make a two line pass . More scoring chances resulted as teams could not simply send the puck down the ice with impunity . In order to help tell the red line and blue lines apart on television , Ross suggested that the red line be striped .
Regarded throughout his playing career as one of the best defenders in hockey , Ross was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , selected for his playing career rather than his work as an executive . A ceremony for his induction was held prior to a Bruins game on December 2 , 1949 , where he was given his Hall of Fame scroll and a silver tray with the emblems of the six NHL teams on it . In 1975 he was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Along with his two sons he donated the Art Ross Trophy to the NHL in 1947 , to be awarded to the leading scorer in the league 's regular season . In 1984 he was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for service to hockey in the United States .
A descriptive biography entitled Art Ross : The Hockey Legend who Built the Bruins by Eric Zweig was published by Dundurn Press in Sept 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Ross also excelled in baseball , football , lacrosse and motorcycle racing . Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal . Ross had moved to Brandon , Manitoba , in 1905 at the advice of his parents so he could get a job with a bank , with a salary of $ 600 per year . He gave that career up when he began playing hockey professionally . He was married to Muriel , a native of Montreal , and had two sons , Art and John . During the Second World War , both sons served in the Royal Canadian Air Force . After the war Ross made his son Art the business manager for the Bruins . Ross was named coach and manager of the Boston Bruins in 1924 and moved his family to Brookline , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , after being hired . In 1928 , he served as the traveling secretary of the Boston Braves baseball team , which was owned by Bruins owner Charles Adams . He became a naturalized American citizen on April 22 , 1938 . On August 5 , 1964 , Ross died at a nursing home in Medford , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , at the age of 79 . A sister , both his sons , and three grandchildren survived him .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
* Playing stats from Total Hockey
= = = Coaching record = = =
* Coaching stats from Total Hockey
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
* Awards from Legends of Hockey
= Saint Leonard Catholic Church ( Madison , Nebraska ) =
Saint Leonard Catholic Church is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Madison , in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States . Built in 1913 , it has been described as " an outstanding example of the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . "
St. Leonard 's parish , named after Saint Leonard of Port Maurice , was organized in 1879 . A wood frame church was built in 1881 on the outskirts of Madison , and moved into the city in 1898 . In 1902 , the basement of the current church was built , and the congregation moved into it , converting the old church to a school . When funds allowed , the basement was extended , and the current brick church completed in 1913 .
In 1989 , the church , its 1912 rectory , and the rectory 's garage were listed in the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of noted Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . A pupil of Thomas Rogers Kimball , Nachtigall designed a number of Catholic churches and other buildings in the state , several of which are also listed in the National Register .
= = History = =
The first white settlers to occupy the site of Madison were a party led by Henry Mitchell Barnes , who settled near the junction of Union and Taylor Creeks in 1867 . Growth of the new settlement was rapid ; in particular , there was an influx of German families from Wisconsin . The town of Madison was officially platted by Barnes in 1870 or 1871 . In 1875 , it became the county seat of Madison County , and in 1876 it was incorporated . The Union Pacific Railroad reached Madison in 1879 ; by 1880 , the town had a population of about 300 .
The first Christian services held in Madison were Presbyterian , taking place in Barnes 's and other homes . A Presbyterian congregation was organized in 1870 , and a church built in 1872 . A Methodist circuit encompassing Madison and Antelope counties was organized in 1871 ; a parsonage was built in Madison ca . 1875 , and a church begun in 1877 . A Lutheran congregation may have formed in Madison in about 1875 , although early records are incomplete ; the congregation was initially served by the pastor of a Lutheran church in Green Garden Precinct , located about seven miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Madison . It was formally organized in 1885 , and a church built in Madison in 1887 .
The first Catholic settlers in Madison County homesteaded near present @-@ day Battle Creek , northwest of Madison , in the late 1860s . In 1874 , they organized a parish ; in 1874 – 75 , they built St. Patrick 's Church , the county 's first Catholic church . In 1877 , they wrote to Bishop James O 'Connor of the Diocese of Omaha , asking that a priest be assigned to visit the church at intervals until a permanent priest could be assigned to the parish ; in apparent response to this , Franciscan missionaries based in Columbus were given the responsibility of providing for Madison County .
= = = 1879 – 1900 = = =
In 1879 , a group of Catholic residents of the Madison area met to plan the building of a church . At the meeting , a total of $ 426 @.@ 75 was subscribed ; additional contributions of $ 322 @.@ 86 were obtained from citizens of Madison . In January 1880 , the church 's trustees spent $ 100 for five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) on a hill at the southeastern edge of town . In the spring , a party of parishioners drove their ox teams to Wisner , about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Madison , for the first load of lumber for the new church . The 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 m × 12 m ) frame structure , with a capacity of 100 , was completed in November 1881 ; the total cost was $ 957 @.@ 61 , leaving $ 208 @.@ 00 owed to the carpenter . The new church was dedicated to St. Leonard of Port Maurice , an 18th @-@ century Franciscan priest , preacher , ascetic , and writer venerated as the patron saint of parish missions .
In 1882 , a parcel of land southeast of the church was purchased for a cemetery ; a one @-@ year @-@ old child buried in September of that year became its first occupant . The cemetery was fenced in 1883 . In 1884 , the church was enlarged : a sacristy and a room for the priest were added to the east end , and a steeple to the west end .
As Madison 's population grew , the church became too small for the expanding congregation . In addition , its location outside of the city was inconvenient for many parishioners . In 1898 , a tract of land inside Madison was bought . Rather than building a new church at the time , the parish elected to move the old one to the new site . The church was moved in two parts ; when it was reconstructed , another section was added between them , increasing the building 's seating capacity to 180 . The church on the new site was dedicated in November 1898 .
= = = 1900 – 1913 = = =
In the early 20th century , the parish decided that the old church should be remodelled into a school and a convent for the teachers , and that a new church should be built . Brother Leonard Darscheid , a Franciscan architect , drew up plans for a church ; but financial constraints precluded its construction . Instead , a temporary basement church was built just west of the old church building . It is not known whether the design of the basement used Darscheid 's plans . Construction of the basement church began in July 1902 , services were held there beginning in September 1902 , and it was dedicated in February 1903 .
The school opened in September 1903 , with two classrooms staffed by two members of the Sisters of the Presentation of Dubuque , Iowa . 66 students were enrolled , including a number of non @-@ Catholics , owing to overcrowding in the public schools . To make more space available , a basement was dug in 1904 . In 1910 , a third classroom was added .
In 1910 , the Franciscans turned the management of the parish over to the Diocese of Omaha . In October of that year , Edward S. Muenich became the first diocesan pastor of St. Leonard 's .
Muenich embarked upon an extensive building campaign , for which he retained Omaha architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Born in Germany in 1874 , Nachtigall had immigrated to the United States with his family in 1883 . Initially working as a laborer in Omaha , he had served as a draftsman for that city 's 1898 Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition . He had then worked as a draftsman for Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball from 1900 to 1908 ; during this time , Kimball had designed the city 's St. Cecilia 's Cathedral . In 1909 , Nachtigall had opened his own architectural office .
In 1911 , a two @-@ story eight @-@ room brick rectory designed by Nachtigall was begun ; it was completed and furnished in 1912 , at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 374 . In the fall of 1912 , the church basement was extended by over 50 percent .
= = = 1913 – 1946 = = =
In 1913 , a Romanesque Revival church designed by Nachtigall was built on the existing basement . The cornerstone was laid and construction begun in May ; the church was completed by the end of November , and formally dedicated on December 4 . The cost of construction was about $ 75 @,@ 000 . While the church was under construction , Catholic services were held in Madison 's armory .
The new church had a seating capacity of 700 . In its 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) tower was a clock with four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials , and a peal of three bells , contributed by the citizens of Madison ; beside summoning the parishioners to Mass , these rang the quarter @-@ hours , marking time for the residents of the city and the surrounding rural areas .
While the urban United States experienced an economic boom during the 1920s , the agricultural sector of the country experienced a depression . Disruption of European agriculture by World War I had produced high prices for farm commodities , and it had been thought that Europe 's recovery would be slow and that the high prices would persist . This gave rise to a bubble in farmland prices , which burst when the rapid postwar recovery of European agriculture drove commodity prices down again . At the same time , increasing mechanization reduced the need for farm labor , pushing agricultural wages downward and rural unemployment upward . Madison and St. Leonard 's parish suffered from this agricultural depression and from the Great Depression of the 1930s . During this time , the parish 's population remained more or less stable : in 1918 , it consisted of 440 individuals ; in 1929 , 452 .
In 1926 , the parish was forced to close its school , since the Presentation Sisters were no longer able to staff it . The school re @-@ opened in 1931 , with 60 pupils taught by Missionary Benedictine Sisters based in Norfolk .
The onset of World War II once again brought prosperity to rural Nebraska , and it persisted into the 1950s . St. Leonard 's paid off its remaining debt , held a mortgage @-@ burning ceremony in 1946 , and began raising funds for a new school .
= = = 1946 – present = = =
The cornerstone for a new school was laid in November 1953 . A property adjoining the new school site was bought , and the house standing upon it converted to a convent for the nuns staffing the school . The new building was completed and opened for classes in August 1954 ; the old school , which had begun life as the first St. Leonard 's Church , was demolished that fall , and its site became a parking lot .
The Benedictine Sisters withdrew from the school in 1978 , prompting the closing of the seventh and eighth grades . The school continued to offer grades 1 – 6 , taught by three lay instructors .
Beginning in the early 1990s , Madison experienced a large influx of Hispanics . In 1990 , Madison County 's population was 2 % Hispanic ; by 2010 , the number had increased to 13 % . In the city of Madison , whose single largest employer was a meatpacking plant with over 1000 employees , operated by IBP and then by Tyson Foods , the increase was far greater : the Hispanic fraction of the population rose from less than 1 % in 1980 to 48 @.@ 8 % in 2010 , as the Spanish @-@ speaking population increased and the white non @-@ Hispanic population fell . By 2011 , an estimated two @-@ thirds of St. Leonard 's parishioners were Hispanic . Beginning in 1991 , the archdiocese assigned Spanish @-@ speaking priests to the parish , and both English- and Spanish @-@ language services were offered .
The centennial of the church building was celebrated in December 2013 , at a bilingual Mass conducted by Elden Curtiss , archbishop emeritus of the Archdiocese of Omaha .
= = Architecture = =
In 1989 , three of the parish 's buildings — the church , the rectory , and the rectory 's garage — were added to the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of distinguished Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Beside St. Leonard 's , Nachtigall designed a number of other notable buildings in Nebraska , many of them Catholic ; these include St. Mary of the Assumption Church in Dwight ( 1914 ) , St. Anthony 's Church in Cedar Rapids ( 1919 ) , St. Bonaventure 's Church in Raeville ( 1919 ) , Immaculate Conception Church in Omaha ( 1926 ) , and Father Flanagan 's House at Boys Town ( 1927 ) .
= = = Church = = =
The church is oriented east @-@ west , with the main entrance facing westward . It is just over 153 feet ( 47 m ) long from east to west ; 52 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The walls are made of mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed with Bedford stone , rising from a rock @-@ faced limestone foundation , and are about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . The peak of the roof is about 70 feet ( 21 m ) above ground level .
At the west end of the church , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) belltower rises above the main entrance . The tower is topped with a copper dome , capped with a cross . It contains three bells , weighing 900 , 1 @,@ 600 , and 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 410 , 730 , and 1 @,@ 130 kg ) . The tower 's clock has four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials . Below the tower , a flight of seventeen steps ascends to the church 's main entrance , via a set of double doors through a semicircular archway .
The church 's north and south walls are supported by a series of buttresses . Seven windows run along each wall . A line of brick corbels runs along the walls below the eaves . Near the east end of the church , a short transept extends a short distance outward . At the church 's east end , beyond the transept , is a semicircular apse with a conical roof , topped with a six @-@ paned conical skylight .
= = = = Interior = = = =
The interior plan of the church consists of a nave , a short transept , and a semicircular apse . At the west end of the nave is a narthex . At the center of this is a vestibule leading to the church 's main entrance ; at the church 's northwest corner is a reconciliation room , formerly a baptistry ; at the southwest corner is a short passage from which a staircase descends to the basement and another rises to the choir loft . In the loft is the church 's organ , a tracker model manufactured by the Hinners Organ Company in 1879 ; the organ was not originally built for St. Leonard 's .
The nave measures 98 feet ( 30 m ) between the entrance and the communion rail . An aisle passes down its center ; narrower aisles follow the north and south walls . Two rows of seven circular columns run along the nave . The columns are made of wood , plastered to conceal the material , and decorated with Corinthian capitals . The rib @-@ vaulted ceiling rises 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above the floor . Fourteen stained @-@ glass windows , depicting scenes from the life of Christ , occupy the nave 's walls . The 13 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 1 m × 1 @.@ 5 m ) windows were produced by the Muenich Art Studio of Chicago . Between the windows are sculpted stations of the cross . In three spandrels above columns on each side are fresco paintings .
Two marble steps rise from the nave to the chancel . At the top of the steps is a hand @-@ carved white wood communion rail , decorated with miniature onyx columns and topped with marble .
At the northwest and southwest corners of the chancel are two side altars : to the north , a Marian altar ; to the south , an altar of St. Joseph . The original image on the Marian altar depicts Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception ; more recently , an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been added . The St. Joseph altar includes a bone relic of St. Leonard of Port Maurice .
On the Gospel side of the chancel is a large hand @-@ carved wood pulpit , decorated with carved figures of the four Evangelists .
The chancel is dominated by the high altar , which stands over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall , and which cost its donors $ 2 @,@ 080 in 1913 . Like the communion rail , the side altars , and the pulpit , it is made of hand @-@ carved wood decorated with small onyx columns . At the base is a relief sculpture of the Last Supper ; above that is a marble altar table . The tabernacle is just above that ; to either side is a sculpted angel , kneeling to the tabernacle and holding the sanctuary lamps . Above the tabernacle is a sculpted Crucifixion of Jesus , with the Virgin Mary and the apostle John on either side of the cross . In separate niches on either side of the crucifixion scene are statues of St. Boniface and St. Patrick , representing the German and Irish ethnicity of the parish in the early 20th century . Above their niches are figures of angels blowing trumpets ; at the top of the altar is a statue of St. Leonard .
On the half @-@ domed ceiling of the apse is a large oil @-@ painted mural depicting a scene in Heaven . In the center , God the Father and Jesus are enthroned on a cloud ; a stained @-@ glass skylight at the top of the dome depicting the Holy Spirit completes the Trinity . Flanking the Father and Son are the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . Below the cloud is Satan in torment . At the left and right of the scene is an assemblage of 18 Catholic saints and 10 angels .
Beside the fourteen large windows in the nave , there are 25 stained @-@ glass windows in the church , depicting saints and symbols of the Catholic Church . These include St. Cecilia , patron saint of the Archdiocese of Omaha , and a pair of windows depicting St. Boniface and St. Patrick .
In the 1989 form nominating it for the National Register of Historic Places , it was noted that the church had undergone only minor alterations , including an interior redecoration in 1964 , the replacement of roof slates with asphalt shingles in 1977 , and the addition of a concrete ramp for access by the handicapped in 1986 .
= = = Rectory = = =
The rectory , located just south of the church , was designed in Neoclassical style , with Romanesque Revival elements . It is a rectangular house measuring 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide by 57 feet ( 17 m ) long , with eight rooms in two stories . Like the church , it is made of mosaic gray brick .
An open porch occupies the whole of the west frontage , facing the street , and wraps around to cover half of the south side . The portico is supported by circular columns with Doric capitals . At the base of the porch is brick latticework . There is a small enclosed porch with a doorway on the east side .
There are three rowlock arches above all of the windows on the first floor . One of the west @-@ facing windows on the second floor has two rowlock arches above it ; the other second @-@ floor windows are rectangular . There are two circular window openings in the attic , one facing west and the other south .
The rectory has a sloping roof with overhanging eaves and wood cornices . On the south wall is a tympanum , filled in with siding .
= = = = Garage = = = =
The original rectory garage is located southeast of the rectory . It is a rectangular structure facing westward , measuring 16 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) north to south , and 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) east to west . The interior is a single room .
The front ( west side ) of the garage is made of the same mosaic gray brick that was used for the construction of the church and the rectory . The north and south walls are both made of two different materials : the western two @-@ thirds of them is red brick , possibly from the brickyard that once operated in Madison ; the easternmost third is plastered with a layer of cement , painted red to match the bricks . The rear ( east ) wall is also plastered with red cement . It is speculated that the garage was either lengthened to fit a longer car , or that the eastern third had to be rebuilt ; the building 's hip roof shows no signs of having been lengthened .
The garage has two doors and two windows . Both the doors and windows have two rowlock brick arches over them . The car entrance is on the west side ; a passage door is on the north side . A clear @-@ glass window with 16 panes is on the east side . On the west side , north of the car entrance , is a window with beveled lead @-@ glass panes , which appear clear from the outside but red from inside the building . It has been speculated that this window was part of the parish 's first church .
= Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama =
Vasco da Gama was a central battery ironclad which entered service with the Portuguese Navy in 1876 , serving until 1935 . She was built by the Thames Iron Works in London , launched in 1876 , and completed in 1878 . She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career . She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903 . Long @-@ since obsolete by the 1930s , Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935 .
= = Design = =
Vasco da Gama was 200 feet ( 61 m ) long between perpendiculars , and she had a beam of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , though at the main battery guns , the ship was 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 17 m ) wide . She had a maximum draft of 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 346 long tons ; 2 @,@ 628 short tons ) as originally built . She was fitted with a barquentine rig and a steam engine rated at 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 3 kn ( 19 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 9 mph ) . She had a crew of 232 officers and men .
As built , Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) guns , placed in individual barbettes side by side amidships . She was also equipped with a single 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) gun mounted on her stern , and four 9 @-@ pounder guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches ( 100 mm ) thick on either end and 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick amidships . The main battery guns were protected by 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick barbettes .
= = Service history = =
Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London , Britain in 1875 , and was launched on 1 December 1876 . The ship was completed in 1878 . She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon , the Portuguese capital , and the mouth of the river Tagus . On 26 June 1897 , Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . At the time , the ship was commanded by Captain Barreto de Vascomellos .
In 1901 , Vasco da Gama was taken into drydock at Orlando shipyard in Livorno , Italy , for a major reconstruction . She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 91 m ) long section . She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water @-@ tube boilers rated at 6 @,@ 000 ihp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) ; this increased her speed to 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her sailing rig also was removed . Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in ( 200 mm ) L / 40 guns in sponsons , the short 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a new long @-@ barreled 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch L / 45 gun , and six 3 @-@ pounders augmented her close @-@ range defense . Her iron belt armor was removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place . The ship 's crew increased to 260 officers and men . All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 925 long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) . Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903 .
On 27 August 1907 , a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen . During political unrest in April 1913 , part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship , as they had been involved in a planned ultra @-@ Radical coup d 'état against the First Portuguese Republic . On 14 May 1915 , the crew again participated in unrest ; they mutinied and killed the ship 's captain and bombarded Lisbon , killing around one hundred people . Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least as late as 1914 , as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel . Thoroughly obsolete , she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935 , when she was sold for scrapping .
= Nicole Franklin =
Nicole Franklin is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Tessa James . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 18 April 2008 . Nicole was introduced by executive producer Cameron Welsh . Nicole was mentioned various times before appearing on @-@ screen , James was cast in the role and described by Welsh as an " exciting talent " . He predicted that the viewers would respond " really well " to her . Nicole was initially portrayed as a shallow " party girl " with " wild ways " . Also described as a " high maintenance " female , she has been shown to dress constantly in a stylish manner . Nicole is also become notable for her many relationships . Her first prominent romance was with Geoff Campbell . Described as " complete opposites " , Geoff is credited as a catalyst in Nicole mellowing her brash attitude . Their storyline allowed the actors to take part in one of the serial 's " biggest ever location shoots " , when the couple became stranded on a remote desert island . In one storyline Nicole was involved in a same sex kiss with fellow character Freya Duric , which was branded controversial by various media sources . The plot saw Nicole question her persona , believing Geoff had transformed her into a boring person .
Another relationship Nicole pursued was with Aden Jefferies , her longtime closest friend . Aden had a strong fanbase from his previous relationship with Belle Taylor . This resulted in the audience being divided over their relationship . Nicole has also been featured in various other romantic storylines , such as a brief fling with Liam Murphy , James said that he was compatible with Nicole because he had " the edge she was after " . She also dated Trey Palmer and they became involved in sex tape storyline , many newspapers reported on the plot because it " echoed " co @-@ star Lewis ' real life sex tape scandal . Producer Welsh once stated he believed Nicole was destined to become " full circle " and Nicole began behaving erratic and wild once more , due to her failed romances and the death of her friend Belle . She also had an affair with an older male character , Sid Walker . James liked the fact Nicole had so many romances because she got to kiss many of her co @-@ stars .
James announced her departure from Home and Away in March 2011 . One of her final storylines was a pregnancy plot . Nicole felt she was too young and unable to offer a child stability , so she agreed to let Marilyn Chambers adopt the baby upon its birth . James and the writing team took the storyline " very seriously " and conducted research to portray the issue sensitively . Nicole has received critical analysis from various sources , with perception being mixed to positive . TV Week were neutral to aspects of her pregnancy plot but opined James was one of the serials best actress ' . The Daily Record said that being single was good for the character . She has also been likened to celebrities because of her glamorous image .
= = Creation and casting = =
Nicole is Roman Harris ' ( Conrad Coleby ) daughter and she was often mentioned on @-@ screen before producers decided to introduce her into the serial . In January 2008 it was announced that ex @-@ Neighbours star Tessa James had been cast as Nicole . Executive producer Cameron Welsh said ' She is an exciting talent and I think audiences are going to love her character and respond really well to her . " James then moved to Sydney especially for the role . Speaking of working on the serial James stated : " Working on a series like this [ Home and Away ] is the best training you can get , I look at it like an apprenticeship and never forget how lucky I am . " Fellow cast member Celeste Dodwell who plays Melody Jones originally auditioned for the part of Nicole . After Coleby who plays Roman quit the serial , James ' time with the show was in doubt .
In March 2011 , James confirmed that she had left Home and Away . She has already filmed her final scenes and Nicole will leave on @-@ screen later in the year . Of her departure , James said " I was at Home and Away for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ years , so it 's good to be finished and get to be who I am , and do what I 've wanted to do for so long . "
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Nicole has been portrayed as a party girl , feisty and has had many boyfriends in a short space of time . James has described Nicole stating : " I love playing Nicole because she 's feisty and fun , and doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . And she dresses stylishly – she 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " The serial 's official website describe her as : " Nicole might come off as a bitchy princess to some people , she 's not malicious . She 's simply as shallow as a puddle , and while she might cause others emotional pain , it 's totally unintentional . " They also state : " Nicole is a girl who lives to have fun , and she is fun if you accept her for who she is . And , of course , she thinks you 're worth her attention . Nicole is a girl who knows exactly who she is and where she stands : at the centre | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
somewhat less than 40 % of second brood chicks . The influence of weather on chick survival is limited ; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods . The annual adult survival rate is under 30 % , although some individuals may live for 5 – 7 years .
= = = Feeding = = =
The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feeds on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of Sitona weevils , which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , leatherjackets and wireworms . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but includes locally available items such as termites , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk .
The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus , which lives in the oviducts of birds , has been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes .
During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment .
= = Status = =
Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there were 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 .
The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results .
Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they were common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable .
Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which creates more open habitats .
= = In culture = =
Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature .
= = = Names = = =
The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years , with " landrail " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " Crake gallinule " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " cornecrake " was popularised by Thomas Bewick , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn scrack " and " quailzie " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " roi de caille " , and the German " Wachtelkönig " refer to the association with the small gamebird . Another name , " daker " , has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic , or derived from the Old Norse ager @-@ hoene , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " .
= = = In literature = = =
Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell 's " Upon Appleton House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass , before his " whistling Sithe " unknowingly " carves the Rail " . The farmhand draws out the scythe " all bloody from its breast " and " does the stroke detest " . It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits :
John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in Northamptonshire , wrote " The Landrail " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he exclaims : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now .
The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem " Nocturne " .
The proverbial use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continues through to the present .
= Acute myeloid leukemia =
Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia ( ANLL ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increases with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages .
The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which causes a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progresses rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated .
AML has several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months .
AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a hematopoietic stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML has resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involves higher percentages of dedifferentiated and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( myeloblasts , monoblasts , and megakaryoblasts ) .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , paleness , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma .
The early signs of AML are often vague and nonspecific , and may be similar to those of influenza or other common illnesses . Some generalized symptoms include fever , fatigue , weight loss or loss of appetite , shortness of breath , anemia , easy bruising or bleeding , petechiae ( flat , pin @-@ head sized spots under the skin caused by bleeding ) , bone and joint pain , and persistent or frequent infections .
Enlargement of the spleen may occur in AML , but it is typically mild and asymptomatic . Lymph node swelling is rare in AML , in contrast to acute lymphoblastic leukemia . The skin is involved about 10 % of the time in the form of leukemia cutis . Rarely , Sweet 's syndrome , a paraneoplastic inflammation of the skin , can occur with AML .
Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue . Rarely , the first sign of leukemia may be the development of a solid leukemic mass or tumor outside of the bone marrow , called a chloroma . Occasionally , a person may show no symptoms , and the leukemia may be discovered incidentally during a routine blood test .
= = Risk factors = =
A number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified , including : other blood disorders , chemical exposures , ionizing radiation , and genetics .
= = = Preleukemia = = =
" Preleukemic " blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( MPS ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS / MPS .
= = = Chemical exposure = = =
Exposure to anticancer chemotherapy , in particular alkylating agents , can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML . The risk is highest about three to five years after chemotherapy . Other chemotherapy agents , specifically epipodophyllotoxins and anthracyclines , have also been associated with treatment @-@ related leukemias , which are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells .
Occupational chemical exposure to benzene and other aromatic organic solvents is controversial as a cause of AML . Benzene and many of its derivatives are known to be carcinogenic in vitro . While some studies have suggested a link between occupational exposure to benzene and increased risk of AML , others have suggested the attributable risk , if any , is slight .
= = = Radiation = = =
High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure can increase the risk of AML . Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an increased rate of AML , as did radiologists exposed to high levels of X @-@ rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices . People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer , non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , lung cancer and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML , but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years .
= = = Genetics = = =
A hereditary risk for AML appears to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a 10- to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML .
= = Diagnosis = =
The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( leukocytosis ) is a common finding , and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( leukopenia ) . While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy .
Marrow or blood is examined under light microscopy , as well as flow cytometry , to diagnose the presence of leukemia , to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia ( e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia - ALL ) , and to classify the subtype of disease . A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ hybridization . Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3 , nucleophosmin , and KIT , which may influence the outcome of the disease .
Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL , and in subclassification of AML . The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases . The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL . The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL .
The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging , and should be performed by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist . In straightforward cases , the presence of certain morphologic features ( such as Auer rods ) or specific flow cytometry results can distinguish AML from other leukemias ; however , in the absence of such features , diagnosis may be more difficult .
The two most commonly used classification schemata for AML are the older French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) system and the newer World Health Organization ( WHO ) system . According to the widely used WHO criteria , the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20 % of the blood and / or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts , except in the three best prognosis forms of AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities ( t ( 8 ; 21 ) , inv ( 16 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent . The French – American – British ( FAB ) classification is a bit more stringent , requiring a blast percentage of at least 30 % in bone marrow ( BM ) or peripheral blood ( PB ) for the diagnosis of AML . AML must be carefully differentiated from " preleukemic " conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndromes , which are treated differently .
Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( q22 ; q12 ) ; ] that characterizes APL . There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML / RARA fusion protein , which is an oncogenic product of that translocation .
= = = World Health Organization = = =
The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below .
The WHO subtypes of AML are :
Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage ( also known as mixed phenotype or biphenotypic acute leukemia ) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or lymphoid cells , or where both types of cells are present .
= = = French @-@ American @-@ British = = =
The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divides AML into eight subtypes , M0 through to M7 , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above ) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used .
Eight FAB subtypes were proposed in 1976 .
The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system , such as acute basophilic leukemia , which was proposed as a ninth subtype , M8 , in 1999 .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal hematopoiesis , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast accumulates genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a mutation alone does not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML .
Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML stems is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted .
Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produces a PML @-@ RARα fusion protein which binds to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation .
The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tends to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This leads to neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a chloroma , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location .
An important pathophysiological mechanism of leukemogenesis in AML is the epigenetic induction of dedifferentiation by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2 , which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite , D @-@ 2 @-@ hydroxyglutarate , which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2 . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ oncogenes .
= = Treatment = =
First @-@ line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person relapses , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue .
= = = Induction = = =
All FAB subtypes except M3 are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine ( ara @-@ C ) and an anthracycline ( most often daunorubicin ) . This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as " 7 + 3 " ( or " 3 + 7 " ) , because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push . Up to 70 % of people with AML will achieve a remission with this protocol . Other alternative induction regimens , including high @-@ dose cytarabine alone , FLAG @-@ like regimens or investigational agents , may also be used . Because of the toxic effects of therapy , including myelosuppression and an increased risk of infection , induction chemotherapy may not be offered to the very elderly , and the options may include less intense chemotherapy or palliative care .
The M3 subtype of AML , also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , is almost universally treated with the drug all @-@ trans @-@ retinoic acid ( ATRA ) in addition to induction chemotherapy , usually an anthracycline . Care must be taken to prevent disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) , complicating the treatment of APL when the promyelocytes release the contents of their granules into the peripheral circulation . APL is eminently curable , with well @-@ documented treatment protocols .
The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured ; rather , it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depends on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all remissions will fail without additional consolidation therapy .
= = = Consolidation = = =
Even after complete remission is achieved , leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques . If no further postremission or consolidation therapy is given , almost all people with AML will eventually relapse . Therefore , more therapy is necessary to eliminate nondetectable disease and prevent relapse — that is , to achieve a cure .
The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. inv ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , allogeneic stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depends on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available .
For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , immunotherapy with a combination of histamine dihydrochloride ( Ceplene ) and interleukin 2 ( Proleukin ) after the completion of consolidation has been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission .
= = = Relapsed AML = = =
For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially curative therapy is a hematopoietic stem cell transplant , if one has not already been performed . In 2000 , the monoclonal antibody @-@ linked cytotoxic agent gemtuzumab ozogamicin ( Mylotarg ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , Pfizer in 2010 .
Since treatment options for relapsed AML are so limited , palliative care or enrolment in a clinical trial may be offered .
For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like ATRA , arsenic trioxide does not work with other subtypes of AML .
= = Prognosis = =
Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors .
= = = Cytogenetics = = =
The single most important prognostic factor in AML is cytogenetics , or the chromosomal structure of the leukemic cell . Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes ( for example , the ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia ) . About half of people with AML have " normal " cytogenetics ; they fall into an intermediate risk group . A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment .
The first publication to address cytogenetics and prognosis was the MRC trial of 1998 :
Later , the Southwest Oncology Group and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group and , later still , Cancer and Leukemia Group B published other , mostly overlapping lists of cytogenetics prognostication in leukemia .
= = = Myelodysplastic syndrome = = =
AML which arises from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) has a worse prognosis , as does treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities .
= = = Other prognostic markers = = =
In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated lactate dehydrogenase level were also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) plays a major role in prognosis as well .
= = = = Genotype = = = =
A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML . However , only FLT3 @-@ ITD , NPM1 , CEBPA and c @-@ KIT are currently included in validated international risk stratification schema . These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future . FLT3 internal tandem duplications ( ITDs ) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics . Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials , with mixed results . Two other mutations - NPM1 and biallelic CEBPA are associated with improved outcomes , especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk stratification algorithms .
Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c @-@ KIT mutations in AML . These are prevalent , and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of tyrosine kinase inhibitors , such as imatinib and sunitinib that can block the activity of c @-@ KIT pharmacologically . It is expected that additional markers ( e.g. , RUNX1 , ASXL1 , and TP53 ) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations . The prognostic importance of other mutated genes ( e.g. , DNMT3A , IDH1 , IDH2 ) is less clear .
= = = Expectation of cure = = =
Cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 – 45 % ; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive therapies . The overall cure rate for all people with AML ( including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy ) is likely lower . Cure rates for promyelocytic leukemia can be as high as 98 % .
= = Epidemiology = =
Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate has remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML accounts for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States .
The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML accounts for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently accounts for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 .
There is some geographic variation in the incidence of AML . In adults , the highest rates are seen in North America , Europe , and Oceania , while adult AML is rarer in Asia and Latin America . In contrast , childhood AML is less common in North America and India than in other parts of Asia . These differences may be due to population genetics , environmental factors , or a combination of the two .
= = = UK = = =
AML accounts for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 .
= = History = =
The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 , when French physician Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau described a 63 @-@ year @-@ old florist who developed an illness characterized by fever , weakness , urinary stones , and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen . Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency " like gruel " , and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white corpuscles . In 1845 , a series of people who died with enlarged spleens and changes in the " colors and consistencies of their blood " was reported by the Edinburgh @-@ based pathologist J.H. Bennett ; he used the term " leucocythemia " to describe this pathological condition .
The term " leukemia " was coined by Rudolf Virchow , the renowned German pathologist , in 1856 . As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology , Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett . As Virchow was uncertain of the etiology of the white blood cell excess , he used the purely descriptive term " leukemia " ( Greek : " white blood " ) to refer to the condition .
Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow ( Greek : µυєλός , myelos = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto Naegeli , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic .
In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease .
= = Pregnancy = =
Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester .
= Love Me Like You =
" Love Me Like You " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he co @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , sax and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about puppy love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The Ronettes , The Supremes and Shadow Morton .
Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and has been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrives with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up dateless . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States .
= = Background and release = =
" Love Me Like You " was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by Rokstone Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; Kobalt Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black Butter Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John Hanes and engineered by Chris Laws and Dann Pursey , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at Rokstone Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards were performed by Mac , and the guitars were played by Paul Gendler . Laws and Pursey performed the drums and the percussion , respectively .
The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group were suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members eyeline , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for ANOTHER chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly thinks she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely thinks she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consists of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " .
= = Composition = =
" Love Me Like You " has been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which lasts for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor sax . The use of percussion gives the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of D4 to the high note of E5 .
The song opens with the group harmonising " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about puppy love , as they yearningly sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The Ronettes but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ ar " does not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his Fiat 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . Emilee Lindner of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and jingles .
= = Critical reception = =
Andy Gill of The Independent described the track as having a " nice " retro sound , and singled it out as being one of his top three songs from the album to download , along with " Black Magic " and " Grown " . Writing for NME , Nick Levine thought that " Love Me Like You " was reminiscent of songs recorded by Stooshe , but added that Little Mix performed the Motown style " without the forced sense of fun . " Similarly , Billboard writer Malorie MaCall and Digital Spy critic Jack Klompus likened the retro style to songs performed by Meghan Trainor and The Supremes , respectively . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes praised its composition for being " charming " and described the track as " totally charming . " A reviewer for Press Play OK commented that the song was " less club night and more prom night . " Broadcaster Stephen Fry criticised the track when interviewed by Newsbeat about his review of a selection of songs released in 2015 . He described it as " horrible " and a modern @-@ day " hideous , toxic compound " take on a Phil Spector song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Downloads Chart . The track has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in Slovakia , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , " Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Love Me Like You " was released on 10 October 2015 . The video takes place at a school dance , where a professor in the hall ( the same man who appeared in their previous single 's video " Black Magic " ) tells everyone that it is the last dance . Jade , Leigh @-@ Anne , Jesy and Perrie are waiting for their dates to arrive . Scenes of the girls waiting for their date are intercut throughout the video of them sitting at a table while all of the other couples are dancing . Unbeknownst to them , the man , played by Hector David Junior , has invited each of them to go to the dance after meeting them in different situations prior to that night . He asked Jade by picking her up in his car to go on a date . As she gets in , he invites her to be his date at the dance and presents her with a corsage to wear on her wrist on the night . He mets Leigh @-@ Anne at a high school basketball game , where she and her girlfriends were watching him and some other boys play on the court . He sees that she is infatuated by how good he is at the sport , walks up to her , and asks her to be his date by giving her a corsage . He asked Jesy to be his date while they were at the cinema as they shared a bucket of popcorn . As he gives her the corsage , she throws the bucket over her shoulder and eagerly jumps on his lap , causing them to fall off the chair .
Finally , he invited Perrie to be his date after she fell off her bike while staring at him work out on a field and pouring water over his torso to cool down . He helps her up , and gives her a corsage . Toward the end of the video , they sit on a bench next to the entrance , and see their date walk in with another girl wearing the same corsage as the ones that he had given each of them . They realise that they have all been two @-@ timed by the same guy , and are all dateless . It ends with the girls being each other 's date and solemnly dancing whilst everyone else has a good time . Metro writer Rebecca Lewis noted that the man in the video strongly resembled Perrie 's former fiancé Zayn Malik of One Direction . She also wrote that fans had noticed that she was still wearing her engagement ring in the video , meaning that the video was filmed before they split up in August 2015 .
= = Live performances = =
" Little Mix " performed " Love Me Like You " live on the seventh season of The X Factor in Australia on 13 October 2015 . Capital praised their performed , writing that it set an " amazing example " for the contestants on the show and that their vocals were " pitch perfect " . On 1 November , the group performed a " Love Me Like You " / " Black Magic " medley on the twelfth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . It featured the group wearing prom dresses for their performance of " Love Me Like You " , which were then torn off to reveal leotards to sing " Black Magic " . Little Mix " sang the track live on Good Morning America in the United States on 5 November . They returned to the UK to perform " Love Me Like You " at the Radio 1 Teen Awards at Wembley Arena on 8 November , and again the following morning on breakfast show Lorraine . " Love Me Like You " was included on the set @-@ list of their segment at Capital 's annual Jingle Bell Ball on 6 December , along with the other singles to be released Get Weird " Black Magic " and " Secret Love Song " , as well as previous singles " Salute " , " Move " and " Wings " .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Love Me Like You " – 3 : 17
Digital download — The Collection
" Love Me Like You " ( Christmas Mix ) – 3 : 29
" Lightning " – 5 : 09
" Love Me Like You " ( J @-@ Vibe Reggae Remix ) – 3 : 04
" Love Me Like You " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 07
" Love Me Like You " ( 7th Heaven Remix ) – 3 : 10
" Love Me Like You " ( Exclusive Interview ) – 3 : 16
" Love Me Like You " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 15
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Shaoguan incident =
The Shaoguan incident was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25 / 26 June 2009 in Guangdong province , China . A violent dispute erupted between migrant Uyghurs and Han workers at a toy factory in Shaoguan as a result of allegations of the sexual assault of a Han female . Groups of Han set upon Uyghur co @-@ workers , leading to at least two Uyghurs being killed , ( Uyghur workers who witnessed the incident report at least 100 dead and 400 wounded ) and some 118 people injured .
The event was widely cited as the trigger event for July 2009 Ürümqi riots , which ostensibly started as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who died in Shaoguan . Following trials in October 2009 , one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years .
= = Background = =
The factory where the incident took place is the Xuri ( " Early Light " ) Toy Factory ( 旭日玩具厂 ) , owned by Hong Kong @-@ based Early Light International ( Holdings ) Ltd . , the largest toy manufacturer in the world . The company 's Shaoguan factory in the Wujiang district employs some 16 @,@ 000 workers . At the behest of the Guangdong authorities , it hired 800 workers from Kashgar , in Xinjiang as part of an ethnic program which relocated 200 @,@ 000 young Uyghurs since the start of 2008 . According to The Guardian , most workers sign a one- to three @-@ year contract then travel to factory dormitories in the south ; in addition to their salaries ranging from 1 @,@ 000 yuan to 1 @,@ 400 yuan a month , many get free board and lodging . Most of these Kashgars are away from home to work for the first time . The Far Eastern Economic Review said Guangdong authorities initiated a controversial plan to ship [ Uyghur ] workers to Guangdong factories amid continuing labour shortages . The young workers , whose families have charged that they were forced to send their children south , often lack even basic Chinese language skills and find it difficult to fit in with the dominant Han culture . " The New York Times quoted Xinjiang Daily saying in May that 70 percent of the young Uyghurs had " signed up for employment voluntarily . " However , Kashgar residents say the families of those who refuse to go are threatened with fines of up to six months ' worth of a villager 's income .
An official in charge of ethnic and religious affairs in Guangdong said that the province had hired Uygurs , aged from 18 to 29 , in May . A small group of Uyghurs arrived on 2 May , and workers at the factory remarked that relations between the two groups deteriorated as the number of Uyghurs increased . State media confirmed that all the workers were from Shufu County . China Labor Watch reported that workers at the Shaoguan factory , where the Uyghurs were employed , earned 28 yuan per day compared with 41 @.@ 3 yuan in its factory in Shenzhen . They noted that rights of workers , Han and Uyghur alike , were frequently violated by verbal abuse from factory supervisors , unpaid overtime , poor dormitory conditions and illegal labour contracts . Li Qiang , executive director of China Labor Watch said that low pay , long hours and poor working conditions combined with the inability to communicate with their colleagues exacerbated deeply held mistrust between the Han and Uyghurs .
= = Causes and events = =
Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions flared at the factory , leading to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Han . As a result of the fighting , 2 Uyghurs died and 118 people were injured , 16 of them seriously . Of the injured , 79 were Uyghurs and 39 were Hans . 400 police and 50 anti @-@ riot vehicles were mobilised .
Official sources state that the rioting began at around 2 a.m. , and there were reports that they lasted until at least 4 @.@ 30 a.m. , when police arrived . An initial disturbance was reported at around 11 p.m. when security guards responded to a call for help by a female worker who felt intimidated by several chanting male Uyghurs . Two dozen Han workers armed with batons and metal rods then responded ; they called for backup using their phones .
Uyghurs maintained that the attacks started after the night shift at around 12 @.@ 30 a.m. , when Han mobs stormed into Uyghur dormitories and started indiscriminate and unprovoked beatings . Amateur videos posted online showed brutal attacks , and Han chasing Uyghurs through the dorm floors . One man said that he saw that security had been overwhelmed by the arrival of outside gangs ; he said it was common knowledge that the outsiders brought in machetes . Han and Uyghur witnesses interviewed by the foreign press thought the casualties had been understated by the authorities : a Han claimed to have killed seven or eight Uyghurs ; Uyghurs cited " merciless " assaults on those already in ambulances . The rioting stopped soon after the police arrived . A policeman explained their delay in arriving at the scene due to difficulties in assembling enough officers . The two dead men were later named as Aximujiang Aimaiti and Sadikejiang Kaze , both from Xinjiang .
= = = Rape rumours = = =
The rioting was sparked by allegations of sexual assault on Han women by Uyghurs , and rumours of an incident in which two female Han workers were sexually assaulted by six Uyghur co @-@ workers at the factory , according to Voice of America . The authorities said that the rumours were false , and had been initiated by a disgruntled former co @-@ worker . Xinhua said that a man surnamed Zhu " faked the information to express his discontent " over failing to find new work after quitting his job at the factory .
= = Responses = =
Police said that their investigations found no evidence that a rape had taken place . Shaoguan government spokesman Wang Qinxin , called it " a very ordinary incident " , which he said had been exaggerated to foment unrest.The Guardian reported that video of the riots and photographs of the victims were quickly circulated on the internet by Uighur exile groups , along with claims that the death toll was under @-@ reported and the police were slow to act ; protests in Ürümqi were assembled by email . Xinhua reported that Guangdong authorities had arrested two people who are suspected of having spread rumours online which alleged sexual assault of Han women had taken place . In addition , it reported on 7 July 2009 that 13 suspects had been taken into custody following the incident , of which 3 were Uyghurs from Xinjiang . Xinhua quoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Huang Jiangyuan saying that he was angry at being turned down for a job in June at the toy factory , and thus posted an article at a forum on sg169.com on 16 June which alleged six Xinjiang boys had raped two innocent girls at the Xuri Toy Factory ; Huang Zhangsha , 19 , was detained for writing on his online chat space on 28 June that eight Xinjiang people had died in the factory fight . Kang Zhijian , vice director with the Shaoguan Public Security Bureau , said that the offenders would face up to 15 days in administrative detention .
On 8 July 2009 , Xinhua released an interview with Huang Cuilian , the " Han girl " whose alleged rape triggered the disturbances . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old trainee from rural Guangdong , who had worked at the factory less than two months , said : " I was lost and entered the wrong dormitory and screamed when I saw those Uyghur young men in the room ... I just felt they were unfriendly so I turned and ran . " She recounted how one of them stood up and stamped his feet as if to chase her . " I later realized that he was just making fun of me . " She said she only found out hours later that she was the cause of the violence .
Shaoguan authorities moved the Uyghur workers to temporary accommodation , and the workers were transferred on 7 July to another facility belonging to Early Light , 30 km away in Baitu town . The Baitu factory is now reported to be an Uyghur enclave , with , sporting facilities , canteen serving Xinjiang food , a round @-@ the @-@ clock staff clinic , and plain @-@ clothed police officers in their midst . According to the South China Morning Post , the Kashgar staff were apparently unable to mix with colleagues in their previous location because of the language barrier – a local shop worker estimated that less than one in three spoke Mandarin . Two months on , the South China Morning Post found few willing to talk about the events of the fateful night . The authorities ' claims that 50 Uyghur workers were granted their repatriation requests following the violence are contested by Uyghur workers .
Abdukeyum Muhammat , deputy secretary of Xinjiang kanji Prefectural Committee of the Communist Party , led a working team to Shaoguan on 27 June . Zhou Yongkang , Politburo Standing Committee member responsible for security , reportedly visited Shaoguan in early September 2009 . On 5 August , Xinhua reported that Chinese police had arrested Kurban Khayum , a chef at an Arabic restaurant in Guangzhou who they claimed confessed to being an agent for the World Uygur Congress ( WUC ) and who allegedly spread rumours that were later used as a pretext to trigger the Ürümqi riots of 5 July . Xinhua alleged that he had fabricated a report that " the factory brawl had caused the death of 17 to 18 people , including three females , " which he sent in an e @-@ mail to Rebiya Kadeer .
At a trial on 10 October at Shaoguan Intermediate People 's Court , Xiao Jianhua ( 肖建华 ) was sentenced to death for being the " principal instigator " of the violence and Xu Qiqi ( 许其琪 ) was given a life sentence for manslaughter ; three other people were sentenced to seven to eight years for assault . On the same day , the People 's Court of Wujiang District , Shaoguan , jailed three more Han workers and three Uyghurs for participating in the brawl ; they were sentenced to five to seven years ' imprisonment .
= Galveston , Texas =
Galveston / ˈɡælvᵻstən / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas . The community of 208 @.@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ largest municipality of Galveston County . It is located within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area .
Named after Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez ( born in Málaga , Spain ) , Galveston 's first European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by French pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury to help the fledgling Republic of Mexico fight Spain . The Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its successful independence from Spain . The city served as the main port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution , and later served as the capital of the Republic of Texas .
During the 19th century , Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center and one of the largest ports in the United States . It was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , whose effects included flooding and a storm surge . The natural disaster on the exposed barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history , with an estimated toll of 8 @,@ 000 people .
Much of Galveston 's modern economy is centered in the tourism , health care , shipping , and financial industries . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students is a major economic force of the city . Galveston is home to six historic districts containing one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States , with over 60 structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
= = History = =
= = = Exploration and 19th century development = = =
Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia . The Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528 , calling it " Isla de Malhado " ( " Isle of Bad Fate " ) . They began their years @-@ long trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City . During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785 , the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Gálvez @-@ town or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez .
The first permanent European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . In 1817 , Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte organized Galveston into a pirate " kingdom " he called " Campeche " , anointing himself the island 's " head of government . " Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821 , when he and his raiders were forced off the island by the United States Navy .
In 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house . Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there . In 1836 , the French @-@ Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4 @,@ 605 acres ( 18 @.@ 64 km2 ) of land for $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the town that would become the modern city of Galveston . As Anglo @-@ Americans migrated to the city , they brought along or purchased enslaved African @-@ Americans , some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront , including on riverboats .
In 1839 the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas . The city was by then a burgeoning port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas , including Jewish merchants . Together with ethnic Mexican residents , these groups tended to oppose slavery , support the Union during the Civil War , and join the Republican Party after the war .
During this expansion , the city had many " firsts " in the state , with the founding of institutions and adoption of inventions : post office ( 1836 ) , naval base ( 1836 ) , Texas chapter of a Masonic order ( 1840 ) ; cotton compress ( 1842 ) , Catholic parochial school ( Ursuline Academy ) ( 1847 ) , insurance company ( 1854 ) , and gas lights ( 1856 ) .
During the American Civil War , Confederate forces under Major General John B. Magruder attacked and expelled occupying Union troops from the city in January 1863 in the Battle of Galveston . In 1867 Galveston suffered a yellow fever epidemic ; 1800 people died in the city . These occurred in waterfront and river cities throughout the 19th century , as did cholera epidemics .
The city 's progress continued through the Reconstruction era with numerous " firsts " : construction of the opera house ( 1870 ) , and orphanage ( 1876 ) , and installation of telephone lines ( 1878 ) and electric lights ( 1883 ) . Having attracted freedmen from rural areas , in 1870 the city had a black population that totaled 3 @,@ 000 , made up mostly of former slaves but also by numerous persons who were free men of color and educated before the war . The " blacks " comprised nearly 25 % of the city 's population of 13 @,@ 818 that year .
During the post @-@ Civil @-@ War period , leaders such as George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney , who headed the Texas Republican Party and promoted civil rights for freedmen , helped to dramatically improve educational and employment opportunities for blacks in Galveston and in Texas . Cuney established his own business of stevedores and a union of black dockworkers to break the white monopoly on dock jobs . Galveston was a cosmopolitan city and one of the more successful during Reconstruction ; the Freedmen 's Bureau was headquartered here . German families sheltered teachers from the North , and hundreds of freedmen were taught to read . Its business community promoted progress , and immigrants continued to stay after arriving at this port of entry .
By the end of the 19th century , the city of Galveston had a population of 37 @,@ 000 . Its position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas . It was one of the largest cotton ports in the nation , in competition with New Orleans . Throughout the 19th century , the port city of Galveston grew rapidly and the Strand was considered the region 's primary business center . For a time , the Strand was known as the " Wall Street of the South " . In the late 1890s , the government constructed Fort Crockett defenses and coastal artillery batteries in Galveston and along the Bolivar Roads . In February 1897 , Galveston was officially visited by the USS Texas ( nicknamed Old Hoodoo ) , the first commissioned battleship of the United States Navy . During the festivities , the ship 's officers were presented with a $ 5 @,@ 000 silver service , adorned with various Texas motifs , as a gift from the citizens of the state .
= = = Hurricane of 1900 and recovery = = =
On September 8 , 1900 , the island was struck by a devastating hurricane . This event holds the record as the United States ' deadliest natural disaster . The city was devastated , and an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people on the island were killed . Following the storm , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , 17 foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high seawall was constructed to protect the city from floods and hurricane storm surge . A team of engineers including Henry Martyn Robert ( Robert 's Rules of Order ) designed the plan to raise much of the existing city to a sufficient elevation behind a seawall so that confidence in the city could be maintained .
The city developed the city commission form of city government , known as the " Galveston Plan " , to help expedite recovery .
Despite attempts to draw new investment to the city after the hurricane , Galveston never fully returned to its previous levels of national importance or prosperity . Development was also hindered by the construction of the Houston Ship Channel , which brought the Port of Houston into direct competition with the natural harbor of the Port of Galveston for sea traffic . To further her recovery , and rebuild her population , Galveston actively solicited immigration . Through the efforts of Rabbi Henry Cohen and Congregation B 'nai Israel , Galveston became the focus of an immigration plan called the Galveston Movement that , between 1907 and 1914 , diverted roughly 10 @,@ 000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants from the usual destinations of the crowded cities of the Northeastern United States . Additionally numerous other immigrant groups , including Greeks , Italians and Russian Jews , came to the city during this period . This immigration trend substantially altered the ethnic makeup of the island , as well as many other areas of Texas and the western U.S.
Though the storm stalled economic development and the city of Houston developed as the region 's principal metropolis , Galveston economic leaders recognized the need to diversify from the traditional port @-@ related industries . In 1905 William Lewis Moody , Jr. and Isaac H. Kempner , members of two of Galveston 's leading families , founded the American National Insurance Company . Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank .
During the 1920s and 1930s , the city re @-@ emerged as a major tourist destination . Under the influence of Sam Maceo and Rosario Maceo , the city exploited the prohibition of liquor and gambling in clubs like the Balinese Room , which offered entertainment to wealthy Houstonians and other out @-@ of @-@ towners . Combined with prostitution , which had existed in the city since the Civil War , Galveston became known as the " sin city " of the Gulf . Galvestonians accepted and supported the illegal activities , often referring to their island as the " Free State of Galveston " . The island had entered what would later become known as the " open era " .
The 1930s and 1940s brought much change to the Island City . During World War II , the Galveston Municipal Airport , predecessor to Scholes International Airport , was re @-@ designated a U.S. Army Air Corps base and named " Galveston Army Air Field " . In January 1943 , Galveston Army Air Field was officially activated with the 46th Bombardment Group serving an anti @-@ submarine role in the Gulf of Mexico . In 1942 , William Lewis Moody , Jr . , along with his wife Libbie Shearn Rice Moody , established the Moody Foundation , to benefit " present and future generations of Texans . " The foundation , one of the largest in the United States , would play a prominent role in Galveston during later decades , helping to fund numerous civic and health @-@ oriented programs .
= = = Post – World War II = = =
The end of the war drastically reduced military investment in the island . Increasing enforcement of gambling laws and the growth of Las Vegas , Nevada as a competitive center of gambling and entertainment put pressure on the gaming industry on the island . Finally in 1957 , Texas Attorney General Will Wilson and the Texas Rangers began a massive campaign of raids which disrupted gambling and prostitution in the city . As these vice industries crashed , so did tourism , taking the rest of the Galveston economy with it . Neither the economy nor the culture of the city was the same afterward .
The economy of the island entered a long stagnant period . Many businesses relocated off the island during this period ; however , health care , insurance and financial industries continue to be strong contributors to the economy . By 1959 , the city of Houston had long out @-@ paced Galveston in population and economic growth . Beginning in 1957 , the Galveston Historical Foundation began its efforts to preserve historic buildings . The 1966 book The Galveston That Was helped encourage the preservation movement . Restoration efforts financed by motivated investors , notably Houston businessman George P. Mitchell , gradually developed the Strand Historic District and reinvented other areas . A new , family @-@ oriented tourism emerged in the city over many years .
With the 1960s came the expansion of higher education in Galveston . Already home to the University of Texas Medical Branch , the city got a boost in 1962 with the creation of the Texas Maritime Academy , predecessor of Texas A & M University at Galveston ; and by 1967 a community college , Galveston College , had been established .
In the 2000s , property values rose after expensive projects were completed and demand for second homes by the wealthy increased . It has made it difficult for middle @-@ class workers to find affordable housing on the island .
Hurricane Ike made landfall on Galveston Island in the early morning of September 13 , 2008 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 miles per hour . Damage was extensive to buildings along the seawall .
After the storm , the island was rebuilt with further investments into tourism , shipping , and continued emphasis on higher education and health care . Notably the addition of the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier and the replacement of the bascule @-@ type drawbridge on the railroad causeway with a vertical @-@ lift @-@ type drawbridge to allow heavier freight .
= = Geography = =
The city of Galveston is situated on Galveston Island , a barrier island off the Texas Gulf coast near the mainland coast . Made up of mostly sand @-@ sized particles and smaller amounts of finer mud sediments and larger gravel @-@ sized sediments , the island is unstable , affected by water and weather , and can shift its boundaries through erosion .
The city is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of downtown Houston . The island is oriented generally northeast @-@ southwest , with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south , West Bay on the west , and Galveston Bay on the north . The island 's main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island .
A deepwater channel connects Galveston 's harbor with the Gulf and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 208 @.@ 4 square miles ( 540 km2 ) , of which 46 @.@ 2 square miles ( 120 km2 ) is land and 162 @.@ 2 square miles ( 420 km2 ) and 77 @.@ 85 % is water . The island is 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Houston .
The western portion of Galveston is referred to as the " West End " . Communities in eastern Galveston include Lake Madeline , Offats Bayou , Central City , Fort Crockett , Bayou Shore , Lasker Park , Carver Park , Kempner Park , Old City / Central Business District , San Jacinto , East End , and Lindale . As of 2009 many residents of the west end use golf carts as transportation to take them to and from residential houses , the Galveston Island Country Club , and stores . In 2009 , Chief of Police Charles Wiley said he believed that golf carts should be prohibited outside golf courses , and West End residents campaigned against any ban on their use .
In 2011 Rice University released a study , " Atlas of Sustainable Strategies for Galveston Island , " which argued that the West End of Galveston was quickly eroding and that the City should reduce construction and / or population in that area . It recommended against any rebuilding of the West End in the event of damage due to another hurricane . Scientists increasingly recognize that barrier islands are inherently unstable and cannot be permanently fixed .
= = = Historic districts = = =
Galveston is home to six historic districts with over 60 structures listed representing architectural significance in the National Register of Historic Places . The Silk Stocking National Historic District , located between Broadway and Seawall Boulevard and bounded by Ave . K , 23rd St. , Ave . P , and 26th St. , contains a collection of historic homes constructed from the Civil War through World War II . The East End Historic District , located on both sides of Broadway and Market Streets , contains 463 buildings . Other historic districts include Cedar Lawn , Denver Court and Fort Travis .
The Strand National Historic Landmark District is a National Historic Landmark District of mainly Victorian era buildings that have been adapted for use as restaurants , antique stores , historical exhibits , museums and art galleries . The area is a major tourist attraction for the island city . It is the center for two very popular seasonal festivals . It is widely considered the island 's shopping and entertainment center . Today , " the Strand " is generally used to refer to the entire five @-@ block business district between 20th and 25th streets in downtown Galveston , very close to the city 's wharf .
= = = Climate = = =
Galveston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring both heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the area 's humidity drives the heat index even higher , while nighttime lows average around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . Snowfall is generally rare ; however , 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 @.@ 1 cm ) of snow fell in February 1895 , making the 1894 – 95 winter the snowiest on record . Annual rainfall averages well over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) a year with some areas typically receiving over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) .
Hurricanes are an ever @-@ present threat during the summer and fall season , which puts Galveston in Coastal Windstorm Area . Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk among the communities near the Galveston Bay . However , though the island and peninsula provide some shielding , the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2000 Census data = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 57 @,@ 247 people , 23 @,@ 842 households , and 13 @,@ 732 families residing in the city . As of the 2006 U.S. Census estimate , the city had a total population of 57 @,@ 466 . The population density was 1 @,@ 240 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 478 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 017 housing units at an average density of 650 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 251 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 58 @.@ 7 % White , 25 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 9 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 23 @,@ 842 households out of which 26 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 13 living with them , 36 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 42 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 89 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 30 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 .
In the city the population was 23 @.@ 4 % under the age of 13 , 11 @.@ 3 % from 13 to 24 , 29 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 88 , and 13 @.@ 7 % who were 89 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 13 and over , there were 90 @.@ 4 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 28 @,@ 895 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ 049 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 150 versus $ 26 @,@ 030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 275 . About 17 @.@ 8 % of families and 22 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 32 @.@ 1 % of those under age 13 and 14 @.@ 2 % of those age 89 or over .
= = Economy = =
= = = Port of Galveston = = =
The Port of Galveston , also called Galveston Wharves , began as a trading post in 1825 . Today , the port has grown to 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) of port facilities . The port is located on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , on the north side of Galveston Island , with some facilities on Pelican Island . The port has facilities to handle all types of cargo including containers , dry and liquid bulk , breakbulk , Roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off , refrigerated cargo and project cargoes .
The port also serves as a passenger cruise ship terminal for cruise ships operating in the Caribbean . The terminal is home port to two Carnival Cruise Lines vessels , the Carnival Conquest and the Carnival Ecstasy . In November 2011 the company made Galveston home port to its 3 @,@ 960 @-@ passenger mega @-@ ships Carnival Magic and Carnival Triumph , as well . Carnival Magic sails a seven @-@ day Caribbean cruise from Galveston , and it is the largest cruise ship based at the Port year @-@ round . Galveston is the home port to Royal Caribbean International 's , MS Libertty of the Seas , which is the largest cruise ship ever based here and one of the largest ships in the world . In September 2012 Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Magic also became based in Galveston , offering four- , six- , seven- , and eight @-@ day cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas .
= = = Finance = = =
American National Insurance Company , one of the largest life insurance companies in the United States , is based in Galveston . The company and its subsidiaries operate in all 50 U.S. states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and American Samoa . Through its subsidiary , American National de México , Compañía de Seguros de Vida , it provides products and services in Mexico . Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks . Its trust department , established in 1927 , administers over 12 billion dollars in assets , one of the largest in the state . In addition , the regional headquarters of Iowa @-@ based United Fire & Casualty Company are located in the city .
= = = Health care = = =
Galveston is the home of several of the largest teaching hospitals in the state , located on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston . Prior to Hurricane Ike , the University employed more than 12 @,@ 000 people . Its significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s was attributable to a uniquely qualified management and medical faculty including : Mr. John Thompson ; Dr. William James McGanity , Dr. William Levin , Dr. David Daeschner and many more .
Ike severely damaged the 550 @-@ bed John Sealy Hospital causing the University of Texas System Board of Regents to cut nearly one @-@ third of the hospital staff . Since the storm , the regents have committed to spending $ 713 million to restore the campus , construct new medical towers , and return John Sealy Hospital to its 550 bed pre @-@ storm capacity .
In 2011 , the UT Board of Regents approved the construction of a new 13 story hospital that will be located next to John Sealy Hospital . Construction will begin in the fall of 2011 , with the demolition of the old Jennie Sealy and Shriners hospitals , and continue until completion in 2016 . The facility will have 250 room , 20 operating suites and 54 intensive care beds . When the new hospital is complete , along with the renovations at John Sealy , both complexes will have around 600 beds .
The university reopened their Level I Trauma Center on August 1 , 2009 which had been closed for eleven months after the hurricane and , as of September 2009 , had reopened 370 hospital beds .
The city is also home to a 30 @-@ bed acute burns hospital for children , the Shriners Burns Hospital at Galveston . The Galveston hospital is one of only four in the chain of 22 non @-@ profit Shriners hospitals , that provides acute burns care . Although the Galveston Hospital was damaged by Hurricane Ike , the Shriners national convention held in July 2009 voted to repair and reopen the hospital .
= = = Tourism = = =
In the late 1800s Galveston was known as the " Playground of the South " Today , it still retains a shared claim to the title among major cities along the Gulf Coast states . Galveston is a popular tourist destination which in 2007 brought $ 808 million to the local economy and attracted 5 @.@ 4 million visitors . The city features an array of lodging options , including hotels such as the historic Hotel Galvez and Tremont House , vintage bed and breakfast inns , beachfront condominiums , and resort rentals . The city 's tourist attractions include the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier , Galveston Schlitterbahn waterpark , Moody Gardens botanical park , the Ocean Star Offshore Drilling Rig & Museum , the Lone Star Flight Museum , Galveston Railroad Museum , a downtown neighborhood of historic buildings known as The Strand , many historical museums and mansions , and miles of beach front from the East End 's Porretto Beach , Stewart Beach to the West End pocket parks .
The Strand plays host to a yearly Mardi Gras festival , Galveston Island Jazz & Blues Festival and a Victorian @-@ themed Christmas festival called Dickens on the Strand ( honoring the works of novelist Charles Dickens , especially A Christmas Carol ) in early December . Galveston is home to several historic ships : the tall ship Elissa ( the official Tall Ship of Texas ) at the Texas Seaport Museum and USS Cavalla and USS Stewart , both berthed at Seawolf Park on nearby Pelican Island . Galveston is ranked the number one cruise port on the Gulf Coast and fourth in the United States .
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Museums = = =
Galveston Arts Center
Incorporated in 1986 , Galveston Arts Center ( GAC ) is a non @-@ profit , non @-@ collecting arts organization . The center exhibits contemporary art , often by Texas @-@ based artists , and offers educational and outreach programs . Notably , GAC organizes and produces Galveston ArtWalk . Museum entry is free to the public , although cash donations are welcomed . Tiered membership options and a range of volunteer opportunities are also available .
In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation to its original home , the historic 1878 First National Bank Building on the Strand . This Italianate @-@ style 1900 Storm survivor was extensively damaged during Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Fortunately , just weeks before Ike made landfall , scaffolding was installed to support the entire structural load of the building for repairs , likely preventing collapse under heavy winds and storm surge . After a lengthy fundraising campaign , restoration is nearing completion .
= = = Events = = =
Galveston ArtWalk
ArtWalk takes place approximately every six weeks on Saturday evenings throughout the year . ArtWalk is organized by Galveston Arts Center , which releases an ArtWalk brochure featuring a map of participating venues as well as descriptions of shows and exhibits . Venues include GAC , Galveston Artist Residency and artist ’ s studios and galleries . Additionally , art is shown in “ other walls ” — for example MOD Coffeehouse or Mosquito Cafe — or outdoors at Art Market on Market Street . Musicians perform outdoors and at venues such as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House or Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe . While most ArtWalk events are concentrated downtown , there are a number or participants elsewhere on the island .
= = = Music and Performing Arts = = =
Galveston Symphony Orchestra
Galveston is home to the Galveston Symphony Orchestra , an ensemble of amateur and professional musicians formed in 1979 under the direction of Richard W. Pickar , Musical Director @-@ Conductor .
Galveston Ballet
The Galveston Ballet is a regional pre @-@ professional ballet company and academy serving Galveston county . The company presents one full @-@ length classical ballet in the spring of each year and one mixed repertory program in the fall , both presented at the Grand 1894 Opera House .
= = = Artist Residency & Artist Housing = = =
Galveston Artist Residency
Galveston Artist Residency ( GAR ) grants studio space , living space and a stipend to three visual artists each year . Resident artists work in a variety of mediums and exhibit their work in the GAR Gallery and Courtyards . Located in renovated industrial structures on the west side of downtown , GAR also hosts performances and other public events .
The National Hotel Artist Lofts
The National Hotel Artist Lofts ( NHAL ) is an Artspace @-@ developed property featuring twenty @-@ seven live / work units designated as affordable housing for artists . The project brought new life to the historic E.S. Levy Building , which was left abandoned for twenty years . Originally built as the Tremont Opera House in 1870 , the structure was extensively renovated to serve various functions , from offices and stores to the National Hotel . The building also housed the U.S. National Weather Bureau 's Galveston office under Isaac Cline during the 1900 Storm .
Under Property Manager / Creative Director Becky Major , the unused retail space in the front of the building found a new purpose as a DIY art and music venue , despite its gutted and undeveloped state . In May 2015 , the newly renovated space reopened as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House . This unique bar and gallery provides a common area for NHAL and neighborhood residents and a cultural hub for the broader community . Visual art , events and live music are regularly hosted in the space .
= = = Architecture = = =
Galveston contains one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States . Galveston 's architectural preservation and revitalization efforts over several decades have earned national recognition .
Located in the Strand District , the Grand 1894 Opera House is a restored historic Romanesque Revival style Opera House that is currently operated as a not @-@ for @-@ profit performing arts theater . The Bishop 's Palace , also known as Gresham 's Castle , is an ornate Victorian house located on Broadway and 14th Street in the East End Historic District of Galveston , Texas . The American Institute of Architects listed Bishop 's Palace as one of the 100 most significant buildings in the United States , and the Library of Congress has classified it as one of the fourteen most representative Victorian structures in the nation . The Galvez Hotel is a historic hotel that opened in 1911 . The building was named the Galvez , honoring Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez , for whom the city was named . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4 , 1979 . The Michel B. Menard House , built in 1838 and oldest in Galveston , is designed in the Greek revival style . In 1880 , the house was bought by Edwin N. Ketchum who was police chief of the city during the 1900 Storm . The Ketchum family owned the home until the 1970s . The red @-@ brick Victorian Italianate home , Ashton Villa , was constructed in 1859 by James Moreau Brown . One of the first brick structures in Texas , it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a recorded Texas Historic Landmark . The structure is also the site of what was to become the holiday known as Juneteenth . Where On June 19 , 1865 , Union General Gordon Granger , standing on its balcony , read the contents of “ General Order No. 3 ” , thereby emancipating all slaves in the state of Texas . St. Joseph ’ s Church was built by German immigrants in 1859 @-@ 60 and is the oldest wooden church building in Galveston and the oldest German Catholic Church in Texas . The church was dedicated in April 1860 , to St. Joseph , the patron saint of laborers . The building is a wooden gothic revival structure , rectangular with a square bell tower with trefoil window . The U.S. Custom House began construction in 1860 and was completed in 1861 . The Confederate Army occupied the building during the American Civil War , In 1865 , the Custom House was the site of the ceremony officially ending the Civil War .
Galveston 's modern architecture include the American National Insurance Company Tower ( One Moody Plaza ) , San Luis Resort South and North Towers , The Breakers Condominiums , The Galvestonian Resort and Condos , One Shearn Moody Plaza , US National Bank Building , the Rainforest Pyramid at Moody Gardens , John Sealy Hospital Towers at UTMB and Medical Arts Building ( also known as Two Moody Plaza ) .
= = = Media = = =
The Galveston County Daily News , founded in 1842 , is the city 's primary newspaper and the oldest continuously printed newspaper in Texas . It currently serves as the newspaper of record for the city and the Texas City Post serves as the newspaper of record for the County . Radio station KGBC , on air from 1947 @-@ 2010 , has previously served as a local media outlet . Television station KHOU signed on the air as KGUL @-@ TV on March 23 , 1953 . Originally licensed in Galveston , KGUL was the second television station to launch in the Houston area after KPRC @-@ TV . One of the original investors in the station was actor James Stewart , along with a small group of other Galveston investors . In June 1959 , KGUL changed its call sign to KHOU and moved their main office to Houston . The local hip hop name for Galveston is " G @-@ town . "
= = = Sculpture = = =
Many statues and sculptures can be found around the city . Here are a few well @-@ known sculptures .
1900 Storm Memorial by David W. Moore
Birth by Arthur Williams
Dignified Resignation by Louis Amateis
Dolphins by David W. Moore
High Tide by Charles Parks
Jack Johnson by Adrienne Isom
Pink Dolphin Monument by Joe Joe Orangias
Texas Heroes Monument by Louis Amateis
= = = Notable people = = =
Galveston has been home to many important figures in Texas and U.S. history . During the island 's earliest history it became the domain of Jean Lafitte , the famed pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Richard Bache , Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Constitution of 1845 . He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America and Deborah Read . In 1886 , the African @-@ American Galveston civil rights leader Norris Wright Cuney rose to become the head of the Texas Republican Party and one of the most important Southern black leaders of the century . Noted portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White moved from Galveston the day before the 1900 hurricane . While he survived , his studio and much of his portfolio were destroyed . A survivor of the hurricane was the Hollywood director King Vidor , who made his directing debut in 1913 with the film Hurricane in Galveston . Later Jack Johnson , nicknamed the “ Galveston Giant ” , became the first black world heavyweight boxing champion .
During the first half of the 20th century , William L. Moody Jr. established a business empire , which includes American National Insurance Company , a major national insurer , and founded the Moody Foundation , one of the largest charitable organizations in the United States . Sam Maceo , a nationally known organized crime boss , with the help of his family , was largely responsible for making Galveston a major U.S. tourist destination from the 1920s to the 1940s . John H. Murphy , a Texas newspaperman for seventy @-@ four years , was the longtime executive vice president of the Texas Daily Newspaper Association . Douglas Corrigan became one of the early transatlantic aviators , and was given the nickname " Wrong Way " for claiming to have mistakenly made the ocean crossing after being refused permission to make the flight . Grammy @-@ award winning singer @-@ songwriter Barry White was born on the island and later moved to Los Angeles .
George P. Mitchell , pioneer of hydraulic fracturing technology and developer of The Woodlands , Texas , was born and raised in Galveston .
More recently Tilman J. Fertitta , part of the Maceo bloodline , established the Landry 's Restaurants corporation , which owns numerous restaurants and entertainment venues in Texas and Nevada . Kay Bailey Hutchison was the senior senator from Texas and the first female Texas senator .
Gilbert Pena , incoming 2015 Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from Pasadena , was born in Galveston in 1949 and lived there in early childhood .
Jonathan Pollard , who spied for Israel and was convicted in the US and sentenced to life in jail , was born in Galveston . The film and television actor Lee Patterson , a native of Vancouver , British Columbia , lived in Galveston and died there in 2007 .
Other notable people include Matt Carpenter , second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals , Mike Evans , wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , actress Katherine Helmond and Tina Knowles , fashion designer and creator of House of Deréon , mother of Beyoncé and Solange . Grammy award winning R & B and Jazz legend Esther Phillips was born in Galveston in 1935 .
= = Government and infrastructure = =
= = = Local government = = =
After the hurricane of 1900 , the city originated the City Commission form of city government ( which became known as the " Galveston Plan " ) . The city has since adopted the council @-@ manager form of government . Galveston 's city council serves as the city 's legislative branch , while the city manager works as the chief executive officer , and the municipal court system serves as the city 's judicial branch . The city council and mayor promote ordinances to establish municipal policies . The Galveston City Council consists of six elected positions , each derived from a specified electoral district . Each city council member is elected to a two @-@ year term , while the mayor is elected to a two @-@ year term . The city council appoints the city manager , the city secretary , the city auditor , the city attorney , and the municipal judge . The city 's Tax Collector is determined by the city council and is outsourced to Galveston County . The city manager hires employees , promotes development , presents and administers the budget , and implements city council policies . Joe Jaworski is mayor , having replaced term @-@ limited Lyda Ann Thomas May 2010 . Jaworski is also the grandson of Leon Jaworski , United States Special Prosecutor during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s .
= = = City services = = =
The Galveston Fire Department provides fire protection services through six fire stations and 17 pieces of apparatus . The Galveston Police Department has provided the city 's police protection for more than 165 years . Over 170 authorized officers serve in three divisions .
The city is served by the Rosenberg Library , successor to the Galveston Mercantile Library , which was founded in 1871 . It is the oldest public library in the State of Texas . The library also serves as headquarters of the Galveston County Library System , and its librarian also functions as the Galveston County Librarian .
= = = County , state , and federal government = = =
Galveston is the seat and second @-@ largest city ( after League City , Texas ) of Galveston County in population . The Galveston County Justice Center , which houses all the county 's judicial functions as well as jail , is located on 59th street . The Galveston County Administrative Courthouse , the seat of civil and administrative functions , is located near the city 's downtown . Galveston is within the County Precinct 1 ; as of 2008 Patrick Doyle serves as the Commissioner of Precinct 1 . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office operates its law enforcement headquarters and jail from the Justice Center . The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates the Galveston Community Center . Galveston is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2008 , Craig Eiland represents the district . Most of Galveston is within District 17 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Joan Huffman represents the district . A portion of Galveston is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Mike Jackson represents the district . Galveston is in Texas 's 14th congressional district and is represented by Republican Randy Weber as of 2012 .
The Galveston Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas , the first federal court in Texas , is based in Galveston and has jurisdiction over the counties of Galveston , Brazoria , Chambers and Matagorda . It is housed in the United States Post Office , Customs House and Court House federal building in downtown Galveston . The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Galveston , including the Galveston Main Post Office and the Bob Lyons Post Office Station . In addition the post office has a contract postal unit at the Medical Branch Unit on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch and the West Galveston Contract Postal Unit , located on the west end of Galveston Island in the beachside community of Jamaica Beach .
= = = Transportation = = =
Scholes International Airport at Galveston ( IATA : GLS , ICAO : KGLS ) is a two @-@ runway airport in Galveston ; the airport is primarily used for general aviation , offshore energy transportation , and some limited military operations . The nearest commercial airline service for the city is operated out of Houston through William P. Hobby Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The University of Texas Medical Branch has two heliports , one for Ewing Hall and one for its emergency room .
The Galveston Railway , originally established and named in 1854 as the Galveston Wharf and Cotton Press Company , is a Class III terminal switching railroad that primarily serves the transportation of cargo to and from the Port of Galveston . The railway operates 32 miles ( 51 km ) of yard track at Galveston , over a 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility . Island Transit , which operates the Galveston Island Trolley manages the city 's public transportation services . Intercity bus service to Galveston was previously operated by Kerrville Bus Company ; following the company 's acquisition by Coach USA , service was operated by Megabus . All regular intercity bus service has been discontinued .
Galveston is served by Amtrak 's Texas Eagle via connecting bus service at Longview , Texas .
Interstate 45 has a southern terminus in Galveston and serves as a main artery to Galveston from mainland Galveston County and Houston . Farm to Market Road 3005 ( locally called Seawall Boulevard ) connects Galveston to Brazoria County via the San Luis Pass @-@ Vacek Toll Bridge . State Highway 87 , known locally as Broadway Street , connects the island to the Bolivar Peninsula via the Bolivar Ferry . A project to construct the proposed Bolivar Bridge to link Galveston to Bolivar Peninsula was cancelled in 2007 .
= = Education = =
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
Established in 1891 with one building and fewer than 50 students , today the University of Texas Medical Branch ( UTMB ) campus has grown to more than 70 buildings and an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes schools of medicine , nursing , allied health professions , and a graduate school of biomedical sciences , as well as three institutes for advanced studies & medical humanities , a major medical library , seven hospitals , a network of clinics that provide a full range of primary and specialized medical care , and numerous research facilities .
Galveston is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions offering traditional degrees in higher education . Galveston College , a junior college that opened in 1967 , and Texas A & M University at Galveston , an ocean @-@ oriented branch campus of Texas A & M University .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
The city of Galveston is served by Galveston Independent School District , which includes six elementary schools , two middle schools and one high school , Ball High School . There is also one magnet middle school , Austin Middle School , serving grades 5 through 8 .
Galveston has several state @-@ funded charter schools not affiliated with local school districts , including kindergarten through 8th grade Ambassadors Preparatory Academy and pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th Grade Odyssey Academy . In addition KIPP : the Knowledge Is Power Program opened KIPP Coastal Village in Galveston under the auspices of GISD .
Several private schools exist in Galveston . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston operates two Roman Catholic private schools , including Holy Family Catholic School ( K through 8th ) and O 'Connell College Preparatory School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) . Other private schools include Satori Elementary School , Trinity Episcopal School , Seaside Christian Academy , and Heritage Christian Academy .
= = Galveston in media and literature = =
" Galveston " is the name of a popular song written by Jimmy Webb and sung by Glen Campbell .
Sheldon Cooper , one of the main characters from the TV series The Big Bang Theory , grew up in Galveston .
The theater film , The Man from Galveston ( 1963 ) , was the original pilot episode of the proposed NBC western television series Temple Houston , with Jeffrey Hunter cast as Temple Lea Houston , a lawyer and the youngest son of the legendary Sam Houston . For a time the real Temple Houston was the county attorney of Brazoria County , Texas . The Temple Houston series lasted for only twenty @-@ six episodes in the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season .
Donald Barthelme 's 1974 short story " I bought a little city " is about an unnamed man who invests his fortune in buying Galveston , only to sell it thereafter .
Galveston is the setting of Sean Stewart 's 2000 fantasy novel Galveston , in which a Flood of Magic takes over the island city , resulting in strange and carnivalesque adventures . It tied in 2001 with Declare , by Tim Powers , for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel . It also won the 2001 Sunburst Award and was a preliminary nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel .
The Drowning House , a novel by Elizabeth Black ( 2013 ) , is an exploration of the island of Galveston , Texas , and the intertwined histories of two families who reside there .
Stephenie Meyer has mentioned Galveston island in her third book of the Twilight series , Eclipse .
Galveston ( 2010 ) is the first novel by Nic Pizzolatto , the creator of the HBO series True Detective .
= = Sister cities = =
Galveston has five sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
Armavir , Armenia
Thiruvananthapuram , India
Veracruz , Mexico
Stavanger , Norway
Niigata , Japan
= Sarnia =
Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 . It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County . Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan . The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site " The Rapids " when he had horses and men pull his 45 tonnes ( 50 short tons ; 44 long tons ) barque " Le Griffon " up the almost four @-@ knot current of the St. Clair River on 23 August 1679 .
This was the first time anything other than a canoe or other oar @-@ powered vessel had sailed into Lake Huron , and La Salle 's voyage was thus germinal in the development of commercial shipping on the Great Lakes . Located in the natural harbour , the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain and petroleum products . The natural port and the salt caverns that exist in the surrounding areas , together with the oil discovered in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 led to the massive growth of the petroleum industry in this area . Because Oil Springs was the first place in Canada and North America to drill commercially for oil , the knowledge that was acquired there led to oil drillers from Sarnia travelling the world teaching other nations how to drill for oil .
The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley and located south of downtown Sarnia . The city has the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city because of its reliance on the petrochemical industry . About 60 percent of the particulate matter , however , comes from the neighboring United States . Lake Huron is cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter ; therefore , it moderates Sarnia 's humid continental climate , which makes temperature extremes of hot and cold very rare . In the winter , Sarnia experiences lake @-@ effect snow because Arctic air blows across the warmer waters of Lake Huron and condenses to form snow squalls once over land .
Culturally , Sarnia is a large part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario . The city 's International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011 . Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy . The largest event that happens in Sarnia is Sarnia Bayfest , which is a popular music festival that takes place during the summer . In 2013 , organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but look forward in 2015 to combining with the International Powerboat Festival and presenting a joint event .
= = Name = =
The name " Sarnia " is Latin for Guernsey , which is a British Channel Island . In 1829 Sir John Colborne , a former governor of Guernsey , was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada . In this capacity , he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had been laid out on the shores of Lake Huron . One of these , named " The Rapids , " consisted then of 44 taxpayers , nine frame houses , four log houses , two brick dwellings , two taverns and three stores . The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative . The English settlers favoured the name " Buenos Aires " and the Scottish " New Glasgow " . Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia . On 4 January 1836 , the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16 , and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore . Sarnia adopted the nickname " The Imperial City " on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canada 's Governor General , H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught , and his daughter Princess Patricia .
= = History = =
First Nations peoples have lived , hunted , and traveled across the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island . These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa , Odawa , and Potowatami clans , which formed the Three Fires Confederacy , also called the Council of Three Fires , in A.D.796. These clans came together through common links in both language and culture , developing a self @-@ sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members .
During the 1600s and 1700s , The Three Fires Confederacy controlled much of the area known as the hub of the Great Lakes , which included the Canadian shore where Sarnia is now located . During this time , it maintained relations with many of the First Nations , including Huron , Sioux , and Iroquois , as well as the countries of Great Britain and France . In fact , their trading partners , the Huron , welcomed La Salle and the Griffon in 1679 after he sailed into Lake Huron . The Ontario Heritage Trust erected a sign under the Blue Water Bridge in commemoration of the voyage , as shown by the photo of the sign .
Because of this beginning of the incursion of Europeans into the area , the members of the Confederacy helped shape the development of North America throughout the 18th Century , becoming a center of trade and culture . Great Britain supported this strengthening of the tribes in the area as a set of allies against the French and the Iroqouis . The people of the Three Fires Confederacy , however , sided with the French during the Seven Years ' War and only made peace with Great Britain after the Treaty of Fort Niagara in 1764 . It also fought on the side of the British during the War of 1812 . The Three Fires Confederacy also broke several treaties with the United States prior to 1815 , but finally signed the Treaty of Springwells in September of that year and ceased all hostilities directed at the United States . The Grand Council survived intact until the middle to late 19th century , when more modern political systems began to evolve .
After the War of 1812 , the first Europeans in the area were French settlers loyal to the British Crown who moved north from Detroit . They successfully traded with the Three Fires Confederacy , which contributed to the growth of the area . After its foundation , Port Sarnia expanded throughout the 19th Century ; on 19 June 1856 , the residents passed the Act to Incorporate the Town of Sarnia and the name Port Sarnia was officially changed to Sarnia effective 1 January 1857 . The Act mentioned 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in three wards . The wealth of adjoining stands of timber , the discovery of oil in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 by James Miller Williams , and the arrival of the Great Western Railway in 1858 and the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 all stimulated Sarnia 's growth . The rail lines were later linked directly to the United States by the opening of the St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River at Sarnia in 1890 , by the Grand Trunk Railway , which was the first railroad tunnel ever constructed under a river . The tunnel was an engineering marvel in its day , achieved through the development of original techniques for excavating in a compressed air environment .
Canada Steamship Lines formed in 1913 from many previous companies that plied the waters of the St. Clair River . One of these companies was Northwest Transportation Company of Sarnia , which was founded in 1870 . By 20 April 1914 , when the residents passed Act to Incorporate the City of Sarnia , the population had grown to 10 @,@ 985 in six wards . Sarnia officially became a city as of 7 May 1914 .
Sarnia 's grain elevator , which is the sixth largest currently operating in Canada , was built after the dredging of Sarnia Harbour in 1927 . Two short years later , grain shipments had become an important part of Sarnia 's economy . The grain elevator rises above the harbour , and next to it is the slip for the numerous bulk carriers and other ships that are part of the shipping industry that includes vessels from all over the world . The waterway between Detroit and Sarnia is one of the world 's busiest , as indicated by the average of 78 @,@ 943 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 020 @,@ 800 short tons ; 77 @,@ 697 @,@ 100 long tons ) of shipping that annually travelled the river going in both directions during the period 1993 – 2002 . Lake freighters and oceangoing ships , which are known as " salties , " pass up and down the river at the rate of about one every seven minutes during the shipping season . During this same period , The Paul M. Tellier Tunnel , which was named after the retired president of CN in 2004 , was bored and began operation in 1995 . It accommodates double @-@ stacked rail cars and is located next to the original tunnel , which has been sealed .
While there had been a petroleum industry in the Sarnia area since 1858 , the establishment of Polymer Corporation in 1942 to manufacture synthetic rubber during World War II was a great success and began Sarnia 's rise as a major petrochemical centre . Because of Sarnia 's importance in this industry , it appeared on a United States Government list of possible Soviet targets as part of its Anti @-@ Energy nuclear strike strategy during the Cold War .
On 1 January 1991 , Sarnia and the neighbouring town of Clearwater were amalgamated as the new city of Sarnia @-@ Clearwater . The amalgamation was originally slated to include the village of Point Edward , although that village 's residents resisted and were eventually permitted to remain independent of the city . On 1 January 1992 , the city reverted to the name Sarnia .
Sarnia 's population experienced a continual growth from 1961 to 1991 , with a 1991 population of 74 @,@ 376 . In 2001 the population had declined by approximately 3 @,@ 000 . Since 2001 Sarnia 's population has been growing slowly , with a 2011 population count of 72 @,@ 366 . Despite these modest gains , an April 2010 report " Sarnia @-@ Lambton 's Labour Market " states : " Large petrochemical companies are the community 's main economic drivers . Over the recent past , several plants have shutdown , and of those still in operation , increased automation and outsourcing has led to significantly fewer workers . " . These shutdowns and the resulting loss of jobs , and therefore population as workers search for employment elsewhere , will contribute to a general decline shown by one August 2011 study , which shows that the population will decline by 17 % over the next twenty @-@ five years . The Monteith @-@ Brown study cited outlines a plan for restructuring the city based on hybrid zoning areas , which will bring work opportunities closer to the neighborhoods where people live . The City of Sarnia and Lambton County are also implementing an economic development plan with an emphasis on bioindustries and renewable energy .
= = Geography = =
Sarnia is located on the eastern shore of Lake Huron at its extreme southern point where it flows into the St. Clair River . Most of the surrounding area is flat , and the elevation ranges from 169 metres ( 554 ft ) and 281 metres ( 922 ft ) above sea level . The soil mostly comprises clay . Despite this high percentage of clay , the soil is remarkably rich for cultivation . Prior to the Ice Age , glaciers covered most of the area , as can be seen not only by the existence of the Great Lakes themselves but also of alluvial sand deposits , terminal moraines , and rich oil reserves . The entire area was submerged and plant and animal matter formed many layers of sediment as they settled after the waters receded . Sarnia is not part of the Canadian Shield and is located just beyond its southernmost reaches , 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) West of Toronto and 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) North of Detroit .
= = = Neighbourhoods = = =
Wiltshire Park , Woodland , Oak Acres , Wees Beach , Oakwood Corners , Woodrow Shores , and Blackwell , are part of the North End of Sarnia , which begins immediately north of Ontario Highway 402 and terminates at the shore of Lake Huron . Coronation Park , Heritage Park , College Park , The Tree Streets , and Sherwood Village are some of the neighbourhoods south of the highway . The village of Blue Water was built to house workers and their families in Chemical Valley during the construction of Polymer Corporation and at one point had nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents . In 1961 , all the residents were relocated , mostly to the North End , to make way for expansion of the chemical industry . The village was demolished , and all that remains now is an historical marker at the corner of Vidal Street and Huron Avenue . This neighbourhood was largely forgotten until historian Lorraine Williams penned two books about it and was instrumental in the dedication of the plaque .
= = = Climate = = =
Sarnia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) . Winters are cold with a few short @-@ lasting Arctic air masses that dip far enough south and bring with them daily high temperatures lower than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . Sarnia , while not quite located in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
based on 63 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 . Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton of At the Movies gave the film four and three and a half out of five stars respectively ; Pomeranz commended Hartley for " the depth of his research and for creating a wildly entertaining film experience " , and claimed that " for those of us who remember the films , Not Quite Hollywood is a blast " . Sandra Hall , writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , gave the film three and a half out of five stars , believing that " Hartley 's own film is much livelier than most of those he is out to celebrate " . Jake Wilson of The Age similarly gave the film three and a half stars , but called the film " basically a feature @-@ length advertisement for its subject " , saying that it " moves far too rapidly to permit sustained analysis " . The Courier @-@ Mail 's Des Partidge , who gave the film four and a half out of five stars , disagreed , saying that " Brisk editing means the history is lively and fun " , and claimed in homage to The Castle , " Copies of Hartley 's film should go straight to pool rooms all over Australia when it becomes available on DVD . " Luke Goodsell of Empire Magazine Australasia gave Not Quite Hollywood five out of five stars , calling the film " fast , thrilling and often ribald " , while Leigh Paatsch wrote for the Herald Sun that " there is not a single instant where boredom can possibly intrude " , dubbing the film " an incredibly energetic and merrily messed @-@ up celebration of Australian B @-@ movies " .
English director Edgar Wright named Not Quite Hollywood his fourth favourite film of 2008 , and called it " the best documentary ever . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Films referenced = =
A list of film referenced within Not Quite Hollywood , separated by genre .
= = Box office = =
Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! grossed $ 186 @,@ 986 at the box office in Australia , .
= Why Does It Hurt So Bad =
" Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale . It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by Arista Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack . The song was written and produced solely by Babyface . Musically , it is an R & B ballad , and the lyrics chronicle a lovelorn lament .
The song garnered positive reviews from critics , who commended Houston 's vocal effort . It charted in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number twenty @-@ six . It also reached a peak position of number twenty @-@ two in the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number six on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , the song reached a peak of number forty @-@ five on the RPM Singles chart . Although there is no official music video for the song , a performance of the song at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards was taped and is used as a promotional clip . The song was later included as a medley , in her My Love Is Your Love World Tour ( 1999 ) , along with a few other songs .
= = Background = =
Houston starred in the 1995 romance film Waiting to Exhale , directed by Forest Whittaker . Although Houston did not intend to contribute to the film 's soundtrack , when Whittaker hired Babyface to score the soundtrack , she opted in . Babyface , Houston and some other African @-@ American female singers recorded songs for the album . The song was one of the final additions to the soundtrack . " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " was originally written by Babyface for Houston , two years prior to the release of Waiting to Exhale , but Houston refused to record it at that time . " I wasn 't really in the mood for singing about why it hurts so bad , " said Houston . Two years later , according to Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly , the emotions of the movie merged with the real @-@ life circumstances of Houston 's troubled marriage to Bobby Brown . " Now , I 'm ready to sing not only the joys of things , but the pains of things , also , " Houston explained .
= = Composition = =
" Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is an R & B ballad . The song was written and produced by Kenneth Brian Edmonds , popularly known as " Babyface " . According to the sheet music book for The Greatest Hits at Sheetmusicplus.com , the song is written in the key of B ♭ major , and moves at a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is set in time signature of common time and features a basic chord progression of B / E – Em – C ♯ m – G ♯ 7 . Houston 's vocals span from the note of Am7 to the note of D5 . According to Stephen Holden of New York Times , the song is a " lovelorn lament with a realistic twist " . He noted that , through the verses , the singer congratulates herself for breaking up with an abusive boyfriend and admits that she is still in love .
= = Reception = =
The song garnered mainly positive reviews from critics . Craig Lytle of Allmusic noted that Houston 's voice " sailed " through the song . Christopher John Farley of TIME commented Houston " particularly held her own " , with a " masterly balance of pop , zip , and soulful melancholy " . Steve Knopper of Newsday wrote : " It 's lower @-@ key and the singer , who also stars in the film , doesn 't feel compelled to perform constant vocal feats . " A writer for Boston Herald noted that the song was " understated " . Similarly , Larry Flick of Billboard commented that the song should have been released as the follow @-@ up to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . " Paired with Babyface , Houston is positively luminous on [ this ] heartbreak ballad , performing with a perfect blend of theatrical melodrama and guttural soul , " he added . Deborah Wilker of South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel was mixed in her review commenting that the song was a " predictably histrionic follow @-@ up " to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . But , Nick Krewen of The Spectator was even less enthusiastic , writing " [ ... ] the two guaranteed [ Whitney Houston ] hits – ' Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) ' and ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' – don 't really offer anything new . " Similarly , Cary Darling of Rome News @-@ Tribune gave a negative review . She noted that " [ the ] ballad ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' is [ more ] standard Whitney @-@ fare " .
Released as the seventh and final single from the Waiting to Exhale : Original Soundtrack Album , the song debuted at number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated August 3 , 1996 . On the same issue , the song debuted at number 34 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . The song later reached a peak of number 26 on the Hot 100 , and 22 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . It also reached number six on the Adult Contemporary chart , while reaching a peak of 39 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 98 on the RPM Singles chart , on the July 22 , 1996 issue . Later , on the September 15 , 1996 issue , it reached a peak of number 45 .
= = Music video and live performances = =
The song was not promoted through an official music video , although Houston appeared at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards held at Walt Disney Studios , Burbank and performed " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " . The performance was directed and taped by Bruce Gowers and was later used as a promotional clip to accompany the song . The performance features Houston sitting on a chair , wearing a white outfit , and singing the song .
Houston performed the song on her My Love Is Your Love World Tour , in 1999 . The song was performed as a part of the " Movie Medley " , along with " I Believe in You and Me " , " It Hurts Like Hell " , originally performed by Aretha Franklin , and " I Will Always Love You " . This performance was taped in Sopot , Poland , on August 22 , 1999 and broadcast on Polish television channel , TVP1 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Retrieved from CD liner notes
= = Charts = =
= Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) =
Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea . By October 15 , Omar began to quickly intensify as deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Later that day , an eye developed and the storm began to accelerate to the northeast . Early on October 16 , Omar reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Shortly after , the hurricane rapidly weakened to Category 1 intensity . After slightly re @-@ strengthening the next day , Omar weakened to a tropical storm before degenerating into a non @-@ convective low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until October 21 at which time it dissipated to the west of the Azores .
Throughout the eastern Caribbean , Omar affected numerous islands , most of which only recorded minor impacts . Large swells and heavy rains impacted the ABC islands . Antigua and Barbuda sustained $ 54 million in damages , mainly on Antigua as nine homes were destroyed , several others damaged and many farms were inundated by flood waters . One person died in Puerto Rico after suffering a stress @-@ induced cardiac arrest . The United States Virgin Islands also sustained significant damage , costing roughly $ 6 million . Numerous boats and homes were damaged and over 100 power poles were snapped . Total losses from the storm were estimated at $ 79 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 30 , a well @-@ developed tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Deep convection formed around a prominent mid @-@ level circulation as it moved towards the west . However , the convection diminished on October 2 before entering the Caribbean Sea a week later . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the low . Continued development followed and the low was designated as Tropical Depression Fifteen at 0600 UTC on October 13 while located about 190 miles ( 305 kilometres ) south of the southeastern tip of the Dominican Republic . The previous steady westward motion that the system took across the Atlantic halted as it entered an area of weak steering currents and significant motion was not expected for another day or two . As the structure of the storm improved , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name Omar .
Located to the southeast of a broad and deep tropospheric trough and to the west of a low to mid @-@ level ridge , Omar took a counter @-@ clockwise turn on October 14 . Upon becoming a tropical storm , Omar began to undergo an extended period of rapid intensification as very deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Wind shear around the storm , which was previously inhibiting quick development , weakened , allowing for further strengthening . Later that day , an 11 @.@ 5 to 17 @.@ 2 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 7 km ) wide eye formed as the storm began to turn towards the northeast due to the trough . With the formation of an eye , the Dvorak technique rendered an intensity of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , signifying that Omar had intensified into a hurricane . The intensification briefly stalled as the eyewall eroded and the center of the storm became slightly elliptical . However , deep convection persisted and strengthening was forecast as the storm neared Puerto Rico . Shortly after , the eye quickly became well @-@ defined and appeared on visible satellite images , an indication the storm was intensifying . The chances of rapid intensification were good as the storm featured well @-@ developed outflow and prominent banding features .
With very warm sea surface temperatures , high ocean heat content , low wind shear , and a moist air mass , Omar quickly reached its peak intensity early on October 16 as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . During the intensification phase , the forward motion of the hurricane increased to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Once in the Atlantic Ocean , Omar began to rapidly weaken , with winds decreasing by 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) in 12 hours . Visible satellite images depicted an exposed low @-@ level circulation with convection displaced to the east due to a combination of very high wind shear and dry air . By October 17 , most of the deep convection associated with the system dissipated ; however , a brief decrease in wind shear allowed Omar to re @-@ strengthen to its secondary peak , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . During this phase , convection redeveloped around the center and an eye reformed . Later that day , the trough that caused the rapid northeastern motion bypassed Omar , leading to decreasing movement .
A weakening storm , Omar continued towards the northeast due to a mid to upper @-@ level ridge located south of the system and the mid @-@ latitude westerlies to the north . Late on October 17 , wind shear increased once more as Omar tracked over waters below 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Around 0000 UTC on October 18 , Omar weakened to a tropical storm as deep convection associated with it dissipated . Twelve hours later , while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds , the storm degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until 0600 UTC on October 21 when it dissipated about 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) west of the Azores .
= = Preparations = =
On October 15 , the governor of the United States Virgin Islands announced the final preparations for Hurricane Omar as he signed a State of Emergency declaration for the territory . Public schools would be closed on October 16 . All non @-@ essential workers would be dismissed at 10 a.m. local time . At 6 p.m. curfew was put in place for the same day . Only those with valid passes would be allowed to be out after the curfew was put in place . That same day , a Hurricane Warning and flash flood watch were put in place in anticipation of hurricane @-@ force winds and torrential rains from Omar . The American Red Cross planned to open shelters throughout the islands before the hurricane struck . Sandbags were also being distributed in St. Croix . A large oil refinery , which produces 500 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , was shut down and only necessary workers remained at the refinery .
On Sint Maarten , officials advised residents to start all necessary actions to prepare for a hurricane . Residents were told to clear their yards of any debris or lose furniture that could become airborne during the storm , place shutters over windows and doors and assist elderly neighbors with shuttering their homes , and mariners should find a safe haven . A curfew from 10 : 00 p.m. on October 15 to 10 : 00 a.m. on October 16 was put in place . Due to the possibility of flash flooding , residents were to unclog and free up all waterways around their homes . Officials also warned people to stay away from areas prone to landslides until the " all @-@ clear " was given . Owners of livestock were advised to have insured that they were secured in holding areas . As a precaution , the water supply would be shut down from 8 : 00 p.m. October 15 to 8 : 00 a.m. October 16 . Four public areas , St. Peters Community Center , Dutch Quarter Community Center , Genevieve de Weever School , and the Salvation Army building would be used as emergency shelters .
All public activities , flights , and schools were either closed or canceled on Puerto Rico . Eighteen shelters were open on the eastern part of the island . Also , on Anguilla , residents in the Sandy Ground , Valley Bottom , Welches and Mount Fortune areas were placed under evacuation orders . Shelters were opened throughout the island for those in need of shelter . Schools and government offices were also closed and visitors were told to leave the island .
= = Impact = =
Omar produced moderate damage throughout numerous islands , amounting to at least $ 60 million ( 2008 USD ) and one death was related to the storm .
While it was moving little over the south @-@ central Caribbean , Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the ABC Islands . Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands , although peak gusts to 58 mph ( 92 km / h ) were confined to Bonaire . In 24 hours , a maximum precipitation total of 4 @.@ 0 in ( 102 mm ) was recorded on Aruba , while 1 @.@ 7 in ( 43 mm ) and 1 @.@ 5 in ( 41 mm ) of rain fell in Curaçao and Bonaire , respectively . The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands , and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities . Some rain damage also occurred , with significant flooding reported in some parts of Aruba . In the SSS Islands ( Saba , St. Eustatius , and Sint Maarten ) strong winds from Omar , gusting up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) , and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding . On Sint Maarten , rainfall from the storm totaled to 5 @.@ 4 in ( 139 @.@ 4 mm ) . Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages .
The island of Dominica suffered severe damage from Hurricane Omar . The village of Scotts Head , with a population of 450 , was cut off from the rest of the country as roads were extensively damaged . The village also suffered water losses , electricity shortage , and landline telephones were cut off . Ports throughout the country were severely damaged . All barge access for hauling sand and stones were destroyed . The airport also sustained some damage . Seven boats ran aground during the storm . Minor damage was reported in Anguilla . Two hotels sustained roof damage , downed treed knocked down power lines causing scattered power outages , and the rough seas caused severe beach erosion . Three cargo ships and seven boats ran aground and two other boats sank .
In Antigua and Barbuda , winds from Omar were recorded at 40 mph , with gusts to 48 mph . Intense squall lines brought torrential rains , falling at rates of 2 in ( 50 @.@ 8 mm ) at times , peaking at 2 @.@ 22 in ( 56 @.@ 4 mm ) per hour from 0900 UTC to 1200 UTC on October 16 . The maximum recorded rainfall was 9 @.@ 1 in ( 232 @.@ 6 mm ) however , up to 11 in ( 279 @.@ 4 mm ) was estimated to have fallen in the mountains . Storm Surge was estimated at 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) with waves reaching 5 – 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Nine homes were destroyed and several landslides were reported . No fatalities were associated with Omar , and only a few sustained minor injuries . The most severe damage was dealt to roads and agriculture due to flooding . Seventy @-@ five people were forced to evacuate to shelters as their homes were flooded . Several farms were washed away , including their livestock . Numerous farmers lost their harvest due to flooding . Damages in Barbuda were estimated at $ 18 million . Agricultural losses in Antigua amounted to around $ 11 million ( 2008 USD ) and property damage amounted to $ 25 million .
In Puerto Rico , a man died after he collapsed from cardiac arrest while trying to install storm shutters on his home . As a tropical wave , the precedent to Omar produced heavy rains over the island , causing minor flooding . After passing by Puerto Rico a second time , Omar produced locally heavy rains , which caused minor street flooding .
On St. Croix , waves up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) from Omar sank about 47 boats , leading to a large oil spill around the islands . About 400 ships broke lose from the docks , 200 of which lost their anchors . Omar produced upwards of 7 in ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) of rain on the island within a 24 ‑ hour span . Although St. Croix was brushed by the eyewall , sustained winds reached 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) . Three people needed to be rescued when their ship struck a reef and began to sink . Most of the islands 55 @,@ 000 residents were without power as over 100 utility poles were destroyed . Damages on the island were estimated at $ 700 @,@ 000 with another $ 1 million in clean @-@ up costs . St. Thomas , one of the hardest hit islands , was left completely without power in the wake of the hurricane . All of the major intersections were shut down as traffic lights were either on the ground or without power . Damages on the island totaled to $ 5 @.@ 3 million .
In the Gros Islet Quarter on St. Lucia , rough seas damaged a jetty and grounded a yacht . In Soufrière , four homes were destroyed by the storm surge , which also made some areas impassible . The storm surge also flooded parts of the Anse la Raye Quarter , leading to officials declaring a mandatory evacuation of the area . On Montserrat , very little damage was reported . A few minor landslides occurred in rural areas ; no impact was caused by them . On Nevis there was relatively little damage although the beachfront part of the Four Seasons Resort was severely damaged and was subsequently closed for an extended period . Throughout St. Kitts and Nevis , damage was estimated at $ 19 million .
= = Aftermath = =
The damage dealt to the agricultural sector of Antigua and Barbuda fueled major concerns for " food security " in 2009 . The government allocated about $ 33 @,@ 897 @,@ 420 to help develop and repair the industry . Significant expansions of croplands were discussed , 15 @,@ 000 ft2 ( 4572 m2 ) area , to help promote growth of the sector .
On October 29 , in the wake of Omar , President George W. Bush signed a major disaster declaration for the United States Virgin Islands , allowing public aid to assist the islands . The Federal Emergency Management Agency or FEMA , had received 60 requests for public assistance throughout the area . Monetary value for the assistance was estimated at $ 3 million and growing . Twenty @-@ five departments and agencies were approved of for federal support , namely the U.S. V.I. Department of Public Works . Several non @-@ profit organizations also received support from FEMA , while those that did not meet the criteria were referred to the Small Business Administration ’ s low @-@ interest loan program .
On Dominica , Omar 's close pass to the island left 30 families homeless and severely hampered the fishing community . On December 15 , the Board of Directors of the Caribbean Development Bank approved $ 9 @.@ 16 million for assistance to those affected by Omar on the island and to restore the infrastructure damaged by the hurricane . On December 18 , the government of Dominica invested $ 4 million in aid for the fishing communities impacted by Omar . A total of 140 fishermen were provided with $ 250 per week for a total of four weeks . Sixty @-@ two of which continued to receive funds due to their circumstances . The government also purchased 121 boat engines to distribute to fishers . Another $ 794 @,@ 000 was spent to repair 47 boats and construct another 28 that had been damaged or destroyed by Omar . The government also bought replacement fishing gear .
= Papal conclave , 1769 =
A papal conclave which lasted from 15 February to 19 May 1769 was convoked after the death of Pope Clement XIII . It elected as his successor Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , who took the name Clement XIV .
= = Death of Clement XIII = =
Clement XIII died suddenly on 2 February 1769 , a day before the date of the consistory that he had convoked to examine the demands for the general suppression of the Society of Jesus . The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal ( under the House of Braganza ) had exerted strong pressure on the Holy See to suppress this order through almost the whole of his pontificate . In 1759 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal , in 1762 from the Kingdom of France , in 1767 from Spain and in 1768 from the Kingdom of Naples , the Kingdom of Sicily and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza . Clement XIII strongly defended the Society ( e.g. in the bull Apostolicum pascendi in 1765 ) , but without success . In January 1769 France and Naples seized the papal territories around Avignon , Benevento and Pontecorvo to force the pope to issue a decree for the suppression of the order . The sudden death of 75 @-@ year @-@ old Clement XIII left this difficult decision to his successor .
= = List of participants = =
Forty six out of fifty seven cardinals participated in the conclave :
Carlo Alberto Guidobono Cavalchini ( created cardinal on September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Ostia e Velletri ; Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; pro @-@ Datary of His Holiness ; prefect of the S.C. of Ceremonies ; prefect of the S.C. of Bishops and Regulars
Federico Marcello Lante ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina ; Sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; prefect of the S.C. of the Good Government ; governor of Balneario
Gian Francesco Albani ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Sabina ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Poland
Henry Benedict Stuart ( July 3 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Frascati ; commendatario of S. Lorenzo in Damaso ; Vice @-@ Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church ; archpriest of the patriarchal Vatican Basilica
Fabrizio Serbelloni ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Albano
Giovanni Francesco Stoppani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Palestrina
Giuseppe Pozzobonelli ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria sopra Minerva ; archbishop of Milan
Carlo Vittorio Amedeo delle Lanze ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Prassede ; titular archbishop of Nicosia
Vincenzo Malvezzi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Marcellino e Pietro ; archbishop of Bologna
Antonio Sersale ( April 22 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pudenziana ; archbishop of Naples
Francisco de Solís Folch de Cardona ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Seville ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Spain
Paul d 'Albert de Luynes ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Tommaso in Parione ; archbishop of Sens
Carlo Rezzonico ( September 11 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Clemente ; Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church
Antonio Maria Priuli ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Marco ; bishop of Padua
Fernando Maria de Rossi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Cecilia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Tridentine Council ; Latin Patriarch of Constantinople
Girolamo Spinola ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Balbina ; legate in Ferrara
Giuseppe Maria Castelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Alessio ; prefect of the S.C. for the Propagation of Faith
Gaetano Fantuzzi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli ; prefect of the S.C. of the Ecclesiestical Immunities
Pietro Girolamo Guglielmi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Trinita al Monte Pincio ; Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals
Pietro Paolo de Conti ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Stefano al Monte Celio
Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . XII Apostoli
Marcantonio Colonna ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria della Pace ; Vicar General of Rome ; prefect of the S.C. of the Residence of the Bishops ; archpriest of the patriarchal Liberian Basilica
Buenaventura de Córdoba Espínola de la Cerda ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of the West Indies ; vicar general of the Spanish army and fleet
Giovanni Molino ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Brescia
Simone Buonaccorsi ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Giovanni a Porta Latina
Giovanni Ottavio Bufalini ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria degli Angeli ; archbishop of Ancona
Giovanni Carlo Boschi ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Giovanni e Paolo ; Grand penitentiary ; prefect of the Congregation for the correction of the books of the Oriental Church
Ludovico Calini ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Anastasia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Indulgences and Sacred Relics
Antonio Colonna Branciforte ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Via
Lazzaro Opizio Pallavicino ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Nereo ed Achilleo ; legate in Bologna
Vitaliano Borromeo ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Aracoeli ; legate in Romagna
Pietro Pamphili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Trastevere
Urbano Paracciani Rutili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Callisto ; archbishop of Fermo
Filippo Maria Pirelli ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Crisogono
Alessandro Albani ( July 16 , 1721 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata ; commendatario of S. Maria in Cosmedin ; Protodeacon of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; Librarian of the Holy Roman Church ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia
Neri Maria Corsini ( August 14 , 1730 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Eustachio ; archpriest of the patriarchal Lateran Basilica ; secretary of the Supreme S.C. of the Roman and Universal Inquisition ; prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Justice ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Portugal
Domenico Orsini d 'Aragona ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria ad Martyres ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of Naples
Flavio II Chigi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Portico ; prefect of the S.C. of Rites
Luigi Maria Torregiani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Agata in Suburra ; Cardinal Secretary of State
François @-@ Joachim de Pierre de Bernis ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon [ no deaconry assigned ] ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of France ; archbishop of Albi
Giovanni Costanzio Caracciolo ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Cesareo in Palatio ; prefect of the Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Grace
Nicola Perelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro
Andrea Corsini ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Angelo in Pescheria
Andrea Negroni ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Vito e Modesto ; secretary of the Apostolic Briefs
Saverio Canale ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria della Scala ; commendatory abbot of Subiaco
Benedetto Veterani ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Cosma e Damiano ; prefect of the S.C. of Index
Twenty nine electors were created by Clement XIII , while fifteen by Pope Benedict XIV . Alessandro Albani received the red hat from Innocent XIII , and Neri Maria Corsini from Clement XII .
= = = Absentees = = =
Giacomo Oddi ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina ; Protopriest of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; archbishop of Viterbo e Toscanella
Carlo Francesco Durini ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . IV Coronati ; archbishop of Pavia
Luis Fernández de Córdoba ( December 18 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Toledo
Etienne @-@ René Potier de Gesvres ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Agnese fuori le mura ; bishop of Beauvais
Franz Konrad Casimir von Rodt ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria del Popolo ; bishop of Constance
Francisco de Saldanha da Gama ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of Lisbon
Christoph Anton von Migazzi von Waal und Sonnenthurn ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Vienna ; administrator of the see of Vacz
Antoine Clairiard de Choiseul de Beaupré ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Besançon
Jean @-@ François @-@ Joseph de Rochechouart ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Eusebio ; bishop of Laon
Franz Christoph Freiherr von Hutten zu Stolzenfels ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Speyer
Louis @-@ César @-@ Constantine de Rohan @-@ Guéménée ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Strasbourg
= = Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy = =
The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus . The Sacred College of Cardinals was divided into two blocs : pro @-@ Jesuits and anti @-@ Jesuits , but several cardinals were neutral . The pro @-@ Jesuit faction , called Zelanti , grouped Italian curial cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church . Their leaders were Gian Francesco and Alessandro Albani and cardinal @-@ nephew of the deceased pope Carlo Rezzonico . The anti @-@ Jesuit bloc ( called also " court faction " ) grouped crown @-@ cardinals of the Catholic Powers : France , Spain and Naples . Respectively ruled at the time by Louis XV of France , Charles III of Spain and Ferdinand III of Sicily / Ferdinand IV of Naples . In spite of the national divisions they worked together for the main goal – suppression of the Society of Jesus . The Bourbon courts had decided to put the official leadership of this bloc in the hands of the French Cardinal de Bernis . He and his colleagues were instructed to block every pro @-@ Jesuit candidature , even with the official exclusion if necessary . Several cardinals , among them Lorenzo Ganganelli , did not belong to either faction .
The Spanish and Neapolitan governments had classified forty three Italian cardinals into five categories : " good " ( eleven cardinals ) , " indifferent " ( eight ) , " doubtful " ( three ) , " bad " ( fifteen ) and " very bad " ( six ) :
Cardinal Orsini , the official representative of the Neapolitan court , and all the foreigners , were not classified because it was certain that none of them would be ever elected pope .
The French government was more fastidious than Spanish and Neapolitan . Only three cardinals were considered good candidates : Conti , Durini and Ganganelli
Out of these 43 cardinals only 27 or 28 were actually considered papabile , while the remaining 15 were excluded due to their age or health .
= = Conclave = =
The conclave began on February 15 , 1769 . Initially only 27 cardinals participated . Zelanti , taking advantage of the small number of the electors and the absence of the French and Spanish cardinals , tried to achieve a quick election of Cardinal Flavio Chigi . In one ballot he was only two votes short of being elected . The efforts of Zelanti met with strong protests from the ambassadors of France and Spain , but , fortunately for them , Cardinal Orsini , protector of the Kingdom of Naples and the only crown @-@ cardinal present in the early ballots , was able to join some neutral cardinals to block Chigi ’ s candidature .
An unprecedented event was the visit of Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who arrived incognito in Rome on March 6 and was allowed to enter the conclave . He stayed there two weeks , freely debating with the electors . Fortunately , he did not press them but only expressed the wish for the election of a pope who would be able to carry out his duties with the proper respect for the secular rulers .
Cardinal de Bernis entered the conclave at the end of March and took the leadership of the anti @-@ Jesuit faction from the hands of Cardinal Orsini , who could have blocked Zelanti ’ s actions only with the great difficulties . Bernis immediately established a regular correspondence with French ambassador Marquis d 'Aubeterre , which was in violation of the fundamental law of the conclave . Ambassadors of France and Spain urged Bernis to insist that the election of the future pope be made to depend on his written engagement to suppress the Jesuits . Bernis refused , answering that demanding from the future pope a written or oral promise to destroy the Society of Jesus would be in violation of the canon law . In spite of this refusal , during the next few weeks Bernis consecutively rejected all candidates proposed by Zelanti as too devoted to the Jesuits . In this way twenty @-@ three out of twenty @-@ eight papabile were eliminated , among them strongly pro @-@ Jesuit Cardinal Fantuzzi , who at some point was very close to achieving election to the papal throne , as well as Cavalchini , Colonna , Stoppani , Pozzobonelli , Sersale , and several others .
The arrival of Spanish cardinals Solis and de la Cerda on April 27 strengthened the anti @-@ Jesuit party . They also violated the law of the conclave by establishing regular correspondence with Spanish ambassador Azpuru . The Spaniards had fewer scruples than Bernis and , supported by Cardinal Malvezzi , took the matter into their own hands . They paid attention to the only friar in the Sacred College , Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. The attitude of Ganganelli towards the Jesuits was a great mystery – he had been educated by the Jesuits and it was said that he received the red hat at the instance of Father Lorenzo Ricci , general of the Society of Jesus , but during the pontificate of Clement XIII he did not engage himself in the defence of the Order . Cardinal Solis began by sounding him out as to his willingness to give the promise required by the Bourbon princes as an indispensable condition for election . Ganganelli answered that " he recognized in the sovereign pontiff the right to extinguish , with good conscience , the Society of Jesus , provided he observed the canon law ; and that it was desirable that the pope should do everything in his power to satisfy the wishes of the Crowns " . It is not certain whether it was a written or only an oral promise , but this declaration fully satisfied the ambassadors .
In the same time Zelanti , also began to incline to give their support to Ganganelli , looking upon him as indifferent or even favourable to the Jesuits . It seems that the attitude of Zelanti was decided by the secret negotiations between their leaders Alessandro and Gian Francesco Albani and the Spanish cardinals . Cardinal de Bernis , the nominal leader of the court faction , probably did not play any role in the appointment of Ganganelli and only followed the instructions of Marquis d 'Aubeterre when all had been already known .
= = = Results of the ballots = = =
The results of the ballots between April 27 and May 18 were following ( only the leading candidates are included ) :
April 27 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5
April 28 – Fantuzzi – 9 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4
April 29 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
April 30 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
May 1 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
May 2 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
May 3 – Colonna – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
May 4 – Colonna – 10 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 2
May 5 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3
May 6 – Fantuzzi – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Colonna – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4
May 7 – Colonna – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4
May 8 – Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3
May 9 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 3
May 10 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4
May 11 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 3
May 12 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5
May 13 – Colonna – 13 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 5
May 14 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4
May 15 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 5
May 16 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 8 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4
May 17 – Colonna – 12 ; Pozzobonelli – 12 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 1
May 18 – Ganganelli – 19 ; Colonna – 13 ; Pozzobonelli – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 1
= = Election of Clement XIV = =
In the final ballot on May 19 , 1769 Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except of his own , which he gave to Carlo Rezzonico , nephew of Clement XIII and one of the leaders of Zelanti . He took the name of Clement XIV , in honour of Clement XIII , who had elevated him to the cardinalate .
On May 28 the new pope was consecrated to the episcopate by Cardinal Federico Marcello Lante , bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina and sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals , assisted by Cardinals Gian Francesco Albani , bishop of Sabina and Henry Benedict Stuart , bishop of Frascati . On June 4 he was solemnly crowned by Cardinal Alessandro Albani , protodeacon of S. Maria in Via Lata
= West Hendford Cricket Ground , Yeovil =
West Hendford Cricket Ground was a first @-@ class cricket ground located in Yeovil , Somerset . The land for the ground was first leased by Yeovil Cricket Club in 1874 , and was also used for a range of other sports , most significantly hosting Yeovil Rugby Club in the 1890s , and then again from 1935 until the ground was closed . Significant improvements were made to the ground during the 1930s , including the opening of a new pavilion , jointly funded by the Rugby and Cricket clubs . The ground was demolished in 1944 when Westland Aircraft extended their factory , and both Yeovil Cricket Club and Rugby Club moved to Johnson Park .
Between 1935 and 1939 , the ground hosted five annual Somerset County Cricket Club matches in July or August ; the first of which nearly broke a county record for ticket sales on the gate . Somerset only won one of the five matches , the 1936 contest against Worcestershire .
= = History = =
Yeovil and County Cricket Club was formed in 1865 , and was the first attempt at setting up a county cricket team for Somerset . The attempt was unsuccessful , and the club broke up . In 1874 , the club was re @-@ formed with the lesser remit , as Yeovil Cricket Club . As part of the club 's resuscitation , the committee purchased the use of a field in West Hendford in Yeovil , from a local farmer , Mr Brook . The field , part of Key Farm , was leased for £ 10 . There is record of a match being played on the ground the following year between two sets of members of the Yeovil Cricket Club . During the late 19th @-@ century , the ground was used for other sports as well as cricket ; it had a grass athletics track , and also hosted Yeovil Football Club , who at the time played both association and rugby football . The football club played at West Hendford on an irregular basis during the late 19th @-@ century , but returned in 1935 , by which time they only played rugby , and had changed their name accordingly to Yeovil Rugby Club . In 1895 , the cricket club committee announced that there was provision for a longer lease , of five or seven years , and that they would make improvements to the ground to enable it to host first @-@ class cricket . The ground was also used for field hockey in the early 20th @-@ century , hosting a Yeovil Hockey Club .
Somerset County Cricket Club played their first of five annual first @-@ class matches on the ground in 1935 . The match , against Surrey , was a significant event in the town , and a series of festivities were arranged to run alongside the three @-@ day contest , including a dance and a smoking concert . Entry for the match , which took place from 17 to 19 August was one shilling , and attracted over 5 @,@ 000 people , raising around £ 400 . Surrey won the match by eight wickets . The takings from this match helped the Yeovil Cricket Club make further improvements to the ground , expanding it and adding further seating . The following year , Somerset played Worcestershire at the ground , in what the Western Gazette described as " Yeovil Cricket Festival " . The captain of Yeovil Cricket Club , Richard Southcombe , was included in the Somerset team , which won the match by 170 runs . The takings were slightly lower than the previous year due to poor weather , but still described as " gratifying " .
In 1937 , Sussex beat Somerset at the ground , in a match that once again drew a crowd of around 5 @,@ 000 . The Yorkshire Evening Post described the wicket as " crumbling " towards the end of the match , favouring the bowlers . In 1938 Hampshire visited , and the report in the Western Daily Press lamented the state of the wicket , which meant that the game , like the three first @-@ class matches at the ground before it , was completed in two days , rather than the scheduled three . That winter , a new pavilion costing £ 550 was erected on the ground for the shared use of the cricket club and the rugby club . The final first @-@ class match on the ground was played in July 1939 against Lancashire , but torrential rain limited the match to only three hours of play . The takings for the full three days of the match were only £ 87 , and the Taunton Courier estimated that the losses for the match could be hundreds of pounds . Despite the weather , almost 2 @,@ 000 people attended the match , and the Taunton Courier report praised the alterations that had been made to the ground ; the removal of a hedge made the ground lighter , while the ground itself had been well looked after , and drained quickly . The Second World War suspended the County Championship from 1940 to 1945 , and during that time , Westland Aircraft took over the ground to expand their factory , and informed Yeovil Cricket Club that it was no longer available , forcing them to search for a new ground in 1946 . They eventually relocated to the newly opened Johnson Park in 1948 . The rugby club also moved to Johnson Park , amalgamating itself into Yeovil Sports Club . After a short break , Somerset County Cricket Club returned to Yeovil , playing fourteen fixtures at Johnson Park between 1951 and 1970 , and eight matches at Westlands Sports Ground from 1971 to 1978 .
= = Records = =
During its limited use as a first @-@ class cricket ground , only one century was scored on the ground , by Jim Parks . During the 1937 match , he scored 140 runs for Sussex . The most wickets taken by a bowler in a match at West Hendford was achieved in 1938 , when Hampshire 's Stuart Boyes took twelve wickets , including nine in the first innings . Somerset 's only success on the ground was in 1936 against Worcestershire , who they dismissed for 60 runs in the first innings , and 77 in the second .
= New Year 's Eve ( Up All Night ) =
" New Year 's Eve " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Up All Night . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . It was written by Erica Rivinoja and was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Chris and Reagan 's neighbor and Ava 's boyfriend , Kevin .
During Reagan ( Christina Applegate ) and Chris 's ( Will Arnett ) first New Year 's Eve game night , Reagan 's competitiveness comes out causing Chris to become embarrassed . Meanwhile , Missy ( Jennifer Hall ) brings an unexpected date along to the party and , Kevin ( Jason Lee ) starts to feel as though Ava ( Maya Rudolph ) may be ashamed of him .
" New Year 's Eve " received mostly positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " New Year 's Eve " drew 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . It ranked third in its timeslot and was the second highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night after The Office .
= = Plot = =
After not being able to find a baby @-@ sitter for Amy , Reagan suggests that the two throw a game night , an idea Chris doesn 't react well to . They invite Ava , Kevin , Missy , but Chris attempts to hide the games due to Reagan 's competitive nature . He tries to make her promise that she won 't be too competitive , but she does which makes the party awkward . While playing Rock Band the two get in a fight when Chris loses the beat on the drums because he was looking at his " drumming arm " . Reagan decide to a make a list of " Things We Are Going to Stop Doing That Embarrass Each Other in 2012 " , which features annoying habits that the two want each other to give up . However , before 2011 comes to an end the two erase every thing from the list except for Chris 's Borat impression and Reagen 's competitive nature .
Meanwhile , Ava is asked to be the grand marshal to a New Year 's Day parade . This makes her boyfriend , Kevin , feel like he can 't live up to her lifestyle . He then starts thinking she may be ashamed of him , especially after he isn 't invited to sit with her during the parade . Eventually , Kevin confronts Ava on this and she reveals that if she messes up their relationship she doesn 't wanted to be reminded of it while Googling her name . He assures her that their relationship won 't end badly and the two go to the parade .
= = Production = =
" New Year 's Eve " was written by supervising producer Erica Rivinoja , marking her third writing credit for the series after " Mr. Bob 's Toddler Kaleidoscope " and " Parents " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , who previously worked with creator Emily Spivey and executive producer Lorne Michaels on Saturday Night Live as director for 11 years . The episode features a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Kevin , Ava 's boyfriend . He first appeared in the eighth episode , " First Night Away " and is currently set to appear in a recurring role for the series . Lee had previously worked with Spivey and Michaels after hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live on November 12 , 2005 . This is the first time the series aired in the 9 : 30 pm timeslot for the first season after The Office ; the series previously aired in the 8 : 00pm timeslot on Wednesday . The series switched timeslots with another NBC comedy series , Whitney . Some media critics have said that the goal for moving the series was in order to make it more of a ratings success , like The Office .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" New Year 's Eve " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 24 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . The episode finished third in its time slot along with The Office , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The Finder and the CW drama series The Secret Circle . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 0 rating to the original viewership .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
" New Year 's Eve " received several positive reviews from critics . New York writer Steven Heisler praised the episode for avoiding " sitcom @-@ y territory " with the emotional ending . He also called the series a better choice to follow The Office then Whitney . The A.V. Club reviewer Margaret Eby complemented the believability of the main Reagen @-@ Chris plot . Despite this , she criticized the Ava @-@ Kevin subplot comparing it to a storyline from Sex and The City . She also noted the plotline didn 't stay true to the characters following their plotline in the previous episode , " First Christmas " . She ultimately rated the episode with a B. Adam Victavage of Paste called the episode a perfect transition from the previous episodes and allowed Ava to be " a loveable third wheel to a completely strong duo in Chris and Reagan " . He also reacted positively for the scenes featuring Missy , comparing her scenes to " early Ava , but less obnoxious " . He ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 calling it " commendable " . Bradford Evans of SplitSider praised Jennifer Hall 's performance calling her the " unsung hero " of the series . He also reacted positively towards the episode 's ability to unify the show and " keep all of the characters on the same turf " . He concluded that he hoped the series could make itself a vital part of the network 's lineup . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall called the episode " one its [ the series ] strongest episodes to date " . He wrote that the addition of Jason Lee humanized Ava more and gave her a more natural reason to visit Reagan and Chris at home . He also wrote that the episode worked on a " character level " .
= World War Z =
World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War ( 2006 ) is an apocalyptic horror novel by Max Brooks . The novel is a collection of individual accounts narrated by an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission , following the devastating global conflict against the zombie plague . Other passages record a decade @-@ long desperate struggle , as experienced by people of various nationalities . The personal accounts also describe the resulting social , political , religious , and environmental changes .
World War Z is a follow @-@ up to Brooks ' " survival manual " The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , but its tone is much more serious . It was inspired by The Good War : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , and by the zombie films of George A. Romero . Brooks used World War Z to comment on government ineptitude and American isolationism , while also examining survivalism and uncertainty . The novel was a commercial hit and was praised by most critics .
Its audiobook version , performed by a full cast including Alan Alda , Mark Hamill , and John Turturro , won an Audie Award in 2007 . A film inspired by the novel , directed by Marc Forster and starring Brad Pitt , was released in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
The story is told in the form of a series of interviews conducted by the narrator , Max Brooks , an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission . Although the exact origin of the plague is unknown , a young boy from a village in China is identified as the plague 's official patient zero . The boy 's case marks the point where the Chinese government begins to take measures to cover up the disease , including generating a crisis with Taiwan to mask their activities . Nevertheless , the plague still manages to spread to various nations by human trafficking , refugees and the black market organ trade . Initially , these nations were able to cover up their smaller outbreaks , until a much larger outbreak in South Africa brings the plague to public attention .
As the infection spreads , Israel abandons the Palestinian territories and initiates a nationwide quarantine , closing its borders to everyone except uninfected Jews and Palestinians . Its military then puts down an ultra @-@ Orthodox uprising , which is later referred to as an Israeli civil war . The United States does little to prepare because it is overconfident in its ability to suppress any threat . Although special forces teams contain initial outbreaks , a widespread effort never starts : the nation is deprived of political will by " brushfire wars " , and a widely distributed and marketed placebo vaccine creates a false sense of security .
As many more areas around the globe fall to infection , a period known as the " Great Panic " begins . Pakistan and Iran destroy each other in a nuclear war , after the Iranian government attempts to stem the flow of refugees fleeing through Pakistan into Iran . After zombies overrun New York City , the U.S. military sets up a high @-@ profile defense in the nearby city of Yonkers . The " Battle of Yonkers " is a disaster ; modern weapons and tactics prove ineffective against zombies , as the enemy has no self @-@ preservation instincts and can only be stopped if shot through the head . The unprepared and demoralized soldiers are routed on live television . Other countries suffer similarly disastrous defeats , and human civilization teeters on the brink of destruction .
In South Africa , the government adopts a contingency plan drafted by apartheid @-@ era intelligence consultant Paul Redeker . It calls for the establishment of small sanctuaries , leaving large groups of survivors abandoned in special zones in order to distract the undead and allowing those within the main safe zone time to regroup and recuperate . Governments worldwide assume similar plans or relocate the populace to safer foreign territory , such as the attempted complete evacuation of the Japanese archipelago to Kamchatka . Because zombies freeze solid in severe cold , many civilians in North America flee to the wildernesses of northern Canada and the Arctic , where eleven million people die of starvation and hypothermia . It is implied that some turn to cannibalism to survive ; further interviews from other sources imply that cannibalism occurred in areas of the United States where food shortages occurred . The three remaining astronauts in the International Space Station survive the war by salvaging supplies from the abandoned Chinese space station and maintain some military and civilian satellites using an orbital fuel station . A surviving member of the ISS crew describes " mega " swarms of zombies on the American Great Plains and Central Asia , and how the crisis affected Earth 's atmosphere .
The U.S. eventually establishes safe zones west of the Rocky Mountains and spends much of the next decade eradicating zombies in that region . All aspects of civilian life are devoted to supporting the war effort against the pandemic . Much of it resembles total war strategies : rationing of fuel and food , cultivation of private gardens , and civilian neighborhood patrols . The U.S. government also initiates a " Re @-@ education Act " to train the civilian population for the war effort and restore order ; the people with skills such as carpentry and construction find themselves more valuable than people with managerial skills .
Seven years after the outbreak began , a conference is held off the coast of Honolulu , aboard the USS Saratoga , where most of the world 's leaders argue that they can outlast the zombie plague if they stay in their safe zones . The U.S. President , however , argues for going on the offensive . Determined to lead by example , the U.S. military reinvents itself to meet the specific strategic requirements of fighting the undead : using semi @-@ automatic , high @-@ power rifles and volley firing , focusing on head shots and slow , steady rates of fire ( a tactic " re @-@ invented " by the Indian Army during the Great Panic ) ; and devising a multipurpose hand tool , the " Lobotomizer " or " Lobo " ( described as a combination of a shovel and a battle axe ) , for close @-@ quarters combat . The military , backed by a resurgent American wartime economy , began the three @-@ year @-@ long process of retaking the contiguous United States from both the undead as well as groups of hostile human survivors . Prewar military tactics and equipment are mentioned as being employed to deal with sometimes well @-@ armed and organized human criminal or rebel opposition .
Ten years after the official end of the zombie war , millions of zombies are still active , mainly on the ocean floor or on snow line islands . A democratic Cuba has become the world 's most thriving economy . Following a civil war that saw use of nuclear weapons , China has become a democracy and is now known as the " Chinese Federation " . Tibet is freed from Chinese rule and hosts Lhasa , the world 's most populated city . Following a religious revolution and the revival of Russian orthodoxy , Russia is now an expansionist theocracy known as the Holy Russian Empire . Owing to the fact that many young Russians either became zombies , were infected with HIV , or died due to drugs , the government has initiated a " breeding " program , with the remaining fertile women implied to be coercively impregnated to raise the birthrate . North Korea is completely empty , with the entire population presumed to have disappeared into underground bunkers .
The situation in the British Isles is not entirely clear in the novel , although Ireland may have escaped the worst of the outbreak . Members of the British Royal Family had fled to Ireland and the Isle of Man , following the military retreat to the Antonine Wall , and now exports oil from a reserve under Windsor Castle where the Queen held out for the war 's duration , refusing to flee with her relatives . The Papacy established a wartime refuge in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh . In France , the Palace of Versailles was the site of a massacre and has been burned to the ground ; military losses were particularly high while clearing the catacombs underneath Paris because the catacombs housed nearly a quarter of a million refugees during the early stages of the war , all of whom became zombies . Iceland has been completely depopulated and remains the world 's most heavily infested country .
The Israelis and Palestinians have made peace , and the former occupied territories have been renamed " Unified Palestine " . Mexico is now known as " Aztlán " . Several countries are described as having revised borders due to the " dumping " of convicts into infected zones ; these convicts rose to command " powerful fiefdoms " that later became independent states . A so @-@ called " Pacific Continent " appears to encompass previously uninhabited islands as well as ships rendered immobile due to lack of fuel . For unknown reasons , the Saudi Royal Family destroyed the oil fields in Saudi Arabia .
The United Nations fields a large military force to eliminate the remaining zombies from overrun areas , defeat hordes that surface from the ocean floor , and kill frozen zombies before they unfreeze . It is stated that previously eradicated diseases have made a comeback and that global life expectancy is greatly reduced as the world starts over from where it began .
= = Development = =
Brooks designed World War Z to follow the " laws " set up in his earlier work , The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , and explained that the guide may exist in the novel 's fictional universe . The zombies of The Zombie Survival Guide are human bodies reanimated by an incurable virus ( Solanum ) , devoid of intelligence , desirous solely of consuming living flesh , and cannot be killed unless the brain is destroyed . Decomposition will eventually set in , but this process takes longer than for an uninfected body and can be slowed by effects such as freezing . Although zombies do not tire and are as strong as the humans they infect , they are slow @-@ moving and incapable of planning or cooperation in their attacks . Zombies usually reveal their presence by moaning .
Brooks discussed the cultural influences on the novel . He claimed inspiration from " The Good War " : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , stating : " [ Terkel 's book is ] an oral history of World War II . I read it when I was a teenager and it 's sat with me ever since . When I sat down to write World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War , I wanted it to be in the vein of an oral history . " Brooks also cited renowned zombie film director George A. Romero as an influence and criticized The Return of the Living Dead films : " They cheapen zombies , make them silly and campy . They 've done for the living dead what the old Batman TV show did for The Dark Knight . " Brooks acknowledged making several references to popular culture in the novel , including one to alien robot franchise Transformers , but declined to identify the others so that readers could discover them independently .
Brooks conducted copious research while writing World War Z. The technology , politics , economics , culture , and military tactics were based on a variety of reference books and consultations with expert sources . Brooks also cites the U.S. Army as a reference on firearm statistics .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Social commentary = = =
Reviewers have noted that Brooks uses World War Z as a platform to criticize government ineptitude , corporate corruption , and human short @-@ sightedness . At one point in the book , a Palestinian refugee living in Kuwait refuses to believe the dead are rising , fearing it is a trick by Israel . Many American characters blame the United States ' inability to counter the zombie threat on low confidence in their government due to conflicts in the Middle East .
Brooks shows his particular dislike of government bureaucracy . For example , one character in the novel tries to justify lying about the zombie outbreak to avoid widespread panic , while at the same time failing to develop a solution for fear of arousing public ire . He has also criticized American isolationism :
= = = Themes = = =
= = = = Survivalism = = = =
Survivalism and disaster preparation are prevalent themes in the novel . Several interviews , especially those from the United States , focus on policy changes designed to train the surviving Americans to fight the zombies and rebuild the country . For example , when cities were made to be as efficient as possible in order to fight the zombies , the plumber could hold a higher status than the former C.E.O. ; when the ultra @-@ rich hid in their homes , which had been turned into fortified compounds , they were overwhelmed by others trying to get in , leading to mass slaughter . Throughout the novel , characters demonstrate the physical and mental requirements needed to survive a disaster . Brooks described the large amount of research needed to find optimal methods for fighting a worldwide zombie outbreak . He also pointed out that Americans like the zombie genre because they believe they can survive anything with the right tools and talent .
= = = = Fear and uncertainty = = = =
Brooks considers the theme of uncertainty central to the zombie genre . He believes that zombies allow people to deal with their own anxiety about the end of the world . Brooks has expressed a deep fear of zombies :
This mindlessness is connected to the context in which Brooks was writing . He declared : " at this point we 're pretty much living in an irrational time " , full of human suffering and lacking reason or logic . When asked in a subsequent interview about how he would compare terrorists with zombies , Brooks said :
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the novel have been generally positive . Gilbert Cruz of Entertainment Weekly gave the novel an " A " rating , commenting that the novel shared with great zombie stories the use of a central metaphor , describing it as " an addictively readable oral history . " Steven H. Silver identified Brooks ' international focus as the novel 's greatest strength and commented favorably on Brooks ' ability to create an appreciation for the work needed to combat a global zombie outbreak . Silver 's only complaint was with " Good @-@ Byes " — the final chapter — in which characters get a chance to give a final closing statement . Silver felt that it was not always apparent who the sundry , undifferentiated characters were . The Eagle described the book as being " unlike any other zombie tale " as it is " sufficiently terrifying for most readers , and not always in a blood @-@ and @-@ guts way , either . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club stated that the format of the novel makes it difficult for it to develop momentum , but found the novel 's individual episodes gripping . Patrick Daily of the Chicago Reader said the novel transcends the " silliness " of The Zombie Survival Guide by " touching on deeper , more somber aspects of the human condition . " In his review for Time Out Chicago , Pete Coco declared that " [ b ] ending horror to the form of alternative history would have been novel in and of itself . Doing so in the mode of Studs Terkel might constitute brilliance . "
Ron Currie Jr. named World War Z one of his favorite apocalyptic novels and praised Brooks for illustrating " the tacit agreement between writer and reader that is essential to the success of stories about the end of the world ... [ both ] agree to pretend that this is not fiction , that in fact the horrific tales of a war between humans and zombies are based in reality . " Drew Taylor of the Fairfield County Weekly credited World War Z with making zombies more popular in mainstream society .
The hardcover version of World War Z spent four weeks on the New York Times Best Seller list , peaking at number nine . By November 2011 , according to Publishers Weekly , World War Z had sold one million copies in all formats .
= = Audiobook = =
Random House published an abridged audiobook in 2007 , directed by John Mc Elroy and produced by Dan Zitt , with sound editing by Charles De Montebello . The book is read by Brooks but includes other actors taking on the roles of the many individual characters who are interviewed in the novel . Brooks ' previous career in voice acting and voice @-@ over work meant he could recommend a large number of the cast members .
On May 14 , 2013 , Random House Audio released a lengthier audiobook titled World War Z : The Complete Edition ( Movie Tie @-@ in Edition ) : An Oral History of the Zombie War . It contains the entirety of the original , abridged audiobook , as well as new recordings of each missing segment . A separate , additional audiobook containing only the new recordings not found in the original audiobook was released simultaneously as World War Z : The Lost Files : A Companion to the Abridged Edition .
= = = Cast = = =
* Unabridged edition
= = = Reception = = =
In her review of the audiobook for Strange Horizons , Siobhan Carroll called the story " gripping " and found the listening experience evocative of Orson Welles 's famous radio narration of The War of the Worlds ( broadcast October 30 , 1938 ) . Carroll had mixed opinions on the voice acting , commending it as " solid and understated , mercifully free of ' special effects ' and ' scenery chewing ' overall " , but lamenting what she perceived as undue cheeriness on the part of Max Brooks and inauthenticity in Steve Park 's Chinese accent . Publishers Weekly also criticized Brooks ' narration , but found that the rest of the " all @-@ star cast deliver their parts with such fervor and intensity that listeners cannot help but empathize with these characters " . In an article in Slate concerning the mistakes producers make on publishing audiobooks , Nate DiMeo used World War Z as an example of dramatizations whose full casts contributed to making them " great listens " and described the book as a " smarter @-@ than @-@ it @-@ has @-@ any @-@ right @-@ to @-@ be zombie novel " . The World War Z audiobook won the 2007 Audie Award for Multi @-@ Voiced Performance and was nominated for Audiobook of the Year .
= = Film adaptation = =
In June 2006 , Paramount Studios secured the film rights for World War Z for Brad Pitt 's production company , Plan B Entertainment , to produce . The screenplay was written by J. Michael Straczynski , with Marc Forster directing and Pitt starring as the main character , UN employee Gerry Lane . Despite being the draft that got the film green @-@ lit , Straczynski 's script was tossed aside , so that production , which was to begin at the start of 2009 , was delayed while the script was completely re @-@ written by Matthew Michael Carnahan to set the film in the present , leaving behind much of the book 's premise to make it more of an action film . In a 2012 interview , Brooks claimed the film now had nothing in common with the novel other than the title . Filming commenced mid @-@ 2011 , and the film was released in June 2013 .
= Sentence spacing =
Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text . It is a matter of typographical convention . Since the introduction of movable @-@ type printing in Europe , various sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin alphabet . These include a normal word space ( as between the words in a sentence ) , a single enlarged space , and two full spaces .
Until the 20th century , publishing houses and printers in many countries used additional space between sentences . There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method — some printers used spacing between sentences that was no wider than word spacing . This was French spacing — a term synonymous with single @-@ space sentence spacing until the late 20th century . With the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century , typists used two spaces between sentences to mimic the style used by traditional typesetters . While wide sentence spacing was phased out in the printing industry in the mid @-@ twentieth century , the practice continued on typewriters and later on computers . Perhaps because of this , many modern sources now incorrectly claim that wide spacing was created for the typewriter .
The desired or correct sentence spacing is often debated but many sources now say additional space is not necessary or desirable . From around 1950 , single sentence spacing became standard in books , magazines and newspapers and the majority of style guides that use a Latin @-@ derived alphabet as a language base now prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding punctuation of a sentence . However , some sources still state that additional spacing is correct or acceptable . The debate continues on the World Wide Web . Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type . There is a debate on which convention is more readable ; the few recent direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced inconclusive results .
= = History = =
= = = Traditional typesetting = = =
Shortly after the invention of movable type , highly variable spacing was created that could create spaces of any size , and allowed for perfectly even justification . Early American , English , and other European typesetters ' style guides ( also known as printers ' rules ) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards . These guides — e.g. , Jacobi in the UK ( 1890 ) and MacKellar , Harpel , and De Vinne ( 1866 – 1901 ) in the U.S. — indicated that sentences should be em @-@ spaced , and that words should be 1 / 3 or 1 / 2 em @-@ spaced ( illustration right ) . The relative size of the sentence spacing would vary depending on the size of the word spaces and the justification needs . For most countries , this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century . Yet , even in this period , there were publishing houses ( notably in France ) that used a standard word space between sentences — a technique called French spacing ( illustration below ) .
= = = Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter = = =
Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century , such as the Linotype and Monotype machines , allowed for some variable sentence spacing similar to hand composition . Just as these machines revolutionized the mass production of text , the advent of the typewriter around the same time revolutionized the creation of personal and business documents . But the typewriters ' mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing — typists could only choose the number of times they pressed the space bar . Typists in some English @-@ speaking countries initially learned to insert three spaces between sentences to approximate the wider sentence spacing used in traditional printing , but later settled on two spaces , a practice that continued throughout the 20th century . This became known as English spacing , and marked a divergence from French typists , who continued to use French spacing .
= = = Transition to single spacing = = =
In the early 20th century , some printers began using one and a half interword spaces ( an " en quad " ) to separate sentences . This standard continued in use , to some extent , into the 1990s .
Magazines , newspapers , and books began to adopt the single space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s . Typists did not move to single spacing simultaneously . The average writer still relied on the typewriter to create text — with its inherent mechanical spacing limitations .
Technological advances began affecting sentence spacing methods . In 1941 , IBM introduced the Executive , a typewriter capable of proportional spacing — which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years . This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter — reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations . By the 1960s , electronic phototypesetting systems ignored runs of white space in text . This was also true of the World Wide Web , as HTML normally ignores additional spacing , although in 2011 the CSS 2 @.@ 1 standard officially added an option that can preserve additional spaces . In the 1980s , desktop publishing software provided the average writer with more advanced formatting tools . By the late 20th century , literature on the written word had begun to adjust its guidance on sentence spacing .
= = Modern literature = =
= = = Typography = = =
Early positions on typography ( the " arrangement and appearance of text " ) supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications . In 1954 , Geoffrey Dowding 's book , Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type , underscored the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences .
With the advent of the computer age , typographers began deprecating double spacing , even in monospaced text . In 1989 , Desktop Publishing by Design stated that " typesetting requires only one space after periods , question marks , exclamation points , and colons " , and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention . Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works ( 1993 ) and Designing with Type : The Essential Guide to Typography ( 2006 ) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words , including between sentences .
More recent works on typography weigh in strongly . Ilene Strizver , founder of the Type Studio , says , " Forget about tolerating differences of opinion : typographically speaking , typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely , unequivocally wrong . " The Complete Manual on Typography ( 2003 ) states that " The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting " and the single space is " standard typographic practice " . The Elements of Typographic Style ( 2004 ) advocates a single space between sentences , noting that " your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from unlearning this quaint [ double spacing ] Victorian habit . "
David Jury 's book , About Face : Reviving the Rules of Typography ( 2004 ) — published in Switzerland — clarifies the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing :
Word spaces , preceding or following punctuation , should be optically adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space . If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma , then , optically , this produces a space of up to 50 % wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type . This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them , which , when added to the adjacent standard word spaces , combines to create a visually larger space . Some argue that the " additional " space after a comma and full point serves as a " pause signal " for the reader . But this is unnecessary ( and visually disruptive ) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself .
= = = Style and language guides = = =
= = = = Style guides = = = =
Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words – " traditional spacing " , as shown in the illustration to the right . During the 20th century , style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for typewritten manuscripts , which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work . As computer desktop publishing became commonplace , typewritten manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products . In the same period , style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing . The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text ; by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print . By the 1980s , the United Kingdom 's Hart 's Rules ( 1983 ) had shifted to single sentence spacing . Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s . Soon after the beginning of the 21st century , the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences .
Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language . These works are important to writers since " virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication . " Late editions of comprehensive style guides , such as the Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2010 ) in the United States , provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics , including sentence spacing . The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications . A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work , and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences . Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic , as " HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether . " These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing .
The European Union 's Interinstitutional Style Guide ( 2008 ) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications — encompassing 23 languages . For the English language , the European Commission 's English Style Guide ( 2010 ) states that sentences are always single @-@ spaced . The Style Manual : For Authors , Editors and Printers ( 2007 ) , first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government Printing Office of Australia , stipulates that only one space is used after " sentence @-@ closing punctuation " and that " Programs for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated , variable spacing , so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page . "
National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides — only some of which may discuss sentence spacing . This is the case in the United Kingdom . The Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) and the Modern Humanities Research Association 's MHRA Style Guide ( 2002 ) state that only single spacing should be used . In Canada , both the English and French language sections of the Canadian Style , A Guide to Writing and Editing ( 1997 ) , prescribe single sentence spacing . In the United States , many style guides — such as the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2003 ) — allow only single sentence spacing . The most important style guide in Italy , Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile ( 2009 ) , does not address sentence spacing , but the Guida di Stile Italiano ( 2010 ) , the official guide for Microsoft translation , tells users to use single sentence spacing " instead of the double spacing used in the United States " .
= = = = Language guides = = = =
Some languages , such as French and Spanish , have academies that set language rules . Their publications typically address orthography and grammar as opposed to matters of typography . Style guides are less relevant for such languages , as their academies set prescriptive rules . For example , the Académie française publishes the Dictionnaire de l 'Académie française for French speakers worldwide . The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing , but is single @-@ sentence @-@ spaced throughout — consistent with historical French spacing . The Spanish language is similar . The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies , the Real Academia Española , publishes the Diccionario de la Lengua Española , which is viewed as prescriptive for the Spanish language worldwide . The 2001 edition does not provide sentence spacing guidance , but is itself single sentence spaced . The German language manual Empfehlungen des Rats für Deutsche Rechtschreibung ( " Recommendations of the Council for German Orthography " ) ( 2006 ) does not address sentence spacing . The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation . Additionally , the Duden , the German language dictionary most commonly used in Germany , indicates that double sentence spacing is an error .
= = = Grammar guides = = =
A few reference grammars address sentence spacing , as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself . Most do not . Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences — but not the spacing between sentences . Moreover , many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style . For example , the Pocket Idiot 's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation ( 2005 ) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other " editorial concerns " . The Grammar Bible ( 2004 ) states that " The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple . A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style . "
= = Digital age = =
In the computer era , spacing between sentences is handled in several different ways by various software packages . Some systems accept whatever the user types , while others attempt to alter the spacing , or use the user input as a method of detecting sentences . Computer @-@ based word processors , and typesetting software such as troff and TeX , allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters .
The text editing environment in Emacs uses a double space following a period to identify the end of sentences unambiguously ; the double space convention prevents confusion with periods within sentences that signify abbreviations . How Emacs recognizes the end of a sentence is controlled by the settings sentence @-@ end @-@ double @-@ space and sentence @-@ end . The vi editor also follows this convention ; thus , it is relatively easy to manipulate ( jump over , copy , delete ) whole sentences in both emacs and vi .
The Unix typesetter program troff uses two spaces to mark the end of a sentence . This allows the typesetter to distinguish sentence endings from abbreviations and to typeset them differently . Early versions of troff , which only typeset in fixed width fonts , would automatically add a second space between sentences , which were detected based on the combination of terminal punctuation and a line feed .
Microsoft Word does not treat sentences differently by default , but the grammar checking can be set to prefer a specific number of spaces between sentences .
On some modern touch @-@ screen platforms , including Android and iOS , typing two spaces in a row is automatically interpreted to mean the end of a sentence , and a period is automatically inserted . However , only one space is retained .
Multiple spaces are eliminated by default in most World Wide Web content , regardless of whether they are associated with sentences or not . There are options for preserving spacing , such as the CSS white @-@ space property , and the < pre > tag . Twitter retains extra spaces in user input on their website . HTML also includes several other space entities which are not collapsed , such as an em space , an en space , and a non @-@ breaking space . Some unicode space characters are also not collapsed on the web .
= = Controversy = =
James Felici , author of the Complete Manual of Typography , says that the topic of sentence spacing is " the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type , it 's still the question I hear most often , and a search of the web will find threads galore on the subject " . This subject is still widely debated today .
Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons . Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply ingrained to change . Others claim that additional space between sentences improves the aesthetics or readability of text . Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double @-@ spaced manuscript submissions from authors . A key example noted is the screenwriting industry 's monospaced standard for screenplay manuscripts , Courier , 12 @-@ point font , although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely preferred – proportional fonts may be used . Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide , but proponents of double spacing caution that publishers ' guidance takes precedence , including those that ask for double sentence spaced manuscripts .
One of the most popular arguments against wider sentence spacing is that it was created for monospaced fonts of the typewriter , and is no longer needed with modern proportional fonts . However , proportional fonts existed together with wide sentence spacing for centuries before the typewriter , and remained for decades after its invention . When the typewriter was first introduced , typists were most commonly taught to use three spaces between sentences . This gradually shifted to two spaces , while the print industry remained unchanged in its wide em @-@ spaced sentences . Some sources now state it is acceptable for monospaced fonts to be single spaced today , although other references continue to specify double spacing for monospaced fonts . The double space typewriter convention has been taught in schools in typing classes , and that remains the practice in many cases . Some voice concerns that students will later be forced to relearn how to type .
Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today , and most publishers require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication — single sentence spaced . Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts , although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication .
= = Effects on readability and legibility = =
Claims abound regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods — by proponents on both sides . Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books , magazines , and the Web enhances readability , that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts , and that the " rivers " and " holes " caused by double spacing impair readability . Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing clearer breaks between sentences and making text appear more legible , particularly noting the very small visual difference between a dot and a comma .
However , typographic opinions are typically anecdotal with no basis in evidence . " Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print " , and when direct studies are conducted , anecdotal opinions — even those of experts — can turn out to be false . Text that seems legible ( visually pleasing at first glance ) may be shown to actually impair reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study .
= = = Studies = = =
Direct studies on sentence spacing include those by Loh , Branch , Shewanown , and Ali ( 2002 ) ; Clinton , Branch , Holschuh , and Shewanown ( 2003 ) ; and Ni , Branch , and Chen ( 2004 ) , with results favoring neither single , double , nor triple spacing . The 2002 study tested participants ' reading speed for single and double sentence spaced passages of on @-@ screen text . The authors stated that " the ' double space group ' consistently took longer time to finish than the ' single space ' group " but concluded that " there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists . " The 2003 and 2004 studies analyzed on @-@ screen single , double , and triple spacing . In both cases , the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion . Ni , Branch , Chen , and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables . The authors concluded that the " results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences " .
= The Crab with the Golden Claws =
The Crab with the Golden Claws ( French : Le Crabe aux pinces d 'or ) is the ninth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised weekly in Le Soir Jeunesse , the children 's supplement to Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from October 1940 to October 1941 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Partway through serialisation , Le Soir Jeunesse was cancelled and the story began to be serialised daily in the pages of Le Soir . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who travel to Morocco to pursue a gang of international opium smugglers .
The Crab with the Golden Claws was published in book form shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Shooting Star , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1943 , Hergé coloured and redrew the book in his distinctive ligne @-@ claire style for Casterman 's republication . The Crab with the Golden Claws introduces the recurring character Captain Haddock , who became a major fixture of the series . The book is the first Tintin adventure published in the United States and the first to be adapted into a motion picture . The Crab with the Golden Claws was adapted for the 1956 Belvision Studios animation Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , for the 1991 Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin , and for the 2011 film directed by Steven Spielberg .
= = Synopsis = =
Tintin is informed by Thomson and Thompson of a case involving the ramblings of a drunken man , later killed , found with a scrap of paper from what appears to be a tin of crab meat with the word " Karaboudjan " scrawled on it . His subsequent investigation and the kidnapping of a Japanese man interested in giving him a letter leads Tintin to a ship called the Karaboudjan , where he is abducted by a syndicate of criminals who have hidden opium in the crab tins . Tintin escapes from his locked room after Snowy chews through his bonds and Tintin knocks out a man sent to bring him food , leaving the man bound and gagged in the room . Tintin encounters Captain Haddock , an alcoholic sea captain , who is manipulated by his first mate , Allan , and is unaware of his crew 's criminal activities . Tintin hides in the locker under the bed and defeats Jumbo , the sailor left in the cabin , while Allan thinks Tintin has climbed out of the porthole back into the storeroom . He blows open the storeroom door , then finding it empty goes back to the Captain 's room , where he finds Jumbo tied to a chair and gagged . Escaping the ship in a lifeboat after sending a radio message to the police about the cargo , a seaplane tries to attack them . Tintin and the Captain hijack the plane , tie up the pilots , and try to reach Spain . Haddock 's drunken behaviour in a storm causes them to crash @-@ land in the Sahara , where the crew escapes .
After trekking across the desert and nearly dying of dehydration , Tintin and Haddock are rescued and taken to a French outpost , where they hear on the radio the storm sunk the Karaboudjan . They travel to a Moroccan port , and along the way are attacked by Tuareg tribesmen , defending themselves with French MAS @-@ 36 rifles . At the port , members of his old crew kidnap the Captain after he recognises their disguised Karaboudjan . Tintin meets Thomson and Thompson who got his message , and they learn that the wealthy merchant Omar ben Salaad sold the crab tins ; Tintin tells Thomson and Thompson to discreetly investigate . Tintin tracks down the gang and saves the Captain , but they both become intoxicated by the fumes from wine barrels breached in a shootout with the villains . Haddock chases a gang @-@ member from the cellar to an entrance behind a bookcase in Salaad 's house . Upon sobering up , Tintin discovers a necklace of a crab with golden claws on the now @-@ subdued owner of the wine cellar , Omar ben Salaad , and realizes that he is the leader of the drug cartel . Allan steals a boat and tries escaping , but Tintin captures him . The police arrest the gang and free the Japanese man , who introduces himself as Bunji Kuraki , a police detective who was trying to warn Tintin of the group he was up against . He had been investigating the sailor on Haddock 's crew who drowned ; the sailor was on the verge of bringing him opium before he was eliminated . Turning on the radio , Tintin learns that , thanks to him , the entire organisation of the Crab with the Golden Claws is behind bars .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
As the Belgian army clashed with the invading Germans in May 1940 , Hergé and his wife fled by car to France along with tens of thousands of other Belgians , first staying in Paris and then heading south to Puy @-@ de @-@ Dôme , where they remained for six weeks . On 28 May , Belgian King Leopold III officially surrendered the country to the German army to prevent further killing ; a move that Hergé agreed with . Germany placed Belgium under occupation . Hergé followed the king 's request that all civilians who had fled the country return ; he arrived back in Brussels on 30 June . There , he found that an officer of the German army 's Propagandastaffel occupied his house , and he also faced financial trouble , as he owed back taxes yet was unable to access his financial reserves ( his fee due from Casterman eventually arrived ) . All Belgian publications were now under the control of the German occupying force . The Catholic publication Le Vingtième Siècle and its supplement Le Petit Vingtième , where Hergé had always worked serialising The Adventures of Tintin , no longer had permission to continue publication . Land of Black Gold , the story that Hergé had been serialising there , had to be abandoned . Victor Matthys , the Rexist editor of Le Pays Réel , offered Hergé employment as a cartoonist , but Hergé perceived Le Pays Réel as an explicitly political publication and thus declined the position .
Instead , he accepted a position with Le Soir , Belgium 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October , Hergé created its new children 's supplement , Le Soir Jeunesse . Appointed editor of this supplement , he was aided by old friend Paul Jamin and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke . The first issue of Le Soir Jeunesse was published with a large announcement across the cover : " Tintin et Milou sont revenus ! " ( " Tintin and Snowy are Back ! " ) . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration ; he received an anonymous letter from " the father of a large family " asking him not to work for Le Soir , fearing that The Adventures of Tintin would now be used to indoctrinate children in Nazi ideology , and that as a result " They will no longer speak of God , of the Christian family , of the Catholic ideal ... [ How ] can you agree to collaborate in this terrible act , a real sin against Spirit ? " Hergé however was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 , far more than what Le Vingtième Siècle had been able to accomplish . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
= = = Publication = = =
The Crab with the Golden Claws began serialisation in Le Soir Jeunesse on 17 October 1940 . However , on 8 May 1941 , a paper shortage caused by the ongoing war led to the Le Soir Jeunesse being reduced to four pages , with the length of the weekly Tintin strip being cut by two @-@ thirds . Several weeks later , on 3 September 1941 , the supplement disappeared altogether , with The Crab with the Golden Claws being moved into Le Soir itself in September , where it became a daily strip . As a result , Hergé was forced to alter the pace at which his narrative moved , as he had to hold the reader 's attention at the end of every line . As with earlier Adventures of Tintin , the story was later serialised in France in the Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants from 21 June 1942 .
Following serialisation , Casterman collected together and published the story in book form in 1941 ; the last black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin volume to be released . For this collected edition , Hergé thought of renaming the story , initially considering The Red Crab ( to accompany earlier adventures The Blue Lotus and The Black Island ) before re @-@ settling on Le Crabe aux pinces d 'or ( The Crab with the Golden Claws ) . Hergé became annoyed that Casterman then sent the book to the printers without his final approval . Nevertheless , as a result of Le Soir 's publicity , book sales markedly increased , to the extent that most of the prior Adventures of Tintin were reprinted as a result . German authorities made two exceptions : No reprinting of Tintin in America or The Black Island because they were set in the United States and Britain respectively , both of which were in conflict with Germany .
The serial introduced the character of Captain Haddock . Haddock made his first appearance in Le Soir adjacent to an advert for the anti @-@ Semitic German film , Jud Süß . Hergé chose the name " Haddock " for the character after his wife , Germaine Remi , mentioned " a sad English fish " during a meal . The inclusion of the Japanese police detective Bunji Kuraki as an ally of Tintin 's in this story was probably designed to counterbalance Hergé 's portrayal of the Japanese as the antagonists in his earlier story , The Blue Lotus , particularly given that the occupying government was allied with Japan at the time . The use of Morocco as a setting was likely influenced by The White Squadron by French writer Joseph Peyré , which Hergé had read and seen the film in 1936 . The depiction of the French Foreign Legion in North Africa was possibly influenced by P. C. Wren 's novel Beau Geste ( 1925 ) or its cinematic adaptations in 1926 , 1928 , and 1939 .
Whereas Hergé 's use of Chinese in The Blue Lotus was correct , the Arabic script employed in The Crab with the Golden Claws was intentionally fictitious . Many of the place names featured in the series are puns : the town of Kefheir was a pun on the French Que faire ? ( " what is to be done ? " ) while the port of Bagghar derives from the French baggare ( scrape , or fight ) . The name of Omar ben Salaad is a pun meaning " Lobster Salad " in French .
In February 1942 , Casterman suggested to Hergé that his books be published in a new format ; 62 @-@ pages rather than the former 100 to 130 pages , and now in full colour rather than black @-@ and @-@ white . He agreed to this , and in 1943 The Crab with the Golden Claws was re @-@ edited and coloured for publication as an album in 1944 . Due to the changes in how the adventure had been serialised at Le Soir , the album at this juncture was only 58 pages long , and thus Hergé filled the missing pages with four full @-@ page colour frames , thus bringing it up to the standard 62 @-@ page format .
In the 1960s , The Crab with the Golden Claws , along with King Ottokar 's Sceptre , became the first Tintin adventures published in the United States , in Little Golden Books . However , Casterman , working with the American publisher Western Publishing , made a number of changes : Jumbo , the sailor who Tintin leaves bound and gagged in Captain Haddock 's cabin , as well as another man who beats Haddock in the cellar , could not be black Africans as depicted in the original ; these were changed to a white sailor and an Arab due to the American publisher 's concerns depicting blacks and whites mixing together . The accompanying text was not changed , however , and Haddock still refers to the man who beat him as a " Negro " . Also by request of the Americans , scenes of Haddock drinking directly from bottles of whiskey on the lifeboat and the plane were blanked out , keeping only the text . The edited albums later had their blanked areas redrawn by Hergé to be more acceptable , and they appear this way in published editions around the world . Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version of the story in 1980 , as part of the fourth volume in their Archives Hergé collection . In 1989 , they then published a facsimile version of that first edition .
= = Critical analysis = =
Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described the story as a " rebirth " for The Adventures of Tintin and described the addition of Haddock as " a formidable narrative element " , one which " profoundly changed the spirit of the series " . Elsewhere , he asserts that it is Haddock 's appearance which " makes this book so memorable " and that he is tempted to define the book by that character 's début . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline commented that The Crab with the Golden Claws had " a certain charm " stemming from its use of " exoticism and colonial nostalgia , for the French especially , evoking their holdings in North Africa . " Michael Farr asserted that the arrival of Haddock was the most " remarkable " element of the story , offering the series " tremendous new potential " . He also thought that the dream sequences reflected the popularity of surrealism at the time , and that the influence of cinema , in particular the films of Alfred Hitchcock , is apparent in the story .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier described the story as " a thinly @-@ disguised remake of Cigars of the Pharaoh " , an Adventure of Tintin which had been first serialised in 1934 . Both feature the smuggling of opium , in crab tins and cigars respectively , and " desert treks , hostile tribes and , at the end , the infiltrating of a secret underground lair . " They also opined that artistically , the story represented " a turning point in Hergé 's career " , because he had to switch to a daily format in Le Soir , although as a result of this they felt that the final third of the story " seems rushed " . Stating that the inclusion of a Japanese detective investigating drug smuggling in the Mediterranean makes no sense within the context of 1940s Europe , they ultimately awarded the story three out of five stars .
Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University , in a psychoanalytical review of The Crab with the Golden Claws , commented that this book witnessed Tintin 's " real entrance into the community of human beings " as he gains an " older brother " in Haddock . He also believed that the recurring image of alcohol throughout the story was symbolic of sexuality . In particular , he believed that there was a strong homoerotic subtext between Haddock and Tintin , represented in the two delirious sequences ; in one , Haddock envisions Tintin as a champagne bottle frothing at the top ( thereby symbolising an ejaculating penis ) , while in the other , Tintin dreams that he is trapped inside a bottle , with Haddock about to stick a corkscrew into him ( thereby symbolising sexual penetration ) . However , Apostolidès notes , in both instances the pair are prevented from realising their sexual fantasies . Literary critic Tom McCarthy concurred with Apostolidès on this point , also highlighting what he perceived as homoerotic undertones to these two scenes . He also noted that in this Adventure , the manner in which a chance finding of a tin can on a Belgian street leads Tintin into the story is representative of the recurring theme of " Tintin the detective " found throughout the series .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1947 , the first Tintin motion picture was created : the stop motion @-@ animated feature film The Crab with the Golden Claws , faithfully adapted by producer Wilfried Bouchery for Films Claude Misonne . It was first shown at the ABC Cinema on 11 January 1947 for a group of invited guests . It was screened publicly only once , on 21 December of that year , before Bouchery declared bankruptcy and fled to Argentina .
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . The Crab with the Golden Claws was the fifth such story to be adapted , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , himself a well @-@ known cartoonist who in later years would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Adapting 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long , with most stories spanning two episodes , The Crab with the Golden Claws was the seventh story produced in the series . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , critics have praised the series for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .
A motion capture adventure film titled The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson was released in the US on 21 December 2011 and in Europe at the end of October 2011 . Parts of the movie are taken from The Crab with the Golden Claws including the meeting and first adventures of Tintin and Captain Haddock , the Karaboudjan , the flight to Bagghar , and the crab cans ( although the plot involving the smuggled opium was not adapted ) . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .
= = In popular culture = =
In The Simpsons episode In the Name of the Grandfather Bart Simpson makes a derogatory remark about Belgium , causing his mother Marge to threaten him with " taking his Tintins away " , whereupon Bart clutches a copy of the Tintin album The Crab with the Golden Claws to his chest , promising he 'll behave .
= L.A.M.B. =
L.A.M.B. is a fashion line by American singer Gwen Stefani , the lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . The line manufactures apparel and fashion accessories . It was founded in 2003 and made its runway debut in 2004 . The fashion line manufactures accessories like shoes , watches , bags and a fragrance called " L. " The name is an acronym of her debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
The line is influenced by a variety of fashions cultures , including Guatemalan , Japanese , Indian and Jamaican styles . Stefani came from a family of seamstresses . This further inspired her to launch her own fashion line . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Paris Hilton and Stefani herself . The fashion line made a runway debut in the spring collection of 2004 and achieved mainstream success at New York Fashion Week in 2005 . It currently makes an annual gross income of $ 90 million . The line , as well as the fashion shows , were well received by critics and appreciated the indulgence of a celebrity into the fashion world . An additional fashion line was launched by Stefani called Harajuku Lovers .
In late 2014 Stefani announced she would be producing an animated series that was based on the characters Love , Angel , Music and Baby . The series , Kuukuu Harajuku follows the Harajuku Girls , known together as HJ5 , as they fight evil and try to pursue their music career .
= = History = =
Stefani first came face to face with designing clothes when she and her mother would sew clothes for themselves when she was young . Stefani comes from a long line of seamstresses , as even her great @-@ grandmother would sew clothes . Stefani made most of the things she wore onstage during concerts . When she became successful and began to tour constantly , she felt she lost her way . Then she met the stylist Andrea Lieberman . Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing . Later Lieberman became her creative consultant and Zaldy Goco took over as the head designer . Goco later parted ways with L.A.M.B.
L.A.M.B. started out as a collaboration with LeSportsac in 2003 . The name L.A.M.B. is an acronym which stands for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , which is also the name of Stefani 's first solo album .
= = Products = =
The fashion line manufactures clothes , shoes , bags and a fragrance called " L " . The brand started out as a line for women but claims the track items are unisex . The clothes were manufactured by Ska Girl LLC , which was founded in 2003 by Ken Erman , president of L.A.M.B. While for its other products , L.A.M.B has been more of a collaborative fashion line . Now the line is teaming up with another manufacturer , which explains why the official website is down .
L.A.M.B joined with Royal Elastics for the shoe line . Stefani is widening her footwear line for adults to include boots and stilettos . L.A.M.B collaborated with Coty Inc. for the fragrance and with LeSportsac for handbags in 2003 . Stefani went on to design a new line of handbags with Shifter and Partners in 2006 . The bags feature LeSportsac 's signature rip @-@ stop nylon along with a variety of antiqued metal hardware , leather trims and colorful linings . Stefani plans to design lingerie as well as make @-@ up products for L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. partnered with Vestal Group on a line of women 's watches . The line consists of 39 timepieces .
L.A.M.B. products are relatively expensive , with apparel priced $ 55 to $ 1100 , handbags priced $ 80 to $ 825 , and watches priced $ 125 to $ 995 .
= = = Fragrance = = =
Coty Inc. announced a global licensing agreement with Stefani , to develop and market fragrances for L.A.M.B. Catherine Walsh , senior vice president , American Fragrances , Coty Prestige , said in a statement - " From the packaging to the bottle design to the distinctive scent itself , we will be working very closely with Stefani to ensure that her signature fragrance captures her rare spirit , style and warmth , " Stefani said , " Creating a fragrance is one of the most prestigious things a designer can do . "
The fragrance called " L " was launched in September , 2007 at Soho House in New York . Stefani worked with perfumer Harry Fremont to develop the scent . Stefani described the fragrance as " it 's another thing you can wear and another thing I can be part of creatively . I created it for myself -- it 's like me shrunk into a box . " The perfume is a blend of the aromas of hyacinth , white freesia , fresh pear , violet , jasmine , rose , lily , sweet pea , orange blossom , peach , frangipani , heliotrope and musk . The perfume is available in 50 ml and 100 ml bottles .
= = Promotion and fashion shows = =
Stefani frequently refers to her clothing line in her music , as one of the brand 's promotional strategies . Stefani refers to her clothing line in her songs " Wind It Up , " " Harajuku Girls , " and " Crash " ( which even incorporates the brand 's slogan , " I want you all over me like L.A.M.B. " ) . Stefani is often seen wearing her own designs , especially when making public appearances . A thirty @-@ second commercial directed by Sophie Muller was also released to promote the brand 's fragrance .
L.A.M.B. has participated in the Spring / Summer 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 New York Fashion Weeks . Stefani described her first line , which debuted on September 16 , 2005 , as " a little Sound of Music , some Orange County chola girl , some Rasta , and a bit of The Great Gatsby . " The highlights of the show were purple cars bouncing using hydraulics while Stefani 's song " Wind It Up " made its debut as the models walked the runway .
For Spring / Summer 2007 , Stefani opted for a presentation rather than a catwalk show . The models , all donning identical blond wigs , wore designs Stefani said were inspired by Michelle Pfeiffer 's role as Elvira Hancock in the 1983 Scarface . The show included some of Stefani 's trademark tracksuits and extensively referenced prints from Guatemala , India , and Japan . On September 5 , 2007 , L.A.M.B opened New York 's Spring / Summer 2008 Mercedes @-@ Benz Fashion Week . The collection " looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties " and incorporated influences from Stefani 's ska roots . Fashion week organizer Fern Mallis said that celebrity designers provided synergy and energy to the fashion industry , which made Stefani 's collection a desirable opener .
= = Critical reception = =
The line was mostly well received by critics and Stefani was appreciated for taking fashion seriously even though she is a celebrity . Fern Mallis of IMG praised the line and Stefani as well and said , " the L.A.M.B. line is clearly at the top of these lines and is as unique and individual as Gwen herself . " The shoes were well received by the critics , though considered to be pricey . Desiree Stimpert of About.com said , " ... these shoes aren 't for everyone , but will most definitely appeal to fans of Ms. Stefani 's music and fashion - sense . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly said , " L.A.M.B. ' s embellished tracksuits , Rasta @-@ inspired knits , and gaucho @-@ heel combos deliver the edge " Nicole Phelps of Style.com said , " The collection , which looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties , was altogether more wearable and on trend . " Fashion journalist Cathy Horyn of The New York Times differed and said , " If ever there was a reason for a pop star to concentrate on her vocal skills , it was Gwen Stefani 's fashion meltdown . "
= = Commercial success = =
The brand is sold in 275 stores worldwide and is worn by celebrities including Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Kelly Ripa , Paris Hilton , and Stefani herself . L.A.M.B sales have expanded from $ 40 million in 2005 to a predicted $ 90 million in 2007 . According to a Nordstrom spokesperson , the debut of L.A.M.B. ' s watch line , which sold out in two days , was the store 's most successful watch launch ever . The brand 's designs have appeared in W , Marie Claire , Elle , Lucky and InStyle .
= First @-@ move advantage in chess =
The first @-@ move advantage in chess is the inherent advantage of the player ( White ) who makes the first move in chess . Chess players and theorists generally agree that White begins the game with some advantage . Since 1851 , compiled statistics support this view ; White consistently wins slightly more often than Black , usually scoring between 52 and 56 percent . White 's winning percentage is about the same for tournament games between humans and games between computers . However , White 's advantage is less significant in blitz games and games between novices .
Chess players and theoreticians have long debated whether , given perfect play by both sides , the game should end in a win for White , or a draw . Since approximately 1889 , when World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz addressed this issue , the overwhelming consensus has been that a perfectly played game would end in a draw . However , a few notable players have argued that White 's advantage may be sufficient to force a win : Weaver Adams and Vsevolod Rauzer claimed that White is winning after the first move 1.e4 , while Hans Berliner argued that 1.d4 may win for White .
Some players , including World Champions such as José Raúl Capablanca , Emanuel Lasker , and Bobby Fischer , have expressed fears of a " draw death " as chess becomes more deeply analyzed . To alleviate this danger , Capablanca and Fischer both proposed chess variants to renew interest in the game , while Lasker suggested changing how draws and stalemate are scored .
Since 1988 , chess theorists have challenged previously well @-@ established views about White 's advantage . Grandmaster ( GM ) András Adorján wrote a series of books on the theme that " Black is OK ! " , arguing that the general perception that White has an advantage is founded more in psychology than reality . GM Mihai Suba and others contend that sometimes White 's initiative disappears for no apparent reason as a game progresses . The prevalent style of play for Black today is to seek dynamic , unbalanced positions with active counterplay , rather than merely trying to equalize .
Modern writers also argue that Black has certain countervailing advantages . The consensus that White should try to win can be a psychological burden for the white player , who sometimes loses by trying too hard to win . Some symmetrical openings ( i.e. those where both players make the same moves ) can lead to situations where moving first is a disadvantage , either for psychological or objective reasons .
= = Winning percentages = =
In 1946 , W.F. Streeter examined the results of 5 @,@ 598 games played in 45 international chess tournaments between 1851 and 1932 . Streeter found that overall White scored 53 @.@ 4 % ( W : 38 @.@ 12 ; D : 30 @.@ 56 ; L : 31 @.@ 31 ) . White scored 52 @.@ 55 % in 1851 – 78 ( W : 45 @.@ 52 ; D : 14 @.@ 07 ; L : 40 @.@ 41 ) , 52 @.@ 77 % in 1881 – 1914 ( W : 36 @.@ 89 ; D : 31 @.@ 76 ; L : 31 @.@ 35 ) , and 55 @.@ 47 % in 1919 – 32 ( W : 36 @.@ 98 ; D : 36 @.@ 98 ; L : 26 @.@ 04 ) . Streeter concluded , " It thus appears that it is becoming increasingly difficult to win with Black , but somewhat easier to draw . "
Two decades later , statistician Arthur M. Stevens concluded in The Blue Book of Charts to Winning Chess , based on a survey of 56 @,@ 972 master games that he completed in 1 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
967 , that White scores 59 @.@ 1 % . However , Stevens assembled his games from those that had been published in chess magazines , rather than complete collections of all the games played in particular events .
More recent sources indicate that White scores approximately 54 to 56 percent . In 2005 , GM Jonathan Rowson wrote that " the conventional wisdom is that White begins the game with a small advantage and , holding all other factors constant , scores approximately 56 % to Black 's 44 % " . International Master ( IM ) John Watson wrote in 1998 that White had scored 56 % for most of the 20th century , but that this figure had recently slipped to 55 % . The website Chessgames.com holds regularly updated statistics on its games database . As of January 12 , 2015 , White had won 37 @.@ 50 % , 34 @.@ 90 % were drawn , and Black had won 27 @.@ 60 % out of 739 @,@ 769 games , resulting in a total White winning percentage of 54 @.@ 95 % .
New In Chess observed in its 2000 Yearbook that of the 731 @,@ 740 games in its database , White scored 54 @.@ 8 % overall ; with the two most popular opening moves , White scored 54 @.@ 1 % in 349 @,@ 855 games beginning 1.e4 , and 56 @.@ 1 % in 296 @,@ 200 games beginning 1.d4. The main reason that 1.e4 was less effective than 1.d4 was the Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , which gave White only a 52 @.@ 3 % score in 145 @,@ 996 games .
Statistician Jeff Sonas , in examining data from 266 @,@ 000 games played between 1994 and 2001 , concluded that White scored 54 @.@ 1767 % plus 0 @.@ 001164 times White 's Elo rating advantage , treating White 's rating advantage as + 390 if it is better than + 390 , or − 460 if it is worse than − 460 . He found that White 's advantage is equivalent to 35 rating points , i.e. if White has a rating 35 points below Black 's , each player will have an expected score of 50 % . Sonas also found that White 's advantage is smaller ( 53 % ) in rapid games than in games at a slower ( " classical " ) time control . In the 462 games played at the 2009 World Blitz Chess Championship , White scored only 52 @.@ 16 % ( W38.96 D26.41 L 34 @.@ 63 ) .
Other writers conclude that there is a positive correlation between the players ' ratings and White 's score . According to GM Evgeny Sveshnikov , statistics show that White has no advantage over Black in games between beginners , but " if the players are stronger , White has the lead " . An analysis of the results of games in ChessBase 's Mega 2003 database between players with similar Elo ratings , commissioned by GM András Adorján , showed that as the players ' ratings went up , the percentage of draws increased , the proportion of decisive games that White won increased , and White 's overall winning percentage increased . For example , taking the highest and lowest of Adorján 's rating categories of 1669 games played by the highest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings 2700 and above ) , White scored 55 @.@ 7 % overall ( W26.5 D58.4 L15.2 ) , whereas of 34 @,@ 924 games played by the lowest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings below 2100 ) , White scored 53 @.@ 1 % overall ( W37.0 D32.1 L30.8 ) . Adorján also analyzed the results of games played at the very highest level : World Championship matches . Of 755 games played in 34 matches between 1886 and 1990 , White won 234 ( 31 @.@ 0 % ) , drew 397 ( 52 @.@ 6 % ) , and lost 124 ( 16 @.@ 4 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 57 @.@ 3 % . In the last five matches in Adorjan 's survey , all between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov , White won 31 ( 25 @.@ 8 % ) , drew 80 ( 66 @.@ 7 % ) , and lost 9 ( 7 @.@ 5 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 59 @.@ 2 % .
Chess Engines Grand Tournament ( CEGT ) tests computer chess engines by playing them against each other , with time controls of forty moves in one hundred and twenty minutes per player ( 40 / 120 ) , and also 40 / 20 and 40 / 4 , and uses the results of those games to compile a rating list for each time control . At the slowest time control ( 40 / 120 ) , White has scored 55 @.@ 4 % ( W34.7 D41.3 L24.0 ) in games played among 38 of the strongest chess engines ( as of May 27 , 2009 ) . At 40 / 20 , White has scored 54 @.@ 6 % ( W37.0 D35.2 L27.8 ) in games played among 284 engines ( as of May 24 , 2009 ) . At the fastest time control ( 40 / 4 ) , White has scored 54 @.@ 8 % ( W39.6 D30.5 L30.0 ) , in games played among 128 programs ( as of May 28 , 2009 ) .
= = Drawn with best play = =
Joseph Bertin wrote in his 1735 textbook The Noble Game of Chess , " He that plays first , is understood to have the attack . " This is consistent with the traditional view that White , by virtue of the first move , begins with the initiative and should try to extend it into the middlegame , while Black should strive to neutralize White 's initiative and attain equality . Because White begins with the initiative , a minor mistake by White generally leads only to loss of the initiative , while a similar mistake by Black may have more serious consequences . Thus , Sveshnikov wrote in 1994 , " Black players cannot afford to make even the slightest mistake ... from a theoretical point of view , the tasks of White and Black in chess are different : White has to strive for a win , Black — for a draw ! "
Chess theorists have long debated how enduring White 's initiative is and whether , if both sides play perfectly , the game should end in a win for White or a draw . George Walker wrote in 1846 that , " The first move is an advantage , ... but if properly answered , the first move is of little worth " . Steinitz , the first World Champion , who is widely considered the father of modern chess , wrote in 1889 , " It is now conceded by all experts that by proper play on both sides the legitimate issue of a game ought to be a draw . " Lasker and Capablanca , the second and third World Champions , agreed . Reuben Fine , one of the world 's leading players from 1936 to 1951 , wrote that White 's opening advantage is too intangible to be sufficient for a win without an error by Black .
The view that a game of chess should end in a draw given best play prevails . Even if it cannot be proved , this assumption is considered " safe " by Rowson and " logical " by Adorján . Watson agrees that " the proper result of a perfectly played chess game ... is a draw . ... Of course , I can 't prove this , but I doubt that you can find a single strong player who would disagree . ... I remember Kasparov , after a last @-@ round draw , explaining to the waiting reporters : ' Well , chess is a draw . ' " World Champion Bobby Fischer thought that was almost definitely so .
Lasker and Capablanca both worried that chess would suffer a " draw death " as top @-@ level players drew more and more of their games . More recently , Fischer agreed , saying that the game has become played out . All three advocated changing the rules of chess to minimize the number of drawn games . Lasker suggested scoring less than half a point for a draw , and more than half a point for stalemating the opponent 's king . Capablanca in the 1920s proposed Capablanca chess , a chess variant played on a larger board and with additional pieces . Fischer advocated Fischer Random Chess , another chess variant , in which the initial position of the pieces is determined at random .
Today some of the sharpest opening variations have been analyzed so deeply that they are often used as drawing weapons . For example , at the highest levels , Black often uses the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez , a line where Black sacrifices a pawn for strong attacking chances , to obtain an endgame where Black is still a pawn down but is able to draw with correct play .
In 2007 , GMs Kiril Georgiev and Atanas Kolev asserted that much the same was true of the so @-@ called Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian , which arises after 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 ! ? This has long been considered one of the sharpest and most problematic , or even foolhardy , opening lines . The game usually continues 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Rb1 Qa3 . Georgiev and Kolev stated that 6.Bg5 is seldom seen at the highest level because the main line of this variation leads , with best play , to a draw by perpetual check . They wrote that the following game " will probably remain the last word of theory " :
Francisco Vallejo Pons – Kasparov , Moscow 2004 : 1 @.@ e4 c5 2 . Nf3 d6 3 @.@ d4 cxd4 4 . Nxd4 Nf6 5 . Nc3 a6 6 . Bg5 e6 7 @.@ f4 Qb6 8 . Qd2 Qxb2 9 . Rb1 Qa3 10 @.@ f5 Nc6 11 @.@ fxe6 fxe6 12 . Nxc6 bxc6 13 @.@ e5 dxe5 14 . Bxf6 gxf6 15 . Ne4 Qxa2 16 . Rd1 Be7 17 . Be2 0 @-@ 0 18 . 0 @-@ 0 Ra7 19 . Rf3 Kh8 20 . Rg3 Rd7 21 . Qh6 Rf7 22 . Qh5 Rxd1 + 23 . Bxd1 Qa5 24 . Kf1 Qd8 25 . Qxf7 Qxd1 + 26 . Kf2 Qxc2 + 27 . Kf3 Qd1 + 28 . Kf2 Qc2 + 29 . Ke3 Bc5 + 30 . Nxc5 Qxc5 + 31 . Kd2 Qf2 + 32 . Kc3 Qd4 + 33 . Kc2 Qf2 + 34 . Kc3 1 / 2 – 1 / 2 ( After 34 ... Qd4 + , White cannot escape the checks . )
However , Georgiev and Kolev 's pessimistic assessment of 6.Bg5 has since been called into question , as White succeeded with 10.e5 ( another critical line ) in several later high @-@ level games . GM Zaven Andriasyan wrote in 2013 that after 10.f5 , " a forced draw results " , but that after 10.e5 , " we reach a very sharp position , with mutual chances . "
= = White wins = =
= = = White wins with 1.e4 = = =
Although it is very much a minority view , three prominent twentieth @-@ century masters claimed that White 's advantage should or may be decisive with best play . Weaver Adams , then one of the leading American masters , was the best @-@ known proponent of this view , which he introduced in his 1939 book White to Play and Win , and continued to expound in later books and articles until shortly before his death in 1963 . Adams opined that 1.e4 was White 's strongest move , and that if both sides played the best moves thereafter , " White ought to win . " Adams ' claim was widely ridiculed , and he did not succeed in demonstrating the validity of his theory in tournament and match practice . The year after his book was published , at the finals of the 1940 U.S. Open tournament , he scored only one draw in his four games as White , but won all four of his games as Black . Adams also lost a match to IM I.A. Horowitz , who took the black pieces in every game .
According to Sveshnikov , Vsevolod Rauzer , a leading Soviet player and theoretician during the 1930s , likewise " claimed in the [ 1930s ] : ' 1.e4 — and White wins ! ' and he managed to prove it quite often " .
= = = White wins with 1.d4 = = =
More recently , IM Hans Berliner , a former World Champion of Correspondence Chess , claimed in his 1999 book The System that 1.d4 gives White a large , and possibly decisive , advantage . Berliner asserted that with best play White wins against the Grünfeld Defense , the Modern Benoni , the Benko Gambit and other ( unnamed ) " major defences " , and achieves at least a large advantage in many lines of the Queen 's Gambit Declined . However , he allowed that , " It is possible that the rules of chess are such that only some number of plausible @-@ appearing defences to 1.d4 can be refuted . " Berliner wrote that Adams ' " theories , though looked upon with scorn by most top chess players , made an immediate and lasting impression on me . Weaver W. Adams was the first person I met who actually had theories about how chess should be played . "
Berliner 's thesis , like Adams ' , has been sharply criticized .
= = Modern perspectives = =
As explained below , chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of White 's advantage , if any . Apart from Berliner , they have rejected the idea that White has a forced win from the opening position . Many also reject the traditional paradigm that Black 's objective should be to neutralize White 's initiative and obtain equality .
= = = White has an enduring advantage = = =
In 2004 , GM Larry Kaufman expressed a more nuanced view than Adams and Berliner , arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage , albeit not necessarily a decisive one . Kaufman writes , " I don 't believe that White has a forced win in Chess . I do however believe that with either 1.e4 or 1.d4 , White should be able to obtain some sort of advantage that persists into the endgame . If chess were scored like boxing , with drawn games awarded by some point system to the player ( if any ) who came ' closer ' to winning , then I believe White would indeed have a forced win in theory . "
= = = Black is OK ! = = =
Starting in 1988 , Adorján has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that " Black is OK ! " Alone amongst modern writers , Adorján claims that White starts the game with essentially no advantage . He writes , " In my opinion , the only obvious advantage for White is that if he or she plays for a draw , and does so well , then Black can hardly avoid this without taking obvious risks . " Adorján goes so far as to claim that , " The tale of White 's advantage is a delusion , belief in it is based on mass psychosis . " Rowson writes that Adorján 's " contention is one of the most important chess ideas of the last two decades ... because it has shaken our assumption that White begins the game with some advantage , and revealed its ideological nature " . However , Rowson rejects Adorján 's claim that White has essentially no advantage , reasoning that " ' White is better ' and ' Black is OK ' need not be mutually exclusive claims " .
In one of Adorján 's books , GM Lajos Portisch opined that " at least two @-@ thirds of all ' tested ' openings give White an apparent advantage . " According to Portisch , for Black , " The root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where Black is really OK . Those who find these lines have nothing to fear , as Black is indeed OK , but only in those variations ! " Rowson considers this an important point , noting that " 1.d4 players struggle to get anywhere against main @-@ line Slavs and 1.e4 players find the Najdorf and Sveshnikov Sicilians particularly tough . "
= = = Dynamism = = =
Modern writers often think of Black 's role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equalize . Rowson writes that " the idea of Black trying to ' equalize ' is questionable . I think it has limited application to a few openings , rather than being an opening prescription for Black in general . " Evans wrote that after one of his games against Fischer , " Fischer confided his ' secret ' to me : unlike other masters , he sought to win with the Black pieces from the start . The revelation that Black has dynamic chances and need not be satisfied with mere equality was the turning point in his career , he said . " Likewise , Watson surmised that Kasparov , when playing Black , bypasses the question of whether White has an opening advantage " by thinking in terms of the concrete nature of the dynamic imbalance on the board , and seeking to seize the initiative whenever possible " . Watson observes that " energetic opening play by Black may ... lead to a position so complex and unclear that to speak of equality is meaningless . Sometimes we say ' dynamically balanced ' instead of ' equal ' to express the view that either player is as likely as the other to emerge from complications with an advantage . This style of opening play has become prevalent in modern chess , with World Champions Fischer and Kasparov as its most visible practitioners . "
Modern writers also question the idea that White has an enduring advantage . Suba , in his influential 1991 book Dynamic Chess Strategy , rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage . He contends that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical explanation , and that , " Sometimes you must lose it , just like that . If you try to cling to it , by forcing the issue , your dynamic potential will become exhausted and you won 't be able to face a vigorous counter @-@ attack . " Rowson and Watson concur . Watson also observes , " Because of the presumption of White being better , the juncture of the game at which Black frees his game or neutralizes White 's plans has often been automatically assumed to give him equality , even though in dynamic openings , the exhaustion of White 's initiative very often means that Black has seized it with advantage . "
= = = Countervailing advantages = = =
Rowson argues that both White and Black have certain advantages :
= = = = White 's advantages = = = =
According to Rowson , White 's first advantage is that , " The advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that White can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty ) , he has more control over the pace and direction of the game , and he has a ' second serve ' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing . " Second , White begins the game with some initiative , although Rowson regards this as a psychological rather than a positional advantage , " and whether it leads to a positional advantage depends on the relative skill of the players . " Third , some players are able to use the initiative to " play a kind of powerful ' serve and volley ' chess in which Black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess . " Fourth , " If White wants to draw , it is often not so easy for Black to prevent this . This advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible threefold repetition , because White can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and Black has to decide whether to deviate before he knows whether White is bluffing . "
Rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @-@ regarded Zaitsev Variation of the Ruy Lopez . After 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0 @-@ 0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 Bb7 10.d4 Re8 ( initiating the Zaitsev Variation ) , White can repeat moves once with 11.Ng5 Rf8 12.Nf3. This puts Black in an awkward situation , since he must either ( a ) insist on the Zaitsev with 12 ... Re8 , which allows White to choose whether to draw by threefold repetition with 13.Ng5 Rf8 14.Nf3 , or play on with a different move , or ( b ) play a different ( and possibly inferior ) variation by playing something other than 12 ... Re8 .
= = = = Black 's advantages = = = =
Rowson argues that Black also has several advantages . First , " White 's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win , and Black can often use this to his advantage . " Second , " White 's ' extra move ' can be a burden , and sometimes White finds himself in a mild form of zugzwang ( ' Zugzwang Lite ' ) . " Third , although White begins the game with the initiative , if " Black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities , this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to Black . " Fourth , " The fact that White moves before Black often gives Black useful information " . Suba likewise argues that White 's advantage is actually less than a move , since White must tip his hand first , allowing Black to react to White 's plans . Suba writes , " In terms of the mathematical games theory , chess is a game of complete information , and Black 's information is always greater — by one move ! "
Rowson also notes that Black 's chances increase markedly by playing good openings , which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential , " rather than those that give White fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely . " He also emphasizes that " White has ' the initiative ' , not ' the advantage ' . Success with Black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of ' potential ' . " These ideas are exemplified by the Hedgehog , a dynamic modern system against the English Opening that can arise from various move orders . A typical position arises after 1.c4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.g3 b6 4.Bg2 Bb7 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 e6 6.Nc3 Be7 7.d4 cxd4 8.Qxd4 d6 9.e4 a6 . White has a spatial advantage , while Black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board , but White " has to keep a constant eye on the possible liberating pawn thrusts ... b5 and ... d5 . " Watson remarks , " Black 's goal is to remain elastic and flexible , with many options for his pieces , whereas White can become paralyzed at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks . " He also observes that , " White tends to be as much tied up by Black 's latent activity as Black himself is tied up by White 's space advantage . " Moreover , attempts by White to overrun Black 's position often rebound disastrously . An example of this is the following grandmaster game :
Lev Polugaevsky – Ľubomír Ftáčnik , Lucerne Olympiad 1982 : 1 . Nf3 Nf6 2 @.@ c4 c5 3 . Nc3 e6 4 @.@ g3 b6 5 . Bg2 Bb7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 Be7 7 @.@ d4 cxd4 8 . Qxd4 d6 9 . Rd1 a6 10 @.@ b3 Nbd7 11 @.@ e4 Qb8 12 . Bb2 0 @-@ 0 Suba wrote of a similar Hedgehog position , " White 's position looks ideal . That 's the naked truth about it , but the ' ideal ' has by definition one drawback — it cannot be improved . " 13 . Nd2 Rd8 14 @.@ a4 Qc7 15 . Qe3 Rac8 16 . Qe2 Ne5 17 @.@ h3 ? According to Ftáčnik , 17.f4 Neg4 18.Rf1 is better. h5 ! 18 @.@ f4 Ng6 19 . Nf3 Now Black breaks open the position in typical Hedgehog fashion. d5 ! 20 @.@ cxd5 ? ! Ftáčnik considers 20.e5 or 20.exd5 preferable. h4 ! 21 . Nxh4 Nxh4 22 @.@ gxh4 Qxf4 23 @.@ dxe6 fxe6 24 @.@ e5 ? Ftáčnik recommends instead 24.Rxd8 Rxd8 25.Rd1. Bc5 + 25 . Kh1 Nh5 ! 26 . Qxh5 Qg3 27 . Nd5 Other moves get mated immediately : 27.Bxb7 Qh3 # ; 27.Qe2 Qxh3 # ; 27.Qg4 Bxg2 # . Rxd5 28 . Rf1 Qxg2 + ! 29 . Kxg2 Rd2 + If 30.Kg3 ( the only legal response to the double check ) , Rg2 + 31.Kf4 Rf8 + forces mate . 0 – 1
An examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates White 's and Black 's respective advantages :
= = = = = Reversed openings = = = = =
In a " reversed opening " , White plays an opening typically played by Black , but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo . Evans writes of such openings , " If a defense is considered good for Black , it must be even better for White with a move in hand . " Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik reportedly expressed the same view . Watson questions this idea , citing Suba 's thesis that Black , by moving second , has more complete information than White . He writes , " everyone has such difficulties playing as White against a Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , but ... leading masters have no qualms about answering 1.c4 with 1 ... e5 . " To explain this paradox , Watson discusses several different reversed Sicilian lines , showing how Black can exploit the disadvantages of various " extra " moves for White . He concludes , " The point is , Black 's set @-@ up in the Sicilian is fine as a reactive system , but not worth much when trying to claim the initiative as White . This is true because Black is able to react to the specific plan White chooses ; in Suba 's terms , his information is indeed a move greater ! Furthermore , he is able to take advantage of dead equal positions which White ( hoping to retain the advantage of the first move ) would normally avoid . "
Watson also observes , " Similarly , the Dutch Defence looks particularly sterile when White achieves the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ! ) ; and indeed , many standard Black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as White , tempo in hand . " GM Alex Yermolinsky likewise notes that GM Vladimir Malaniuk , a successful exponent of the Leningrad Dutch ( 1.d4 f5 2.g3 g6 ) at the highest levels , " once made a deep impression on me by casually dismissing someone 's suggestion that he should try 1.f4 as White . He smiled and said , ' That extra move 's gonna hurt me . ' "
Yermolinsky also agrees with Alekhine 's criticism of 1.g3 e5 2.Nf3 , a reversed Alekhine 's Defense , in Réti – Alekhine , Baden @-@ Baden 1925 , writing that Alekhine " understood the difference in opening philosophies for White and Black , and realized they just can 't be the same ! White is supposed to try for more than just obtaining a comfortable game in reversed colour opening set @-@ ups , and , as the statistics show — surprisingly for a lot of people , but not for me — White doesn 't even score as well as Black does in the same positions with his extra tempo and all . " Howard Staunton , generally considered to have been the strongest player in the world from 1843 to 1851 , made a similar point over 160 years ago , writing that Owen 's Defense ( 1.e4 b6 ) is playable for Black , but that 1.b3 is inferior to " the more customary [ first ] moves , from its being essentially defensive " . The current view is that Owen 's Defense is slightly better for White , while 1.b3 is playable but less likely to yield an opening advantage than 1.e4 or 1.d4.
Watson concludes that ( a ) " most moves have disadvantages as well as advantages , so an extra move is not always an unqualified blessing " ; ( b ) " with his extra information about what White is doing , Black can better react to the new situation " ; and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to Black than to White , White is apt to avoid lines that allow drawish simplifications , while Black may not object to such lines .
= = = = = Symmetrical openings = = = = =
Rowson writes that " in general one would assume that whatever advantage White has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions . " Accordingly , Watson , Suba , Evans , and the eminent player and theorist Aron Nimzowitsch ( 1886 – 1935 ) have all argued that it is in Black 's interest to avoid symmetry . Nonetheless , even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the tenuous nature of White 's advantage , in several respects .
It is often difficult for White to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines . As GM Bent Larsen wrote , annotating a game that began 1.c4 c5 2.b3 b6 , " In symmetrical openings , White has a theoretical advantage , but in many of them it is only theoretical . " GM Andrew Soltis wrote in 2008 that he hates playing against the symmetrical Petroff 's Defense ( 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 ) , and accordingly varies with 2.Nc3 , the Vienna Game . However , there too he has been unable to find a way to an advantage after the symmetrical 2 ... Nc6 3.g3 g6 4.Bg2 Bg7 , or after 3.Nf3 Nf6 ( transposing to the Four Knights Game ) 4.Bb5 Bb4 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 6.d3 d6 7.Bg5 Bg4 8.Nd5 Nd4 9.Nxb4 Nxb5 , or 7.Ne2 Ne7 8.c3 Ba5 9.Ng3 c6 10.Ba4 Ng6 11.d4 d5 , when 12.exd5 ? ! e4 ! may even favor Black .
Moreover , symmetrical positions may be disadvantageous to White in that he has to commit himself first . Watson notes that it is even difficult for White to play noncommittally in a symmetrical position , since almost every move has certain drawbacks . Fischer once went so far as to claim that after 1.Nf3 Nf6 2.g3 g6 3.Bg2 Bg7 4 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 5.d3 d6 ( Reinhard – Fischer , Western Open 1963 ) , " ' Believe it or not , ' Black stands better ! Now , whatever White does , Black will vary it and get an asymmetrical position and have the superior position due to his better pawn structure ! " However , GM Paul Keres responded in CHESS magazine , " We just don 't believe it ! " In symmetrical positions , as the Hodgson – Arkell and Portisch – Tal games discussed below illustrate , Black can continue to imitate White as long as he finds it feasible and desirable to do so , and deviate when that ceases to be the case .
Further , a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset . For example , Soltis notes that the Exchange French position arising after 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 exd5 4.Nf3 Nf6 " is pretty equal . " The same position , but with Black 's knight moved to e4 , arises in Petroff 's Defense after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nxe5 d6 4.Nf3 Nxe4 5.d4 d5 . That position offers White better chances precisely because Black 's extra move ( ... Ne4 ) allows the advanced knight to become a target for attack .
Finally , symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons . Watson writes that anyone who tries the Exchange French , " even if he thinks he is playing for a win , assume [ s ] a psychological burden . White has already ceded the advantage of the first move , and knows it , whereas Black is challenged to find ways to seize the initiative . " Two famous examples of White losses in the Exchange French are M. Gurevich – Short and Tatai – Korchnoi . In M. Gurevich – Short , a game between two of the world 's leading players , White needed only a draw to qualify for the Candidates Matches , while Black needed to win . Gurevich played passively and was outplayed by Short , who achieved the necessary win , qualified for the Candidates , and ultimately went on to challenge Kasparov for the World Championship . In Tatai – Korchnoi , the Italian IM fell victim to Korchnoi 's whirlwind mating attack , losing in just 14 moves .
Rowson gives the following example of Black outplaying White from the Symmetrical Variation of the English Opening . He remarks , " there is something compelling about Black 's strategy . He seems to be saying : ' I will copy all your good moves , and as soon as you make a bad move , I won 't copy you any more ! ' "
Hodgson – Arkell , Newcastle 2001 : 1 @.@ c4 c5 2 @.@ g3 g6 3 . Bg2 Bg7 4 . Nc3 Nc6 5 @.@ a3 a6 6 . Rb1 Rb8 7 @.@ b4 cxb4 8 @.@ axb4 b5 9 @.@ cxb5 axb5 Here Rowson remarks , " Both sides want to push their d @-@ pawn and play Bf4 / ... Bf5 , but White has to go first so Black gets to play ... d5 before White can play d4 . This doesn 't matter much , but it already points to the challenge that White faces here ; his most natural continuations allow Black to play the moves he wants to . I would therefore say that White is in ' Zugzwang Lite ' and that he remains in this state for several moves . " 10 . Nf3 d5 10 ... Nf6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 12.d3 d6 13.Bd2 Bd7 would transpose to the Portisch – Tal game below . 11 @.@ d4 Nf6 12 . Bf4 Rb6 13 . 0 @-@ 0 Bf5 14 . Rb3 0 @-@ 0 15 . Ne5 Ne4 16 @.@ h3 h5 ! ? Finally breaking the symmetry . 17 . Kh2 The position is still almost symmetrical , and White can find nothing useful to do with his extra move . Rowson whimsically suggests 17.h4 ! ? , forcing Black to be the one to break the symmetry . 17 ... Re8 ! Rowson notes that this is a useful waiting move , covering e7 , which needs protection in some lines , and possibly supporting an eventual ... e5 ( see Black 's twenty @-@ second move ) . White cannot copy it , since after 18.Re1 ? Nxf2 Black would win a pawn . 18 . Be3 ? ! Nxe5 ! 19 @.@ dxe5 Rc6 ! Rowson notes that with his more active pieces , " It looks like Black has some initiative . " If now 20.Nxd5 , Bxe5 " is at least equal for Black " . 20 . Nxb5 Bxe5 ! 20 ... Nxf2 ? 21.Qxd5 ! wins . 21 . Nd4 Bxd4 22 . Bxd4 e5 Rowson writes , " Now both sides have their trumps , but I think Black has some advantage , due to his extra central control , imposing knight and prospects for a kingside attack . " 23 @.@ b5 Rc8 24 . Bb2 d4 Now White has a difficult game : Rowson analyzes 25.e3 ? ! Nxg3 24.fxg3 Bc2 25.Qf3 Bxb3 26.exd4 Bc4 ! , winning ; 25.g4 hxg4 26.hxg4 Nxf2 ! 27.Rxf2 Bc2 , winning ; 25.Qe1 ! ? Rc2 ! with advantage ; and 25.f4 ( risky @-@ looking , but perhaps best ) Nc3 ! 26.Bxc3 dxc3 27.Qxd8 Rexd8 , and Black is better . 25 @.@ b6 ? Overlooking Black 's threat . 25 ... Nxf2 ! 26 . Qe1 If 26.Rxf2 , Bc2 forks White 's queen and rook . 26 ... Ne4 27 @.@ b7 Rb8 28 @.@ g4 hxg4 29 @.@ hxg4 Be6 30 . Rb5 Nf6 ! 31 . Rxf6 Qxf6 32 . Qg3 Bc4 33 @.@ g5 Qh8 + 0 – 1
The opening of the following game between two world @-@ class players , another Symmetrical English , took a similar course :
Lajos Portisch – Mikhail Tal , Candidates Match 1965 : 1 . Nf3 c5 2 @.@ c4 Nc6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 @.@ g3 g6 5 . Bg2 Bg7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@ d3 a6 8 @.@ a3 Rb8 9 . Rb1 b5 10 @.@ cxb5 axb5 11 @.@ b4 cxb4 12 @.@ axb4 d6 13 . Bd2 Bd7 Once again , White is on move in a symmetrical position , but it is not obvious what he can do with his first @-@ move initiative . Soltis writes , " It 's ridiculous to think Black 's position is better . But Mikhail Tal said it is easier to play . By moving second he gets to see White 's move and then decide whether to match it . " 14.Qc1 Here , Soltis writes that Black could maintain equality by keeping the symmetry : 14 ... Qc8 15.Bh6 Bh3 . Instead , he plays to prove that White 's queen is misplaced . 14 ... Rc8 ! 15.Bh6 Nd4 ! Threatening 16 ... Nxe2 + . 16.Nxd4 Bxh6 17.Qxh6 Rxc3 18.Qd2 Qc7 19.Rfc1 Rc8 Although the pawn structure is still symmetrical , Black 's control of the c @-@ file gives him the advantage . Black ultimately reached an endgame two pawns up , but White managed to hold a draw in 83 moves .
Tal himself lost a famous game as White from a symmetrical position in Tal – Beliavsky , USSR Championship 1974 .
= = Tournament and match play = =
In chess tournaments and matches , the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration . In matches , the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots , and alternated thereafter . In round robin tournaments with an odd number of players , each player receives an equal number of whites and blacks ; with an even number of players , each receives one extra white or black . Where one or more players withdraws from the tournament , the tournament director may change the assigned colors in some games so that no player receives two more blacks than whites , or vice versa . The double @-@ round robin tournament is considered to give the most reliable final standings , since each player receives the same number of whites and blacks , and plays both White and Black against each opponent .
In Swiss system tournaments , the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives , as nearly as possible , the same number of games as White and Black , and that the player 's color alternates from round to round . After the first round , the director may deviate from the otherwise prescribed pairings in order to give as many players as possible their equalizing or due colors . More substantial deviations are permissible to avoid giving a player two more blacks than whites ( for example , three blacks in four games ) than vice versa , since extra whites " cause far less player distress " than extra blacks , which impose " a significant handicap " on the affected player . Tournaments with an even number of rounds cause the most problems , since if there is a disparity , it is greater ( e.g. , a player receiving two whites and four blacks ) .
= = Solving chess = =
Endgame tablebases have solved a very limited area of chess , determining perfect play in a number of endgames , including all non @-@ trivial endgames with no more than six pieces or pawns ( including the two kings ) . Seven @-@ piece endgames were solved in 2012 and released as " Lomonosov tablebases " .
Jonathan Rowson has speculated that " in principle it should be possible for a machine to ... develop 32 @-@ piece tablebases . This may take decades or even centuries , but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way , I think it will eventually happen . " However , information theorist Claude Shannon argued that it is not feasible for any computer to actually do this . In his 1950 paper " Programming a Computer for Playing Chess " he writes :
With chess it is possible , in principle , to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows : One considers in a given position all possible moves , then all moves for the opponent , etc . , to the end of the game ( in each variation ) . The end must occur , by the rules of the games after a finite number of moves ( remembering the 50 move drawing rule ) . Each of these variations ends in win , loss or draw . By working backward from the end one can determine whether there is a forced win , the position is a draw or is lost . It is easy to show , however , even with the high computing speed available in electronic calculators this computation is impractical . In typical chess positions there will be of the order of 30 legal moves . The number holds fairly constant until the game is nearly finished as shown ... by De Groot , who averaged the number of legal moves in a large number of master games . Thus a move for White and then one for Black gives about 103 possibilities . A typical game lasts about 40 moves to resignation of one party . This is conservative for our calculation since the machine would calculate out to checkmate , not resignation . However , even at this figure there will be 10120 variations to be calculated from the initial position . A machine operating at the rate of one variation per microsecond would require over 1090 years to calculate the first move !
It is thus theoretically possible to " solve " chess , determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for White , a draw , or even a win for Black . However , according to Shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology .
Hans @-@ Joachim Bremermann , a professor of mathematics and biophysics at the University of California at Berkeley , further argued in a 1965 paper that the " speed , memory , and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers : the light barrier , the quantum barrier , and the thermodynamical barrier . These limitations imply , for example , that no computer , however constructed , will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess . " Nonetheless , Bremermann did not foreclose the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess . He wrote , " In order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game [ of chess ] it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely ... or to analyze the game in an approximate way and combine this with a limited amount of tree searching . ... A theoretical understanding of such heuristic programming , however , is still very much wanting . "
Recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment . The game of checkers was solved in 2007 , but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess . Jonathan Schaeffer , the scientist who led the effort , said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before solving chess could even be attempted , but he does not rule out the possibility , saying that the one thing he learned from his 16 @-@ year effort of solving checkers " is to never underestimate the advances in technology " .
= = Quotation = =
" You will win with either color if you are the better player , but it takes longer with Black . " – Isaac Kashdan
= Frederick Reines =
Frederick Reines ( RYE @-@ ness ) ; ( March 16 , 1918 – August 26 , 1998 ) was an American physicist . He was awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics for his co @-@ detection of the neutrino with Clyde Cowan in the neutrino experiment . He may be the only scientist in history " so intimately associated with the discovery of an elementary particle and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties " .
A graduate of the Stevens Institute of Technology and New York University , Reines joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1944 , working in the Theoretical Division in Richard Feynman 's group . He became a group leader there in 1946 . He participated in a number of nuclear tests , culminating in his becoming the director of the Operation Greenhouse test series in the Pacific in 1951 .
In the early 1950s , working in Hanford and Savannah River Sites , Reines and Cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in June 1956 . Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino 's properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for many researchers to come . This included the detection of neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays , and the 1987 detection of neutrinos emitted from Supernova SN1987A , which inaugurated the field of neutrino astronomy .
= = Early life = =
Frederick Reines was born in Paterson , New Jersey , one of four children of Gussie ( Cohen ) and Israel Reines . His parents were Jewish emigrants from the same town in Russia , but only met in New York City , where they were later married . He had an older sister , Paula , who became a doctor , and two older brothers , David and William , who became lawyers . He said that his " early education was strongly influenced " by his studious siblings . He was the great @-@ nephew of the Rabbi Yitzchak Yaacov Reines , the founder of Mizrachi , a religious Zionist movement .
The family moved to Hillburn , New York , where his father ran the general store , and he spent much of his childhood . He was an Eagle Scout . Looking back , Reines said : " My early childhood memories center around this typical American country store and life in a small American town , including Independence Day July celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion bandstand . "
Reines sang in a chorus , and as a soloist . For a time he considered the possibility of a singing career , and was instructed by a vocal coach from the Metropolitan Opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them . The family later moved to North Bergen , New Jersey , residing on Kennedy Boulevard and 57th Street . Because North Bergen did not have a high school , he attended Union Hill High School in Union Hill , New Jersey , from which he graduated in 1935 .
From an early age , Reines exhibited an interest in science , and liked creating and building things . He later recalled that :
The first stirrings of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school , when , looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope , I noticed something peculiar about the light ; it was the phenomenon of diffraction . That began for me a fascination with light .
Ironically , Reines excelled in literary and history courses , but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school , though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory . This cultivated a love of science by his senior year . In response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a yearbook quote , he responded : " To be a physicist extraordinaire . "
Reines was accepted into the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , but chose instead to attend Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken , New Jersey , where he earned his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 , and his Master of Science ( M.S. ) degree in mathematical physics in 1941 , writing a thesis on " A Critical Review of Optical Diffraction Theory " . He married Sylvia Samuels on August 30 , 1940 . They had two children , Robert and Alisa . He then entered New York University , where he earned his Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in 1944 . He studied cosmic rays there under Serge A. Korff , but wrote his thesis under the supervision of Richard D. Present on " Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus " . Publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of World War II ; it appeared in Physical Review in 1946 .
= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =
In 1944 Richard Feynman recruited Reines to work in the Theoretical Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where he would remain for the next fifteen years . He joined Feynman 's T @-@ 4 ( Diffusion Problems ) Group , which was part of Hans Bethe 's T ( Theoretical ) Division . Diffusion was an important aspect of critical mass calculations . In June 1946 , he became a group leader , heading the T @-@ 1 ( Theory of Dragon ) Group . An outgrowth of the " tickling the Dragon 's tail " experiment , the Dragon was a machine that could attain a critical state for short bursts of time , which could be used as a research tool or power source .
Reines participated in a number of nuclear tests , and writing reports on their results . These included Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in 1946 , Operation Sandstone at Eniwetok Atoll in 1948 , and Operation Ranger and Operation Buster – Jangle at the Nevada Test Site . In 1951 he was the director of Operation Greenhouse series of nuclear tests in the Pacific . This saw the first American tests of boosted fission weapons , an important step towards thermonuclear weapons . He studied the effects of nuclear blasts , and co @-@ authored a paper with John von Neumann on Mach stem formation , an important aspect of an air blast wave .
In spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests , Reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests , and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing . In the wake of the Sputnik crisis , he participated in John Archibald Wheeler 's Project 137 , which evolved into JASON . He was also a delegate at the Atoms for Peace Conference in Geneva in 1958 .
= = Discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars = =
The neutrino was a subatomic particle first proposed theoretically by Wolfgang Pauli on December 4 , 1930 , to explain undetected energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decayed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated . Enrico Fermi renamed it the neutrino , Italian for " little neutral one " , and in 1934 , proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton , an electron , and a neutrino :
n0 → p + + e − + ν
e
The neutrino accounted for the missing energy , but Fermi 's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly . In a 1934 paper , Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth , and concluded " there is no practically possible way of observing the neutrino . " In 1951 , at the conclusion of the Greenhouse test series , Reines received permission from the head of T Division , J. Carson Mark , for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics . Reines and his colleague Clyde Cowan decided to see if they could detect neutrinos . " So why did we want to detect the free neutrino ? " he later explained , " Because everybody said , you couldn ’ t do it . "
According to Fermi 's theory , there was also a corresponding reverse reaction , in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a positron :
ν
e + p + → n0 + e +
The positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0 @.@ 51 MeV gamma rays , while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @.@ 2 MeV gamma ray . This would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected . They then realised that by adding cadmium salt to their liquid scintillator to enhance the neutron capture reaction , resulting in a 9 MeV burst of gamma rays . For a neutrino source , they proposed using an atomic bomb . Permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director , Norris Bradbury . Work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when J. M. B. Kellogg convinced them to use a nuclear reactor instead of a bomb . Although a less intense source of neutrinos , it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time .
In 1953 , they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the Hanford nuclear site in what is now known as the Cowan – Reines neutrino experiment . Their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal ; 79 US gal ) of scintillating fluid and 90 photomultiplier tubes , but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays . With encouragement from John A. Wheeler , they tried again in 1955 , this time using one of the newer , larger 700 MW reactors at the Savannah River Site that emitted a high neutrino flux of 1 @.@ 2 x 1012 / cm2 sec . They also had a convenient , well @-@ shielded location 11 metres ( 36 ft ) from the reactor and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground . On June 14 , 1956 , they were able to send Pauli a telegram announcing that the neutrino had been found . When Bethe was informed that he had been proven wrong , he said , " Well , you shouldn ’ t believe everything you read in the papers . "
From then on Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino ’ s properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come . Cowan left Los Alamos in 1957 to teach at George Washington University , ending their collaboration . On the basis of his work in first detecting the neutrino , Reines became the head of the physics department of Case Western Reserve University from 1959 to 1966 . At Case , he led a group that was the first to detect neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays . Reines had a booming voice , and had been a singer since childhood . During this time , besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department , Reines sang in the Cleveland Orchestra Chorus under the direction of Robert Shaw in performances with George Szell and the Cleveland Orchestra .
In 1966 , Reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new University of California , Irvine ( UCI ) , becoming its first dean of physical sciences . At UCI , Reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors , such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in radiation therapy .
Reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion . Supernova explosions are rare , but Reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime , and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially @-@ designed detectors . During his wait for a supernova to explode , he put signs on some of his large neutrino detectors , calling them " Supernova Early Warning Systems " . In 1987 , neutrinos emitted from Supernova SN1987A were detected by the Irvine – Michigan – Brookhaven ( IMB ) Collaboration , which used an 8 @,@ 000 ton Cherenkov detector located in a salt mine near Cleveland . Normally , the detectors recorded only a few background events each day . The supernova registered 19 events in just ten seconds . This discovery is regarded as inaugurating the field of neutrino astronomy .
In 1995 , Reines was honored , along with Martin L. Perl with the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with Cowan in first detecting the neutrino . Unfortunately , Cowan had died in 1974 , and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously . Reines also received many other awards , including the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1981 , the National Medal of Science in 1985 , the Bruno Rossi Prize in 1989 , the Michelson – Morley Award in 1990 , the Panofsky Prize in 1992 , and the Franklin Medal in 1992 . He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1980 and a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1994 . He remained dean of physical sciences at UCI until 1974 , and became a professor emeritus in 1988 , but he continued teaching until 1991 , and remained on UCI 's faculty until his death .
= = Death = =
Reines died after a long illness at the University of California , Irvine Medical Center in Orange , California , on August 26 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife and children . His papers are in the UCI Libraries . Reines Hall at UCI was named in his honor .
= = Publications = =
Reines , F. & C. L. Cowan , Jr . " On the Detection of the Free Neutrino " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 6 , 1953 ) .
Reines , F. , Cowan , C. L. Jr . , Carter , R. E. , Wagner , J. J. & M. E. Wyman . " The Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part I. Measurement of the Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part II . Expected Cross Section from Measurements of Fission Fragment Electron Spectrum " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( June 1958 ) .
Reines , F. , Gurr , H. S. , Jenkins , T. L. & J. H. Munsee . " Neutrino Experiments at Reactors " , University of California @-@ Irvine , Case Western Reserve University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 9 , 1968 ) .
Roberts , A. , Blood , H. , Learned , J. & F. Reines . " Status and Aims of the DUMAND Neutrino Project : the Ocean as a Neutrino Detector " , Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory ( FNAL ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Energy Research and Development Administration ) , ( July 1976 ) .
Reines , F. ( 1991 ) . Neutrinos and Other Matters : Selected Works of Frederick Reines . Teaneck , N.J. : World Scientific . ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 02 @-@ 0392 @-@ 4 .
= Lock Haven , Pennsylvania =
The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven Micropolitan Statistical Area , itself part of the Williamsport – Lock Haven combined statistical area . At the 2010 census , Lock Haven 's population was 9 @,@ 772 .
Built on a site long favored by pre @-@ Columbian peoples , Lock Haven began in 1833 as a timber town and a haven for loggers , boatmen , and other travelers on the river or the West Branch Canal . Resource extraction and efficient transportation financed much of the city 's growth through the end of the 19th century . In the 20th century , a light @-@ aircraft factory , a college , and a paper mill , along with many smaller enterprises , drove the economy . Frequent floods , especially in 1972 , damaged local industry and led to a high rate of unemployment in the 1980s .
The city has three sites on the National Register of Historic Places — Memorial Park Site , a significant pre @-@ Columbian archaeological find ; Heisey House , a Victorian @-@ era museum ; and Water Street District , an area with a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture . A levee , completed in 1995 , protects the city from further flooding . While industry remains important to the city , about a third of Lock Haven 's workforce is employed in education , health care , or social services .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ European = = =
The earliest settlers in Pennsylvania arrived from Asia between 12000 BCE and 8000 BCE , when the glaciers of the Pleistocene Ice Age were receding . Fluted point spearheads from this era , known as the Paleo @-@ Indian Period , have been found in most parts of the state . Archeological discoveries at the Memorial Park Site 36Cn164 near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek collectively span about 8 @,@ 000 years and represent every major prehistoric period from the Middle Archaic to the Late Woodland period . Prehistoric cultural periods over that span included the Middle Archaic starting at 6500 BCE ; the Late Archaic starting at 3000 BCE ; the Early Woodland starting at 1000 BCE ; the Middle Woodland starting at 0 CE ; and the Late Woodland starting at 900 CE . First contact with Europeans occurred in Pennsylvania between 1500 and 1600 CE .
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
In the early 18th century , a tribal confederacy known as the Six Nations of the Iroquois , headquartered in New York , ruled the Indian ( Native American ) tribes of Pennsylvania , including those who lived near what would become Lock Haven . Indian settlements in the area included three Munsee villages on the 325 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 32 km2 ) Great Island in the West Branch Susquehanna River at the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek . Four Indian trails , the Great Island Path , the Great Shamokin Path , the Bald Eagle Creek Path , and the Sinnemahoning Path , crossed the island , and a fifth , Logan 's Path , met Bald Eagle Creek Path a few miles upstream near the mouth of Fishing Creek . During the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) , colonial militiamen on the Kittanning Expedition destroyed Munsee property on the Great Island and along the West Branch . By 1763 , the Munsee had abandoned their island villages and other villages in the area .
With the signing of the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 , the British gained control from the Iroquois of lands south of the West Branch . However , white settlers continued to appropriate land , including tracts in and near the future site of Lock Haven , not covered by the treaty . In 1769 , Cleary Campbell , the first white settler in the area , built a log cabin near the present site of Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , and by 1773 William Reed , another settler , had built a cabin surrounded by a stockade and called it Reed 's Fort . It was the westernmost of 11 mostly primitive forts along the West Branch ; Fort Augusta , at what is now Sunbury , was the easternmost and most defensible . In response to settler incursions , and encouraged by the British during the American Revolution ( 1775 – 83 ) , Indians attacked colonists and their settlements along the West Branch . Fort Reed and the other white settlements in the area were temporarily abandoned in 1778 during a general evacuation known as the Big Runaway . Hundreds of people fled along the river to Fort Augusta , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Fort Reed ; some did not return for five years . In 1784 , the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix , between the Iroquois and the United States , transferred most of the remaining Indian territory in Pennsylvania , including what would become Lock Haven , to the state . The U.S. acquired the last remaining tract , the Erie Triangle , through a separate treaty and sold it to Pennsylvania in 1792 .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
Lock Haven was laid out as a town in 1833 , and it became the county seat in 1839 , when the county was created out of parts of Lycoming and Centre counties . Incorporated as a borough in 1840 and as a city in 1870 , Lock Haven prospered in the 19th century largely because of timber and transportation . The forests of Clinton County and counties upriver held a huge supply of white pine and hemlock as well as oak , ash , maple , poplar , cherry , beech , and magnolia . The wood was used locally for such things as frame houses , shingles , canal boats , and wooden bridges , and whole logs were floated to Chesapeake Bay and on to Baltimore , to make spars for ships . Log driving and log rafting , competing forms of transporting logs to sawmills , began along the West Branch around 1800 . By 1830 , slightly before the founding of the town , the lumber industry was well established .
The West Branch Canal , which opened in 1834 , ran 73 miles ( 117 km ) from Northumberland to Farrandsville , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream from Lock Haven . A state @-@ funded extension called the Bald Eagle Cut ran from the West Branch through Lock Haven and Flemington to Bald Eagle Creek . A privately funded extension , the Bald Eagle and Spring Creek Navigation , eventually reached Bellefonte , 24 miles ( 39 km ) upstream . Lock Haven 's founder , Jeremiah Church , and his brother , Willard , chose the town site in 1833 partly because of the river , the creek , and the canal . Church named the town Lock Haven because it had a canal lock and because it was a haven for loggers , boatmen , and other travelers . Over the next quarter century , canal boats 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide and 80 feet ( 24 m ) long carried passengers and mail as well as cargo such as coal , ashes for lye and soap , firewood , food , furniture , dry goods , and clothing . A rapid increase in Lock Haven 's population ( to 830 by 1850 ) followed the opening of the canal .
A Lock Haven log boom , smaller than but otherwise similar to the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport , was constructed in 1849 . Large cribs of timbers weighted with tons of stone were arranged in the pool behind the Dunnstown Dam , named for a settlement on the shore opposite Lock Haven . The piers , about 150 feet ( 46 m ) from one another , stretched in a line from the dam to a point 3 miles ( 5 km ) upriver . Connected by timbers shackled together with iron yokes and rings , the piers anchored an enclosure into which the river current forced floating logs . Workers called boom rats sorted the captured logs , branded like cattle , for delivery to sawmills and other owners . Lock Haven became the lumber center of Clinton County and the site of many businesses related to forest products .
The Sunbury and Erie Railroad , renamed the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in 1861 , reached Lock Haven in 1859 , and with it came a building boom . Hoping that the area 's coal , iron ore , white pine , and high @-@ quality clay would produce significant future wealth , railroad investors led by Christopher and John Fallon financed a line to Lock Haven . On the strength of the railroad 's potential value to the city , local residents had invested heavily in housing , building large homes between 1854 and 1856 . Although the Fallons ' coal and iron ventures failed , Gothic Revival , Greek Revival , and Italianate mansions and commercial buildings such as the Fallon House , a large hotel , remained , and the railroad provided a new mode of transport for the ongoing timber era . A second rail line , the Bald Eagle Valley Railroad , originally organized as the Tyrone and Lock Haven Railroad and completed in the 1860s , linked Lock Haven to Tyrone , 56 miles ( 90 km ) to the southwest . The two rail lines soon became part of the network controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad .
During the era of log floating , logjams sometimes occurred when logs struck an obstacle . Log rafts floating down the West Branch had to pass through chutes in canal dams . The rafts were commonly 28 feet ( 9 m ) wide — narrow enough to pass through the chutes — and 150 feet ( 46 m ) to 200 feet ( 61 m ) long . In 1874 , a large raft got wedged in the chute of the Dunnstown Dam and caused a jam that blocked the channel from bank to bank with a pile of logs 16 feet ( 5 m ) high . The jam eventually trapped another 200 log rafts , and 2 canal boats , The Mammoth of Newport and The Sarah Dunbar .
In terms of board feet , the peak of the lumber era in Pennsylvania arrived in about 1885 , when 1 @.@ 9 million logs went through the boom at Williamsport . These logs produced a total of about 226 million board feet ( 533 @,@ 000 m3 ) of sawed lumber . After that , production steadily declined throughout the state . Lock Haven 's timber business was also affected by flooding , which badly damaged the canals and destroyed the log boom in 1889 .
The Central State Normal School , established to train teachers for central Pennsylvania , held its first classes in 1877 at a site overlooking the West Branch Susquehanna River . The small school , with enrollments below 150 until the 1940s , eventually became Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania . In the early 1880s , the New York and Pennsylvania Paper Mill in Castanea Township near Flemington began paper production on the site of a former sawmill ; the paper mill remained a large employer until the end of the 20th century .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
As older forms of transportation such as the canal boat disappeared , new forms arose . One of these , the electric trolley , began operation in Lock Haven in 1894 . The Lock Haven Electric Railway , managed by the Lock Haven Traction Company and after 1900 by the Susquehanna Traction Company , ran passenger trolleys between Lock Haven and Mill Hall , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the west . The trolley line extended from the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad station in Lock Haven to a station of the Central Railroad of Pennsylvania , which served Mill Hall . The route went through Lock Haven 's downtown , close to the Normal School , across town to the trolley car barn on the southwest edge of the city , through Flemington , over the Bald Eagle Canal and Bald Eagle Creek , and on to Mill Hall via what was then known as the Lock Haven , Bellefonte , and Nittany Valley Turnpike . Plans to extend the line from Mill Hall to Salona , 3 miles ( 5 km ) miles south of Mill Hall , and to Avis 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven , were never carried out , and the line remained unconnected to other trolley lines . The system , always financially marginal , declined after World War I. Losing business to automobiles and buses , it ceased operations around 1930 .
William T. Piper , Sr. , built the Piper Aircraft Corporation factory in Lock Haven in 1937 after the company 's Taylor Aircraft manufacturing plant in Bradford , Pennsylvania , was destroyed by fire . The factory began operations in a building that once housed a silk mill . As the company grew , the original factory expanded to include engineering and office buildings . Piper remained in the city until 1984 , when its new owner , Lear @-@ Siegler , moved production to Vero Beach , Florida . The Clinton County Historical Society opened the Piper Aviation Museum at the site of the former factory in 1985 , and 10 years later the museum became an independent organization .
The state of Pennsylvania acquired Central State Normal School in 1915 and renamed it Lock Haven State Teachers College in 1927 . Between 1942 and 1970 , the student population grew from 146 to more than 2 @,@ 300 ; the number of teaching faculty rose from 25 to 170 , and the college carried out a large building program . The school 's name was changed to Lock Haven State College in 1960 , and its emphasis shifted to include the humanities , fine arts , mathematics , and social sciences , as well as teacher education . Becoming Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania in 1983 , it opened a branch campus in Clearfield , 48 miles ( 77 km ) west of Lock Haven , in 1989 .
An 8 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) industrial area in Castanea Township adjacent to Lock Haven was placed on the National Priorities List of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites ( commonly referred to as Superfund sites ) in 1982 . Drake Chemical , which went bankrupt in 1981 , made ingredients for pesticides and other compounds at the site from the 1960s to 1981 . Starting in 1982 , the United States Environmental Protection Agency began a clean @-@ up of contaminated containers , buildings , and soils at the site and by the late 1990s had replaced the soils . Equipment to treat contaminated groundwater at the site was installed in 2000 and continues to operate .
= = = Floods = = =
Pennsylvania 's streams have frequently flooded . According to William H. Shank , the Native Americans of Pennsylvania warned white settlers that great floods occurred on the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers every 14 years . Shank tested this idea by tabulating the highest floods on record at key points throughout the state over a 200 @-@ year period and found that a major flood had occurred , on average , once every 25 years between 1784 and 1972 . Big floods recorded at Harrisburg , on the main stem of the Susquehanna about 120 miles ( 193 km ) miles downstream from Lock Haven , occurred in 1784 , 1865 , 1889 , 1894 , 1902 , 1936 , and 1972 . Readings from the Williamsport stream gauge , 24 miles ( 39 km ) miles below Lock Haven on the West Branch of the Susquehanna , showed major flooding between 1889 and 1972 in the same years as the Harrisburg station ; in addition , a large flood occurred on the West Branch at Williamsport in 1946 . Estimated flood @-@ crest readings between 1847 and 1979 — based on data from the National Weather Service flood gauge at Lock Haven — show that flooding likely occurred in the city 19 times in 132 years . The biggest flood occurred on March 18 , 1936 , when the river crested at 32 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) , which was about 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above the flood stage of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) .
The third biggest flood , cresting at 29 @.@ 8 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in Lock Haven , occurred on June 1 , 1889 , and coincided with the Johnstown Flood . The flood demolished Lock Haven 's log boom , and millions of feet of stored timber were swept away . The flood damaged the canals , which were subsequently abandoned , and destroyed the last of the canal boats based in the city .
The most damaging Lock Haven flood was caused by the remnants of Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . The storm , just below hurricane strength when it reached the region , made landfall on June 22 near New York City . Agnes merged with a non @-@ tropical low on June 23 , and the combined system affected the northeastern United States until June 25 . The combination produced widespread rains of 6 to 12 inches ( 152 to 305 mm ) with local amounts up to 19 inches ( 483 mm ) in western Schuylkill County , about 75 miles ( 121 km ) southeast of Lock Haven . At Lock Haven , the river crested on June 23 at 31 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 5 m ) , second only to the 1936 crest . The flood greatly damaged the paper mill and Piper Aircraft .
Federal , state , and local governments began construction in 1992 of barriers to protect the city . The project included a levee of 36 @,@ 000 feet ( 10 @,@ 973 m ) and a flood wall of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) along the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , closure structures , retention basins , a pumping station , and some relocation of roads and buildings . Completed in 1995 , the levee protected the city from high water in the year of the Blizzard of 1996 , and again 2004 , when rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Ivan threatened the city .
= = Geography = =
Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2 @.@ 7 square miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km2 ) , 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) of which is land . About 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , 6 percent , is water .
Lock Haven is at 561 feet ( 171 m ) above sea level near the confluence of Bald Eagle Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna River in north @-@ central Pennsylvania . The city is about 200 miles ( 320 km ) by highway northwest of Philadelphia and 175 miles ( 280 km ) northeast of Pittsburgh . U.S. Route 220 , a major transportation corridor , skirts the city on its south edge , intersecting with Pennsylvania Route 120 , which passes through the city and connects it with Renovo in northern Clinton County . Other highways entering Lock Haven include Pennsylvania Route 664 and Pennsylvania Route 150 , which connects to Avis .
The city and nearby smaller communities — Castanea , Dunnstown , Flemington , and Mill Hall — are mainly at valley level in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians , a mountain belt characterized by long even valleys running between long continuous ridges . Bald Eagle Mountain , one of these ridges , runs parallel to Bald Eagle Creek on the south side of the city . Upstream of the confluence with Bald Eagle Creek , the West Branch Susquehanna River drains part of the Allegheny Plateau , a region of dissected highlands ( also called the " Deep Valleys Section " ) generally north of the city . The geologic formations in the southeastern part of the city are mostly limestone , while those to the north and west consist mostly of siltstone and shale . Large parts of the city are flat , but slopes rise to the west , and very steep slopes are found along the river , on the university campus , and along Pennsylvania Route 120 as it approaches U.S. Route 220 .
= = = Climate = = =
Under the Köppen climate classification , Lock Haven is in zone Dfa meaning a humid continental climate with hot or very warm summers . The average temperature here in January is 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) , and in July it is 73 ° F ( 23 ° C ) . Between 1888 and 1996 , the highest recorded temperature for the city was 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) in 1936 , and the lowest recorded temperature was − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) in 1912 . The average wettest month is June . Between 1926 and 1977 the mean annual precipitation was about 39 inches ( 990 mm ) , and the number of days each year with precipitation of 0 @.@ 1 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) or more was 77 . Annual snowfall amounts between 1888 and 1996 varied from 0 in several years to about 65 inches ( 170 cm ) in 1942 . The maximum recorded snowfall in a single month was 38 inches ( 97 cm ) in April 1894 .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 9 @,@ 772 people living in 3 @,@ 624 housing units spread across the city . The average household size during the years 2009 – 13 was 2 @.@ 38 . During those same years , multi @-@ unit structures made up 57 percent of the housing @-@ unit total . The rate of home ownership was 35 percent , and the median value of owner @-@ occupied units was about $ 100 @,@ 000 . The estimated population of the city in 2013 was 10 @,@ 025 , an increase of 2 @.@ 6 percent after 2010 .
The population density in 2010 was 3 @,@ 915 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 506 per km2 ) . The reported racial makeup of the city was about 93 percent White and about 4 percent African @-@ American , with other categories totaling about 3 percent . People of Hispanic or Latino origin accounted for about 2 percent of the residents . Between 2009 and 2013 , about 2 percent of the city 's residents were foreign @-@ born , and about 5 percent of the population over the age of 5 spoke a language other than English at home .
In 2010 , the city 's population included about 16 percent under the age of 18 and about 12 percent who were 65 years of age or older . Females accounted for 54 percent of the total . Students at the university comprised about a third of the city 's population .
Between 2009 and 2013 , of the people who were older than 25 , 82 percent had graduated from high school , and 20 percent had at least a bachelor 's degree . In 2007 , 640 businesses operated in Lock Haven . The mean travel time to work for employees who were at least 16 years old was 16 minutes .
The median income for a household in the city during 2009 – 13 was about $ 25 @,@ 000 compared to about $ 53 @,@ 000 for the entire state of Pennsylvania . The per capita income for the city was about $ 19 @,@ 000 , and about 40 percent of Lock Haven 's residents lived below the poverty line .
= = Economy = =
Lock Haven 's economy , from the city 's founding in 1833 until the end of the 19th century , depended heavily on natural resources , particularly timber , and on cheap transportation to eastern markets . Loggers used the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek to float timber to sawmills in Lock Haven and nearby towns . The West Branch Canal , reaching the city in 1834 , connected to large markets downstream , and shorter canals along Bald Eagle Creek added other connections . In 1859 , the first railroad arrived in Lock Haven , spurring trade and economic growth .
By 1900 , the lumber industry had declined , and the city 's economic base rested on other industries , including a furniture factory , a paper mill , a fire brick plant , and a silk mill . In 1938 , the Piper Aircraft Corporation , maker of the Piper Cub and other light aircraft , moved its production plant to Lock Haven . It remained one of the city 's biggest employers until the 1980s , when , after major flood damage and losses related to Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , it moved to Florida . The loss of Piper Aircraft contributed to an unemployment rate of more than 20 % in Lock Haven in the early 1980s , though the rate had declined to about 9 % by 2000 . Another large plant , the paper mill that had operated since the 1880s in Castanea Township , closed in 2001 . By 2005 , 32 % of the city 's labor force was employed in health care , education , or social services , 16 % in manufacturing , 14 % in retail trade , 13 % in arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation , and food services , and smaller fractions in other sectors . The city 's biggest employers , Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania and Lock Haven Hospital , are among the seven biggest employers in Clinton County .
= = Arts , culture , historic sites , and media = =
Lock Haven University presents public concerts , plays , art exhibits , and student recitals at the Price Performance Center , the Sloan Auditorium , and the Sloan Fine Arts Gallery on campus . The Millbrook Playhouse in Mill Hall has produced plays since 1963 . Summer concerts are held in city parks , and the local Junior Chamber International ( Jaycees ) chapter sponsors an annual boat regatta on the river . The city sponsors a festival called Airfest at the airport in the summer , a Halloween parade in October , and a holiday parade in December . Light @-@ airplane pilots travel to the city in vintage Piper planes to attend Sentimental Journey Fly @-@ Ins , which have been held each summer since 1986 . Enthusiasts of radio @-@ controlled model airplanes meet annually at the William T. Piper Memorial Airport to fly their planes .
The central library for Clinton County is the Annie Halenbake Ross Library in Lock Haven ; it has about 130 @,@ 000 books , subscriptions to periodicals , electronic resources , and other materials . Stevenson Library on the university campus has additional collections .
The Piper Aviation Museum exhibits aircraft and aircraft equipment , documents , photographs , and memorabilia related to Piper Aircraft . An eight @-@ room home , the Heisey House , restored to its mid @-@ 19th century appearance , displays Victorian @-@ era collections ; it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and is home to the Clinton County Historical Society . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission has placed three cast aluminum markers — Clinton County , Fort Reed , and Pennsylvania Canal ( West Branch Division ) — in Lock Haven to commemorate historic places . The Water Street District , a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture near the river , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . Memorial Park Site 36Cn164 , an archaeological site of prehistoric significance discovered near the airport , was added to the National Register in 1982 .
The city 's media include The Express , a daily newspaper , and The Eagle Eye , the student newspaper at the university . Radio stations WBPZ ( AM ) and WSQV ( FM ) broadcast from the city . A television station , Havenscope ( available on @-@ campus only ) , and a radio station , WLHU ( Internet station only , with no FCC broadcast license ) , both managed by students , operate on the university campus .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The city has 14 municipal parks and playgrounds ranging in size from the 0 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) Triangle Park in downtown to the 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) Douglas H. Peddie Memorial Park along Route 120 . Fields maintained by the city accommodate baseball for the Pony League , Little League , and Junior League and softball for the Youth Girls League and for adults . In 1948 , a team from the city won the Little League World Series . In 2011 , the Keystone Little League based in Lock Haven advanced to the Little League World Series and placed third in the United States , drawing record crowds . Hanna Park includes tennis courts , and Hoberman Park includes a skate park . The Lock Haven City Beach , on the Susquehanna River , offers water access , a sand beach , and a bath house . In conjunction with the school district , the city sponsors a summer recreation program .
A 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) trail hike and run , the Bald Eagle Mountain Megatransect , takes place annually near Lock Haven . The local branch of the Young Men 's Christian Association ( YMCA ) offers a wide variety of recreational programs to members , and the Clinton Country Club maintains a private 18 @-@ hole golf course in Mill Hall .
= = Government = =
Lock Haven has a council @-@ manager form of government . The council , the city 's legislative body , consists of six members and a mayor , each serving a four @-@ year term . The council sets policy , and the city manager oversees day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The mayor is William Baney , whose term expires in 2019 . The manager is Richard W. Marcinkevage .
Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County and houses county offices , courts , and the county library . Three elected commissioners serving four @-@ year terms manage the county government . Robert " Pete " Smeltz , chairman ; Jeffrey Snyder , vice @-@ chairman , and Paul Conklin , have terms running through 2019 .
Michael K. Hanna , a Democrat , represents the 76th District , which includes Lock Haven , in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . Joseph B. Scarnati III , a Republican , represents Lock Haven as part of the 25th District of the Pennsylvania State Senate .
= = Education = =
The Keystone Central School District serves most of Clinton County , including Lock Haven , as well as parts of Centre County and Potter County . The district 's administration building is in Lock Haven as are three of the district 's elementary schools , Dickey Elementary , Robb Elementary , and Woodward Elementary , all for children enrolled in kindergarten through fifth grade . The total enrollment of these three schools combined in 2002 – 03 was 790 . Central Mountain Middle School in Mill Hall is the nearest public middle school , for grades six to eight . The nearest public high school , grades nine to twelve , is Central Mountain High School , also in Mill Hall .
The city has two private schools , Lock Haven Christian School , with about 80 students in kindergarten through 12th grade , and Lock Haven Catholic School , which had about 190 students in kindergarten through sixth grade as of 2002 – 03 . In 2015 , the Catholic School is completing a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) expansion to include grades seven and eight , which will make it a combined elementary and middle school .
Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , offering a wide range of undergraduate studies as well as continuing @-@ education and graduate @-@ school programs at its main campus , occupies 175 acres ( 71 ha ) on the west edge of the city . Enrollment at this campus was about 4 @,@ 400 in 2003 .
= = Infrastructure = =
Lock Haven Taxi , based in the central downtown , has taxicabs for hire . Fullington Trailways provides daily intercity bus service between Lock Haven and nearby cities including State College , Williamsport , and Wilkes @-@ Barre . Charter and tour buses are available through Susquehanna Trailways , based in Avis , 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven . Pennsylvania Bicycle Route G follows Pennsylvania Route 150 and links to the Pine Creek Rail Trail at the eastern end of the county near Jersey Shore , Pennsylvania . A 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) walking trail on the levee along the river is restricted to pedestrian use .
The Norfolk Southern Railway mainline from Harrisburg to Buffalo , New York , runs through the center of Lock Haven . On the east side of town , it connects to the Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad , a short line . Trains serving Lock Haven carry only freight . The City of Lock Haven operates the William T. Piper Memorial Airport , a general aviation facility with a paved runway , runway lighting , paved taxiways , a tie @-@ down area , and hangar spaces . No commercial , charter , or freight services are available at this airport .
Electric service to Lock Haven residents is provided by PPL ( formerly known as Pennsylvania Power and Light ) , the gas division of which provides natural gas to the city . Verizon Communications handles local telephone service ; long @-@ distance service is available from several providers . Comcast offers high @-@ speed cable modem connections to the Internet . Several companies can provide Lock Haven residents with dial @-@ up Internet access . One of them , KCnet , has an office in Lock Haven . Comcast also provides cable television .
The City of Lock Haven owns the reservoirs and water distribution system for Wayne Township , Castanea Township , and the city . Water is treated at the Central Clinton County Water Filtration Authority Plant in Wayne Township before distribution . The city also provides water to the Suburban Lock Haven Water Authority , which distributes it to surrounding communities . Lock Haven operates a sewage treatment plant for waste water , industrial waste , and trucked sewage from the city and eight upstream municipalities : Bald Eagle Township , Castanea , Flemington , Lamar , Mill Hall , Porter Township , Woodward Township , and Walker Township in Centre County . Storm water runoff from within the city is transported by city @-@ owned storm sewers . Curbside pickup of household garbage is provided by a variety of local haulers licensed by the city ; recyclables are picked up once every two weeks . The Clinton County Solid Waste Authority owns and operates the Wayne Township Landfill , which serves Lock Haven .
Lock Haven Hospital is a 77 @-@ bed hospital with a 120 @-@ bed extended @-@ care unit . It offers inpatient , outpatient , and 24 @-@ hour emergency services with heliport access . Susque @-@ View Home , next to the hospital , offers long @-@ term care to the elderly and other services including speech , physical , and occupational therapy for people of all ages . A 10 @-@ physician community @-@ practice clinic based in the city provides primary care and specialty services . A behavioral health clinic offers programs for children and adolescents and psychiatric outpatient care for all ages .
= = Notable people = =
Brittani Kline , winner of America 's Next Top Model ( cycle 16 ) , is a 2015 graduate of Lock Haven University . Alexander McDonald , a U.S. Senator for Arkansas was born near Lock Haven in 1832 . Artist John French Sloan was born in Lock Haven in 1871 , and cartoonist Alison Bechdel , author of Dykes to Watch Out For and Fun Home , was born in Lock Haven in 1960 . Richard Lipez , author of the Donald Strachey mysteries , was born in Lock Haven in 1938 . Other notable residents have included diplomat and Dartmouth College president John Sloan Dickey and federal judge Kermit Lipez of the U.S. Federal First District Court of Appeals .
= Rachel Green =
Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends . Portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston , the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and appeared in each of the show ’ s 236 episodes during its decade @-@ long run , from its premiere on September 22 , 1994 to its finale on May 6 , 2004 . Introduced in the show 's pilot as a naive runaway bride who reunites with her childhood best friend Monica and relocates to New York City , Rachel gradually evolves from a spoiled , inexperienced daddy 's girl into a successful businesswoman . During the show 's second season , the character becomes romantically involved with her friend Ross , with whom she maintains a complicated on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship throughout the entire series . Together , the characters have a daughter , Emma .
The role of Rachel was originally offered to actresses Téa Leoni , the producer 's first choice , and Courteney Cox , both of whom declined , Leoni in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth , and Cox in favor of playing Rachel 's best friend Monica in Friends . A virtually unknown actress at the time who had previously starred in five short @-@ lived sitcoms , Aniston auditioned for the role of Rachel after turning down an offer as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . After acquiring the role and before Friends aired , Aniston was temporarily at risk of being recast because she had also been involved with another sitcom , Muddling Through , at the time , which was ultimately canceled and allowed Aniston to remain on Friends .
Critical reception towards Rachel has remained consistently positive throughout Friends ' decade @-@ long run , with The A. V. Club attributing much of | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
had been treated by the attendants , Beat with rods , you know , do all kind of things . We took a vow before we left the camp , we decided that we would not assault or in any way , strike a patient .
I opened one of those rooms , and there was a man lying on the floor . I leaned over to try to see what I could do to minister to him in some way , do something for him . He may have been on a mattress or he may have been on the bare floor . No he was on the bare floor , because when I tried to move him , his skin came off . His skin was bloody and stuck to the floor and when I tried to lift him up it just peeled his skin off . He was in the last stages of syphilis . He died less than a week afterwards . Now that was my first introduction to what was badly needed in that institution .
The CPS men objected to the mistreatment and abuse of patients and determined to improve conditions in the psychiatric wards . They wanted to show other attendants alternatives to violence when dealing with patients .
Frank Olmstead , chairman of the War Resisters League observed :
One objector assigned to a violent ward refused to take the broomstick offered by the Charge . When he entered the ward the patients crowded around asking , " Where is your broomstick ? " He said he thought he would not need it . " But suppose some of us gang up on you ? " The CO guessed they wouldn 't do that and started talking about other things . Within a few days the patients were seen gathering around the unarmed attendant telling him of their troubles . He felt much safer than the Charge who had only his broomstick for company .
Outraged workers surveyed CPS men in other hospitals and learned of the degree of abuse throughout the psychiatric care system . Contacting church managers and government officials , the COs begin advocating for reforms to end the abuses . Conditions were exposed in institutions such as Cleveland State Hospital , Eastern State Hospital in Virginia and Hudson River State Hospital . One explained :
And the governor came in and they cleaned out the hospital . I mean , they had hearings . We all had to appear in court and all that kind of stuff . And within a month or so , the hospital was completely changed . The superintendent was fired and the new superintendent was put in , and not only did they do our hospital , they did all the hospitals , mental hospitals in Virginia .
The reformers were especially active at the Byberry Hospital in Philadelphia where four Friends initiated the The Attendant magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform . This periodical later became The Psychiatric Aide , a professional journal for mental health workers . On May 6 , 1946 Life Magazine printed an exposé of the mental healthcare system based on the reports of COs . Another effort of CPS , Mental Hygiene Project became the National Mental Health Foundation . Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service , Eleanor Roosevelt , impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system , became a sponsor of the National Mental Health Foundation and actively inspired other prominent citizens including Owen J. Roberts , Pearl Buck and Harry Emerson Fosdick to join her in advancing the organization 's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients .
= = = Medical experiments = = =
Draftees in Civilian Public Service became medical and scientific research test subjects in human medical experiments under the direction of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the Surgeon General at medical institutions such as Harvard Medical School , Yale and Stanford Universities , and Massachusetts General Hospital . These experiments involved a range of research topics , sometimes endangering the health of the COs .
Hepatitis : During the 1940s the cause , method of communication and treatment of infectious hepatitis was not well understood . Experimentation began with COs working at psychiatric hospitals and was expanded to a major research project with 30 to 60 test subjects at the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University . The men were inoculated with infected blood plasma , swallowed nose and throat washings and the human body wastes of infected patients , and drank contaminated water .
As a young surgeon , C. Everett Koop was part of the research team at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine . He related his experience with CPS test subjects :
And the first time I was introduced to this whole program when I as a young surgeon , was asked to do serial biopsies on their livers to see what the effect of the virus was in the production of the changes in the liver . And in that way , I got to know that a lot of these young men had no idea that the risk they were taking also included death . And some of those youngsters did die and it was a very difficult thing for me to be part of , because you know , you ’ re powerless , when you ’ re part of the big team .
It couldn 't happen today . Internal Review Boards would not permit the use of a live virus in human subjects unless they really understood what was going to happen to them . And I doubt that even if they knew what the risk was , that an Internal Review Board in any academic institution would consent to that kind of experimental work .
The hepatitis research was instrumental in determining a virus is responsible for the disease and that it is transmitted through human filth , serum and drinking water .
Malaria : During the early 1940s , quinine was the chief anti @-@ malarial drug . Made from the bark of the South American cinchona tree , quinine was in short supply during the war , so scientists began searching for an alternative treatment . The test subjects allowed themselves to be bitten by malarial mosquitoes and when the fever reached its peak in three to four days , were given experimental treatments . At the University of Minnesota , twelve CPS men underwent tests to determine the recovery period for those infected with malaria . This research documented the debilitating effects of the disease and the amount of time required for a complete recovery .
Common cold and atypical pneumonia : A hundred CPS men participated with tests such that they inhaled or drank throat washings from soldiers with colds and pneumonia . This research proved that colds and some types of pneumonia are cause by a virus , not bacteria .
Minnesota Starvation Experiment : To study the effects of diet and nutrition , Dr. Ancel Keys of the University of Minnesota Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene placed 32 conscientious objectors on a controlled diet . For three months they were given a normal 3 @,@ 200 calories ( 13 @,@ 000 kJ ) diet . This was followed by six months of an 1 @,@ 800 calories ( 7 @,@ 500 kJ ) diet , fewer calories than provided by the famine diet experienced by the civilian population in wartime Europe . The research documented the men 's ability to maintain physical output and the psychological effects such as introversion , lethargy , irritability and severe depression . The study then followed the men 's long recovery as they returned to a normal diet and regained the weight lost during the experimentation .
The study provided valuable insights into hunger and starvation and the results were made available to all major relief agencies concerned with postwar food and nutrition problems , helping to inspire the Marshall Plan .
= = Closure and impact = =
Civilian Public Service men were released from their assignments and the camps closed during March 1947 , nineteen months after the end of the war in the Pacific . Reforms in the mental health system continued after the war . The experience of Mennonite COs was instrumental in creating regional mental health facilities in California , Kansas and Maryland .
Lewis Hill , who was in CPS camp number 37 near Coleville , California , together with several other COs founded Pacifica Network and KPFA Radio in Berkeley , California , the world 's first listener @-@ sponsored radio station . Poets William Everson and William Stafford were both in CPS camps . Actor Francis ( Fritz ) William Weaver spent time in the Big Flats ( New York ) CPS Camp number 46 .
Men from the historic peace churches volunteered for relief and reconstruction after their release from CPS . The 1947 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American and British Friends Service Committees for their relief work in Europe after the war . Mennonite Central Committee redirected its effort from camp administration to relief and reconstruction in Europe after the war .
Civilian Public Service created a precedent for the Alternative Service Program for conscientious objectors in the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars . Although the CPS program was not duplicated , the idea of offering men an opportunity to do " work of national importance " instead of military service was established .
= Ireland =
Ireland ( / ˈaɪərlənd / ; Irish : Éire [ ˈeːɾʲə ] ; Ulster @-@ Scots : Airlann [ ˈɑːrlən ] ) is an island in the North Atlantic . It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel , the Irish Sea , and St George 's Channel . Ireland is the second @-@ largest island of the British Isles , the third @-@ largest in Europe , and the twentieth @-@ largest on Earth .
Politically , Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland ( officially named Ireland ) , which covers five @-@ sixths of the island , and Northern Ireland , which is part of the United Kingdom , in the northeast of the island . In 2011 the population of Ireland was about 6 @.@ 4 million , ranking it the second @-@ most populous island in Europe after Great Britain . Just under 4 @.@ 6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just over 1 @.@ 8 million live in Northern Ireland .
The island 's geography comprises relatively low @-@ lying mountains surrounding a central plain , with several navigable rivers extending inland . The island has lush vegetation , a product of its mild but changeable climate which avoids extremes in temperature . Thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages . As of 2013 , the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11 % of the total , compared with a European average of 35 % . There are twenty @-@ six extant mammal species native to Ireland . The Irish climate is very moderated and classified as oceanic . As a result , winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area . However , summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe . Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant .
The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD and lasted until the First World War . The island was Christianised from the 5th century onward . Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century , England claimed sovereignty over Ireland . However , English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th – 17th century Tudor conquest , which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain . In the 1690s , a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters , and was extended during the 18th century . With the Acts of Union in 1801 , Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom . A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island , creating the Irish Free State , which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades , and Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom . Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s . This subsided following a political agreement in 1998 . In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom , and Northern Ireland , as part of it , did the same .
Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures , especially in the fields of literature . Alongside mainstream Western culture , a strong indigenous culture exists , as expressed through Gaelic games , Irish music , and the Irish language . The culture of the island also shares many features with that of Great Britain , including the English language , and sports such as association football , rugby , horse racing , and golf .
= = Name = =
Ireland consists of Old Irish Eriu + English land . Eriu derives from Proto @-@ Celtic * Iveriu ( compare Welsh Iwerddon ) , which is also the source of Latin Hibernia . Iveriu derives from a root meaning " fat , prosperous " .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric Ireland = = =
During the last glacial period , and up until about 9000 years ago , most of Ireland was covered with ice , most of the time . Sea levels were lower and Ireland , like Great Britain , formed part of continental Europe . By 12 @,@ 000 BC , rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain . Later , around 5600 BC , Great Britain itself became separated from continental Europe . The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were Mesolithic people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC .
From about 4500 BC , Neolithic settlers arrived introducing cereal cultivars , a housing culture ( similar to those of the same period in Scotland ) and stone monuments . A more advanced agriculture was to develop . At the Céide Fields , preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present @-@ day County Mayo , is an extensive field system , arguably the oldest in the world , dating from not long after this period . Consisting of small divisions separated by dry @-@ stone walls , the fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 BC and 3000 BC . Wheat and barley were the principal crops imported from the Iberian Peninsula .
The Bronze Age – defined by the use of metal – began around 2500 BC , with technology changing people 's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel , harnessing oxen , weaving textiles , brewing alcohol , and skilful metalworking , which produced new weapons and tools , along with fine gold decoration and jewellery , such as brooches and torcs . According to John T. Koch and others , Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading @-@ networked culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain , western France and Iberia , and that this is where Celtic languages developed . This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the Hallstatt culture .
= = = = Emergence of Celtic Ireland = = = =
During the Iron Age , a Celtic language and culture emerged in Ireland . How and when the island of Ireland became Celtic has been debated for close to a century , with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies . Today , there is more than one school of thought on how this occurred in Ireland .
The long @-@ standing traditional view , once widely accepted , is that Celtic language , Ogham script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe . This theory draws on the Lebor Gabála Érenn , a medieval Christian pseudo @-@ history of Ireland along with the presence of Celtic culture , language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears , shields , torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions . The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland . The Priteni were said to be the first , followed by the Belgae from northern Gaul and Britain . Later , Laighin tribes from Armorica ( present @-@ day Brittany ) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously . Lastly , the Milesians ( Gaels ) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul . It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni , belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul , began arriving about the sixth century BC . They were said to have given their name to the island .
A more recent theory , with broad support among archaeologists , is that Celtic culture and language arrived in Ireland as a result of cultural diffusion . This theory proposes that the Celticisation of Ireland may have been the culmination of a long process of social and economic interaction between Ireland , Britain and adjacent parts of Continental Europe .
The theory was advanced in part because of lack of archeological evidence for large @-@ scale Celtic immigration , though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify . Some proponents of this theory hold that it is likely that there was migration of smaller groups of Celts to Ireland , with sufficiently regular traffic to constitute a " migration stream , " but that this was not the fundamental cause of Insular Celticisation . Historical linguists are sceptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of the Celtic language , with some saying that an assumed processional view of Celtic linguistic formation is ' an especially hazardous exercise ' . Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe , in contrast to parts of the Y @-@ chromosome pattern . When taking both into account a recent study drew the conclusion that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European " Atlantic Celts " showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European .
= = = Late antiquity and early medieval times = = =
The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco @-@ Roman geographers . Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania ( Little Britain ) , in contrast to the larger island , which he called Megale Brettania ( Great Britain ) . In his later work , Geography , Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion . These " new " names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time . The earlier names , in contrast , were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made .
The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form , Hibernia , or Scotia . Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD . The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear . However , a number of finds of Roman coins have been made , for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange .
Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms but , beginning in the 7th century AD , a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland . Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings stretching back thousands of years but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past .
The High King was said to preside over the provincial kingdoms that together formed Ireland . All of these kingdoms had their own kings but were at least nominally subject to the High King . The High King was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath , with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara . The concept only became a political reality in the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one . Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law : the early written judicial system , the Brehon Laws , administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons . However , a united kingdom of Gaelic Ireland was never achieved .
The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431 AD Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish " already believing in Christ " . The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick , Ireland 's best known patron saint , arrived the following year . There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick but the consensus is that they both took place and that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion . Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology . In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland , Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe , where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire .
The arts of manuscript illumination , metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells , ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today . A mission founded in 563 on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland , England and the Frankish Empire on Continental Europe after the fall of Rome . These missions continued until the late Middle Ages , establishing monasteries and centres of learning , producing scholars such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Eriugena and exerting much influence in Europe .
From the 9th century , waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns . These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep @-@ seated in Ireland . The Vikings also were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland : Dublin , Limerick , Cork , Wexford , Waterford , and also Carlingford , Strangford , Annagassan , Arklow , Youghal , Lough Foyle and Lough Ree .
= = = Norman and English invasions = = =
On 1 May 1169 , an expedition of Cambro @-@ Norman knights with an army of about six hundred landed at Bannow Strand in present @-@ day County Wexford . It was led by Richard de Clare , called Strongbow due to his prowess as an archer . The invasion , which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion , was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough , the king of Leinster .
In 1166 , Mac Murrough had fled to Anjou , France , following a war involving Tighearnán Ua Ruairc , of Breifne , and sought the assistance of the Angevin king , Henry II , in recapturing his kingdom . In 1171 , Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition . He wanted to re @-@ exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control . Henry successfully re @-@ imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro @-@ Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord , an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor .
The invasion was legitimised by the provisions of the Papal Bull Laudabiliter , issued by Adrian IV in 1155 . The bull encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system . Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the Synod of Kells in 1152 . There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of Laudabiliter , and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery .
In 1172 , the new pope , Alexander III , further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome . Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution . This church levy , called Peter 's Pence , is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation . In turn , Henry accepted the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son , John Lackland , in 1185 . This defined the Irish state as the Lordship of Ireland . When Henry 's successor died unexpectedly in 1199 , John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland .
Over the century that followed , Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law so that by the late 13th century the Norman @-@ Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland . Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies , manors , towns and the seeds of the modern county system . A version of the Magna Carta ( the Great Charter of Ireland ) , substituting Dublin for London and Irish Church for Church of England , was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in 1297 .
From the mid @-@ 14th century , after the Black Death , Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline . The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised . In some parts , a hybrid Hiberno @-@ Norman culture emerged . In response , the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367 . These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English , follow English customs and abide by English law .
By the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared and a renewed Irish culture and language , albeit with Norman influences , was dominant again . English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale , and under the provisions of Poynings ' Law of 1494 , the Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Parliament .
= = = The Kingdom of Ireland = = =
The title of King of Ireland was re @-@ created in 1542 by Henry VIII , then King of England , of the Tudor dynasty . English rule of law was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century , leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland . A near complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century , following the Nine Years ' War and the Flight of the Earls .
This control was further consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century , which witnessed English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland , the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War . Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ( which , in Ireland , included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland ) are estimated to include 20 @,@ 000 battlefield casualties . 200 @,@ 000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war @-@ related famine , displacement , guerrilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war . A further 50 @,@ 000 were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies . Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre @-@ war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict .
The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland . Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament . After the passing of the Test Act 1672 , and with the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites , Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament . Under the emerging Penal Laws , Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various and sundry civil rights even to the ownership of hereditary property . Additional regressive punitive legislation followed 1703 , 1709 and 1728 . This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters , while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists . The new Anglo @-@ Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy .
An extraordinary climatic shock known as the " Great Frost " struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741 , after a decade of relatively mild winters . The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples and the poor summers severely damaged harvests . This resulted in the famine of 1740 . An estimated 250 @,@ 000 people ( about one in eight of the population ) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease . The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more . Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality .
In the aftermath of the famine , an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms . The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built . In 1782 , Poynings ' Law was repealed , giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495 . The British government , however , still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament .
= = = Union with Great Britain = = =
In 1798 , members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition ( mainly Presbyterian ) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen , with the aim of creating an independent Ireland . Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces . In 1800 , the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that , with effect from 1 January 1801 , merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .
The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities , having failed on the first attempt in 1799 . According to contemporary documents and historical analysis , this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery , with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office , and the awarding of peerages , places and honours to secure votes . Thus , the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London , though resistance remained , as evidenced by Robert Emmet 's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803 .
Aside from the development of the linen industry , Ireland was largely passed over by the industrial revolution , partly because it lacked coal and iron resources and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England , which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital .
The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it . By the end of the decade , half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland . The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War . Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid @-@ 20th century . Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8 @.@ 2 million by the 1841 census . The population has never returned to this level since . The population continued to fall until 1961 and it was not until the 2006 census that the last county of Ireland ( County Leitrim ) to record a rise in population since 1841 did so .
The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism , primarily among the Roman Catholic population . The pre @-@ eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O 'Connell . He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic . O 'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister , the Irish @-@ born soldier and statesman , the Duke of Wellington . Steering the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament , aided by future prime minister Robert Peel , Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law . George 's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister , Pitt the Younger , to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801 , fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701 .
Daniel O 'Connell led a subsequent campaign , for the repeal of the Act of Union , which failed . Later in the century , Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union , or " Home Rule " . Unionists , especially those located in Ulster , were strongly opposed to Home Rule , which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests . After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament , it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914 . To prevent this from happening , the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson .
Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers , whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed . The Act was passed but with the " temporary " exclusion of the six counties of Ulster that would become Northern Ireland . Before it could be implemented , however , the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War . The Irish Volunteers split into two groups . The majority , approximately 175 @,@ 000 in number , under John Redmond , took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war . A minority , approximately 13 @,@ 000 , retained the Irish Volunteers ' name , and opposed Ireland 's involvement in the war .
The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia , the Irish Citizen Army . The British response , executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people , turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels . Support for Irish republicanism increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe , as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918 .
The pro @-@ independence republican party , Sinn Féin , received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918 , and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic , setting up its own parliament ( Dáil Éireann ) and government . Simultaneously the Volunteers , which became known as the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , launched a three @-@ year guerrilla war , which ended in a truce in July 1921 ( although violence continued until June 1922 , mostly in Northern Ireland ) .
= = = Partition = = =
In December 1921 , the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty was concluded between the British Government and representatives of the Second Dáil . It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy , but an opt @-@ out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom , which it immediately exercised as expected . Additionally , an oath of allegiance to the King was to be taken . Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty , led by Éamon de Valera . The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease @-@ fire order .
= = = = Independence = = = =
During its first decade , the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war . When de Valera achieved power , he took advantage of the Statute of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government . The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted . This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence . However , it was not until 1949 that the state was declared , officially , to be the Republic of Ireland .
The state was neutral during World War II , but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies , particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland . Despite their country 's neutrality , approximately 50 @,@ 000 volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war , four being awarded Victoria Crosses .
The Abwehr was also active in Ireland . German intelligence operations effectively ended in September 1941 when police made arrests on the basis of surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin , including that of the United States . To the authorities , counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence . With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war , and with limited supplies of modern weapons , the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict .
Large @-@ scale emigration marked most of the post @-@ WWII period ( particularly during the 1950s and 1980s ) , but beginning in 1987 the economy improved , and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth . This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger . The Republic 's real GDP grew by an average of 9 @.@ 6 % per annum between 1995 and 1999 , in which year the Republic joined the euro . In 2000 , it was the sixth @-@ richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita .
Social changes also occurred in this time , most markedly with the decline in authority of the Catholic Church . The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom . GDP fell by 3 % in 2008 and by 7 @.@ 1 % in 2009 , the worst year since records began ( although earnings by foreign @-@ owned businesses continued to grow ) . The state has since experienced deep recession , with unemployment , which doubled during 2009 , remaining above 14 % in 2012 .
= = = = Northern Ireland = = = =
Northern Ireland was created as a division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and until 1972 it was a self @-@ governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister . Northern Ireland , as part of the United Kingdom , was not neutral during the Second World War and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941 . Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the south . One , James Joseph Magennis , received the Victoria Cross for valour .
Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war , in decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter @-@ communal violence . Nationalists , mainly Roman Catholic , wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic , whereas unionists , mainly Protestant , wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom . The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines , meaning that the Government of Northern Ireland ( elected by " first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " from 1929 ) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party . Over time , the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and employment .
In the late 1960s , nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests , which were often confronted by loyalist counter @-@ protests . The government 's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one @-@ sided and heavy @-@ handed in favour of unionists . Law and order broke down as unrest and inter @-@ communal violence increased . The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police , who were exhausted after several nights of serious rioting . In 1969 , the paramilitary Provisional IRA , which favoured the creation of a united Ireland , emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the " British occupation of the six counties " .
Other groups , on both the unionist side and the nationalist side , participated in violence and a period known as the Troubles began . Over 3 @,@ 600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict . Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles , the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule . There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically , such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973 . In 1998 , following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi @-@ party talks , the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments , annexing the text agreed in the multi @-@ party talks .
The substance of the Agreement ( formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement ) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland . The Agreement restored self @-@ government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power @-@ sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly , with entrenched protections for the two main communities . The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties . Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations .
The Assembly and power @-@ sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007 . In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland ( Operation Banner ) and began withdrawing troops . On 27 June 2012 , Northern Ireland 's deputy first minister and former IRA commander , Martin McGuinness , shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast , symbolising reconciliation between the two sides .
= = Politics = =
Politically , the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland , an independent state , and Northern Ireland ( a constituent country of the United Kingdom ) . They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area .
Both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are members of the European Union , and as a consequence there is free movement of people , goods , services and capital across the border .
= = = Republic of Ireland = = =
The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the British model , with a written constitution and a popularly elected president who has mostly ceremonial powers . The government is headed by a prime minister , the Taoiseach , who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the lower house of parliament , the Dáil . Members of the government are chosen from both the Dáil and the upper house of parliament , the Seanad . Its capital is Dublin .
The Republic today ranks amongst the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita and in 2012 was ranked the seventh most developed nation in the world by the United Nations ' Human Development Index . A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period , was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009 .
= = = Northern Ireland = = =
Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers . The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy @-@ first minister , with the ministries being allocated in proportion with each party 's representation in the assembly . Its capital is Belfast .
Ultimately political power is held by the UK government , from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended . Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons ' 650 MPs . The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet @-@ level post in the British government .
Along with England , Wales and Scotland , Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK , all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal .
= = = All @-@ island institutions = = =
As part of the Good Friday Agreement , the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all @-@ island institutions and areas of cooperation .
The North / South Ministerial Council is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all @-@ island policies . At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all @-@ island " implementation bodies " and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction . The implementation bodies are : Waterways Ireland , the Food Safety Promotion Board , InterTradeIreland , the Special European Union Programmes Body , the North / South Language Body and the Foyle , Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission .
The British – Irish Intergovernmental Conference provides for co @-@ operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matter of mutual interest , especially Northern Ireland . In light of the Republic 's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland , " regular and frequent " meetings co @-@ chaired by the ROI Minister for Foreign Affairs and the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , dealing with non @-@ devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non @-@ devolved all @-@ Ireland issues , are required to take place under the establishing treaty .
The North / South Inter @-@ Parliamentary Association is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland . It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures .
= = Economy = =
Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies ( the euro and pound sterling ) , a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all @-@ Ireland basis . This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions ' shared membership of the European Union , and there have been calls from members of the business community and policymakers for the creation of an " all @-@ Ireland economy " to take advantage of economies of scale and boost competitiveness .
There are two multi @-@ city regions on the island of Ireland :
Dublin @-@ Belfast corridor - 3 @.@ 3 m
Cork @-@ Limerick @-@ Galway corridor - 1 m
Below is a comparison of the Regional GDP on the island of Ireland .
The BMW region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of Connacht , Counties Laois , Offaly , Westmeath , Longford , Donegal , Monaghan , Cavan , Louth )
The S & E region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of Munster , Counties Dublin , Wicklow , Meath , Kildare , Kilkenny , Carlow , Wexford ) .
= = = Energy = = =
Ireland has an ancient industry based on peat ( known locally as " turf " ) as a source of energy for home fires . A form of biomass energy , this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas . However , due to the ecological importance of peatlands in storing carbon and their rarity , the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland if they are dug up . In cities , heat is generally supplied by heating oil , although some urban suppliers distribute " sods of turf " as " smokeless fuel " .
An area in which the island operates as a single market is electricity . For much of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate . Both networks were designed and constructed independently post partition . However , as a result of changes over recent years they are now connected with three interlinks and also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe . The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity ( NIE ) with enough power . In the Republic of Ireland , the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66 % , one of the worst such rates in Western Europe . EirGrid is building a HVDC transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW , about 10 % of Ireland 's peak demand .
As with electricity , the natural gas distribution network is also now all @-@ island , with a pipeline linking Gormanston , County Meath , and Ballyclare , County Antrim completed in 2007 . Most of Ireland 's gas comes through interconnectors between Twynholm in Scotland and Ballylumford , County Antrim and Loughshinny , County Dublin . A decreasing supply is coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast and the Corrib Gas Field off the coast of County Mayo has yet to come on @-@ line . The County Mayo field is facing some localised opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore .
The Republic of Ireland has shown a strong commitment to renewable energy , ranking as one of the top 10 markets for cleantech investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index . Research and development in Ireland in renewable energy such as wind power has increased since 2004 . Large wind farms are being constructed in coastal counties such as Cork , Donegal , Mayo and Antrim . The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities , some of whom overall consider the wind turbines to be unsightly . The Republic of Ireland is also hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms . The ESB 's Turlough Hill facility is the only power @-@ storage facility in the state .
= = Geography = =
The island of Ireland is located in the north @-@ west of Europe , between latitudes 51 ° and 56 ° N , and longitudes 11 ° and 5 ° W. It is separated from the neighbouring island of Great Britain by the Irish Sea and the North Channel , which has a width of 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) at its narrowest point . To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Celtic Sea , which lies between Ireland and Brittany , in France . Ireland has a total area of 84 @,@ 421 km2 ( 32 @,@ 595 sq mi ) . Ireland and Great Britain , together with many nearby smaller islands , are known collectively as the British Isles . As the term British Isles is controversial in relation to Ireland , the alternate term Britain and Ireland is often used as a neutral term for the islands .
A ring of coastal mountains surround low plains at the centre of the island . The highest of these is Carrauntoohil ( Irish : Corrán Tuathail ) in County Kerry , which rises to 1 @,@ 038 m ( 3 @,@ 406 ft ) above sea level . The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster . Western areas can be mountainous and rocky with green panoramic vistas . The River Shannon , the island 's longest river at 386 km ( 240 mi ) long , rises in County Cavan in the north west and flows 113 kilometres ( 70 mi ) to Limerick city in the mid west .
The island 's lush vegetation , a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall , earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle . Overall , Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes . The climate is typically insular and is temperate avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes . This is a result of the moderating moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the South @-@ Western Atlantic .
Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall , particularly in the east . The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms , especially in the late autumn and winter months . These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas , as well as sometimes snow and hail . The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island , with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas . Munster , in the south , records the least snow whereas Ulster , in the north , records the most .
Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter . Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) at inland weather stations , compared to 10 days at coastal stations . Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves , most recently in 1995 , 2003 , 2006 and 2013 . In common with the rest of Europe , Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during the winter of 2009 / 10 . Temperatures fell as low as − 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 1 ° F ) in County Mayo on 20 December and up to a metre ( 3 ft ) of snow fell in mountainous areas .
The island consists of varied geological provinces . In the far west , around County Galway and County Donegal , is a medium to high grade metamorphic and igneous complex of Caledonide affinity , similar to the Scottish Highlands . Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to Navan is a province of Ordovician and Silurian rocks , with similarities to the Southern Uplands province of Scotland . Further south , along the County Wexford coastline , is an area of granite intrusives into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks , like that found in Wales .
In the southwest , around Bantry Bay and the mountains of Macgillicuddy 's Reeks , is an area of substantially deformed , but only lightly metamorphosed , Devonian @-@ aged rocks . This partial ring of " hard rock " geology is covered by a blanket of Carboniferous limestone over the centre of the country , giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape . The west @-@ coast district of the Burren around Lisdoonvarna has well @-@ developed karst features . Significant stratiform lead @-@ zinc mineralisation is found in the limestones around Silvermines and Tynagh .
Hydrocarbon exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the Kinsale Head gas field off Cork in the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1999 , economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the Corrib Gas Field off the County Mayo coast . This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the " West of Shetland " step @-@ out development from the North Sea hydrocarbon province . The Helvick oil field , estimated to contain over 28 million barrels ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , is another recent discovery .
Landscapes
= = = Places of interest = = =
There are three World Heritage Sites on the island : the Brú na Bóinne , Skellig Michael and the Giant 's Causeway . A number of other places are on the tentative list , for example the Burren , the Ceide Fields and Mount Stewart .
Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include Bunratty Castle , the Rock of Cashel , the Cliffs of Moher , Holy Cross Abbey and Blarney Castle . Historically important monastic sites include Glendalough and Clonmacnoise , which are maintained as national monuments in the Republic of Ireland .
Dublin is the most heavily touristed region and home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness Storehouse and Book of Kells . The west and south west , which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the Dingle peninsula in County Kerry and Connemara and the Aran Islands in County Galway , are also popular tourist destinations .
Achill Island lies off the coast of County Mayo and is Ireland 's largest island . It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 Blue Flag beaches and Croaghaun one of the worlds highest sea cliffs . Stately homes , built during the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries in Palladian , Neoclassical and neo @-@ Gothic styles , such as , Castle Ward , Castletown House , Bantry House , Glenveagh Castle are also of interest to tourists . Some have been converted into hotels , such as Ashford Castle , Castle Leslie and Dromoland Castle .
World Heritage Sites
= = Flora and fauna = =
Because Ireland became isolated from mainland Europe by rising sea levels before the last ice age had completely finished , it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain , which separated later , or mainland Europe . There are 55 mammal species in Ireland and of them only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland . Some species , such as , the red fox , hedgehog and badger , are very common , whereas others , like the Irish hare , red deer and pine marten are less so . Aquatic wildlife , such as species of sea turtle , shark , seal , whale , and dolphin , are common off the coast . About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland . Many of these are migratory , including the barn swallow .
Several different habitat types are found in Ireland , including farmland , open woodland , temperate broadleaf and mixed forests , conifer plantations , peat bogs and a variety of coastal habitats . However , agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland , limiting natural habitat preserves , particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs . With no large apex predators in Ireland other than humans and dogs , such populations of animals as semi @-@ wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators , such as the fox , are controlled by annual culling .
There are no snakes in Ireland and only one species of reptile ( the common lizard ) is native to the island . Extinct species include the Irish elk , the great auk and the wolf . Some previously extinct birds , such as the golden eagle , been reintroduced in about the year 2000 after decades of extirpation . Until medieval times Ireland was heavily forested with oak , pine and birch . Forests today cover about 12 @.@ 6 % of Ireland , of which 4 @,@ 450 km ² or one million acres is owned by Coillte , the Republic 's forestry service .
As of 2012 the Republic is one of the least forested countries in Europe . Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild @-@ flower . Gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) , a wild furze , is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions , especially in the western parts . It is home to hundreds of plant species , some of them unique to the island , and has been " invaded " by some grasses , such as Spartina anglica .
The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold @-@ temperate variety . The total number of species is 574 and is distributed as follows :
264 Rhodophyta ( red algae )
152 Phaeophyceae ( brown algae including kelps )
114 Chloropyta ( green algae )
31 Cyanophyta ( Blue @-@ green algae )
Rarer species include :
Itonoa marginifera ( J.Agardh ) Masuda & Guiry
Schmitzia hiscockiana Maggs & Guiry
Gelidiella calcicola Maggs & Guiry
Gelidium maggsiae Rico & Guiry
Halymenia latifolia P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan ex Kützing .
The island has been invaded by some algae , some of which are now well established . For example :
Asparagopsis armara Harvey , which originated in Australia and was first recorded by M. De Valera in 1939
Colpomenia peregrina Sauvageau , which is now locally abundant and first recorded in the 1930s
Sargassum muticum ( Yendo ) Fensholt , now well established in a number of localities on the south , west , and north @-@ east coasts
Codium fragile ssp. fragile ( formerly reported as ssp. tomentosum ) , now well established .
Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum has been established to be native , although for many years it was regarded as an alien species .
Because of its mild climate , many species , including sub @-@ tropical species such as palm trees , are grown in Ireland . Phytogeographically , Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . The island itself can be subdivided into two ecoregions : the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests .
= = = Impact of agriculture = = =
The long history of agricultural production , coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use and runoff from contaminants into streams , rivers and lakes , impact the natural fresh @-@ water ecosystems and have placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland .
A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species . Hedgerows , however , traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries , act as a refuge for native wild flora . This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island . Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy , which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments , are undergoing reforms . The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past subsidised potentially destructive agricultural practices , for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides ; but reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements .
Forest covers about 12 @.@ 6 % of the country , most of it designated for commercial production . Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non @-@ native species , which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates . Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island , in particular in the Killarney National Park . Natural areas require fencing to prevent over @-@ grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas . Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country .
= = Demographics = =
People have lived in Ireland for over 9 @,@ 000 years . The different eras are termed mesolithic , neolithic , Bronze Age , and Iron Age .
Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the Cruthin , Corcu Loígde , Dál Riata , Dáirine , Deirgtine , Delbhna , Érainn , Laigin , Ulaid . Slightly later major groups included the Connachta , Ciannachta , Eóganachta .
Smaller groups included the aithechthúatha ( see Attacotti ) , Cálraighe , Cíarraige , Conmaicne , Dartraighe , Déisi , Éile , Fir Bolg , Fortuatha , Gailenga , Gamanraige , Mairtine , Múscraige , Partraige , Soghain , Uaithni , Uí Maine , Uí Liatháin . Many survived into late medieval times , others vanished as they became politically unimportant .
Over the past 1200 years , Vikings , Normans , Welsh , Flemings , Scots , English , Africans , Eastern Europeans and South Americans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture .
Ireland 's largest religious group is Christianity . The largest denomination is Roman Catholicism representing over 73 % for the island ( and about 87 % of the Republic of Ireland ) . Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations ( about 48 % of Northern Ireland ) . The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland . The Muslim community is growing in Ireland , mostly through increased immigration , with a 50 % increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census . The island has a small Jewish community . About 4 % of the Republic 's population and about 14 % of the Northern Ireland population describe themselves as of no religion . In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the Irish Times , 32 % of respondents said they went to a religious service more than once a week .
The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid @-@ 19th century , but a devastating famine in the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to emigrate in its immediate wake . Over the following century the population was reduced by over half , at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three @-@ fold .
= = = Divisions and settlements = = =
Traditionally , Ireland is subdivided into four provinces : Connacht ( west ) , Leinster ( east ) , Munster ( south ) , and Ulster ( north ) . In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries , Ireland has 32 traditional counties . Twenty @-@ six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland and six are in Northern Ireland . The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster ( which has nine counties in total ) . As such , Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland , although the two are not coterminous .
In the Republic of Ireland , counties form the basis of the system of local government . Counties Dublin , Cork , Limerick , Galway , Waterford and Tipperary have been broken up into smaller administrative areas . However , they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes , for example postal addresses and by the Ordnance Survey Ireland . Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes , but , as in the Republic , their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts .
City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter . Dublin , with over 1 million residents in the Greater Dublin Area , is the largest city on the island . Belfast , with 579 @,@ 726 residents , is the largest city in Northern Ireland . City status does not directly equate with population size . For example , Armagh , with 14 @,@ 590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Primate of All Ireland and was re @-@ granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 ( having lost that status in local government reforms of 1840 ) . In the Republic of Ireland , Kilkenny , seat of the Butler dynasty , while no longer a city for administrative purposes ( since the 2001 Local Government Act ) , is entitled by law to continue to use the description .
= = = Migration = = =
The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century . A population of over 8 million in 1841 was reduced to slightly more than 4 million by 1921 . In part , the fall in population was due to death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852 , which took about 1 million lives . However , by far the greater cause of population decline was the dire economic state of the country which led to an entrenched culture of emigration lasting until the 21st century .
Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England , the United States , Canada and Australia , where a large Irish diaspora lives . As of 2006 , 4 @.@ 3 million Canadians , or 14 % of the population , are of Irish descent . As of 2013 , a total of 34 @.@ 5 million Americans claim Irish ancestry .
With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century , Ireland became a destination for immigrants . Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004 , Polish people have made up the largest number of immigrants ( over 150 @,@ 000 ) from Central Europe . There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania , the Czech Republic and Latvia .
The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large @-@ scale immigration , with 420 @,@ 000 foreign nationals as of 2006 , about 10 % of the population . A quarter of births ( 24 percent ) in 2009 were to mothers born outside Ireland . Chinese and Nigerians , along with people from other African countries , have accounted for a large proportion of the non – European Union migrants to Ireland . Up to 50 @,@ 000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis .
= = = Languages = = =
Two main languages are spoken in Ireland : Irish and English . Both languages have widely contributed to literature . Irish , now a minority but official language of the Republic of Ireland , was the vernacular of the Irish people for over two thousand years and was probably introduced by some sort of proto @-@ Gaelic migration during the Iron Age , possibly earlier . It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man where it evolved into the Scottish Gaelic and Manx languages respectively .
The Irish language has a vast treasure of written texts from many centuries , and is divided by linguists into Old Irish from the 6th to 10th century , Middle Irish from the 10th to 13th century , Early Modern Irish until the 17th century , and the Modern Irish spoken today . It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods , having influences from Latin , Old Norse , French and English . It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century , and since then has been a minority language , although revival efforts are continuing in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland .
Gaeltacht or Irish @-@ speaking areas are still seeing a decline in the language . The main Gaeltacht areas are down the west of the country , in Donegal , Mayo , Galway and Kerry with smaller Gaeltacht areas near Dungarvan in Waterford , Navan , in Meath , and the Shaw 's Road in Belfast . Irish language is a compulsory subject in the state education system in the Republic , and the Gaelscoil movement has seen many Irish medium schools established in both jurisdictions .
English was first introduced to Ireland in the Norman invasion . It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England , and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor Conquest of Ireland . It was introduced as the official language with the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests . The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster , and it remained the official and upper @-@ class language elsewhere , the Irish @-@ speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed . Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population .
Less than 10 % of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish regularly outside of the education system and 38 % of those over 15 years are classified as " Irish speakers " . In Northern Ireland , English is the de facto official language , but official recognition is afforded to Irish , including specific protective measures under Part III of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . A lesser status ( including recognition under Part II of the Charter ) is given to Ulster Scots dialects , which are spoken by roughly 2 % of Northern Ireland residents , and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland . Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration , many more languages have been introduced , particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe .
= = Culture = =
Ireland 's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples , later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences ( chiefly Gaelic culture , Anglicisation , Americanisation and aspects of broader European culture ) . In broad terms , Ireland is regarded as one of the Celtic nations of Europe , alongside Scotland , Wales , Cornwall , Isle of Man and Brittany . This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed Irish interlace or Celtic knotwork . These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works . The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art , as is the distinctive style of traditional Irish music and dance , and has become indicative of modern " Celtic " culture in general .
Religion has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times ( and since the 17th century plantations , has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island ) . Ireland 's pre @-@ Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the 5th century . The Hiberno @-@ Scottish missions , begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba , spread the Irish vision of Christianity to pagan England and the Frankish Empire . These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the fall of Rome , earning Ireland the sobriquet , " the island of saints and scholars " .
Since the 20th century the Irish pubs worldwide have become , especially those with a full range of cultural and gastronomic offerings , outposts of Irish culture .
The Republic of Ireland 's national theatre is the Abbey Theatre , which was founded in 1904 , and the national Irish @-@ language theatre is An Taibhdhearc , which was established in 1928 in Galway . Playwrights such as Seán O 'Casey , Brian Friel , Sebastian Barry , Conor McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned .
= = = Arts = = =
Ireland has made a large contribution to world literature in all its branches , particularly in the English language . Poetry in Irish is among the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe , with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century . In English , Jonathan Swift , still often called the foremost satirist in the English language , was very popular in his day for works such as Gulliver 's Travels and A Modest Proposal , and Oscar Wilde is known most for his often quoted witticisms .
In the 20th century , Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature : George Bernard Shaw , William Butler Yeats , Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney . Although not a Nobel Prize winner , James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century . Joyce 's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as " Bloomsday " . Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage through writers such as John McGahern and poets such as Seamus Heaney .
Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times . Although in the early Middle Ages the church was " quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe " , there was considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as Gregorian chant . Outside religious establishments , musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music ( goltraige ) , laughing music ( geantraige ) and sleeping music ( suantraige ) . Vocal and instrumental music ( e.g. for the harp , pipes , and various string instruments ) was transmitted orally , but the Irish harp , in particular , was of such significance that it became Ireland 's national symbol . Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas , in establishments of Anglo @-@ Irish rule such as Dublin Castle , St Patrick 's Cathedral and Christ Church as well as the country houses of the Anglo @-@ Irish ascendancy , with the first performance of Handel 's Messiah ( 1742 ) being among the highlights of the baroque era . In the 19th century , public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society . Yet , for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians , so the names of the better @-@ known Irish composers of this time belong to emigrants .
Irish traditional music and dance has seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s . In the middle years of the 20th century , as Irish society was modernising , traditional music had fallen out of favour , especially in urban areas . However during the 1960s , there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as The Dubliners , The Chieftains , The Wolfe Tones , the Clancy Brothers , Sweeney 's Men and individuals like Seán Ó Riada and Christy Moore . Groups and musicians including Horslips , Van Morrison and Thin Lizzy incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and , during the 1970s and 1980s , the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred , with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing . This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like Enya , The Saw Doctors , The Corrs , Sinéad O 'Connor , Clannad , The Cranberries and The Pogues among others . Since then there have been a number of stylistic fusions including folk metal and others , while some contemporary music groups stick closer to a " traditional " sound .
The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period . During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries , a strong tradition of painting emerged , including such figures as John Butler Yeats , William Orpen , Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy . Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include Sean Scully , Kevin Abosch , and Alice Maher .
= = = Science = = =
The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena was considered one of the leading intellectuals of his early Middle Ages . Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton , an Irish explorer , was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration . He , along with his expedition , made the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole . Robert Boyle was a 17th @-@ century natural philosopher , chemist , physicist , inventor and early gentleman scientist . He is largely regarded one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle 's law .
19th century physicist , John Tyndall , discovered the Tyndall effect . Father Nicholas Joseph Callan , Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth College , is best known for his invention of the induction coil , transformer and he discovered an early method of galvanisation in the 19th century .
Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton , winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics . With Sir John Douglas Cockcroft , he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation . William Thomson , or Lord Kelvin , is the person whom the absolute temperature unit , the Kelvin , is named after . Sir Joseph Larmor , a physicist and mathematician , made innovations in the understanding of electricity , dynamics , thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter . His most influential work was Aether and Matter , a book on theoretical physics published in 1900 .
George Johnstone Stoney introduced the term electron in 1891 . John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell 's Theorem and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell @-@ Jackiw @-@ Adler anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize . Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton , famous for work in classical mechanics and the invention of quaternions . Francis Ysidro Edgeworth 's contribution of the Edgeworth Box remains influential in neo @-@ classical microeconomic theory to this day ; while Richard Cantillon inspired Adam Smith , among others . John B. Cosgrave was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000 @-@ digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite Fermat number in 2003 . John Lighton Synge made progress in different fields of science , including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity . He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students .
Ireland has nine universities , seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland , including Trinity College , Dublin and the University College Dublin , as well as numerous third @-@ level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University , the Open University in Ireland .
= = = Sports = = =
The island of Ireland fields a single international team in most sports . One notable exception to this is association football , although both associations continued to field international teams under the name " Ireland " until the 1950s . An all @-@ Ireland club competition for soccer , the Setanta Cup , was created in 2005 .
Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement , with about 2 @,@ 600 clubs on the island . In 2003 it represented 34 % of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad , followed by hurling at 23 % , soccer at 16 % and rugby at 8 % and the All @-@ Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in the sporting calendar . Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island , and the most popular in Northern Ireland . Swimming , golf , aerobics , soccer , cycling , Gaelic football and billiards / snooker are the sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation . The sport is also the most notable exception where the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland field separate international teams . Northern Ireland has produced two World Snooker Champions .
Many other sports are also played and followed , including basketball , boxing , cricket , fishing , greyhound racing , handball , hockey , horse racing , motor sport , show jumping and tennis .
= = = = Field sports = = = =
Gaelic football , hurling and handball are the best @-@ known of the Irish traditional sports , collectively known as Gaelic games . Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association ( GAA ) , with the exception of ladies ' Gaelic football and camogie ( women 's variant of hurling ) , which are governed by separate organisations . The headquarters of the GAA ( and the main stadium ) is located at the 82 @,@ 500 capacity Croke Park in north Dublin . Many major GAA games are played there , including the semi @-@ finals and finals of the All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship and All @-@ Ireland Senior Hurling Championship . During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium in 2007 – 10 , international rugby and soccer were played there . All GAA players , even at the highest level , are amateurs , receiving no wages , although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport @-@ related income from commercial sponsorship .
The Irish Football Association ( IFA ) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island . The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s , with Cliftonville F.C. in Belfast being Ireland 's oldest club . It was most popular , especially in its first decades , around Belfast and in Ulster . However , some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster @-@ based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team . In 1921 , following an incident in which , despite an earlier promise , the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi @-@ final replay from Dublin to Belfast , Dublin @-@ based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State . Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) . Despite being initially blacklisted by the Home Nations ' associations , the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 ( against Italy ) . However , both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland , with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams . Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland .
In 1950 , FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and , in 1953 , directed that the FAI 's team be known only as " Republic of Ireland " and that the IFA 's team be known as " Northern Ireland " ( with certain exceptions ) . Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1982 and 1986 . The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1994 , 2002 and the European Championships in 1988 and 2012 . Across Ireland , there is significant interest in the English and , to a lesser extent , Scottish soccer leagues .
Unlike soccer , Ireland continues to field a single national rugby team and a single association , the Irish Rugby Football Union ( IRFU ) , governs the sport across the island . The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup , making the quarter @-@ finals in four of them . Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups ( including a quarter @-@ final ) . There are four professional Irish teams ; all four play in the Magners League ( now called the RaboDirect Pro12 ) and at least three compete for the Heineken Cup . Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994 . During that time , Ulster ( 1999 ) , Munster ( 2006 and 2008 ) and Leinster ( 2009 , 2011 and 2012 ) have won the Heineken Cup . In addition to this , the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations Championship against the other European elite sides . This success , including Triple Crowns in 2004 , 2006 and 2007 , culminated with a clean sweep of victories , known as a Grand Slam , in 2009 .
= = = = Other sports = = = =
Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland . There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well @-@ attended . The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs . The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare .
Irish athletics has seen a heightened success rate since the year 2000 , with Sonia O 'Sullivan winning two medals at 5 @,@ 000 metres on the track ; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Gillian O 'Sullivan won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships , while sprint hurdler Derval O 'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow . Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk in the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009 .
Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport . Boxing is governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association . Michael Carruth won a gold medal and Wayne McCullough won a silver medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games and in 2008 Kenneth Egan won a silver medal in the Beijing Games . Paddy Barnes secured bronze in those games and gold in the 2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships ( where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table ) and 2010 Commonwealth Games . Katie Taylor has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005 . In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London Katie Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight .
Golf is very popular and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240 @,@ 000 golfing visitors annually . The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare . Pádraig Harrington became the first Irishman since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at Carnoustie in July 2007 . He successfully defended his title in July 2008 before going on to win the PGA Championship in August . Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland . Three golfers from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful . In 2010 , Graeme McDowell became the first Irish golfer to win the U.S. Open , and the first European to win that tournament since 1970 . Rory McIlroy , at the age of 22 , won the 2011 U.S. Open , while Darren Clarke 's latest victory was the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St. George 's . In August 2012 , McIlroy won his 2nd major championship by winning the USPGA Championship by a record margin of 8 shots .
= = = = Recreation = = = =
The west coast of Ireland , Lahinch and Donegal Bay in particular , have popular surfing beaches , being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean . Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west / south @-@ west Atlantic winds , creating good surf , especially in winter . Since just before the year 2010 , Bundoran has hosted European championship surfing . Scuba diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life , particularly along the western seaboard . There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland , with some of the best wreck dives being in Malin Head and off the County Cork coast .
With thousands of lakes , over 14 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 700 mi ) of fish bearing rivers and over 3 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ) of coastline , Ireland is a popular angling destination . The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling . While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers , salmon fishing in particular received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon driftnet fishery . Coarse fishing continues to increase its profile . Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted , and the range of sea angling species is around 80 .
= = = Food and drink = = =
Food and cuisine in Ireland takes its influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island 's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history . For example , whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle , the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing . Thus herders would avoid slaughtering a milk @-@ producing cow .
For this reason , pork and white meat were more common than beef and thick fatty strips of salted bacon ( or rashers ) and the eating of salted butter ( i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself ) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages . The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter ( not unlike the practice of the Maasai ) was common and black pudding , made from blood , grain ( usually barley ) and seasoning , remains a breakfast staple in Ireland . All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the " breakfast roll " .
The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter . Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food and by the mid @-@ 19th century the vast majority of the population sufficed with a diet of potatoes and milk . A typical family , consisting of a man , a woman and four children , would eat 18 stone ( 110 kg ) of potatoes a week . Consequently , dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental unsophistication to cooking , such as the Irish stew , bacon and cabbage , boxty , a type of potato pancake , or colcannon , a dish of mashed potatoes and kale or cabbage .
Since the last quarter of the 20th century , with a re @-@ emergence of wealth in Ireland , a " New Irish Cuisine " based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences has emerged . This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables , fish ( especially salmon , trout , oysters , mussels and other shellfish ) , as well as traditional soda breads and the wide range of hand @-@ made cheeses that are now being produced across the country . The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita consumers of potatoes in Europe . An example of this new cuisine is " Dublin Lawyer " : lobster cooked in whiskey and cream . Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country , for example coddle in Dublin or drisheen in Cork , both a type of sausage , or blaa , a doughy white bread particular to Waterford .
Ireland once dominated the world 's market for whiskey , producing 90 % of the world 's whiskey at the start of the 20th century . However , as a consequence of bootleggers during the prohibition in the United States ( who sold poor @-@ quality whiskey bearing Irish @-@ sounding names thus eroding the pre @-@ prohibition popularity for Irish brands ) and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War of the 1930s , sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2 % by the mid @-@ 20th century . In 1953 , an Irish government survey , found that 50 per cent of whiskey drinkers in the United States had never heard of Irish whiskey .
Irish whiskey , as researched in 2009 by the CNBC American broadcaster , remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades . Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as smoky as a Scotch whisky , but not as sweet as American or Canadian whiskies . Whiskey forms the basis of traditional cream liqueurs , such as Baileys , and the " Irish coffee " ( a cocktail of coffee and whiskey reputedly invented at Foynes flying @-@ boat station ) is probably the best @-@ known Irish cocktail .
Stout , a kind of porter beer , particularly Guinness , is typically associated with Ireland , although historically it was more closely associated with London . Porter remains very popular , although it has lost sales since the mid @-@ 20th century to lager . Cider , particularly Magners ( marketed in the Republic of Ireland as Bulmers ) , is also a popular drink . Red lemonade , a soft @-@ drink , is consumed on its own and as a mixer , particularly with whiskey .
= St Nazaire Raid =
The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France during the Second World War . The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942 . St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs , such as the Tirpitz , to return to home waters via either the English Channel or the GIUK gap , both of which were heavily defended by British units including the Royal Navy 's Home Fleet , rather than having a haven available on the Atlantic coast .
The obsolete destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller craft , crossed the English Channel to the Atlantic coast of France and was rammed into the Normandie dock gates . The ship had been packed with delayed @-@ action explosives , well hidden within a steel and concrete case , that detonated later that day , putting the dock out of service for the remainder of the war and up to five years after .
A force of commandos landed to destroy machinery and other structures . Heavy German gunfire sank , set ablaze or immobilised all the small craft intended to transport the commandos back to England ; the commandos had to fight their way out through the town to try to escape overland . They were forced to surrender when their ammunition was expended and they were surrounded .
After the raid 228 men of the force of 611 returned to Britain ; 169 were killed and 215 became prisoners of war . German casualties were over 360 dead , some killed after the raid when Campbeltown exploded . To recognise their bravery , 89 decorations were awarded to members of the raiding party , including five Victoria Crosses . After the war , St Nazaire was one of 38 battle honours awarded to the Commandos ; the operation has since become known as The Greatest Raid of All within military circles .
= = Background = =
St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire 400 km ( 250 miles ) from the nearest British port . In 1942 , it had a population of 50 @,@ 000 . The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port , formed by two piers jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean . This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire . These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide .
Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de Penhoët , which can accommodate ships up to 10 @,@ 000 tons . There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire located southwest of the Normandie dry dock . Built to house the ocean liner SS Normandie , this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932 . The " Old Mole " jetty juts into the Loire halfway between the southern pier of the Avant Port and the old entrance into the basin .
On 24 May 1941 , the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships Bismarck and Prinz Eugen and the British ships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Hood . Hood was sunk and the damaged Prince of Wales was forced to retire . Bismarck , also damaged , ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire , which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with a dry dock able to accommodate a ship of her size . She was intercepted by the British and sunk en route .
Britain 's Naval Intelligence Division first proposed a commando raid on the dock in late 1941 . When the German battleship Tirpitz was declared operational in January 1942 , the Royal Navy ( RN ) and Royal Air Force ( RAF ) were already drawing up plans to attack her . Planners from Combined Operations Headquarters were looking at potential scenarios if Tirpitz escaped the naval blockade and reached the Atlantic . They decided the only port able to accommodate her was St Nazaire , especially if , like the Bismarck , she was damaged en route and needed repairs . They came to the conclusion that if the dock at St Nazaire were unavailable the Germans were unlikely to risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic .
Combined Operations examined a number of options while planning the destruction of the dock . At this stage of the war the British government still tried to avoid civilian casualties . This ruled out a bombing attack by the RAF , which at the time did not possess the accuracy needed to destroy the dock without serious loss of civilian life .
The Special Operations Executive were approached to see if its agents could destroy the dock gates . They decided that the mission was beyond their capabilities because the weight of explosives required would have needed too many agents to carry them . The Royal Navy was also unable to mount an operation , as St Nazaire is 8 km ( 5 miles ) up the Loire estuary . Any naval ships large enough to cause sufficient damage would be detected well before they were within range .
The planners then examined whether a commando force was feasible to accomplish the task . An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks , bypassing the heavily defended dredged channel . The approach was too shallow for an infantry landing ship , but the planners believed if a destroyer could be lightened it might have a draft shallow enough to enable it to get through .
= = Plan = =
The purpose of the raid was to destroy three objectives : the Normandie dock , the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire together with the water pumping machinery and other installations , and any U @-@ boats or other shipping in the area . The initial Combined Operations plan required two specially lightened destroyers to carry out the raid . The first would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates .
Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations , searchlights and gun emplacements . The destroyer would then be blown up , and the second ship would come in and evacuate the ship 's crew and the commandos . At the same time the RAF would carry out a number of diversionary air raids in the area .
When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it . The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question . They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer , the Ouragan , and a flotilla of small motor launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards .
Approval for the mission , codenamed Operation Chariot , was given on 3 March 1942 . Using a French ship would involve using the Free French forces and increase the number of people aware of the raid . Consequently , it was decided the navy would have to provide a ship of their own . The RAF complained that the raid would draw heavily on their resources ; the number of aircraft assigned by RAF Bomber Command was reduced time and again before the day of the raid . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill further complicated matters when he ordered that bombing should only take place if targets were clearly identified .
Combined Operations Headquarters worked closely with several intelligence organisations to plan the raid . The Naval Intelligence Division compiled information from a variety of sources . A detailed plan of the town of St Nazaire was provided by the Secret Intelligence Service , and information on the coastal artillery nearby was sourced from the War Office 's Military Intelligence branch . Intelligence about the dock itself came from pre @-@ war technical journals .
The RN 's Operational Intelligence Centre selected the route and timing for the raid based on intelligence about the location of minefields and German recognition signals sourced from Enigma decrypts and knowledge of Luftwaffe patrols compiled by the Air Ministry 's Air Intelligence Branch . When all the plans had been pulled together and the timing worked out , the raid was expected to last no longer than two hours . The commandos and crew from Campbeltown would board the motor launches at the Old Mole jetty and then return to base .
= = Composition of the raiding force = =
The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the Commandos . The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid , under the overall command of the senior naval officer , Commander Robert Ryder . The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was HMS Campbeltown , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen Halden Beattie . Campbeltown was a First World War destroyer and had previously been the USS Buchanan in the United States Navy . She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement .
Converting Campbeltown for the raid took ten days . She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary . This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments . The dockyard removed her three 4 inch ( 100 mm ) guns , torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick – firing 12 pounder ( 3 " ) . Eight 20 mm Oerlikons were installed on mountings raised above deck level . The bridge and wheelhouse were given extra armour @-@ plate protection , and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the Commandos on the open deck .
Two of her four funnels were removed , and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer . The bow was packed with 4 @.@ 5 tons of high explosives , which were set in concrete . It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to detonate after the raiders had left the harbour . To prevent the Germans towing her away , the crew would open the ship 's seacocks before abandoning the ship . Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock , four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore . The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left .
Other naval units involved were two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Tynedale ( L96 ) and Atherstone ( L05 ) , which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid . A Motor Gun Boat ( MGB 314 ) was the headquarters ship for the raid , with Commander Ryder and the commanding officer of the Commandos on board . A Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB 74 ) , commanded by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Michael Wynn , had two objectives : If the outer Normandie dock gates were open , she had to torpedo the inner dock gates . If the gates were closed she would instead torpedo the gates at the old entrance into the St Nazaire basin .
To assist in transporting the Commandos , 12 motor launches ( ML ) were assigned from the 20th and 28th Motor Launch flotillas . These boats were re @-@ armed with two Oerlikon 20 mm guns mounted forward and aft to complement their twin Lewis guns . At the last minute another four MLs were assigned from the 7th Motor Launch flotilla ( see Footnotes for flotilla details ) . These four boats were also armed with two torpedoes each . Instead of transporting the Commandos , these boats were to engage any German shipping found in the estuary . All the MLs had a 500 @-@ gallon auxiliary fuel tank fixed to the upper deck to increase their range . The S class submarine HMS Sturgeon would leave before the rest of the convoy and be in position to act as a navigational beacon to guide the convoy into the Loire estuary .
The man selected to lead the Commando force was Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newman ; his No. 2 Commando would provide the largest Commandos contingent , 173 men , for the raid . The Special Service Brigade headquarters used the raid to provide experience for their other units and 92 men were drawn from Nos 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 , and 12 Commandos .
The Commandos were divided into three groups ; One and Two would travel in the MLs , while Three would be in Campbeltown . Under the command of Captain Hodgeson , Group One had the objectives of securing the Old Mole and eliminating the anti @-@ aircraft gun positions around the southern quays . They were then to move into the old town and blow up the power station , bridges and locks for the new entrance into the basin from the Avant port . The capture of the mole was a major objective , as it was to be the embarkation point for the evacuation after the mission .
Group Two , under the command of Captain Burn , would land at the old entrance to the St Nazaire basin . Their objectives were to destroy the anti @-@ aircraft positions in the area and the German headquarters , to blow up the locks and bridges at the old entrance into the basin and then to guard against a counter @-@ attack from the submarine base . Group Three was under the command of Major William ' Bill ' Copland , who was also the Commandos ' second in command . They were to secure the immediate area around Campbeltown , destroy the dock 's water @-@ pumping and gate @-@ opening machinery and the nearby underground fuel tanks . All three groups were subdivided into assault , demolition and protection teams . The assault teams would clear the way for the other two . The demolition teams carrying the explosive charges only had sidearms for self @-@ defence ; the protection teams , armed with Thompson submachine guns , were to defend them while they completed their tasks .
The Commandos were aided in their planning for the operation by Captain Bill Pritchard of the Royal Engineers , who had pre @-@ war experience as an apprentice in the Great Western Railway dockyards and whose father was the dock master of Cardiff Docks . In 1940 while part of the British Expeditionary Force in France , his duties had included determining how to disable the French dockyards if they were captured . One of the dockyards he had studied was St Nazaire , and he had submitted a report detailing how to put the dock out of action .
= = German forces = =
The Germans had around 5 @,@ 000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire . The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of Kapitän zur See Edo Dieckmann . The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various calibres from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns , all positioned to guard the coastal approaches . The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of Kapitän zur See Karl @-@ Konrad Mecke .
The brigade was equipped with 43 anti @-@ aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm . These guns had a dual role as both anti @-@ aircraft and coastal defence weapons . Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other dockside installations of the St Nazaire submarine base .
The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored in the harbour . These companies and the harbour defence boats used to patrol the river were under the command of Harbour Commander Korvettenkapitän Kellerman . The 333rd Infantry Division was the German Army unit responsible for the defence of the coast between St Nazaire and Lorient . The division had no troops based in the town , but some were located in villages nearby and would be able to respond to any attack on the port .
The Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) had at least three surface ships in the Loire estuary : a destroyer , an armed trawler and a Sperrbrecher ( minesweeper ) , the latter being the guard ship for the port . On the night of the raid there were also four harbour defence boats and ten ships from the 16th and 42nd Minesweeper flotillas berthed in the basin , while two tankers were berthed inside the Normandie dock . The 6th and 7th U @-@ boat flotillas , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz and Korvettenkapitän Herbert Sohler respectively , were permanently based in the port . It is not known how many submarines were present on the day of the raid . The submarine base had been inspected by the U @-@ boat Commander in Chief , Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz , the day before the raid . He asked what would they do if the base was subject to an attack by British Commandos . Sohler replied that " an attack on the base would be hazardous and highly improbable " .
= = The raid = =
= = = Outward journey = = =
The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth , Cornwall at 14 : 00 on 26 March 1942 . They formed into a convoy of three lanes , with the destroyers in the middle . On arrival at St Nazaire the portside MLs were to head for the Old Mole to disembark their Commandos , while the starboard lane would make for the old entrance to the basin to disembark theirs . Not having the range to reach St Nazaire unaided , the MTB and MGB were taken under tow by Campbeltown and Atherstone .
On 27 March at 07 : 20 Tynedale reported a U @-@ boat on the surface and opened fire . The two escort destroyers left the convoy to engage the U @-@ boat , later identified as U @-@ 593 . The U @-@ boat promptly dived and was unsuccessfully attacked by depth charges . The two destroyers returned to the convoy at 09 : 00 .
The convoy next encountered two French fishing trawlers . Both crews were taken off and the ships sunk for fear they might report the composition and location of the convoy . At 17 : 00 the convoy received a signal from Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth that five German torpedo boats were in the area . Two hours later another signal informed them that another two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Cleveland and HMS Brocklesby , had been dispatched at full speed to join the convoy .
The convoy reached a position 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) off St Nazaire at 21 : 00 and changed course toward the estuary , leaving Atherstone and Tynedale as a sea patrol . The convoy adopted a new formation with the MGB and two torpedo MLs in the lead , followed by Campbeltown . The rest of the MLs formed two columns on either side and astern of the destroyer , with the MTB bringing up the rear . The first casualty of the raid was ML 341 , which had developed engine trouble and was abandoned . At 22 : 00 the submarine Sturgeon directed her navigation beacon out to sea to guide the convoy in . At about the same time Campbeltown raised the German naval ensign in an attempt to deceive any German lookouts into thinking she was a German destroyer .
At 23 : 30 on 27 March , five RAF squadrons ( comprising 35 Whitleys and 27 Wellingtons ) started their bombing runs . The bombers had to stay above 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) and were supposed to remain over the port for 60 minutes to divert attention toward themselves and away from the sea . They had orders to only bomb clearly identified military targets and to drop only one bomb at a time . As it turned out , poor weather over the port ( 10 / 10ths cloud ) meant that only four aircraft bombed targets in St Nazaire . Six aircraft managed to bomb other nearby targets .
The unusual behaviour of the bombers concerned Kapitän zur See Mecke . At 00 : 00 on 28 March , he issued a warning that there might be a parachute landing in progress . At 01 : 00 on 28 March , he followed up by ordering all guns to cease firing and searchlights to be extinguished in case the bombers were using them to locate the port . Everyone was placed on a heightened state of alert . The harbour defence companies and ships ' crews were ordered out of the air raid shelters . During all this a lookout reported seeing some activity out at sea , so Mecke began suspecting some type of landing and ordered extra attention to be paid to the approaches to the harbour .
= = = Ramming the dry dock = = =
At 00 : 30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the shoals at the mouth of the Loire estuary , with Campbeltown scraping the bottom twice . Each time she was able to pull free , and the group proceeded on up toward the harbour in darkness . They had got to within about eight minutes passage from the dock gates when at 01 : 22 the entire convoy was illuminated by the combined searchlights of both banks of the estuary . A naval signal light demanded their identification .
The MGB @-@ 314 replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the Vågsøy raid . A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both Campbeltown and MGB @-@ 314 replied : " Ship being fired upon by friendly forces " . The deception gave them a little more time before every German gun in the bay opened fire . At 01 : 28 , with the convoy 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the dock gates , Beattie ordered the German flag lowered and the White Ensign raised . The intensity of the German fire seemed to increase . The guard ship opened fire and was quickly silenced when the ships in the convoy responded , shooting into her as they passed .
By now all the ships in the convoy were within range to engage targets ashore and were firing at the gun emplacements and searchlights . Campbeltown was hit a number of times and increased her speed to 19 kn ( 35 km / h ) . The helmsman on her bridge was killed ; his replacement was wounded and replaced as well . Blinded by the searchlights , Beattie knew they were close to their objective . Still under heavy fire , the MGB turned into the estuary as Campbeltown cleared the end of the Old Mole , cut through anti @-@ torpedo netting strung across the entrance and rammed the dock gates , striking home at 01 : 34 , three minutes later than scheduled . The force of the impact drove the ship 33 feet ( 10 m ) onto the gates .
= = = Disembarkation from Campbeltown and the MLs = = =
The Commandos on Campbeltown now disembarked : two assault teams , five demolition teams with their protectors and a mortar group . Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock . The kilt @-@ wearing Captain Donald Roy - ' The Laird ' - and his 14 @-@ man assault troop were tasked with inactivating two pump @-@ house roof @-@ top gun emplacements high above the quayside and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area . Roy and Sgt Don Randall used scaling ladders and grenades to accomplish the former , and a head @-@ on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled Capt. Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran Purdon and their demolition teams to exit the area .
They lost 4 men in this action . The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives but almost half its men were killed . The other two Commando groups were not as successful . The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed on their approach . ML 457 was the only boat to land its Commandos on the Old Mole and only ML 177 had managed to reach the gates at the old entrance to the basin . That team succeeded in planting charges on two tugboats moored in the basin .
There were only two other MLs in the vicinity : ML 160 had continued past the dock and was engaging targets upriver , ML 269 appeared to be out of control and was running in circles . By this time the crew of Campbeltown had detonated the scuttling charges and gathered at the rear of the ship to be taken off . ML 177 came alongside the destroyer and took 30 men on board including Beattie and some of the wounded . Major Copland went through Campbeltown and evacuated the wounded towards the Old Mole , not knowing that there were no other boats there to take the Commandos off .
Lt Col Newman aboard the MGB , need not have landed , but he was one of the first ashore . One of his first actions was to direct mortar fire onto a gun position on top of the submarine pens that was causing heavy casualties among the Commandos . He next directed machine @-@ gun fire onto an armed trawler , which was forced to withdraw upriver . Newman organised a defence that succeeded in keeping the increasing numbers of German reinforcements at bay until the demolition parties had completed their tasks .
Some 100 Commandos were still ashore when Newman realised that evacuation by sea was no longer an option . He gathered the survivors and issued three orders :
To do our best to get back to England ;
Not to surrender until all our ammunition is exhausted ;
Not to surrender at all if we can help it .
Newman and Copland led the charge from the old town across a bridge raked by machine gun fire and advanced into the new town . The Commandos attempted to get through the narrow streets of the town and into the surrounding countryside , but were eventually surrounded . When their ammunition was expended their only option was to surrender . Not all the Commandos were captured ; five men reached neutral Spain , from where they eventually returned to England .
= = = Small ships = = =
Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning . The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire ; her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole . Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their Commandos . ML 443 , the leading boat in the port column , got to within 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire . The crew were rescued by ML 160 , one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour . The commanders of MLs 160 and 443 , Lieutenants T Boyd and T D L Platt , were awarded the Distinguished Service Order for their bravery . The rest of the port column had been destroyed or disabled before reaching the mole . MLs 192 and 262 were set on fire ; there were only six survivors . ML 268 was blown up ; one man survived .
ML 177 , the launch that had successfully taken off some of the crew from Campbeltown , was sunk on her way out of the estuary . ML 269 , another torpedo @-@ armed boat , had the unenviable task of moving up and down the river at high speed to draw German fire away from the landings . Soon after passing Campbeltown it was hit and its steering damaged . It took ten minutes to repair the steering . They turned and started in the other direction , opening fire on an armed trawler in passing . Return fire from the trawler set their engine on fire .
ML 306 also came under heavy fire when it arrived near the port . Sergeant Thomas Durrant of No. 1 Commando , manning the aft Lewis gun , engaged gun and searchlight positions on the run in . He was wounded but refused to leave the gun for treatment . The ML reached the open sea but was attacked at short range by the German torpedo boat Jaguar . Durrant returned fire , aiming for the torpedo boat 's bridge . He was wounded again but remained at his gun even after the German commander asked for their surrender . Firing drum after drum of ammunition , he refused to give up until after the ML had been boarded . Durrant died of his wounds and , after the recommendation of the Jaguar 's commander , was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross .
After the Commando headquarters group had landed , Commander Ryder went to check for himself that Campbeltown was firmly stuck in the dock . Some of her surviving crewmen were being taken on board the MGB . Ryder returned to the boat and ordered the MTB to carry out its alternative task and torpedo the lock gates at the old entrance to the basin . After a successful torpedo attack , Ryder ordered the MTB to leave . On their way out of the estuary they stopped to collect survivors from a sinking ML and were hit and set on fire . Back at the docks the MGB had positioned itself in mid @-@ river to engage enemy gun emplacements . The forward 2 pounder was manned by Able Seaman William Alfred Savage . Commander Ryder reported that
" The rate of supporting fire had evidently been felt , and the Commandos in the area of the Tirpitz dock had undoubtedly overcome the resistance in that area . There was an appreciable slackening in the enemy 's fire . "
Ryder could see no ships other than seven or eight burning MLs . He then realised that the landing places at the Old Mole and the entrance to the basin had both been recaptured by the Germans . There was nothing more they could do for the Commandos , so they headed out to sea . On their way they were continuously illuminated by German searchlights and were hit at least six times by the German guns . Passing ML 270 , they ordered her to follow and made smoke to hide both boats .
When they reached the open sea the smaller calibre guns were out of range and stopped firing but the heavier artillery continued to engage them . The boats were about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) off @-@ shore when the last German salvo straddled them and killed Savage , who was still at his gun . He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his exploits . His citation recognised both Savage and the bravery of " the many unnamed crews of the Motor Gun Boat , Motor Torpedo Boat and Motor Launches who continued to carry out their duties in exposed positions , in the face of close range enemy fire . "
= = = Return journey = = =
At 06 : 30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had evaded the previous day were sighted by HMS Atherstone and Tynedale . The two destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of 7 miles ( 11 km ) . After ten minutes the German boats turned away , making smoke . The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to the Atherstone . Not expecting any more boats to arrive , they headed for home . Just after 09 : 00 the Hunt @-@ class escort destroyers HMS Brocklesby and HMS Cleveland arrived , sent by Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth . Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 floatplane of the Luftwaffe .
The next German aircraft on the scene , a Junkers 88 , was engaged by a RAF Bristol Beaufighter which had appeared in the area earlier . Both machines crashed into the sea . Other German planes arrived but were driven off by Beaufighters and Hudsons from Coastal Command . The Atlantic weather conditions deteriorated . Amid concerns about the growing German threat and the realisation that the damaged small ships would not be able to keep up , Commander Sayer ordered the crews off the smaller boats and had them sunk .
Three of the small vessels managed to return to England : MLs 160 , 307 and 443 . They had reached the rendezvous and waited until 10 : 00 for the destroyers to appear . Having already been attacked once , they moved further out into the Atlantic to try and avoid the German Air Force , but a Junkers 88 appeared overhead at 07 : 30 and approached them at low level for a closer look . The ships opened fire and hit the Junkers in the cockpit . The plane went into the sea . The next aircraft to appear was a Blohm and Voss seaplane which attempted to bomb the ships , but left after being damaged by machine @-@ gun fire . The surviving MLs eventually reached England unaided the following day .
= = = Campbeltown explodes = = =
The explosive charges in HMS Campbeltown detonated at noon on 28 March 1942 , and the dry dock was destroyed . Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock ; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk , or swept to the far end of the dock , but not sunk . A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of Campbeltown were killed . In total , the explosion killed about 360 men . The wreck of Campbeltown could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent to photograph the port .
According to Captain Robert Montgomery ( Royal Engineers , attached to No.2 Commando ) , Campbeltown was meant to have detonated at 4 : 30am , the delay caused , he believes , by some of the acid in the pencil fuses being distilled away . As the morning progressed , more and more captured comrades joined him in the German HQ .
The day after the explosion , Organisation Todt workers were assigned to clean up the debris and wreckage . On 30 March at 16 : 30 the torpedoes from MTB 74 , which were on a delayed fuse setting , exploded at the old entrance into the basin . This raised alarms among the Germans . The Organisation Todt workers ran away from the dock area . German guards , mistaking their khaki uniforms for British uniforms , opened fire , killing some of them . The Germans also thought that some Commandos were still hiding in the town , and made a street by street search , during which some townspeople were also killed .
= = Aftermath = =
The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war . The St Nazaire raid had been a success , but at a cost . Of the 622 men of the Royal Navy and Commandos who took part in the raid , only 228 men returned to England . Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens , and took a ship to England from Gibraltar . 169 men were killed ( 105 RN and 64 Commandos ) and another 215 became prisoners of war ( 106 RN and 109 Commandos ) . They were first taken to La Baule and then sent to Stalag 133 at Rennes . The fallen British raiders were buried at the La Baule @-@ Escoublac cemetery with military honours . The cemetery is located 13 kilometres west of St Nazaire .
To recognise their achievement , 89 decorations were awarded for the raid . This total includes the five Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie , Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder , and posthumous awards to Sergeant Durrant and Able Seaman Savage . Four Distinguished Service Orders were awarded to Major William Copland , Captain Donald Roy , Lieutenant T Boyd and Lieutenant T D L Platt . Other decorations awarded were four Conspicuous Gallantry Medals , five Distinguished Conduct Medals , 17 Distinguished Service Crosses , 11 Military Crosses , 24 Distinguished Service Medals and 15 Military Medals . Four men were awarded the Croix de guerre by France , and another 51 were mentioned in despatches .
Adolf Hitler was furious that the British had been able to sail a flotilla of ships up the Loire unhindered . His immediate reaction was to dismiss Generaloberst Carl Hilpert , chief @-@ of @-@ staff to the Commander in Chief West . The raid refocused German attention on the Atlantic Wall , and special attention was given to ports to prevent any repeat of the raid . By June 1942 the Germans began using concrete to fortify gun emplacements and bunkers in quantities previously only used in U @-@ boat pens . Hitler laid out new plans in a meeting with Armaments Minister Albert Speer in August 1942 , calling for the construction of 15 @,@ 000 bunkers by May 1943 to defend the Atlantic coast from Norway to Spain .
The battleship Tirpitz never entered the Atlantic . She remained in Norwegian fjords to threaten Allied shipping until she was destroyed by the RAF on 12 November 1944 .
= = Legacy = =
St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the Commandos after the war . The raid has since been called The Greatest Raid of All . The survivors formed their own association , the St Nazaire Society , which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom .
A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription :
A new HMS Campbeltown , a Type 22 Frigate , was launched on 7 October 1987 . She carried the ship 's bell from the first Campbeltown which was rescued during the raid and had been presented to the town of Campbelltown , Pennsylvania at the end of the Second World War . In 1988 the people of Campbelltown voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service . The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS Campbeltown was decommissioned .
On 4 September 2002 , a tree and seat at the National Memorial Arboretum were dedicated to the men of the raid . The seat bears the inscription :
In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942
= = Documentaries and dramatisations = =
A fictionalised version of the raid was the climax of the 1952 British war film , Gift Horse . The film follows the career of an ex @-@ US Navy destroyer , HMS Ballantrae ( actually HMS Leamington ) ; the raid is named Operation Boadicea and portrays the main events of the actual battle .
The war film Attack on the Iron Coast was released in 1968 and was a highly fictionalized version of the raid .
In 2007 , Jeremy Clarkson presented the story of the raid in a BBC documentary entitled The Greatest Raid of All Time .
An episode of the television series ; " World War II 's Greatest Raids " on the Military Channel ( now the American Heroes Channel ) devoted an episode to this raid . Titled " Commando Do or Die ! " it was released in early 2014 ; and has been rerun several times .
A mission in the video game Enemy Front re @-@ enacts the mission from the first person perspective of a British Commando .
A mission in the video game Medal Of Honour : European Assault also re @-@ enacts the mission from the perspective of fictional soldier William Holt .
= Hellblazer =
Hellblazer ( also known as John Constantine , Hellblazer ) is an American contemporary horror comic book series , originally published by DC Comics , and subsequently by the Vertigo imprint since March 1993 when the imprint was introduced . Its central character is the streetwise magician John Constantine , who was created by Alan Moore and Stephen R. Bissette , and first appeared as a supporting character in The Saga of the Swamp Thing # 37 ( June 1985 ) , during that creative team 's run on that title . Hellblazer had been published continuously since January 1988 , and was Vertigo 's longest running title , the only remaining publication from the imprint 's launch . In 2013 , the series concluded with issue 300 , and has been replaced by a DC Universe title , Constantine . Well known for its political and social commentary , the series has spawned a film adaptation , television show , novels , multiple spin @-@ offs and crossovers .
The series was the longest @-@ running and one of the most successful titles of DC 's Vertigo imprint , and was the stepping stone to many British writers . Notable writers who have contributed to the series include Jamie Delano , Garth Ennis , Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Grant Morrison , Neil Gaiman , Mike Carey , Andy Diggle , and Peter Milligan . Hellblazer was one of the first modern occult detective fiction works and heavily influenced the genre to come .
= = Production history = =
After favorable reader reaction to John Constantine 's appearances in the comic book series Swamp Thing , where he had been introduced by Alan Moore during his authorship of the title , the character was given his own comic book series in 1988 . The series was intended to bear the title Hellraiser , but this title was revised before publication due to the contemporaneous release of Clive Barker 's unrelated film of the same name . Initial writer Jamie Delano was , in his own words , " fairly ambivalent " about the change of title .
The initial creative team was writer Jamie Delano and artist John Ridgway , with Dave McKean supplying distinctive painted and collage covers . Delano introduced a political aspect to the character , about which he stated : " ... generally I was interested in commenting on 1980s Britain . That was where I was living , it was shit , and I wanted to tell everybody . " The book , originally published as a regular DC Comics title , became a Vertigo title with the imprint 's launch in March 1993 ( issue # 63 of the series ) . In October 2011 , it was announced that this would join DC titles in being published digitally on the same day as its physical release , starting in January 2012 .
= = = Creative personnel = = =
Many writers had lengthy runs on the series , such as Garth Ennis and Mike Carey , who respectively had the second- and third @-@ longest runs on the book , ( only behind Peter Milligan ) . Other writers who wrote for the series include Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Brian Azzarello , Neil Gaiman , Grant Morrison , Denise Mina , and Peter Milligan .
Numerous artists worked on the series as well , such as John Ridgway ( the original series artist ) , Simon Bisley , Mark Buckingham , Richard Corben , Steve Dillon , Marcelo Frusin , Jock , David Lloyd , Leonardo Manco , and Sean Phillips . Cover artists included Dave McKean ( who designed the first run of the series ' covers ) , Tim Bradstreet ( who designed the most ) , Glenn Fabry , Kent Williams , David Lloyd , and Sean Phillips .
= = In the comics = =
= = = Setting and protagonist = = =
Hellblazer was set in a contemporary world , albeit a world of magic and supernatural conflict behind the scenes . Although issue 14 made a passing reference to superheroes , the series since developed its own pocket universe in which the supernatural or paranormal did not play a large role in the lives of most ordinary people , and in Earth @-@ threatening circumstances no superhero interventions were shown or hinted at , suggesting that superheroes no longer existed there . However , some DC Comics characters — most notably the fringe supernatural characters such as Zatanna , The Phantom Stranger , Shade , The Changing Man , Dream of the Endless , and Swamp Thing made appearances .
John Constantine , the main character of Hellblazer , was portrayed as a kind of confidence man and occult detective who did morally questionable things , arguably for the greater good . He usually triumphed through guile , deceit , and misdirection , but often made more enemies in the process than he defeated . Indeed , it was a common theme in the book that Constantine was unable to effect any lasting change or enjoy unequivocal victories . While sometimes striving for the good of mankind , Constantine was often manipulative and a dangerous person to have as a friend , as the lives and souls of those around him became perilously involved in his misadventures . He took pains to protect himself from direct attacks , but his friends and relatives were often endangered in order to strike at him . The spirits of deceased friends haunted him , individually or as an entourage of ghosts .
Constantine made appearances in other comic book titles , such as Crisis on Infinite Earths , Infinite Crisis , Green Arrow , Green Lantern , The Sandman , Lucifer , and Shade , the Changing Man . He was a recurring supporting character in both Swamp Thing and The Books of Magic throughout their numerous incarnations . Some attempts to use the character in other superhero or family @-@ friendly comics were altered due to editorial mandate , such as " Gregori Eilovotich Rasputin " in Firestorm and Captain Atom ( who refers to Constantine as " an impertinent bumbler in England " ) . Grant Morrison created " Willoughby Kipling " for Doom Patrol after being refused Constantine by DC , changing his appearance to that of Richard E Grant in Withnail and I , following which Phil Foglio was forced to create " Ambroise Bierce " in Stanley and His Monster , having been refused both Constantine and Willoughby Kipling .
John Constantine was reintroduced into the DC Universe in 2011 , initially in the Brightest Day crossover event title Search for the Swamp Thing , and in the ongoing The New 52 title Justice League Dark .
= = = 1988 – 1991 : Jamie Delano ( # 1 – 40 , # 84 ) = = =
Having previously worked on D.R. & Quinch for 2000 AD , a title made popular by John Constantine 's creator Alan Moore , Delano was selected to start the character 's first run in his own comic by then editor Karen Berger in 1988 . Delano 's run was characterised by his political satire , taking on | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
appearances . His debut for Hull was as a late substitute in a 2 – 0 victory against Brighton & Hove Albion on 20 August 2005 . Though he lacked fitness at the start of the season , injuries to Keith Andrews and Ian Ashbee gave him the chance of a regular starting place , and manager Taylor also handed him the team captaincy . Despite consistent performances , by December 2005 he had lost his place and there was speculation that he had fallen out with Taylor and wanted to leave ; this was strongly denied by the player : " I 'm shocked that people are saying I want to go . I 'm very happy here . ... It 's taken me long enough to get to Hull so I 'm not going to walk out after a few months , or whatever . " In the following six weeks he made only two brief substitute appearances – in five months with the club he played 18 games in the Championship without scoring – and the strength of Hull 's squad was such that he could not be guaranteed regular first @-@ team football .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
In the January 2006 transfer window , he joined Grimsby Town on a two @-@ year deal , three years after they first expressed an interest in signing him . He made his debut against former club Peterborough United in League Two , on 28 January 2006 in a 2 – 1 home defeat , and scored his first and what turned out to be only goal for the club against Mansfield on 14 February 2006 . On 26 April 2006 , Woodhouse said he planned to retire from football at the end of the 2005 – 06 season and embark on a career as a professional boxer . He made 16 appearances in League Two , helping them to finish fourth place , reaching the play @-@ offs . Woodhouse played in both of Grimsby 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victories over Lincoln City , setting up the only goal of the game in the first leg . He played his last Football League game in the play @-@ off final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2006 . Grimsby were defeated 1 – 0 in the final by Cheltenham Town . Woodhouse gave away a penalty in the 70th minute that was saved by goalkeeper Steve Mildenhall .
= = = Switch to boxing = = =
Woodhouse had a history of theft , robbery and affray , and said that he had " fallen out of love " with football . He admitted to have been involved in around 100 street fights . He said ; " Boxing has always been my first love , even as a kid " , and " I love fighting ... Rather than get locked up for it , I might as well get paid for it . " He also stated that he used to spar in the boxing gym after football training without his manager 's knowledge , saying " A few times at Sheffield United , Neil Warnock would drag me in and say ‘ I hear you ’ ve been boxing ’ . I ’ d be standing there with a big black eye and a fat lip and deny it . " He trained under former British featherweight champion , Gary De Roux , and made his boxing debut on 8 September 2006 at Grosvenor House Hotel , London , in a welterweight contest against Dean Marcantonio , despite not having any previous amateur experience . The former footballer had lost two stone in weight since his playing days with Grimsby Town . The fight was scheduled for four rounds of two minutes , Woodhouse knocked his opponent down twice in the final round and won on points .
= = = Return to football part @-@ time = = =
After only one professional fight , Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , signing for Rushden & Diamonds , who were playing in the Conference National , the highest @-@ tier of non @-@ league football . His boxing licence was suspended by the British Boxing Board of Control , following a conviction for assaulting a police officer whilst drunk and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 , when he was still playing for Grimsby Town , and not under the BBBofC 's jurisdiction at the time of the incident . He was ordered to pay £ 100 compensation to PC Andrew Whitehead and £ 350 in costs . Woodhouse chose to play for Rushden & Diamonds to fulfil a promise he made to someone who was part of the consortium that took over the Irthlingborough based club . He made his debut against Aldershot Town on 25 November 2006 , in a 1 – 0 defeat . He made five appearances in the Conference National for Rushden , before deciding to leave to concentrate on his boxing career .
He then returned to Rushden on 1 March 2007 , and made a further 11 appearances in the Conference in the 2006 – 07 season , scoring three goals , including a 30 @-@ yard long range effort against Northwich Victoria on 23 April . After five months away from boxing , Woodhouse returned to the ring for his second fight on 15 April , defeating Duncan Cottier on points after four rounds . On 1 May , he signed a new two @-@ year deal with Rushden & Diamonds . He then defeated Peter Dunn in a bout on 3 June , again on points , in a contest of four three @-@ minute rounds . In his fourth fight on 5 December 2007 , he defeated Craig Tomes by way of knock @-@ out after just 1 minute and 57 seconds , landing a left hook that unsettled Tomes as the referee decided his opponent as unfit to continue . Matt Seawright was Woodhouse 's next boxing opponent on 16 March 208 , he defeated him after Seawright felt he was unable to continue after the third round . Woodhouse finished the 2007 – 08 football season having played in 29 Conference National matches , scoring once and receiving two red cards . On 17 May , Woodhouse achieved his sixth straight victory , maintaining his undefeated record against Dave Murray at Bramall Lane , defeating his opponent by knock @-@ out in the second round . Murray managed to beat the standing eight count , but the referee deemed him unable to continue after 1 minute and 23 seconds .
After defeating Wayne Downing in 57 seconds on 21 June 2008 , Woodhouse stated his intention to retire from football at the end of the 2008 – 09 season , to concentrate on his boxing career . He was later appointed as team captain for his final season at the club . Woodhouse scored a decisive penalty in Rushden 's opening game of the 2008 – 09 season , away on 9 August , against newly promoted Eastbourne Borough . He was sent off again in the home game against Histon on 25 August , after receiving two yellow cards . In his eighth boxing match , Woodhouse defeated Jimmy Beech on points on 20 September . He then proceeded to defeat Peter Dunn on 30 November , stopping him 23 seconds in the sixth and final round at Thurcroft 's Consort Hotel , Rotherham .
He signed for Mansfield Town on 5 January on a contract until the end of the 2008 – 09 season . Woodhouse made his debut for Mansfield Town on 24 January in a Conference National match against Lewes . Mansfield won 1 – 0 . Matt Scriven was Woodhouse 's next opponent in the ring on 29 March at Bramall Lane . The fight went the distance of six rounds and Woodhouse was given the decision over Scriven . His first professional loss as a boxer was on 25 April at Ulster Hall , in Belfast at the hands of Jay Morris . The fight went the distance , but Woodhouse lost 37 – 36 on points over six rounds . Mansfield manager David Holdsworth hoped Woodhouse would stay at the club , but on 18 June , he joined Conference North team Harrogate Town . On 27 November , he defeated Dean Hickman by TKO in round 6 . This was Woodhouse 's first fight in the light @-@ welterweight division , having dropped down from welterweight .
On 13 January 2010 , in an interview to the Grimsby Telegraph , Woodhouse commented he would definitely consider a move back to former club Grimsby Town after expressing his dismay at The Mariners languishing near the bottom of the League Two , within danger of being relegated from the Football League . He commented " If they are looking for a central midfielder , though , they are welcome to give me a call " . Harrogate released him by mutual consent on 25 February . Three days later he avenged his defeat by Jay Morris by beating him with a TKO in round 3 . This gave Woodhouse the first title of his boxing career , the International Masters light @-@ welterweight title . On 25 April , Woodhouse defended the title with a 4th round knockout of Maurycy Gojko , who stepped in as a late replacement for Steve Saville . Next , on 2 July , Woodhouse knocked out veteran Stefy Bull in round 9 . His next fight was due to be against 2006 Commonwealth Games gold medallist and former world amateur champion Frankie Gavin on 18 September , but Woodhouse pulled out days after the bout was announced in July . He moved up the non @-@ League football ladder in June 2011 , after signing for Conference North side Eastwood Town .
= = Managerial career = =
It was announced on 2 May 2012 , that Woodhouse was the new manager of Northern Premier League Division One South club Sheffield . Woodhouse resigned in December 2012 after admitting having difficulty to managing a football team as well as being a professional boxer .
On 14 October 2013 , Woodhouse was announced as the assistant manager at Northern Premier League Division One South club Goole , with former team mate David Holdsworth being appointed manager . In January 2014 Woodhouse replaced Holdsworth as manager following Holdsworth 's resignation . Woodhouse then left Goole after some issues with the board , and took over at Hull United in January 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Woodhouse was born in Beverley and raised in Driffield . His father , Bernard Woodhouse , died at the age of 51 after he had a fatal stroke . Unlike other boys who idolised footballers , Woodhouse stated his heroes were Nigel Benn and Mike Tyson . He admits to fighting at school and in the streets after being racially abused : " I went from scrapping in the street and at school to fighting in the boxing ring from the age of 12 . I was called a few names due to the colour of my skin , but with a quick smack in the mouth they soon backed off . " He used to visit Boothferry Park to support Hull City before pursuing his career in professional football . He has a wife , Charlotte , and two children : a son named Kyle and a daughter , Isla .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 29 January 2011 .
= = Professional boxing record = =
= 2010 Haiti earthquake =
The 2010 Haiti earthquake ( French : Séisme de 2010 à Haïti ; Haitian Creole : Tranblemanntè 12 janvye 2010 nan peyi Ayiti ) was a catastrophic magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake , with an epicenter near the town of Léogâne ( Ouest ) , approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti 's capital . The earthquake occurred at 16 : 53 local time ( 21 : 53 UTC ) on Tuesday , 12 January 2010 .
By 24 January , at least 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater had been recorded . An estimated three million people were affected by the quake . Death toll estimates range from 100 @,@ 000 to about 160 @,@ 000 to Haitian government figures from 220 @,@ 000 to 316 @,@ 000 that have been widely characterized as deliberately inflated by the Haitian government . The government of Haiti estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged . There has been a history of national debt , prejudicial trade policies by other countries , and foreign intervention into national affairs that contributed to the pre @-@ existing poverty and poor housing conditions that exacerbated the death toll .
The earthquake caused major damage in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Jacmel and other settlements in the region . Notable landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed , including the Presidential Palace , the National Assembly building , the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral , and the main jail . Among those killed were Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Joseph Serge Miot , and opposition leader Micha Gaillard . The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) , located in the capital , collapsed , killing many , including the Mission 's Chief , Hédi Annabi .
Many countries responded to appeals for humanitarian aid , pledging funds and dispatching rescue and medical teams , engineers and support personnel . Communication systems , air , land , and sea transport facilities , hospitals , and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake , which hampered rescue and aid efforts ; confusion over who was in charge , air traffic congestion , and problems with prioritisation of flights further complicated early relief work . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's morgues were overwhelmed with tens of thousands of bodies . These had to be buried in mass graves . As rescues tailed off , supplies , medical care and sanitation became priorities . Delays in aid distribution led to angry appeals from aid workers and survivors , and looting and sporadic violence were observed . On 22 January the United Nations noted that the emergency phase of the relief operation was drawing to a close , and on the following day the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors .
= = Background = =
The island of Hispaniola , shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic , is seismically active and has a history of destructive earthquakes . During Haiti 's time as a French colony , earthquakes were recorded by French historian Moreau de Saint @-@ Méry ( 1750 – 1819 ) . He described damage done by an earthquake in 1751 , writing that " only one masonry building had not collapsed " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince ; he also wrote that the " whole city collapsed " in the 1770 Port @-@ au @-@ Prince earthquake . Cap @-@ Haïtien , other towns in the north of Haiti and the Dominican Republic , and the Sans @-@ Souci Palace were destroyed during an earthquake on 7 May 1842 . A magnitude 8 @.@ 0 earthquake struck the Dominican Republic and shook Haiti on 4 August 1946 , producing a tsunami that killed 1 @,@ 790 people and injured many others .
Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere , and is ranked 149th of 182 countries on the Human Development Index . The Australian government 's travel advisory site had previously expressed concerns that Haitian emergency services would be unable to cope in the event of a major disaster , and the country is considered " economically vulnerable " by the Food and Agriculture Organization . Haiti is no stranger to natural disasters . In addition to earthquakes , it has been struck frequently by tropical cyclones , which have caused flooding and widespread damage . The most recent cyclones to hit the island before the earthquake were Tropical Storm Fay and Hurricanes Gustav , Hanna and Ike , all in the summer of 2008 , causing nearly 800 deaths .
= = Geology = =
The magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake occurred inland , on 12 January 2010 at 16 : 53 ( UTC @-@ 05 : 00 ) , approximately 25 km ( 16 mi ) WSW from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince at a depth of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) on blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system . There is no evidence of surface rupture and based on seismological , geological and ground deformation data it is thought that the earthquake did not involve significant lateral slip on the main Enriquillo fault . Strong shaking associated with intensity IX on the Modified Mercalli scale ( MM ) was recorded in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and its suburbs . It was also felt in several surrounding countries and regions , including Cuba ( MM III in Guantánamo ) , Jamaica ( MM II in Kingston ) , Venezuela ( MM II in Caracas ) , Puerto Rico ( MM II – III in San Juan ) , and the bordering Dominican Republic ( MM III in Santo Domingo ) . According to estimates from the United States Geological Survey , approximately 3 @.@ 5 million people lived in the area that experienced shaking intensity of MM VII to X , a range that can cause moderate to very heavy damage even to earthquake @-@ resistant structures . Shaking damage was more severe than for other quakes of similar magnitude due to the shallow depth of the quake .
The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) per year in relation to the North American plate . The strike @-@ slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti , the Septentrional @-@ Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault in the south ; both its location and focal mechanism suggested that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault , which had been locked for 250 years , gathering stress . However , a study published in May 2010 suggested that the rupture process may have involved slip on multiple blind thrust faults with only minor , deep , lateral slip along or near the main Enriquillo – Plantain Garden fault zone , suggesting that the event only partially relieved centuries of accumulated left @-@ lateral strain on a small part of the plate @-@ boundary system . The rupture was roughly 65 km ( 40 mi ) long with mean slip of 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Preliminary analysis of the slip distribution found amplitudes of up to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) using ground motion records from all over the world .
A 2007 earthquake hazard study by C. DeMets and M. Wiggins @-@ Grandison noted that the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst @-@ case forecast would involve a 7 @.@ 2 Mw earthquake , similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake . Paul Mann and a group including the 2006 study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008 , noting the large strain ; the team recommended " high priority " historical geologic rupture studies , as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years . An article published in Haiti 's Le Matin newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince .
= = = Aftershocks = = =
The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) recorded eight aftershocks in the two hours after the main earthquake , with magnitudes between 4 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 9 . Within the first nine hours 32 aftershocks of magnitude 4 @.@ 2 or greater were recorded , 12 of which measured magnitude 5 @.@ 0 or greater , and on 24 January USGS reported that there had been 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater since 12 January quake .
On 20 January at 06 : 03 local time ( 11 : 03 UTC ) the strongest aftershock since the earthquake , measuring magnitude 5 @.@ 9 Mw , struck Haiti . USGS reported its epicenter was about 56 km ( 35 mi ) WSW of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , which would place it almost exactly under the coastal town of Petit @-@ Goâve . A UN representative reported that the aftershock collapsed seven buildings in the town . According to staff of the International Committee of the Red Cross , which had reached Petit @-@ Goâve for the first time the day before the aftershock , the town was estimated to have lost 15 percent of its buildings , and was suffering the same shortages of supplies and medical care as the capital . Workers from the charity Save the Children reported hearing " already weakened structures collapsing " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , but most sources reported no further significant damage to infrastructure in the city . Further casualties are thought to have been minimal since people had been sleeping in the open . There are concerns that 12 January earthquake could be the beginning of a new long @-@ term sequence : " the whole region is fearful " ; historical accounts , although not precise , suggest that there has been a sequence of quakes progressing westwards along the fault , starting with an earthquake in the Dominican Republic in 1751 .
= = = Tsunami = = =
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning immediately after the initial quake , but quickly cancelled it . Nearly two weeks later it was reported that the beach of the small fishing town of Petit Paradis was hit by a localised tsunami shortly after the earthquake , probably as a result of an underwater slide , and this was later confirmed by researchers . At least three people were swept out to sea by the wave and were reported dead . Witnesses told reporters that the sea first retreated and a " very big wave " followed rapidly , crashing ashore and sweeping boats and debris into the ocean .
= = Damage to infrastructure = =
= = = Essential services = = =
Amongst the widespread devastation and damage throughout Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and elsewhere , vital infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed . This included all hospitals in the capital ; air , sea , and land transport facilities ; and communication systems .
The quake affected the three Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ) medical facilities around Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , causing one to collapse completely . A hospital in Pétionville , a wealthy suburb of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , also collapsed , as did the St. Michel District Hospital in the southern town of Jacmel , which was the largest referral hospital in south @-@ east Haiti .
The quake seriously damaged the control tower at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Damage to the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport rendered the harbor unusable for immediate rescue operations ; its container crane subsided severely at an angle because of weak foundations . Gonaïves seaport in northern Haiti remained operational .
Roads were blocked with road debris or the surfaces broken . The main road linking Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with Jacmel remained blocked ten days after the earthquake , hampering delivery of aid to Jacmel . When asked why the road had not been opened , Hazem el @-@ Zein , head of the south @-@ east division of the UN World Food Programme said that " We ask the same questions to the people in charge ... They promise rapid response . To be honest , I don 't know why it hasn 't been done . I can only think that their priority must be somewhere else . "
There was considerable damage to communications infrastructure . The public telephone system was not available , and two of Haiti 's largest cellular telephone providers , Digicel and Comcel Haiti , both reported that their services had been affected by the earthquake . Fibre @-@ optic connectivity was also disrupted . According to Reporters Sans Frontières ( RSF ) , Radio Lumière , which broadcasts out of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reaches 90 percent of Haiti , was initially knocked off the air , but it was able to resume broadcasting across most of its network within a week . According to RSF , some 20 of about 50 stations that were active in the capital region prior to the earthquake were back on air a week after the quake .
= = = General infrastructure = = =
In February 2010 Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings were severely damaged and needed to be demolished . The deputy mayor of Léogâne reported that 90 percent of the town 's buildings had been destroyed . Many government and public buildings were damaged or destroyed including the Palace of Justice , the National Assembly , the Supreme Court and Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral . The National Palace was severely damaged , though President René Préval and his wife Elisabeth Delatour Préval escaped injury . The Prison Civile de Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was also destroyed , allowing around 4 @,@ 000 inmates to escape .
Most of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's municipal buildings were destroyed or heavily damaged , including the City Hall , which was described by the Washington Post as , " a skeletal hulk of concrete and stucco , sagging grotesquely to the left . " Port @-@ au @-@ Prince had no municipal petrol reserves and few city officials had working mobile phones before the earthquake , complicating communications and transportation .
Minister of Education Joel Jean @-@ Pierre stated that the education system had " totally collapsed " . About half the nation 's schools and the three main universities in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were affected . More than 1 @,@ 300 schools and 50 health care facilities were destroyed .
The earthquake also destroyed a nursing school in the capital and severely damaged the country 's primary midwifery school . The Haitian art world suffered great losses ; artworks were destroyed , and museums and art galleries were extensively damaged , among them Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's main art museum , Centre d 'Art , College Saint Pierre and Holy Trinity Cathedral .
The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) at Christopher Hotel and offices of the World Bank were destroyed . The building housing the offices of Citibank in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince collapsed , killing five employees . The clothing industry , which accounts for two @-@ thirds of Haiti 's exports , reported structural damage at manufacturing facilities .
The quake created a landslide dam on the Rivière de Grand Goâve . As of February 2010 the water level was low , but engineer Yves Gattereau believed the dam could collapse during the rainy season , which would flood Grand @-@ Goâve 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) downstream .
= = Conditions in the aftermath = =
In the nights following the earthquake , many people in Haiti slept in the streets , on pavements , in their cars , or in makeshift shanty towns either because their houses had been destroyed , or they feared standing structures would not withstand aftershocks . Construction standards are low in Haiti ; the country has no building codes . Engineers have stated that it is unlikely many buildings would have stood through any kind of disaster . Structures are often raised wherever they can fit ; some buildings were built on slopes with insufficient foundations or steel supports . A representative of Catholic Relief Services has estimated that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on land they did not own . The country also suffered from shortages of fuel and potable water even before the disaster .
President Préval and government ministers used police headquarters near the Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport as their new base of operations , although their effectiveness was extremely limited ; several parliamentarians were still trapped in the Presidential Palace , and offices and records had been destroyed . Some high @-@ ranking government workers lost family members , or had to tend to wounded relatives . Although the president and his remaining cabinet met with UN planners each day , there remained confusion as to who was in charge and no single group had organized relief efforts as of 16 January . The government handed over control of the airport to the United States to hasten and ease flight operations , which had been hampered by the damage to the air traffic control tower .
Almost immediately Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's morgue facilities were overwhelmed . By 14 January , a thousand bodies had been placed on the streets and pavements . Government crews manned trucks to collect thousands more , burying them in mass graves . In the heat and humidity , corpses buried in rubble began to decompose and smell . Mati Goldstein , head of the Israeli ZAKA International Rescue Unit delegation to Haiti , described the situation as " Shabbat from hell . Everywhere , the acrid smell of bodies hangs in the air . It 's just like the stories we are told of the Holocaust – thousands of bodies everywhere . You have to understand that the situation is true madness , and the more time passes , there are more and more bodies , in numbers that cannot be grasped . It is beyond comprehension . "
Mayor Jean @-@ Yves Jason said that officials argued for hours about what to do with the volume of corpses . The government buried many in mass graves , some above @-@ ground tombs were forced open so bodies could be stacked inside , and others were burned . Mass graves were dug in a large field outside the settlement of Titanyen , north of the capital ; tens of thousands of bodies were reported as having been brought to the site by dump truck and buried in trenches dug by earth movers . Max Beauvoir , a Vodou priest , protested the lack of dignity in mass burials , stating , " ... it is not in our culture to bury people in such a fashion , it is desecration " .
Towns in the eastern Dominican Republic began preparing for tens of thousands of refugees , and by 16 January hospitals close to the border had been filled to capacity with Haitians . Some began reporting having expended stocks of critical medical supplies such as antibiotics by 17 January . The border was reinforced by Dominican soldiers , and the government of the Dominican Republic asserted that all Haitians who crossed the border for medical assistance would be allowed to stay only temporarily . A local governor stated , " We have a great desire and we will do everything humanly possible to help Haitian families . But we have our limitations with respect to food and medicine . We need the helping hand of other countries in the area . "
Slow distribution of resources in the days after the earthquake resulted in sporadic violence , with looting reported . There were also accounts of looters wounded or killed by vigilantes and neighbourhoods that had constructed their own roadblock barricades . Dr Evan Lyon of Partners in Health , working at the General Hospital in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , claimed that misinformation and overblown reports of violence had hampered the delivery of aid and medical services .
Former US president Bill Clinton acknowledged the problems and said Americans should " not be deterred from supporting the relief effort " by upsetting scenes such as those of looting . Lt. Gen. P.K. Keen , deputy commander of US Southern Command , however , announced that despite the stories of looting and violence , there was less violent crime in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince after the earthquake than before .
In many neighbourhoods , singing could be heard through the night and groups of men coordinated to act as security as groups of women attempted to take care of food and hygiene necessities . During the days following the earthquake , hundreds were seen marching through the streets in peaceful processions , singing and clapping .
The earthquake caused an urgent need for outside rescuers to communicate with Haitians whose main or only language is Haitian Creole . As a result , a mobile translation program to translate between English and Haitian Creole had to be written quickly .
= = Casualties = =
The earthquake struck in the most populated area of the country . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies estimated that as many as 3 million people had been affected by the quake . In mid February 2010 , the Haitian government reported the death toll to have reached 230 @,@ 000 . However , an investigation by Radio Netherlands has questioned the official death toll , reporting an estimate of 92 @,@ 000 deaths as being a more realistic figure . On the first anniversary of the earthquake , 12 January 2011 , Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive said the death toll from the quake was more than 316 @,@ 000 , raising the figures from previous estimates .
Several experts have questioned the validity of the death toll numbers ; Anthony Penna , professor emeritus in environmental history at Northeastern University , warned that casualty estimates could only be a " guesstimate " , and Belgian disaster response expert Claude de Ville de Goyet noted that " round numbers are a sure sign that nobody knows . " Edmond Mulet , UN Assistant Secretary @-@ General for Peacekeeping Operations , said , " I do not think we will ever know what the death toll is from this earthquake " , while the director of the Haitian Red Cross , Jean @-@ Pierre Guiteau , noted that his organization had not had the time to count bodies , as their focus had been on the treatment of survivors .
While the vast majority of casualties were Haitian civilians , the dead included aid workers , embassy staff , foreign tourists — and a number of public figures , including Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Monsignor Joseph Serge Miot , aid worker Zilda Arns and officials in the Haitian government , including opposition leader Michel " Micha " Gaillard . Also killed were a number of well @-@ known Haitian musicians and sports figures , including thirty members of the Fédération Haïtienne de Football . At least 85 United Nations personnel working with MINUSTAH were killed , among them the Mission Chief , Hédi Annabi , his deputy , Luiz Carlos da Costa , and police commissioner Douglas Coates . Around 200 guests were killed in the collapse of the Hôtel Montana in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince .
On 31 May 2011 , an unreleased draft report based on a survey commissioned by the US Agency for International Development ( USAID ) challenged the Haiti earthquake death toll and several damage estimates . The unpublished report put the death toll between 46 @,@ 000 and 85 @,@ 000 and put the number of displaced persons at 895 @,@ 000 , of which only 375 @,@ 000 remained in temporary shelters . The unreleased report , which compiled its figures from a door @-@ to @-@ door survey , was done by a Washington consulting firm , LTL Strategies . A US State Department spokesperson said the report had inconsistencies and would not be released until they were resolved . As of January 2012 , USAID has not released the report and states at its website that 1 @.@ 5 million people were displaced , of which 550 @,@ 000 remain without permanent shelter . The most reliable academic estimate of the number of earthquake casualties in Haiti ( over 95 % were in the immediate Port @-@ au @-@ Prince area ) " within six weeks of the earthquake " appears to be the 160 @,@ 000 estimate in a 2010 University of Michigan study .
= = Early response = =
Appeals for humanitarian aid were issued by many aid organizations , the United Nations and president René Préval . Raymond Joseph , Haiti 's ambassador to the United States , and his nephew , singer Wyclef Jean , who was called upon by Préval to become a " roving ambassador " for Haiti , also pleaded for aid and donations . Images and testimonials circulating after the earthquake across the internet and through social media helped to intensify the reaction of global engagement .
Many countries responded to the appeals and launched fund @-@ raising efforts , as well as sending search and rescue teams . The neighbouring Dominican Republic was the first country to give aid to Haiti , sending water , food and heavy @-@ lifting machinery . The hospitals in the Dominican Republic were made available ; a combined effort of the Airports Department ( DA ) , together with the Dominican Naval Auxiliaries , the UN and other parties formed the Dominican @-@ Haitian Aerial Support Bridge , making the main Dominican airports available for support operations to Haiti . The Dominican website FlyDominicanRepublic.com made available to the internet , daily updates on airport information and news from the operations center on the Dominican side . The Dominican emergency team assisted more than 2 @,@ 000 injured people , while the Dominican Institute of Telecommunications ( Indotel ) helped with the restoration of some telephone services . The Dominican Red Cross coordinated early medical relief in conjunction with the International Red Cross . The government sent eight mobile medical units along with 36 doctors including orthopaedic specialists , traumatologists , anaesthetists , and surgeons . In addition , 39 trucks carrying canned food were dispatched , along with 10 mobile kitchens and 110 cooks capable of producing 100 @,@ 000 meals per day .
Other nations from farther afield also sent personnel , medicines , materiel , and other aid to Haiti . The first team to arrive in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was ICE @-@ SAR from Iceland , landing within 24 hours of the earthquake . A 50 @-@ member Chinese team arrived early Thursday morning . From the Middle East , the government of Qatar sent a strategic transport aircraft ( C @-@ 17 ) , loaded with 50 tonnes of urgent relief materials and 26 members from the Qatari armed forces , the internal security force ( Lekhwiya ) , police force and the Hamad Medical Corporation , to set up a field hospital and provide assistance in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and other affected areas in Haiti . A rescue team sent by the Israel Defense Forces ' Home Front Command established a field hospital near the United Nations building in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with specialised facilities to treat children , the elderly , and women in labor . It was set up in eight hours and began operations on the evening of 16 January . A Korean International Disaster Relief Team with 40 rescuers , medical doctors , nurses and 2 k @-@ 9s was deployed to epicenters to assist mitigation efforts of Haitian Government .
The American Red Cross announced on 13 January that it had run out of supplies in Haiti and appealed for public donations . Giving Children Hope worked to get much @-@ needed medicines and supplies on the ground . Partners in Health ( PIH ) , the largest health care provider in rural Haiti , was able to provide some emergency care from its ten hospitals and clinics , all of which were outside the capital and undamaged . MINUSTAH had over 9 @,@ 000 uniformed peacekeepers deployed to the area . Most of these workers were initially involved in the search for survivors at the organization 's collapsed headquarters .
The International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated , allowing satellite imagery of affected regions to be shared with rescue and aid organizations . Members of social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook spread messages and pleas to send help . Facebook was overwhelmed by — and blocked — some users who were sending messages about updates . The American Red Cross set a record for mobile donations , raising US $ 7 million in 24 hours when they allowed people to send US $ 10 donations by text messages . The OpenStreetMap community responded to the disaster by greatly improving the level of mapping available for the area using post @-@ earthquake satellite photography provided by GeoEye , and tracking website Ushahidi coordinated messages from multiple sites to assist Haitians still trapped and to keep families of survivors informed . Some online poker sites hosted poker tournaments with tournament fees , prizes or both going to disaster relief charities . Google Earth updated its coverage of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince on 17 January , showing the earthquake @-@ ravaged city .
Easing refugee immigration into Canada was discussed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper , and in the US Haitians were granted Temporary protected status , a measure that permits about 100 @,@ 000 illegal alien Haitians in the United States to stay legally for 18 months , and halts the deportations of 30 @,@ 000 more , though it does not apply to Haitians outside the US . Local and state agencies in South Florida , together with the US government , began implementing a plan ( " Operation Vigilant Sentry " ) for a mass migration from the Caribbean that had been laid out in 2003 .
Several orphanages were destroyed in the earthquake . After the process for the adoption of 400 children by families in the US and the Netherlands was expedited , Unicef and SOS Children urged an immediate halt to adoptions from Haiti . Jasmine Whitbread , chief executive of Save the Children said : " The vast majority of the children currently on their own still have family members alive who will be desperate to be reunited with them and will be able to care for them with the right support . Taking children out of the country would permanently separate thousands of children from their families — a separation that would compound the acute trauma they are already suffering and inflict long @-@ term damage on their chances of recovery . " However , several organizations were planning an airlift of thousands of orphaned children to South Florida on humanitarian visas , modelled on a similar effort with Cuban refugees in the 1960s named " Pedro Pan " . The Canadian government worked to expedite around 100 adoption cases that were already underway when the earthquake struck , issuing temporary permits and waiving regular processing fees ; the federal government also announced that it would cover adopted children 's healthcare costs upon their arrival in Canada until they could be covered under provincially administered public healthcare plans .
= = Rescue and relief efforts = =
Rescue efforts began in the immediate aftermath of the earthquake , with able @-@ bodied survivors extricating the living and the dead from the rubble of the many buildings that had collapsed . Treatment of the injured was hampered by the lack of hospital and morgue facilities : the Argentine military field hospital , which had been serving MINUSTAH , was the only one available until 13 January . Rescue work intensified only slightly with the arrival of doctors , police officers , military personnel and firefighters from various countries two days after the earthquake .
From 12 January , the International Committee of the Red Cross , which has been working in Haiti since 1994 , focused on bringing emergency assistance to victims of the catastrophe , in close cooperation with its partners within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , particularly the Haitian Red Cross and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies .
Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ; MSF ) reported that the hospitals that had not been destroyed were overwhelmed by large numbers of seriously injured people , and that they had to carry out many amputations . Running short of medical supplies , some teams had to work with any available resources , constructing splints out of cardboard and reusing latex gloves . Other rescue units had to withdraw as night fell amid security fears . Over 3 @,@ 000 people had been treated by Médecins Sans Frontières as of 18 January . Ophelia Dahl , director of Partners in Health , reported , " there are hundreds of thousands of injured people . I have heard the estimate that as many as 20 @,@ 000 people will die each day that would have been saved by surgery . "
An MSF aircraft carrying a field hospital was repeatedly turned away by US air traffic controllers who had assumed control at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Four other MSF aircraft were also turned away . In a 19 January press release MSF said , " It is like working in a war situation . We don 't have any more morphine to manage pain for our patients . We cannot accept that planes carrying lifesaving medical supplies and equipment continue to be turned away while our patients die . Priority must be given to medical supplies entering the country . " First responders voiced frustration with the number of relief trucks sitting unused at the airport . Aid workers blamed US @-@ controlled airport operations for prioritising the transportation of security troops over rescuers and supplies ; evacuation policies favouring citizens of certain nations were also criticised .
The US military acknowledged the non @-@ governmental organizations ' complaints concerning flight @-@ operations bias and promised improvement while noting that up to 17 January 600 emergency flights had landed and 50 were diverted ; by the first weekend of disaster operations diversions had been reduced to three on Saturday and two on Sunday . The airport was able to support 100 landings a day , up from the 35 a day that the airport gets during normal operation . A spokesman for the joint task force running the airport confirmed that though more flights were requesting landing slots , none were being turned away .
Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim and French Minister of State for Cooperation Alain Joyandet criticised the perceived preferential treatment for US aid arriving at the airport , though a spokesman for the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that there had been no official protest from the French government with regard to the management of the airport . US officials acknowledged that coordination of the relief effort is central to Haitian recovery , and President Préval asked for calm coordination between assisting nations without mutual accusations .
US Air Force logs documenting activity at the airport obtained by the Associated Press largely disprove the claim that the US held up aid in favor of military flights . The US military initially did give priority to military units needed to secure the airport , distribute aid , and provide security , but after that , incoming relief flights were cleared or rejected on a first @-@ come , first @-@ served basis . According to a US Air Force Captain who had coordinated flight schedules , nearly all groups sending aid insisted their shipment was urgent . Those flights that were rejected were diverted to the Dominican Republic , where their cargoes were unloaded and taken to Haiti by land .
At the peak of the relief efforts , the airport was in a state of chaos . Normally , the airport , with a single runway and 10 spaces for large planes , handled 20 flights a day . After the earthquake struck , hundreds of planes rushed to Haiti without designated landing time . On average , a plane would land or take off every two minutes . The situation was further complicated by the fact that there was no room on ramps for planes to unload their cargo , and some planes did not have enough fuel to leave .
While the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince airport ramp has spaces for over a dozen airliners , in the days following the quake it sometimes served nearly 40 at once , creating serious delays . The supply backup at the airport was expected to ease as the apron management improved , and when the perceived need for heavy security diminished . Airport congestion was reduced further on 18 January when the United Nations and US forces formally agreed to prioritise humanitarian flights over security reinforcement .
By 14 January , over 20 countries had sent military personnel to the country , with Canada , the United States and the Dominican Republic providing the largest contingents . The supercarrier USS Carl Vinson arrived at maximum possible speed on 15 January with 600 @,@ 000 emergency food rations , 100 @,@ 000 ten @-@ litre water containers , and an enhanced wing of 19 helicopters ; 130 @,@ 000 litres of drinking water were transferred to shore on the first day .
The helicopter carrier USS Bataan sailed with three large dock landing ships and two survey / salvage vessels , to create a " sea base " for the rescue effort . They were joined by the French Navy vessel Francis Garnier on 16 January , the same day the hospital ship USNS Comfort and guided @-@ missile cruiser USS Bunker Hill left for Haiti . Another large French vessel was later ordered to Haiti , the amphibious transport dock Siroco .
International rescue efforts were restricted by traffic congestion and blocked roads . Although US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates had previously ruled out dropping food and water by air as too dangerous , by 16 January , US helicopters were distributing aid to areas impossible to reach by land .
In Jacmel , a city of 50 @,@ 000 , the mayor claimed that 70 percent of the homes had been damaged and that the quake had killed 300 to 500 people and left some 4 @,@ 000 injured . The small airstrip suffered damage that rendered it unusable for supply flights until 20 January . The Canadian navy vessel HMCS Halifax was deployed to the area on 18 January ; the Canadians joined Colombian rescue workers , Chilean doctors , a French mobile clinic , and Sri Lankan relief workers who had already responded to calls for aid .
About 64 @,@ 000 people living in the three adjacent agricultural communities of Durissy , Morne a Chandelle , and Les Palmes were relatively unharmed because most of the people were working in the fields ; but all churches , chapels and at least 8 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed .
British search and rescue teams were the first to arrive in Léogane , the town at the epicenter of the quake , on 17 January . The Canadian ship HMCS Athabaskan reached the area on 19 January , and by 20 January there were 250 – 300 Canadian personnel assisting relief efforts in the town . By 19 January , staff of the International Red Cross had also managed to reach the town , which they described as " severely damaged ... the people there urgently need assistance " , and by 20 January they had reached Petit @-@ Goâve as well , where they set up two first @-@ aid posts and distributed first @-@ aid kits .
Over the first weekend 130 @,@ 000 food packets and 70 @,@ 000 water containers were distributed to Haitians , as safe landing areas and distribution centers such as golf courses were secured . There were nearly 2 @,@ 000 rescuers present from 43 different groups , with 161 search dogs ; the airport had handled 250 tons of relief supplies by the end of the weekend . Reports from Sunday showed a record @-@ breaking number of successful rescues , with at least 12 survivors pulled from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's rubble , bringing the total number of rescues to 110 .
The buoy tender USCG Oak and USNS Grasp ( T @-@ ARS @-@ 51 ) were on scene by 18 January to assess damage to the port and work to reopen it , and by 21 January one pier at the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport was functional , offloading humanitarian aid , and a road had been repaired to make transport into the city easier . In an interview on 21 January , Leo Merores , Haiti 's ambassador to the UN , said that he expected the port to be fully functional again within two weeks .
The US Navy listed its resources in the area as " 17 ships , 48 helicopters and 12 fixed @-@ wing aircraft " in addition to 10 @,@ 000 sailors and Marines . The Navy had conducted 336 air deliveries , delivered 32 @,@ 400 US gallons ( 123 @,@ 000 L ) of water , 532 @,@ 440 bottles of water , 111 @,@ 082 meals and 9 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) of medical supplies by 20 January . Hospital ship Comfort began operations on 20 January , completing the arrival of the first group of sea @-@ base vessels ; this came as a new flotilla of USN ships were assigned to Haiti , including survey vessels , ferries , elements of the maritime prepositioning and underway replenishment fleets , and a further three amphibious operations ships , including another helicopter carrier , USS Nassau ( LHA @-@ 4 ) .
On 22 January the UN and United States formalised the coordination of relief efforts by signing an agreement giving the US responsibility for the ports , airports and roads , and making the UN and Haitian authorities responsible for law and order . The UN stated that it had resisted formalising the organization of the relief effort to allow as much leeway as possible for those wishing to assist in the relief effort , but with the new agreement " we 're leaving that emergency phase behind " . The UN also urged organizations to coordinate aid efforts through its mission in Haiti to allow for better scheduling of the arrival of supplies . On 23 January the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors , and most search and rescue teams began to prepare to leave the country . However , as late as 8 February 2010 , survivors were still being discovered , as in the case of Evan Muncie , 28 , found in the rubble of a grocery store .
On 5 February , ten Baptist missionaries from Idaho led by Laura Silsby were charged with criminal association and kidnapping for trying to smuggle 33 children out of Haiti . The missionaries claimed they were rescuing orphaned children but investigations revealed that more than 20 of the children had been taken from their parents after they were told the children would have a better life in America . In an interview , the United States Ambassador to Haiti Kenneth Merten , stated that the US justice system would not interfere and that " the Haitian justice system will do what it has to do . " By 9 March 2010 , all but Silsby were deported and she remained incarcerated .
Social networking organizations such as Crisis Camp Haiti were developed to aid in the structure and coordination of relief efforts in Haiti and future catastrophic events as well .
On 10 April , due to the potential threat of mudslides and flooding from the upcoming rainy season , the Haitian government began operations to move thousands of refugees to a more secure location north of the capital .
= = Recovery = =
US President Barack Obama announced that former presidents Bill Clinton , who also acts as the UN special envoy to Haiti , and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti 's recovery . Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Haiti on 16 January to survey the damage and stated that US $ 48 million had been raised already in the US to help Haiti recover . Following the meeting with Secretary Clinton , President Préval stated that the highest priorities in Haiti 's recovery were establishing a working government , clearing roads , and ensuring the streets were cleared of bodies to improve sanitary conditions .
US Vice President Joe Biden stated on 16 January that President Obama " does not view this as a humanitarian mission with a life cycle of a month . This will still be on our radar screen long after it 's off the crawler at CNN . This is going to be a long slog . "
Trade and Industry Minister Josseline Colimon Fethiere estimated that the earthquake 's toll on the Haitian economy would be massive , with one in five jobs lost . In response to the earthquake , foreign governments offered badly needed financial aid . The European Union promised € 330 million for emergency and long @-@ term aid . Brazil announced R $ 375 million for long @-@ term recovery aid , R $ 25 million of which in immediate funds . The United Kingdom 's Secretary of State for International Development Douglas Alexander called the result of the earthquake an " almost unprecedented level of devastation " , and committed the UK to ₤ 20 million in aid , while France promised € 10 million . Italy announced it would waive repayment of the € 40 million it had loaned to Haiti , and the World Bank waived the country 's debt repayments for five years . On 14 January , the US government announced it would give US $ 100 million to the aid effort and pledged that the people of Haiti " will not be forgotten " .
In the aftermath of the earthquake , the government of Canada announced that it would match the donations of Canadians up to a total of C $ 50 million . Canadians were able to donate through the Humanitarian Coalition which distributed funds to partner organizations working in the field . During this time the Humanitarian Coalition raised over C $ 15 Million . After a United Nations call for help for the people affected by the earthquake , Canada pledged an additional C $ 60 million in aid on 19 January 2010 , bringing Canada 's total contribution to C $ 135 million . By 8 February 2010 , the federal International Co @-@ operation Department , through the Canadian International Development Agency ( CIDA ) , had already provided about C $ 85 million in humanitarian aid through UN agencies , the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and to organizations such as CARE , Médecins du Monde , Save the Children , Oxfam Quebec , the Centre for International Studies and co @-@ operation , and World Vision . On 23 January 2010 , Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the federal government had lifted the limit on the amount of money allocated for matching individual donations to relief efforts , and that the federal government would continue to match individual donations until 12 February 2010 ; by the deadline , Canadians had privately raised C $ 220 million . On top of matching donations , International Co @-@ operation Minister Bev Oda pledged an additional C $ 290 million in long @-@ term relief to be spent between 2010 and 2012 , including C $ 8 million in debt relief to Haiti , part of a broader cancellation of the country 's overall World Bank debt . The government 's commitment to provide C $ 550 million in aid and debt relief and Canadians ' individual donations amount to a total of C $ 770 million .
In addition to Canada 's federal government , the governments of several of the provinces and territories of Canada also announced that they would provide immediate emergency aid to Haiti . On 18 January 2010 , the province of Quebec , whose largest city – Montreal – houses the world 's largest Haitian diaspora , pledged C $ 3 million in emergency aid . Both the provincial government of Quebec and the Canadian federal government reaffirmed their commitment to rebuilding Haiti at the 2010 Francophonie Summit ; Prime Minister Harper used his opening speech to " tell the head of the Haitian delegation to keep up their spirits " and to urge other nations to continue to support recovery efforts .
President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal offered interested Haitians free land in Senegal ; depending on how many respond to the offer , this could include up to an entire region .
Prime Minister Bellerive announced that from 20 January , people would be helped to relocate outside the zone of devastation , to areas where they may be able to rely on relatives or better fend for themselves ; people who have been made homeless would be relocated to the makeshift camps created by residents within the city , where a more focused delivery of aid and sanitation could be achieved . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , according to an international studies professor at the University of Miami , was ill @-@ equipped before the disaster to sustain the number of people who had migrated there from the countryside over the past ten years to find work . After the earthquake , thousands of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents began returning to the rural towns they came from .
On 25 January a one @-@ day conference was held in Montreal to assess the relief effort and discuss further plans . Prime Minister Bellerive told delegates from 20 countries that Haiti would need " massive support " for its recovery from the international community . A donors ' conference was expected to be held at the UN headquarters in New York in March , however , took more than three months to hold the UN conference . The 26 @-@ member international Interim Haiti Reconstruction Commission , headed by Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , convened in June 2010 . That committee is overseeing the US $ 5 @.@ 3 billion pledged internationally for the first two years of Haiti 's reconstruction .
The commission was critiqued by Haitian groups for lacking Haitian civil society representation and accountability mechanisms . Half the representation on the commission was given to foreigners who effectively bought their seats by pledging certain amounts of money . An international development consultant contracted by the commission was quoted as saying , “ Look , you have to realize the IHRC [ commission ] was not intended to work as a structure or entity for Haiti or Haitians . It was simply designed as a vehicle for donors to funnel multinationals ’ and NGOs ’ project contracts . ”
The Netherlands sponsored a project , called Radio555 . The Dutch radio channels 3FM , Radio 538 and Radio Veronica all broadcast under the name of Radio555 , funded by a contribution of € 80 million .
Several organizations of the US building industry and government , such as the Department of Homeland Security and the International Code Council , among others , reported that they were compiling a " Haiti Toolkit " coordinated by the National Institute of Building Sciences . The toolkit would comprise building technology resources and best practices for consideration by the Haitian government with the goal of creating a more resilient infrastructure to prevent future losses of life .
Immediately following the earthquake , Real Medicine Foundation began providing medical staffing , in @-@ kind medical supplies and strategic coordination to help meet the surging needs of the health crisis on the ground . Working in close partnership with other relief organizations , Real Medicine organized deployments of volunteer medical specialists to meet the needs of partner hospitals and clinics at the Haiti – Dominican Republic border and in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , provided direct funding , medical supplies and pharmaceuticals to local health facilities and partner hospitals , provided advisory services and coordination to local health facilities , including physical therapy support , and coordinated mobile health outreaches , field clinics and food supplies to outlying villages overlooked in the relief effort .
On 15 January 2011 , the Catholic Relief Services announced a US $ 200 million , five @-@ year relief and reconstruction program that covers shelter , health , livelihoods , and child protection among its program areas .
= = = Status of the recovery = = =
Six months after the quake as much as 98 percent of the rubble remained uncleared . An estimated 26 million cubic yards ( 20 million cubic meters ) remained , making most of the capital impassable , and thousands of bodies remained in the rubble . The number of people in relief camps of tents and tarps since the quake was 1 @.@ 6 million , and almost no transitional housing had been built . Most of the camps had no electricity , running water , or sewage disposal , and the tents were beginning to fall apart . Crime in the camps was widespread , especially against women and girls . Between 23 major charities , US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts , but only two percent of the money had been released . According to a CBS report , US $ 3 @.@ 1 billion had been pledged for humanitarian aid and was used to pay for field hospitals , plastic tarps , bandages , and food , plus salaries , transportation and upkeep of relief workers . By May 2010 , enough aid had been raised internationally to give each displaced family a cheque for US $ 37 @,@ 000 .
In July 2010 , CNN returned to Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reported , " It looks like the quake just happened yesterday " , and Imogen Wall , spokeswoman for the United Nations office of humanitarian affairs in Haiti , said that " six months from that time it may still look the same . " Land ownership posed a particular problem for rebuilding because so many pre @-@ quake homes were not officially registered . " Even before the national registry fell under the rubble , land tenure was always a complex and contentious issue in Haiti . Many areas of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were settled either by tonton makout – Duvalier 's death squads – given land for their service or by squatters . In many cases land ownership was never officially registered . Even if this logistical logjam were to be cleared , the vast majority of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents , up to 85 percent , did not own their homes before the earthquake . "
Haitian grassroots groups advocated for the government to fulfill the right to housing as designated in the Haitian constitution , and for donor governments to support this as well . They also worked to push the international community to recognize the wave of evictions from camps that started as early as three months after the earthquake and to put protections in place , but little was done in response .
In September 2010 there were over one million refugees still living in tents , and the humanitarian situation was characterized as still being in the emergency phase , according to the Apostolic Nuncio to Haiti , Archbishop Bernard Auza . He went on to say that the number was rising instead of diminishing , and reported that the state had decided to first rebuild downtown Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and a new government center , but reconstruction had not yet begun .
In October 2010 , Refugees International characterized the aid agencies as dysfunctional and inexperienced saying , " The people of Haiti are still living in a state of emergency , with a humanitarian response that appears paralyzed " . It was reported that gang leaders and land owners were intimidating the displaced and that sexual , domestic , and gang violence in and around the camps was rising . They claimed that rape of Haitian women and girls who had been living in camps since the January earthquake was increasing , in part , because the United Nations wasn 't doing enough to protect them .
In October , a cholera epidemic broke out , probably introduced by foreign aid workers . Cholera most often affects poor countries with limited access to clean water and proper sanitation . By the end of 2010 , more than 3 @,@ 333 had died at a rate of about 50 deaths a day .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
In January 2011 , one year after the quake , Oxfam published a report on the status of the recovery . According to the report , relief and recovery were at a standstill due to government inaction and indecision on the part of the donor countries . The report stated , " One year on , only five percent of the rubble has been cleared and only 15 percent of the required basic and temporary houses have been built . House building on a large scale cannot be started before the enormous amount of rubble is cleared . The government and donors must prioritize this most basic step toward helping people return home " . Robert Fox , executive director of Oxfam Canada , said " The dysfunction has been aided unabated by the way the international community has organized itself , where pledges have been made and they haven 't followed through [ and ] where they come to the table with their own agendas and own priorities . Most donors provided funds for transitional housing but very little money for clearing rubble or repairing houses " . Fox said that in many instances rubble removal " means it was [ moved ] off someone 's property onto the road in front of the property " . According to a UNICEF report , " Still today more than one million people remain displaced , living in crowded camps where livelihoods , shelter and services are still hardly sufficient for children to stay healthy " . Amnesty International reported that armed men were preying with impunity on girls and women in displacement camps , worsening the trauma of having lost homes , livelihoods and loved ones .
On the first anniversary of the earthquake , Haitian @-@ born Michaëlle Jean , who served as the Governor General of Canada at the time of the disaster and who became United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) Special Envoy for Haiti on 8 November 2010 , voiced her anger at the slow rate of aid delivery , placing much of the blame on the international community for abandoning its commitments . In a public letter co @-@ authored with UNESCO head Irina Bokova , Jean said , " As time passes , what began as a natural disaster is becoming a disgraceful reflection on the international community . " The Interim Haiti Recovery Commission , led by former US President Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , had been set up to facilitate the flow of funds toward reconstruction projects in April 2010 , but as of January 2011 , no major reconstruction had started .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
In January 2012 , two years since the quake , figures released by the United Nations show that of the nearly US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion pledged for reconstruction projects in 2010 and 2011 , only 43 percent has been delivered . Venezuela and the US , which promised the major share of reconstruction funds , have disbursed only 24 percent and 30 percent , respectively . Japan and Finland are among the few donors to have fully met their pledges . The data shows that some crucial sectors face particularly large funding gaps . In 2010 and 2011 , for example , donors disbursed just US $ 125 million of the US $ 311 million in grants allocated to agriculture projects , and only US $ 108 million of the US $ 315 million in grants allocated to health projects . Only 6 percent of bilateral aid for reconstruction projects has gone through Haitian institutions , and less than 1 percent of relief funding has gone through the government of Haiti .
A January 2012 Oxfam report said that a half a million Haitians remained homeless , still living under tarps and in tents . Watchdog groups have criticized the reconstruction process saying that part of the problem is that charities spent a considerable amount of money on " soaring rents , board members ' needs , overpriced supplies and imported personnel " . The Miami Herald reports . " A lot of good work was done ; the money clearly didn 't all get squandered , " but , " A lot just wasn 't responding to needs on the ground . Millions were spent on ad campaigns telling people to wash their hands . Telling them to wash their hands when there 's no water or soap is a slap in the face . "
The Institute of Justice & Democracy in Haiti , Let Haiti Live , and The Center For Constitutional Rights have recommended immediate changes to recovery efforts to ensure that critical human rights concerns are addressed . A report found that , " The conditions in the displaced persons camps are abysmal , particularly for women and girls who too often are victims of gender ‐ based violence " . They call for more oversight of accountability of reconstruction plans , asking , " Why have only 94 @,@ 000 transitional shelters been built to date despite a stated goal of 125 @,@ 000 in the first year ? " .
On 25 August 2012 , recovery was hampered due to Tropical Storm Isaac impacting Haiti 's southern peninsula . There it caused flooding and 29 deaths according to local reporting . As a result of the 2010 earthquake , more than 400 @,@ 000 Haitians continue to live in tents and experienced the storm without adequate shelter . In late October , with over 370 @,@ 000 still living in tent camps , a second tropical storm , Hurricane Sandy , killed 55 and left large portions of Haiti under water .
At the 2012 Consultative Group meeting of the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery ( GFDRR ) , the Haitian delegation shared a " bottom @-@ up " approach to disaster reduction and management based on community integration and sustainable development with a group of experts from approximately 38 nations .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
According to the International Monetary Fund , more than half of the 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of debris have been removed , and 20 percent of it has been recycled .
The cholera outbreak which began in October 2010 has continued . According to U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention it is considered the worst epidemic of cholera since the 1994 outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( called Zaire at that time ) . By August 2013 , it had killed over 8 @,@ 231 Haitians and hospitalized hundreds of thousands more . More than 6 % of Haitians have had the disease . Care of cholera patients remains inadequate with much now done in tent facilities with rows of cots for patient treatment . The United Nations peace keeping force , widely believed responsible for the cholera outbreak , continues to refuse to accept responsibility , however , they have launched a $ 2 @.@ 2 billion initiative to combat cholera and the construction of a $ 17 million teaching hospital in Mirebalais which will employ 800 Haitians and treat 185 @,@ 000 people .
By the beginning of the year only a small part-- $ 215 million — of the total funds collected for aid had been spent on permanent housing , with most of it-- $ 1 @.@ 2 billion — going for short @-@ term solutions including tent camps , temporary shelters , and cash grants that paid a year 's rent . A 2013 survey disclosed that of the 1 @.@ 5 million Haitians living in camps following the quake , about 279 @,@ 000 remained in a total of 352 camps . Fifteen percent of the camps had no basic protection services , and 48 % no health services . While 20 % lacked functioning toilets , this is higher than the population outside tent cities , where 50 % lack toilets . Many camps remained at a risk for flooding and more than a third of the camps ( 108 ) were at risk for evictions . In a 2013 statement , the American Red Cross reported that almost all of the money collected for quake relief has been spent or is scheduled for making progress permanent by ensuring people can leave camps and return to stable communities , which includes building new homes , repairing homes , completing a new hospital and clinic , and signing an agreement for a second hospital .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
In 2015 , NPR and ProPublica investigated the disappearance of US $ 500 million donated to the American Red Cross , described as " one of the most successful fundraisers ever " . Despite the claims of the American Red Cross that 130 @,@ 000 homes had been built , the investigation discovered that only six had been built . The investigation reviewed " hundreds " of pages of internal documents and interviewed " more than a dozen " former and current staff members , and investigated the organization 's claim that 4 @.@ 5 million Haitians had been helped " back on their feet " despite Joel Boutroue , a Haitian government advisor , stating that this number would cover " 100 percent of the urban area " , and observing that this would mean they had served every city in Haiti . Numerous other claims did not hold up under investigation , and it was found that the project was riddled with " multiple staffing changes " , bureaucratic delays and a language barrier as many of the Red Cross officials did not speak French or Creole . General counsel for the American Red Cross , David Meltzer , directed the investigators to their official statistics , but would not elaborate on them . The public affairs office of the Red Cross disputed NPR and ProPublica 's claims in an email , and claimed that the investigative report could cause an international incident . The American Red Cross has handed over the rebuilding efforts to the Haitian Red Cross .
= = In literature = =
The Haiti 2010 earthquake has been depicted in the novel God Loves Haiti , by Dimitry Elias Léger .
= De dezas a espwa : interviews with persons affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake =
yon koze ak moun tranblemandetè ann Ayiti a afekte . United States : Xlibris . ISBN 9781479709472 .
= Thom Darden =
Thomas Vincent Darden ( born August 28 , 1950 ) is a former American football cornerback , safety , and punt returner who played for the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League ( NFL ) . In the NFL , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ Pro free safety . He earned a Pro Bowl selection in 1978 . He holds most Cleveland Browns franchise interception records . He was an All @-@ American defensive back for the Michigan Wolverines football team and made one of the more memorable interceptions in college football history . After retiring from football , Darden pursued careers as a sports agent , security provider and business consultant .
= = Early life = =
Darden was born in Sandusky , Ohio . He graduated from Sandusky High School .
= = College football = =
After graduating , he was recruited by six Big Ten Conference football programs in 1968 . He played at the University of Michigan from 1969 to 1971 and had 218 tackles and 11 interceptions . He was an All American in 1971 , and he was also named All @-@ Big Ten in 1970 . He played on Big Ten champions in both 1969 and 1971 . Thom fit in well at Michigan becoming one of Coach Bo Schembechler 's prized pupils and earning a reference in his 2006 book Bo Schembechler . Darden still ranks among leaders at Michigan for Punt Returns and Punt Return Yardage . Darden played all defensive back positions at Michigan . In college , Darden was a housemate of Reggie McKenzie , Glenn Doughty , Billy Taylor and Mike Taylor in a notable house known as the Den of the Mellow Men .
ESPN chose Darden 's November 21 , 1971 interception against Ohio State as one of the 100 Plays , performances and moments that define college football . The play was a very controversial call late in the 10 – 7 game and Ohio State coach Woody Hayes stormed the field to rant at the referee Jerry Markbreit about the referee 's call that Hayes thought should have been ruled pass interference . By the end of Hayes ' tirade , he had broken a yard marker , shredded a first @-@ down indicator and earned two 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike penalties . The scene was replayed over and over on national television broadcasts . That was Darden 's second interception in that game . ESPN also chose Darden as a member of the All @-@ Time University of Michigan Football team .
= = Pro football = =
Darden was drafted in the first round ( 18th overall ) in the 1972 NFL Draft by the Cleveland Browns . Darden started at free safety from his rookie season of 1972 until he lost the job in his tenth and final season to Clinton Burrell . He was selected an All @-@ Pro safety in 1976 , 1978 , and 1979 , and went to the Pro Bowl in 1978 . Over the course of his career he handled 45 punt returns for 285 return yards . Darden holds Cleveland Browns franchise records with 45 career interceptions , 10 single @-@ season interceptions and 820 interception return yards . Two of Darden 's Browns teams went to the playoffs . His rookie year , the 10 – 4 1972 Browns went to the 1972 @-@ 73 NFL playoffs under head coach Nick Skorich , but lost in the first round to the Miami Dolphins 20 – 14 . The 11 – 5 1980 Browns went to the 1980 @-@ 81 NFL playoffs under head coach Sam Rutigliano , but lost in the first round to the Oakland Raiders 14 – 12 .
Darden was ranked 47th on the Cleveland Browns top 100 players list .
= = Post football = =
Darden has served as a professional sports agent and represented Tony Boles . In 1990 , he invested $ 25 @,@ 000 in Boles by hosting him in Cleveland , Ohio and working him out with athletic trainers . At the time he was Cleveland @-@ based sports agent . During Darden 's career as an agent he represented an assortment of NFL and National Basketball Association players and prospects including Felix Wright and Chris Calloway . He was a supporter of Maurice Clarett 's attempt to challenge the NFL Draft 's eligibility rules . In 1998 , when the NFL reissued a franchise in Cleveland , Darden was part of one of the six bidding groups . In 1999 , he owned a security company in Cedar Rapids , Iowa . As of 2006 , Darden was a business consultant living in Cedar Rapids .
In 1993 , he went to jail for failure to pay child support . At the time he was a registered NFL agent in Connecticut and owed $ 14 @,@ 000 in child support , $ 30 @,@ 000 to a trust for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old son , Todd , and $ 12 @,@ 000 in his former wife 's legal fees . Darden had been married to Sheryl from 1972 – 1977 when they divorced . He had previously been $ 5000 in arrears until being briefly jailed for failure to pay and cursing the judge . He had been in contempt of court twenty times previously .
= Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne =
Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne ( known as Journey to the Moon in the United Kingdom and Australia ) is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game with pre @-@ rendered graphics , developed by Kheops Studio and published by The Adventure Company for the PC in 2005 . The game 's story focuses on a French adventurer 's journey to the moon in the 19th century , and the ancient lunar civilization he subsequenfinds .
Voyage is loosely based on the novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon by science @-@ fiction author Jules Verne , and the novel The First Men in the Moon by science @-@ fiction author H.G. Wells . Reactions to the game were generally mixed . In particular , some reviewers praised it for immersing the player in the look and feel of the 19th century ; others have criticized it for featuring dated graphics and dull textures .
While staying true to most adventure game conventions , Voyage has some unique features for its genre . These include two dexterity minigames which take advantage of the reduced gravity in the game 's lunar setting , and an " Intelligence Management System " , in which a score is assigned to the player for every puzzle he solves , and for certain actions . The Adventure Company introduced this feature to motivate players to replay the game to increase their cumulative score .
= = Gameplay = =
The main focus of Voyage is puzzle @-@ solving . The player can move by clicking , and can swivel the camera 360 degrees . There are several types of puzzle in Voyage including those involving native plant life on the moon , mechanical puzzles , audio puzzles , and mathematical puzzles . Many of these puzzles require the player to decipher and use the native language of the moon .
Voyage features two unique dexterity minigames . Using a low @-@ gravity setting , the first minigame requires the player to collect floating bubbles in a can , and the second requires the player to execute large jumps across the surface of the moon . These two minigames form only a minor part of the game . The game also has several timed sequences requiring the player to complete puzzles under a time limit . The consequence of failing a puzzle of this sort is death , after which the player is able to return and replay the puzzle . Players can also be killed as the result of taking incorrect actions related to | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
250 per day . His first professional stage appearance came in the same year , when he played Keith in Up on the Roof . The musical ran at the Theatre Royal , Plymouth , before transferring to the London West End . Nesbitt reprised the role when the production returned to Plymouth in early 1989 . Roger Malone in The Stage and Television Today wrote that Nesbitt " steals the show with the best lines and best delivery as he laconically squares up to life with an easy contentment " . Nesbitt appeared in two other plays in 1989 ; in June , he played Dukes Frederick and Senior in Paul Jepson 's As You Like It at the Rose Theatre Club , and then appeared in Yuri Lyubimov 's version of Hamlet . Hamlet had been translated back to English from Boris Pasternak 's Russian translation . It ran at the Haymarket Theatre , Leicester for a month before a transfer to the Old Vic and then a nine @-@ month world tour . Nesbitt played Guildenstern , Barnardo and the second gravedigger . He recalled that the play received " shocking " reviews , but was exciting .
In the early 1990s , he lived with fellow actor Jerome Flynn and earned money by signing fan mail for the successful star of Soldier Soldier . In his debut feature film , Hear My Song ( Peter Chelsom , 1991 ) , Nesbitt played Fintan O 'Donnell , a struggling theatrical agent and friend of Mickey O 'Neill ( Adrian Dunbar ) . A New York Times critic wrote , " the jaunty , bemused Mr. Nesbitt , manages to combine soulfulness with sly humor " . The praise he received made him self @-@ assured and complacent ; in 2001 , he recalled , " When I did Hear My Song , I disappeared so far up my own arse afterwards . I thought , ' Oh , that 's it , I 've cracked it . ' And I 'm glad that happened , because you then find out how expendable actors are . " His attitude left him out of work for six months after the film was released . Until 1994 , he mixed his stage roles with supporting roles on television in episodes of Boon , The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , Covington Cross , Lovejoy , and Between the Lines . In 1993 , he appeared in Love Lies Bleeding , an instalment of the BBC anthology series Screenplay and his first appearance in a production directed by Michael Winterbottom ; he later appeared in Go Now ( 1995 ) , Jude ( 1996 ) and Welcome to Sarajevo ( 1997 ) . A Guardian journalist wrote that " he showed himself to be a generous supporting actor " in Jude and Sarajevo .
Back on stage , he appeared as Doalty in Translations ( Gwenda Hughes , Birmingham Repertory Theatre , 1991 ) , Aidan in Una Pooka ( Mark Lambert and Nicholas Kent , Tricycle Theatre , 1992 ) , Damien in Paddywack ( Michael Latimer ) , Cockpit Theatre , 1994 ) , and Jesus in Darwin 's Flood ( Simon Stokes , Bush Theatre , 1994 ) . Paddywack , in which Nesbitt 's character is suspected by others of being an IRA member , transferred to the United States for a run at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven , Connecticut in October 1994 . A Variety critic called Damien " the play 's only fully developed character " and commended Nesbitt for giving " the one strong , telling performance [ of the cast ] " . In 1996 , Nesbitt appeared in an episode of the BBC Northern Ireland television drama Ballykissangel , playing Leo McGarvey , the ex @-@ boyfriend of Assumpta Fitzgerald ( Dervla Kirwan ) and love rival of Peter Clifford ( Stephen Tompkinson ) . He reprised the role for four episodes in 1998 .
= = = Cold Feet and early films = = =
In 1996 , Nesbitt auditioned to play Adam Williams , the male lead in Cold Feet , an ITV Comedy Premiere about three couples in different stages of their romantic relationships . The audition came about through a mutual friend of Nesbitt 's and the director , Declan Lowney . The producer , Christine Langan , had also recalled his performances in Hear My Song and Go Now . Adam had not been written with an Irishman in mind to play him — English writer Mike Bullen had written the character as a thinly veiled portrayal of himself in his youth — but Nesbitt wanted to take the opportunity to appear in a contemporary drama as an ordinary man from Northern Ireland with no connection to the Troubles , especially after the Troubles @-@ based plot of Love Lies Bleeding . Cold Feet was a critical success ; it won the 1997 Golden Rose of Montreux and the 1997 British Comedy Award for Best ITV Comedy and was thus commissioned for a full series . Cold Feet 's first series aired at the end of 1998 and was followed by the second series in 1999 . A storyline in that series featured Adam being diagnosed with testicular cancer , which inspired Nesbitt to become a patron of the charity Action Cancer . By the time of the third series , Nesbitt and the other cast members were able to influence the show 's production ; an episode featuring Adam 's stag weekend was due to be filmed on location in Dublin but Nesbitt suggested it be filmed in Belfast and Portrush instead . Several scenes were filmed at his old workplace Barry 's Amusements , although they were cut from the broadcast episode . At the end of the fourth series in 2001 , Nesbitt decided to quit to move on to other projects . Executive producer Andy Harries persuaded him to stay for one more series by suggesting that Adam be killed off , so Nesbitt signed on for the fifth series . During pre @-@ production of the fifth series , Mike Bullen decided to kill off Adam 's wife Rachel ( played by Helen Baxendale ) instead .
Cold Feet ran for five years from 1998 to 2003 , and Nesbitt won the British Comedy Award for Best TV Comedy Actor in 2000 , the Television and Radio Industries Club Award for Drama TV Performer of the Year in 2002 , the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Performance in 2003 , and the TV Quick Award for Best Actor in 2003 . Nesbitt credits the role with raising his profile with the public . Further television roles during these five years included women 's football team coach John Dolan in the first two series of Kay Mellor 's Playing the Field ( appearing alongside his Cold Feet co @-@ star John Thomson ) , investigative journalists Ryan and David Laney in Resurrection Man ( Marc Evans , 1998 ) and Touching Evil II respectively , and womaniser Stanley in Women Talking Dirty ( Coky Giedroyc , 1999 ) .
Nesbitt 's performance in Hear My Song had also impressed first @-@ time screenwriter and film director Kirk Jones , who cast him in his 1998 feature film Waking Ned . Playing amiable pig farmer " Pig " Finn brought Nesbitt to international attention , particularly in the United States ( where the film was released as Waking Ned Devine ) ; the cast was nominated for the 1999 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Theatrical Motion Picture . In 1999 , he appeared as the paramilitary " Mad Dog " Billy Wilson in The Most Fertile Man in Ireland ( Dudi Appleton ) . The following year , he appeared in Declan Lowney 's feature debut , Wild About Harry . Lowney had personally asked him to appear in the supporting role of cross @-@ dressing Unionist politician Walter Adair . In 2001 , he made his debut as a lead actor in a feature film in Peter Cattaneo 's Lucky Break . He played Jimmy Hands , an incompetent bank robber who masterminds an escape from a prison by staging a musical as a distraction . On preparing for the role , Nesbitt said , " Short of robbing a bank there wasn 't much research I could have done but we did spend a day in Wandsworth Prison and that showed the nightmare monotony of prisoners ' lives . I didn 't interview any of the inmates because I thought it would be a little patronising as it was research for a comedy and also because we were going home every night in our fancy cars to sleep in our fancy hotels . " The film was a commercial failure , despite receiving good feedback from test audiences in the United States .
= = = Bloody Sunday = = =
Nesbitt had been approached at a British Academy Television Awards ceremony by director Paul Greengrass , who wanted him to star in a television drama he was making about the 1972 " Bloody Sunday " shootings in Derry . Nesbitt was only seven years old when the shootings happened and was ignorant of its cause ; he believed that there was " no smoke without fire " and that the Catholic marchers must have done something to provoke the British Army . He was filming Cold Feet in Manchester when he received the script . He read it and found that had " an extraordinary effect " on him . Nesbitt played Ivan Cooper in Bloody Sunday , the man who pressed for the march to go ahead . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Cooper and spent many hours talking to him about his motives on that day . He met with relatives of the victims and watched the televised Bloody Sunday Inquiry with them , and also read Don Mullan 's Eyewitness Bloody Sunday and Peter Pringle and Philip Jacobson 's Those Are Real Bullets , Aren 't They ? . Greengrass compared Nesbitt 's preparation to an athlete preparing for a race , and told The Observer , " For an Irish actor , doing the Troubles is like doing Lear . " Nesbitt had questioned whether he was a good enough actor to effectively portray Cooper and was worried what Derry Catholics would think of a Protestant playing the lead , although Ivan Cooper himself is a Protestant .
Shortly before Bloody Sunday was broadcast , Nesbitt described it as " difficult but extraordinary " and " emotionally draining " . The broadcast on ITV in January 2002 and its promotion did not pass without incident ; he was criticised by Unionists for saying that Protestants in Northern Ireland felt " a collective guilt " over the killings . His parents ' home was also vandalised and he received death threats . During the awards season , Nesbitt won the British Independent Film Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor . The film was also screened at film festivals such as the Stockholm International Film Festival , where Nesbitt was presented with the Best Actor award .
In an analysis of the film in the History & Memory journal , Aileen Blaney wrote that it is Nesbitt 's real @-@ life household name status that made his portrayal of Cooper such a success . She reasoned that Nesbitt 's celebrity status mirrors that of Cooper 's in the 1970s : " A household name across Great Britain , Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic [ sic ] , Nesbitt 's widespread popular appeal is emphatically not contingent upon his Protestant Ulster identity , and consequently the double @-@ voicing of the character he plays does not alienate viewers of an alternative , or no , sectarian persuasion . " Guardian journalist Susie Steiner suggested that his appearance in Bloody Sunday was an attempt to resolve the expression of his " Irishness " on screen : " Where he has taken part in a sectarian theme , his intelligence as an actor has often been masked by an excessive , cartoon @-@ style comedy . Yet in his more successful , high @-@ profile roles , ( notably in Cold Feet , and as Pig Finn in the gently pastoral film Waking Ned ) , Nesbitt 's Irishness has been exploited for its romantic charm . It has been sugared and , in the process , de @-@ politicised . " A critic identified Bloody Sunday as Nesbitt 's " coming of age " film , and Nesbitt called it a turning point in his career . He refers to his career since the film was released as " post @-@ Bloody Sunday " .
= = = Murphy 's Law = = =
In 2003 , Nesbitt played undercover police detective Tommy Murphy in the first series of Murphy 's Law , after starring in a successful pilot episode in 2001 . The series was conceived when Nesbitt was working on Playing the Field ; he and producer Greg Brenman approached author Colin Bateman about creating a television series for Nesbitt in a similar vein to Bateman 's Dan Starkey novels . Bateman and Nesbitt were already well acquainted ; Nesbitt had been considered for a main role in Divorcing Jack ( David Caffrey , 1998 ) , based on Bateman 's original novel . A 90 @-@ minute pilot of Murphy 's Law was commissioned by the BBC , initially as a " comedy action adventure " . Bateman created a complex backstory for Murphy , which was cut at the request of the producers . After the broadcast of the pilot , Guardian critic Gareth McLean wrote , " the likeable James Nesbitt turned in a strong , extremely watchable central performance , though rarely did he look taxed by his efforts , and his chemistry with [ Claudia ] Harrison was promising and occasionally electric . " In 2003 , Nesbitt won the Irish Film & Television Award ( IFTA ) for Best Actor in a TV Drama for the role . The second series was broadcast in 2004 .
By 2005 , Nesbitt had become tired of the formula and threatened to quit unless the structure of the series was changed . He was made a creative consultant and suggested that Murphy keep one undercover role for a full series , instead of changing into a new guise every episode . This new dramatic element to the series was intended to make it a closer representation of real @-@ life undercover work . Alongside his research with former undercover officer Peter Bleksley , Nesbitt hired a personal trainer and grew a handlebar moustache to change Murphy 's physical characteristics and tone down the " cheeky chappie " persona that the audience had become accustomed to from his roles . With his trainer , he worked out three times a week , boxing and doing circuits and weights . After the first new episode was broadcast , Sarah Vine wrote in The Times , " In the past , when attempting a nasty stare or a hard face , Nesbitt has never managed much more than a faintly quizzical look , hilarity forever threatening to break out behind those twinkly Irish eyes . But here , it 's different . He genuinely has the air of a man who means business . " The refreshed series marked another milestone in Nesbitt 's career ; he describes it as " a big moment " in his life . Murphy 's Law was not recommissioned for a sixth series , which Nesbitt attributed to the damage done to the fifth series ratings when it was scheduled opposite the popular ITV drama Doc Martin .
In 2004 , Nesbitt appeared in Wall of Silence , a fact @-@ based drama about the aftermath of the murder of schoolboy Jamie Robe . Nesbitt played Stuart Robe , the boy 's father , who tries to break down the wall of silence in the local community to discover exactly what happened to his son . He had only just completed Bloody Sunday when he was offered the part and was unsure whether he wanted to take on such a demanding role so soon after playing Ivan Cooper . He decided to accept the part because he found it interesting . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Robe and spent weeks talking to him in his South London flat , learning about Jamie , and of Robe 's fight for his justice . Nesbitt spoke with his natural accent instead of affecting Robe 's South London speech , as he did not want the audience to be distracted from the drama . The single @-@ drama was filmed over four weeks and broadcast in January 2004 . The role gained Nesbitt an IFTA nomination for Best Actor in a TV Drama later that year .
In March 2004 , he appeared in Tony Marchant 's Passer By , playing Joe Keyes , a man who witnesses a woman being accosted by some men on a train and chooses not to help . Keyes later discovers that the woman was raped but cannot bring himself to admit in court that he did nothing to help her . Nesbitt described Keyes as " like a better man than me : a good father and husband . But , once he has made a wrong decision , he can 't control everything in his life , as he thinks he is weak . He loses the respect of his wife , his son and at work , and has to reach the lowest possible point before finding redemption . " As a result of these serious roles , he was named the sixth most powerful figure in TV drama in a listing compiled by industry experts for the Radio Times . In September 2004 , he starred as Jack Parlabane in the ITV adaptation of Christopher Brookmyre 's Quite Ugly One Morning . The producers originally wanted Scottish actor Douglas Henshall to play Glaswegian Parlabane but ITV executives overruled them and cast Nesbitt . He was given coaching to perfect the accent but it was soon discarded on the advice of both the director and his co @-@ star Daniela Nardini . Also in 2004 , he filmed the roles of Ronnie Cunningham in Millions ( Danny Boyle , 2004 ) , and Detective Banner in Match Point ( Woody Allen , 2005 ) . He was considering taking time off from acting and did not really want the role in Match Point . He sent in an audition tape and was accepted for the part . Nesbitt 's character appears at the end of the film and he read only that part of the script , so did not know the full circumstances of the crime Banner investigates . Despite his initial reluctance , Nesbitt enjoyed working with Allen , and complimented him on his directing style .
Nesbitt returned to theatre acting in June 2005 when he appeared in David Nicholls ' After Sun , a ten @-@ minute @-@ play performed as part of the Old Vic 's 24 @-@ Hour Play season . Nesbitt and Catherine Tate starred as a married couple who meet a pair of newlyweds returning from their honeymoon . Later that year , he appeared in his first full @-@ length play in 11 years , in Owen McCafferty 's Shoot the Crow . He enjoyed the stimulation of learning his lines and rehearsing with the cast and director . The play opened at the Trafalgar Studios in September 2005 and his role as Socrates gained mixed reviews . In The Independent , Michael Coveney suggested the role did not fit the actor : " Nesbitt is cool . But I never felt that he was inside his role of a chap called Socrates [ ... ] He grinned and shrugged through the evening which steadily became less about grouting on tiles and more about grating on nerves . " In The Daily Telegraph , Charles Spencer described Nesbitt 's acting as " outstanding " .
= = = Jekyll , Five Minutes , Occupation = = =
At the end of 2005 , Nesbitt and his agent met with BBC Controller of Fiction Jane Tranter to discuss a new series of Murphy 's Law . At the meeting 's conclusion , Tranter offered Nesbitt the first episode script of Jekyll , a television series by Steven Moffat that updated Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . Nesbitt spent three hours reading the script before accepting the role of Tom Jackman — and his alter @-@ ego Mr Hyde . After signing on for the role , he met with Moffat and Hartswood Films executive producer Beryl Vertue to discuss the character , and had several make @-@ up tests . His anticipation for the part was heightened because filming was not scheduled to begin until September 2006 . Nesbitt spent an hour each day being made up as Hyde ; a wig altered his hairline and prosthetics were added to his chin , nose and ear lobes . He also wore black contact lenses to make Hyde " soulless " , though CGI was used to show the transformation from Jackman in close @-@ ups . The series was broadcast on BBC One in June and July 2007 . The role secured him a nomination from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television , and a nomination for the Rose d 'Or for Best Entertainer .
In 2008 , he portrayed Pontius Pilate in The Passion , a BBC / HBO adaptation of the last week in the life of Jesus . He had originally rejected the script due to other filming commitments , but accepted the role after his agent told him to re @-@ read it before making a final decision . He was pleased to learn that the serial was being produced by Nigel Stafford @-@ Clark , whose Bleak House adaptation he had enjoyed , and that he would be appearing with his Jekyll co @-@ star Denis Lawson . Contrary to previous portrayals of Pilate , Nesbitt played the biblical figure as " nice " , and — as when playing Jack Parlabane — used his own accent . The serial was broadcast in the UK during Easter week 2008 . Shortly after filming The Passion , he filmed the part of journalist Max Raban in the Carnival Films thriller Midnight Man , which was shown on ITV in May 2008 . It won him a joint nomination ( along with the 2007 series of Murphy 's Law ) for the ITV3 Crime Thriller Award for Best Actor . At the end of the year , he had a starring role in the low @-@ budget independent film Blessed . The writer and director Mark Aldridge scripted the character of Peter with Nesbitt in mind to play him . The film had a limited release throughout 2008 and 2009 before the BBC screened it on television in 2010 . Nesbitt said , " The role of Peter is what I have dreamed about playing , you wait your whole life for an opportunity like this and when it comes you have to grab it . "
The following year , Nesbitt co @-@ starred with Liam Neeson in the fact @-@ based television film Five Minutes of Heaven ( Oliver Hirschbiegel , 2009 ) . The first part of the film dramatises the real @-@ life murder of Jim Griffin by Alistair Little in 1970s Lurgan ; the second part features a fictional meeting between Little ( Neeson ) and Jim 's brother Joe ( Nesbitt ) 33 years later . Nesbitt met with Griffin before filming began to learn about how his brother 's murder affected him . The film was broadcast on BBC Two in April 2009 . He also starred as Colour Sgt. Mike Swift in Peter Bowker 's three @-@ part BBC / Kudos television serial Occupation . In Occupation , set over six years , Nesbitt 's character is one of three British soldiers who return to Basra , Iraq after their tours have concluded . He researched the role by speaking to Territorial Army soldiers in Belfast , and RAF officers in Morocco , where the serial was filmed . Both performances were commended by Independent journalist Hugh Montgomery ; in a review of 2009 's television , Montgomery named Nesbitt " Face of the Year " , writing , " Just as you had James Nesbitt written off as the gurning embodiment of everything mediocre about British TV drama , he produced two stonking performances , as the transfixingly harrowed sergeant in Occupation , and a nervily vengeful victim 's relative in Irish @-@ troubles piece Five Minutes of Heaven . Give the man a Bafta . " Nesbitt was not nominated for a BAFTA award , though did receive a nomination for Best Actor from the Broadcasting Press Guild for both performances .
= = = International work = = =
In March 2009 , Nesbitt signed a contract with the American talent agency United Talent Agency , as the global financial crisis was restricting roles in British television . He continued to be represented in the United Kingdom by Artists Rights Group . The next year Nesbitt played the hunter Cathal in the low @-@ budget British horror film Outcast , which was a departure from his previous character types . After screening at major international film festivals in early 2010 , the film had a general release in the latter part of the year . Nesbitt had previously worked with the film 's director and co @-@ writer Colm McCarthy on Murphy 's Law , which was one reason he took the role . He researched the mythical aspects of the character by reading about Irish folklore and beliefs . He also starred alongside Minnie Driver and his Welcome to Sarajevo co @-@ star Goran Višnjić in the Tiger Aspect television serial The Deep . In the five @-@ part drama , Nesbitt played submarine engineer Clem Donnelly . The serial was filmed over 12 weeks at BBC Scotland 's studios in Dumbarton . August 2010 saw the release of Nadia Tass 's film Matching Jack , in which Nesbitt plays the leading role of Connor . He became involved in the film after reading an early script draft in 2006 . In 2008 , the global financial crisis severely reduced the budget of the film , and Nesbitt volunteered a reduction in his salary so the film could still be made . The film was shot over eight weeks in Melbourne in 2009 and released in 2010 .
Next , Nesbitt reunited with Occupation screenwriter Peter Bowker to star in the ITV medical drama series Monroe , playing Gabriel Monroe . Nesbitt was Bowker 's first choice for the part . Nesbitt researched the role of the neurosurgeon character by watching brain surgery being performed by Henry Marsh , and by consulting Philip Van Hille at Leeds General Infirmary . The series was filmed over 12 weeks in Leeds at the end of 2010 and broadcast on ITV during March and April 2011 . Nesbitt will reprise the role in a second series , which is due to begin production in 2012 . In film , Nesbitt co @-@ stars as Irish writer Jack in Emilio Estevez 's drama The Way , alongside Martin Sheen , Deborah Kara Unger , and Yorick van Wageningen , and has a role as Sicinius in Ralph Fiennes ' contemporary Shakespeare adaptation Coriolanus .
Alongside many other British and Irish actors , Nesbitt was cast in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film The Hobbit , as the dwarf Bofur . Nesbitt had not read J.R.R. Tolkien 's novel but accepted the role immediately . As the film was scheduled to take over 12 months to make in New Zealand , Nesbitt 's wife and daughters moved with him , and his daughters were enrolled in a New Zealand school . Filming commenced in March 2011 . The first part , The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , was released in December 2012 , the second part , The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug , in December 2013 , and the third and final part , The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies , in December 2014 .
= = Other projects = =
In 2002 , Nesbitt made his documentary debut as the presenter of James Nesbitt 's Blazing Saddles , a production for BBC Choice that saw him spend two weeks in Las Vegas at the National Finals Rodeo and the Miss Rodeo America pageant . In 2007 , he was the guest host of an episode of the late @-@ night Channel 4 comedy The Friday Night Project . As a film awards presenter , he hosted the IFTA Awards ceremony for three consecutive years between 2005 and 2007 , the British Independent Film Awards from 2005 to 2010 , and the National Movie Awards in 2008 and 2010 . In 2009 , he hosted the Laurence Olivier Awards .
An amateur golfer since his teenage years , Nesbitt joined the European team for Sky One 's All * Star Cup in 2005 and 2006 . He signed up to a series of high @-@ profile television advertisements for the Yell Group in 2003 , playing a hapless character called James for the company 's Yellow Pages campaign until 2006 . Times writer Andrew Billen noted that the adverts " cost him some credibility " but Nesbitt was pleased with the money he made from them . In 2004 , he joined the supergroup Twisted X to produce " Born in England " , an unofficial anthem for the England national football team 's entry in the UEFA Euro 2004 tournament . His vocals have also appeared in Lucky Break and an episode of Cold Feet . The song he performed in the latter — " ( Love Is ) The Tender Trap " — was released on one of the series ' soundtrack albums . He also contributed vocals to the Waking Ned soundtrack . A fan of Northern Irish band Ash , he made a cameo in their unreleased film Slashed . In 2009 , he starred in the music video for " The Day I Died " , a single by English dance @-@ pop artist Just Jack . Nesbitt was recommended to Just Jack by Elton John . Nesbit is scheduled to host the 2013 British Independent Film Awards in London on 8 December 2013 .
Since 2013 Nesbitt appears in adverts for Thomas Cook .
In 2014 , Nesbitt had the lead role as the father character Tony Hughes in harrowing BBC drama series The Missing , alongside Frances O 'Connor ( as his wife / ex @-@ wife , Emily Hughes / Walsh ) and Tchéky Karyo ( as Julien Baptiste , leading French police investigator ) . The drama focused on a British married couple , whose son goes missing while they are on holiday in France , and the subsequent years of enquiry trying to find answers as to what happened to their son and why . Incidentally , Nesbitt and Karyo had appeared previously together in the Martin Sheen film The Way ( 2010 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Nesbitt was married to Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , the daughter of Reverend Sir Timothy Forbes Adam . The two met when Nesbitt went to the final call @-@ back for Hamlet at Loughborough Hall in 1989 , and they soon began dating . They split up for a year after the release of Hear My Song but reunited and married in 1994 . They have since had two daughters , Peggy and Mary ( both of whom appeared in the final two Hobbit movies as the daughters of Bard the Bowman ) . Nesbitt 's three sisters all became teachers . In 2002 , a Sunday tabloid published an interview with a legal secretary who claimed to have had a two @-@ month affair with Nesbitt . Shortly afterwards , another tabloid story revealed an affair with a prostitute , who claimed Nesbitt had boasted of liaisons with his Cold Feet co @-@ star Kimberley Joseph , and Amanda Brunker , a former Miss Ireland . Commenting on the publication of details about his personal life , Nesbitt has said he feared that he would lose his marriage , though the exposing of his " dual life " allowed him to " take a long and considered look " at himself . In October 2013 , Nesbitt announced that he and his wife Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam would separate from each other after 19 years . The couple says that the filming of The Hobbit Trilogy has forced the couple to live separately for the past two years . The split came as a mutual decision and the couple says that infidelity was not one of the reasons for their decision .
Nesbitt is a patron of Wave , a charity set up to support those traumatised by the Troubles . The charity faced closure due to funding problems before Nesbitt encouraged celebrities and artists to become involved . Since 2005 , he has been a UNICEF UK ambassador , working with HIV and AIDS sufferers , and former child soldiers in Africa . He describes the role as " a privilege " . Writing in The Independent about his visit to Zambia in 2006 , Nesbitt concluded that the children he met were owed a social and moral responsibility . The article was described in the Evening Standard as " moving and notably well @-@ crafted " . Since 1999 , he has been a patron of Action Cancer , a result of both his father 's affliction with prostate cancer and a storyline in the second series of Cold Feet , where his character suffered testicular cancer . He has been an honorary patron of Youth Lyric , one of Ireland 's largest theatre schools , since 2007 .
He is a fan of football teams Coleraine and Manchester United . In 2003 , Nesbitt made a donation of " thousands of pounds " to Coleraine , after the team came close to bankruptcy . He has called the team " a heartbeat " of Coleraine and encouraged more people to watch Irish League football . Nesbitt was a vocal opponent of Malcolm Glazer 's 2005 takeover of Manchester United , though after the completion of that deal he acted in television advertisements promoting executive boxes at Old Trafford , for which he was criticised by fans . To counter the criticism , he pledged one half of his £ 10 @,@ 000 fee to the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust and the other half to UNICEF .
Nesbitt is co @-@ owner of National Hunt racehorse ' Riverside Theatre ' , named after the theatre of the University of Ulster in Coleraine , which won the Ryanair Chase at the 2012 Cheltenham Festival .
In March 2010 , Nesbitt accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster , succeeding former Lord Mayor of London Sir Richard Nichols . Gerry Mallon , the chair of the university ruling council , expected Nesbitt to " bring considerable energy , dynamism and commitment " to the post . Following his official installation on 8 June 2010 , Nesbitt said , " Rather than being just an informal role officiating at ceremonies , I think I can act as an ambassador . I have access to an awful lot of people and places because of my work . I hope to be a voice that can be heard , not just at the university , but also outside promoting the importance of the funding of education . If that involves me being at Stormont , then I 'd be very happy to do that . Clearly these public spending cuts are going to have an impact and it 's important to fight for funding because it 's about investing in students and investing in the future of Northern Ireland . I believe I can bring something to that , otherwise I wouldn 't have taken this on . "
He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to drama and to the community in Northern Ireland .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = Academic honours = =
Honorary Doctor of Letters ( D.Litt ) for services to drama from University of Ulster , Magee campus ( 9 July 2003 ) .
Award of Distinction for contribution to drama from Belfast Metropolitan College ( 13 November 2008 ) .
Chancellor of the University of Ulster ( 2010 — ) ( ceremonial )
= Crazy in Love =
" Crazy in Love " is a song from American singer Beyoncé 's debut solo album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . Beyoncé wrote the song with Rich Harrison , Jay Z , and Eugene Record , and produced it with Harrison . " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song that incorporates elements of hip hop , soul , and 1970s @-@ style funk music . Its lyrics describe a romantic obsession that causes the protagonist to act out of character . Jay Z contributes a rapped verse to the song and is credited as a featured performer . The French horn @-@ based hook samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , a 1970 song by the Chi @-@ Lites .
Columbia Records released " Crazy in Love " on May 18 , 2003 , as the lead single from Dangerously in Love . It was a number @-@ one hit in the United States and United Kingdom , and achieved top @-@ ten peaks on several other countries ' record charts . With global sales of over 8 @.@ 5 million , including 2 million from the U.S. , it is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Music critics praised " Crazy in Love " ' s hook , Jay Z 's contribution , and Beyoncé 's assertive delivery of the lyrics . VH1 declared it the greatest song of the 2000s decade , while Rolling Stone ranked it as the 118th best song of all time in 2010 . At the 46th Grammy Awards , " Crazy in Love " won Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
The song 's accompanying music video features Beyoncé in various dance sequences . It won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , and its director , Jake Nava , won the Music Video Production Association award for Best R & B Video in 2004 . Since 2003 , " Crazy in Love " has been a staple in Beyoncé ’ s live performances and concert tours . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized " Crazy in Love " as one of the most performed songs of 2004 . Artists including David Byrne have covered the song , and it has been used in various television shows and other media .
= = Development and production = =
In July 2002 , Beyoncé had already recorded several songs which would appear on Dangerously in Love . Columbia Records planned to release the album in October 2002 ; however the release was postponed several times to capitalize on the success of American rapper Nelly 's single " Dilemma " ( 2002 ) , which features Destiny 's Child singer Kelly Rowland . These delays allowed Beyoncé to record more songs for the album .
Before meeting Beyoncé , Rich Harrison had conceptualized the beat of the song . He sampled the hook 's instrumentation from the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " , originally written by Eugene Record , frontman of the Chicago @-@ based vocal group The Chi @-@ Lites . When Harrison first played the beat to his friends , they could not " dig it " , and this made him realize that he had conceived something special , which people would appreciate better after hearing the whole record . Harrison decided not to market the track and instead waited for the right artist to record it : " I had it in the chamber , I had not really shopped it much , because sometimes you do not want to come out of the bag before it 's right . People do not really get it and you will leave them with a foul taste in their mouth . "
Harrison was pleasantly surprised when he got a call from Beyoncé , who was working on one of the most anticipated albums of the year . However , things did not turn up according to his plans the following day as he was late and was still suffering the effects of a hangover . When Harrison played the sample to Beyoncé in the studio , the singer initially had doubts about the " sound so full of blaring fanfare " ; it seemed too retro and according to her , no one used horn riffs in the 21st century . Nevertheless , Beyoncé became friendlier to the sample much to Harrison 's delight and gave him two hours to write the song while she went out .
Harrison confessed that it was not easy for him to come up with the lyrics to " Crazy in Love " in that length of time . Two hours later , he had penned the verses and the hook in spite of being hung over . Harrison had also made provision for a backing track ; he played all the instruments on the track . The bridge was written by Beyoncé , who was inspired by looking at herself in the mirror ; she was not wearing matching clothes and her hair was untidy as she kept saying , " I 'm looking so crazy right now . " Harrison sang back to her and said , " That 's the hook . " It also inspired the title of the song . After that Beyoncé had filled up the middle eight , she came up with the catchphrase - " Uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh , you know " - alongside Harrison .
American rapper Jay @-@ Z became involved late in the song 's production . Around three in the morning , he came to the studio and recorded a rap verse , which he improvised in about ten minutes . The recording of " Crazy in Love " took place nearly three months following the meeting of Beyoncé with Harrison .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song , composed in the key of D @-@ minor and F @-@ major . It incorporates 1970s @-@ style funk , hip hop , and contains influences of soul . As commented by Robert Webb of The Independent , the old soul influences in the song seem to have been derived from the horn hook , which samples the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " . Having a go @-@ go vibe , " Crazy in Love " is built on a hip hop beat . Beyoncé told The Sunday Herald that the beat is " so hard that it makes your heart hurt . " The song 's tempo is a moderate 100 beats per minute , in common time . Beyoncé ’ s vocal range spans around one and a half octaves in the song , from the low note of A ♯ 3 to the high note of F5 . " Crazy in Love " uses two major chords , B ♭ and G , a minor third apart . One of the main vocal riffs uses the traditional cowbell rhythm often found in samba music . Lisa Verrico of The Times magazine , wrote that " Crazy in Love " makes use of big drums and bits of brass .
According to Natalie Nichols of Los Angeles Times , the lyrics of " Crazy in Love " reference a state of romantic obsession . Beyoncé said that the song talks " about how , when you are falling in love , you do things that are out of character and you do not really care because you are just open . " Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote that " Crazy in Love " has " such a cauldron of energy " , that Beyoncé sounds " loose and sexy " , gripped by emotions she " can neither understand nor control " . The lyrics are composed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . Jay Z opens the song with a brief spoken verse @-@ rap , containing the lyrics : " Yes ! So crazy right now . Most incredibly , it 's your girl , B. It 's your boy , Young . You ready ? " After Beyoncé delivers the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " catchphrase , Jay Z continues the monologue . Beyoncé begins the first verse , followed with the whistle @-@ backed chorus . She repeats the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase , leading to the second verse . The chorus follows , giving way to the second verse @-@ rap which contains the lyrics : " Jay Z in the range , crazy and deranged [ ... ] I been inhaling the chain smokers , how you think I got the name ' Hova ' , I been real and the game 's over " . The song continues to the bridge , singing : " I 'm not myself , lately I 'm foolish , I don 't do this , / I 've been playing myself , baby , I don 't care / ' Cuz your love 's got the best of me , / And baby , you 're making a fool of me , / You got me sprung and I don 't care who sees " . She then sings the chorus again and the song fades out with the horns .
= = Release and remixes = =
" Crazy in Love " was released to radio in the United States on May 18 , 2003 under formats including Rhythmic , Top 40 , and Urban radios . The single was released first as a digital download to iTunes Stores in the United Kingdom and in the United States on May 20 , 2003 . Notably , the song was also fairly successful as a ringtone among cell phone users across America . The song was released as a CD single in Ireland and Switzerland on June 30 , 2003 and as a digital EP in Germany on the same date . " Crazy in Love " was released as a maxi single in Germany on June 30 , 2003 and in Australia on July 15 , 2003 along with the song 's accompanying music video , exclusive to Australia . The song was issued on DVD and CD single in the United Kingdom on June 30 , 2003 . " Crazy in Love " was released as a digital EP in several European countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden on July 8 , 2003 . This digital EP was also available in Canada and Ireland on July 8 , 2003 . On July 22 , 2003 , two remixes - one from Rockwilder and the other from Adam 12 - was serviced in the United States .
" Crazy in Love " has various remixes , including the Rockwilder remix , Maurice 's " Nu Soul remix " , and Juniors World remix . These versions appeared on the single releases of " Crazy in Love " under an alternative spelling , " Krazy in Luv " . The Rockwilder remix slows down the beat and makes the song deeper and funkier with chopped up horn samples and sparkling synth textures . Maurice 's " Nu Soul Remix " speeds up the beat , taking it from hip @-@ hop to house territory . A version of the song included on Asian releases of Dangerously in Love features a rap in Mandarin Chinese performed by American @-@ Taiwanese singer Vanness Wu , instead of Jay Z 's performance .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Crazy in Love " was lauded by contemporary music critics , who complimented the horn lines and the guest appearance of Jay @-@ Z. Many of them called it the Summer Anthem of 2003 . Tim Sendra of AllMusic described the song as a " stunning pop masterpiece " , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the same website called it " deliriously catchy " . Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! noted the " Crazy in Love " is " instantly addictive horn lines " . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote : " ' Crazy in Love ' ... roars out of the speakers on the strength of a propulsive horn sample and the charged presence of her pal , Jay @-@ Z. " Ben Ratliff of Blender magazine called the song an " itchy [ and ] eager @-@ to @-@ please " one . Marc Anthony Neal of PopMatters called the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase catchy . MTV News considered " Crazy in Love " to be the " proudest moment " of Dangerously in Love . Similarly , Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called it the best song on the album , praising its instrumentation , harmonies , and the rap verse of Jay Z. This was echoed by Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times who wrote that " Crazy in Love " is the best one on the album thanks to its " simplicity , irresistible combination of triumphant horns and a wicked hip @-@ hop beat " . She added that " [ Beyoncé ’ s ] vocals - as deft and accurate as ever - convey none of the giddy rush that the lyrics describe . " Likewise , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote the lyrical arrangement , the music structure and the guest vocals by Jay Z all contributed in making " Crazy in Love " a wonderful resume for Beyoncé .
Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called " Crazy in Love " a " head @-@ nodding [ and ] body @-@ rocking funk @-@ soul genius " and wrote that it is " a 100 per cent , stone @-@ cold , dead @-@ cert classic " . He complimented Beyoncé ’ s vocals , describing them as " genuinely , hip @-@ grindingly fruity " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols noted that " sexy dance tunes as the vintage funk @-@ flavored ' Crazy in Love ' " made Dangerously in Love a great album . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song has a " fresh sound " . Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that Beyoncé rides the " infectious rhythm " with grace and mid @-@ range seductively . He added , " As [ it ] can be expected , the track bumps when Jay drops his distinctive uptown flavor . While other rap @-@ meet @-@ R & B tracks often fall flat , this one works well as Beyoncé and Jay 's verbals play nicely against one another . " Lisa Verrico of The Times wrote that Jay Z performed a " decent rap " , however , " Beyoncé and the beats save the day " and that " Crazy in Love " was a departure for Beyoncé from Destiny 's Child .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2004 , " Crazy in Love " was nominated for three Grammy Awards in the categories of Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , which it won , and Record of the Year , which it did not win . A remix of " Crazy in Love " , known as " Krazy in Luv " ( Maurice 's Nu Soul Mix ) , won the award Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical for its remixer , Maurice Joshua . " Crazy in Love " was also recognized at the 2004 ASCAP Pop Music Awards Awards as one of the Most Performed Songs and its publisher , EMI , received the Publisher of the Year award . Vibe magazine 's VIBE Awards recognized the song for Coolest Collaboration in 2003 . In Europe , " Crazy in Love " won the Best Song award at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Crazy in Love " won the awards for Best R & B / Urban Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2003 . It was recognized by Beyoncé ’ s peers in the urban markets , and won the award for Best Collaboration at the BET Awards , where it also received a nomination in the Viewers Choice Awards category in 2004 . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Song award and for Favorite Song at the 2004 Kids ' Choice Awards .
= = Legacy = =
Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked " Crazy in Love " forty @-@ seven in its list of The 100 Greatest Summer Songs . The song is ranked second in Yahoo ! ' s list of biggest @-@ selling singles since 2000 . The song was listed at number three on Rolling Stone 's list of the 50 Best Songs of the 2000s Decade , in 2009 , and as the 118th greatest song of all time on the magazine 's 2010 list of the 500 greatest songs of all time , as well as ranking it number 3 in their 100 Best Songs of the 2000s list , writing " The horns weren 't a hook . They were a herald : Pop 's new queen had arrived . " . NME staff voted " Crazy in Love " the best song of the 2000s , calling it " a dancefloor @-@ destroying howitzer of a pop song . " The song was ranked at number four on Pitchfork Media 's list of The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s , number seven on The Daily Telegraph 's list of the best songs of the decade and number six on Slant Magazine 's list of the 100 Best Singles of the Decade . In September 2011 , VH1 ranked " Crazy in Love " number one on its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . In October 2011 , to mark NME fifteenth birthday , its staff members selected the 150 tracks " that have meant the most to [ them ] over the site 's lifetime " . They placed " Crazy in Love " at number 16 on their list of the 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years . In 2012 , the song was ranked at number 22 on Billboard magazine 's list of " Top 50 ' Love ' Songs of All Time " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! placed the song at number one on their list of ten best Beyoncé ’ s songs writing " It 's the song that started it all . The definitive best Beyoncé jam is her first , complete with a guest spot by now @-@ husband Jay Z , a killer hook and a chorus of horns that you have to dance to . Literally have to , Pavlovian conditioning @-@ style . " In a 2013 list of Jay Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " Crazy in Love " was ranked at number 1 . On July 5 , 2013 , NME magazine named " Crazy in Love " " The Best Pop Song Of The Century " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Crazy in Love " was a commercial success in the United States . Although it was not yet released to retail stores , the single gained much attention and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week it reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one on July 12 , 2003 . Substantial airplay , and later in retail , gains of " Crazy in Love " allowed it to dominate the chart , spending eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé ’ s first number one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . " Crazy in Love " spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot 100 , fifteen weeks in the top ten , and twenty @-@ six weeks in the top fifty . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2004 while its Mobile Mastertone was also certified gold two years later . " Crazy in Love " was the fourth biggest hit of 2003 in the United States . By October 6 , 2010 , " Crazy in Love " had sold 47 @,@ 000 physical units in the US , and as of October 2012 , 1 @,@ 597 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads .
In the United Kingdom , Beyoncé became the third female artist to top the UK Singles Chart and UK Albums Chart simultaneously , following Mariah Carey in 1994 and Kylie Minogue in 2001 . Including her career with Destiny 's Child , " Crazy in Love " became Beyoncé ’ s third number one single in Britain and was the only song to top the charts the United Kingdom and the United States in 2003 . The single spent three weeks at number one in the United Kingdom and fifteen weeks in the top 100 . As of July 2013 , it has sold 510 @,@ 000 units in the UK . " Crazy in Love " reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart , where it spent eighteen weeks . In Australia , " Crazy in Love " peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 70 @,@ 000 units . It also peaked at number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " Crazy in Love " reached top ten positions in some European singles charts . It reached the top ten in Austria , the Belgian territories of Flanders and Wallonia , Denmark , Germany , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . As of September 2009 , " Crazy in Love " had sold more than five million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Production and synopsis = = =
The music video of " Crazy in Love " , released in May 2003 , was directed by Jake Nava and filmed in downtown Los Angeles . In MTV Making of the Video 2003 documentary , Beyoncé described the video 's conception : " [ It ] celebrates the evolution of a woman . It is about a girl who is at the point of a relationship . She realises that she is in love , she is doing stuff she would not normally do but she does not care . It does not matter she is just crazy in love . "
The opening sequence of the video features Jay Z as a passenger in a car speeding along Mission Road in Los Angeles , where he encounters Beyoncé , standing in the middle of the road , at the Fourth Street bridge . Beyoncé performs in various dance sequences , beginning with her wearing a white tank top , denim blue shorts , and red high @-@ heels . She performs an elaborate solo dance on a riser . The scene shifts to a gold set with a mock photo shoot , before moving into a scene with dancers detailing Beyoncé and dancing against a wall while wearing caps and full length pants . Jay Z appears and ignites a line of petrol leading to a car parked under the bridge , which explodes in flames . Jay Z performs his rap in front of the burning car , and Beyoncé dances beside him , wearing an exotic silk print over a fur coat , before kicking the valve off a fire hydrant . She continues to dance while the water is flying everywhere . The video ends with Beyoncé and her dancers wearing vibrant Versace dresses in front of a large fan . Their outfits contrast with the neutral colors of the background , the video . Carmit Bachar , a former Pussycat Dolls singer , is one of the dancers .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video was acclaimed by critics and won several awards . Cynthia Fuchs , writing for PopMatters commented that the photo shoot scene uses the routine used by Jennifer Lopez in the video for " Jenny from the Block " ( 2002 ) with hot lights , scary makeup , and inclusion of many shots of legs . She wrote that : " Beyoncé 's body becomes its undeniable emblem . Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that Beyoncé shakes every inch of her famously photogenic goddess frame . " The music video won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Female Video , Best R & B Video , and Best Choreography . It however lost to Good Charlotte 's " Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous " in the Viewer 's Choice category . Director Nava also won a Music Video Production Association award for the Best R & B Video in 2004 . During the same year , the video won the Best Collaboration award at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , where it was also nominated for the Best Female Video award . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Music Video award . It won the Best International Video award at the 2004 MuchMusic Video Awards . In 2014 , The Guardian writer Michael Cragg included the clip for " Crazy in Love " in his list of the ten best music videos by Beyoncé . He offered high praise for it , saying " Aware of how much of a statement the song was , the video is a checklist of icon @-@ making visuals , from the locations ... the dance moves ... to the part where she makes bubble blowing look like the sexiest thing a human could do . "
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " Crazy in Love " with Jay Z on August 28 , 2003 , during the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . She sang the song in a medley , with the pre @-@ recorded vocals of Sean Paul on " Baby Boy " ( 2003 ) . " Crazy in Love " was included on the set list for most of Beyoncé ’ s concert tours . The song was the closing track of her Dangerously in Love World Tour that began in late 2003 . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " live at the 2004 BRIT Awards February 17 , 2004 . Monique Jessen And Todd Peterson wrote that she , " ... lit up the stage with her performance of " Crazy in Love " , wearing a white Roberto Cavalli dress and nearly half a million dollars worth of diamonds . The pop diva , appearing onstage in a puff of smoke , stopped midway through the song to pull up her top before walking away with the best international female solo artist award . " Beyoncé and Jay Z also performed " Crazy in Love " at The Prince 's Trust Urban Music Festival at Earls Court in London on May 31 , 2004 .
" Crazy in Love " was the first song on Beyoncé ’ s set list on The Beyoncé Experience in Los Angeles and the I Am ... Tour at several venues , including the Odyssey Arena in Belfast , the O2 Arena in London , and in Athens and Sydney . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Beyoncé emerged in a sparkling silver dress with a long train . She walked to the front of the stage , did a couple of snaps of her neck and then started singing " Crazy in Love " . She climbed a staircase where her all @-@ female band and three backup singers were positioned . The staircase moved forward in two places ; top part moved while the bottom poked out more . At the top of her staircase , she removed her train and returned to the main stage . Her backup singers followed and danced with Beyoncé . After " Crazy in Love " , Beyoncé performed a short rendition of Gnarls Barkley 's " Crazy " ( 2006 ) , singing , " Who do you , who do you think you are ? / Ha , ha , ha , bless your soul . "
Shaheem Reid of MTV News wrote : " There are few ( very few ) ladies out there who can really sing , a lot who can dance , a lot more who look good — but really no other who can combine all three and add iconic star power like Miss Beyoncé , arguably the best all @-@ around stage performer in the game right now . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes ( most of them silvery ) , from miniskirts to formal dresses , flesh @-@ toned bodysuit to bikini to negligee . " Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " Her performance of ' Crazy in Love ' featured some surprising arrangements that gave the material freshness " . Performances of " Crazy in Love " were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , and the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " wearing a pink fringe dress at a concert at Palais Nikaïa in Nice , France , on June 20 , 2011 , in support of her album 4 , and at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 to an audience of 175 @,@ 000 .
In August , 2011 , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " during her revue show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé . She performed a slowed @-@ down , jazzier version of the song and danced with a similar routine to the one in the music video . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " to a selected crowd of fans . In May , 2012 , she performed the song during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . During the performance , Jay @-@ Z did not appear on stage but his pre @-@ recorded voice was heard . Dan DeLuca of noted that the song was one of the " beat @-@ savvy booty @-@ shaking workouts " performed during the revue . Jim Farber of New York Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Crazy in Love " . A writer of Black Entertainment Television noted that , " She dazzled fans with an assortment of high @-@ energy performances of her upbeat hits like ... ' Crazy in Love . ' " Beyoncé also performed the song at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show held on February 3 , 2013 . In July 2013 , while placing Beyoncé at number 33 on their list of 50 Best Live Musicians , the writers of Rolling Stone magazine noted that the performance of " Crazy in Love " was a highlight during her live shows with the singer " expertly poppin ' her booty " .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Cover versions = = =
Several artists have recorded cover versions of " Crazy in Love " . In 2003 , Irish singer @-@ songwriter Mickey Joe Harte recorded an acoustic rendition of " Crazy In Love " for the charity album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 1 . Alternative rock band Snow Patrol recorded the song during a BBC session with Zane Lowe . Snow Patrol 's version was released as a B @-@ side to the single " Spitting Games " , on the compilation Cosmosonica - Tom Middleton Presents Crazy Covers Vol . 1 and Snow Patrol 's compilation album Up to Now . Ross Langager of PopMatters noted that their cover " sparks an initial chuckle of recognition but soon after becomes more than a bit unfortunate " . David Byrne closed his concert at the Hollywood Bowl on June 27 , 2005 with a samba @-@ tinged version of " Crazy in Love " . In 2007 , American alternative rock band Switchfoot produced a rock version that was released as part of Yahoo ! ' s CoverArt series . Switchfoot produced a video for their cover version . Nashville @-@ based indie quintet Wild Cub performed a version of the song in June 2014 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series .
British band The Magic Numbers performed " Crazy in Love " on the Australian radio station Triple J , and recorded it for the 2007 Starbucks ( Hear Music ) compilation album , Sounds Eclectic : The Covers Project . Tracy Bonham covered the song with guitar and violin accompaniment , for her 2007 album In The City + In The Woods . British close harmony trio The Puppini Sisters covered " Crazy in Love " for their 2007 album The Rise and Fall of Ruby Woo ; this was remixed by the electronica jazz outfit The Real Tuesday Weld . Indie artist Dsico recorded an electronic cover of the song . In 2009 , Pattern Is Movement recorded a cover of " Crazy in Love " , which they claimed was inspired by Anohni 's version ; this cover was included on their 4 / 9 / 2009 Daytrotter session . Antony and the Johnsons released an orchestral version of the song as the b @-@ side to their 2009 single " Aeon " .
German group The Baseballs covered the song in rockabilly style for their debut album Strike ! Back in August 2010 . " Crazy in Love " was performed live on Australian Idol in Season 1 by winner Guy Sebastian on the Final 2 showdown in 2003 , A jazz version was performed on Season 4 by runner @-@ up Jessica Mauboy on the Final 6 Big Band show in 2006 . In June 2008 , Mauboy performed " Crazy in Love " on Indonesian Idol with some eliminated contestants . Singapore Idol contestant Maia Lee performed " Crazy in Love " on that program . In March 2012 , Swing Republic released their electro swing cover version which also ended up featuring on their album released the same year entitled Midnight Calling . In June 2012 , Robin Thicke and Olivia Chisholm covered the song during the show Duets . Kate Kroll of Rolling Stone gave a negative review for Chisholm 's performance , saying that " Her voice sounded thin , and she just can 't seem to shake that Stepford Wife stare . " Emeli Sandé and The Bryan Ferry Orchestra recorded a cover of the song which was included on The Great Gatsby soundtrack ( 2013 ) . Upon hearing a preview of the song , Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the cover was the best song on the album sang with a " surprising , simmering urgency " . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly also wrote that the swing cover of " Crazy in Love " was one of the highlights on the album . On October 21 , 2013 , Third Degree covered " Crazy in Love " on the fifth series of The X Factor Australia , and on May 4 , 2014 , C Major covered the song on the third series of The Voice Australia.In 2015 , Monica Michael covered the song on The X Factor UK . Filipina actress Denise Laurel covered the song while impersonating Beyonce , based on her performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show in Your Face Sounds Familiar ( Philippines season 2 ) , in which Laurel won the season .
= = = Usage in media = = =
In 2002 , Beyoncé signed a contract with Pepsi , and appeared on several of its advertising campaigns , one of which featured " Crazy in Love " as background music . After winning the Best Collaboration Awards for " Crazy in Love " at the 2004 BET Awards , Beyoncé dedicated the award to the show 's host , comedian Mo 'Nique , who parodied the choreography from the " Crazy in Love " video with six equally voluptuous female dancers . " Crazy in Love " was included on the official soundtrack albums of the following films : Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason ( 2004 ) , White Chicks ( 2004 ) , Taxi ( 2004 ) , Good Luck Chuck ( 2007 ) , Gayby ( 2012 ) , and Love , Rosie ( 2014 ) , as well in the tenth season of Brazilian soap opera Malhação . In 2009 , the cast of Glee performed a mash up of the songs " Hair " from the musical Hair and " Crazy in Love " in season one , episode eleven " Hairography " . A parody of the song is also used in the Disney Channel 's show That 's So Raven , in the episode " Hizzouse Party " .
" Crazy in Love " was re @-@ recorded by Beyoncé for the film Fifty Shades of Grey ( 2015 ) and used for its trailer which was released on July 24 , 2014 . This slowed @-@ down version was produced by Boots with violin arrangements by Margot , both of whom worked on Beyoncé 's fifth studio album . Margot said , " It inspires me to work on other artists ' songs [ because ] it pushes my boundaries in a direction that I wouldn ’ t necessarily come up with . Obviously I know how ' Crazy in Love ' goes , but I knew there was the possibility her vocals would be different . It 's almost more vulnerable and beautiful this way , because you do do crazy things when you fall in love . To hear the mood reversed and flipped makes it even more powerful . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits = =
Recording and management
Recorded at Sony Music Studios ( New York City , New York } )
Mixed at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York )
Additional vocals recorded at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York )
Contains samples of the composition " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , written by Eugene Record , published by Unichappell Music Inc . ( BMI ) and performed by The Chi @-@ Lites ( courtesy of Brunswick Records )
Jay @-@ Z appears courtesy of Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records and Def Jam Recordings
Published by Beyoncé Publishing ( ASCAP ) , Hitco South South ( ASCAP ) — all rights administered by Music of Windswept ( ASCAP ) — , EMI Blackwood Music Inc . OBO Itself ( BMI ) , Dam Rich Music ( BMI ) , EMI April Music Inc . OBO Itself ( BMI ) , Carter Boyd Publishing ( ASCAP ) and Unichappell Music Inc . ( BMI )
Personnel
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Moro River Campaign =
The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War , fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps ( LXXVI Panzerkorps ) of the German 10th Army ( 10 . Armee ) . Lasting from 4 – 26 December 1943 , the campaign occurred primarily in the vicinity of the Moro River in eastern Italy . The campaign was designed as part of an offensive launched by General Sir Harold Alexander 's Allied 15th Army Group , with the intention of breaching the German Army 's Winter Line defensive system and advancing to Pescara — and eventually Rome .
Beginning on 4 December , four infantry divisions — one British , one Canadian , one Indian and one New Zealand ( which included an armoured brigade ) — and two armoured brigades ( one British and one Canadian ) of V Corps and XIII Corps attacked heavily defended German positions along the Moro River , achieving several exploitable bridgeheads by 8 December . Throughout the next week , nearly continuous combat operations by both sides — designed to keep one another pinned down — created stagnated defensive positions near Orsogna and a narrow pit known as " The Gully " . After being held at the Gully for 10 days , the Canadians succeeded in outflanking German defences , and forcing a German withdrawal to the Ortona – Orsogna Line . On 20 December , the line was attacked by both corps .
By 26 December , strong German defences had stalled Canadian forces in Ortona and British and New Zealand forces in Orsogna . Although both Ortona and Villa Grande were captured by the end of December , general exhaustion among the Allied forces prevented the capture of Orsogna and an advance to Pescara . When harsh winter weather set in , it became clear to the Allied generals that no further progress would be made and Alexander called off the offensive .
= = Background = =
In late 1943 , the 15th Army Group under General Sir Harold Alexander were fighting their way northward in Italy against determined German opposition commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring , whose forces had prepared a succession of defensive lines . East of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army , under General Bernard Montgomery . In October , Eighth Army had crossed the Bifurno river and pushed the German defenders from the Volturno @-@ Viktor Line defences . Delayed by logistical problems , they were not able to attack the next line of defences ( the Barbara Line ) behind the Trigno river until 2 November . However , by 9 November forward elements of the Eighth Army were in contact with the forward defences of the German Winter Line , which had been set on the high ground north of the Sangro River .
The main attack across the Sangro by V Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Charles Allfrey ) , comprising the British 78th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Vyvyan Evelegh ) and 8th Indian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Dudley Russell ) with supporting and diversionary attacks further inland by 2nd New Zealand Division ( Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Freyberg ) and XIII Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey ) — was delayed by bad weather until late November . After several days of hard fighting , the Germans withdrew to the defences they had prepared on the high ground to the north of the Moro river .
= = Offensive strategy and order of battle = =
The Moro River runs from the central mountain spine of Italy to the Adriatic coast south of Ortona . The German defences on the Moro were a centerpiece of the Winter Line , which guarded the eastern side of the Apennines along Route 5 . Montgomery hoped to punch through the Winter Line , capture Ortona and Pescara and advance to Rome . The 78th Infantry Division , which had been spearheading V Corps since the Volturno Line actions and had sustained over 7 @,@ 000 casualties in less than six months , was relieved by the fresh 1st Canadian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Chris Vokes ) , ready to renew the offensive on 5 December 1943 . The 78th Infantry Division was sent into the mountains on the relatively quiet left wing of the army , joining the British 5th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Gerard Bucknall ) under XIII Corps .
Montgomery 's plan was for the Canadian Division to attack across the Moro in the coastal lowlands to take Ortona first and then Pescara . Inland , in the jagged hills above the headwaters of the Moro , the relatively fresh 2nd New Zealand Division would attack toward Orsogna , while between these two the 8th Indian Infantry Division would hold the centre of the front in a relatively static role .
Facing V Corps was the 1st Parachute Division ( 1 . Fallschirmjägerdivision ) under Brigadier General ( Generalmajor ) Richard Heidrich on the coast , to their right stood the 90th Panzergrenadier Division ( 90 . Panzergrenadierdivision ) under Major General Carl @-@ Hans Lungershausen succeeded by Colonel ( Oberst ) Ernst @-@ Günther Baade on 20 December , and further inland of them was the 26th Panzer Division ( 26 . Panzerdivision ) under Brigadier General Smilo Freiherr von Lüttwitz with their right flank on Orsogna . Further inland , facing XIII Corps , was the 65th Infantry Division ( 65 . Infantriedivision ) under Brigadier General Hellmuth Pfeifer supported by elements of 1st Parachute and 5th Mountain Division ( 5 . Gebirgsdivision ) under Brigadier General Julius Ringel . Together , these units formed Traugott Herr ′ s LXXVI Panzer Corps , the part of Joachim Lemelsen 's 10th Army responsible for the front line to the east of the Apennines .
= = Canadian division across the Moro = =
On 6 December 1943 , Canadian forces began a series of large @-@ scale assaults on major crossing points along the Moro River with the objective of securing a large bridgehead along the defensive line . Three primary points of attack were chosen : Villa Rogatti , along the western edge of the Canadian sector ; San Leonardo , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Ortona ; and San Donato , a small town near the Italian coast . Five primary infantry battalions were selected to assault these positions with the objective of crossing the Moro River . The offensives were scheduled to start on the morning of 6 December .
= = = Villa Rogatti = = =
The task of taking Villa Rogatti , the westernmost crossing point , was given to Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( PPCLI ) . Having conducted reconnaissance on their objective during the night of 5 December 1943 , an attack plan was devised by the battalion 's commander — Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Cameron Bethel Ware — detailing the objectives of all four rifle companies . Once the objectives had been secured by the early morning of 6 December , Anglo @-@ Canadian reinforcements were to be moved into Villa Rogatti , with the intention of repulsing the expected potentially strong German counterattacks . Elements of three German regiments — the 200th and 361st Panzergrenadier , and 26th Panzer — maintained strong defences within the town .
At 00 : 00 on 5 December , two companies of the PPCLI crossed the Moro River , moving towards Villa Rogatti . Within an hour , vicious fighting had erupted throughout the town as the two companies of Canadian infantry struggled to break the German defensive lines . As B Company broke through the German defences , A Company attacked to the northeast , continuing to engage 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 200 . Panzergrenadier _ Regiment ) near Villa Rogatti . Although two Canadian infantry companies now occupied Villa Rogatti , German Panzergrenadier forces still maintained substantial defences on the outskirts of the town . However , C Company continued to advance steadily along the eastern side of the town , encountering significant resistance from the 361st Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 361 . Panzergrenadier @-@ Regiment ) . After approximately an hour of fighting by C and D Companies , Villa Rogatti had been occupied by Canadian forces shortly before dawn .
By mid @-@ morning , German counterattacks on PPCLI positions in the town had begun , involving tanks from the 7th Company of the 26th Panzer Regiment ( 26 . Panzer @-@ Regiment ) , field guns and substantial infantry forces . Throughout the afternoon two infantry companies of the PPCLI fought off several attacks by German forces , eventually managing to push them back to the vineyards on the northern edge of the town . While the PPCLI had taken 68 casualties , German casualties were estimated at 120 . However , three strong German formation surrounded the Canadian positions at Villa Rogatti , rendering further exploitation of the bridgehead unlikely . Col. Ware was advised to be ready to withdraw across the Moro River , should German forces counterattack . In order to allow the Canadian Division a greater concentration of force , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade from the Indian 8th Infantry Division amalgamated the western flank of the 1st Canadian Division into their own lines . As a result of the withdrawal , Canadian efforts would focus on achieving a bridgehead at San Leonardo .
= = = San Leonardo = = =
The Canadian attack on San Leonardo by the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada began late on 5 December 1943 with A Company establishing a bridgehead across the Moro , taking heavy casualties . In the early morning of 6 December , A Company was withdrawn and two additional Seaforth companies resumed the offensive . As PPCLI secured and held their bridgehead over the Moro River , the Seaforth Highlanders were struggling to enter San Leonardo . By 07 : 15 , a single objective had been taken , with Canadian units pinned down by well @-@ coordinated defensive fire from several companies of the 361st Regiment . Simultaneously , small arms fire prevented C Company from moving up the road from the Moro to San Leonardo , while D Company remained on the southern banks of the Moro throughout the early morning .
In the afternoon , having failed to capture San Leonardo , the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment sent two rifle companies to the aid of the Seaforth Highlanders , as Seaforth B Company attacked positions west of San Leonardo — inflicting 129 casualties on German forces in the area . However , the attack on San Leonardo by three Seaforth companies stalled rapidly when the 26th Panzer Regiment 's armoured companies reinforced the sector . As a result , Forin was ordered to prepare for a withdrawal from the San Leonardo bridgehead .
= = = San Donato = = =
While attempts were made to cross the Moro at San Leonardo and Villa Rogatti , The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment launched an attack on the Moro River defences at the small coastal hamlet of San Donato at 13 : 40 on 6 December . However , the single rifle company making the attack achieved little territorial gain and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kennedy — commander of the Hastings & Prince Edward Regiment — ordered a withdrawal at 15 : 40 . Throughout 6 December , strong German coastal defences would prevent further advancement , despite the incorporation of tanks and artillery into the assault . By nightfall , the German defenders still possessed control of San Donato , with the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment withdrawing to the southern bank of the Moro River .
= = = Taking the Moro = = =
On 8 December 1943 , Major General Vokes devised a new plan for taking the Moro River . While the 48th Highlanders of Canada and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry resumed the assault on San Leonardo from the southwest side of the town , the Royal Canadian Regiment ( RCR ) would break out of the bridgehead created by the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment , then move southwest towards San Leonardo to link up with the 48th and PPCLI . The operation was scheduled to start on the afternoon of 8 December .
The attack began with a massive artillery barrage which pounded German positions continuously for two hours . At 16 : 00 , the Saskatoon Light Infantry support battalion joined in , hitting German positions with bursts of machine gun fire . The moment the heavy bombardment lifted , the 48th Highlanders and the RCR both initiated their attacks . D Company of the 48th Highlanders was able to quickly cross the Moro , taking minimal casualties . However , B Company was subjected to heavy fire from German mortars and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) artillery positions . Eventually , however , both companies managed to establish strong positions on the western ridge overlooking San Leonardo . During the night of 8 / 9 December , units of the Royal Canadian Engineers ( RCE ) constructed a bridge over the Moro , to allow armour and equipment to move into San Leonardo the following day .
As the 48th Highlanders secured their positions west of San Leonardo , the Royal Canadian Regiment was involved in intense fighting southwest of San Donato . Two companies had advanced against strong and well prepared German defences of the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment . A Company was quickly tied down by German mortar fire , while B Company flanked German positions to the north of San Donato . By nightfall , all four companies held tenuous positions in the thick of German defences . On the night of 8 / 9 December , the RCR was subjected to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment which were repulsed with the support of continuous Canadian artillery shelling .
By the morning of 9 December , the RCE had completed the bridge across the Moro River , enabling the tanks of the 14th Armoured Regiment ( The Calgary Regiment ) to transport two companies of Seaforth Highlanders across the river into San Leonardo . By mid morning , San Leonardo had been cleared of German defenders , although strong positions still existed outside of the town . Within an hour , the Calgarys ' tanks had broken through German positions near Sterlen Castle and two companies had linked up with the 48th Highlanders and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry within San Leonardo , finally establishing firm Canadian positions across the Moro River . Near the end of 9 December , German forces of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division fell back to their second defensive line : a formidable obstacle known as " The Gully " .
= = Attacks on Orsogna = =
While Canadian crossed the Moro River , the New Zealand Division launched a two brigade attack , Operation Torso , against Orsogna at 14 : 30 on 7 December . The division had the British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade under their command , anchoring their left flank and were supported by heavy concentrations of artillery and air support . Surprise was achieved as Traugott Herr , the commander of LXXVI Panzer Corps , had been persuaded that the New Zealanders would not be in a position to launch a major attack until 8 December .
Initially , the New Zealand attack progressed well , but the German defenders regained their composure and the attack lost momentum against heavily fortified defensive positions . By 21 : 00 , the NZ 24th Infantry Battalion had fought its way in slow house to house fighting to the centre of the town , but were pinned down with no prospect of further progress without significant armoured support . However , a combination of concealed minefields and well dug in German armour made the task of the Allied tanks impossible . In the early hours of 8 December , the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — ordered a withdrawal from the town with a view to renewing the attack after further softening up from artillery and bombers .
= = Indian Division across the Moro – the " impossible " bridge = =
With both the Canadian and New Zealand Divisions finding progress difficult , it was decided to bring the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade into the attack with orders to seize Caldari . With no river crossing available , the Indian engineers rushed to build a bridge across the Moro which was completed on 9 December and allowed infantry and supporting armour to cross and expand the bridgehead on the far bank . The bridge was named the " Impossible Bridge " because the local geography required for it to be built backwards from the enemy bank of the river .
= = The Gully = =
= = = Initial attacks = = =
Following the loss of San Leonardo and the Moro River , the 90th Panzergrenadier Division withdrew to a primary defensive line 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of San Leonardo . The line centred around a natural ravine known as " The Gully " , with an average depth of 200 ft ( 61 m ) . General Vokes ' initial plan to take the position ( as well as achieve a foothold on the roads toward Ortona ) consisted of a frontal assault by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade , which would seize Vino Ridge , capture The Gully and gain positions on the Ortona to Orsogna road . However , German defences were adequately prepared , including gun @-@ pits , bunkers and shelters .
On 10 December , three Canadian battalions made their first attempt to cross The Gully . Although they succeeded in capturing Vino Ridge , directly south of The Gully , attempts to neutralise German positions in the ravine were unsuccessful . On 11 December , the three battalions made another attempt , with the Loyal Edmonton Regiment suffering heavy casualties in their attempts to take German positions in the sector . Although a badly mauled A Company was able to gain a foothold on the reverse slope , newly arrived German units forced the remaining men to withdraw .
On 12 December 1943 , General Vokes sent the three battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade against German defences in The Gully . The assault started poorly , when Canadian artillery plans were captured by soldiers of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division 's 200th Regiment . When The West Nova Scotia Regiment attacked The Gully , they were subject to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment approximately 10 : 30 . By 14 : 00 , the regiment had called off its attacks and had taken heavy casualties . To the west , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry fared little better , with C Company taking heavy casualties in their assault . Attempts were again made on 13 December , by two battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade , and the attacks were driven back by tenacious German resistance . On the evening of 13 December , the heavily depleted 90th Panzergrenadier Division were relieved from their positions in The Gully by units of the 1st Parachute Division .
= = = Casa Berardi = = =
By 14 December , Vokes had devised a new assault plan for taking The Gully . A small force from the Royal 22e Régiment would move to Casa Berardi , a small set of farmhouses west of The Gully , before outflanking German positions with infantry and armour , thereby forcing the 1st Parachute Division to withdraw . The attack was to begin at dawn , with two companies of the Royal 22e Régiment attacking Casa Berardi with artillery support . By 07 : 50 , both companies had control of the lateral highway leading to Casa Berardi . C Company — under Captain Paul Triquet — pushed on toward Casa Berardi with support from the Ontario Regiment , while D Company found itself involved in firefights southwest of Casa Berardi . At 08 : 30 , C Company began their assault toward the manor house in Casa Berardi , some 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) away . Strong German defences caused heavy casualties to the attackers ; only 21 men and five tanks made it to within 200 yd ( 180 m ) of the objective . Despite the arrival of several Panzer IVs , Triquet 's remaining forces captured the manor house at 14 : 30 . However , only 14 men of C Company remained fit to continue fighting . For his efforts to capture Casa Berardi , Triquet was awarded the Victoria Cross .
= = Eighth Army reorganises to intensify the attack = =
With the Indian Division committed , Montgomery decided to raise the stakes further by bringing the British 5th Infantry Division from the relatively tranquil XIII Corps front in the high mountains on the left wing of the 8th Army and insert them between the New Zealand and Indian Divisions . This would allow the Indian division to narrow and concentrate their attack and give Montgomery four divisions to continue the attack between Orsogna and the sea . By 12 December , the British 17th Infantry Brigade — the first of 5th Division 's brigades — was in place and under the New Zealand division 's command . Once 5th Division headquarters and its other brigades had arrived , these two left hand divisions were to be organised under the command of XIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey .
To the left of the Canadian division , the Indian 21st Brigade had by 13 December established a solid bridgehead around the " Impossible Bridge " . That night , a second 8th Indian Division brigade — the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade — passed through and attacked towards Caldari . The 1st Battalion Royal Fusiliers stormed the village in a wild night 's fighting while the 1st Battalion 5th Gurkha Rifles seized Point 198 nearby , holding it against determined counterattacks , including from tanks in the afternoon of 14 December . That evening , 1st Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment attacked on the left of the Gurkhas and established positions on the lateral road between Ortona and Orsogna running parallel to the Moro some 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) north of the " Impossible Bridge " . On the evening of 15 December , the 1st / 5th Battalion Essex Regiment from the Indian Division 's 19th Indian Infantry Brigade , which had been held in reserve , was committed on the left flank of the Frontier Force Regiment to advance in the direction of Crecchio and overran a number of German positions . By the end of 16 December , further attacks from the 15th Punjab Regiments 3rd Battalion had secured positions on the lateral road , ensuring that the 8th Indian Division was firmly embedded in the main German defences .
Meanwhile , at 01 : 00 on 15 December , the New Zealand Division — electing not to make a further frontal assault on Orsogna — launched their 5th Brigade in Operation Florence , a new flanking attack to the right of the village . By that afternoon , 5th Brigade was well established on the Orsogna to Ortona lateral road and had driven a shallow salient into the German forward defensive line . Although they had exhausted nearly all their reserves , divisional headquarters was optimistic for the prospects for the next day , given the heavy casualties they had inflicted that day .
However , the Germans launched a counterattack at 03 : 15 on 16 December , throwing in men from the 6th Parachute Regiment , sent by Herr to the 26th Panzer Division to relieve the exhausted 9th Panzergrenadier Regiment . These troops had arrived late that evening after a long journey . Supported by tanks , they attacked the right @-@ hand New Zealand positions held by the 21st NZ Battalion , but were held off and had retired by daylight . Meanwhile , even before the German counterattack had been repelled , the 20th Regiment had attacked toward Orsogna with two squadrons of Sherman tanks . Under intense artillery and anti @-@ tank fire , the tanks and infantry became separated and the tanks became a target rather than a threat .
Operation Florence had come to an end . While the German line had been pushed back and they had sustained casualties they could ill afford , they still firmly held Orsogna . Furthermore , the New Zealand Division was , for the time being , fought out and needed a period of consolidation and reorganisation .
By 16 December , the British 5th Division had completed its move into the line between the New Zealand and the Indian divisions . There followed a period of hostile patrolling and skirmishing on the XIII Corps front . The main burden of the fighting was therefore assumed by V Corps as the Canadians pushed for Ortona with the Indian Division on their left flank attacking toward Villa Grande and Tollo .
= = Taking The Gully = =
In preparation for what he hoped would be the final attack on The Gully , Vokes shifted the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade to occupy positions formerly belonging to the 1st Brigade . Vokes planned for an attack by The Carleton and York Regiment to be the last of the frontal assaults against The Gully . Should this attack fail , the 1st Brigade 's Seaforth Highlanders and the Royal Canadian Regiment would move through Casa Berardi and outflank German defences , forcing a withdrawal from The Gully .
At 07 : 30 on 15 December , two companies of the Carleton and York Regiment attacked . After little more than an hour of fighting , however , the Canadians were forced to call the attack off . In the afternoon , the two heavily depleted companies of the Royal 22e Régiment fought off a large German counterattack on Casa Berardi , with the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery firing 5 @,@ 398 rounds in support of Canadian forces .
On 18 December , Vokes planned what would be the largest assault on The Gully during the campaign . Beginning at 08 : 00 , Canadian artillery would bombard a 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) front , to a depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . Every five minutes , the barrage would move 100 m ( 110 yd ) forward , continuing to pound German defences in the bombardment area . Less than 100 m behind this barrage , the 48th Highlanders would advance across the Ortona @-@ Orsogna Lateral Road . At the same time , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
time of filming .
The Hotel New Otani Tokyo served as the outside for Osato Chemicals and the hotel 's gardens were used for scenes of the ninja training . Bōnotsu in Kagoshima served as the fishing village , the Kobe harbour was used for the dock fight and Mount Shinmoe @-@ dake in Kyūshū was used for the exteriors of SPECTRE 's headquarters . Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting . A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera , and the police were called several times to prevent invasions during shooting .
The heavily armed WA @-@ 116 autogyro " Little Nellie " was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor , RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis . Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace , who has a similar surname to its inventor . Wallis piloted his invention , which was equipped with various mock @-@ up armaments by John Stears ' special effects team , during production .
" Nellie 's " battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film . The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki , first with takes of the gyrocopter , with more than 85 take @-@ offs , 5 hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times . A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major downdraft and cameraman John Jordan 's foot was severed by the craft 's rotor . The concluding shots involved explosions , which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park . So , the crew moved to Torremolinos , Spain , which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape .
The sets of SPECTRE 's volcano base were constructed at a lot inside Pinewood Studios , with a cost of $ 1 million and including operative heliport and monorail . The 45 m ( 148 ft ) tall set could be seen from 5 kilometres ( 3 miles ) away , and attracted many people from the region . Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate HMS Tenby , then in Gibraltar , for the sea burial , Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death , and Norway for the Soviet radar station .
Sean Connery 's then wife Diane Cilento did the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses , including Mie Hama . Martial arts expert Donn F. Draeger provided martial arts training , and also doubled for Connery . Lewis Gilbert 's regular editor , Thelma Connell , was originally hired to edit the film . However , after her initial , almost three @-@ hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences , Peter R. Hunt was asked to re @-@ edit the film . Hunt 's cut proved a much greater success , and he was awarded the director 's chair on the next film as a result .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry . He tried to incorporate the " elegance of the Oriental sound " with Japanese music @-@ inspired tracks . The theme song , " You Only Live Twice " , was composed by Barry and lyricist Leslie Bricusse and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity . Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording – first she wanted to leave the studio ; then she claimed to sometimes " sound like Minnie Mouse " . Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes . British singer Julie Rogers recorded an alternative song for the titles , but this was not used .
There are two versions of the song " You Only Live Twice " , sung by Nancy Sinatra , one directly from the movie soundtrack , and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange . The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour , and was far more popular on radio . The record release made No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the USA , No. 11 in UK . Both versions of the title song are available on CD .
In 1992 , Acen sampled the title song " You Only Live Twice " for his song " Trip II the Moon Part 2 " . In 1997 , Icelandic singer Björk recorded a cover version . In 1998 , Robbie Williams used the distinctive string figure for his song " Millennium " , ( although it was re @-@ recorded , rather than sampled from the movie for cost reasons ) . Coldplay covered it when they toured in 2001 , and it was covered by Natacha Atlas for her 2005 compilation album The Best of Natacha Atlas . Shirley Bassey , who has three original Bond themes to her credit , has also covered the song .
A different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers , but eventually discarded . Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics , and the orchestral part was changed to fit Nancy Sinatra 's vocal range . Rogers ' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th Anniversary CD , with no singer credit . In the 1990s , an alternative example of a possible theme song ( also called " You Only Live Twice " and sung by Lorraine Chandler ) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records . It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern Soul scene ( Chandler was well known for her high @-@ quality soul output on RCA ) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the film , Eon Productions produced a one @-@ hour colour television programme entitled Welcome to Japan , Mr. Bond first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC . Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared playing respectively " Miss Moneypenny " and " Q " . Kate O 'Mara appears as Miss Moneypenny 's assistant . The programme shows clips from You Only Live Twice and the then four existing Bond films. and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond 's bride .
= = Release and reception = =
You Only Live Twice premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . It was the first premiere of a James Bond film that Queen Elizabeth II attended . The film grossed $ 43 million in the United States and over $ 111 million worldwide .
Critical response today is mostly positive , with Rotten Tomatoes giving a 72 % rating . But most reviews pointed out various flaws in the film . James Berardinelli said that the first half was good , but " during the second half , as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of preposterousness , that the film starts to fragment " , criticising Blofeld 's appearance and stating " rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant . "
Roger Ebert criticised the focus on gadgets , declaring that the James Bond formula " fails to work its magic " . John Brosnan in his book James Bond in the Cinema compared the film to an episode of Thunderbirds with a reliance on gadgetry but admitted it had pace and spectacle . Christopher Null considered the film one of James Bond 's most memorable adventures , but the plot " protracting and quite confusing " .
Ali Barclay of BBC Films panned Dahl 's script displaying " a whole new world of villainy and technology . " Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as " the most impressive of Ken Adam 's sets for the franchise . " Danny Peary wrote that You Only Live Twice " should have been about twenty minutes shorter " and described it as " not a bad Bond film , but it doesn ’ t compare to its predecessors – the formula had become a little stale . "
IGN ranked You Only Live Twice as the fourth best Bond film , and Entertainment Weekly as the second best , considering that it " pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness " . But Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fifth worst , criticising the plot , action scenes and little screentime for Blofeld . Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of Kagoshima for adding " a good flavour " of Japanese influence on the film , but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a " let @-@ down " , " small , bald and a whooping scar . " Simon Winder said that the film is " perfect " for parodies of the series .
= WASP @-@ 13b =
WASP @-@ 13b is an extrasolar planet that was discovered in 2008 in the orbit of the sunlike star WASP @-@ 13 . The planet has a mass of nearly half that of Jupiter , but a radius five @-@ fourths the size of Jupiter . This low relative mass might be caused by a core that is of low mass or that is not present at all .
The planet orbits at approximately 5 % of the distance between the Sun and Earth every four days . The star was observed several times between 2006 and 2009 , at first through the SuperWASP program and later through focused follow @-@ up observations . Analysis of collected radial velocity measurements led to the discovery of WASP @-@ 13b , which was reported in a journal on April 7 , 2009 . A follow @-@ up study published in 2011 investigated the cause for inflated planets such as WASP @-@ 13b , and re @-@ examined ( and re @-@ constrained ) its mass , radius , density , and age .
= = Discovery = =
Between November 27 , 2006 , and April 1 , 2007 , 3329 images of the star WASP @-@ 13 by the SuperWASP @-@ North program based at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in the Canary Islands led to the identification of WASP @-@ 13 as host to a potentially transiting object . Photometric follow @-@ up observations were taken on February 16 , 2008 using the James Gregory Telescope ( JGT ) in Scotland , which took 1047 exposures of the star , although the last twenty images taken were obscured by cloud cover and were discarded . Using HD 80408 as a reference star along with JGT measurements , the astronomers investigating the system were able to create a light curve for the transiting planet .
WASP @-@ 13 was observed between February 11 and 15 in 2008 by the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at the Haute @-@ Provence Observatory in France , determining the radial velocity of the transiting body . Use of the FIES echelle spectrograph at the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands gained other spectral measurements that yielded the characteristics of the star . Analysis of the SOPHIE and FIES data were used to constrain some of the orbiting body 's characteristics . The discovery of the orbiting body 's mass using radial velocity measurements led to its confirmation as the planet WASP @-@ 13b .
The discovery of WASP @-@ 13b was reported in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics by the European Southern Observatory on May 19 , 2009 . The discovery paper was received by the journal on April 7 , 2009 .
Later , between 2009 and 2011 , another team of astronomers observed WASP @-@ 13b and WASP @-@ 21b to find what caused some Hot Jupiters to have anomalously high radii . The RISE photometric camera on the Liverpool Telescope was used to detect further transits . Two partial transits and two full transits were observed during this period , although the quality of both full transits was slightly compromised because of passing cloud cover . The collected observations , along with the JGT observations that were used to confirm the planet , were scaled to filter out errors such as background noise . The data was then used to re @-@ define WASP @-@ 13b 's parameters , including its age , mass , radius , and density . The study also noted that a limb darkening effect was present , a characteristic that may affect future atmospheric studies of the planet .
= = Host star = =
WASP @-@ 13 is a sunlike G @-@ type star located in the Lynx constellation . Measurements taken by FIES and SOPHIE did not constrain the mass , radius , or age well ; however , a later 2011 study using the Liverpool Telescope better @-@ constrained those parameters . The star 's mass is estimated at 1 @.@ 09 times the mass of the Sun , its radius at 1 @.@ 559 times that of the Sun , and its density at 0 @.@ 288 time 's the Sun 's density . These characteristics are re @-@ defined taking limb darkening into account . The star 's metallicity , which is measured by iron content , is placed roughly at [ Fe / H ] = 0 , similar to that of the Sun . Also , the star 's estimated effective temperature is 5826 K , slightly warmer than the Sun .
WASP @-@ 13 has an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 42 , making it invisible to the unaided eye as seen from Earth .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 13b is a transiting planet with an estimated mass that is ( including limb darkening ) 0 @.@ 477 times that of Jupiter and a radius that is 1 @.@ 389 times Jupiter 's radius . The planet is , in other words , less than half the mass of Jupiter , but slightly less than fourteen tenths its size . WASP @-@ 13b 's low mass can mostly likely be attributed to the presence of a low @-@ mass core , or to the total lack of a core , according to the discovery paper . WASP @-@ 13b , which orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ 05362 AU , circles its star completely every 4 @.@ 35298 days . The 2011 study on the planet recognized WASP @-@ 13b as the fifth lowest @-@ density extrasolar planet known , behind Kepler @-@ 7b ; WASP @-@ 17b ; TrES @-@ 4b ; and COROT @-@ 5b .
WASP @-@ 13b has an orbital inclination of 86.9º , which means that it orbits almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth .
= U2 concert in Sarajevo =
On 23 September 1997 , the Irish rock band U2 held a concert at Koševo Stadium in Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , as part of the group 's PopMart Tour . They were the first major artist to hold a concert in the city after the end of the Bosnian War . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 fans attended the show .
The band first became involved with Sarajevo in 1993 on their Zoo TV Tour ; approached by aid worker Bill Carter about bringing attention to the Siege of Sarajevo , the band conducted nightly satellite transmissions with Bosnians during their shows . These link @-@ ups were the subject of criticism from journalists for mixing entertainment with human tragedy . Although the war made it impractical for U2 to visit Sarajevo at the time , they vowed to eventually play a concert in the city . After the conflict ended in November 1995 , they made arrangements to visit Sarajevo , and with help from United Nations ambassadors and peacekeeping troops , they scheduled and played the concert in 1997 .
The band offered to hold a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but it was requested that they stage a full PopMart concert . The performance consequently featured the tour 's extravagant stage , and the band played a set list typical of the tour . The show brought together people of different ethnicities who had previously clashed during the war , and train service was temporarily resumed to allow concertgoers to attend . Among the songs played was " Miss Sarajevo " , written by U2 and Brian Eno about a beauty pageant held during the war . Although the band were displeased with their performance and lead vocalist Bono had vocal difficulties , the concert was well received and was credited with improving morale among Bosnians . The members of U2 consider the show to be among their proudest moments . The concert was lauded by Bosnians .
= = Background = =
= = = War in Sarajevo = = =
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was composed of six constituent republics : Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia , Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , and Slovenia . In 1991 , Croatia , and Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia . Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina — a republic with a mixed population consisting of Bosniaks , Serbs , and Croats — followed suit in March 1992 in a highly controversial referendum , creating tension in the ethnic communities . Bosnian Serb militias , whose strategic goal was to secede from Bosnia and Herzegovina and unite with Serbia , encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 18 @,@ 000 stationed in the surrounding hills , from which they assaulted the city with weapons that included artillery , mortars , tanks , anti @-@ aircraft guns , heavy machine @-@ guns , rocket launchers , and aircraft bombs . From 2 May 1992 until the end of the war in 1996 , the city was blockaded . The Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , numbering roughly 40 @,@ 000 inside the besieged city , was poorly equipped and unable to break the siege . Meanwhile , throughout the country , thousands of predominantly Bosniak civilians were driven from their homes in a process of ethnic cleansing . In Sarajevo , women and children attempting to buy food were frequently terrorized by Bosnian Serb sniper fire .
= = = U2 's reaction = = =
In 1993 , U2 were in Europe for the " Zooropa " leg of their Zoo TV Tour . Before their 3 July show in Verona , Italy , the band received a fax from Radio Televizija Bosne I Hercegovina asking for an interview regarding the situation in Bosnia . The band agreed and met with an American aid worker named Bill Carter , who acted as the station 's foreign associate , due to Serbian travel restrictions . Carter described his experiences in Sarajevo helping Bosnians while surviving the dangerous living conditions . Lead vocalist Bono was unnerved to hear that those living in makeshift bomb shelters in the city played music , including U2 's , at loud volumes to drown out the sound of explosions . While in Sarajevo , Carter had seen a television interview on MTV in which Bono mentioned the theme of the Zooropa tour leg was a unified Europe . Feeling that such an aim was empty if ignoring the Bosnians ' plight , Carter sought Bono 's help . He requested that U2 go to Sarajevo to bring attention to the war and break the " media fatigue " that had occurred from covering the conflict .
Bono agreed to Carter 's request without asking the rest of the band , and when informed of the idea , the other members gave only tacit approval . They briefly considered playing an impromptu concert in the city , with Bono suggesting that they perform in the bunker where Carter and his friends hid during the siege . He said , " even if all we get is some extra attention for Bosnia on MTV , that 's something " . The idea fell through when it was pointed out that the logistics of transporting their equipment into the city were impossible , as the only way into Sarajevo was on a United Nations plane . Manager Paul McGuinness realized that even if the band managed to organize a concert , it would endanger their lives and those of the audience and the Zoo TV crew . As he explained , " U2 's effort to discuss any humanitarian issue have sometimes been accompanied by a false instinct that U2 is also obliged to resolve that issue . Going to Sarajevo seems to me to fall into that category . I think it would endanger the people we go with , endanger the tour , and endanger the band . " Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. feared that the move would look like a publicity stunt .
Instead , the group agreed to use the tour 's satellite dish to conduct live video transmissions from their concerts to Carter in Sarajevo . Carter returned to the city and assembled a video unit . The band purchased a satellite dish to be sent to Sarajevo and paid a £ 100 @,@ 000 fee to join the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) . Once set up , the band began satellite link @-@ ups to Sarajevo on nearly a nightly basis , the first of which aired on 17 July 1993 in Bologna , Italy . To connect with the EBU satellite , Carter and two co @-@ workers were forced to visit the Sarajevo television station at night and to film with as little light as possible to avoid the attention of snipers and bombers . To reach the building , they had to traverse an area known as " Sniper Alley " . This was done a total of 12 times over the course of a month . During the broadcasts , Carter discussed the deteriorating situation in the city , and Bosnians often spoke to U2 and their audience . These grim interviews starkly contrasted with the rest of the show ; concerts on the Zoo TV Tour were elaborately staged multimedia events that satirised television and the audience 's over @-@ stimulation . Most of the shows were scripted , but the link @-@ ups to Sarajevo were not , leaving the group unsure who would speak or what they would say . U2 stopped the broadcasts in August 1993 after learning that the Siege of Sarajevo was being reported on the front of many British newspapers . Though this trend had begun before the band 's first Sarajevo transmission , Nathan Jackson suggested that U2 's actions had brought awareness of the situation to their fans and to the British public indirectly .
Reactions to the transmissions were mixed . Many fans felt the transmissions disrupted the flow of the concerts . Most of the British press was highly critical . One writer for NME wrote , " The Bosnian linkup was beyond bad taste . It was insulting . " Bono thought that they were bringing the public 's attention to an important event , though he admitted that the link @-@ ups were the most difficult thing the band had done in their career . Guitarist The Edge said , " We don 't normally see that kind of cold hard news . We get a very sanitized , editorialized take on everything ... When you watch the television news , you are getting something palatable , whereas this was really quite unpalatable most of the time . And for that reason I think it affected people very much , including us . " Mullen worried that the band were exploiting the Bosnians ' suffering for entertainment . During a transmission from the band 's concert at Wembley Stadium , three women in Sarajevo asked what the band intended to do to help before telling Bono , " We know you 're not going to do anything for us . You 're going to go back to a rock show . You 're going to forget that we even exist . And we 're all going to die . " During a transmission to a Glasgow concert , a Bosnian woman told the concert audience , " We would like to hear the music , too , but we hear only the screams of wounded and tortured people and raped women . " Some people were upset by the circumstances of Sarajevo and were motivated to join the War Child charity project , including U2 producer Brian Eno . Despite U2 's obligation to the tour and their inability to perform in Sarajevo during the war , they vowed to play the city someday .
The band contributed to Bosnian relief efforts to enhance humanitarian and public awareness of the issue , and Bono and Carter subsequently collaborated on the documentary Miss Sarajevo , which showcased the war @-@ torn city during Carter 's six months living there . In 1995 , U2 and Eno wrote the song " Miss Sarajevo " as a response to " the surreal acts of defiance that had taken place during the siege of Sarajevo " . One such act was a beauty pageant organized by Bosnian women who planned to fight the war with their " lipstick and heels " . During the pageant , all of the participants walked onto the stage carrying a banner that said , " Don 't let them kill us " . The winner of the pageant , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Inela Nogić , later said the pageant " was a crazy thing to do during a war . But we tried to live a normal life . It was some kind of a defence mechanism we all had . " Years later , Bono said , " It was pure Dada and it deserved to be celebrated in song . " Of the song 's meaning , he said , " Everywhere people had heard their call for help — but help never came . That was the feeling . I had tried to tackle subjects like this head @-@ on , but I 'd learnt a lesson . You have to try and make the same points , in a different , less direct , more surrealist way . " " Miss Sarajevo " was recorded with Luciano Pavarotti and released as the first single from U2 's side @-@ project with Eno entitled Original Soundtracks 1 ; the record was released under the pseudonym " Passengers " .
= = Scheduling and preparations = =
As the Bosnian War ended in 1995 and the Siege of Sarajevo in 1996 , the stability of the region began to improve . Realizing this , U2 began to plan a concert for Sarajevo that would take place on their 1997 PopMart Tour . Although they were the first major musical artist to perform in the city following the war , China Drum had played a concert in July 1996 . Music journalist Andrew Mueller described China Drum 's experience in a single van as a " logistical and administrative nightmare " . Muhamed Sacirbey , the Bosnian Ambassador to the United Nations , helped U2 make arrangements , playing an informal role as promoter and organizer . McGuinness said , " We thought it was going to be quite difficult . But it 's been quite straightforward . People have just wanted to help . We 've blagged a lot of equipment , forklifts and so on , from the military , and the local crew have been incredibly supportive . "
Scheduling the concert meant a financial loss of £ 500 @,@ 000 for the band , despite sponsorship from Coca @-@ Cola and GSM . Ticket prices were set at just DM 8 ( £ 8 , US $ 18 ) , because of the 50 percent unemployment rate in the city . Bono offered for the group to perform a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but the city requested they hold the full PopMart show . Bono said , " We offered to do a charity gig here , just turn up and do a scratch gig , but they wanted the whole fucking thing . They wanted the lemon ! " McGuinness added , " we felt it was important that we treat this as another city on the tour , to pay them that respect . To come here and not do the whole show would have been rude . " According to news releases following the concert , the total net income for the show was US $ 13 @,@ 500 ; however , tour promoter John Giddings noted that price did not include the costs of the production or transportation .
As late as July 1997 , U2 were pressured to accept an offer of approximately $ 4 million to perform in Basel , Switzerland on the date scheduled for the Sarajevo show . At the time , rumours about the region 's instability persisted . To ensure the Sarajevo show was not canceled , Sacirbey appeared at many of the band 's preceding shows to lobby on behalf of the city . For the stage to reach Sarajevo , the road crew had to drive the equipment and stage through war @-@ torn Bosnia . Although the trip was without incident , they had to pass through towns such as Mostar , which had been " obliterated " during the war . Stage and lighting designer Willie Williams commented that " when the truck drivers arrived you could see that they were changed men " . The only trouble in transporting the stage came when a border control agent prevented them from crossing the border for hours . The trucks reached Sarajevo two days prior to the concert , arriving to the cheers and applause of the city 's residents ; their arrival was the first concrete evidence that the band were keeping their promise to play there . McGuinness explained , " This is a city that 's been disappointed so many times there were a lot of people who weren 't prepared to believe the gig was going to take place until they saw the stage going up . " Until then , tickets had sold very slowly , but within 24 hours of the trucks ' arrival , another 8 @,@ 000 tickets were sold . Despite this , a day before the concert , 15 @,@ 000 tickets remained unsold . Three @-@ hundred local residents were employed to help assemble the stage and promote the show .
Several hundred members of the international " Stabilisation Force " ( SFOR ) were tasked with upholding the Dayton Agreement for the concert . The band were overwhelmed by the sights they saw when arriving . During the war , Koševo Stadium was used as a morgue , and graveyards were present on either sides . Although the venue had escaped the worst of the shelling , the nearby Olympic Hall Zetra had been badly damaged during the war . Despite its condition , U2 used the building for their dressing rooms and offices . Following the concert , it was used to provide lodging for 3 @,@ 000 fans . The band 's hotel , a nearby Holiday Inn , had been shelled during the siege , and part of the building had been destroyed as a result . The walls in Mullen 's room were punctured with mortar shrapnel , and sections of the floor were also missing . Prior to the show , Sacirbey took Mullen on a tour of the city , showing him the Sarajevo Roses embedded in the streets .
On the day of the concert , trains ran into Sarajevo for the first time since the start of the war . Two lines were opened , one from Mostar to Sarajevo and the other from Maglaj to Sarajevo . Although the railways had been functional for the duration of the war , Muslim and Croat politicians could not decide who would operate them . As a result , the trains were only run on the date of the concert to bring fans to the city , and the day after to take them home again . Visa requirements were temporarily suspended . An effort was made to include all of the country 's ethnic groups at the concert . Approximately 500 fans crossed the ethnic boundary lines between Bosnia 's Serb Republic and the Moslem @-@ Croat Federation . People from several of the other Yugoslavian republics went to Sarajevo for the concert , with buses carrying fans from Zagreb , Croatia and Ljubljana , Slovenia . Security around the event was strict . SFOR soldiers searched for bombs with sniffer dogs , and the buildings around the stadium were lined with Irish troops and sharpshooters in case violence broke out .
= = Concert overview = =
The concert was held on 23 September 1997 , and approximately 45 @,@ 000 people attended . It was broadcast in Bosnia by local television networks , as well as globally by BBC . During the event , 10 @,@ 000 soldiers stood on the left side of the stadium to ensure no conflicts broke out . At showtime , a decision was made to open the stadium gates to all , allowing approximately 10 @,@ 000 more fans who could not afford the concert or who had not purchased tickets in time to attend . In addition to the local and foreign fans , 6 @,@ 000 off @-@ duty SFOR soldiers attended the event in uniform . Inela Nogić attended the concert and arrived in a limo with the band . The concert was broadcast live internationally on radio , and all proceeds from the radio sales were donated to the War Child project .
Three opening acts played before U2 , beginning with the Gazi Huzrev @-@ Beg choir , an Islamic choir from a local high school . Their performance was followed by two local bands , Protest and Sikter , one of which was chosen personally by Sacirbey , and the other which was selected through a radio contest . Following the opening acts , musician Howie B performed a DJ set before U2 took the stage .
The band 's set list was similar to that of most shows on the PopMart Tour , but with " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in place of The Edge 's karaoke segment and the addition of " Miss Sarajevo " in the second encore . The night was a celebration of the end of the war , with Bono setting the tone by shouting out " Viva Sarajevo ! Fuck the past , kiss the future ! " at the beginning of " Even Better Than the Real Thing " . Bono had struggled with his voice throughout the tour , and the morning of the concert he woke up " without a voice " . There was no intent to cancel , and the show went ahead as planned . Though Bono had few difficulties through the opening quartet of " Mofo " , " I Will Follow " , " Gone " , and " Even Better Than the Real Thing " , his voice gave out during " Last Night on Earth " . In 2006 , The Edge suggested that Bono 's vocal troubles had been caused by laryngitis or by the stress of the previous few months of touring , though he later remarked that " it didn 't really matter that our lead singer was under the weather because every member of the audience seemed to join in on every song . There was a mass chorus for the whole concert . "
At various points during " Until the End of the World " and " New Year 's Day " , Bono gestured for the audience to help him with the vocals , and by the eighth song of the night , " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , he was reduced to speaking the lyrics instead of singing them . The band continued with their standard set list by playing " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , " Stand By Me " , " All I Want Is You " , and " Staring at the Sun " . U2 considered playing " Desire " after " All I Want Is You " , but they chose not to perform the song . The Edge then performed a solo version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . The rendition was slower and quieter than the studio version . During the song , Bono went backstage for cortisone injections , which helped to improve his voice for a short time . Brian Eno was prepared to go on stage to replace Bono if he could not continue , or to sing alongside him . Bono ultimately returned to the stage alone for the next song , " Bullet the Blue Sky " , and the band continued with renditions of " Please " and " Where the Streets Have No Name " , which concluded the main set .
In the interlude before the first encore , U2 had a worried discussion over the introduction to " Miss Sarajevo " . The song had only been played once prior — at a benefit concert in 1995 with Bono , The Edge , Eno , and Pavarotti . They returned to the stage and played " Discothèque " , " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " , " With or Without You " , and a rough version of " Miss Sarajevo " . Pavarotti was not at the concert to sing his part and so an antique gramophone was brought onto the stage in his place . Eno came on stage to sing backing vocals , and Bono invited Nogić on stage during the chorus . During the song , the video screen showed images from Carter 's Miss Sarajevo documentary , including footage of the girls taking part in the beauty contest and the banner reading " Please don 't let them kill us " . Bono apologized for the rocky performance at the end of the song , saying " Sarajevo , this song was written for you . I hope you like it , because we can 't fucking play it . " The concert concluded with a second encore of " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , " Mysterious Ways " , " One " , and an abbreviated cover of " Unchained Melody " .
After the band had walked offstage , in a move described by NME as the most meaningful of the concert , the audience faced the troops in the stadium and broke into a spontaneous round of applause , which quickly turned into an ovation — an act which the soldiers mimicked in turn .
= = Reaction = =
The day after the concert in Sarajevo , a local newspaper carried an editorial which was headlined , " Today was the day the siege of Sarajevo ended " . In reaction to the event , a Bosnian student told members of the international press , " I felt excluded from the world for so long . It 's not only about U2 . It 's the feeling of being part of the world . " A local resident said that the concert was " proof that we have peace here , that everything is OK " . Fans from outside the former Yugoslavia described Sarajevo as " an oasis of light " in the midst of destroyed and fire @-@ damaged buildings , and deserted villages . Despite the subpar performance , the Associated Press said , " For two magical hours , the rock band U2 achieved what warriors , politicians and diplomats could not : They united Bosnia . " Andrew Mueller of The Independent wrote , " For the first time since the start of the war in 1992 , people more accustomed to seeing each other through the sights of a rifle were converging on the capital to listen to music together . It was a reminder of prewar Sarajevo , home to some of old Yugoslavia 's best rock bands . " Sacirbey stated that he was satisfied that the concert " was held to promote a sense of normalcy , peace and reconciliation in Sarajevo and not to raise money . " He also expressed thanks on behalf of President Alija Izetbegović , who described the concert as a " landmark event " .
Mullen and The Edge both agreed that playing the Sarajevo concert had been the highlight of their careers ; Mullen said , " [ t ] here 's no doubt that that is an experience I will never forget for the rest of my life . And if I had to spend 20 years in the band just to play that show , [ ... ] I think it would have been worthwhile . " Bono described it as " one of the toughest and one of the sweetest nights of my life " , saying of the audience , " I think they wanted , more than anything , a return to normalcy . That 's what these people want , it 's what they deserve . " He also speculated that the loss of his voice had " allowed room for Sarajevo to take the gig away from us . They could see that things could go horribly wrong , they 'd gone to a lot of trouble to come here , and they were just going to make it happen . And they did . " After the completion of the PopMart Tour , he said , " it was amazing and confounding to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political hotspots like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv [ ... ] anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . Following the concert , President Izetbegović presented Bono with an honorary Bosnian passport , in recognition of his humanitarian efforts during the war .
= = Legacy = =
The peaceful nature of the U2 concert was fleeting , as violence flared up in the region the following year with the Kosovo War . NATO troops remained in Sarajevo until 2004 , while European Union peace @-@ keeping troops remain in the city .
Following the Sarajevo concert , The Edge 's solo performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was performed at the majority of shows for the remainder of the tour , and a recording of the song from the Sarajevo concert was released on the CD single for " If God Will Send His Angels " on 8 December 1997 ; The Edge later stated the band had " rediscovered " the song in Sarajevo after his solo performance . A short documentary about the concert , Missing Sarajevo , was included on the DVD release of U2 's 2002 video compilation , The Best of 1990 @-@ 2000 .
After U2 first performed " Miss Sarajevo " at the Sarajevo concert , it was not performed again until the second leg of the Vertigo Tour in 2005 . U2 did not return to perform in any country in the former Yugoslavia until August 2009 , when they performed two shows in Zagreb during the U2 360 ° Tour . During the Zagreb shows , Bono stated that his honorary Bosnian passport was one of his " most treasured possessions " , which prompted the country 's Council of Ministers to announce that his passport was to be revoked , citing how country 's laws do not allow honorary citizenships to be conferred .
= Frank Slide =
The Frank Slide was a rockslide that buried part of the mining town of Frank , Alberta , Canada . The province of Alberta was not created until September 1905 , more than two years after the slide . The community was still part of the Northwest Territories when the incident occurred at 4 : 10 am on April 29 , 1903 . Over 82 million tonnes ( 90 million tons ) of limestone rock slid down Turtle Mountain within 100 seconds , obliterating the eastern edge of Frank , the Canadian Pacific Railway line and the coal mine . It was one of the largest landslides in Canadian history and remains the deadliest , as between 70 and 90 of the town 's residents were killed , most of whom remain buried in the rubble . Multiple factors led to the slide : Turtle Mountain 's formation left it in a constant state of instability . Coal mining operations may have weakened the mountain 's internal structure , as did a wet winter and cold snap on the night of the disaster .
The railway was repaired within three weeks and the mine was quickly reopened . The section of town closest to the mountain was relocated in 1911 amid fears that another slide was possible . The town 's population nearly doubled its pre @-@ slide population by 1906 , but dwindled after the mine closed permanently in 1917 . The community is now part of the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass in the Province of Alberta and has a population around 200 . The site of the disaster , which remains nearly unchanged since the slide , is now a popular tourist destination . It has been designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta and is home to an interpretive centre that receives over 100 @,@ 000 visitors annually .
= = Background = =
The town of Frank was founded in the southwestern corner of the District of Alberta , a subdivision of the Northwest Territories in 1901 . A location was chosen near the base of Turtle Mountain in the Crowsnest Pass , where coal had been discovered one year earlier . It was named after Henry Frank who , along with Samuel Gebo , owned the Canadian @-@ American Coal and Coke Company , which operated the mine that the town was created to support . The pair celebrated the founding of the town on September 10 , 1901 , with a gala opening that featured speeches from territorial leaders , sporting events , a dinner and tours of the mine and planned layout for the community . The Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) ran special trains that brought over 1 @,@ 400 people from neighbouring communities to celebrate the event . By April 1903 , the permanent population had reached 600 , and the town featured a two @-@ storey school and four hotels .
Turtle Mountain stands immediately south of Frank . It consists of an older limestone layer folded over on top of softer materials such as shale and sandstone . Erosion had left the mountain with a steep overhang of its limestone layer . It has long been unstable ; the Blackfoot and Kutenai peoples called it " the mountain that moves " and refused to camp in its vicinity . In the weeks leading up to the disaster , miners occasionally felt rumblings from within the mountain , while the pressure created by the shifting rock sometimes caused the timbers supporting the mine shafts to crack and splinter .
= = Rockslide = =
In the early morning hours of April 29 , 1903 , a freight train pulled out of the mine and was slowly making its way towards the townsite when the crew heard a deafening rumble behind them . The engineer instinctively set the throttle to full speed ahead and sped his train to safety across the bridge over the Crowsnest River . At 4 : 10 am , 30 million cubic metres ( 82 million tonnes ) of limestone rock broke off the peak of Turtle Mountain . The section that broke was 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide , 425 metres ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) high and 150 metres ( 490 ft ) deep . Witnesses to the disaster claimed it took about 100 seconds for the slide to reach up the opposing hills , indicating the mass of rock traveled at a speed of about 112 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) . The sound was heard as far away as Cochrane , over 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) north of Frank .
Initial reports on the disaster indicated that Frank had been " nearly wiped out " by the mountain 's collapse . It was thought the rockslide was triggered by an earthquake , volcanic eruption or explosion within the mine . The majority of the town survived , but the slide buried buildings on the eastern outskirts of Frank . Seven cottages were destroyed , as were several businesses , the cemetery , a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch of road and railroad tracks , and all of the mine 's buildings .
Approximately 100 people lived in the path of destruction , located between the CPR tracks and the river . The death toll is uncertain ; estimates range between 70 and 90 . It is the deadliest landslide in Canadian history and was the largest until the Hope Slide in 1965 . It is possible that the toll may have been higher , since as many as 50 transients had been camped at the base of the mountain while looking for work . Some residents believed that they had left Frank shortly before the slide , though there is no way to be certain . Most of the victims remain entombed beneath the rocks ; only 12 bodies were recovered in the immediate aftermath . The skeletons of six additional victims were unearthed in 1924 by crews building a new road through the slide .
Initial news reports stated that between 50 and 60 men were within the mountain and had been buried with no hope of survival . In reality , there were 20 miners working the night shift at the time of the disaster . Three had been outside the mine and were killed by the slide . The remaining 17 were underground . They discovered that the entrance was blocked and water from the river , which had been dammed by the slide , was coming in via a secondary tunnel . They unsuccessfully tried to dig their way through the blocked entrance before one miner suggested he knew of a seam of coal that reached the surface . Working a narrow tunnel in pairs and threes , they dug through the coal for hours as the air around them became increasingly toxic . Only three men still had enough energy to continue digging when they broke through to the surface late in the afternoon . The opening was too dangerous to escape from due to falling rocks from above . Encouraged by their success , the miners cut a new shaft that broke through under an outcropping of rock that protected them from falling debris . Thirteen hours after they were buried , all 17 men emerged from the mountain .
The miners found that the row of cottages that served as their homes had been devastated and some of their families killed , seemingly at random . One found his family alive and safe in a makeshift hospital , but another emerged to discover his wife and four children had died . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Lillian Clark , working a late shift that night in the town 's boarding house , had been given permission to stay overnight for the first time . She was the only member of her family to survive . Her father was working outside the mine when the slide hit , while her mother and six siblings were buried in their home . All 12 men living at the CPR work camp were killed , but 128 more who were scheduled to move into the camp the day before the slide had not arrived — the train that was supposed to take them there from Morrissey , British Columbia , failed to pick them up . The Spokane Flyer , a passenger train heading west from Lethbridge , was saved by CPR brakeman Sid Choquette , one of two men who rushed across the rock @-@ strewn ground to warn the train that the track had been buried under the slide . Through falling rocks and a dust cloud that impaired his visibility , Choquette ran for 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to warn the oncoming locomotive of the danger . The CPR gave him a letter of commendation and a $ 25 cheque in recognition of his heroism .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Early on April 30 a special train from Fort Macleod arrived with police officers and doctors . Premier Frederick Haultain arrived at the disaster site on May 1 , where he met with engineers who had investigated the top of Turtle Mountain . Though new fissures had formed at the peak , they felt there was limited further risk to the town ; the CPR 's chief engineer was convinced that Frank was in imminent danger from another slide . Siding with the latter , Haultain ordered the town evacuated , and the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) sent two of its top geologists to investigate further . They reported that the slide had created two new peaks on the mountain and that the north peak , overlooking the town , was not in imminent danger of collapse . As a result , the evacuation order was lifted on May 10 and Frank 's citizens returned . The North @-@ West Mounted Police , reinforced by officers who arrived from Cranbrook , Macleod and Calgary , kept tight control of the town and ensured that no cases of looting occurred during the evacuation .
Clearing the Canadian Pacific Railway line was of paramount importance . Approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the main line had been buried under the slide , along with part of an auxiliary line . The CPR had the line cleared and rebuilt within three weeks . Intent on reopening the mine , workers opened passageways to the old mine works by May 30 . To their amazement , they discovered that Charlie the horse , one of three who worked in the mine , had survived for over a month underground . The horse had subsisted by eating the bark off the timber supports and by drinking from pools of water . The horse died when his rescuers overfed him on oats and brandy .
The town 's population not only recovered but grew ; the 1906 census of the Canadian Prairies listed the population at 1 @,@ 178 . A new study commissioned by the Dominion government determined that the cracks in the mountain continued to grow and that the risk of another slide remained . Consequently , parts of Frank closest to the mountain were dismantled or relocated to safer areas .
= = Causes = =
Several factors led to the Frank Slide . A study conducted by the GSC immediately following the slide concluded that the primary cause was the mountain 's unstable anticline formation ; a layer of limestone rested on top of softer materials that , after years of erosion , resulted in a top @-@ heavy , steep cliff . Cracks laced the eastern face of the mountain while underground fissures allowed water to flow into the mountain 's core . Local Indigenous peoples of the area , the Blackfoot and Ktunaxa , had oral traditions referring to the peak as " the mountain that moves . " Miners noticed the mountain had become increasingly unstable in the months preceding the slide ; they felt small tremors and the superintendent reported a " general squeeze " in the mountain at depths between 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) and 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . They found that coal broke from its seam ; it was said to have practically mined itself .
An unusually warm winter , with warm days and cold nights , was also a factor . Water in the mountain 's fissures froze and thawed repeatedly , further weakening the mountain 's supports . Heavy snowfall in the region in March was followed by a warm April , causing the mountain snows to melt into the fissures . GSC geologists concluded that the weather conditions that night likely triggered the slide . The crew of the freight train that arrived at Frank shortly before the disaster said it was the coldest night of the winter , with overnight temperatures falling below − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) . Geologists speculated that the cold snap and rapid freezing resulted in expansion of the fissures , causing the limestone to break off and tumble down the mountain .
Though the GSC concluded that mining activities contributed to the slide , the facility 's owners disagreed . Their engineers claimed that the mine bore no responsibility . Later studies suggested that the mountain had been at a point of " equilibrium " ; even a small deformation such as that caused by the mine 's existence would have helped trigger a slide . The mine was quickly re @-@ opened , even though rock continued to tumble down the mountain . Coal production at Frank peaked in 1910 , but the mine was permanently closed in 1917 after it became unprofitable .
The slide created two new peaks on the mountain ; the south peak stands 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) high and the north peak 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . Geologists believe that another slide is inevitable , though not imminent . The south peak is considered the most likely to fall ; it would likely create a slide about one @-@ sixth the size of the 1903 slide . The mountain , continuously monitored for changes in stability , has been studied on numerous occasions . The Alberta Geological Survey operates a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art monitoring system used by researchers around the world . Over 80 monitoring stations have been placed on the face of the mountain to provide an early warning system for area residents in case of another slide .
Geologists have debated about what caused the slide debris to travel the distance it did . The " air cushion " theory , an early hypothesis , postulated that a layer of air was trapped between the mass of rock and the mountain , which caused the rock to move a greater distance than would otherwise be expected . " Acoustic fluidization " is another theory , which suggests that large masses of material create seismic energy that reduces friction and causes the debris to flow down the mountain as though it is a fluid . Geologists created the term " debris avalanche " to describe the Frank Slide .
= = Legends = =
Numerous legends and misconceptions were spawned in the aftermath of the slide . The entire town of Frank was claimed to have been buried , though much of the town itself was unscathed . The belief that a branch of the Union Bank of Canada had been buried with as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 persisted for many years . The bank — untouched by the slide — remained in the same location until it was demolished in 1911 , after which the buried treasure legend arose . Crews building a new road through the pass in 1924 operated under police guard as it was believed they could unearth the supposedly buried bank .
Several people , telling amazing stories to those who would listen , passed themselves off as the " sole survivor " in the years following the slide . The most common such tale is that of an infant girl said to have been the only survivor of the slide . Her real name unknown , the girl was called " Frankie Slide " . Several stories were told of her miraculous escape : she was found in a bale of hay , lying on rocks , under the collapsed roof of her house or in the arms of her dead mother . The legend was based primarily on the story of Marion Leitch , who was thrown from her home into a pile of hay when the slide enveloped her home . Her sisters also survived ; they were found unharmed under a collapsed ceiling joist . Her parents and four brothers died . Influencing the story was the survival of two @-@ year @-@ old Gladys Ennis , who was found outside her home in the mud . The last survivor of the slide , she died in 1995 . In total , 23 people in the path of the slide survived , in addition to the 17 miners who escaped from the tunnels under Turtle Mountain . A ballad by Ed McCurdy featuring the story of Frankie Slide was popular in parts of Canada in the 1950s . The slide has formed the basis of other songs , including " How the Mountain Came Down " by Stompin ' Tom Connors , and more recently , " Frank , AB " by The Rural Alberta Advantage . The Frank Slide has been the subject of several books , both historical and fictional .
= = Legacy = =
Curious sightseers flocked to the site of the slide within the day of the disaster . It has remained a popular tourist destination , in part due to its proximity to the Crowsnest Highway . The province built a roadside turnout in 1941 to accommodate the traffic . Town boosters unsuccessfully sought to have the site designated as a National Historic Site in 1958 . It was later designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta . The provincial government designated the slide area a restricted development zone in 1976 , which prevents alteration of the site . In 1978 , a memorial plaque was erected . The Frank Slide Interpretive Centre , within sight of the mountain , was opened in 1985 . A museum and tourist stop document the Frank Slide and the region 's coal mining history . The site receives over 100 @,@ 000 tourist visits annually .
Though Frank recovered from the slide and achieved a peak population of 1 @,@ 000 shortly thereafter , the closure of the mine resulted in a longstanding decline in population . Frank ceased to be an independent community in 1979 when it was amalgamated into the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass along with the neighbouring communities of Blairmore , Coleman , Hillcrest and Bellevue . Frank is now home to about 200 residents .
= Protein =
Proteins ( / ˈproʊˌtiːnz / or / ˈproʊti.ᵻnz / ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues . Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including catalysing metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to stimuli , and transporting molecules from one location to another . Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids , which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes , and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three @-@ dimensional structure that determines its activity .
A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide . A protein contains at least one long polypeptide . Short polypeptides , containing less than 20 @-@ 30 residues , are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides , or sometimes oligopeptides . The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues . The sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene , which is encoded in the genetic code . In general , the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids ; however , in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and — in certain archaea — pyrrolysine . Shortly after or even during synthesis , the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post @-@ translational modification , which alters the physical and chemical properties , folding , stability , activity , and ultimately , the function of the proteins . Sometimes proteins have non @-@ peptide groups attached , which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors . Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function , and they often associate to form stable protein complexes .
Once formed , proteins only exist for a certain period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cell 's machinery through the process of protein turnover . A protein 's lifespan is measured in terms of its half @-@ life and covers a wide range . They can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1 – 2 days in mammalian cells . Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly either due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable .
Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids , proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells . Many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism . Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions , such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton , which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape . Other proteins are important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell adhesion , and the cell cycle . In animals , proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized . Digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism .
Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation , precipitation , electrophoresis , and chromatography ; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification . Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function include immunohistochemistry , site @-@ directed mutagenesis , X @-@ ray crystallography , nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry .
= = Biochemistry = =
Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L @-@ α @-@ amino acids . All proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features , including an α @-@ carbon to which an amino group , a carboxyl group , and a variable side chain are bonded . Only proline differs from this basic structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N @-@ end amine group , which forces the CO – NH amide moiety into a fixed conformation . The side chains of the standard amino acids , detailed in the list of standard amino acids , have a great variety of chemical structures and properties ; it is the combined effect of all of the amino acid side chains in a protein that ultimately determines its three @-@ dimensional structure and its chemical reactivity . The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are linked by peptide bonds . Once linked in the protein chain , an individual amino acid is called a residue , and the linked series of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen atoms are known as the main chain or protein backbone .
The peptide bond has two resonance forms that contribute some double @-@ bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis , so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar . The other two dihedral angles in the peptide bond determine the local shape assumed by the protein backbone . The end of the protein with a free carboxyl group is known as the C @-@ terminus or carboxy terminus , whereas the end with a free amino group is known as the N @-@ terminus or amino terminus . The words protein , polypeptide , and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap in meaning . Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation , whereas peptide is generally reserved for a short amino acid oligomers often lacking a stable three @-@ dimensional structure . However , the boundary between the two is not well defined and usually lies near 20 – 30 residues . Polypeptide can refer to any single linear chain of amino acids , usually regardless of length , but often implies an absence of a defined conformation .
= = = Abundance in cells = = =
It has been estimated that average @-@ sized bacteria contain about 2 million proteins per cell ( e.g. E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus ) . Smaller bacteria , such as Mycoplasma or spirochetes contain fewer molecules , namely on the order of 50 @,@ 000 to 1 million . By contrast , eukaryotic cells are larger and thus contain much more protein . For instance , yeast cells were estimated to contain about 50 million proteins and human cells on the order of 1 to 3 billion . Note that bacterial genomes encode about 10 times fewer proteins than humans ( e.g. small bacteria ~ 1 @,@ 000 , E. coli : ~ 4 @,@ 000 , yeast : ~ 6 @,@ 000 , human : ~ 20 @,@ 000 ) .
Importantly , the concentration of individual proteins ranges from a few molecules per cell to hundreds of thousands . In fact , about a third of all proteins is not produced in most cells or only induced under certain circumstances . For instance , of the 20 @,@ 000 or so proteins encoded by the human genome only 6 @,@ 000 are detected in lymphoblastoid cells .
= = Synthesis = =
= = = Biosynthesis = = =
Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes . Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this protein . The genetic code is a set of three @-@ nucleotide sets called codons and each three @-@ nucleotide combination designates an amino acid , for example AUG ( adenine @-@ uracil @-@ guanine ) is the code for methionine . Because DNA contains four nucleotides , the total number of possible codons is 64 ; hence , there is some redundancy in the genetic code , with some amino acids specified by more than one codon . Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre @-@ messenger RNA ( mRNA ) by proteins such as RNA polymerase . Most organisms then process the pre @-@ mRNA ( also known as a primary transcript ) using various forms of Post @-@ transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA , which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome . In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced , or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from the nucleoid . In contrast , eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus and then translocate it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm , where protein synthesis then takes place . The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to 20 amino acids per second .
The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation . The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule , which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes . The enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthetase " charges " the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids . The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain . Proteins are always biosynthesized from N @-@ terminus to C @-@ terminus .
The size of a synthesized protein can be measured by the number of amino acids it contains and by its total molecular mass , which is normally reported in units of daltons ( synonymous with atomic mass units ) , or the derivative unit kilodalton ( kDa ) . Yeast proteins are on average 466 amino acids long and 53 kDa in mass . The largest known proteins are the titins , a component of the muscle sarcomere , with a molecular mass of almost 3 @,@ 000 kDa and a total length of almost 27 @,@ 000 amino acids .
= = = Chemical synthesis = = =
Short proteins can also be synthesized chemically by a family of methods known as peptide synthesis , which rely on organic synthesis techniques such as chemical ligation to produce peptides in high yield . Chemical synthesis allows for the introduction of non @-@ natural amino acids into polypeptide chains , such as attachment of fluorescent probes to amino acid side chains . These methods are useful in laboratory biochemistry and cell biology , though generally not for commercial applications . Chemical synthesis is inefficient for polypeptides longer than about 300 amino acids , and the synthesized proteins may not readily assume their native tertiary structure . Most chemical synthesis methods proceed from C @-@ terminus to N @-@ terminus , opposite the biological reaction .
= = Structure = =
Most proteins fold into unique 3 @-@ dimensional structures . The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation . Although many proteins can fold unassisted , simply through the chemical properties of their amino acids , others require the aid of molecular chaperones to fold into their native states . Biochemists often refer to four distinct aspects of a protein 's structure :
Primary structure : the amino acid sequence . A protein is a polyamide .
Secondary structure : regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds . The most common examples are the α @-@ helix , β @-@ sheet and turns . Because secondary structures are local , many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein molecule .
Tertiary structure : the overall shape of a single protein molecule ; the spatial relationship of the secondary structures to one another . Tertiary structure is generally stabilized by nonlocal interactions , most commonly the formation of a hydrophobic core , but also through salt bridges , hydrogen bonds , disulfide bonds , and even posttranslational modifications . The term " tertiary structure " is often used as synonymous with the term fold . The tertiary structure is what controls the basic function of the protein .
Quaternary structure : the structure formed by several protein molecules ( polypeptide chains ) , usually called protein subunits in this context , which function as a single protein complex .
Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules . In addition to these levels of structure , proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions . In the context of these functional rearrangements , these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred to as " conformations " , and transitions between them are called conformational changes . Such changes are often induced by the binding of a substrate molecule to an enzyme 's active site , or the physical region of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis . In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules .
Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes , which correlate with typical tertiary structures : globular proteins , fibrous proteins , and membrane proteins . Almost all globular proteins are soluble and many are enzymes . Fibrous proteins are often structural , such as collagen , the major component of connective tissue , or keratin , the protein component of hair and nails . Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane .
A special case of intramolecular hydrogen bonds within proteins , poorly shielded from water attack and hence promoting their own dehydration , are called dehydrons .
= = = Structure determination = = =
Discovering the tertiary structure of a protein , or the quaternary structure of its complexes , can provide important clues about how the protein performs its function . Common experimental methods of structure determination include X @-@ ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy , both of which can produce information at atomic resolution . However , NMR experiments are able to provide information from which a subset of distances between pairs of atoms can be estimated , and the final possible conformations for a protein are determined by solving a distance geometry problem . Dual polarisation interferometry is a quantitative analytical method for measuring the overall protein conformation and conformational changes due to interactions or other stimulus . Circular dichroism is another laboratory technique for determining internal β @-@ sheet / α @-@ helical composition of proteins . Cryoelectron microscopy is used to produce lower @-@ resolution structural information about very large protein complexes , including assembled viruses ; a variant known as electron crystallography can also produce high @-@ resolution information in some cases , especially for two @-@ dimensional crystals of membrane proteins . Solved structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) , a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of Cartesian coordinates for each atom in the protein .
Many more gene sequences are known than protein structures . Further , the set of solved structures is biased toward proteins that can be easily subjected to the conditions required in X @-@ ray crystallography , one of the major structure determination methods . In particular , globular proteins are comparatively easy to crystallize in preparation for X @-@ ray crystallography . Membrane proteins , by contrast , are difficult to crystallize and are underrepresented in the PDB . Structural genomics initiatives have attempted to remedy these deficiencies by systematically solving representative structures of major fold classes . Protein structure prediction methods attempt to provide a means of generating a plausible structure for proteins whose structures have not been experimentally determined .
= = Cellular functions = =
Proteins are the chief actors within the cell , said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes . With the exception of certain types of RNA , most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act . Proteins make up half the dry weight of an Escherichia coli cell , whereas other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA make up only 3 % and 20 % , respectively . The set of proteins expressed in a particular cell or cell type is known as its proteome .
The chief characteristic of proteins that also allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly . The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or " pocket " on the molecular surface . This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein , which defines the binding site pocket , and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids ' side chains . Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific ; for example , the ribonuclease inhibitor protein binds to human angiogenin with a sub @-@ femtomolar dissociation constant ( < 10 − 15 M ) but does not bind at all to its amphibian homolog onconase ( > 1 M ) . Extremely minor chemical changes such as the addition of a single methyl group to a binding partner can sometimes suffice to nearly eliminate binding ; for example , the aminoacyl tRNA synthetase specific to the amino acid valine discriminates against the very similar side chain of the amino acid isoleucine .
Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small @-@ molecule substrates . When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule , they can oligomerize to form fibrils ; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self @-@ associate to form rigid fibers . Protein – protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity , control progression through the cell cycle , and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function . Proteins can also bind to , or even be integrated into , cell membranes . The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks . Importantly , as interactions between proteins are reversible , and depend heavily on the availability of different groups of partner proteins to form aggregates that are capable to carry out discrete sets of function , study of the interactions between specific proteins is a key to understand important aspects of cellular function , and ultimately the properties that distinguish particular cell types .
= = = Enzymes = = =
The best @-@ known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes , which catalyse chemical reactions . Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions . Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism , as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication , DNA repair , and transcription . Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as posttranslational modification . About 4 @,@ 000 reactions are known to be catalysed by enzymes . The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous — as much as 1017 @-@ fold increase in rate over the uncatalysed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase ( 78 million years without the enzyme , 18 milliseconds with the enzyme ) .
The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates . Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids , it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate , and an even smaller fraction — three to four residues on average — that are directly involved in catalysis . The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site .
Dirigent proteins are members of a class of proteins that dictate the stereochemistry of a compound synthesized by other enzymes .
= = = Cell signaling and ligand binding = = =
Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction . Some proteins , such as insulin , are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues . Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell . Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell , which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell .
Antibodies are protein components of an adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind antigens , or foreign substances in the body , and target them for destruction . Antibodies can be secreted into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells . Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction , antibodies have no such constraints . An antibody 's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high .
Many ligand transport proteins bind particular small biomolecules and transport them to other locations in the body of a multicellular organism . These proteins must have a high binding affinity when their ligand is present in high concentrations , but must also release the ligand when it is present at low concentrations in the target tissues . The canonical example of a ligand @-@ binding protein is haemoglobin , which transports oxygen from the lungs to other organs and tissues in all vertebrates and has close homologs in every biological kingdom . Lectins are sugar @-@ binding proteins which are highly specific for their sugar moieties . Lectins typically play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins . Receptors and hormones are highly specific binding proteins .
Transmembrane proteins can also serve as ligand transport proteins that alter the permeability of the cell membrane to small molecules and ions . The membrane alone has a hydrophobic core through which polar or charged molecules cannot diffuse . Membrane proteins contain internal channels that allow such molecules to enter and exit the cell . Many ion channel proteins are specialized to select for only a particular ion ; for example , potassium and sodium channels often discriminate for only one of the two ions .
= = = Structural proteins = = =
Structural proteins confer stiffness and rigidity to otherwise @-@ fluid biological components . Most structural proteins are fibrous proteins ; for example , collagen and elastin are critical components of connective tissue such as cartilage , and keratin is found in hard or filamentous structures such as hair , nails , feathers , hooves , and some animal shells . Some globular proteins can also play structural functions , for example , actin and tubulin are globular and soluble as monomers , but polymerize to form long , stiff fibers that make up the cytoskeleton , which allows the cell to maintain its shape and size .
Other proteins that serve structural functions are motor proteins such as myosin , kinesin , and dynein , which are capable of generating mechanical forces . These proteins are crucial for cellular motility of single celled organisms and the sperm of many multicellular organisms which reproduce sexually . They also generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles and play essential roles in intracellular transport .
= = Methods of study = =
The activities and structures of proteins may be examined in vitro , in vivo , and in silico . In vitro studies of purified proteins in controlled environments are useful for learning how a protein carries out its function : for example , enzyme kinetics studies explore the chemical mechanism of an enzyme 's catalytic activity and its relative affinity for various possible substrate molecules . By contrast , in vivo experiments can provide information about the physiological role of a protein in the context of a cell or even a whole organism . In silico studies use computational methods to study proteins .
= = = Protein purification = = =
To perform in vitro analysis , a protein must be purified away from other cellular components . This process usually begins with cell lysis , in which a cell 's membrane is disrupted and its internal contents released into a solution known as a crude lysate . The resulting mixture can be purified using ultracentrifugation , which fractionates the various cellular components into fractions containing soluble proteins ; membrane lipids and proteins ; cellular organelles , and nucleic acids . Precipitation by a method known as salting out can concentrate the proteins from this lysate . Various types of chromatography are then used to isolate the protein or proteins of interest based on properties such as molecular weight , net charge and binding affinity . The level of purification can be monitored using various types of gel electrophoresis if the desired protein 's molecular weight and isoelectric point are known , by spectroscopy if the protein has distinguishable spectroscopic features , or by enzyme assays if the protein has enzymatic activity . Additionally , proteins can be isolated according their charge using electrofocusing .
For natural proteins , a series of purification steps may be necessary to obtain protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications . To simplify this process , genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their structure or activity . Here , a " tag " consisting of a specific amino acid sequence , often a series of histidine residues ( a " His @-@ tag " ) , is attached to one terminus of the protein . As a result , when the lysate is passed over a chromatography column containing nickel , the histidine residues ligate the nickel and attach to the column while the untagged components of the lysate pass unimpeded . A number of different tags have been developed to help researchers purify specific proteins from complex mixtures .
= = = Cellular localization = = =
The study of proteins in vivo is often concerned with the synthesis and localization of the protein within the cell . Although many intracellular proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and membrane @-@ bound or secreted proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum , the specifics of how proteins are targeted to specific organelles or cellular structures is often unclear . A useful technique for assessing cellular localization uses genetic engineering to express in a cell a fusion protein or chimera consisting of the natural protein of interest linked to a " reporter " such as green fluorescent protein ( GFP ) . The fused protein 's position within the cell can be cleanly and efficiently visualized using microscopy , as shown in the figure opposite .
Other methods for elucidating the cellular location of proteins requires the use of known compartmental markers for regions such as the ER , the Golgi , lysosomes or vacuoles , mitochondria , chloroplasts , plasma membrane , etc . With the use of fluorescently tagged versions of these markers or of antibodies to known markers , it becomes much simpler to identify the localization of a protein of interest . For example , indirect immunofluorescence will allow for fluorescence colocalization and demonstration of location . Fluorescent dyes are used to label cellular compartments for a similar purpose .
Other possibilities exist , as well . For example , immunohistochemistry usually utilizes an antibody to one or more proteins of interest that are conjugated to enzymes yielding either luminescent or chromogenic signals that can be compared between samples , allowing for localization information . Another applicable technique is cofractionation in sucrose ( or other material ) gradients using isopycnic centrifugation . While this technique does not prove colocalization of a compartment of known density and the protein of interest , it does increase the likelihood , and is more amenable to large @-@ scale studies .
Finally , the gold @-@ standard method of cellular localization is immunoelectron microscopy . This technique also uses an antibody to the protein of interest , along with classical electron microscopy techniques . The sample is prepared for normal electron microscopic examination , and then treated with an antibody to the protein of interest that is conjugated to an extremely electro @-@ dense material , usually gold . This allows for the localization of both ultrastructural details as well as the protein of interest .
Through another genetic engineering application known as site @-@ directed mutagenesis , researchers can alter the protein sequence and hence its structure , cellular localization , and susceptibility to regulation . This technique even allows the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins , using modified tRNAs , and may allow the rational design of new proteins with novel properties .
= = = Proteomics = = =
The total complement of proteins present at a time in a cell or cell type is known as its proteome , and the study of such large @-@ scale data sets defines the field of proteomics , named by analogy to the related field of genomics . Key experimental techniques in proteomics include 2D electrophoresis , which allows the separation of a large number of proteins , mass spectrometry , which allows rapid high @-@ throughput identification of proteins and sequencing of peptides ( most often after in @-@ gel digestion ) , protein microarrays , which allow the detection of the relative levels of a large number of proteins present in a cell , and two @-@ hybrid screening , which allows the systematic exploration of protein – protein interactions . The total complement of biologically possible such interactions is known as the interactome . A systematic attempt to determine the structures of proteins representing every possible fold is known as structural genomics .
= = = Bioinformatics = = =
A vast array of computational methods have been developed to analyze the structure , function , and evolution of proteins .
The development of such tools has been driven by the large amount of genomic and proteomic data available for a variety of organisms , including the human genome . It is simply impossible to study all proteins experimentally , hence only a few are subjected to laboratory experiments while computational tools are used to extrapolate to similar proteins . Such homologous proteins can be efficiently identified in distantly related organisms by sequence alignment . Genome and gene sequences can be searched by a variety of tools for certain properties . Sequence profiling tools can find restriction enzyme sites , open reading frames in nucleotide sequences , and predict secondary structures . Phylogenetic trees can be constructed and evolutionary hypotheses developed using special software like ClustalW regarding the ancestry of modern organisms and the genes they express . The field of bioinformatics is now indispensable for the analysis of genes and proteins .
= = = = Structure prediction and simulation = = = =
Complementary to the field of structural genomics , protein structure prediction seeks to develop efficient ways to provide plausible models for proteins whose structures have not yet been determined experimentally . The most successful type of structure prediction , known as homology modeling , relies on the existence of a " template " structure with sequence similarity to the protein being modeled ; structural genomics ' goal is to provide sufficient representation in solved structures to model most of those that remain . Although producing accurate models remains a challenge when only distantly related template structures are available , it has been suggested that sequence alignment is the bottleneck in this process , as quite accurate models can be produced if a " perfect " sequence alignment is known . Many structure prediction methods have served to inform the emerging field of protein engineering , in which novel protein folds have already been designed . A more complex computational problem is the prediction of intermolecular interactions , such as in molecular docking and protein – protein interaction prediction .
The processes of protein folding and binding can be simulated using such technique as molecular mechanics , in particular , molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo , which increasingly take advantage of parallel and distributed computing ( Folding @ home project ; molecular modeling on GPU ) . The folding of small α @-@ helical protein domains such as the villin headpiece and the HIV accessory protein have been successfully simulated in silico , and hybrid methods that combine standard molecular dynamics with quantum mechanics calculations have allowed exploration of the electronic states of rhodopsins .
= = = = Protein disorder and unstructure prediction = = = =
Many proteins ( in Eucaryota ~ 33 % ) contain large unstructured but biologically functional segments and can be classified as intrinsically disordered proteins . Predicting and analysing protein disorder is , therefore , an important part of protein structure characterisation .
= = Nutrition = =
Most microorganisms and plants can biosynthesize all 20 standard amino acids , while animals ( including humans ) must obtain some of the amino acids from the diet . The amino acids that an organism cannot synthesize on its own are referred to as essential amino acids . Key enzymes that synthesize certain amino acids are not present in animals — such as aspartokinase , which catalyses the first step in the synthesis of lysine , methionine , and threonine from aspartate . If amino acids are present in the environment , microorganisms can conserve energy by taking up the amino acids from their surroundings and downregulating their biosynthetic pathways .
In animals , amino acids are obtained through the consumption of foods containing protein . Ingested proteins are then broken down into amino acids through digestion , which typically involves denaturation of the protein through exposure to acid and hydrolysis by enzymes called proteases . Some ingested amino acids are used for protein biosynthesis , while others are converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis , or fed into the citric acid cycle . This use of protein as a fuel is particularly important under starvation conditions as it allows the body 's own proteins to be used to support life , particularly those found in muscle . Amino acids are also an important dietary source of nitrogen .
= = History and etymology = =
Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others , distinguished by the molecules ' ability to coagulate or flocculate under treatments with heat or acid . Noted examples at the time included albumin from egg whites , blood serum albumin , fibrin , and wheat gluten .
Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1838 . Mulder carried out elemental analysis of common proteins and found that nearly all proteins had the same empirical formula , C400H620N100O120P1S1 . He came to the erroneous conclusion that they might be composed of a single type of ( very large ) molecule . The term " protein " to describe these molecules was proposed by Mulder 's associate Berzelius ; protein is derived from the Greek word πρώτειος ( proteios ) , meaning " primary " , " in the lead " , or " standing in front " , + -in . Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid leucine for which he found a ( nearly correct ) molecular weight of 131 Da .
Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body , because it was generally believed that " flesh makes flesh . " Karl Heinrich Ritthausen extended known protein forms with the identification of glutamic acid . At the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station a detailed review of the vegetable proteins was compiled by Thomas Burr Osborne . Working with Lafayette Mendel and applying Liebig 's law of the minimum in feeding laboratory rats , the nutritionally essential amino acids were established . The work was continued and communicated by William Cumming Rose . The understanding of proteins as polypeptides came through the work of Franz Hofmeister and Hermann Emil Fischer . The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926 , when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein .
The difficulty in purifying proteins in large quantities made them very difficult for early protein biochemists to study . Hence , early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities , e.g. , those of blood , egg white , various toxins , and digestive / metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses . In the 1950s , the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it freely available to scientists ; this gesture helped ribonuclease A become a major target for biochemical study for the following decades .
Linus Pauling is credited with the successful prediction of regular protein secondary structures based on hydrogen bonding , an idea first put forth by William Astbury in 1933 . Later work by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation , based partly on previous studies by Kaj Linderstrøm @-@ Lang , contributed an understanding of protein folding and structure mediated by hydrophobic interactions .
The first protein to be sequenced was insulin , by Frederick Sanger , in 1949 . Sanger correctly determined the amino acid sequence of insulin , thus conclusively demonstrating that proteins consisted of linear polymers of amino acids rather than branched chains , colloids , or cyclols . He won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958 .
The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and myoglobin , by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew , respectively , in 1958 . As of 2016 , the Protein Data Bank has over 115 @,@ 000 atomic @-@ resolution structures of proteins . In more recent times , cryo @-@ electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains are two methods approaching atomic resolution .
= = Textbooks = =
= = = Databases and projects = = =
The Protein Naming Utility
Human Protein Atlas
NCBI Entrez Protein database
NCBI Protein Structure database
Human Protein Reference Database
Human Proteinpedia
Folding @ Home ( Stanford University )
Comparative Toxicogenomics Database curates protein – chemical interactions , as well as gene / protein – disease relationships and chemical @-@ disease relationships .
Bioinformatic Harvester A Meta search engine ( 29 databases ) for gene and protein information .
Protein Databank in Europe ( see also PDBeQuips , short articles and tutorials on interesting PDB structures )
Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics ( see also Molecule of the Month , presenting short accounts on selected proteins from the PDB )
Proteopedia – Life in 3D : rotatable , zoomable 3D model with wiki annotations for every known protein molecular structure .
UniProt the Universal Protein Resource
neXtProt – Exploring the universe of human proteins : human @-@ centric protein knowledge resource
Multi @-@ Omics Profiling Expression Database : MOPED human and model organism protein / gene knowledge and expression data
= = = Tutorials and educational websites = = =
" An Introduction to Proteins " from HOPES ( Huntington 's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford )
Proteins : Biogenesis to Degradation – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology
Alphabet of Protein Structures
= LiSA ( Japanese musician , born 1987 ) =
Risa Oribe ( 織部 里沙 , Oribe Risa , born June 24 , 1987 ) , better known by her stage name LiSA ( an acronym of Love is Same All ) , is a Japanese pop singer @-@ songwriter from Seki , Gifu , signed to Aniplex under Sony Music Artists . After aspiring to become a musician early in life , she started her musical career as the vocalist of the indie band Chucky . Following Chucky 's disbandment in 2005 , LiSA moved to Tokyo in order to pursue a solo career , making her major debut in 2010 singing songs for the anime television series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional band Girls Dead Monster . In April 2011 , she made her solo debut with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U. She performed at Animelo Summer Live in August 2010 , Anime Expo in 2012 , and is a regular guest at Anime Festival Asia .
LiSA 's songs have been featured as theme music for various anime such as Fate / Zero and Sword Art Online . Her singles have regularly been in the top ten of the Oricon weekly charts , with " Crossing Field " being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan and " Oath Sign " being certified gold . She performed at the Nippon Budokan in 2014 and 2015 . In 2015 , she made her acting debut as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years and major debut = = =
Oribe 's musical experience began at the age of three when , upon her mother 's suggestions , she took private piano lessons . Although she was a shy student in kindergarten , she enjoyed her music lessons . In primary school , she was inspired to sing after seeing the band Speed on television . She later took dance and vocal lessons , which continued through her junior high school years . While in elementary , she participated in an audition held at the Nippon Budokan , and it was during this time she decided to become an artist . In junior high school , she formed a band which covered songs by Avril Lavigne , Love Psychedelico , and Ego @-@ Wrappin ' .
Oribe began her singing career in 2005 during her first year in high school when she formed the indie rock band Chucky , which mainly covered songs by other artists . During her second year , the band received advice from their peers that they should start making their own songs ; eventually the band 's reputation grew enough that they performed in Osaka and Nagoya in addition to Gifu . Although her grades in high school were good , she decided not to go to university , despite the recommendations of her teachers , in order to focus on her work with Chucky . Nevertheless , after graduation , due to varying schedules among the band 's members , it became difficult to continue performing . Following the band 's disbandment in July 2008 , she moved to Tokyo in order to continue her singing career .
After moving to Tokyo , Oribe formed the band Love is Same All with members from the indie band Parking Out and began using the stage name LiSA , which is an acronym for Love is Same All . The band performs with LiSA during the latter 's solo live performances . In 2010 , she made her major debut singing songs for the anime series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional in @-@ story band Girls Dead Monster . She was the vocalist for the character Yui , and the second vocalist , Marina , sang as the character Masami Iwasawa . LiSA put out three singles and one album in 2010 under the name Girls Dead Monster on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The first single " Thousand Enemies " was released on May 12 ; the second single " Little Braver " came out on June 9 ; and the third single " Ichiban no Takaramono ( Yui final ver . ) " ( 一番の宝物 〜 Yui final ver . 〜 , " My Most Precious Treasure ( Yui final ver . ) " ) was sold on December 8 . The album Keep The Beats ! was released on June 30 . LiSA made her first appearance at Animelo Summer Live during the concert 's 2010 iteration on August 28 .
LiSA made her solo debut on April 20 , 2011 with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U by Aniplex under Sony Music Artists . The songs on the album were composed by dōjin and major artists , and she composed the first song " Believe in Myself " ; she wrote the album 's lyrics . On November 12 , 2011 , She made her first appearance in Singapore at Anime Festival Asia , Southeast Asia 's largest anime and pop culture convention . She released her first solo single " Oath Sign " on November 23 , 2011 , which was used as the opening theme to the 2011 anime series Fate / Zero . The single peaked at No. 5 on the Oricon weekly charts and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
LiSA released her first full solo album Lover " s " mile on February 22 , 2012 ; the album peaked at No. 7 on the Oricon weekly charts . She attended the Anime Expo 2012 in Los Angeles as a guest of honor and performed her first concert in North America there on July 1 . After her success with " Oath Sign " , she was chosen to perform the first opening theme to the 2012 anime series Sword Art Online ; the single " Crossing Field " , her second single , was released on August 8 , 2012 ; the single peaked at No. 5 on Oricon and was later certified gold by the RIAJ . Her third single " Best Day , Best Way " , which peaked at No. 6 on Oricon , was released on April 3 , 2013 , and her fourth single " Träumerei " , which peaked at No. 15 on Oricon and was used as the opening theme to the 2013 anime series Day Break Illusion , was released on August 7 , 2013 . LiSA released her second solo album Landspace on October 30 , 2013 ; the album peaked at No. 2 on Oricon charts . A photobook titled Kyō mo Ii Hi da ( 今日もいい日だっ , " Another Great Day " ) that contains photos of her taken by Lis Ani ! magazine over three years was published on November 22 , 2013 . When asked if she would revisit the meaning of her acronym in the future in an interview with Nihongogo at Anime Festival Asia 2013 in Singapore , she suggested Lovely international Super Apple .
On January 3 , 2014 , LiSA held a sold @-@ out solo concert at the Nippon Budokan . Her fifth single " Rising Hope " , which is used as the opening theme to the 2014 anime series The Irregular at Magic High School , was released on May 7 , 2014 ; the single peaked at No. 4 on Oricon . She later covered the songs " Headphone Actor " ( ヘッドフォンアクター ) and " Yūkei Yesterday " ( 夕景イエスタデイ , " Yesterday Evening " ) from the Kagerou Project franchise for the sixth episode of the 2014 anime series Mekakucity Actors . She released her sixth single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " on September 17 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 8 on Oricon , and her seventh single " Shirushi " ( シルシ , lit . " Sign " ) on December 10 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 3 on the Oricon ; the title song is used as the third ending theme to the 2014 anime series Sword Art Online II , and the single also includes the song " No More Time Machine " , which was used as the second ending theme to Sword Art Online II . She held her second Nippon Budokan concert on January 10 and 11 , 2015 , tickets for which were sold out . She released her third solo album Launcher on March 4 , 2015 and her eighth single " Rally Go Round " on May 27 , 2015 ; the song is used as the opening theme to the second season of the anime television series Nisekoi . She was cast as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions , which premiered in Japanese theaters on July 31 , 2015 . She released her ninth single " Empty Mermaid " on September 30 , 2015 . In late 2015 , she performed " ID " , which is used as theme song of the 2015 video game Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax Ignition . To commemorate her fifth year as a solo artist , LiSA released her Letters To U EP as a limited edition LP on March 23 , 2016 . LiSA released a mini @-@ album titled Lucky Hi Five ! on April 20 , 2016 . She will release the single " Brave Freak Out " , which will be used as the opening theme to the 2016 anime television series Qualidea Code , on August 24 , 2016 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
LiSA lists Avril Lavigne , Oasis , Green Day , Paramore , Ke $ ha , and Rihanna as among her musical influences , as well as her time in Chucky . LiSA wrote the lyrics for some of her songs in her Landspace and Launcher albums , as well as the lyrics for the singles " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , " Shirushi " , and " Rally Go Round " ; " Rally Go Round " was co @-@ written with songwriter Shin Furuya .
LiSA 's musical style is described by Dennis Amith of J ! -ENT as a young woman with style , beautiful vocals , and the ability to take on various musical styles , may it be happy , upbeat rock music or " even something more darker . " She has used the phrase " kyō mo ii hi da " ( 今日もいい日だっ , " Another Great Day " ) as a theme throughout her career ; the phrase is also the name of her personal blog . In an interview with HMV Japan , she mentioned that before her major debut , she tended to sing pop songs , and because of this , she felt uneasy when making " Oath Sign " , which had a heavy and dark style , although she was able to receive several favorable responses to the single , which allowed her to make her next single " Crossing Field " with confidence . As for " Crossing Field " , she says that feels that the song grows every time she sings it , in the same way that love is nurtured through dates or love letters . In " Best Day , Best Way " , she mentioned that the song 's theme is " what you did yesterday will lead to what happens today " , and that the lyrics are delivered as if they are her own words . She also shared her experience with the single 's B @-@ sides : " I 'm a Rock Star " , which according to her represents her fulfilling her dream of becoming a singer , and " Shiroi Toiki " ( シロイトイキ , " White Sigh " ) , which represents happy feelings .
In an interview with Oricon , LiSA explained her experiences with " Träumerei " , where she stated that because Day Break Illusion is an original anime , she wanted the song to be presented in the color of her own work , but even in the world of anime , her music would continue to have an atmosphere of rock , as opposed to the pop style she used in " Best Day , Best Way " . She mentioned that she sang that song in a way that she felt the conflicts that were present in the story and with the strength that was part of the show 's theme . With regards to the song 's music video , she wanted to have a video which would express in color emotions , such as the use of red to represent confrontations , black to represent the feeling of being lost , and green for frightening things .
In making the single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , she mentions in an interview with HMV Japan that the concept of the single is that it can be divided into two parts : pink and black . Pink is the color of " Bright Flight " , a song which is in a pop style and was written in a " cute " image in mind , while black is the color of " L. Miranic " , which is in a dark rock style and has the theme of a " bad woman " . LiSA mentioned that the name " L. Miranic " was chosen because the song is linked to criminals and that since " Miranic " is a name in some countries , adding her name to " Miranic " to make " LiSA @-@ Miranic " would mean that the criminal in the song is her .
Dennis Amith of J ! -ENT reviewed LiSA 's album Landspace , where he describes the song " Crossing Field " as a song about " wanting to forget the weakness and securities of one past and being with someone you love who gives you the strength to become even stronger . " Meanwhile , he describes the song " Best Day , Best Way " as " a fun and happy track about believing in yourself and overcoming anything bad that have happened in the past and moving forward . " Finally , he describes " Träumerei " as " another inspirational song about one losing the rhythm in their heart and is now on the road of loneliness , but still the person wants to pierce the sky with their own light , shatter the darkness and have a fresh new start in life . " He concludes the review by saying that the album is full of upbeat and inspirational songs and showcases LiSA 's talents as a vocalist , and in contrast to many anison artists who are known for their cute and sweet vocals , LiSA is able to take on many musical styles .
= = Discography = =
The discography of LiSA includes three studio albums , one extended play , ten singles , and five video albums .
Studio albums
Lover " s " mile ( 2012 )
Landspace ( 2013 )
Launcher ( 2015 )
= Aston Villa F.C. =
Aston Villa Football Club ( / ˈæstən ˈvɪlə / ; nicknamed Villa , The Villa , The Villans , The Lions ) is a professional association football club based in Aston , Birmingham , that plays in the Championship , the second level of English football . Founded in 1874 , they have played at their current home ground , Villa Park , since 1897 . Aston Villa were the originators and founding members of the Football League in 1888 . They were also founding members of the Premier League in 1992 . In June 2016 , the club was sold by American businessman Randy Lerner to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Dr Tony Jiantong Xia .
Aston Villa are one of the oldest and most successful football clubs in the history of English football . Villa won the 1981 – 82 European Cup , and are thus one of five English clubs to win what is now the UEFA Champions League . They have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club , having won the First Division Championship seven times , the FA Cup seven times , the Football League Cup five times , and the European Cup and UEFA Super Cup double in 1982 .
They have a fierce local rivalry with Birmingham City . The Second City derby between Aston Villa and Birmingham City has been played since 1879 . The club 's traditional kit colours are claret shirts with sky blue sleeves , white shorts and sky blue socks . Their traditional badge is of a rampant lion , which was introduced by the club 's Scottish chairman William McGregor in honour of the Royal Standard of Scotland .
= = History = =
Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874 , by members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in Handsworth which is now part of Birmingham . The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes , Frederick Matthews , Walter Price and William Scattergood . Aston Villa 's first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team . As a condition of the match , the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under rugby rules and the second half under football rules . After moving to the Wellington Road ground in 1876 , Villa soon established themselves as one of the best teams in the Midlands , winning their first honour , the Birmingham Senior Cup in 1880 , under the captaincy of Scotsman George Ramsay .
The club won their first FA Cup in 1887 with captain Archie Hunter becoming one of the game 's first household names . Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors , William McGregor being the league 's founder . Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era , winning no fewer than five League titles and three FA Cups by the end of Queen Victoria 's reign . In 1897 , the year Villa won The Double , they moved into their present home , the Aston Lower Grounds . Supporters coined the name " Villa Park " ; no official declaration listed the ground as Villa Park .
Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920 , soon after though the club began a slow decline that led to Villa , at the time one of the most famous and successful clubs in world football , being relegated in 1936 for the first time to the Second Division . This was largely the result of a dismal defensive record : they conceded 110 goals in 42 games , 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an infamous 1 – 7 defeat at Villa Park . Like all English clubs , Villa lost seven seasons to the Second World War , and that conflict brought several careers to a premature end . The team was rebuilt under the guidance of former player Alex Massie for the remainder of the 1940s . Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years came in the 1956 – 57 season when another former Villa player , Eric Houghton led the club to a then record seventh FA Cup Final win , defeating the ' Busby Babes ' of Manchester United in the final . The team struggled in the league though and were relegated two seasons later , due in large part to complacency . However , under the stewardship of manager Joe Mercer Villa returned to the top @-@ flight in 1960 as Second Division Champions . The following season Aston Villa became the first team to win the Football League Cup .
Mercer 's forced retirement from the club in 1964 signalled a period of deep turmoil . The most successful club in England was struggling to keep pace with changes in the modern game , with Villa being relegated for the third time , under manager Dick Taylor in 1967 . The following season the fans called for the board to resign as Villa finished 16th in the Second Division . With mounting debts and Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two , the board sacked Tommy Cummings ( the manager brought in to replace Taylor ) , and within weeks the entire board resigned under overwhelming pressure from fans . After much speculation , control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews , who also brought in Doug Ellis as chairman . However , new ownership could not prevent Villa being relegated to the Third Division for the first time at the end of the 1969 – 70 season . However , Villa gradually began to recover under the management of former club captain Vic Crowe . In the 1971 – 72 season they returned to the Second Division as Champions with a record 70 points . In 1974 , Ron Saunders was appointed manager . His brand of no @-@ nonsense man @-@ management proved effective , with the club winning the League Cup the following season and , at the end of season 1974 – 75 , he had taken them back into the First Division and into Europe .
Villa were back among the elite as Saunders continued to mould a winning team . This culminated in a seventh top @-@ flight league title in 1980 – 81 . To the surprise of commentators and fans , Saunders quit halfway through the 1981 – 82 season , after falling out with the chairman , with Villa in the quarter final of the European Cup . He was replaced by his softly @-@ spoken assistant manager Tony Barton who guided the club to a 1 – 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam courtesy of a Peter Withe goal . The following season Villa were crowned European Super Cup winners , beating Barcelona in the final . This marked a pinnacle though and Villa 's fortunes declined sharply for most of the 1980s , culminating in relegation in 1987 . This was followed by promotion the following year under Graham Taylor and a runners @-@ up position in the First Division in the 1989 – 90 season .
Villa were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 , and finished runners @-@ up to Manchester United in the inaugural season . For the rest of the Nineties however Villa went through three different managers and their league positions were inconsistent , although they did win two League Cups and regularly achieved UEFA Cup | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
The Bells Are Ringing " is to be played before games .
Like many English football clubs Aston Villa have had several hooligan firms associated with them : Villa Youth , Steamers , Villa Hardcore and the C @-@ Crew , the last mentioned being very active during the 1970s and 1980s . As can be seen across the whole of English football , the hooligan groups have now been marginalised . In 2004 , several Villa firms were involved in a fight with QPR fans outside Villa Park in which a steward died . The main groupings of supporters can now be found in a number of domestic and international supporters ' clubs . This includes the Official Aston Villa Supporters Club which also has many smaller regional and international sections . There were several independent supporters clubs during the reign of Doug Ellis but most of these disbanded after his retirement . The supporter group My Old Man Said formed to stand up for Villa supporter 's rights , as a direct result of Villa supporters ' protest against the club 's appointment of Alex McLeish . The club 's supporters also publish fanzines such as Heroes and Villains and The Holy Trinity .
Aston Villa 's arch @-@ rivals are Birmingham City , with games between the two clubs known as the Second City Derby . Historically though , West Bromwich Albion have arguably been Villa 's greatest rivals , a view highlighted in a fan survey , conducted in 2003 . The two teams contested three FA Cup finals in the late 19th century . Villa also enjoy less heated local rivalries with Wolverhampton Wanderers and Coventry City . Through the relegation of West Brom and Birmingham City , to the Football League Championship , in the 2005 – 06 season , at the start of 2006 – 07 Premiership season , Villa were the only Midlands club in that League . The nearest opposing team Villa faced during that season was Sheffield United , who played 62 miles ( 100 km ) away in South Yorkshire . For the 2010 – 11 season , West Bromwich Albion were promoted and joined Aston Villa , Wolverhampton Wanderers , and Birmingham City in the Premier League . This marked the first time that the " West Midlands ' Big Four " clubs have been in the Premier League at the same time , and the first time together in the top flight since the 1983 – 84 season . Birmingham were relegated at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , ending this period .
= = Statistics = =
As of the end of the 2014 – 15 season , Aston Villa have spent 104 seasons in the top tier of English football ; the only club to have spent longer in the top flight are Everton , with 112 seasons , making Aston Villa versus Everton the most @-@ played fixture in English top @-@ flight football . Aston Villa were in an elite group of seven clubs that has played in every Premier League season , the other six being Tottenham Hotspur , Chelsea , Everton , Liverpool , Manchester United and Arsenal since its establishment in 1992 – 93 until they were relegated in 2016 . They are seventh in the All @-@ time FA Premier League table , and have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club with 21 wins .
Aston Villa currently hold the record number of league goals scored by any team in the English top flight ; 128 goals were scored in the 1930 – 31 season , one more than Arsenal who won the league that season for the very first time , with Villa runners @-@ up . Villa legend Archie Hunter became the first player to score in every round of the FA Cup in Villa 's victorious 1887 campaign . Villa 's longest unbeaten home run in the FA Cup spanned 13 years and 19 games , from 1888 to 1901 .
Aston Villa are one of five English teams to have won the European Cup . They did so on 26 May 1982 in Rotterdam , beating Bayern Munich 1 – 0 thanks to Peter Withe 's goal .
= = Club honours = =
Aston Villa have won European and domestic league honours . The club 's last major honour was in 1996 when they won the League Cup .
= = = Domestic = = =
League titles
First Division 7 : 1893 – 94 , 1895 – 96 , 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99 , 1899 – 1900 , 1909 – 10 , 1980 – 81
Second Division 2 : 1937 – 38 , 1959 – 60
Third Division 1 : 1971 – 72
Cups
FA Cup 7 :
1886 – 87 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97 , 1904 – 05 , 1912 – 13 , 1919 – 20 , 1956 – 57
League Cup 5 :
1960 – 61 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96
FA Charity Shield 1 :
1981
Football League War Cup 1 :
1944 ( shared )
= = = European = = =
European Cup 1 :
1981 – 82
European Super Cup 1 :
1982
Intertoto Cup 2 :
2001 , 2008
= = = Other sports = = =
English Baseball Championship
1890
= = Players = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 21 June 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = U21 squad = = =
As of 21 June 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Notable players = = =
There have been many players who can be called notable throughout Aston Villa 's history . These can be classified and recorded in several forms . The Halls of Fame and PFA Players of the Year are noted below . As of 2014 , Aston Villa , jointly with Tottenham Hotspur , hold the record for providing the most England internationals with 73 . Aston Villa have had several players who were one @-@ club men . In 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football , The Football League released a list entitled the Football League 100 Legends that consisted of " 100 legendary football players . " There were seven players included on the list who had formerly played for Villa : Danny Blanchflower , Trevor Ford , Archie Hunter , Sam Hardy , Paul McGrath , Peter Schmeichel and Clem Stephenson .
Three Aston Villa players have won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award . At the end of every English football season , the members of the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) vote on which of its members has played the best football in the previous year . In 1977 Andy Gray won the award . In 1990 it was awarded to David Platt , whilst Paul McGrath won it in 1993 . The PFA Young Player of the Year , which is awarded to players under the age of 23 , has been awarded to four players from Aston Villa : Andy Gray in 1977 ; Gary Shaw in 1981 ; Ashley Young in 2009 and James Milner in 2010 . The National Football Museum in Preston , Lancashire administers the English Football Hall of Fame which currently contains two Villa teams , two Villa players and one manager . The 1890s team and 1982 team were inducted into the Hall of Fame in July 2009 . Joe Mercer was inducted into the Hall of Fame at the same time for his career as a manager including his time at Aston Villa . The only two Villa players in the Hall of Fame are Danny Blanchflower and Peter Schmeichel .
In 2006 , Aston Villa announced the creation of an " Aston Villa Hall of Fame . " This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players , managers and directors named . In May 2013 it was announced that former Villa and Bulgaria captain , Stiliyan Petrov , would be the 13th addition to the Hall of Fame .
= = Management = =
= = = Current technical staff = = =
As of 4 June 2016
= = = Board of Directors = = =
As of 15 June 2016
= = = Notable managers = = =
The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge or have been notable for Villa in the context of the League , for example Jozef Vengloš who holds a League record .
= = In popular culture = =
A number of television programmes have included references to Aston Villa over the past few decades . In the sitcom Porridge , the character Lennie Godber is a Villa supporter . When filming began on Dad 's Army , Villa fan Ian Lavender was allowed to choose Frank Pike 's scarf from an array in the BBC wardrobe ; he chose a claret and blue one — Aston Villa 's colours . The character Nessa in the BBC sitcom Gavin & Stacey was revealed as an Aston Villa fan in an episode screened in December 2009 . In the BBC series " Yes Minister " / " Yes Prime Minister " , the Minister Jim Hacker 's local team was Aston Villa , as was the Member of Parliament for Birmingham East .
Aston Villa have also featured on several occasions in prose . Stanley Woolley , a character in Derek Robinson 's Booker shortlisted novel Goshawk Squadron is an Aston Villa fan and names a pre @-@ war starting eleven Villa side . Together with The Oval , Villa Park is referenced by the poet Philip Larkin in his poem about the First World War , MCMXIV . Aston Villa are also mentioned in Harold Pinter 's play The Dumb Waiter .
= Pattycake ( gorilla ) =
Pattycake , also known as Patty Cake ( September 3 , 1972 – March 31 , 2013 ) was a female western lowland gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla ) born to Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo in New York City . She was the first baby gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York . Months after her much publicized birth , Pattycake 's arm was broken when it got stuck in her cage as her mother grabbed her away from her father . The incident was sensationally anthropomorphized in the media as a domestic dispute between Lulu and Kongo , but in reality experts thought it was a simple accident .
Her injury was treated at the Bronx Zoo while a custody dispute between the two zoos broke out in public and elicited a range of opinions from experts who believed Pattycake should be returned to her mother . Intense media coverage and public interest brought Pattycake to the attention of a wide audience , with stories focusing on her recovery , her eventual reunion with her parents , and the conditions of zoo animals in Central Park . An ambitious proposal for renovating the Central Park Zoo arose in the wake of the controversy while the zoo received record attendance rates .
Pattycake was the " child star " of New York City in the early 1970s , and her fame was compared to Shirley Temple . At a time when New York City was facing many problems , she distracted the public from their growing anxieties and became a welcome relief for New Yorkers and their children who loved to visit her . After spending the first decade of her life at the Central Park Zoo , Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo in 1982 . She was the mother of ten baby gorillas , including twins born in 1995 . Pattycake spent her later life as an independent but caring troop matriarch in the Bronx Zoo 's Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . After suffering from arthritis and cardiac problems for some time , Pattycake succumbed to heart disease in 2013 .
= = Birth = =
" Pattycake " was born on September 3 , 1972 , to western lowland gorilla parents Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . Lulu and Kongo first arrived at the zoo on May 11 , 1966 . At the time , it was thought that Lulu wasn 't mature enough to conceive , so when Lulu gave birth to Pattycake at the age of 8 , it came as a surprise . Up until the time Lulu gave birth , it had been very difficult to get captive gorilla mothers to raise their young in zoos because the babies would either be rejected by the mother or they would be taken away by the handlers . Pattycake was the first gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York .
At the time of her birth , it was unknown if she was a male or female , as it was considered too dangerous to approach her and her parents . Her handlers assumed she was a male and originally named her " Sonny Jim " . When it was established that Pattycake was a female , a contest was held by the New York Daily News to find her a name . " Patty Cake " , the winning entry , was submitted by New York fireman John O 'Connor , who named the gorilla after his wife and a proposed daughter . " It just so happens that we have three boys and I told my wife that if we ever have a girl , we should name her Patty , which happens to be her name . I thought we 'd let the baby gorilla use the name in the meantime , " O 'Connor told reporters .
Pattycake 's birth caught the attention of the city and brought crowds of thousands of New Yorkers to the Central Park Zoo . Reporter N. R. Kleinfield called her a child star whose " furry face served as a bit of a respite at a time when the city found itself grappling with high crime rates and an intensifying financial crisis . " Six months after Pattycake was born , the director of the zoo estimated that based on the crowds , she might draw an additional 500 @,@ 000 visitors by the time of her first birthday .
= = Custody dispute = =
At the age of five months , Pattycake was sharing the Lion House with Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . On March 20 , 1973 , an accident occurred that was attributed more to clumsiness than to parenting skills . Although no staff were on hand to see it directly , according to visitors , while little Pattycake was reaching out to her father through the bars of her cage , her right arm became stuck somehow when her mother Lulu pulled her away , breaking her right arm . Zoo handlers had to subdue Lulu with a tranquilizer dart to remove Pattycake and treat her injury . While experts considered the incident an accident , the media sensationalized the event . Zookeeper Veronica Nelson , who worked with Patty Cake , recalled that
The news media would have liked to have it a dramatic bloody mess — a struggle between mom and pop for the custody of the child . It was nothing like that . It was a simple accident . Kongo was in one part of the double cage , Lulu in another , and between them was a partition of narrow bars . Lulu had Patty Cake in her arms and when Patty reached in between the narrow bars to touch her father , Lulu suddenly pulled her away . But Patty 's arm got caught in the narrow bars and broke . It was a freak accident . No one ever realized that those bars were narrow enough to catch that tiny arm .
Pattycake was brought to New York Medical College for surgery and she was given a cast for her arm . Due to concerns that Lulu would try to remove Pattycake 's cast , she was separated from her mother and moved to the Bronx Zoo for convalescence . Pattycake was treated by veterinarian Emil Dolensek who later replaced her cast with a sling . After an examination , the staff discovered that Pattycake had intestinal parasites and determined she was underfed . They also believed that as a result of the incident , Lulu wasn 't capable as a mother .
A custody dispute began between the two zoos , with the Bronx Zoo arguing that she would be better cared for in their facilities . Time magazine noted that it was the " custody battle of the decade " in the " primate world " , comparing Patty Cake 's popularity and fame to that of child star Shirley Temple . Developmental biologist Ronald Nadler of the Yerkes National Primate Research Center was brought in to arbitrate the dispute and published a report that favored returning Pattycake to her mother and the Central Park Zoo . In his report Nadler noted that " the recommendation is based on the judgment that an infant gorilla is more likely to develop into a socially competent and reproductively adequate animal if it is raised in the company of its parents as opposed to being raised with a group of peers . "
After three months recuperating from her injuries , Pattycake was returned to her mother on June 15 , 1973 . The entire incident was documented by artist Susan Green in her book Gentle Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) .
= = Central Park Zoo conditions = =
By the 1970s , animal welfare organizations began to voice their increasing concern with the treatment of zoo animals and the conditions of their enclosures at the Central Park Zoo , the oldest zoo in the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States , the Friends of the Zoo , and the Society for Animal Rights decried the prison @-@ like conditions of the cages and called for changes . The New York Zoological Society , which was responsible for creating realistic habitat enclosures at the Bronx Zoo , also began calling for changes and for Pattycake to be moved to another zoo . A renovation plan for the Central Park Zoo was approved in 1981 , with plans made to move the gorillas to larger spaces in other zoos . The New York Times reported that " the caging of these animals in inadequate spaces has long enraged animal lovers . " When the zoo was finally closed for renovations in 1982 , Pattycake was moved to the Bronx Zoo .
= = Bronx Zoo = =
Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo on December 20 , 1982 . For a few years , she lived in a cage with Pansy , a chimpanzee . In June 1999 , Pattycake moved into the Wildlife Conservation Society 's $ 43 million Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . The exhibit includes a Great Gorilla Forest viewing area that separates gorillas and visitors with a glass window . Two troops of gorillas inhabited the 6 @.@ 5 acre exhibit , with a dozen gorillas in Pattycake 's troop alone , including Fubo , Pattycake , Tunko , Triska , Halima , Fran , Layla , Kumi , Suki , Babatunde , Barbara , and M 'domo . The general curator of the Bronx Zoo , James Doherty , described Pattycake as " independent " with " few close friends " in the Congo Gorilla Forest . " It may have something to do with the fact that she didn 't live with her parents that long , and lived with that chimpanzee for a few years , " Doherty said .
= = Breeding and offspring = =
Pattycake gave birth to her first baby , Tumai , a male gorilla , on January 20 , 1985 . Tumai was sired by Bendera . Pattycake and Bendera had a second baby on March 23 , 1986 , but it died soon after birth . With Barney , Pattycake gave birth to three babies : a female named Paki , on May 26 , 1989 , followed by Patrick on April 19 , 1990 , and Husani on December 14 , 1991 . Paki gave birth to Pattycake 's only grandchild , Pendeka , in 1998 .
In October 1991 , a silverback named Timmy ( 1959 – 2011 ) was taken away from Kate , his infertile companion at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo , in the hopes of breeding lowland gorillas and introducing new genes into the captive gorilla gene pool . This forced separation led to protests from animal rights activists who expressed concerns about the potential consequences of emotional trauma on the two gorillas . The Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival Plan sent Timmy to the Bronx Zoo where he joined Pattycake and other females .
On July 11 , 1993 , Pattycake and Timmy gave birth to Okpara , a male gorilla . The pair also gave birth to twin males , Ngoma and Tambo , on August 8 , 1994 . It was the sixth time western lowland gorillas had given birth to twins in captivity . The twins were raised in a separate habitat by surrogate mothers . After seven years , Ngoma and Tambo , along with another gorilla named Dan , left for a zoo in Nebraska in February 2001 . On February 4 , 2001 , Pattycake and Zuri gave birth to Dossi , a female . Her last and tenth baby gorilla , a male , was delivered on April 15 , 2002 . Unnamed , it died four days later .
= = Later life = =
Kongo , Pattycake 's father , died in 1998 . In 2002 , the Pattycake Fund was established to raise $ 250 @,@ 000 to stop illegal poaching of African gorillas . The fundraising coincided with Pattycake 's 30th birthday , commemorated with a two @-@ day celebration at the Bronx Zoo . A special cake was made for her from kale , gelatin , yogurt , and berries .
Timmy , along with two female gorillas , Tunuka and Paki , left the Bronx Zoo for the Louisville Zoo in May 2004 .
Pattycake tried her hand at painting while participating with the Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS ) animal enrichment program at the Bronx Zoo . A sample of her work was published in the 2010 WCS Annual Report .
Pattycake 's mother Lulu died in early 2011 .
Pattycake suffered from chronic heart disease and arthritis as she aged . She was one of 338 captive zoo gorillas within North America when she died in her sleep at the age of 40 . According to the Wildlife Conservation Society , Pattycake exceeded the median life span of 37 years for female zoo gorillas .
= = Cultural depictions = =
In honor of Pattycake , the Rev. Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick ( Brother Kirk ) joined Pete Seeger and the Sesame Street kids chorus for the song " Patty Cake Gorilla " , released on the album Pete Seeger and Brother Kirk Visit Sesame Street ( 1974 ) . A picture book called Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , featuring New York Times photographer Neal Boenzi and others , was written by Elizabeth Moody . Pearl Wolf wrote Gorilla Baby : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , a picture book for children . Artist Susan Green published her direct , personal observations about the custody dispute ( along with her drawings ) in the book Gentle Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) .
= Lactarius indigo =
Lactarius indigo , commonly known as the indigo milk cap , the indigo ( or blue ) lactarius , or the blue milk mushroom , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae . A widely distributed species , it grows naturally in eastern North America , East Asia , and Central America ; it has also been reported in southern France . L. indigo grows on the ground in both deciduous and coniferous forests , where it forms mycorrhizal associations with a broad range of trees . The fruit body color ranges from dark blue in fresh specimens to pale blue @-@ gray in older ones . The milk , or latex , that oozes when the mushroom tissue is cut or broken — a feature common to all members of the Lactarius genus — is also indigo blue , but slowly turns green upon exposure to air . The cap has a diameter of 5 to 15 cm ( 2 to 6 in ) , and the stem is 2 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 3 in ) tall and 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . It is an edible mushroom , and is sold in rural markets in China , Guatemala , and Mexico .
= = Taxonomy and nomenclature = =
Originally described in 1822 as Agaricus indigo by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz , the species was later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1838 by the Swede Elias Magnus Fries . German botanist Otto Kuntze called it Lactifluus indigo in his 1891 treatise Revisio Generum Plantarum , but the suggested name change was not adopted by others . Hesler and Smith in their 1960 study of North American species of Lactarius defined L. indigo as the type species of subsection Caerulei , a group characterized by blue latex and a sticky , blue cap . In 1979 , they revised their opinions on the organization of subdivisions in the genus Lactarius , and instead placed L. indigo in subgenus Lactarius based on the color of latex , and the subsequent color changes observed after exposure to air . As they explained :
The gradual development of blue to violet pigmentation as one progresses from species to species is an interesting phenomenon deserving further study . The climax is reached in L. indigo which is blue throughout . L. chelidonium and its variety chelidonioides , L. paradoxus , and L. hemicyaneus may be considered as mileposts along the road to L. indigo .
The specific epithet indigo is derived from the Latin word meaning " indigo blue " . Its names in the English vernacular include the " indigo milk cap " , the " indigo Lactarius " , the " blue milk mushroom " , and the " blue Lactarius " . In central Mexico , it is known as añil , azul , hongo azul , zuin , and zuine ; it is also called quexque ( meaning " blue " ) in Veracruz and Puebla .
= = Description = =
Like many other mushrooms , L. indigo develops from a nodule , or pinhead , that forms within the underground mycelium , a mass of threadlike fungal cells called hyphae that make up the bulk of the organism . Under appropriate environmental conditions of temperature , humidity , and nutrient availability , the visible reproductive structures ( fruit bodies ) are formed . The cap of the fruit body , measuring between 5 and 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , is initially convex and later develops a central depression ; in age it becomes even more deeply depressed , becoming somewhat funnel @-@ shaped as the edge of the cap lifts upward . The margin of the cap is rolled inwards when young , but unrolls and elevates as it matures . The cap surface is indigo blue when fresh , but fades to a paler grayish- or silvery @-@ blue , sometimes with greenish splotches . It is often zonate : marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones , and the cap may have dark blue spots , especially towards the edge . Young caps are sticky to the touch .
The flesh is pallid to bluish in color , slowly turning greenish after being exposed to air ; its taste is mild to slightly acrid . The flesh of the entire mushroom is brittle , and the stem , if bent sufficiently , will snap open cleanly . The latex exuded from injured tissue is indigo blue , and stains the wounded tissue greenish ; like the flesh , the latex has a mild taste . Lactarius indigo is noted for not producing as much latex as other Lactarius species , and older specimens in particular may be too dried out to produce any latex .
The gills of the mushroom range from adnate ( squarely attached to the stem ) to slightly decurrent ( running down the length of the stem ) , and crowded close together . Their color is an indigo blue , becoming paler with age or staining green with damage . The stem is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and the same diameter throughout or sometimes narrowed at base . Its color is indigo blue to silvery- or grayish blue . The interior of the stem is solid and firm initially , but develops a hollow with age . Like the cap , it is initially sticky or slimy to the touch when young , but soon dries out . Its attachment to the cap is usually in a central position , although it may also be off @-@ center . Fruit bodies of L. indigo have no distinguishable odor .
L. indigo var. diminutivus ( the " smaller indigo milk cap " ) is a smaller variant of the mushroom , with a cap diameter between 3 and 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 8 in ) , and a stem 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick . It is often seen in Virginia . Hesler and Smith , who first described the variant based on specimens found in Brazoria County , Texas , described its typical habitat as " along [ the ] sides of a muddy ditch under grasses and weeds , [ with ] loblolly pine nearby " .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
When viewed in mass , as in a spore print , the spores appear cream to yellow colored . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are translucent ( hyaline ) , elliptical to nearly spherical in shape , with amyloid warts , and have dimensions of 7 – 9 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . Scanning electron microscopy reveals reticulations on the spore surface . The hymenium is the spore @-@ producing tissue layer of the fruit body , and consists of hyphae that extend into the gills and terminate as end cells . Various cell types can be observed in the hymenium , and the cells have microscopic characteristics that may be used to help identify or distinguish species in cases where the macroscopic characters may be ambiguous . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 37 – 45 µm long by 8 – 10 µm wide at the thickest point . Cystidia are terminal cells of hyphae in the hymenium which do not produce spores , and function in aiding spore dispersal , and maintaining favorable humidity around developing spores . The pleurocystidia are cystidia that are found on the face of a gill ; they are 40 – 56 by 6 @.@ 4 – 8 µm , roughly spindle @-@ shaped , and have a constricted apex . The cheilocystidia — located on the edge of a gill — are abundant , and are 40 @.@ 0 – 45 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 2 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
The characteristic blue color of the fruiting body and the latex make this species easily recognizable . Other Lactarius species with some blue color include the " silver @-@ blue milky " ( L. paradoxus ) , found in eastern North America , which has a grayish @-@ blue cap when young , but it has reddish @-@ brown to purple @-@ brown latex and gills . L. chelidonium has a yellowish to dingy yellow @-@ brown to bluish @-@ gray cap and yellowish to brown latex . L. quieticolor has blue @-@ colored flesh in the cap and orange to red @-@ orange flesh in the base of the stem . Although the blue discoloration of L. indigo is thought to be rare in the genus Lactarius , in 2007 five new species were reported from Peninsular Malaysia with bluing latex or flesh , including L. cyanescens , L. lazulinus , L. mirabilis , and two species still unnamed .
= = Edibility = =
Although L. indigo is a well @-@ known edible species , opinions vary on its desirability . For example , American mycologist David Arora considers it a " superior edible " , while a field guide on Kansas fungi rates it as " mediocre in quality " . It may have a slightly bitter , or peppery taste , and has a coarse , grainy texture . The firm flesh is best prepared by cutting the mushroom in thin slices . The blue color disappears with cooking , and the mushroom becomes grayish . Because of the granular texture of the flesh , it does not lend itself well to drying . Specimens producing copious quantities of milk may be used to add color to marinades .
In Mexico , individuals harvest the wild mushrooms for sale at farmers ' markets , typically from June to November ; they are considered a " second class " species for consumption . L. indigo is also sold in Guatemalan markets from May to October . It is one of 13 Lactarius species sold at rural markets in Yunnan in southwestern China .
= = = Chemical composition = = =
A chemical analysis of Mexican specimens has shown L. indigo to contain moisture at 951 mg / g of mushroom , fat at 4 @.@ 3 mg / g , protein at 13 @.@ 4 mg / g , and dietary fiber at 18 @.@ 7 mg / g , much higher in comparison to the common button mushroom , which contains 6 @.@ 6 mg / g . Compared to three other wild edible mushroom species also tested in the study ( Amanita rubescens , Boletus frostii , and Ramaria flava ) , L. indigo contained the highest saturated fatty acids content , including stearic acid with 32 @.@ 1 mg / g — slightly over half of the total free fatty acid content .
The blue color of L. indigo is due to ( 7 @-@ isopropenyl @-@ 4 @-@ methylazulen @-@ 1 @-@ yl ) methyl stearate , an organic derivative of azulene . It is unique to this species , but similar to a compound found in L. deliciosus .
= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =
L. indigo is distributed throughout southern and eastern North America but is most common along the Gulf Coast , Mexico , and Guatemala . Its frequency of appearance in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States has been described as " occasional to locally common " . Mycologist David Arora notes that in the United States , the species is found with ponderosa pine in Arizona , but is absent in California 's ponderosa pine forests . It has also been collected from China , India , Guatemala , and Costa Rica ( in forests dominated by oak ) . In Europe , it has so far only been found in southern France . A study on the seasonal appearance of fruiting bodies in the subtropical forests of Xalapa , Mexico , confirmed that maximal production coincided with the rainy season between June and September .
L. indigo is a mycorrhizal fungus , and as such , establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ( " hosts " ) , in which the fungi exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species , forming so @-@ called ectomycorrhizae — an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host , as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree .
Reflecting their close relationships with trees , the fruit bodies of L. indigo are typically found growing on the ground , scattered or in groups , in both deciduous and coniferous forests . They are also commonly found in floodplain areas that have been recently submerged . In Mexico , associations have been noted with Mexican alder , American Hornbeam , American Hophornbeam , and Liquidambar macrophylla , while in Guatemala the mushroom associates with smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine and other pine and oak species . In Costa Rica , the species forms associations with several native oaks of the Quercus genus . Under controlled laboratory conditions , L. indigo was shown to be able to form ectomycorrhizal associations with the neotropical pine species Mexican white pine , Hartweg 's pine , Mexican yellow pine , smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine , and the Eurasian pines Aleppo pine , European black pine , maritime pine , and Scots pine .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Arora D. ( 1986 ) . Mushrooms Demystified : A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89815 @-@ 169 @-@ 4 .
Hesler LR , Smith AH ( 1979 ) . North American Species of Lactarius . Ann Arbor , Michigan : The University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 08440 @-@ 2 .
= You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow =
" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is the fifth season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 88th episode overall . It originally aired on September 28 , 2008 , in the United States on ABC ( American Broadcasting Company ) . The episode was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " , as well as all subsequent episodes , takes place five years after the events of the fourth season finale following Cherry 's decision to revamp the series with a time jump .
In the episode , Edie ( Nicollette Sheridan ) returns to Wisteria Lane after a five @-@ year absence with her new husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) . While Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) hesitates to make a romantic commitment to Jackson ( Gale Harold ) , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) struggles with her defiant teenage children and her husband 's midlife crisis . Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) deals with her daughters ' weight problems and Bree ( Marcia Cross ) faces the ramifications of her success .
" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " received mostly positive reviews from television critics , most of whom agreed that the time jump refreshed the show . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew over 18 million viewers , making it the most @-@ watched show of the night and the second most @-@ watched program of the week across all networks .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents living on Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) celebrate the birth of their son . Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) chooses to raise her grandson while her daughter , Danielle ( Joy Lauren ) , attends college . She also issues an ultimatum , telling her husband , Orson ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , that she will leave him if he does not turn himself into the police after committing a hit @-@ and @-@ run . Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) struggles with Carlos ' ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) permanent blindness . Also , Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) leaves Wisteria Lane after the other residents shun her for her malice .
= = = Episode = = =
" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " takes place five years after the aforementioned events . Important plot information that takes place during the time jump is revealed in flashbacks . Orson has completed his prison sentence and the success of Bree 's catering company has provided her the opportunity to write her own cookbook . Her business partner , Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , resents how Bree 's success has changed her and intentionally sabotages Bree 's television interview , further straining their friendship . A flashback reveals that Danielle married a lawyer and coldly took her son away from Bree . Meanwhile , Lynette is frustrated with Tom 's ( Doug Savant ) relaxed approach to parenting their rebellious teenage sons , Porter and Preston ( Charlie Carver and Max Carver , respectively ) . She encourages him to employ more disciplinary actions .
During the time jump , Susan and Mike were involved in a car crash that killed a mother and her child . As a result , the couple divorced and now share custody of their son , M.J. ( Mason Vale Cotton ) . Susan engages in a sexual relationship with her house painter , Jackson Braddock ( Gale Harold ) , but keeps their romance a secret from her friends and family . Jackson seeks a more substantial relationship , but Susan is weary of such a commitment following her divorce . Elsewhere , Gabrielle has been raising two overweight daughters , Juanita ( Madison De La Garza ) and Celia ( Daniella Baltodano ) , and has also lost her own figure as well . Gabrielle tricks Juanita into exercising by driving away and making Juanita chase after her car .
After five years of absence , Edie returns to Wisteria Lane with her mysterious husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) , who seems to have a calming effect on his ill @-@ tempered wife . Later , Dave receives a phone call from Dr. Samuel Heller ( Stephen Spinella ) , who reminds him that monthly check @-@ ins are a condition of his release . After the conversation , Dr. Heller reviews a taped therapy session in which Dave threatens to get revenge on the man who destroyed his life .
= = Production = =
" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was written by series creator and executive producer Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . Filming for the episode was scheduled to begin on July 7 , 2008 . The episode is the first to fully employ the five @-@ year jump , which was introduced in the final two minutes of the fourth season finale . While developing the fifth season , Cherry began brainstorming ways to revamp the series . He stated : " The soap tends to build up , and I wanted to get back to where we were that very first season , where it 's just the problems of some ordinary women and they were small and relatable . " Cherry credits the producers of Lost for the idea of the time jump . The writers hoped the time jump would also help them avoid repeating mistakes they made during the show 's poorly received second season , during which they relied heavily on storylines from the previous season . Cherry said that the time jump would be permanent , with executive producer Bob Daily clarifying that some brief flashback scenes would be used to enhance the storytelling and provide context for current plot lines . Cherry had originally wanted to do a ten @-@ year jump , mostly to age the young characters into their teenage years in order to open up more storyline possibilities .
The writers ensured that although they were changing the storyline circumstances , the characters remained the same with minimal changes to their personalities . According to series writer Matt Berry , the time jump allowed the writers to work with the characters " without most of the baggage they ’ d accumulated in the earlier years , and put them into starting places so we could move them forward and build in new story arcs . " For this reason , the writers treated the season premiere as a pilot , in which , according to Daily , they " could give the women a new drive . " Daily identified the Susan character as having undergone the greatest change , stating that she has given up on looking for a " fairy @-@ tale romance " and is emotionally distant in her new relationship . He also stated that the character of Gabrielle has dealt with the biggest change in terms of her circumstances , as she continues to deal with her husband 's blindness and their financial problems . Actress Eva Longoria had to gain weight and wear additional body padding for her character 's new storyline . Dana Delany stated that her character , Katherine , who was portrayed as an antiheroine in the previous season , is more relaxed following the time jump . However , Delany clarified that while Katherine is now friends with the other characters , she and Bree would become frenemies as a result of their business partnership . Nicollette Sheridan , commented that Edie , who played an integral role in the season 's mystery story arch , is " a lot more conscientious about things [ this season ] , without losing her comedic edge . "
Several casting changes were made as a result of the five @-@ year jump . Neal McDonough 's involvement was announced in July 2008 . McDonough did not audition for the role of Dave Williams , but was offered it after meeting with Cherry . Gale Harold continued appearing as Jackson , Susan 's new love interest , after appearing briefly in the flashforward segment at the end of the fourth season . The roles of the Scavo children were recast in order to reflect their new ages following the time jump . Charlie and Max Carver replaced Brent and Shane Kinsman as Preston and Porter , respectively . The Kinsman twins appeared in a flashback in this episode . Joshua Logan Moore was cast as Parker , a role previously played by Zane Huett , and Kendall Applegate joined the cast as Penny , who had previously been portrayed by several toddler actresses . Despite their casting announcements alongside the Carver twins , Moore and Applegate did not appear in " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " . The flashforward segment at the end of the fourth season also introduced Kaila Say and Daniella Baltodano as Gabrielle 's daughters , Juanita and Celia , respectively . Only Baltodano continued portraying her role for the fifth season ; Say was replaced by Madison De La Garza during the summer hiatus .
Andrea Bowen , who starred as Susan 's daughter , Julie , departed from the cast , as her character left for college at the end of the fourth season . Teri Hatcher expressed disappointment in the producers ' decision , but Cherry stated that Bowen would return in the future . Joy Lauren , who portrayed Bree 's daughter , Danielle , and Lyndsy Fonseca , who played Katherine 's daughter , Dylan , also left the main cast , although the former appeared in the season premiere as a guest star . Because the fourth season ended leaving Mike 's whereabouts unknown , James Denton 's return to the series was questioned during hiatus . Denton stated in May 2008 that producers would not make a decision on his character until mid @-@ June and that he was preparing to find work in case his contract was terminated . It was later confirmed that he would return to the series .
The Wisteria Lane set , which is located on the Colonial Street backlot set at Universal Studios , underwent changes for the time jump . Production designer P. Erik Carlson explained , " [ former production designer Thomas A. Walsh ] had already created a fairly Utopian world , and we wanted to exaggerate and enhance it a little bit more , mostly through the use of color . We didn ’ t want it to feel ridiculously futuristic or viewers would be jarred by the contrast . " Bree 's garage was remodeled into a testing kitchen as result of the character 's catering business . Additionally , all houses were repainted with bolder colors , with the exception of Gabrielle 's home , in order to reflect the Solis ' financial situation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
According to Nielsen ratings , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was watched by 18 @.@ 684 million viewers and held an 11 @.@ 4 rating / 17 share on its original American broadcast on September 28 , 2008 . The episode was watched in 13 @.@ 105 million total households . It was number one in its timeslot , beating Sunday Night Football on NBC , Cold Case on CBS , and Family Guy and American Dad ! on Fox . The episode was the most @-@ watched program of the night in both total viewers and the young adult demographic . It was the second @-@ most watched program of the week across all networks by viewers 18 to 49 years old , behind Grey 's Anatomy , and the second @-@ most watched program in total viewership , behind Dancing with the Stars . The episode also performed better than any original broadcast of the series since January 2008 . It outperformed the fourth season finale by two million total viewers and showed a 17 percent increase in viewers 18 to 49 years old . At the time , the episode was the least @-@ watched season premiere of the series , falling half a million viewers from the fourth season premiere , " Now You Know " , a year earlier . However , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " outperformed " Now You Know " in the demographic of women between 18 and 34 years of age with an 8 @.@ 3 rating / 20 share in that demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode premiered on Channel 4 on October 22 , 2008 . It was watched by 2 @.@ 39 million viewers , becoming the sixth most @-@ watched program of the week on the channel .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly called the five @-@ year jump " a stroke of genius , effectively increasing our insight into these ladies ' world by twofold . " He called the Gabrielle storyline a true depiction of motherhood and applauded the scene in which Carlos and Gabrielle discuss her low self @-@ esteem . He complimented the Bree storyline , particularly the argument scene between Bree and Katherine . He enjoyed the Dave storyline , but expressed disappointment that Edie 's reappearance was the only scene that involved all of the leading women . Additionally , Stransky was not intrigued by Lynette 's storyline and deemed it " more of the same " for the character . He criticized Susan 's storyline , calling it annoying . He also dismissed the writers ' ploy to give viewers the impression that Mike had died for almost the entire episode . TV Guide 's Matt Roush gave the episode an ' A ' , stating , " Moving the story ahead five years didn 't so much reinvent the show as it recharged and refreshed the scintillating mix of domestic comedy and sudsy intrigue that we 've always enjoyed . " He highlighted the comedic Gabrielle storyline while approving the additions of McDonough and Harold to the cast .
In his review of the first two episodes of the season , Brian Lowry of Variety said that while " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is satisfactory and establishes the five @-@ year jump effectively , the second episode is better , calling it " a knock @-@ out . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker commended the time jump as a reflection of both the characters ' and series ' ambitions , rating the episode a ' B + ' . Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe gave the episode a mixed review . She said that the time leap proved to be successful , as the show had been " flailing " for several seasons and concluded that , " so far , at least , this season promises to be less about plot than personality . That doesn 't mean the show is perfect - it never was - but it 's better , and that 's a big relief . " The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen was positive in his review , noting that the writers handled the five @-@ year leap well , especially in regards to Lynette 's storyline . He complimented the episode 's comedy and expressed his hope that the time jump would allow the writers to focus on humor rather than overly @-@ dramatic storylines .
= Fear of Flying ( The Simpsons ) =
" Fear of Flying " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 18 , 1994 . In the episode , Homer is banned from Moe 's Tavern and struggles to find a new bar . When he destroys a plane after being mistaken for a pilot at a pilots @-@ only bar , the airline buys the Simpsons ' silence with free tickets . The family discovers that Marge is afraid of flying .
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . It features numerous guest stars , including Anne Bancroft as Dr. Zweig . Additionally , Ted Danson , Woody Harrelson , Rhea Perlman , John Ratzenberger , and George Wendt appear as their characters from Cheers . It received positive reception from television critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented positively on the episode , as did reviews from DVD Verdict and DVD Movie Guide .
= = Plot = =
After pulling a harmless prank on Moe , Homer is banned from His Tavern , ironically after Moe laughed off life @-@ threatening ones that Lenny , Carl and Barney pulled on him . Looking for another place to drink ( including the Cheers bar ) , Homer eventually settles for an airline pilots ' bar , but is mistaken for a pilot ( despite confessing that he 's not really a pilot ) and is put in the cockpit of an airplane , which he promptly wrecks after raising the stationary plane 's landing gear . In exchange for his silence of the mistake they 've made , the airline gives the Simpson family free tickets to anywhere they desire in the continental United States . However , the idea of plane travel fills Marge with anxiety as she has a fear of flying , and after numerous failed attempts to get out of the trip , she eventually has a panic attack on the plane , following which the trip is postponed .
Marge does not want to talk to anybody about her fear , and Lisa worries that Marge 's decision to keep her feelings bottled up will cause them to " come out in other ways " . When Marge begins to show signs of her lingering flight @-@ related trauma by insisting the cat and the dog are living in sin , cooking giant feasts , and shingling the roof in the middle of the night , Lisa convinces Marge to undergo treatment with therapist Dr. Zweig . Homer , however , grows increasingly paranoid about Marge 's therapy , believing that Zweig will blame Marge 's trauma on him , and encourage her to leave him .
Zweig uncovers the roots of Marge 's fear : the moment she realized her father was not a pilot , but an apron @-@ wearing flight attendant , a job that was mostly reserved for women at the time . Her shame is eased when Zweig assures her that male flight attendants are now very common and that her father could be considered a pioneer . Marge also brings up memories of her grandmother poking her in the eye as a baby while playing airplane , a toy plane catching fire , and having a plane fire at her and her mother , but Zweig just ignores them . Before the therapist begins to question Marge 's marriage , Homer immediately takes Marge away and Marge manages to thank Zweig for helping her . Marge is finally cured of her fears , but when she and Homer attempt to fly on a plane again , the plane crashes into a lake .
= = Production = =
" Fear of Flying " was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . The story of the episode came about when Sacks came into the writers ' room with an idea for an episode where Marge goes to a therapist " for one reason or another " . Sacks and the other writers then structured the rest of the plot around that storyline . Anne Bancroft was called in to voice Zweig . Before Bancroft recorded her part , the animators based Zweig 's design on a temp track from cast member Tress MacNeille as the therapist . After Bancroft had recorded her part , Zweig was redesigned to fit with Bancroft 's voice . They added split glasses and a streak of silver in her hair to give her a more mature look .
After Homer was kicked out of Moe 's Tavern , it was originally planned for a cat to come to Homer , and then have it enter the bar . The result is the barflies loving the cat , and depressing Homer even more . According to David Silverman , the fact that it looked depressing was the reason why it was deleted , and replaced with a more humorous approach with him chasing a poodle .
The staff was able to get the central cast of the American sitcom Cheers , with the exception of Kelsey Grammer , to reunite and guest star in the episode . The staff could not arrange the script to allow time in the episode for Grammer , who already had a recurring role on The Simpsons as Sideshow Bob , to voice Frasier Crane . Ted Danson guest starred as Sam , Woody Harrelson as Woody , Rhea Perlman as Carla , John Ratzenberger as Cliff , and George Wendt as Norm .
= = Cultural references = =
Homer enters the Cheers bar in a scene which is a parody of a typical episode of the comedy series Cheers . All of the speaking characters are voiced by the actors who played them in Cheers . Ironically , Frasier Crane remains silent despite being played by Simpsons veteran Kelsey Grammer , the voice of Sideshow Bob . Marge 's dream sees her in the role of Mrs. Robinson from Lost in Space , while Homer plays Dr. Smith . The scene where Marge and Jacqueline Bouvier duck down when a biplane shoots at them in a cornfield is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock 's film North by Northwest .
Homer 's Mount Lushmore caricature resembles Eustace Tilley , the mascot of The New Yorker . Homer 's line about getting out of Springfield is lifted from It 's a Wonderful Life , while Homer 's all @-@ time favorite song is revealed to be " It 's Raining Men " by The Weather Girls . When Abe Simpson is left behind on the plane , his slapping his hands on his face and yelling is a reference to Home Alone . This is the second time Home Alone has been parodied on The Simpsons . The first was " Homer Alone " , a reference to the title .
As Homer is looking for a place to drink , he tries a lesbian bar , the She She Lounge . However , he soon realizes that " this lesbian bar doesn 't have a fire exit " . He then leaves , saying " Enjoy your deathtrap , ladies ! " . This is a reference to a famous Greenwich Village gay bar , the Stonewall Inn . This mafia @-@ owned and -run bar " had no rear exit , so if there had been a fire on a weekend night , hundreds of customers would have had to escape through a single narrow passage leading to the front door . " The films Homer rents are Hero , Fearless , and Alive , the latter of which Marge watches . All of them involve plane crashes .
When Marge leaves Dr. Zweig 's office , she says , " Whenever the wind whistles through the leaves , I 'll think , Lowenstein , Lowenstein … " . This is a reference to The Prince of Tides ; the psychiatrist is Dr. Lowenstein .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fear of Flying " finished 48th ( tied with Dateline NBC ) in the ratings for the week of December 12 to December 18 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week , beaten only by Beverly Hills , 90210 , and Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . In July 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed the Cheers cast 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said it was " a good Marge @-@ centric episode with plenty of clever set pieces – the tributes to Cheers and Lost in Space are fantastic " , and noted that " Marge 's father looks suspiciously like Moe " . Ryan Keefer at DVD Verdict said that " with the cast of Cheers appearing ( except for Grammer , ironically ) and a funny spoof of North by Northwest , the episode is much better than you would expect " , and gave it a B + .
Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that it was " another show I didn ’ t recall fondly but that works exceedingly well . I hadn ’ t realized how many quotes I ’ ve stolen from this one : the name ' Guy Incognito ' , the dog with the puffy tail , ' a burden coupled with a hassle ' . The show makes little sense in regard to continuity since Marge has flown during prior shows , but it ’ s consistently very funny and entertaining . " The Phoenix named Anne Bancroft one of the twenty best guest stars to appear on the show .
= = Merchandise = =
The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons Go To Hollywood . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Flaming Moe 's " , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , and " Homer to the Max " . " Fear of Flying " was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the same set . It was included in The Simpsons season 6 DVD set , which was released on August 16 , 2005 , as The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season .
= Harold Innis =
Harold Adams Innis ( / ˈɪnɪs / ; November 5 , 1894 – November 8 , 1952 ) was a Canadian professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on media , communication theory , and Canadian economic history . Despite his dense and difficult prose , Innis was one of Canada 's most original thinkers . He helped develop the staples thesis , which holds that Canada 's culture , political history , and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fishing , lumber , wheat , mined metals , and coal . The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s @-@ 1960s , and is still used by some .
Innis 's writings on communication explore the role of media in shaping the culture and development of civilizations . He argued , for example , that a balance between oral and written forms of communication contributed to the flourishing of Greek civilization in the 5th century BC . He warned , however , that Western civilization is now imperiled by powerful , advertising @-@ driven media obsessed by " present @-@ mindedness " and the " continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity " . His intellectual bond with Eric A. Havelock formed the foundations of the “ Toronto School of Communication ” which provided a source of inspiration for future members of the school : Marshall McLuhan and Edmund Snow Carpenter .
Innis laid the basis for scholarship that looked at the social sciences from a distinctly Canadian point of view . As the head of the University of Toronto 's political economy department , he worked to build up a cadre of Canadian scholars so that universities would not continue to rely as heavily on British or American @-@ trained professors unfamiliar with Canada 's history and culture . He was successful in establishing sources of financing for Canadian scholarly research .
As the Cold War grew hotter after 1947 , Innis grew increasingly hostile to the United States . He warned repeatedly that Canada was becoming a subservient colony to its much more powerful southern neighbor . " We are indeed fighting for our lives , " he warned , pointing especially to the " pernicious influence of American advertising .... We can only survive by taking persistent action at strategic points against American imperialism in all its attractive guises . " His anti @-@ Americanism influenced some younger scholars , including Donald Creighton .
Innis also tried to defend universities from political and economic pressures . He believed that independent universities , as centres of critical thought , were essential to the survival of Western civilization . His intellectual disciple and university colleague , Marshall McLuhan , lamented Innis 's premature death as a disastrous loss for human understanding . McLuhan wrote : " I am pleased to think of my own book The Gutenberg Galaxy as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences , first of writing then of printing . "
= = Rural roots = =
= = = Early life = = =
Harold Adams Innis was born in 1894 on a small livestock and dairy farm near the community of Otterville in southwestern Ontario 's Oxford County . As a boy he loved the rhythms and routines of farm life and he never forgot his rural origins . His mother , Mary Adams Innis , had named him ' Herald ' , hoping he would become a minister in the strict evangelical Baptist faith that she and her husband William shared . At the time , the Baptist Church was an important part of life in rural areas . It gave isolated families a sense of community and embodied the values of individualism and independence . Its far @-@ flung congregations were not ruled by a centralized , bureaucratic authority . Innis became an agnostic in later life , but never lost his interest in religion . According to his friend and biographer Donald Creighton , Innis 's character was moulded by the Church :
The strict sense of values and the feeling of devotion to a cause , which became so characteristic of him in later life , were derived , in part at least , from the instruction imparted so zealously and unquestioningly inside the severely unadorned walls of the Baptist Church at Otterville .
Innis attended the one @-@ room schoolhouse in Otterville and the community 's high school . He travelled 20 miles ( 32 km ) by train to Woodstock , Ontario , to complete his secondary education at a Baptist @-@ run college . He intended to become a public @-@ school teacher and passed the entrance examinations for teacher training , but decided to take a year off to earn the money he would need to support himself at an Ontario teachers ' college . At age 18 , therefore , he returned to the one @-@ room schoolhouse at Otterville to teach for one term until the local school board could recruit a fully qualified teacher . The experience made him realize that the life of a teacher in a small , rural school was not for him .
= = = University studies = = =
In October 1913 , Innis started classes at McMaster University ( then in Toronto ) . McMaster was a natural choice for him because it was a Baptist university and many students who attended Woodstock College went there . McMaster 's liberal arts professors encouraged critical thinking and debate . Innis was especially influenced by James Ten Broeke , the university 's one @-@ man philosophy department . Ten Broeke posed an essay question that Innis pondered for the rest of his life : " Why do we attend to the things to which we attend ? "
Before his final undergraduate year at McMaster , Innis spent a summer teaching at the Northern Star School in the frontier farming community of Landonville near Vermilion , Alberta . The experience gave him a sense of the vastness of Canada . He also learned about Western grievances over high interest rates and steep transportation costs . In his final undergraduate year , Innis focused on history and economics . He kept in mind a remark made by history lecturer W.S. Wallace that the economic interpretation of history was not the only possible one , but that it went the deepest .
= = = First World War service = = =
After graduating from McMaster , Innis felt that his Christian principles compelled him to enlist in the Canadian Expeditionary Force . He was sent to France in the fall of 1916 to fight in the First World War . Trench warfare with its " mud and lice and rats " had a devastating effect on him .
Innis 's role as an artillery signaller gave him firsthand experience of life ( and death ) on the front lines as he participated in the successful Canadian attack on Vimy Ridge . Signallers , or spotters , watched where each artillery shell landed , then sent back aiming corrections so that the next shells could hit their targets more accurately . On July 7 , 1917 , Innis received a serious shrapnel wound in his right thigh that required eight months of hospital treatment in England .
Innis 's war was over . His biographer , John Watson , notes the physical wound took seven years to heal , but the psychological damage lasted a lifetime . Innis suffered recurring bouts of depression and nervous exhaustion because of his military service .
Watson also notes that the Great War influenced Innis 's intellectual outlook . It strengthened his Canadian nationalism ; sharpened his opinion of what he thought were the destructive effects of technology , including the communications media that were used so effectively to " sell " the war ; and led him , for the first time , to doubt his Baptist faith .
= = Graduate studies = =
= = = McMaster and Chicago = = =
Harold Innis completed a Master of Arts at McMaster , graduating in April 1918 . His thesis , called The Returned Soldier , " was a detailed description of the public policy measures that were necessary , not only to provide a supportive milieu to help veterans get over the effects of the war , but also to move on with national reconstruction " .
Innis did his postgraduate work at the University of Chicago and was awarded his PhD in August 1920 . His two years at Chicago had a profound influence on his later work . His interest in economics deepened and he decided to become a professional economist . The economics faculty at Chicago questioned abstract and universalist neoclassical theories , then in vogue , arguing that general rules for economic policy should be derived from specific case studies .
Innis was influenced by the university 's two eminent communications scholars , George Herbert Mead and Robert E. Park . Although he did not attend any of these famous professors ' classes , Innis did absorb their idea that communication involved much more than the transmission of information . James W. Carey writes that Mead and Park " characterized communication as the entire process whereby a culture is brought into existence , maintained in time , and sedimented into institutions " .
While at Chicago , Innis was exposed to the ideas of Thorstein Veblen , the iconoclastic thinker who drew on his deep knowledge of philosophy and economics to write scathing critiques of contemporary thought and culture . Veblen had left Chicago years before , but his ideas were still strongly felt there . Years later , in an essay on Veblen , Innis praised him for waging war against " standardized static economics " .
Innis got his first taste of university teaching at Chicago , where he delivered several introductory economics courses . One of his students was Mary Quayle , the woman he would marry in May 1921 when he was 26 and she 22 . Together they had four children , Donald ( 1924 ) , Mary ( 1927 ) , Hugh ( 1930 ) and Ann ( 1933 ) . Mary Quayle Innis was herself a notable economist and writer . Her book , An Economic History of Canada , was published in 1935 . Her novel , Stand on a Rainbow appeared in 1943 . Her other books include Mrs. Simcoe 's Diary ( 1965 ) , The Clear Spirit : Canadian Women and Their Times ( 1966 ) and Unfold the Years ( 1949 ) , a history of the Young Women 's Christian Association . She also edited Harold Innis 's posthumous Essays in Canadian Economic History ( 1956 ) and a 1972 reissue of his Empire and Communications .
= = = History of the CPR = = =
Harold Innis wrote his PhD thesis on the history of the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The completion of Canada 's first transcontinental railway in 1885 had been a defining moment in Canadian history . Innis 's thesis , eventually published as a book in 1923 , can be seen as an early attempt to document the railway 's significance from an economic historian 's point of view . It uses voluminous statistics to underpin its arguments . Innis maintains that the difficult and expensive construction project was sustained by fears of American annexation of the Canadian West .
Innis argues that " the history of the Canadian Pacific Railroad is primarily the history of the spread of Western civilization over the northern half of the North American continent " . As Robert Babe notes , the railway brought industrialization , transporting coal and building supplies to manufacturing sites . It was also a kind of communications medium that contributed to the spread of European civilization . Babe writes that , for Innis , the CPR 's equipment " comprised a massive , energy @-@ consuming , fast @-@ moving , powerful , capital @-@ intensive ' sign ' dropped into the very midst of indigenous peoples , whose entire way of life was disrupted , and eventually shattered as a result .
Communications scholar Arthur Kroker argues that Innis 's study of the Canadian Pacific Railway was only the first in which he attempted to demonstrate that " technology is not something external to Canadian being ; but on the contrary , is the necessary condition and lasting consequence of Canadian existence " . It also reflected Innis 's lifelong interest in the exercise of economic and political power . His CPR history ends , for example , with a recounting of Western grievances against economic policies , such as high freight rates and the steep import tariffs designed to protect fledgling Canadian manufacturers . Westerners complained that this National Policy funnelled money from Prairie farmers into the pockets of the Eastern business establishment . " Western Canada " , Innis wrote , " has paid for the development of Canadian nationality , and it would appear that it must continue to pay . The acquisitiveness of Eastern Canada shows little sign of abatement . "
= = Staples thesis = =
Harold Innis is considered the leading founder of a Canadian school of economic thought known as the staples theory . It holds that Canada 's culture , political history and economy have been decisively shaped by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fish , wood , wheat , mined metals and fossil fuels . Innis theorized that this reliance on exporting natural resources made Canada dependent on more industrially advanced countries and resulted in periodic disruptions to economic life as the international demand for staples rose and fell ; as the staple itself became increasingly scarce ; and , as technological change resulted in shifts from one staple to others . Innis pointed out , for example , that as furs became scarce and trade in that staple declined , it became necessary to develop and export other staples such as wheat , potash and especially lumber . The export of these new staples was made possible through improved transportation networks that included first canals , and later , railways .
= = = " Dirt " research = = =
In 1920 , Innis joined the department of political economy at the University of Toronto . He was assigned to teach courses in commerce , economic history and economic theory . He decided to focus his scholarly research on Canadian economic history , a hugely neglected subject , and he settled on the fur trade as his first area of study . Furs had brought French and English traders to Canada , motivating them to travel west along the continent 's interlocking lake and river systems to the Pacific coast . Innis realized that he would not only need to search out archival documents to understand the history of the fur trade , but would also have to travel the country himself gathering masses of firsthand information and accumulating what he called " dirt " experience .
Thus , Innis travelled extensively beginning in the summer of 1924 when he and a friend paddled an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) canvas @-@ covered canoe hundreds of miles down the Peace River to Lake Athabasca ; then down the Slave River to Great Slave Lake . They completed their journey down the Mackenzie , Canada 's longest river , to the Arctic Ocean on a small Hudson 's Bay Company tug . During his travels , Innis supplemented his fur research by gathering information on other staple products such as lumber , pulp and paper , minerals , grain and fish . He travelled so extensively that by the early 1940s , he had visited every part of Canada except for the Western Arctic and the east side of Hudson Bay .
Everywhere Innis went his methods were the same : he interviewed people connected with the production of staple products and listened to their stories .
= = = Fur trade in Canada = = =
Harold Innis 's interest in the relationship between empires and colonies was developed in his classic study , The Fur Trade in Canada : An Introduction to Canadian Economic History ( 1930 ) . The book chronicles the trade in beaver fur from the early 16th century to the 1920s . Instead of focusing on the " heroic " European adventurers who explored the Canadian wilderness as conventional histories had done , Innis documents how the interplay of geography , technology and economic forces shaped both the fur trade and Canada 's political and economic destiny . He concludes that the fur trade largely determined Canada 's boundaries adding that the country " emerged not in spite of geography but because of it " .
The Fur Trade in Canada also describes the cultural interactions among three groups of people : the Europeans in fashionable metropolitan centres who regarded beaver hats as luxury items ; the European colonial settlers who saw beaver fur as a staple that could be exported to pay for essential manufactured goods from the home country , and First Nations peoples who traded furs for industrial goods such as metal pots , knives , guns and liquor . Innis describes the central role First Nations peoples played in the development of the fur trade . Without their skilled hunting techniques , knowledge of the territory and advanced tools such as snowshoes , toboggans and birch @-@ bark canoes , the fur trade would not have existed . However , dependence on European technologies disrupted First Nations societies . " The new technology with its radical innovations " , Innis writes , " brought about such a rapid shift in the prevailing Indian culture as to lead to wholesale destruction of the peoples concerned by warfare and disease . " Historian Carl Berger argues that by placing First Nations culture at the centre of his analysis of the fur trade , Innis " was the first to explain adequately the disintegration of native society under the thrust of European capitalism . "
Unlike many historians who see Canadian history as beginning with the arrival of Europeans , Innis emphasizes the cultural and economic contributions of First Nations peoples . " We have not yet realized , " he writes , " that the Indian and his culture was fundamental to the growth of Canadian institutions . "
The Fur Trade in Canada concludes by arguing that Canadian economic history can best be understood by examining how one staple product gave way to another — furs to timber , for example , and the later importance of wheat and minerals . Reliance on staples made Canada economically dependent on more industrially advanced countries and the " cyclonic " shifts from one staple to another caused frequent disruptions in the country 's economic life .
= = = Cod fishery = = =
After the publication of his book on the fur trade , Innis turned to a study of an earlier staple — the cod fished for centuries off the eastern coasts of North America , especially the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . The result was The Cod Fisheries : The History of an International Economy published in 1940 , 10 years after the fur trade study . Innis tells the detailed history of competing empires in the exploitation of a teeming natural resource — a history that ranges over 500 years . While his study of the fur trade focused on the continental interior with its interlocking rivers and lakes , The Cod Fisheries looks outward at global trade and empire , showing the far @-@ reaching effects of one staple product both on imperial centres and on marginal colonies such as Newfoundland , Nova Scotia and New England .
= = Communications theories = =
Harold Innis 's study of the effects of interconnected lakes and rivers on Canadian development and European empire sparked his interest in the complex economic and cultural relationships between transportation systems and communications . During the 1940s , Innis also began studying pulp and paper , an industry of central importance to the Canadian economy . This research provided an additional crossover point from his work on staple products to his communications studies . Biographer Paul Heyer writes that Innis " followed pulp and paper through its subsequent stages : newspapers and journalism , books and advertising . In other words , from looking at a natural resource @-@ based industry he turned his attention to a cultural industry in which information , and ultimately knowledge , was a commodity that circulated , had value , and empowered those who controlled it . "
One of Innis 's primary contributions to communications studies was to apply the dimensions of time and space to various media . He divided media into time @-@ binding and space @-@ binding types . Time @-@ binding media are durable . They include clay or stone tablets . Space @-@ binding media are more ephemeral . They include modern media such as radio , television , and mass circulation newspapers .
Innis examined the rise and fall of ancient empires as a way of tracing the effects of communications media . He looked at media that led to the growth of an empire ; those that sustained it during its periods of success , and then , the communications changes that hastened an empire 's collapse . He tried to show that media ' biases ' toward time or space affected the complex interrelationships needed to sustain an empire . These interrelationships included the partnership between the knowledge ( and ideas ) necessary to create and maintain an empire , and the power ( or force ) required to expand and defend it . For Innis , the interplay between knowledge and power was always a crucial factor in understanding empire .
Innis argued that a balance between the spoken word and writing contributed to the flourishing of ancient Greece in the time of Plato . This balance between the time @-@ biased medium of speech and the space @-@ biased medium of writing was eventually upset , Innis argued , as the oral tradition gave way to the dominance of writing . The torch of empire then passed from Greece to Rome .
Harold Innis 's analysis of the effects of communications on the rise and fall of empires led him to warn grimly that Western civilization was now facing its own profound crisis . The development of powerful communications media such as mass @-@ circulation newspapers had shifted the balance decisively in favour of space and power , over time , continuity and knowledge . The balance required for cultural survival had been upset by what Innis saw as " mechanized " communications media used to transmit information quickly over long distances . These media had contributed to an obsession with " present @-@ mindedness " wiping out concerns about past or future . Innis wrote ,
The overwhelming pressure of mechanization evident in the newspaper and the magazine , has led to the creation of vast monopolies of communication . Their entrenched positions involve a continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity .
Western civilization could only be saved , Innis argued , by recovering the balance between space and time . For him , that meant reinvigorating the oral tradition within universities while freeing institutions of higher learning from political and commercial pressures . In his essay , A Plea for Time , he suggested that genuine dialogue within universities could produce the critical thinking necessary to restore the balance between power and knowledge . Then , universities could muster the courage to attack the monopolies that always imperil civilization .
Although Innis remains appreciated and respected for the grand and unique nature of his later efforts regarding communications theories , he was not without critics . Particularly , the fragmentary and mosaic writing style exemplified in Empire and Communications has been criticized as ambiguous , aggressively non @-@ linear , and lacking connections between levels of analysis . Biographers have suggested that this style may have been a result of Innis ' illness late in his career .
= = Academic and public career = =
= = = Influence in the 1930s = = =
Aside from his work on The Cod Fisheries , Innis wrote extensively in the 1930s about other staple products such as minerals and wheat as well as Canada 's immense economic problems in the Great Depression . During the summers of 1932 and 1933 , he travelled to the West to see the effects of the Depression for himself . The next year , in an essay entitled , The Canadian Economy and the Depression , Innis outlined the plight of " a country susceptible to the slightest ground @-@ swell of international disturbance " , yet beset by regional differences that made it difficult to devise effective solutions . He described a Prairie economy dependent on the export of wheat , yet afflicted by severe drought , on the one hand , and the increased political power of Canada 's growing cities , sheltered from direct reliance on the staples trade , on the other . The result was political conflict and a breakdown in federal – provincial relations . " We lack vital information on which to base prospective policies to meet this situation " , Innis warned , because of " the weak position of the social sciences in Canada " .
Innis 's reputation as a " public intellectual " was growing steadily and , in 1934 , Premier Angus L. Macdonald invited him to serve on a Royal Commission to examine Nova Scotia 's economic problems . The next year , he helped establish The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science . In 1936 , he was appointed a full University of Toronto professor and a year later , became the head of the university 's Department of Political Economy .
Innis was appointed president of the Canadian Political Science Association in 1938 . His inaugural address , entitled The Penetrative Powers of the Price System , must have baffled his listeners as he ranged over centuries of economic history jumping abruptly from one topic to the next linking monetary developments to patterns of trade and settlement . The address was an ambitious attempt to show the disruptive effects of new technologies culminating in the modern shift from an industrial system based on coal and iron to the newest sources of industrial power , electricity , oil and steel . Innis also tried to show the commercial effects of mass circulation newspapers , made possible by expanded newsprint production , and of the new medium of radio , which " threatens to circumvent the walls imposed by tariffs and to reach across boundaries frequently denied to other media of communication " . Both media , Innis argued , stimulated the demand for consumer goods and both promoted nationalism .
Innis was also a central participant in an international project that produced 25 scholarly volumes between 1936 and 1945 . It was a series called The Relations of Canada and the United States overseen by James T. Shotwell , director of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Innis edited and wrote prefaces for the volumes contributed by Canadian scholars . His own study of the cod fisheries also appeared as part of the series . His work with Shotwell enabled Innis to gain access to Carnegie money to further Canadian academic research . As John Watson points out , " the project offered one of the few sources of research funds in rather lean times " .
= = = Politics and The Great Depression = = =
The era of the " Dirty Thirties " with its mass unemployment , poverty and despair gave rise to new Canadian political movements . In Alberta , for example , the radio evangelist William " Bible Bill " Aberhart led his populist Social Credit party to victory in 1935 . Three years earlier in Calgary , Alberta , social reformers had founded a new political party , the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation or CCF . It advocated democratic socialism and a mixed economy with public ownership of key industries . Frank Underhill , one of Innis 's colleagues at the University of Toronto was a founding member of the CCF . Innis and Underhill had both been members of an earlier group at the university that declared itself " dissatisfied with the policies of the two major [ political ] parties in Canada " and that aimed at " forming a definite body of progressive opinion " . In 1931 , Innis presented a paper to the group on " Economic Conditions in Canada " , but he later recoiled from participating in party politics , denouncing partisans like Underhill as " hot gospellers " .
Innis maintained that scholars had no place in active politics and that instead , they should devote themselves , first to research on public problems , and then to the production of knowledge based on critical thought . He saw the university , with its emphasis on dialogue , open @-@ mindedness and skepticism , as an institution that could foster such thinking and research . " The university could provide an environment " , he wrote , " as free as possible from the biases of the various institutions that form the state , so that its intellectuals could continue to seek out and explore other perspectives . "
Although sympathetic to the plight of western farmers and urban , unemployed workers , Innis did not embrace socialism . Eric Havelock , a left @-@ leaning colleague explained many years later that Innis distrusted political " solutions " imported from elsewhere , especially those based on Marxist analysis with its emphasis on class conflict . He worried , too , that as Canada 's ties with Britain weakened , the country would fall under the spell of American ideas instead of developing its own based on Canada 's unique circumstances . Havelock added :
He has been called the radical conservative of his day — not a bad designation of a complex mind , clear sighted , cautious , perhaps at bottom pessimistic in areas where thinkers we would label ' progressive ' felt less difficulty in taking a stand ; never content to select only one or two elements in a complicated equation in order to build a quick @-@ order policy or program ; far ranging enough in intellect to take in the whole sum of the factors , and comprehend their often contradictory effects .
= = = Late career and death = = =
In the 1940s , Harold Innis reached the height of his influence in both academic circles and Canadian society . In 1941 , he helped establish the American @-@ based Economic History Association and its Journal of Economic History . He later became the association 's second president . Innis played a central role in founding two important sources for the funding of academic research : the Canadian Social Science Research Council ( 1940 ) and the Humanities Research Council of Canada ( 1944 ) .
In 1944 , the University of New Brunswick awarded Innis an honorary degree , as did his alma mater , McMaster University . Université Laval , the University of Manitoba and the University of Glasgow would also confer honorary degrees in 1947 – 48 .
In 1945 , Innis spent nearly a month in the Soviet Union where he had been invited to attend the 220th anniversary celebrations marking the founding of the country 's Academy of Sciences . Later , in his essay Reflections on Russia , he mused about the differences between the Soviet " producer " economy and the West 's " consumer " ethos :
[ A ] n economy which emphasizes consumer 's goods is characterized by communication industries largely dependent on advertising and by constant efforts to reach the largest number of readers or listeners ; an economy emphasizing producer 's goods is characterized by communications industries largely dependent on government support . As a result of this contrast , a common public opinion in Russia and the West is hard to achieve .
Innis 's trip to Moscow and Leningrad came shortly before U.S. – Soviet rivalry led to the hostility of the Cold War . Innis lamented this rise in international tensions . He saw the Soviet Empire as a stabilizing counterbalance to the American Empire 's emphasis on commercialism , the individual and constant change . For Innis , Russia was a society within the Western tradition , not an alien civilization . He abhorred the nuclear arms race , seeing it as the triumph of force over knowledge , a modern form of the medieval Inquisition . " The Middle Ages burned its heretics " , he wrote , " and the modern age threatens them with atom bombs . "
In 1946 , Innis was elected president of the Royal Society of Canada , the country 's senior body of scientists and scholars . That same year , he served on the Manitoba Royal Commission on Adult Education and published Political Economy in the Modern State , a collection of his speeches and essays that reflected both his staples research and his new work in communications . In 1947 , Innis was appointed the University of Toronto 's dean of graduate studies . In 1948 , he delivered lectures at the University of London and Nottingham University . He also gave the prestigious Beit lectures at Oxford , later published in his book Empire and Communications . In 1949 , Innis was appointed as a commissioner on the federal government 's Royal Commission on Transportation , a position that involved extensive travel at a time when his health was starting to fail . The last decade of his career during which he worked on his communications studies was an unhappy time for Innis . He was academically isolated because his colleagues in economics could not fathom how this new work related to his pioneering research in staples theory . Biographer John Watson writes that " the almost complete lack of positive response to the communications works , contributed to his sense of overwork and depression " .
Innis died of prostate cancer in 1952 a few days after his 58th birthday . In commemoration , Innis College at the University of Toronto and Innis Library at McMaster University were named in his honour .
Following his premature death , Innis ' significance increasingly deepened as scholars in several academic disciplines continued to build upon his writings . Marshall Poe 's general media theory that proposes two sub @-@ theories were inspired by Innis . Douglas C. North expanded on of Innis ' " vent for surplus " theory of economic development by applying it to regional development in the United States and underdeveloped countries . In addition , James W. Carey adopted Innis as a " reference point in his conception of two models of communication " .
= = Innis and McLuhan = =
Marshall McLuhan was a colleague of Innis 's at the University of Toronto . As a young English professor , McLuhan was flattered when he learned that Innis had put his book The Mechanical Bride on the reading list of the fourth @-@ year economics course . McLuhan built on Innis 's idea that in studying the effects of communications media , technological form mattered more than content . Biographer Paul Heyer writes that Innis 's concept of the " bias " of a particular medium of communication can be seen as a " less flamboyant precursor to McLuhan 's legendary phrase ' the medium is the message . ' " Innis , for example , tried to show how printed media such as books or newspapers were " biased " toward control over space and secular power , while engraved media such as stone or clay tablets were " biased " in favour of continuity in time and metaphysical or religious knowledge . McLuhan focused on what may be called a medium 's " sensory bias " arguing , for example , that books and newspapers appealed to the rationality of the eye , while radio played to the irrationality of the ear . The differences in the Innisian and McLuhanesque approaches were summarized by the late James W. Carey :
Both McLuhan and Innis assume the centrality of communication technology ; where they differ is in the principal kinds of effects they see deriving from this technology . Whereas Innis sees communication technology principally affecting social organization and culture , McLuhan sees its principal effect on sensory organization and thought . McLuhan has much to say about perception and thought but little to say about institutions ; Innis says much about institutions and little about perception and thought .
Biographer John Watson notes that Innis 's work was profoundly political while McLuhan 's was not . He writes that " the mechanization of knowledge , not the relative sensual bias of media , is the key to Innis 's work . This also underlies the politicization of Innis 's position vis @-@ a @-@ vis that of McLuhan . " Watson adds that Innis believed very different media could produce similar effects . " For Innis , the yellow press of the United States and the Nazi loudspeaker had the same form of negative effect : they reduced men from thinking beings to mere automatons in a chain of command . " Watson argues that while McLuhan separated media according to their sensory bias , Innis examined a different set of interrelationships , the " dialectic of power and knowledge " in specific historical circumstances . For Watson , Innis 's work is therefore more flexible and less deterministic than McLuhan 's .
As scholars and teachers , Innis and McLuhan shared a similar dilemma since both argued that book culture tended to produce fixed points of view and homogeneity of thought ; yet both produced many books . In his introduction to the 1964 reprint of The Bias of Communication , McLuhan marvelled at Innis 's technique of juxtaposing " his insights in a mosaic structure of seemingly unrelated and disproportioned sentences and aphorisms " . McLuhan argued that although this made reading Innis 's dense prose difficult — " a pattern of insights that are not packaged for the consumer palate " — Innis 's method approximated " the natural form of conversation or dialogue rather than of written discourse " . Best of all , it yielded " insight " and " pattern recognition " rather than the " classified knowledge " so overvalued by print @-@ trained scholars . " How exciting it was to encounter a writer whose every phrase invited prolonged meditation and exploration " , McLuhan added . McLuhan 's own books with their reliance on aphorisms , puns , quips , " probes " and oddly juxtaposed observations also employ this mosaic technique .
Innis 's theories of political economy , media and society remain highly relevant : he had a profound influence on critical media theory and communications and , in conjunction with McLuhan , offered groundbreaking Canadian perspectives on the function of communication technologies as key agents in social and historical change . Together , their works advanced a theory of history in which communication is central to social change and transformation .
= Hurricane Lorenzo ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the Mexican state of Veracruz in late September 2007 . The twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical wave . After meandering for two days without development , the storm began a steady westward track as its structure became better organized . In an 18 ‑ hour period , Lorenzo 's winds increased from 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , or from a tropical depression to a hurricane . On September 28 it struck near Tecolutla , Veracruz , a month after Hurricane Dean affected the same area , before it quickly dissipated over land .
The most significantly affected area was Veracruz , where damage reached over $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) . Most of it came from road damage in the state 's northern portion , although there were also hundreds of damaged houses . Between Veracruz and neighboring Hidalgo , there were 123 @,@ 320 people affected across 112 municipalities . Overall there were six deaths in the country , one in Veracruz and five in Puebla . In the latter state , a family of three perished in a landslide .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Lorenzo were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 11 . After moving across the tropical Atlantic Ocean , it traversed much of the Caribbean Sea before developing an area of thunderstorms on September 21 . The system developed a low pressure area on September 23 after the northern portion of the wave broke off and crossed the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially , a Hurricane Hunters flight was scheduled to investigate the system , although the low became disorganized over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico due to high wind shear . However , the wind shear decreased , and late on September 25 , another Hurricane Hunters flight indicated the development of a closed low @-@ level circulation . Based on that observation , along with sufficient persistence of the thunderstorms , the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen about 190 mi ( 305 km ) east of Tampico , Tamaulipas .
Upon developing , the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents , resulting in an erratic movement generally to the south . In its formative stages , the depression executed a small loop . As it did so , it moved into an area of very warm waters and decreasing wind shear . The depression 's convection gradually organized , although the winds were slower to increase . An anticyclone became established over the system , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Lorenzo at around 1200 UTC on September 27 . At the time , it was located about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of Tuxpan , Veracruz , moving steadily westward under the influence of a building ridge to its east . As it approached the coast , Lorenzo rapidly intensified unexpectedly , and within 12 hours of attaining tropical storm status it strengthened into a hurricane .
Hurricane Lorenzo quickly developed a closed eyewall , which was observed on radar and provided a peak intensity estimate of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 28 . The cyclone maintained vigorous and symmetric convection across the center , although the structure deteriorated slightly before Lorenzo crossed the coast near Tecolutla , Veracruz at 0500 UTC that day , with winds estimated around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After making landfall , the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical depression intensity . Progressing inland , the circulation became difficult to locate as the convection diminished to rainbands along the coast . Within 19 hours after moving ashore , the circulation of Lorenzo dissipated , therefore ending its duration as a tropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
About 26 hours before landfall , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch from Palma Sola to La Cruz in Veracruz . About 14 hours before landfall , a tropical storm warning was put into place from Palma Sola to Cabo Rojo , which in turn was upgraded to a hurricane warning six hours later . Mexico 's Civilian Protection officials declared a " red alert " for much of the state of Veracruz . Along the coast of Veracruz , officials canceled school classes . Officials opened 315 shelters in Veracruz , along with six in neighboring Hidalgo , which housed 45 @,@ 164 people during the storm . The government of Veracruz provided buses for people to transport from their houses to the shelters . Ports in Tecolutla , Tuxpan and Nautla were forced to close . Lorenzo 's formation caused gas prices to rise due to its potential to disrupt oil facilities in the Gulf of Mexico .
Hurricane Lorenzo made landfall in Veracruz , the same region of east @-@ central Mexico as Hurricane Dean did one month prior . The hurricane primarily affected small fishing villages along the coast , where strong winds knocked down power lines , leaving about 85 @,@ 000 people without electricity . To prevent the danger of fallen wires , officials shut off the power grid in several municipalities in northern Veracruz . The winds also destroyed the roofs of several houses in Nautla . In addition to the high winds , Lorenzo dropped heavy rainfall along the coast and further inland , peaking at 12 @.@ 83 in ( 326 mm ) in El Raudal , Veracruz . The rains caused flash flooding and mudslides that killed at least four people , including a family of three in Puebla state . Landslides also closed portions of three highways . In some locations , floodwaters reached about 1 foot ( 300 mm ) in depth . The combination of winds and rains damaged 169 houses in Puebla , while in Hidalgo , the San Lorenzo River overflowed its banks and forced the evacuation of over 200 people . Overflown rivers in Veracruz forced about 25 @,@ 000 people to leave their houses . Along the Cazones River , more than 1 @,@ 000 houses were flooded , resulting in local police officials to assist in evacuations . Damage in Veracruz was estimated at $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) , much of it from road damage in the northern portion of the state .
Overall , the hurricane affected 123 @,@ 320 people across Veracruz and Hidalgo , prompting the declaration of a state of emergency in 112 municipalities . The declaration allowed the usage of emergency resources for the affected people . There were a total of six deaths in the country , five of which in Puebla . By about three days after the storm , all schools were reopened . The Mexican government distributed food , water , and construction materials for the areas most affected in Veracruz . Following the storm , about 500 power workers were dispatched in Veracruz to restore electricity in the affected areas .
= Cadmium =
Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48 . This soft , bluish @-@ white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 , zinc and mercury . Like zinc , it demonstrates oxidation state + 2 in most of its compounds , and like mercury , it has a lower melting point than other transition metals . Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . The average concentration of cadmium in Earth 's crust is between 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 5 parts per million ( ppm ) . It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate .
Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production . Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion @-@ resistant plating on steel , and cadmium compounds are used as red , orange and yellow pigments , to colour glass , and to stabilize plastic . Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic ( it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous Substances ) and nickel @-@ cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel @-@ metal hydride and lithium @-@ ion batteries . One of its few new uses is cadmium telluride solar panels .
Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms , a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Cadmium is a soft , malleable , ductile , bluish @-@ white divalent metal . It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds . Unlike most other metals , cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals . As a bulk metal , cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable ; however , in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of + 2 , it also exists in the + 1 state . Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide ( CdO ) ; the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated , similar to zinc oxide . Hydrochloric acid , sulfuric acid , and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride ( CdCl2 ) , cadmium sulfate ( CdSO4 ) , or cadmium nitrate ( Cd ( NO3 ) 2 ) . The oxidation state + 1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride , forming the Cd22 + cation , which is similar to the Hg22 + cation in mercury ( I ) chloride .
Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2 ( AlCl4 ) 2
The structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases , amino acids , and vitamins have been determined .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes . Two of them are radioactive , and three are expected to decay but have not done so under laboratory conditions . The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd ( beta decay , half @-@ life is 7 @.@ 7 × 1015 years ) and 116Cd ( two @-@ neutrino double beta decay , half @-@ life is 2 @.@ 9 × 1019 years ) . The other three are 106Cd , 108Cd ( both double electron capture ) , and 114Cd ( double beta decay ) ; only lower limits on these half @-@ lives have been determined . At least three isotopes – 110Cd , 111Cd , and 112Cd – are stable . Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally , the most long @-@ lived are 109Cd with a half @-@ life of 462 @.@ 6 days , and 115Cd with a half @-@ life of 53 @.@ 46 hours . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives of less than 2 @.@ 5 hours , and the majority have half @-@ lives of less than 5 minutes . Cadmium has 8 known meta states , with the most stable being 113mCd ( t1 / 2
= 14 @.@ 1 years ) , 115mCd ( t1 / 2 =
44 @.@ 6 days ) , and 117mCd ( t1 / 2 = 3 @.@ 36 hours ) .
The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @.@ 950 u ( 95Cd ) to 131 @.@ 946 u ( 132Cd ) . For isotopes lighter than 112 u , the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 ( silver ) . Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 ( indium ) .
One isotope of cadmium , 113Cd , absorbs neutrons with high selectivity : With very high probability , neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut @-@ off will be absorbed ; those higher than the cut @-@ off will be transmitted . The cadmium cut @-@ off is about 0 @.@ 5 eV , and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons , distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons .
Cadmium is created via the long s @-@ process in low @-@ medium mass stars with masses of 0 @.@ 6 to 10 solar masses , taking thousands of years . In that process , a silver atom captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay .
= = History = =
Cadmium ( Latin cadmia , Greek καδμεία meaning " calamine " , a cadmium @-@ bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος , Cadmus , the founder of Thebes ) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate . Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate ( calamine ) , and , for 100 years , Germany remained the only important producer of the metal . The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine , because it was found in this zinc compound . Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not . He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide . The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s , but the lack of cadmium limited this application .
Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations , the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat " enlarged joints , scrofulous glands , and chilblains " .
In 1907 , the International Astronomical Union defined the international ångström in terms of a red cadmium spectral line ( 1 wavelength = 6438 @.@ 46963 Å ) . This was adopted by the 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1927 . In 1960 , the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton .
After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s , the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion ; in 1944 , 62 % and in 1956 , 59 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for plating . In 1956 , 24 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red , orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium .
The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s . The demand for cadmium in pigments , coatings , stabilizers , and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s ; in 2006 , only 7 % of to total cadmium consumption was used for plating , and only 10 % was used for pigments . At the same time , these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel @-@ cadmium batteries , which accounted for 81 % of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006 .
= = Occurrence = =
Cadmium makes up about 0 @.@ 1 mg kg − 1 ( ppm ) of Earth 's crust . Typical background concentrations in other environmental media are : atmosphere < 5 ng m − 3 ; soil < 2 mg kg − 1 ; vegetation < 0 @.@ 5 mg kg − 1 ; freshwater < 1 ug L − 1 ; seawater < 50 ng L − 1 ; sediment < 2 mg kg − 1 . Compared with the more abundant 65 ppm zinc , cadmium is rare . No significant deposits of cadmium @-@ containing ores are known . Greenockite ( CdS ) , the only cadmium mineral of importance , is nearly always associated with sphalerite ( ZnS ) . This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium , with no geological process likely to separate them . Thus , cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining , smelting , and refining sulfidic ores of zinc , and , to a lesser degree , lead and copper . Small amounts of cadmium , about 10 % of consumption , are produced from secondary sources , mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap . Production in the United States began in 1907 , but not until after World War I did cadmium come into wide use .
Metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia .
Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium , resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg / kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils . Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium , which ends up mostly in flue dust .
= = Production = =
The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001 , China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one @-@ sixth of the world 's production , closely followed by South Korea and Japan .
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores , and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc . Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1 @.@ 4 % of cadmium . In the 1970s , the output of cadmium was 6 @.@ 5 pounds per ton of zinc . Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen , converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide . Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid . Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted , or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution .
= = Applications = =
Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries , pigments , coatings , and electroplating .
= = = Batteries = = =
In 2009 , 86 % of cadmium was used in batteries , predominantly in rechargeable nickel @-@ cadmium batteries . Nickel @-@ cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1 @.@ 2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte ( potassium hydroxide ) . The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0 @.@ 01 % , with some exceptions , and reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0 @.@ 002 % .
= = = Electroplating = = =
Cadmium electroplating , consuming 6 % of the global production , is used in the aircraft industry reduce corrosion of steel components . This coating is passivated by chromate salts . A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high @-@ strength steels from the electroplating process . Therefore , steel parts heat @-@ treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa ( 200 ksi ) should be coated by an alternative method ( such as special low @-@ embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition ) .
Titanium embrittlement from cadmium @-@ plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools ( and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination ) in the A @-@ 12 / SR @-@ 71 , U @-@ 2 , and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium .
= = = Nuclear fission = = =
Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors , acting as a very effective " neutron poison " to control neutron flux in nuclear fission . When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor , cadmium absorbs neutrons preventing them from creating additional fission events , thus controlling the amount of reactivity . The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80 % silver , 15 % indium , and 5 % cadmium .
= = = Compounds = = =
Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes . Cadmium sulfide ( CdS ) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums .
Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments , with CdS as a yellow pigment being the most common . Cadmium selenide is a red pigment , commonly called cadmium red . To painters who work with the pigment , cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows , oranges , and reds — so much so that during production , these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended into watercolors , gouaches , acrylics , and other paint and pigment formulations . Because these pigments are potentially toxic , users should use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1 % .
In PVC , cadmium was used as heat , light , and weathering stabilizers . Currently , cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium @-@ zinc , calcium @-@ zinc and organo @-@ tin stabilizers . Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys , because a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance . It is also found in some of the lowest @-@ melting alloys , such as Wood 's metal .
= = = Laboratory uses = = =
Helium – cadmium lasers are a common source of blue @-@ ultraviolet laser light . They operate at either 325 or 422 nm in fluorescence microscopes and various laboratory experiments . Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation ( He @-@ Cd laser , for example ) . The color of this luminescence can be green , yellow or red depending on the particle size . Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope .
Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors , such as cadmium sulfide , cadmium selenide , and cadmium telluride , used for light detection and solar cells . HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared light and can be used as an infrared detector , motion detector , or switch in remote control devices .
In molecular biology , cadmium is used to block voltage @-@ dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions , as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome @-@ dependent degradation of Hif @-@ 1α .
= = = Cadmium @-@ selective sensors = = =
Cadmium @-@ selective sensors based on the fluorophore BODIPY have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells .
= = Biological role = =
Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms , but a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms . The diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium performs the function normally carried out by zinc in other anhydrases . This was discovered with X @-@ ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy ( XAFS ) .
The highest concentration of cadmium is absorbed in the kidneys of humans , and up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence .
Cadmium can be used to block calcium channels in chicken neurons . Analytical methods for the determination of cadmium in biological samples have been reviewed .
= = Environment = =
The biogeochemistry of cadmium and its release to the environment has been the subject of review , as has the speciation of cadmium in the environment .
Environmental concentrations can exceed adverse @-@ effect @-@ thresholds in cadmium @-@ polluted ecosystems ( e.g. in some parts of Europe ) and pollutant cadmium can accumulate in invertebrates , earthworms , seabirds , marine mammals , plants , and some algal species ; effects in animals include kidney disorders , impairment of enzymes , disruption of calcium metabolism , and changes in cell membrane permeability ; excess Cd uptake in plants can affect growth and metabolic processes such as photosynthesis and transpiration .
= = Safety = =
The bioinorganic aspects of cadmium toxicity have been reviewed .
The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes , or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds . Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis , pulmonary edema , and death .
Cadmium is also an environmental hazard . Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion , phosphate fertilizers , natural sources , iron and steel production , cement production and related activities , nonferrous metals production , and municipal solid waste incineration . Bread , root crops , and vegetables also contribute to the cadmium in modern populations .
There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long @-@ term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water , and research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing . In the decades leading up to World War II , mining operations contaminated the Jinzū River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals . As a consequence , cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines . Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed itai @-@ itai disease and renal abnormalities , including proteinuria and glucosuria .
The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post @-@ menopausal women with low iron and other mineral body stores . Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels . Thus , although cadmium is a major factor in the itai @-@ itai disease in Japan , most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors . Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union 's Restriction on Hazardous Substances ( RoHS ) directive , which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law . The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans . Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer , there is still a substantial controversy about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure . Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet associates to higher risk of endometrial , breast and prostate cancer as well as to osteoporosis in humans . A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females .
Cadmium exposure is a risk factor associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease , early atherosclerosis , hypertension , and cardiovascular diseases . Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations , a necessary molecular mechanism has not been identified . One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an endocrine disruptor and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different hormonal signaling pathways . For example , cadmium can bind to the estrogen receptor alpha , and affect signal transduction along the estrogen and MAPK signaling pathways at low doses .
Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population . An estimated 10 % of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking . Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut , and as much as 50 % of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed . On average , cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 times 5 times greater and in the kidney , 2 – 3 times greater than non @-@ smokers . Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke , there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking .
In a non @-@ smoking population , food is the greatest source of exposure . High quantities of cadmium can be found in crustaceans , mollusks , offal , and algae products . However , grains , vegetables , and starchy roots and tubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the US , and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure . Most plants bio @-@ accumulate metal toxins like Cd , and when composted to form organic fertilizers yield a product which can often contain high amounts ( e.g. , over 0 @.@ 5 mg ) of metal toxins for every kilo of fertilizer . Fertilizers made from animal dung ( e.g. , cow dung ) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of Cd . The Cd added to the soil from fertilizers ( rock phosphates or organic fertilizers ) become bio @-@ available and toxic only if the soil pH is low ( i.e. , acidic soils ) . Zinc is chemically similar to cadmium and some evidence indicates the presence of Zn ions reduces cadmium toxicity .
Zinc , Cu , Ca , and Fe ions , and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat Cd intoxication , though it is not easily reversed .
= = = Regulations = = =
Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health , the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the REACH Regulation .
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2 @.@ 5 μg / kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans . The Joint FAO / WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg / kg bw to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level .
The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) for cadmium at a time @-@ weighted average ( TWA ) of 0 @.@ 005 ppm . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has not set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) level for cadmium is 9 mg / m3 .
= = = Product recalls = = =
In May 2006 , a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C. ' s old stadium , Highbury in London , England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium . Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children 's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation . The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by Claire 's and Wal @-@ Mart stores .
In June 2010 , McDonald 's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional " Shrek Forever After 3D " Collectable Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware . The glasses were manufactured by Arc International , of Millville , NJ , USA .
= First Battle of Maryang San =
The First Battle of Maryang San ( 3 – 8 October 1951 ) , also known as the Defensive Battle of Maliangshan ( Chinese : 马良山防御战 ; pinyin : Mǎliáng Shān Fángyù Zhàn ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and British — and the Chinese communist People 's Volunteer Army . The fighting occurred during a limited UN offensive by US I Corps , codenamed Operation Commando . This offensive ultimately pushed the Chinese back from the Imjin River to the Jamestown Line and destroyed elements of four Chinese armies following heavy fighting . The much smaller battle at Maryang San took place over a five @-@ day period , and saw the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) dislodge a numerically superior Chinese force from the tactically important Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) features , in conjunction with other units of the 1st Commonwealth Division .
Using tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , the Australians gained the advantage of the high ground and assaulted the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . They then repelled repeated Chinese counterattacks aimed at re @-@ capturing Maryang San , with both sides suffering heavy casualties before the Australians were finally relieved by a British battalion . However , with the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . A month later , the Chinese subsequently re @-@ captured Maryang San from the British during fierce fighting , and it was never re @-@ gained . Today , the battle is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments during the war .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Following General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's dismissal as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of UN forces in Korea , he was replaced by General Matthew B. Ridgway . Consequently , on 14 April 1951 , General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the US Eighth Army and the United Nations forces in Korea . The Chinese Spring Offensive during April and May 1951 ended in its defeat , while following two months of sporadic operations in mid @-@ June and August , the war entered a new phase , with Van Fleet returning to the offensive . In July the Kansas and Wyoming Lines were strengthened , while a limited offensive in the east @-@ central sector in mid @-@ August seized the high ground around the Punchbowl and Bloody Ridge during the Battle of Bloody Ridge . In September the offensive in this sector continued , targeting the next hill complex north of Bloody Ridge , known as Heartbreak Ridge .
Meanwhile , the organisation of British Commonwealth ground forces fighting in Korea as part of the United Nations Command had undergone considerable change in the months following the battles of the Imjin River and Kapyong in late @-@ April 1951 . 3 RAR had been transferred from 27th British Infantry Brigade to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade when that formation departed for Hong Kong . Meanwhile , after protracted negotiations between the governments of Australia , Britain , Canada , India , New Zealand and South Africa , agreement had been reached to establish an integrated formation with the aim of increasing the political significance of their contribution , as well as facilitating the solution of the logistic and operational problems faced by the various Commonwealth contingents .
The 1st Commonwealth Division was formed on 28 July 1951 , with the division including the 25th Canadian , 28th British Commonwealth and 29th British infantry brigades under the command of Major General James Cassels , and was part of US I Corps . Since its formation , the division had occupied part of the west @-@ central sector of the UN line , approximately 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) north of the capital Seoul . The 28th Brigade included three infantry battalions — the 1st Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers ( 1 KOSB ) , 1st Battalion , King 's Shropshire Light Infantry ( 1 KSLI ) and the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — under the command of Brigadier George Taylor . During this period 3 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Francis Hassett . Peace @-@ talks at Kaesong during July and September led to a lull in the fighting and 3 RAR undertook mainly defensive duties , helping to construct the defences of the Kansas Line south of the Imjin River , as well as conducting extensive patrolling on the northern side . The battalion also used the reduced operational tempo as an opportunity to train reinforcements . The period culminated in a limited , and largely unopposed , divisional advance 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the Imjin to the Wyoming Line , codenamed Operation Minden , in September .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
In late @-@ September and early @-@ October — even while continuing the attack against Heartbreak Ridge — Van Fleet developed a plan for a limited offensive in the western section , known as Operation Commando , to advance 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the 38th parallel , with the aim of pushing Chinese forces back and giving United Nations forces more leverage at the truce negotiations now occurring at Panmunjom . Operation Commando was scheduled for 3 – 5 October 1951 and the US I Corps commander , Lieutenant General John W. O 'Daniel , envisioned a concept of operations in which three of the corps ' four divisions would advance on a broad front in conjunction with US 25th Infantry Division on the left flank of the neighbouring US IX Corps , seizing a new defensive line known as the Jamestown Line . The divisions to be used in the advance included the 1st Commonwealth Division , US 1st Cavalry Division and the 9th South Korean Division . The 1st South Korean Division would remain in its existing position on the left flank .
In the sector occupied by 1st Commonwealth Division , Chinese communist forces were dug into a group of hills overlooking the Imjin River . The division faced 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Chinese 191st Division , 64th Army under the overall command of Xie Zhengrong . The Chinese forces were divided into three regiments of about 2 @,@ 000 men each , with two regiments dug @-@ in in well prepared defensive positions with overhead protection , and a third regiment in support . The 28th Brigade faced one of the two forward regiments — the 571st Regiment — which was deployed with one battalion on Hill 355 , a second battalion astride Hill 217 and Hill 317 , and a third battalion in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
reserve to the west .
The task allocated to the British Commonwealth force was to take these positions with the intention of advancing the line from the southern bank of the Imjin to a line of hills to the north , in total an objective that stretched more than 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . The primary objectives of the advance would be the capture of Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) and the task of taking these positions was allocated to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade , with this formation bearing the brunt of the fighting . Cassels planned on capturing the Jamestown Line in three phases . In the first phase , scheduled for 3 October , the 28th Brigade would take Hill 355 in the east @-@ central sector . During the second phase , on 4 October , the 25th Brigade would assault the two Hill 187 features and the south @-@ western ridge running to the Samichon River . Lastly during the third phase , scheduled for 5 October , the 28th Brigade would capture Hills 217 and 317 . As such , the bulk of the division 's strength would be concentrated on the right flank , to be held by the 28th Brigade ; meanwhile , the 25th Brigade would hold the left flank and the 29th Brigade would be held in reserve while providing a battalion to each of the other brigades as reinforcements .
Kowang @-@ San would be assaulted during the first phase by 1 KOSB with 1 KSLI and 3 RAR in support , while Maryang San would be taken in the third phase of the operation by 3 RAR and the 1st Battalion , Royal Northumberland Fusiliers ( 1 RNF ) , who were under commander from 29th Brigade for the duration of Operation Commando . Careful reconnaissance and planning took place in the week prior to the commencement of the operation and Taylor emphasised the use of indirect fires , air support and infiltration tactics to limit casualties , as well as the exploitation of weak points in the Chinese defences . In direct support of the brigade was 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery with its 3 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 88 mm ) 25 @-@ pounder field guns , in addition to divisional and corps assets which included 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) mortars , 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) howitzers and 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) heavy artillery ; in total more than 120 guns and mortars . Also in support were two British Centurion tank squadrons from the 8th Royal Irish Hussars .
= = = Preliminary operations = = =
Given the primary task of capturing Hill 317 , Hassett studied the approaches from the air and the ground . Two previous attempts to take Maryang San by American troops had been unsuccessful . Regardless , utilising tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War of running along the tops of ridges , he intended to gain the advantage of the high ground , while utilising the cover afforded by the vegetation and the ease of movement along the crest @-@ lines , in order to assault the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . Meanwhile , the Chinese defenders on Maryang San were also testing a newly developed tactic called the " mobile positional defense " , in which only small units were stationed on the hills in order to exhaust the UN attackers , while the bulk of the Chinese defenders would later counterattack before the UN forces could consolidate into their newly gained positions .
However , during the first phase of the operation the Australians would be tasked with capturing a Chinese outpost on Hill 199 to allow tanks and medium machine @-@ guns to provide direct fires onto the northern and eastern slopes of Hill 355 in support of an attack by the Borderers from the south @-@ east . Likewise , the Shropshires would assault and capture Hill 208 . Finally then , two days before the start of Operation Commando , the 28th Brigade crossed the Imjin river to assemble behind the 25th Brigade on 1 October . The following day the 3 RAR , less D Company , and the Borderers moved forward carefully into their assembly areas , ready to advance the following morning . C Company advanced to a position 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) in front of the Canadian positions , north @-@ east of Hill 355 . B Company was 200 metres ( 220 yd ) to the rear . In the afternoon C Company was subjected to heavy shelling , losing one soldier wounded . D Company — under the command of Major Basil Hardiman — was detached to 25th Brigade to strengthen its extended front , and it would not be available until the afternoon of 3 October .
= = Battle = =
= = = Capture of Hill 199 , 3 October 1951 = = =
At 03 : 00 on 3 October , B Company 3 RAR moved north 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) toward Hill 199 , crossing the open valley under the cover of darkness and heavy mist . A Company then moved up behind C Company . Artillery and mortar fire targeted known Chinese artillery positions with counter @-@ battery fire prior to dawn , before switching to support the Borderers in their assault on Hill 355 . Simultaneously , the Shropshires were assaulting Hill 208 and with the support of A Squadron , 8th Royal Irish Hussars they reached the positions without opposition by 06 : 00 . By 08 : 00 B Company had gained the high ground to the north and then proceeded to patrol the short distance to west to the objective which was then taken with three wounded ; five Chinese were killed and one captured . By mid @-@ morning , both the Shropshires and the Australians had successfully captured their objectives .
Expecting a counter @-@ attack , the Australians on Hill 199 began digging @-@ in , however no such attack occurred . D Company subsequently returned and was allocated a position between C Company and the Borderers . C and B Companies both received shelling during the day , wounding two men . At 10 : 00 A Company — under Captain Jim Shelton — took over the defence of Hill 199 , and B Company went into reserve behind A Company . According to plan a troop of Centurion tanks and a section of medium machine @-@ guns were then moved up onto Hill 199 and began directing their fire onto the northern slopes of Hill 355 in support of the Borderers . Meanwhile , at 07 : 15 , following preparation by artillery and mortar fire , the lead British assault companies had begun to advance on Hill 355 . However , with the Chinese expecting an assault from that direction , the initial British moves met strong resistance and the Borderers were forced to withdraw and reorganise . At 14 : 15 a second assault reached the objectives on the lower slopes , and these gains were consolidated by nightfall .
The attack was now behind schedule . Indeed , the Borderers were still more than 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) short of their final objective , and with stubborn resistance being encountered during the initial phase , Hill 355 would now not be secured until the afternoon of 4 October . The assault was being slowed by two positions on the northeast slopes of Hill 355 — known as Hill 220 — from which the Chinese held the British right flank in enfilade . C Company 3 RAR would be detached to assist the attack on Kowang @-@ San the next morning , with the Australians tasked with outflanking the Chinese defences and capturing this position . Heavy Chinese artillery fire had also slowed progress with more than 2 @,@ 500 rounds falling in the 28th Brigade area in the previous twenty @-@ four hours , although this total was dwarfed many times over by the weight of allied artillery fired across the brigade front , which included 22 @,@ 324 rounds . On the division 's left flank , the delay also meant that the Canadian attack scheduled for 06 : 00 the next day in the 25th Brigade sector would have to be postponed until 11 : 00 , due to the continuing requirement to use the divisional artillery in support of 28th Brigade .
= = = Capture of Hill 220 and the fall of Kowang @-@ San , 4 October 1951 = = =
On 4 October , C Company 3 RAR — under the command of Major Jack Gerke — attacked the long spur running east from the peak of Hill 355 , known as Hill 220 . Launching their assault at 09 : 00 , the Australians quickly killed or drove off the defenders before pressing on up the spur and routing the remainder of a Chinese company . Reaching their objectives by 10 : 00 , the Australians then took advantage of the initiative gained so far , pushing a platoon towards the summit of Hill 355 . Amid heavy fighting , the Australians cleared the eastern slopes of Kowang @-@ San by 12 : 00 , despite having received no orders to do so . Thirteen Chinese were killed and three captured in the fighting , while Australian casualties included 11 wounded , one of whom subsequently died . Gerke was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his leadership . C Company withdrew to the rear of the 3 RAR position and were replaced by D Company , who occupied the position held by A Company 500 metres ( 550 yd ) north of Hill 199 . Meanwhile , led by a bagpiper , the Borderers made a simultaneous assault up the western face of Kowang @-@ San , and fearing they may be caught between two attacks the Chinese defenders abandoned Hill 355 , withdrawing northwest under heavy indirect fire .
Given the strong resistance exhibited by the Chinese , the Canadians expected a tough fight as 25th Brigade prepared to assault its objectives as part of the second phase of the divisional plan . Yet with the loss of Hill 355 and 210 the Chinese unexpectedly withdrew from their well @-@ prepared defensive positions , with Hill 159 and 175 captured without opposition . Only the 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry encountered any opposition before they captured the two Hill 187 features , losing one killed and six wounded during stiff fighting in which 28 Chinese were also killed . Indeed , the ease with which the Canadians had captured their initial objectives allowed them to press on , attaining their final objectives on the Jamestown Line by nightfall . No further resistance was encountered , although heavy Chinese artillery fire caused a number of casualties , including three killed . The Canadians subsequently occupied the positions they were destined to hold for the next twenty @-@ two months of fighting .
Meanwhile , on the 28th Brigade 's left flank the Shropshires met slight resistance , securing Hill 210 southwest of Kowang @-@ San by 10 : 10 . They were then relieved by the Canadians by nightfall in preparation for the third phase of the operation . The brigade plan was now a day behind schedule , although with the unexpected ease experienced by the Canadians , overall , the divisional attack was still running according to plan . However , determined to hold on following the loss of Hill 355 , the Chinese moved in fresh troops , heavily reinforcing a number of positions , including Maryang San .
= = = Fall of Maryang San , 5 October 1951 = = =
The final objective was Maryang San , a steep hill rising 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above the valley about 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 yd ) north of Hill 355 . However , following the delay in capturing Hill 355 , Hassett would not be ready to implement his plan until early the next day . As such the third phase would begin on 5 October , with the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers scheduled to attack an intermediate objective — Hill 217 , adjacent Kowang @-@ San — before assisting the Australians assault Hill 317 . The Australians moved into position northeast of Hill 199 on the afternoon of 4 October , while over the night of 4 / 5 October the divisional artillery hit Chinese positions , with two batteries of 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) howitzers and another two 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) batteries supplementing them . Air strikes by the Mustangs of No. 2 Squadron , South African Air Force were also planned , targeting Chinese concentrations north and west of the objectives to cut @-@ off supplies and reinforcements . Both the Australians and Fusiliers were scheduled to begin their attacks at first light — at 05 : 45 — following a heavy artillery preparation .
In the dark the Fusiliers moved off , but amid dense fog they found it difficult to maintain their bearings and were not in position in time to commence the attack as planned . By 10 : 00 they had struggled to within 300 metres ( 330 yd ) from their objective , and following further delays the assault was commenced at 11 : 00 . After initially achieving surprise a number of the forward Chinese outposts fell to the Fusiliers . Occupying strong defensive positions on Hill 217 , the Chinese regained the initiative however , and poured heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire onto the attackers as they crossed the valley , forcing them to withdraw after suffering heavy casualties and running low on ammunition . Having expected the main axis of assault from the south , the Chinese positions were stronger than previously considered and the Fusiliers were unable to gain the summit , despite one company gaining a toehold on the summit by midday .
Earlier that morning , at 04 : 45 , B and D Companies 3 RAR had moved north across the valley , while Anti @-@ Tank Platoon crossed the Imjin , taking up positions further north in order to protect the right flank . The assaulting companies would then move west towards a series of objectives before assaulting Hill 317 . Initially 3 RAR was to attack from the east , while 1 RNF would attack from the southwest through Hill 217 , however with the Fusiliers facing stiff resistance on Hill 217 itself they were unable to get forward to assist . The previous attempts to capture Maryang San had failed due to the approach to steep eastern slopes of the feature being across a wide , open valley that was dominated by enfilade fire from mutually supporting Chinese positions . Consequently , the Australians planned to cross the valley under cover of darkness and position themselves on the Chinese flank in the foothills , before scaling the position at first light . A Company would create a diversion on the left flank , while B Company would clear the lower slopes before D Company passed through to assault the Chinese main defensive position , known as the ' Victor ' feature , in a one @-@ up , one @-@ in @-@ depth assault . However , following the casualties of previous nights on Hill 199 , 220 and 355 , and the effect of constant shelling , 3 RAR was now reduced to just 320 men . In contrast , the Australians faced two fresh Chinese battalions on Maryang San , in total about 1 @,@ 200 men .
B Company — commanded by Captain Henry Nicholls — led off shrouded in the heavy mist , and with visibility limited in the thick vegetation , it drifted to the right off the intended axis of advance having lost direction , suffering a similar fate as the Fusiliers . Disorientated , the assaulting companies became separated and the battalion attack turned into a series of independent company attacks . D Company slowly continued forward however , and when the mist lifted suddenly at 11 : 20 they were left dangerously exposed still only halfway up the slope to their objective . The Australian approach had surprised the Chinese however , who were apparently expecting the assault from the north , and D Company succeeded in closing to within grenade range of the Chinese on Victor . During a fierce twenty @-@ minute fire @-@ fight the Australians cleared their first objective with the assistance of direct fire from supporting tanks , and indirect fire support from artillery , losing three killed and 12 wounded . Included among the Australian wounded was the company commander and one of the platoon commanders , both of whom remained in command despite gunshot wounds . Chinese losses included 30 killed and 10 captured .
During the initial phase A Company had attacked southwest along a spur leading to Hill 317 and had met stiff opposition . The diversion was largely successful however , causing the Chinese to reinforce against the attack , which they believed to be the main effort . Meanwhile , D Company continued to press their attack along the high ground towards the ' Uniform ' feature , assaulting the deeply entrenched Chinese positions , which included heavy automatic weapons . By 16 : 00 it had successfully captured the last of the intermediate objectives assigned to it and a platoon from B Company was pushed forward to assist in the clearance of the feature . Later , Lieutenant L.G. Clark was awarded the Military Cross while Sergeant W.J. Rowlinson was awarded a bar to his Distinguished Conduct Medal for their actions during the fighting . By this time total Chinese casualties included 98 killed and 40 captured , while the Australians believed that a large number of Chinese had also been wounded . Following the progress of B and D Companies , C Company was moved up behind them and with the capture of final objective they immediately commenced an assault on Hill 317 , capturing 10 prisoners for no loss . Although the Chinese had been well dug @-@ in , there were no barbed wire obstacles to hamper the attackers and the Australians had rapidly gained the position . By 17 : 00 , Maryang San had fallen to the Australians , with the Chinese withdrawing under heavy artillery , mortar and machine @-@ gun fire .
On Hill 217 the Fusiliers had maintained the pressure on the Chinese throughout the day , however they were still unable to capture the feature . Regardless , the efforts of the Fusiliers in conjunction with A Company 's diversionary attack and the rapid advance of D Company with tank and artillery support had carried the day . A Company continued to attack against heavy opposition and indirect fire , slowly pushing the Chinese defenders back . Later , a platoon was detached to assist C Company consolidate the defence of Maryang San following its capture , while the remaining two platoons were withdrawn rearwards , again under heavy artillery fire . Indeed , although it had played a supporting role in the attack , the efforts of A Company had been vital , suffering 20 casualties while killing at least 25 Chinese and capturing two . Now with Maryang San captured the Australians began digging @-@ in , modifying the south @-@ facing linear Chinese trench system into an all @-@ round defensive position with mutually supporting weapons pits . Fully expecting a Chinese counter @-@ attack that evening , Hasset moved the Assault Pioneer Platoon to bolster the hasty defences . Meanwhile , the Chinese still occupied three key ridgeline positions — the ' Sierra ' feature , the ' Hinge ' and the summit of Hill 317 itself — which they continued to furiously defend . These would be the scene of considerable fighting in the days to come as the Australians attempted to clear them .
= = = The Hinge , 6 – 8 October 1951 = = =
With both sides exhausted from the fighting the night of 5 / 6 October was less eventful than expected , and the Australians used the opportunity to develop their position . To add further depth to their defences and to probe the Chinese positions , Taylor ordered the Australians to capture the central remaining Chinese position , the Sierra feature — a wooded knoll halfway between the summit of Maryang San and the Hinge — the next day . Meanwhile , the Fusiliers would renew their attack on Hill 217 . The southern approach to Hill 217 had proved to be too strongly defended by the Chinese and it became obvious that if it was to be overcome Taylor would need to split the fire of its defenders . To do this the high ground to the north @-@ west of Maryang San , known as the Hinge , would be vital . Indeed , adjacent to Hill 217 , the Hinge dominated it from the north . As such for the next assault , planned for the morning , the Fusiliers would detach their reserve company to attack the Hinge from the east , using the Australian positions on Maryang San as a firm base and thereby allowing them to outflank their opponents on Hill 217 .
At 07 : 00 on 6 October , 9 Platoon C Company — under the command of Lieutenant Arthur Pembroke — moved forward to Sierra , using the heavy mist to conceal their movements . Under @-@ strength and not expecting the feature to be occupied , instead the Australians found a large number of Chinese in well prepared defensive positions . Without fire support and outnumbered , the Australians immediately conducted a quick attack and , using grenades and bayonets , they inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese before forcing the survivors to withdraw . Although subjected to constant shelling , 9 Platoon continued to hold the knoll , repelling several counterattacks over the next 13 hours , cutting down each assault through the tree @-@ line and long grass with accurate rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , forcing the Chinese to withdraw leaving their dead and wounded behind . One Australian was killed in the initial assault on Sierra , while a number were later wounded during the defence . Chinese casualties included 19 killed , 30 wounded and seven captured . Pembroke was later awarded the Military Cross .
During the day the Fusiliers again assaulted Hill 217 from the south , and attempted to work their way around the eastern and western flanks of the feature . Despite preparation by the divisional artillery and the 3 RAR Machine Gun Platoon firing their Vickers medium machine @-@ guns in support from Maryang San , the Fusiliers were unable to make progress due to Chinese machine @-@ guns located in bunkers at the top of their objective . Meanwhile , their flanking movements were also blocked by Chinese small arms and grenades . 1 RNF had now taken over 100 casualties during two days of fighting and by the afternoon they were a spent force . Sensing the Fusiliers ' weakness , the Chinese then launched their own assault , forcing them to withdraw in contact . Previous plans for an assault on the Hinge had not occurred due to issues with resupply and the dangerous approach march that would have been required . Again , despite their efforts , the Fusiliers had failed to capture their objective . It seemed that the only way to finally secure Hill 217 was along the ridge from Hill 317 , via the Hinge , and as such the Australians would be tasked with capturing the Hinge the following day . B Company was subsequently allocated the attack . In preparation , they ascended Hill 317 late in the afternoon of 6 October , finally securing the crest , and at last light joined 9 Platoon on the knoll northwest of the summit where they would form up the next day to conduct the assault .
In the early hours of 7 October the allied artillery and mortar bombardment began , targeting Chinese positions on the Hinge . Hassett moved the 3 RAR tactical headquarters on to Hill 317 just before the assaulting troops stepped off the line of departure , allowing him to direct the battle from a forward position and to co @-@ ordinate fire support . Waiting for the fog to lift so that the artillery could fire until the last safe moment , the attack finally began at 08 : 00 . B Company moved off down the ridgeline , with two @-@ up and one @-@ in @-@ depth , using the trees and long grass for concealment . Initially it seemed that the Chinese had withdrawn during the night , when suddenly the lead Australian platoons were engulfed by small arms fire from their rear . A series of intense fire @-@ fights ensued as the Australians fought back and by 09 : 20 the Hinge finally fell , with the Australians losing two killed and 20 wounded . Chinese casualties included more than 20 killed . As a result of the fighting Captain Henry Nicholls and Lieutenant Jim Hughes were awarded the Military Cross , while Corporal J. Park and Corporal E.F. Bosworth were awarded the Military Medal . Yet even as the surviving Chinese withdrew , artillery and mortar fire began to fall on the Hinge . B Company moved quickly to consolidate the position , but were hampered by the shelling , while they now faced a pressing shortage of ammunition and difficulties evacuating their casualties .
For the remainder of the day B Company was subjected to intense indirect fire on the Hinge , as was C Company on Hill 317 . The Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and Assault Pioneer Platoon reinforced C Company , with a platoon of C Company moved forward to the Hinge to support B Company . At 20 : 00 both the Hinge and Hill 317 were again heavily shelled for 45 minutes , heralding the beginning of the inevitable Chinese counterattack . Heavy mist concealed the Chinese advance , and this assisted many to penetrate the Australian perimeter . Throughout the night of 7 / 8 October the Hinge was attacked on three occasions from both the front and the flanks by a force of battalion strength , however the Australians beat back the Chinese in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The Chinese swept forward , but were stopped by intense small arms and artillery fire . During one such assault Sergeant P.J. O 'Connell , on seeing one of his platoon 's Bren gunners wounded , manned the light machine @-@ gun himself , breaking up a Chinese assault , while controlling the fire of the men around him . Meanwhile , Sergeant R.W. Strong arranged the resupply of ammunition to the forward Australian sections . Both were awarded the Military Medal .
The intensity of the fighting had led to a severe shortage of ammunition among the defenders , and attempts to resupply the Australians were plagued by heavy shelling . The use of salvaged ammunition stabilised the situation momentarily after one of B Company 's two Vickers medium machine @-@ guns was destroyed by Chinese shelling , and its ammunition belts were subsequently broken up and dispersed among the riflemen . However , this soon resulted in a large number of mechanical failures and weapon stoppages , causing additional problems for the defenders . The evacuation of casualties was again an issue , and the Assault Pioneer Platoon — commanded by Lieutenant Jock McCormick — was used as stretcher bearers and to run ammunition forward , as were a number of the other specialist platoons . Their ammunition nearly exhausted , the Australians resorted to kicking and strangling many of the attacking Chinese during the brutal fighting . Fearing the Australians would be overwhelmed by the persistent Chinese attacks , Taylor ordered the Borderers and Shropshires to detach their Korean porters to resupply the Australians , while a full divisional concentration of artillery was fired in support of 3 RAR .
Ultimately , B Company succeeded in holding their hastily constructed defensive positions throughout the night and until 05 : 00 on 8 October when the Chinese finally gave up . In order to preserve its remaining strength , the Chinese 191st Division was forced to pull back by 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , surrendering the control of Hill 217 without a fight . At first light more than 120 Chinese dead and wounded lay around the Australian defences and in contrast to the savage fighting during the night , Chinese stretcher parties were allowed to come forward and collect their wounded under a flag of truce . The Australians had been victorious but were now exhausted after five days of heavy fighting .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
Four hours later , at 09 : 00 , 3 RAR was relieved on Maryang San and the Hinge by the Borderers , having lost 20 killed and 104 wounded . Chinese casualties on Hill 317 had been severe , with at least 283 killed ( determined by body count ) and another 50 captured , while hundreds more were thought likely to have been killed and wounded . Later it was estimated that the Australians had destroyed at least two Chinese battalions during the five @-@ day battle . 1 RNF once more advanced against Hill 217 , this time without opposition , sending patrols to confirm that the Chinese had withdrawn . They were met by patrols from 1 KOSB on the Hinge , with the Borderers taking control of the area at 11 : 00 . Hill 217 was latter occupied on 9 October by the Borderers . The 3 RAR Assault Pioneer Platoon , the Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and a platoon from C Company remained on Maryang San however , and during the evening of 8 / 9 October the Pioneers killed four Chinese during a probe on their position . They were finally relieved on 9 October . For his leadership , Hassett was immediately awarded the DSO , while a number of awards were also made to others that had distinguished themselves during the fighting . The Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honours " Kowang @-@ San " and " Maryang San " . Today , the First Battle of Maryang San is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments of the Korean War .
= = = Assessment = = =
During the battle , the British Commonwealth logistic system proved robust enough to bear the strain of the fighting without serious disruption , although problems were experienced . Despite difficulties , an adequate flow of ammunition , equipment , food and water was maintained , although there were occasions when the Australians endured thirst and hunger for several hours . 3 RAR used 900 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms , 5 @,@ 000 grenades and 7 @,@ 000 mortar rounds during the five @-@ day battle , all of which was moved in man @-@ packable loads by Korean Service Corps porters and Australian soldiers over long distances and extreme terrain , often while under fire . These resupply operations had required considerable effort and bravery to effect , and a number of Korean porters were killed and wounded at Maryang San .
Indeed , the evacuation of casualties and the resupply of ammunition at times proved problematic , and heavy shelling and sniper fire disrupted stretcher parties and porters on a number of occasions , resulting in the forward companies running short of ammunition . Meanwhile , the quality of support given to the British and Australian infantry by the artillery and tanks was of a high standard and proved a critical factor . Indeed , the tanks had often operated in terrain to which they were unsuited , while the New Zealand gunners had fired over 50 @,@ 000 rounds in direct support of 3 RAR , blistering the paint off the barrels of their guns . Air support , including that provided by the South African Mustangs , had been important throughout .
The battle was also noted for the pioneering use of tunnel warfare by the Chinese in the Korean War . During the fighting , a company of Chinese soldiers had defended their positions from a U @-@ shaped tunnel capable of housing 100 men , which had served as both a bomb shelter and a base for counterattacks . The company leader later claimed that the tunnel enabled the defenders to inflict 700 UN casualties while suffering only 21 casualties in return . Impressed by the report , the commander of the People 's Volunteer Army , Peng Dehuai , later ordered the construction of 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) deep tunnels along the entire front line , and it formed a formidable obstacle for UN forces to overcome during the stalemate period .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Operation Commando finally ended on 15 October with the US I Corps having successfully seized the Jamestown Line and destroying elements of the 42nd , 47th , 64th and 65th Chinese Armies . Chinese losses were estimated at 21 @,@ 000 casualties , while UN losses were 4 @,@ 000 — the majority of them in the US 1st Cavalry Division which had borne the brunt of the fighting . Although a few hills south of the line remained in communist hands — requiring a follow @-@ up operation known as Operation Polecharge which succeeded in capturing these positions by 19 October — UN supply lines near Seoul were now free from Chinese interdiction . With the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences , trench lines , bunkers , patrols , wiring parties and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . Construction of defensive localities began almost immediately , although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire which made such operations hazardous . Patrolling forward of the Jamestown Line also began in order to prevent the Chinese from gaining control of no mans land . Yet even as the war became a contest of positional warfare and attrition , growing western political sensitivities ensured that UN commanders were increasingly mindful of limiting casualties .
Total casualties among the 1st Commonwealth Division during Operation Commando amounted to 58 killed and 262 wounded , the bulk of which had occurred during the fighting for Hill 217 and Hill 317 . Indeed , in addition to the heavy casualties suffered by 3 RAR , 1 RNF had lost 16 killed and 94 wounded . The Chinese 64th Army later received a commendation for keeping their casualties " light " , despite some estimates placing its casualties at higher than 3 @,@ 000 . Throughout the operation 3 RAR had played a crucial role , and in a bold series of holding and flanking movements , coordinated with accurate and sustained artillery and direct tank fire , it had driven the Chinese from both Kowang @-@ San and Maryang San . They had then held the key position against several unsuccessful counterattacks before forcing the Chinese to retire . A month later Maryang San was subsequently retaken by the Chinese from the Borderers amid fierce fighting at the Second Battle of Maryang San , for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross . It was not re @-@ gained , and remained in Chinese hands until the end of the war .
= Ulysses ( poem ) =
" Ulysses " is a poem in blank verse by the Victorian poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson ( 1809 – 1892 ) , written in 1833 and published in 1842 in his well @-@ received second volume of poetry . An oft @-@ quoted poem , it is popularly used to illustrate the dramatic monologue form . Facing old age , mythical hero Ulysses describes his discontent and restlessness upon returning to his kingdom , Ithaca , after his far @-@ ranging travels . Despite his reunion with his wife Penelope and son Telemachus , Ulysses yearns to explore again .
The character of Ulysses ( in Greek , Odysseus ) has been explored widely in literature . The adventures of Odysseus were first recorded in Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey ( c . 800 – 700 BC ) , and Tennyson draws on Homer 's narrative in the poem . Most critics , however , find that Tennyson 's Ulysses recalls Dante 's Ulisse in his Inferno ( c . 1320 ) . In Dante 's re @-@ telling , Ulisse is condemned to hell among the false counsellors , both for his pursuit of knowledge beyond human bounds and for his adventures in disregard of his family .
For much of this poem 's history , readers viewed Ulysses as resolute and heroic , admiring him for his determination " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " . The view that Tennyson intended a heroic character is supported by his statements about the poem , and by the events in his life — the death of his closest friend — that prompted him to write it . In the twentieth century , some new interpretations of " Ulysses " highlighted potential ironies in the poem . They argued , for example , that Ulysses wishes to selfishly abandon his kingdom and family , and they questioned more positive assessments of Ulysses ' character by demonstrating how he resembles flawed protagonists in earlier literature .
= = Synopsis and structure = =
As the poem begins , Ulysses has returned to his kingdom , Ithaca , having made a long journey home after fighting in the Trojan War . Confronted again by domestic life , Ulysses expresses his lack of contentment , including his indifference toward the " savage race " ( line 4 ) whom he governs . Ulysses contrasts his present restlessness with his heroic past , and contemplates his old age and eventual death — " Life piled on life / Were all too little , and of one to me / Little remains " ( 24 – 26 ) — and longs for further experience and knowledge . His son Telemachus will inherit the throne that Ulysses finds burdensome . While Ulysses thinks that Telemachus will be a good king — " Most blameless is he , centred in the sphere / Of common duties " ( 39 ) — he seems to have lost any connection to his son — " He works his work , I mine " ( 43 ) — and the conventional methods of governing — " by slow prudence " and " through soft degrees " ( 36 , 37 ) . In the final section , Ulysses turns to his fellow mariners and calls on them to join him on another quest , making no guarantees as to their fate but attempting to conjure their heroic past :
= = = Prosody = = =
The speaker 's language is unadorned but forceful , and it expresses Ulysses ' conflicting moods as he searches for continuity between his past and future . There is often a marked contrast between the sentiment of Ulysses ' words and the sounds that express them . For example , the poem 's insistent iambic pentameter is often interrupted by spondees ( metrical feet that consist of two long syllables ) ; such laboured language slows the poem ( and in other places may cast doubt upon the reliability of Ulysses ' utterances ) :
Observing their burdensome prosodic effect , the poet Matthew Arnold remarked , " these three lines by themselves take up nearly as much time as a whole book of the Iliad . " Many of the poem 's clauses carry over into the following line ; these enjambments emphasize Ulysses ' restlessness and dissatisfaction .
= = = Form = = =
The poem 's seventy lines of blank verse are presented as a dramatic monologue . Scholars disagree on how Ulysses ' speech functions in this format ; it is not necessarily clear to whom Ulysses is speaking , if anyone , and from what location . Some see the verse turning from a soliloquy to a public address , as Ulysses seems to speak to himself in the first movement , then to turn to an audience as he introduces his son , and then to relocate to the seashore where he addresses his mariners . In this interpretation , the comparatively direct and honest language of the first movement is set against the more politically minded tone of the last two movements . For example , the second paragraph ( 33 – 43 ) about Telemachus , in which Ulysses muses again about domestic life , is a " revised version [ of lines 1 – 5 ] for public consumption " : a " savage race " is revised to a " rugged people " .
The ironic interpretations of " Ulysses " may be the result of the modern tendency to consider the narrator of a dramatic monologue as necessarily " unreliable " . According to critic Dwight Culler , the poem has been a victim of revisionist readings in which the reader expects to reconstruct the truth from a misleading narrator 's accidental revelations . ( Compare the more obvious use of this approach in Robert Browning 's " My Last Duchess " . ) Culler himself views " Ulysses " as a dialectic in which the speaker weighs the virtues of a contemplative and an active approach to life ; Ulysses moves through four emotional stages that are self @-@ revelatory , not ironic : beginning with his rejection of the barren life to which he has returned in Ithaca , he then fondly recalls his heroic past , recognizes the validity of Telemachus ' method of governing , and with these thoughts plans another journey .
= = = Publication history = = =
Tennyson completed the poem on 20 October 1833 , but it was not published until 1842 , in his second collection of Poems . Unlike many of Tennyson 's other important poems , " Ulysses " was not revised after its publication .
Tennyson originally blocked out the poem in four paragraphs , broken before lines 6 , 33 and 44 . In this structure , the first and third paragraphs are thematically parallel , but may be read as interior and exterior monologues , respectively . However , the poem is often printed with the first paragraph break omitted .
= = Interpretations = =
= = = Autobiographical elements = = =
Tennyson penned " Ulysses " after the death of his close Cambridge friend , the poet Arthur Henry Hallam ( 1811 – 1833 ) , with whom Tennyson had a strong emotional bond . The two friends had spent much time discussing poetry and philosophy , writing verse , and travelling in southern France , the Pyrenees , and Germany . Tennyson considered Hallam destined for greatness , perhaps as a statesman .
When Tennyson heard on 1 October 1833 of his friend 's death , he was living in Somersby , Lincolnshire , in cramped quarters with his mother and nine of his ten siblings . His father had died in 1831 , requiring Tennyson to return home and take responsibility for the family . Tennyson 's friends were becoming increasingly concerned about his mental and physical health during this time . The family had little income , and three of Tennyson 's brothers were mentally ill . Just as Tennyson 's outlook was improving — he was adjusting to his new domestic duties , regaining contact with friends , and had published his 1832 book of poems — the news of Hallam 's death arrived . Tennyson shared his grief with his sister , Emily , who had been engaged to Hallam .
According to Victorian scholar Linda Hughes , the emotional gulf between the state of his domestic affairs and the loss of his special friendship informs the reading of " Ulysses " — particularly its treatment of domesticity . At one moment , Ulysses ' discontent seems to mirror that of Tennyson , who would have been frustrated with managing the house in such a state of grief . At the next , Ulysses is determined to transcend his age and his environment by travelling again . It may be that Ulysses ' determination to defy circumstance attracted Tennyson to the myth ; he said that the poem " gave my feeling about the need of going forward and braving the struggle of life " . On another occasion , the poet stated , " There is more about myself in Ulysses , which was written under the sense of loss and that all had gone by , but that still life must be fought out to the end . It was more written with the feeling of his loss upon me than many poems in In Memoriam . " Hallam 's death influenced much of Tennyson 's poetry , including perhaps his most highly regarded work , In Memoriam A.H.H. , begun in 1833 and completed seventeen years later .
Other critics find stylistic incongruities between the poem and its author that make " Ulysses " exceptional . W. W. Robson writes , " Tennyson , the responsible social being , the admirably serious and ' committed ' individual , is uttering strenuous sentiments in the accent of Tennyson the most un @-@ strenuous , lonely and poignant of poets . " He finds that Tennyson 's two widely noted personae , the " responsible social being " and the melancholic poet , meet uniquely in " Ulysses " , yet seem not to recognize each other within the text .
= = = Literary context = = =
Tennyson adopts aspects of the Ulysses character and narrative from many sources ; his treatment of Ulysses is the first modern account . The ancient Greek poet Homer introduced Ulysses ( Odysseus in Greek ) , and many later poets took up the character , including Euripides , Horace , Dante , William Shakespeare , and Alexander Pope . Homer 's Odyssey provides the poem 's narrative background : in its eleventh book the prophet Tiresias foretells that Ulysses will return to Ithaca after a difficult voyage , then begin a new , mysterious voyage , and later die a peaceful , " unwarlike " death that comes vaguely " from the sea " . At the conclusion of Tennyson 's poem , his Ulysses is contemplating undertaking this new voyage .
Tennyson 's character , however , is not the lover of public affairs seen in Homer 's poems . Rather , " Ulisse " from Dante 's Inferno is Tennyson 's main source for the character , which has an important effect on the poem 's interpretation . Ulisse recalls his voyage in the Inferno 's 26th canto , in which he is condemned to the Eighth Circle of false counsellors for misusing his gift of reason . Dante treats Ulisse , with his " zeal … / T 'explore the world " , as an evil counsellor who lusts for adventure at the expense of his family and his duties in Ithaca . Tennyson projects this zeal into Ulysses ' unquenched desire for knowledge :
The poet 's intention to recall the Homeric character remains evident in certain passages . " I am become a name " ( 11 ) recalls an episode in the Odyssey in which Demodocus sings about Odysseus ' adventures in the king 's presence , acknowledging his fame . With phrases such as " There gloom the dark broad seas " ( 45 ) and " The deep / Moans round with many voices " ( 55 – 56 ) , Tennyson seems to be consciously invoking Homer .
Critics have also noted the influence of Shakespeare in two passages . In the early movement , the savage race " That hoard , and sleep , and feed , and know not me " ( 5 ) echoes Hamlet 's soliloquy : " What is a man , / If his chief good and market of his time / Be but to sleep and feed ? A beast , no more . " Tennyson 's " How dull it is to pause , to make an end , / To rust unburnish ’ d , not to shine in use ! " ( 22 – 23 ) recalls Shakespeare 's Ulysses in Troilus and Cressida ( c . 1602 ) :
The last movement of " Ulysses " , which is among the most familiar passages in nineteenth @-@ century English @-@ language poetry , presents decisive evidence of the influence of Dante . Ulysses turns his attention from himself and his kingdom and speaks of ports , seas , and his mariners . The strains of discontent and weakness in old age remain throughout the poem , but Tennyson finally leaves Ulysses " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " ( 70 ) , recalling the Dantesque damnable desire for knowledge beyond all bounds . The words of Dante 's character as he exhorts his men to the journey find parallel in those of Tennyson 's Ulysses , who calls his men to join him on one last voyage . Quoting Dante 's Ulisse :
However , critics note that in the Homeric narrative , Ulysses ' original mariners are dead . A significant irony therefore develops from Ulysses ' speech to his sailors — " Come , my friends , / ' Tis not too late to seek a newer world " ( 56 – 57 ) . Since Dante 's Ulisse has already undertaken this voyage and recounts it in the Inferno , Ulysses ' entire monologue can be envisioned as his recollection while situated in Hell .
= = = From affirmation to irony = = =
The degree to which Tennyson identifies with Ulysses has provided one of the great debates among scholars of the poem . Critics who find that Tennyson identifies with the speaker read Ulysses ' speech " affirmatively " , or without irony . Many other interpretations of the poem have developed from the argument that Tennyson does not identify with Ulysses , and further criticism has suggested that the purported inconsistencies in Ulysses ' character are the fault of the poet himself .
Key to the affirmative reading of " Ulysses " is the biographical context of the poem . Such a reading takes into account Tennyson 's statements about writing the poem — " the need of going forward " — and considers that he would not undermine Ulysses ' determination with irony when he needed a similar stalwartness to face life after Hallam 's death . Ulysses is thus seen as an heroic character whose determination to seek " some work of noble note " ( 52 ) is courageous in the face of a " still hearth " ( 2 ) and old age . The passion and conviction of Tennyson 's language — and even his own comments on the poem — signify that the poet , as was typical in the Victorian age , admired courage and persistence . Read straightforwardly , " Ulysses " promotes the questing spirit of youth , even in old age , and a refusal to resign and face life passively .
Until the early twentieth century , readers reacted to " Ulysses " sympathetically . The meaning of the poem was increasingly debated as Tennyson 's stature rose . After Paull F. Baum criticized Ulysses ' inconsistencies and Tennyson 's conception of the poem in 1948 , the ironic interpretation became dominant . Baum finds in Ulysses echoes of Lord Byron 's flawed heroes , who similarly display conflicting emotions , self @-@ critical introspection , and a rejection of social responsibility . Even Ulysses ' resolute final utterance — " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " — is undercut by irony , when Baum and later critics compare this line to Satan 's " courage never to submit or yield " in John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) .
Ulysses ' apparent disdain for those around him is another facet of the ironic perspective . He declares that he is " matched with an aged wife " ( 3 ) , indicates his weariness in governing a " savage race " ( 4 ) , and suggests his philosophical distance from his son Telemachus . A skeptical reading of the second paragraph finds it a condescending tribute to Telemachus and a rejection of his " slow prudence " ( 36 ) . However , the adjectives used to describe Telemachus — " blameless " , " discerning " , and " decent " — are words with positive connotations in other of Tennyson 's poetry and within the classical tradition , where " blameless " is an attribute of gods and heroes .
Critic E. J. Chiasson argued in 1954 that Ulysses is without faith in an afterlife , and that Tennyson uses a " method of indirection " to affirm the need for religious faith by showing how Ulysses ' lack of faith leads to his neglect of kingdom and family . Chiasson regards the poem as " intractable " in Tennyson 's canon , but finds that the poem 's meaning resolves itself when this indirection is understood : it illustrates Tennyson 's conviction that " disregarding religious sanctions and ' submitting all things to desire ' leads to either a sybaritic or a brutal repudiation of responsibility and ' life ' . "
Other ironic readings have found Ulysses longing for withdrawal , even death , in the form of his proposed quest . In noting the sense of passivity in the poem , critics highlight Tennyson 's tendency toward the melancholic . T. S. Eliot opines that " Tennyson could not tell a story at all " . He finds Dante 's treatment of Ulysses exciting , while Tennyson 's piece is " an elegiac mood " . " Ulysses " is found lacking in narrative action ; the hero 's goal is vague , and by the poem 's famous last line , it is not clear for what he is " striving " , or to what he refuses to yield . According to Victorian scholar Herbert Tucker , Tennyson 's characters " move " through time and space to be moved inwardly . To Ulysses , experience is " somewhere out there " ,
= = Legacy = =
= = = Contemporary appraisal and canonization = = =
The contemporary reviews of " Ulysses " were positive and found no irony in the poem . Author John Sterling — like Tennyson a member of the Cambridge Apostles — wrote in the Quarterly Review in 1842 , " How superior is ' Ulysses ' ! There is in this work a delightful epic tone , and a clear impassioned wisdom quietly carving its sage words and graceful figures on pale but lasting marble . " Tennyson 's 1842 volume of poetry impressed Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle . Quoting three lines of " Ulysses " in an 1842 letter to Tennyson —
— Carlyle remarked , " These lines do not make me weep , but there is in me what would fill whole Lachrymatories as I read . "
English theologian Richard Holt Hutton summarized the poem as Tennyson 's " friendly picture of the insatiable craving for new experience , enterprise , and adventure , when under the control of a luminous reason and a self @-@ controlled will . " The contemporary poet Matthew Arnold was early in observing the narrative irony of the poem : he found Ulysses ' speech " the least plain , the most un @-@ Homeric , which can possibly be conceived . Homer presents his thought to you just as it wells from the source of his mind : Mr. Tennyson carefully distils his thought before he will part with it . Hence comes ... a heightened and elaborate air . "
Despite the critical acclaim " Ulysses " received , its rise within the Tennyson canon took decades . Tennyson did not usually select it for publication in poetry anthologies ; in teaching anthologies , however , the poem was usually included — and it remains a popular teaching poem today . Its current prominence in Tennyson 's oeuvre is the result of two trends , according to Tennyson scholar Matthew Rowlinson : the rise of formal English poetry studies in the late nineteenth century , and the Victorian effort to articulate a British culture that could be exported . He argues that " Ulysses " forms part of the prehistory of imperialism — a term that only appeared in the language in 1851 . The protagonist sounds like a " colonial administrator " , and his reference to seeking a newer world ( 57 ) echoes the phrase " New World " , which became common during the Renaissance . While " Ulysses " cannot be read as overtly imperialistic , Tennyson 's later work as Poet Laureate sometimes argues for the value of Britain 's colonies , or was accused of jingoism . Rowlinson invokes the Marxist theorist Louis Althusser 's extension of the argument that ideology is ahistorical , finding that Tennyson 's poem " comes before an ideological construction for which it nonetheless makes people nostalgic " .
= = = Literary and cultural legacy = = =
In a 1929 essay , T. S. Eliot called " Ulysses " a " perfect poem " . An analogue of Ulysses is found in Eliot 's " Gerontion " ( 1920 ) . Both poems are narrated by an aged man contemplating life 's end . An excerpt from " Gerontion " reads as an ironic comment on the introductory lines of " Ulysses " :
The Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli ( 1855 – 1912 ) stated that his long lyric poem L 'ultimo viaggio was an attempt to reconcile the portrayals of Ulysses in Dante and Tennyson with Tiresias 's prophecy that Ulysses would die " a mild death off the sea " . Pascoli 's Ulysses leaves Ithaca to retrace his epic voyage rather than begin another .
" Ulysses " remains much admired , even as the twentieth century brought new interpretations of the poem . Professor of literature Basil Willey commented in 1956 , " In ' Ulysses ' the sense that he must press on and not moulder in idleness is expressed objectively , through the classical story , and not subjectively as his own experience . [ Tennyson ] comes here as near perfection in the grand manner as he ever did ; the poem is flawless in tone from beginning to end ; spare , grave , free from excessive decoration , and full of firmly controlled feeling . " In the fifteenth edition of Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations ( 1980 ) , nine sections of " Ulysses " , comprising 36 of the poem 's 70 lines , are quoted , compared to only six in the ninth edition ( 1891 ) .
Many readers have accepted the acclaimed last lines of " Ulysses " as inspirational . The poem 's ending line has also been used as a motto by schools and other organisations . U.S. Senator Robert Francis Kennedy quoted the three last lines at the end of his speech " On the Mindless Menace of Violence " in America a day after the assassination of Martin Luther King . The final line is inscribed on a cross at Observation Hill , Antarctica , to commemorate explorer Robert Falcon Scott and his party , who died on their return trek from the South Pole in 1912 :
= The Food Album =
The Food Album is a compilation album by American singer @-@ songwriter " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on June 22 , 1993 by Scotti Brothers Records . The release features ten of Yankovic 's song parodies , all of which pertain to food . A similar album , The TV Album , which features songs entirely about television , would be released two years later .
The album was begrudgingly released by Yankovic , who felt that the compilation was unnecessary and merely a way for his record label to make money . Several food @-@ related songs that Yankovic had recorded , such as " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " and " Waffle King " were left off the record , although the former was due to personal preference , while the latter was due to scheduling issues .
The Food Album received mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom felt that the record was an enjoyable collection of songs , but that it was not an essential record to purchase . Despite the lukewarm reception , the record was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , making it Yankovic 's first and only compilation record to reach this certification .
= = Production = =
= = = Music = = =
The music featured on The Food Album spans a decade , with the earliest songs being recorded in 1982 , and the most recent song being recorded in 1992 . Yankovic 's first eponymous album has two songs featured : " I Love Rocky Road " and " My Bologna " . Both " Eat It " and " Theme from Rocky XIII ( The Rye or the Kaiser ) " were culled from the 1984 release , " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D. " Addicted to Spuds " originally appeared on the 1986 release Polka Party ! , and " Fat " and " Lasagna " were first featured on Yankovic 's 1988 release Even Worse . " Spam " first was released on the soundtrack to the 1989 film UHF . The final two songs — " The White Stuff " and " Taco Grande " — were taken from the 1992 album Off the Deep End .
Notable for its absence is " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " , from Dare to Be Stupid ( 1985 ) , Yankovic 's only previously released food @-@ related song not to make the album . According to Yankovic , this is due to the fact there is a " royalty ceiling " on the albums and he needed to pick one song to cut from the list in order to turn a profit on the album . " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " was chosen due to Yankovic 's personal dislike of the song , as his record label had forced him to record it in order to release Dare to Be Stupid back in 1985 . Also absent from the release is " Waffle King . " The song had originally been recorded for Off the Deep End . However , Yankovic decided to swap " Waffle King " with " I Was Only Kidding " — a song he had actually recorded for his next album — at the last minute ; this forced Yankovic to shelve " Waffle King " for the time being . The song was later released on " Smells Like Nirvana " single , as well as Yankovic 's eighth studio album , Alapalooza , which was released four months after The Food Album .
= = = Release = = =
The album was released by Scotti Brothers Records and was only begrudgingly approved by Yankovic . At the time , Scotti Brothers had insisted on putting out a new album by Yankovic in order to meet monetary projections for the fiscal quarter , despite the fact that no new album was ready ; Alapalooza would not be released until later in the year . The original concept was to release a record entitled Al Unplugged , which would have featured a cover depicting Yankovic holding the cords for unplugged kitchen appliances , but instead of being a live album featuring live performances , it would have featured studio remixes of previously released material , with the electronic instruments missing . Yankovic convinced them to release The Food Album instead — " a concept [ he ] hated only slightly less " — but would later describe it as a " cheesy compilation " put out " against [ his ] better wishes and judgement . "
The TV Album was released under similar circumstances in 1995 ; however , when it came time to release the latter album , Yankovic reported that " the record company was a whole lot nicer when they asked the second time " , and that there was " more groveling [ and ] less demanding " . Following the release of The Food Album and The TV Album — in addition to the various greatest hits records that had been released — Scotti Brothers used @-@ up all of their compilation options in Yankovic 's contract , which prevented the release of further compilations when Volcano Records acquired his contract in the late 1990s .
= = = Artwork = = =
The album artwork — which features a cartoon alien after it has eaten Yankovic — was created by Doug Lawrence , who is better known as " Mr. Lawrence " , an American voice actor , comedian , writer , storyboard artist , animator and director . The " grotesque " cover was Yankovic 's " passive @-@ aggressive protest " against his label for forcing out the album ; Yankovic intended the alien having " picked the desiccated corpse of Weird Al clean " to be a reference to his record label " bleed [ ing ] his catalogue dry " by releasing the album . The Japanese release of the album , however , featured much different artwork , as well as a name change ; because there is no " F " in the Japanese language , the album was retitled The Hood .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Food Album has received mixed reviews from most critics ; many felt that while the album was amusing it was not an essential release . Allmusic reviewer Johnny Loftus awarded the album three out of five stars and wrote that , " The Food Album is an enjoyable bag of treats . Just don 't eat too much , or you 'll probably get sick . " Likewise , The Rolling Stone Album Guide awarded the album three out of five stars . Anthony Violanti of The Buffalo News gave the album a moderately positive review and wrote that , " [ t ] here are two kinds of people in the world : those who love Weird Al Yankovic and those who can 't stand him . Count me among the Weird One 's biggest fans , and that 's why I flipped out when listening to The Food Album . " He concluded that the album was " like reading Mad magazine " ; he gave the record three stars out of five . Tim Grobaty of the Press @-@ Telegram , on the other hand , wrote negatively of the album , stating " Yankovic 's songs are the kinds of things that are sort of funny in concept , less funny when you actually hear them once , and increasingly irritating with each subsequent listen [ and ] his food songs are among his worst . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Upon release , The Food Album failed to chart ; however , it sold steadily . On January 25 , 2006 — more than ten years after its release — the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . This makes it Yankovic 's first and only compilation album to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies and be certified Gold .
= = Track listing = =
= = Certifications = =
= Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God =
The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God ( Bulgarian : Патриаршеска катедрала „ Свето Възнесение Господне “ , Patriarsheska katedrala „ Sveto Vaznesenie Gospodne “ ) is a former Eastern Orthodox cathedral in the city of Veliko Tarnovo , in north central Bulgaria . Located on top of the fortified Tsarevets hill in the former capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire , the cathedral was the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch from its construction in the 11th – 12th century to its destruction in 1393 .
Standing on top of a late Roman church , the cathedral , reconstructed in the 1970s and 1980s , follows a cross @-@ domed plan with a bell tower and a triple apse . Richly decorated on both the exterior and interior , its internal walls now feature modern frescoes , the presence of which has meant that it has not been reconsecrated . Though not active as a Christian place of worship , it has been open for visitors since 1985 .
= = History = =
The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is not the first church building to occupy the position on top of the Tsarevets hill . It was constructed directly on top of a late Roman ( early Byzantine ) basilica which dates to the 5th – 6th century AD . The Roman basilica may have remained in use by the local congregation during the First Bulgarian Empire , though it was no longer active by the time the construction of the current church began .
The current building of the Patriarchal Cathedral is considered by scholars to have been built in two stages . The first stage of construction was carried out in the late 11th century or the 12th century . The cathedral was initially built as a monastery church in the middle of a monastery compound , though in the early 12th century it was already the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch . The compound suffered large @-@ scale damage caused by a fire , which necessitated the church 's reconstruction in middle of the 14th century , perhaps during the rule of Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria ( r . 1331 – 71 ) . Besides repair and reinforcement efforts , work on the church in the 14th century also included the construction of the exonarthex and the bell tower .
There are several references to the cathedral in medieval sources . The earliest reference to the church tells of the transfer of Saint Michael the Warrior 's relics from the Potuka fortress to the Patriarchal Cathedral on the order of Tsar Kaloyan ( r . 1197 – 1207 ) . The housing of a warrior saint 's relics in the Patriarchal Cathedral signifies the incessant warfare against Byzantines and Latins that dominated Kaloyan 's reign . In the late 14th century , the last Patriarch of Tarnovo , Saint Evtimiy , described the church as the " great patriarch 's Cathedral of the Holy Ascension " in his writings .
Another possible reference to the church may be in a marginal note from 1358 to a copy of the Acts of the Apostles . In the note , the copyist , one Laloe , thanks God and the " Holy and Most Glorious Ascension " for having finished his work on the book . Scholar Bistra Nikolova believes this to be an allusion to the Patriarchal Cathedral , which may have patronised the project . Alternatively , the copy could have been made at the cathedral 's scriptorium , where Laloe may have worked .
The church is also depicted in the medieval sketch of Tarnovo in the Braşov Menaion , a menaion service book written in the mid @-@ 14th century and then carried to Kronstadt ( now Braşov , Romania ) after the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule .
The Patriarchal Cathedral was destroyed after the Ottomans captured the Bulgarian capital after their Siege of Tarnovo on 17 July 1393 . The church was fully reconstructed in the 20th century ; reconstruction works were carried out by a team under architect Boyan Kuzupov . These commenced in 1978 and were finished in 1981 , to mark Bulgaria 's 1300th anniversary . However , it was not until November 1985 , when the contemporary murals were finished , that the church was opened once again for visitors . The church 's ruins have been protected as a national antiquity since 1927 ; in 1967 , they were proclaimed an architectural monument of culture of national importance . As part of the Tsarevets architectural reserve , it is also listed among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria .
= = Location and architecture = =
The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is located on top of the Tsarevets hill , overlooking the modern city of Veliko Tarnovo . The church was part of a group of buildings which constituted the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate and acted as the city and the country 's main cathedral . The patriarchate on Tsarevets was a fortress of its own , with two defensive towers and an entrance on its west wall . The Patriarchal Cathedral stood in the middle of its courtyard .
The Patriarchal Cathedral features a triple apse , the central part of which matches the apse of the original basilica on the site . The three @-@ naved church follows the traditional Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design . Built out of crushed stones and mortar with limited brickwork , it measures 26 by 12 metres ( 85 ft × 39 ft ) . The cathedral includes two narthices , a bell tower and two other premises attached to the south church wall . The presence of a bell tower is considered to be a rarity in Balkan church architecture . Six columns support the interior and distinguish the altar from the cella ( naos ) . It is unclear whether the church housed a synthronon ( stone benches for the clergy ) in the apse , as there are doubts that its remains may actually be part of the older basilica .
The church featured ample exterior and interior decoration . While the facades were decorated with arches and ceramic tiles , the interior floor mosaics were made of white , yellow and pink marble as well as semi @-@ precious gemstones like sapphire and porphyry . The interior walls were covered with frescoes and mosaics . However , none of the interior decoration has survived . During the church 's 20th @-@ century reconstruction , its interior was repainted by artist Teofan Sokerov , who depicted important moments of medieval Bulgarian history in a modernist style . Due to these murals , the church has never been reconsecrated and remains inactive . The facade of the cathedral also includes a stone with a donor 's inscription of a Bulgarian ruler , which ended up as part of the building material .
There are a total of four burial grounds in and around the church , two of which are burials for priests . One of the burial grounds is inside the exonarthex , where overarched tombs were built in the 14th century . Besides Michael the Warrior 's relics , the cathedral also housed the remains of Bulgarian patriarchs Joachim I , Macarius and Joachim III .
= Daydream ( Mariah Carey album ) =
Daydream is the fifth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on October 3 , 1995 , by Columbia Records . The follow @-@ up to her internationally successful album Music Box ( 1993 ) and holiday album Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) , Daydream differed from the two by leaning increasingly towards R & B and hip hop . Throughout the project , Carey collaborated with Walter Afanasieff , with whom she wrote and produced most of her two previous albums . With Daydream , Carey took more control over the musical direction as well as the album 's composition . Carey said she considered Daydream the beginning of her musical and vocal transformation , a change that became more apparent in her sixth album Butterfly ( 1997 ) . During the album 's production , Carey endured many creative differences with her label and husband Tommy Mottola .
On Daydream , Carey collaborated with Jermaine Dupri for the first time , and co @-@ wrote and produced a song with Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , with whom she had collaborated on Music Box . It was also the first time she had worked with Boyz II Men , an R & B group consisting of four male vocalists . Together , they wrote the concept and lyrics for " One Sweet Day , " a song that Carey co @-@ produced with Afanasieff . With his assistance and the addition of a few contemporary producers , she was able to make a subtle transition into the R & B market . Daydream was nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 38th annual ceremony , during which Carey performed live . Due to the album 's critical and commercial success , critics believed Carey would be one of the night 's big winners . However , to her dismay , she was completely shut out , causing the subject to become very public and controversial . She left the annual ceremony empty @-@ handed .
Six singles were released from the album . Its lead single " Fantasy " became the first single by a female artist to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and went on to top the chart for eight weeks and became the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the country . The song topped the charts in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand and became a top @-@ five hit in Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . The second single " One Sweet Day " topped the Billboard Hot 100 for sixteen weeks and became the longest @-@ running number one single in American history , a record it still holds . It also topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland and the Netherlands . Jointly , the singles from Daydream spent a combined six months at the top of the Hot 100 . To promote Daydream , Carey embarked on the short but successful , Daydream World Tour , visiting Japan and Europe .
At the time of its release , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ reviewed album . Critics universally praised her matured lyrics and songwriting , as well as her musical direction . The album became an international success , debuting at number one in nine different countries , and in the top five in almost every major music market . Daydream became Carey 's second album to be certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies in the United States . Aside from its success in the United States , the album made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 1 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with 25 million copies sold worldwide .
= = Background = =
Aside from being Carey 's second highest worldwide seller , Daydream served as her most personal and directly influenced album at the time . During the album 's recording , Carey grew as an artist , as well as a writer . For the first time in her career , Carey was able to make music that she truly related to , R & B and hip hop . While Columbia allowed Carey more leniency with the music she recorded , they became hesitant when she featured Ol ' Dirty # # # # # # # in the remix for " Fantasy . " They feared the sudden change was completely left field for her music , and worried it would jeopardize the album 's success . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Carey openly spoke of her issues with Columbia : " Everybody was like ' What , are you crazy ? ' They 're nervous about breaking the formula . It works to have me sing a ballad on stage in a long dress with my hair up . "
While Carey 's new musical direction caused tension between her and Columbia , it began to severely strain her relationship with her husband at the time , Tommy Mottola . Mottola had always been involved in Carey 's career , because he was the head of Sony Music , the parent company of her label . Since the time of Carey 's debut , Mottola had controlled nearly every aspect of her career , keeping her sound carefully regulated and insisting that she continue recording middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road pop music , despite her interest in hip hop .
Carey confessed that she never tried to change the situation because " [ she ] used to be insecure and cautious , and so [ she ] would listen to what the people said . " However , the control Mottola exerted over her career soon " spilled into her personal life " once they were married , increasing the amount of conflict between the two . Soon , it was obvious that their marriage was in shambles ; as stated in a Vanity Fair article , " the couple began to argue at the drop of a hat . " Carey was very involved in the project , more so than she had ever been on an album . " I went into this phase of recording , recording , recording and doing it really fast , " she told Time . " This time , I had more time , and I focused more on what I wanted to do . " As Carey 's career and work continued to reflect her views on how it should sound , her marriage to Mottola continued to " deteriorate . "
= = Conception and composition = =
One of the first songs that was recorded for the album was " Fantasy . " While Carey began developing new ideas for Daydream , she thought of the song " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club . She had always been a fan of the song , and presented Dave Hall with the idea of sampling the song 's hook . Hall incorporated a groove that he felt complimented Carey 's voice , while she composed some of the other beats and wrote the lyrics . Carey recorded a remix to the song as well , featuring hip @-@ hop verses from O.D.B of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , as well as production from Puffy . She spoke highly of the remix , complimenting Puffy and O.D.B , " He 's so known in the street , and he 's one of the best people out there ... we kind of did what we both do and having O.D.B took it to another level . He was my ultimate choice , so I was really happy with the way it turned out . " " One Sweet Day " was a song that Carey wrote with the R & B group Boyz II Men . After Carey 's friend and past collaborator David Cole died , she began writing and developing a song that would pay homage to him and all the friends and family her fans had lost along life 's journey . Carey had the chorus and concept composed , and after meeting with Boyz II Men , they realized they too had a similar idea in development . Together , using Carey 's chorus and idea , as well as the melody they had produced , they wrote and composed the song . It was produced by Afanasieff , who built on the song 's melody and added various grooves and beats . Carey expressed how the song was " meant to be " and how all the pieces fit into place :
I wrote the initial idea for ' One Sweet Day ' with Walter , and I had the chorus ... and I stopped and said , ' I really wanna do this with Boyz II Men , ' because ... obviously I 'm a big fan of theirs and I just thought that the work was crying out for them , the vocals that they do , so I put it away and said , ' Who knows if this could ever happen , but I just don 't wanna finish this song because I want it to be our song if we ever do it together . [ The ] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you , it changes your life and changes your perspective . When they came into the studio , I played them the idea for the song and when [ it ] finished , they looked at each other , a bit stunned , and told me that Nat " Nathan Morris " had written a song for his road manager who had passed away . It had basically the same lyrics and fit over the same chord changes . It was really , really weird , we finished the song right then and there . We were all kinda flipped about it ourselves . Fate had a lot to do with that . I know some people won 't believe it , but we wouldn 't make up such a crazy story .
While the album 's development was underway , Carey expressed interest in working with Jermaine Dupri , whom she had been a fan of since his 1992 song , " Jump . " Soon after , Carey , Dupri , and Manuel Seal began composing a song for the album . As Seal played the piano , Carey began humming and playing with certain notes in the B @-@ section , until she came up with the chorus for " Always Be My Baby . " After the rest of the song was written and composed , Carey recorded the song alongside longtime background singers Kelly Price , Shanrae Price , and Melonie Daniels . Together , they built " a wall of background voices " in which she would cover with her final belting notes . The song featured a downbeat rhythm , while its composition was described as " sassy and soft R & B " which displayed a " sexy and slow jam . " " Underneath the Stars " was the first song recorded for Daydream . The song featured a " ' 70s soul vibe " as well as synthetic record scratches , in order to the give the song an authentic ' 70s sound . Carey felt the additions were simple steps taken to further display a contemporary R & B groove . Additionally , she felt the song paid homage to the style of Minnie Riperton , who was one of Carey 's biggest vocal influences growing up . The song had a soft sound , and had " a lot [ sic ] of texture " and bass , showing a more creative side to Carey .
For the album , Carey covered the 1982 Journey song " Open Arms . " The song was of Carey 's personal choice , as well as her own idea . Together with Afanasieff , they toned down the song 's arrangement , making it a bit glossy , especially in comparison to the " raw and powerful ' One Sweet Day . ' " Additionally , with the help of her background singers , Carey added a touch of gospel to the song . One of the more gospel @-@ influenced songs on the album was " I Am Free . " The song was created by Carey , Afanasieff and Loris Holland , with whom she had worked previously on Merry Christmas . Carey began humming the melody with the lyrics she had already written , while Holland played the organ and Afanasieff worked on the song 's programming . , giving the song a genuine and unforced gospel feel . The chorus was sophisticated and natural , with each following line " cascading onto one another , " something that would have proved difficult for a " less skilled vocalist . " Carey started leaning away from the " standard Celine Dion ballad " and more towards R & B jams . However , she was not going to completely abandon the type of songs that made her famous . For this reason , Carey wrote " When I Saw You " with Afanasieff , a song that would truly embody some of her earlier work , as well as show off her powerful vocals . Returning to her R & B territory , Carey recorded " Long Ago " , the second song she wrote alongside Dupri and Seal which contains a strong hip hop background . Her vocals in the song were described as " sliding over the insistent bassline like silk . "
" Melt Away " was a song Carey produced on her own , and co @-@ wrote with Babyface . The song 's writing and production were " superb . " with each verse gliding into its chorus . According to Chris Nickson , " Underneath the Stars " was as " strong as any slow jam released in the nineties , and one that would find a lot of flavor late at night with dancers . " Another song that brought back reminders of older decades was " Forever . " The throwback was featured through the chord changes and in the way the guitar arpeggios " stayed at the forefront of the music . " The song displayed subtle vocals from Carey , as well as an undeniable richness . " Daydream Interlude ( Sweet Fantasy Dub Mix ) " was one of the liveliest tracks on the album . The song was a club remix of " Fantasy " , which was tuned and remixed by famed house music producer David Morales . The song was directed to be a dance @-@ club song , further broadening Carey 's " musical horizon . " The song incorporated Carey 's vocals , and added them to a thumping house beat , something he would do for many of her future singles . " Looking In " was the final song on the album . It was Carey 's most personal song at the time , one in which she let herself appear " naked " and " stripped down ; it was written by her and Afanasieff . " According to author Chris Nickson :
" [ The song ] reflected on her life now , the changes she 'd gone through , and the difference between the public perception of Mariah Carey and the real person . Intimate and revealing , it made an appropriate end to the album , and was evident that Mariah was growing , changing , and becoming much more herself , confident of who she was and what she could do . "
= = Critical reception = =
Daydream received universal acclaim at the time of its release . Reviews applauded the little changes of style from previous Carey releases , some of whom adding that it is her best record , while others dismissed it as soulless and lacking of originality . AllMusic 's senior editor , Stephen Thomas Erlewine , awarded the album four and a half out of five stars . Erlewine called Daydream her " best record yet " and wrote , " Mariah Carey certainly knows how to construct an album . Positioning herself directly between urban R & B with tracks like " Fantasy , " and the adult contemporary radio format with songs like " One Sweet | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
genus , American arachnologists George and Elizabeth Peckham renamed the spider Zygoballus sexpunctatus . Specimens of Z. sexpunctatus are housed at the Museum of Comparative Zoology , the British Museum , the Milwaukee Public Museum , the American Museum of Natural History , and the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle . No type specimens are known .
The genus Zygoballus contains approximately twenty species distributed from the United States to Argentina . Zygoballus is classified in the subfamily Dendryphantinae of the family Salticidae ( jumping spiders ) .
= = Description = =
According to arachnologist B. J. Kaston , adult females are 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 mm in body length , while males are 3 to 3 @.@ 5 mm . The Peckhams ' earlier description , however , gives a length of 3 mm for females and 3 to 4 @.@ 5 mm for males .
The cephalothorax of Z. sexpunctatus is bronze to black in color . Like all Zygoballus spiders , the cephalothorax is box @-@ like in shape , being widest at the posterior lateral eyes . Numerous white or pale blue scales cover the clypeus ( " face " ) and chelicerae . This covering extends around the sides of the carapace , ending beyond the posterior median eyes . In males , the labium is two @-@ fifths as long as the maxillae , and as wide as it is long . The chelicerae of males are greatly enlarged and obliquely oriented , with each chelicera having a prominent inner tooth and a long , curved fang .
The legs are reddish brown , or sometimes yellowish , with the femora of the anterior ( first ) pair being darker and enlarged , especially in the male . The anterior legs have three pairs of long spines on the ventral surface of the tibia and two pairs of spines on the metatarsus . The Peckhams give the following measurements for the lengths of the legs of a male specimen , starting with the anterior pair : 3 @.@ 7 mm , 2 @.@ 2 mm , 2 mm , 3 mm . In females , the fourth pair of legs are the longest . The pedipalp in the male has a single tibial apophysis which tapers gradually .
The abdomen is bronze to black with a white basal band and two white transverse bands . The transverse bands are often broken to form six spots . Some or all of these spots may be lacking , however .
Zygoballus sexpunctatus is similar in appearance to Zygoballus rufipes , with whom its range overlaps . The male can be distinguished from Z. rufipes by the large spot of white scales at the beginning of the thoracic slope ( which is lacking in Z. rufipes ) , and by the longitudinal division present on the bulb of the pedipalp ( Z. rufipes has a transverse division ) . The female can best be distinguished by the form of the epigyne ( the external genital structure ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The range of the species extends from New Jersey to Florida and west to Texas , although it is most commonly found in the southern states . Hentz collected his original specimen in North Carolina . In 1909 , the Peckhams reported that the species had been collected from North Carolina , Florida , Texas , Louisiana , and Mississippi . A seven @-@ year survey of spider species in western Mississippi reported the abundance of Z. sexpunctatus as " uncommon " . A one @-@ year survey in Alachua County , Florida , reported the species as " rare " .
Specimens have been collected from several ecosystems , including old fields , river terrace forests , flatwoods , Florida Sand Pine scrub , Slash Pine forests , Appalachian grass balds , and rice fields . Robert and Betty Barnes reported the species as occurring in broomsedge fields throughout the southeastern Piedmont . The species is typically found in the herb stratum ( among grasses and other short plants ) and may be collected with a sweep net .
= = Behavior = =
Male Zygoballus sexpunctatus spiders are known to exhibit elaborate courtship displays . As a male approaches a female , it will typically raise and spread its first pair of legs and vibrate its abdomen . If the female is receptive , it will often vibrate its abdomen as well . The specific patterns of courtship behavior , however , vary between individuals .
Z. sexpunctatus males exhibit ritualized agonistic behavior when encountering other males of the same species . This behavior may include many of the same elements as courtship , such as raising and spreading the first pair of legs and vibrating the abdomen . During agonistic display , males will also extend their pedipalps and fangs . Lethal attacks between males appear to be rare , however .
= = Diet and ecology = =
Like most spiders , Zygoballus sexpunctatus is an opportunistic feeder , feeding on a wide range of invertebrate prey . The spider 's diet typically includes small insects such as aphids and young caterpillars . They have also been known to eat mosquitoes and numerous kinds of small spiders .
Mud dauber wasps , which capture and paralyze spiders as a source of food for their larvae , have been shown to prey on both male and female Z. sexpunctatus spiders .
= = Life cycle = =
In a study of spider populations in western Tennessee , Zygoballus sexpunctatus spiderlings were reported to hatch from egg sacs in mid summer . The spiders hibernated through the winter in an immature form and reached sexual maturity around late April .
= 1986 Peach Bowl =
The 1986 Peach Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the North Carolina State Wolfpack from on December 31 , 1986 . The game was the final contest of the 1986 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 25 – 24 victory for Virginia Tech , the first bowl victory in school history .
Virginia Tech came into the game with a 9 – 1 – 1 record that included an unusual win over the Temple Owls , who were forced to forfeit a victory to Virginia Tech after using an ineligible player . Facing the Hokies in the Peach Bowl were the 18th @-@ ranked Wolfpack from North Carolina State University . N.C. State was led by head coach Dick Sheridan and had a regular @-@ season record of 8 – 2 – 1 that included five wins over Atlantic Coast Conference teams .
The 1986 Peach Bowl kicked off five years minus one day since Virginia Tech had last played in Atlanta — during the 1981 Peach Bowl . Virginia Tech scored first in the game , but NC State 's Bulluck blocked a Tech punt in the Tech end zone and recovered it for a tying touchdown . Virginia Tech kicked a field goal at the end of the quarter to take a 10 – 7 lead , but NC State fought back , scoring 14 unanswered points in the second quarter to take a 21 – 10 lead by halftime . In the third quarter , the game turned into a defensive battle . Neither side scored until late in the third quarter , when Tech took advantage of a State fumble to score the first touchdown of the second half . Tech failed to convert a two @-@ point conversion , but NC State fumbled again on the ensuing possession , and Tech was able to drive for another touchdown . Leading 22 – 21 , Tech attempted another two @-@ point conversion , which also failed .
NC State , needing to score , drove down the field and kicked a go @-@ ahead 33 @-@ yard field goal with 7 : 12 remaining in the game . After a failed possession , Tech was forced to punt the ball , allowing NC State to run down the clock . The Virginia Tech defense eventually forced a stop , giving the Tech offense one final chance to win the game . With 1 : 53 on the clock and beginning from their own 20 @-@ yard line , the Hokies drove 57 yards to the NC State 23 @-@ yard line . There , kicker Chris Kinzer successfully kicked a 40 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to give Virginia Tech the win .
= = Team selection = =
The Peach Bowl game was created in 1968 by the Lions Club of Atlanta as a means to attract tourism to the city . First played at Grant Field on the campus of Georgia Tech , the game was moved to Fulton County Stadium in 1971 . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the Peach Bowl was facing hard times . At the time , NCAA guidelines for bowls required 75 percent of gross receipts to go to participating schools , with 33 percent of tickets to the game also required to go to each school . In 1983 , the NCAA threatened to revoke the Peach Bowl 's charter when ticket sales hovered around 25 @,@ 000 with a week to go before the bowl . Last @-@ minute sales saved the game , as attendance at the 1983 game climbed to 40 @,@ 000 and a new television contract allowed the bowl to make a payout of $ 580 @,@ 000 to each team . Still , the bowl 's future was in doubt .
In the spring of 1986 , the Metro Atlanta Chamber of Commerce ( MACOC ) took over the Peach Bowl . The bowl executive director at the time was Dick Bestwick , and he encouraged the Chamber to step up its support of the game over what had been provided by the Lions Club . In 1986 , the Peach Bowl had no contractual obligations with college football conferences , as its successor , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , does today . Team selections were made by the Peach Bowl committee , a board of Atlanta community members , business leaders , and organizers of the Peach Bowl . To form one half of the matchup , the committee selected second @-@ place Atlantic Coast Conference team NC State , which accepted the bowl bid on November 22 , 1986 , the day of their final regular @-@ season game . The other half of the matchup was Virginia Tech , a football independent that had finished with nine wins , one loss , and one tie during the regular season and received its invitation one week after the regular season concluded .
Virginia Tech had not participated in a bowl game since the 1984 Independence Bowl against Air Force , while NC State was playing in its first postseason game since 1978 . The two teams had played each other 39 times prior to the Peach Bowl , with Virginia Tech leading the all @-@ time series , 20 – 16 – 3 .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
In the days leading up to the Peach Bowl , one sportswriter called Virginia Tech 's 1986 football season a " season of surprises . " Tech began the season having gone 6 – 5 in 1985 . In their first game , the Hokies faced the Cincinnati Bearcats . Tech lost , 24 – 20 , on a last @-@ minute play that saw a Cincinnati pass tipped twice and caught for a sustaining first down . The drive eventually resulted in a game @-@ winning touchdown for Cincinnati .
Tech recovered from that season @-@ opening loss by going on a four @-@ game winning streak , defeating Clemson in South Carolina , Syracuse in New York , and East Tennessee State and West Virginia in Blacksburg . On October 11 , against South Carolina , the Hokies tied , 27 – 27 .
Then , on a trip to Norfolk , Virginia to face the Temple Owls in the Oyster Bowl , Tech fell 29 – 13 for what appeared to be its second loss of the season . It was later revealed , however , that Temple used an ineligible player in the game , and the Owls were forced to forfeit the win . Following the Temple game , Tech returned to its winning ways , defeating archrival Virginia , Kentucky , Richmond , and Vanderbilt . One week after defeating Vanderbilt , November 22 , 1986 , Tech received an invitation to the 1986 Peach Bowl .
= = = NC State = = =
NC State began the 1986 college football season coming off three consecutive losing seasons . Those losing seasons also resulted in the firing of head coach Tom Reed , who was replaced by Dick Sheridan . Sheridan 's first game with the Wolfpack was at home against East Carolina on September 6 . It was an auspicious beginning , as NC State won , 38 – 10 . After a 14 – 14 tie the next week against Pittsburgh , the Wolfpack won their next two games : at home against Wake Forest , and in Maryland against Maryland .
On October 11 , NC State traveled to Grant Field in Atlanta , Georgia , home of the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets . There , they suffered a lopsided 59 – 21 loss , the worst ever suffered by a Sheridan @-@ coached team at the time . Following the loss to the Yellow Jackets , said linebacker Pat Teague , " the coaches and players came together . The coaches were hurting as bad as we were . We pulled them up and they pulled us up . That was the turning point . "
Following the " turning point , " the Wolfpack won three consecutive games , boosting their overall record to 6 – 1 – 1 . One of the victories was against the Clemson Tigers , who would ultimately go on to win that year 's ACC football championship . On November 8 , NC State traveled to Charlottesville , Virginia , to play the Virginia Cavaliers . In a close @-@ fought game , State lost , 20 – 16 . Though the Wolfpack won their final two regular @-@ season games ( against Duke and Western Carolina Catamounts football ) , the loss to Virginia denied them a share of the ACC championship . Despite that missed opportunity , NC State finished the season with a winning record and received a bid to the Peach Bowl .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The Peach Bowl was the final game as head coach of Virginia Tech for Bill Dooley , who had accumulated a record of 62 – 38 – 1 for the Hokies since assuming the head coaching job in 1978 . Tech president William Lavery had long disagreed with Dooley about the role of football at Virginia Tech , and prior to the beginning of the season , Lavery told Dooley that his tenure as coach would end on January 1 , 1987 . This fact was revealed to the football team and the general public after Tech 's third game of the season . At the time , Dooley was the winningest head coach in Virginia Tech history , but was under investigation for recruiting violations and had settled a breach @-@ of @-@ contract lawsuit against the university for $ 3 @.@ 5 million . As part of the out @-@ of @-@ court settlement , Dooley was required to quit his position following the Peach Bowl . In the weeks leading up to the game , Dooley dodged questions about his future . On December 23 , it was announced that Murray State head coach Frank Beamer would replace Dooley after the Peach Bowl . Facing Dooley across the field was NC State head coach Dick Sheridan , who in his first year as head coach of the Wolfpack , was named Atlantic Coast Conference coach of the year and guided the Wolfpack to eight wins .
= = = Offense = = =
The game was expected to be an offensive struggle that could potentially break the then @-@ record 74 points scored in the 1970 Peach Bowl . During the regular season , NC State averaged 359 yards on offense per game , while Virginia Tech averaged 358 yards . On defense , State gave up an average of 402 yards per game , while Tech allowed an average of 366 yards . NC State averaged almost 28 points per game , while Virginia Tech averaged just over 24 points . This statistical parity was reflected by pre @-@ game point spreads , which favored NC State by two points .
State quarterback Erik Kramer was the cornerstone of one of those high @-@ powered offenses , passing for 2 @,@ 092 yards and 14 touchdowns en route to All @-@ ACC honors and being named the ACC 's player of the year . He set school records for passing yards in a season and total yards in a season despite being hampered by an injured ankle suffered in the Wolfpack 's game against South Carolina . He was ably assisted in the passing game by All @-@ ACC receiver Nasrallah Worthen , who led the team in receptions after catching 41 passes for 686 yards . State 's offense was mostly accumulated through the air , as the Wolfpack averaged less than 160 yards per game on the ground .
Virginia Tech 's offense was slightly more balanced , featuring two running backs who had success throughout the regular season . Maurice Williams rushed the ball 166 times for 1 @,@ 029 yards and six touchdowns during the regular season , and Eddie Hunter contributed 872 rushing yards . Through the air , Tech quarterback Erik Chapman passed for 1 @,@ 627 yards and 10 touchdowns during the season prior to the Peach Bowl , making him the most prolific Virginia Tech passer in the nine @-@ year tenure of Tech head Coach Bill Dooley .
The Hokies suffered a setback on offense a few days prior to the Peach Bowl when it was announced that offensive tackle Jim Davie was suspended from playing in the game after testing positive for anabolic steroids as part of a nationwide series of random tests conducted by the NCAA . Tech defensive end Morgan Roane was also suspended from playing for reasons not revealed by the university .
= = = Defense = = =
On defense , Tech allowed an average of 190 yards per game through the air . Free safety Carter Wiley and cornerback Billy Myers had three interceptions each during the regular season . Virginia Tech linebacker Lawrence White was expected to miss the game after undergoing knee surgery following the Hokies ' last regular @-@ season game . White was the team 's No. 3 tackler in terms of statistics , having accumulated 77 during the course of the regular season . The team 's No. 1 and 2 tacklers were linebackers Paul Nelson and Jamel Agemy , who had 104 and 80 tackles , respectively . The Hokies ' rush defense allowed an average of 175 rushing yards per game and 14 total rushing touchdowns .
State 's defense allowed an average of 228 @.@ 6 yards through the air during the regular season and the pass defense led by Derrick Taylor , who had six interceptions . At linebacker , Pat Teague and Kelvin Crooms were considered keys to the Wolfpack run defense , which allowed an average of 173 rushing yards per game and 14 total rushing touchdowns .
= = = Special teams = = =
Both Virginia Tech and NC State featured All @-@ America placekickers . NC State 's Mike Cofer was named an Associated Press All @-@ America honorable mention selection after converting 13 of his 17 field goal attempts , while Virginia Tech 's Chris Kinzer had been successful throughout the regular season , making 22 of 27 field goal attempts , and breaking the school record for single @-@ season scoring with 93 points .
= = Game summary = =
The 1986 Peach Bowl kicked off at 1 : 05 p.m. EST on December 31 , 1986 , at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia . At kickoff , the sky was partly cloudy with an air temperature of 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) . The wind was from the south at 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) . The game was played before a sellout crowd of 53 @,@ 668 , just the third sellout in the history of the Peach Bowl at that point . Virginia Tech won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss , and elected to kick off to NC State . Therefore , the Wolfpack received the ball to begin the game , while Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . The referee for the game was John Nealon , Bob Pickens was the umpire , and Ed Maracich was the linesman . Each team received more than $ 600 @,@ 000 for participating in the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
Following Virginia Tech 's kickoff , NC State returned the ball to the 27 @-@ yard line , where the Wolfpack began the game 's first play . That play was a short run to the right . On the next play , NC State picked up the game 's first first down with a rush up the middle by fullback Mal Crite . Crite picked up another first down on the next play , driving the Wolfpack inside Virginia Tech territory , but the Hokies ' defense stiffened and forced the Wolfpack to punt after NC State failed to gain another first down . Tech returned the punt to its 21 @-@ yard line , where the Tech offense took over . On Virginia Tech 's first offensive play , running back Maurice Williams broke free for a 77 @-@ yard run that took the Hokies inside the one @-@ yard line of NC State . The run was the longest of Williams ' career and is a Peach Bowl record for longest play from scrimmage . Two plays later , Virginia Tech 's Eddie Hunter crossed the goal line and scored the game 's first points . The touchdown and extra point made the score 7 – 0 , Virginia Tech .
Following Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchown kickoff , NC State began its second possession of the game at its 24 @-@ yard line after a short kick return . The NC State 's second drive of the game was more successful than its first , but as before , the Wolfpack offense ground to a halt before penetrating too deeply into Tech territory , and State was forced to punt the ball back to Virginia Tech . The Hokie offense began work at its eight @-@ yard line but went three and out and prepared to punt the ball back to NC State . Tech punter Tony Romero , kicking from the Tech goal line , had his kick blocked by State defender Derrick Taylor . The ball rolled into the Virginia Tech end zone and was recovered by an NC State 's Brian Bulluck for a touchdown . The play and extra point tied the game at 7 – 7 .
Virginia Tech received NC State 's kickoff and returned it to their 25 @-@ yard line , where Tech 's offense returned to the field . After picking up short yardage on two rushing plays , Tech quarterback Erik Chapman completed a pass to tight end Steve Johnson to give the Hokies a first down at their 48 @-@ yard line with just over four minutes to go in the quarter . Tech continued to drive into Wolfpack territory , but inside the NC State 35 @-@ yard line , Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard illegal block penalty that pushed the Hokies back to the Wolfpack 47 @-@ yard line and had them facing a first down and 25 yards . Though unable to gain the 25 yards needed for another first down , Tech did make up most of the penalty yards , putting the ball at the Wolfpack 30 @-@ yard line . Facing fourth down , Tech sent in kicker Chris Kinzer to attempt a 46 @-@ yard field goal , which was successfully completed . The score gave Tech a 10 – 7 lead with 1 : 06 remaining the first quarter .
Kinzer delivered the post @-@ score kickoff , and NC State began its final drive of the first quarter at its 32 @-@ yard line with 1 : 01 remaining . The Wolfpack picked up a quick first down but were forced to punt when they did not gain another . NC State 's punt was returned to the Tech 13 @-@ yard line and the quarter came to an end with Virginia Tech leading , 10 – 7 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
Tech began the second quarter in possession of the ball with a first down at their 13 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a first down , but then NC State safety Michael Brooks jumped in front of a Virginia Tech pass , intercepting it at the 50 @-@ yard line . With 13 : 05 remaining in the quarter , NC State had its first offensive possession of the second quarter . The Wolfpack picked up several first downs , driving within the Virginia Tech 25 @-@ yard line for their furthest offensive penetration of the game . After being stopped for no or little gain on consecutive plays , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer completed a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Nasrallah Worthen . The score and extra point gave NC State its first lead of the game , 14 – 10 , with 8 : 55 remaining in the first half .
Virginia Tech returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff to its 26 @-@ yard line . The Hokie offense picked up short gains on first and second down before Tech quarterback Erik Chapman threw his second interception of the game , a pass that was tipped into the air and caught by NC State defender Derrick Taylor . The Wolfpack offense took over at the 46 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . On its first play after the interception , Kramer completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Haywood Jeffires . After a short run , Kramer completed a 13 @-@ yard pass to Jeffries for another first down . Deep inside the Tech red zone , it took the Wolfpack two more plays before Kramer connected on a pass to tight end Ralph Britt for a touchdown . NC State now led 21 – 10 with just over four minutes remaining before halftime .
Following the score , kickoff , and return , Tech began another offensive possession at its 24 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up two first downs and drove into NC State territory , but the clock continued to tick toward halftime . In the Wolfpack side of the field , Tech running back Eddie Hunter broke free for a 23 @-@ yard run , the longest play by Virginia Tech in the second quarter . There was now just over two minutes remaining in the quarter . Tech was unable to pick up another first down after Hunter 's run , and attempted to convert the fourth down rather than trying a field goal . When the play was stopped for a loss , however , Virginia Tech was denied points and NC State 's offense returned with 47 seconds remaining in the half .
The Wolfpack proceeded to run out the clock and took a 21 – 10 lead into halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because NC State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Tech received NC State 's kickoff and returned it to the 10 @-@ yard line , where the Hokie offense began work . Tech began working down the field , running the ball for short gains and throwing passes for longer gains . Tech picked up three first downs , then reached NC State territory on a pass to Donnelly . Once on the NC State side of the field , Tech picked up another first down , but Tech 's quarterback was sacked on third down for a loss , and the Hokies were forced to punt the ball away . The ball landed at the NC State 12 @-@ yard line where the Wolfpack began a drive .
NC State went three and out after receiving the ball , and after Tech incurred a running into the kicker penalty on the first punt attempt , NC State punted the ball away . After the kick , Tech took over on offense at its 27 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play after the punt , however , Hunter fumbled the ball after a 10 @-@ yard rush . NC State recovered the ball , and the Wolfpack offense returned to the field at the Tech 40 @-@ yard line . On their first play after the fumble recover , Kramer completed a 12 @-@ yard pass to Worthen for a first down . During the next play , Kramer fumbled the ball while attempting to run with it , and Virginia Tech 's defense recovered . This allowed the Tech offense to return to the field and attempt another offensive drive beginning at their 27 @-@ yard line .
Tech picked up a first down , then Chapman was forced to scramble for a first down after facing third and 10 . Stopped inches short of gaining the first down , Tech risked turning the ball over by attempting to convert the fourth down . Unlike their previous try in the game , Tech was successful and the Hokies ' drive continued . Tech continued to pick up yardage and first downs , advancing deep into the NC State side of the field . Inside the State 30 @-@ yard line , Tech quarterback Chapman was sacked for a 10 @-@ yard loss . He responded by throwing a 30 @-@ yard pass on the next play , driving Virginia Tech inside the State one @-@ yard line . Williams rushed into the end zone with 33 seconds remaining in the quarter , cutting the Wolfpack lead to 21 – 16 . Virginia Tech elected to attempt a two @-@ point conversion , which was unsuccessful .
NC State received Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and returned the ball to their 32 @-@ yard line . The Wolfpack offense had time for just one play — an eight @-@ yard pass — before the end of the quarter . With one quarter remaining in the game , NC State still held a 21 – 16 lead .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with NC State in possession of the ball at their 40 @-@ yard line and facing a second down and one yard . On the first play of the quarter , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer ran the ball , but fumbled at the end of the run . The ball was recovered by Virginia Tech , and the Hokie offense took the field . The first Virginia Tech play of the quarter was a first @-@ down throw to David Everett that drove the Hokies into Wolfpack territory . Tech followed the pass by driving down the field with alternating run and pass plays . Tech penetrated the NC State 20 @-@ yard line with 12 minutes remaining in the quarter , and continued to drive . Once the Hokies crossed the State 10 @-@ yard line , the State defense stiffened and the Hokies were able to gain a first down only with difficulty . With a first down at the State seven @-@ yard line , it took Tech just two plays to earn a touchdown . The Hokies again attempted a two @-@ point conversion , but were again stopped short . Despite that setback , the touchdown gave Tech six points and a 22 – 21 lead , their first since the 8 : 55 mark in the second quarter .
Because Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty following the touchdown , NC State was able to acquire good field position during the kickoff return , starting their drive at their 44 @-@ yard line . On the second play of the drive , Erik Kramer completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Nasrallah Worthen , driving State into the Tech side of the field . After a short play , Kramer again completed a long pass , this time to Bobby Crumpler for 24 yards . Now inside the Tech red zone , Kramer was tackled for a big loss , losing some of the yardage that he had gained with the previous play . NC State was unable to pick up another first down and sent in Mike Cofer to attempt a 33 @-@ yard kick , which was successfully completed . The field goal regained NC State a 24 – 22 lead .
Following the post @-@ score kick , Tech began its offensive drive at its 23 @-@ yard line with just under seven minutes to play in the game . The Hokies picked up a first down on three short rushing plays , then another on a single passing play . This drove the Hokies to their 45 @-@ yard line with just over five minutes to play . Tech was unable to gain another first down and was forced to punt the ball to NC State . The ball was fielded at the 14 @-@ yard line , which was where the NC State offense began its final drive of the game .
On State 's first play after the punt , fullback Mal Crite ran for a 40 @-@ yard gain , pushing State 's offense to the Tech 46 @-@ yard line with just over four minutes left . State pushed forward another seven yards , but failed to gain another first down and prepared to punt the ball back to Tech with 3 : 14 remaining in the game . Rather than punt the ball , however , State punter Kelly Hollodick instead received the snap on fourth down and ran for a first down . Because State retained possession , it was able to continue to run down the clock after the fake punt . Tech stopped the clock once by calling a timeout and prevented State from gaining another first down . With 2 : 01 remaining in the game , State punted the ball into Tech 's end zone for a touchback .
Tech 's offense took the field at their 20 @-@ yard line with 1 : 53 remaining in the game , two timeouts left ( used to stop the clock as necessary ) , and needing at least a field goal to win the game . Tech picked up one first down via a pass , then another as the Hokies drove to their 44 @-@ yard line . Stopped short of midfield with less than a minute to play , Tech called its second timeout in order to stop the game clock from ticking down . In college football , the clock stops after a team earns a first down , and because Virginia Tech had not earned a first down on the short run , Tech was forced to call the timeout . Following the timeout , the Hokies ran for a first down , penetrating to the NC State 44 @-@ yard line . With 53 seconds remaining , Chapman scrambled out of bounds on a short run . Another short run brought the Hokies to the State 36 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies called their final timeout to stop the clock . A few plays later , Tech ran a short running play that kept the clock running down . With just 33 seconds remaining and no other way to stop the clock , Tech 's Maurice Williams questionably stayed down with a leg cramp and the referees stopped the clock to allow the injured player to receive assistance from athletic trainers before the next play . Facing fourth down and needing three yards for drive @-@ continuing first down , Chapman passed for a first down at the State 29 @-@ yard line with 15 seconds remaining in the game . On the game 's next play , Tech committed a holding penalty , which pushed the Hokies 10 yards further away from the end zone , out of field goal range , with 11 seconds remaining .
On the game 's next play , Chapman passed the ball deep , toward the end zone . Though the pass fell incomplete , a game official called a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty against NC State . This moved the ball to the NC State 23 @-@ yard line and forced Tech kicker Chris Kinzer to attempt a potentially game @-@ winning 40 @-@ yard field goal with four seconds remaining . Though NC State coach Dick Sheridan called a timeout in an attempt to ice Chris Kinzer , the kick sailed through the uprights and Virginia Tech won a 25 – 24 victory as time expired .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performance in a losing effort , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer was named the game 's offensive most valuable player , while on defense , NC State cornerback Derrick Taylor won the honor . Kramer finished the game having completed 12 of his 19 passes for 155 yards . On the opposite side of the field , Virginia Tech quarterback Eric Chapman finished with 20 completions out of 30 attempts for two touchdowns and 200 passing yards .
Virginia Tech running back Maurice Williams ' 77 @-@ yard run on the second play of the game remains the longest play from scrimmage in the Peach Bowl ( today the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl ) , and Virginia Tech also set the current record for the most first downs in a Peach Bowl ( 29 ) . Williams finished the game with 16 carries for 129 yards , and was the game 's leading rusher . The second @-@ place rusher was fellow Hokie running back Hunter , who ran with the ball 22 times for 113 yards . NC State 's leading rusher was fullback Mal Crite , who finished the game with 14 carries for 101 yards .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's win brought it to a final 1986 record of 10 – 1 – 1 , while NC State 's loss took it to a final record of 8 – 3 – 1 . The victory was Virginia Tech 's first bowl win in school history and was the team 's only such win until 1993 , when Tech defeated Indiana University in the 1993 Independence Bowl .
Peach Bowl officials pronounced themselves pleased with both the turnout for the game and the action on the field . Though traffic jams snarled attendees ' arrival to the stadium , there were only 5 @,@ 366 no @-@ shows out of 58 @,@ 212 tickets sold . Following the game , Peach Bowl chairman Ira Hefter announced that the bowl would seek corporate sponsorship and a potential television broadcast deal with a major American television network . The takeover by the chamber of commerce also proved to be successful , as the 1986 game made a small profit . This was an improvement over the three previous Peach Bowls , which lost more than $ 170 @,@ 000 . The sellout also confirmed that the game would continue to be held annually instead of being abandoned , as sportswriters had speculated prior to the 1986 game .
Tech kicker Chris Kinzer , who kicked the game @-@ winning field goal , did not go on to play in the National Football League despite predictions that he might do so . He attended several NFL teams ' tryouts , but a contract to play in the league never materialized . He sold insurance for several years , then reentered school and graduated from Virginia Tech in 1994 with a degree .
= = Later aftermath = =
Virginia Tech would go on to join the Atlantic Coast Conference , which NC State was a member of , in 2004 . The ACC now sends a team to the later @-@ renamed Chick @-@ Fil @-@ A Bowl every year .
= Greens Ledge Light =
Greens Ledge Lighthouse is a sparkplug lighthouse in Connecticut , United States , off the southwest end of the Norwalk Islands , Long Island Sound , near Norwalk , Connecticut . It is on north side of the west end of Greens Ledge , west of Norwalk Harbor a mile south of the entrance to Five Mile River at Rowayton , and just over a mile southwest of Sheffield Lighthouse . Completed in 1902 , it was constructed by the Philadelphia Construction Company . The light is 52 feet ( 16 m ) tall and is made of five courses that make up its four stories . The lantern measures 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter . The Greens Ledge Light replaced the Sheffield Island Light . Originally , the light had a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens , but a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed in May 1902 , just three months into its operation . Currently a VRB @-@ 25 is in use and it has alternating white and red flash every 24 seconds . The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29 , 1990 .
= = Design = =
In the 1890s , the lighthouse was first formally proposed to mark the Norwalk Harbor . In 1899 , the United States Congress appropriated $ 60 @,@ 000 for the establishment of a light and fog signal at Greens Ledge . In 1900 , the Philadelphia Construction Company was contracted to construct the foundation and the superstructure . The design for this type of lighthouse was first realized in 1873 , from Major Eliiot of the Lighthouse Board . The foundation form is made of identical curved @-@ iron plates with top inward @-@ pointing flanges that are bolted together and secured with knees . The assembled rings are lowered into the water and filled with concrete or stone , concrete for the Greens Ledge Light . A series of photographs from the work in 1901 shows the assembly of the three lower courses at Wilson 's Point , the lowering of the cylinder and the light in the fall of 1901 prior to a deposit of protective riprap .
The 52 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) tall Greens Ledge Light was completed in 1902 and serves as a typical example of a sparkplug lighthouse . Located in 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of water , the foundation flares out to support the deck the lighthouse is built on and includes a cavity for the lighthouse 's brick basement and cisterns . The four @-@ story structure of the lighthouse is assembled from five courses of curved iron plates . The interior is lined with brick to insulate and strengthen the tower and to " provid [ e ] an anchorage for the winding cast @-@ iron stairs which rise on the periphery of each story , " writes historian Dorothy Templeton .
The plain prefabricated features underwent a period of development of which the Greens Ledge Light was part of a second phase . Templeton describes , " the brackets which support the watchroom gallery and covered deck [ as having ] a simplified classical detailing and [ the ] rectilinear window sashes are enclosed in shallower , plainer cast @-@ iron surrounds . " A deck encircles the light on above the first story , the watchroom and lantern . The original roofing and some cast @-@ iron stanchions of the decks are able to be seen atop the riprap . The cast @-@ iron door to the lighthouse faces south and at the time of nomination the windows were sealed with plywood . The first floor of the lighthouse serves as the kitchen . The second level has two rooms split by a partition with the smaller room being a bathroom . The third level was not divided , but did not have a description in the National Historic Register of Places survey . The fourth floor has six porthole windows and has had much of its woodwork removed and part of the cast @-@ iron floor and brick wall are exposed . The lighthouse 's lantern measures 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter . Once active , the Sheffield Island Light was discontinued .
= = Service = =
Originally , the light had a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens , but a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed in May 1902 , just three months into its operation . The light characteristic was a fixed white light with a red flash every 15 seconds . In 1972 , the light was automated and the Fresnel lens was replaced with a modern optic . The light continues to serve as an active aid to navigation . In 1987 , a FA @-@ 251 was installed before the current lens , a VRB @-@ 25 was installed . The current light characteristic is an alternating white and red flash every 24 seconds . The white and red flashes can be seen for 18 nautical miles and 15 nautical miles , respectably .
During its service , the tower began to tilt and the keepers moved all the furniture to one side of the tower . The problem was reported to have been exacerbated following the 1938 New England hurricane .
= = Importance = =
The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29 , 1990 . It is listed as " significant as a typical example of a pre @-@ fabricated cast @-@ iron conical lighttower on a cast @-@ iron tubular foundation . "
The lighthouse served as a source of inspiration for Walter DuBois Richards , an artist , for over forty years . Since 1935 , swimmers have been competing annually in the Arthur J. Ladrigan Swim Race , a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) race from the lighthouse to Bayley Beach in the Rowayton section of Norwalk .
= = List of keepers = =
This list includes known keepers , but excludes assistants and non @-@ officers of the Coast Guard .
= Action of 13 September 1810 =
The Action of 13 September 1810 was an inconclusive frigate engagement during the Napoleonic Wars between British Royal Navy and French Navy frigates during which a British frigate was defeated by two French vessels near Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) , but British reinforcements were able to recapture the ship before the French could secure her . The British frigate was HMS Africaine , a new arrival to the Indian Ocean . She was under the command of Captain Robert Corbet , who had served there the previous year . Corbet was a notoriously unpopular officer and his death in the battle provoked a storm of controversy in Britain over claims that Corbet had either committed suicide at the shame of losing his ship , been murdered by his disaffected crew , or been abandoned by his men , who were said to have refused to load their guns while he remained in command . Whether any of these rumours were accurate has never been satisfactorily determined , but the issue has been discussed in several prominent naval histories and was the subject of at least one lawsuit .
The action came about as a direct consequence of the Battle of Grand Port three weeks earlier , in which a British squadron had been destroyed in a failed attack on Grand Port harbour on Isle de France . This gave the French forces on the island a significant regional advantage , outnumbering the British frigate on the recently captured Île Bourbon , commanded by Commodore Josias Rowley , by six to one . British reinforcements were hastily despatched to the area but the French were blockading Île Bourbon in force and the arriving reinforcements were in constant danger of attack by more powerful French units . Africaine was the first ship to reinforce Rowley 's squadron , but within three days of her arrival in the region was engaged by two French ships while attempting to drive them away from Saint Denis on Île Bourbon . Corbet was severely wounded in the opening exchanges and subsequently died . Although his crew fought hard , they were overwhelmed by the French frigates and forced to surrender , only for Rowley to arrive in HMS Boadicea and drive off the French warships , recapturing Africaine .
= = Background = =
In 1808 , both the British Royal Navy and the French Navy despatched frigate squadrons to the Indian Ocean . The French , led by Commodore Jacques Hamelin , were ordered to disrupt British trade in the region , particularly targeting the large East Indiamen that carried millions of pounds worth of goods between Britain and her Empire . The British force under Commodore Josias Rowley was tasked with the blockade and eventual capture of the two well defended island bases of the French , Île Bonaparte and Isle de France . At the Action of 31 May 1809 , a French frigate named Caroline captured two East Indiamen , sheltering with her prizes at Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte . In his first major operation against the islands , Rowley landed soldiers behind the defences of the harbour and sent his ships into the bay , seizing the town and the shipping in the harbour , including Caroline . One of Rowley 's captains who had performed well in this engagement was Robert Corbet of HMS Nereide . Refitting the Caroline as a British warship and renaming her HMS Bourbonaise , Rowley placed Corbet in command and sent him to Britain with despatches .
Over the following year , the French continued to attack British trade convoys , achieving important victories at the Action of 18 November 1809 and the Action of 3 July 1810 , where they captured another five East Indiamen as well as numerous smaller merchant ships and a large Portuguese frigate . Rowley too was active , commanding the successful Invasion of Île Bonaparte in July and renaming the island Île Bourbon , basing his squadron at Saint Paul on the island 's eastern shore . From this base , Rowley 's ships were ideally positioned to begin a close blockade of Isle de France , led initially by Captain Samuel Pym in HMS Sirius . Pym sought to reduce French movement by seizing a number of fortified offshore islands , starting with Île de la Passe off Grand Port . The island was captured , but when a French squadron broke through the British blockade and took shelter in Grand Port , Pym resolved to attack them . The ensuing Battle of Grand Port was a disaster for Rowley 's squadron , as Pym led four of Rowley 's five frigates into the bay without adequately assessing the channel through the coral reefs that sheltered the harbour . As a result , two frigates grounded out of range of the enemy and the remaining two were outnumbered in confined waters . In a complicated battle lasting several days , two of Pym 's frigates were captured and two more had to be scuttled , with their entire crews made prisoner . Rowley 's reinforcements arrived too late , and the British commodore was chased back to Saint Denis by Hamelin 's flagship .
While Rowley and Hamelin had sparred in the Indian Ocean , Corbet had made the lengthy journey back to Britain . During his time in command of Nereide , Corbet had already developed a reputation as a strict disciplinarian , regularly beating his men for the slightest infractions , to the extent that he had provoked a brief mutiny on Nereide in 1808 . His reputation spread before him , and when he switched commands with Captain Richard Raggett of HMS Africaine , he was met with a storm of protest from Africaine 's crew . Although none of the men aboard Africaine had served with Corbet before , his preference for brutal punishment was well known in the Navy and the crew sent a letter to the Admiralty insisting that they would not serve under him . Concerned at what they considered to be mutiny , the Admiralty sent three popular officers to Africaine with the message that if the protest was quietly dropped there would be no courts @-@ martial for mutiny but if not , the entire crew would be liable to attack . To emphasise the threat , the frigate HMS Menelaus was brought alongside with her gunports open and her cannon ready to fire . Chastened , the crew of Africaine allowed Corbet aboard and the frigate sailed for the Indian Ocean a few days later , carrying instructions for the authorities at Madras to prepare an expeditionary force to invade Isle de France .
= = Africaine off Isle de France = =
Africaine 's journey to Madras took several months and Corbet made a number of stops on his passage , the final one being at the small British island base of Rodriguez in early September 1810 . There Corbet was informed of the disaster at Grand Port and on his own initiative immediately sailed south to augment Rowley 's weakened squadron . Arriving off Isle de France at 06 : 15 on 11 September , Corbet spotted a French schooner near Île Ronde and gave chase , the schooner sheltering behind the reefs at Grand Bay on the eastern side of the island . At 07 : 30 , Corbet ordered the frigate 's boats to enter the creek into which the schooner had fled , the small craft entering the waterway in the hope of storming and capturing the vessel . As the boats approached , French soldiers and militia appeared along the banks and began firing on the British sailors . Fire was returned by Royal Marines in the boats , but Africaine 's barge grounded soon after the ambush was sprung and became trapped , French gunfire killing two men and wounding ten . The other boat reached the grounded and abandoned schooner , but the six men aboard were unable to move the vessel unaided and were forced to depart , coming under fire which wounded five men , before they could escape the French trap .
Retrieving his boats , Corbet determined to sail to Île Bourbon directly . By 04 : 00 on 12 September he had arrived at Saint @-@ Denis and there landed his wounded and came ashore for news , learning that two French frigates were just offshore , blockading the port . The French ships had spotted Africaine in the harbour and despatched the small brig Entreprenant to Isle de France with information of her whereabouts , although Corbet had raised flags that successfully deceived the French into believing that his frigate was Rowley 's flagship HMS Boadicea . The French ships were Astrée , commanded by Pierre Bouvet , and Iphigénie , formerly one of the British frigates captured at Grand Port , under René Lemarant de Kerdaniel .
= = = Battle = = =
Rowley , stationed at Saint @-@ Paul to the west of Saint @-@ Denis , received word that Africaine had arrived at Saint Denis and immediately sought to drive off the French blockade . Sailing eastwards , Boadicea came within sight of Bouvet 's squadron at 15 : 00 and the British flagship followed by the small brigs HMS Otter and HMS Staunch . Corbet recognised Rowley 's intention and joined the attack , embarking 25 soldiers from the 86th Regiment of Foot to replace his losses at Grand Bay . The French , still believing Africaine to be Boadicea , assumed that Boadicea was an East Indiaman named Windham in disguise , and fell back towards Isle de France before the British force .
Otter and Staunch both fell rapidly behind Boadicea , while Africaine pulled far ahead . By 18 : 20 , lookouts on Africaine could no longer see the other British ships , and by 18 : 30 , Boadicea was similarly alone . Bouvet realised the lack of cohesion in the British squadron , and also recognised that Africaine was faster than either of his ships and would soon catch them . As a result , he slowed and prepared to meet the British frigate as night fell . Corbet now found himself outnumbered and began to launch rockets and flares in the hope of attracting Rowley 's attention and as the French closed with Africaine , he readied his ship for action . 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) behind , Rowley could see the flares and flashes but was powerless to intercede in the darkness . At 01 : 50 on 13 September , the gap had closed between Africaine and the French ships , and at 02 : 20 Corbet opened fire on Astrée , with Bouvet returning the fire immediately .
A cannonball from the second French broadside struck Corbet within minutes of the first broadside , the ball tearing off his foot above the ankle just as a large wooden splinter thrown from the gunwale struck the thigh of the same leg , shattering the bone . Corbet was brought below to the ship 's surgeon where the remnant of his leg was hastily amputated and bound , and command devolved on Lieutenant John Crew Tullidge . At 02 : 30 , Astrée pulled away from Africaine to perform hasty repairs , but Bouvet 's guns had wrecked Africaine 's rigging , leaving the British frigate uncontrollable and largely immobile . Slowly moving ahead , Africaine engaged Iphigénie at close range but was counter attacked by Astrée and found herself assailed on both sides , Astrée angled in such a position that she was able to rake the British ship , inflicting significant damage and casualties .
By 03 : 30 , Africaine was in ruins . Tullidge was wounded in four places , but refused to leave the deck as the ship 's master had been decapitated and the other lieutenant shot in the chest . All three topmasts had collapsed and as guns were dismounted and casualties increased the return fire of Africaine became more and more ragged , until it stopped entirely at 04 : 45 , when only two guns were still capable of firing . French fire stopped at 05 : 15 , first light showing Boadicea 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) away and unable to affect the surrender of Africaine , which had hauled down its flags at 05 : 00 . Within minutes , a French prize crew boarded the battered frigate and seized the magazine of shot and gunpowder , which was shipped to Iphigénie whose ammunition was almost exhausted .
= = = Boadicea arrives = = =
At 06 : 00 , a breeze pushed Boadicea forward and she began to close with her former consort , Rowley watching as all three of Africaine 's masts gave way and collapsed over the side one by one . By 08 : 00 , Africaine was a dismasted hull and Corbet was dead in the bowels of the ship , although the exact manner of his death was to cause lasting controversy . By 10 : 00 , Boadicea had been joined by Otter and Staunch and bore down on the French ships and their prize , so that by 15 : 30 Bouvet was persuaded to abandon Africaine and tow the damaged Iphigénie back to Port Napoleon . By 17 : 00 , Boadicea pulled alongside Africaine and the French prize crew surrendered . Rowley later reported that a number of British sailors leaped into the sea at his approach and swam to Boadicea , requesting that they be allowed to pursue the French ships in the hope of capturing one .
Rowley dismissed this idea given the shattered state of Africaine and instead towed the frigate back to Île Bourbon , shadowed by Astrée and Iphigénie on the return journey . The French frigates did achieve some consolation in pursuing Rowley from a distance , running into and capturing the Honourable East India Company 's armed brig Aurora , sent from India to reinforce Rowley . On 15 September , Boadicea , Africaine and the brigs arrived at Saint Paul , Africaine sheltering under the fortifications of the harbour while the others put to sea , again seeking to drive away the French blockade but unable to bring them to action . Bouvet returned to Port Napoleon on 18 September , and thus was not present when Rowley attacked and captured the French flagship Vénus and Commodore Hamelin at the Action of 18 September 1810 .
= = Aftermath = =
The action was the first of two in this campaign in which lone British frigates were briefly overwhelmed by superior French forces as they sailed independently to join Rowley 's squadron . On each occasion however , Rowley was able to recapture the lost frigate and drive off the French attackers . Corbet 's action was particularly violent , British casualties totalling 49 killed and 114 wounded , including every single officer and all but three of the soldiers embarked . Africaine was seriously damaged and would not be ready to return to active service for some months . French losses were less severe , Astrée suffering one killed and two wounded , Iphigénie nine killed and 33 wounded .
The action was considered a defeat by the Admiralty and was not reported in the London Gazette . The British naval authorities were particularly disturbed by rumours that began to circulate concerning the death of Captain Corbet and the behaviour of his crew during the battle . Prominent among these rumours was the suggestion that Corbet had been murdered by his disaffected crew : historian William James wrote in 1827 that " There are many who will insist , that Captain Corbett 's [ sic ] death @-@ wound was inflicted by one of his own people . " although he goes on to point out the unlikelihood of Corbet being shot by one of his own cannon . He gives more credence to the story that Corbet committed suicide to avoid the shame of defeat , that he " cut the bandages from his amputated limb , and suffered himself to bleed to death . " This story was also alluded to in Edward Pelham Brenton 's 1825 history : " Corbet did not ( we fear would not ) survive his capture " . The truth of Corbet 's end will never be known with certainty , although James ultimately concludes that Corbet 's wound was almost certainly a mortal one and thus the most likely cause of death .
A second accusation , and one that proved even more controversial in the aftermath of the engagement , was the claim that Africaine 's crew abandoned their guns , refused to load them or deliberately fired them into the sea in protest at Corbet 's behaviour . Corbet 's brutality was well known in the Navy , James describing him as " an excessively severe officer " who had a " career of cruelty " . James does not accuse the crew of any deliberate attempt to sabotage their ship in the engagement , instead attributing their poor gunnery to Corbet 's own failings as a commander , most significantly his failure to practice gunnery regularly . Other authors were less understanding of the crew of Africaine , Brenton stating that " they cut the breechings of their guns , and put no shot in them after the first or second broadside " , while historian Basil Hall baldly stated in 1833 that they " preferred to be mown down by the French broadsides " than fight under Corbet . This last accusation provoked outrage among naval officers , and Captain Jenkin Jones , a former shipmate of Corbet launched a successful lawsuit , forcing Hall to make a retraction . In 1900 , William Laird Clowes commented that " There is , unfortunately , much reason to suppose that Captain Corbett 's [ sic ] reputation for extreme severity had antagonised his crew , and that the men did not behave as loyally as they should have behaved " . He later castigates Brenton for the suggestion that Corbet committed suicide , suggesting that the wound alone was the cause of death . Modern historians have also been scathing of Corbet 's behaviour , Robert Gardiner calling him " notoriously brutal , " and Richard Woodman describing Tullidge as " an unfortunate victim of Corbet 's cruelty , for suspicions lingered that Africaine 's brutalised crew had failed to do their utmost in support of their hated commander . "
= M @-@ 114 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 114 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway and planned beltline in the US state of Michigan around the city of Grand Rapids . It was designated by the end of 1929 on various streets in adjoining cities and townships . By the 1940s , sections of it on the west and south sides of Grand Rapids were given new designations and the segment along the east side of town was finished . By late 1945 the highway designation was completely decommissioned in favor of other numbers . M @-@ 114 split into two branches , one running east – west and the other running north – south . The east – west spur routing is now local streets while the rest is part of state highways .
= = History = =
The first segments of M @-@ 114 were completed by January 1 , 1930 , and ran along the west side of Grand Rapids , on what is now Wilson Avenue between Lake Michigan Drive and Leonard Street . At the same time , what would become a spur was also finished from the town of Cascade to US 131 ( Division Avenue ) . By July 1 that same year , the southern segment was extended west to Clyde Park Avenue in Wyoming Township . By the end of 1936 M @-@ 114 was a three @-@ legged trunkline around the Grand Rapids area . It started at US 16 in Walker Township and ran south to Grandville where it turned to run eastward to the community of Cascade . The third leg was shown on maps as under construction from a junction in Paris Township north to a junction with US 16 in East Grand Rapids ; the trunkline continued north from US 16 to a junction with US 131 in Plainfield Township north of Grand Rapids .
By June 15 , 1942 the highways in the Grand Rapids area were reconfigured . A Bypass US 16 ( BYP US 16 ) designation was assigned to the portion of M @-@ 114 that traveled around the southwest side of Grand Rapids ( now M @-@ 11 ) , leaving just the east and unfinished north segments left . The section along the east side of the city was completed as M @-@ 114 . A northern leg was added along 3 Mile Road at the same time . By 1945 , the northern leg of M @-@ 114 was turned back to local control and removed from the highway system . The eastern leg was assigned a BYP US 131 designation , thereby eliminating the last remaining portion of M @-@ 114 . A BYP M @-@ 21 designation was also used along part of the southern and eastern legs . East Beltline now carries M @-@ 37 and M @-@ 44 .
= = Route description = =
As it existed before the designation was removed , M @-@ 114 started at the corner of BYP US 16 ( 28th Street ) and what is now East Beltline Avenue in Paris Township ( now Kentwood ) and ran northward . The trunkline intersected the mainline for US 16 / M @-@ 50 at Cascade Road and the mainline for M @-@ 21 at Fulton Street near East Grand Rapids in Grand Rapids Township . Further north , the highway split into two . In Plainfield Township , a leg of M @-@ 114 continued west along the modern 3 Mile Road through an intersection with US 131 to terminate at Coit Avenue near the Grand River and the other leg continued north to a terminus with US 131 at Northland Drive and Plainfield Avenue .
= = Major intersections = =
South leg
The entire highway was in Kent County .
West leg
The entire highway was in Grand Rapids Township , Kent County .
North leg
The entire highway was in Kent County .
= Jane Dudley , Duchess of Northumberland =
Jane Dudley ( née Guildford ) , Duchess of Northumberland ( 1508 / 1509 – 1555 ) was an English noblewoman , the wife of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland and mother of Guildford Dudley and Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester . Having grown up with her future husband , who was her father 's ward , she married at about age 16 . They had 13 children . Jane Dudley served as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting at the court of Henry VIII and was a close friend of Queen Catherine Parr . Reformed in religious outlook , she was also a supporter of the Protestant martyr Anne Askew .
Under the young King Edward VI John Dudley became one of the most powerful politicians , rising to be Earl of Warwick and later Duke of Northumberland . After the fall of Lord Protector Somerset in 1549 , John Dudley joined forces with his wife to promote his rehabilitation and a reconciliation between their families , which was symbolized by a marriage between their children . In the spring of 1553 Jane Dudley , Duchess of Northumberland became the mother @-@ in @-@ law of Lady Jane Grey , whom the Duke of Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to establish on the English throne after the death of Edward VI . Mary I being victorious , the Duchess sought frantically to save her husband 's life . Notwithstanding his and her son Guildford 's executions , she was successful in achieving the release of the rest of her family by befriending the Spanish noblemen who came to England with Philip of Spain . She died soon afterwards , aged 46 .
= = Family and marriage = =
Jane Guildford was born in Kent in about 1508 / 1509 , the only daughter of Sir Edward Guildford and Eleanor West , daughter of Thomas West , 8th Baron De La Warr . Her schooling occurred at home together with her brother Richard and her future husband , who was her father 's ward from 1512 . In 1525 , at about 16 , she married Sir John Dudley , who was 20 or 21 years old . The match had been arranged by their parents some years before . Jane Dudley gave birth to 13 children , eight boys and five girls . In most cases it is impossible to establish their birthdates exactly . An exception is Robert , the future favourite of Elizabeth I ; he was born in 1532 as the fifth son , and possibly after the eldest daughter Mary , who became the mother of the courtier @-@ poet Philip Sidney . The family life of John and Jane Dudley seems to have been happy and was free from any scandals ; around 1535 a poem praised the " love and devotion " of their marriage .
Sir Edward Guildford died in 1534 before he could draw up his last will . Since his son Richard had predeceased him , Guildford 's nephew , John Guildford , claimed the inheritance . The Dudleys maintained that Guildford 's daughter Jane was the natural heir . They finally won the resulting court case with the assistance of Thomas Cromwell .
= = Court life = =
Jane Dudley served as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Anne Boleyn , and later to Anne of Cleves . She was interested in the Reformed religion and , with her husband , moved in evangelical circles from the mid @-@ 1530s . In 1542 John Dudley was created Viscount Lisle . He was on friendly terms with William Parr , whose sister Catherine became Henry VIII 's last queen in July 1543 . As one of her closest friends , the Viscountess Lisle was among the four ladies leading her to the altar on the marriage day . Jane Dudley belonged also to the courtly sympathizers of Anne Askew , whom she contacted during her imprisonment in 1545 – 1546 . The forthright Protestant was burnt at the stake as a heretic in July 1546 on the contrivance of the religiously conservative court party around Bishop Stephen Gardiner .
Renaissance humanism and science figured large in the Dudley children 's education . In 1553 Jane Dudley herself commissioned two works from the mathematician and Hermeticist John Dee about heavenly configurations and the tides . Jane Dudley was close to her children ; her eldest son , Henry , had died during the siege of Boulogne in 1544 , aged 19 . A postscript she wrote in 1552 under a letter by her husband to their then eldest son , John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick , reads : " your lovynge mothere that wyshes you helthe dayli Jane Northumberland " . She also had health problems : In 1548 her husband was unwilling to leave her side , because she " had had her fit again more extreme that she had any time yet . "
Under Edward VI John Dudley , Viscount Lisle was raised to the title of Earl of Warwick , while Edward Seymour , Earl of Hereford became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector . In October 1549 the Protector lost his power in a trial of strength with the Privy Council , from which John Dudley , Earl of Warwick emerged as Lord President of the Council and leader of the government . Somerset , who had been imprisoned in the Tower of London , was soon allowed to rejoin the Council . Before his release , the Duchess of Somerset and the Countess of Warwick had arranged daily banquets in order to reconcile their husbands . A marriage between their respective eldest son and daughter , Anne Seymour and John Dudley , was equally promoted by the two ladies . In June 1550 a grand wedding was staged at the palace of Sheen , attended by the twelve @-@ year @-@ old King Edward . Jane Dudley continued as a great lady at court during the ascendancy of her husband , who became Duke of Northumberland in October 1551 . She was influential with him ; the financier Thomas Gresham and the diplomat Richard Morrison sought her patronage , and she also interceded for Mary Tudor , who had stood godmother to one of her daughters in 1545 .
= = Mother @-@ in @-@ law to a queen = =
King Edward fell ill in early 1553 . He drew up a document , " My Devise for the Succession " , whose final version of June 1553 was to settle the Crown on his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey , overturning the claims of his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . Jane Grey was the daughter of Frances Grey , Duchess of Suffolk , a niece of Henry VIII by his younger sister Mary . On 25 May 1553 three matrimonial alliances were celebrated at Durham Place , the Dudleys ' London town mansion . Two of their younger children were concerned : Guildford , aged about 17 , married Lady Jane Grey , while Katherine , who was between eight and ten years old , was promised to the Earl of Huntingdon 's heir , Henry Hastings . A few months later these matches came to be seen as proof of a conspiracy by the Duke of Northumberland to bring his family to the throne . At the time the marriages took place , however , their dynastical implications were not considered significant by even the most suspicious of observers , the Imperial ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye . Modern historians have considered them either as part of a plot , or as " routine actions of dynastic politics " , in the words of David Loades . The initiative for the matches had probably come from the Marchioness of Northampton .
After Edward 's death on 6 July 1553 Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King 's will . Lady Jane Grey accepted the Crown only after remonstrances by her parents and parents @-@ in @-@ law . On 10 July the Duchess of Northumberland accompanied her son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law on their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London , where they were to reside for the rest of the short reign . According to Jane 's own exculpatory letter to Queen Mary a few months later , Guildford now wanted to be made king . The young people agreed on having him declared king by Act of Parliament ; but then Jane changed her mind and declared she would only make him a duke . " I will not be a duke , I will be King " , Guildford replied and went to fetch his mother . Furious , the Duchess took the side of her son , before she told him to leave the Tower and go home . Jane , however , insisted that he remain at court . According to her the Duchess also " induced her son not to sleep with me any more " , and it is clear from her writings that Jane disliked her mother @-@ in @-@ law .
= = Downfall and struggle for her family = =
To claim her right , Mary Tudor began assembling her supporters in East Anglia and demanded to be recognized as queen by the Privy Council in London . When her letter arrived on 10 July 1553 during dinner , the Duchess of Suffolk , Jane 's mother , and the Duchess of Northumberland broke into tears . Mary was gathering strength , and on 14 July the Duke marched to Cambridge with troops to capture her . As it came , he passed a tranquil week until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . On the orders of the Privy Council Northumberland himself now proclaimed Queen Mary at the market @-@ place and awaited his arrest . His wife was still in the Tower , but was soon released . She tried to intercede personally for her imprisoned husband and five sons with Mary , who was staying outside London . However , five miles before reaching the court the Duchess was turned away on the Queen 's orders . She then wrote a letter to her friend Lady Paget , the wife of William , Lord Paget , asking her to plead with the Queen 's ladies for her husband 's life . Her plea , if it went not unheard , was in vain , and the Duke of Northumberland was executed on 22 August 1553 on Tower Hill after having recanted his Protestant faith .
Following Wyatt 's rebellion , Guildford Dudley was beheaded on 12 February 1554 shortly before his wife . Knowing the Queen 's character , in June 1554 Jane Dudley pleaded with the authorities to allow her remaining sons to hear mass . During 1554 the Duchess and her son @-@ in @-@ law Henry Sidney worked hard pleading with the Spanish nobles around England 's new king consort , Philip of Spain . Lord Paget may also have proved helpful , and Henry Sidney even travelled to Spain in their cause . In the autumn of 1554 the Dudley brothers were released from the Tower , though the eldest , John , died immediately afterwards at Sidney 's house Penshurst in Kent . At the same location Philip Sidney was born on 30 November 1554 . His godmother was his grandmother Jane Dudley , while his godfather was Philip of Spain .
Amid the confiscation of the Dudley family 's possessions in July 1553 , Mary had allowed Jane Dudley to retain her wardrobe and plate , carpets , and other household stuffs , as well as the use of the Duke 's house in Chelsea , London . There , she died on either 15 or 22 January 1555 , and was buried on 1 February at Chelsea Old Church . In her will she tried to provide for her sons financially and thanked the Queen , as well as the many Spanish nobles she had lobbied . The Duchess of Alba was to receive her green parrot ; to Don Diego de Acevedo she gave " the new bed of green velvet with all the furniture to it ; beseeching him even as he hath in my lifetime showed himself like a father and a brother to my sons , so shall [ I ] require him no less to do now their mother is gone " . She also remembered " my lord , my dear husband " , and stipulated : " in no wise let me be opened after I am dead . ... I have not lived to be very bold before women , much more I should be loth to come into the hands of any living man , be he Physician or Surgeon . " She avoided to be specific on religion , but stressed that " who ever doth trust to this transitory world , as I did , may happen to have an overthrow , as I had ; therefore to the worms will I go as I have before written . "
= = Ancestry = =
= Elgin Cathedral =
Elgin Cathedral is a historic ruin in Elgin , Moray , north @-@ east Scotland . The cathedral — dedicated to the Holy Trinity — was established in 1224 on land granted by King Alexander II outside the burgh of Elgin and close to the River Lossie . It replaced the cathedral at Spynie , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the north , that was served by a small chapter of eight clerics . The new and bigger cathedral was staffed with 18 canons in 1226 and then increased to 23 by 1242 . After a damaging fire in 1270 , a rebuilding programme greatly enlarged the building . It was unaffected by the Wars of Scottish Independence but again suffered extensive fire damage in 1390 following an attack by Robert III 's brother Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan , also known as the Wolf of Badenoch . In 1402 the cathedral precinct again suffered an incendiary attack by the followers of the Lord of the Isles . The number of clerics required to staff the cathedral continued to grow , as did the number of craftsmen needed to maintain the buildings and surrounds . The number of canons had increased to 25 by the time of the Scottish Reformation in 1560 , when the cathedral was abandoned and its services transferred to Elgin 's parish church of St Giles . After the removal of the lead that waterproofed the roof in 1567 , the cathedral steadily fell into decay . Its deterioration was arrested in the 19th century , by which time the building was in a substantially ruinous condition .
The cathedral went through periods of enlargement and renovation following the fires of 1270 and 1390 that included the doubling in length of the choir , the provision of outer aisles to the northern and southern walls of both the nave and choir . Today , these walls are at full height in places and at foundation level in others yet the overall cruciform shape is still discernible . A mostly intact octagonal chapter house dates from the major enlargement after the fire of 1270 . The gable wall above the double door entrance that links the west towers is nearly complete and was rebuilt following the fire of 1390 . It accommodates a large window opening that now only contains stub tracery work and fragments of a large rose window . Recessed and chest tombs in both transepts and in the south aisle of the choir contain effigies of bishops and knights , and large flat slabs in the now grass @-@ covered floor of the cathedral mark the positions of early graves . The homes of the dignitaries and canons , or manses , stood in the chanonry and were destroyed by fire on three occasions : in 1270 , 1390 and 1402 . The two towers of the west front are mostly complete and were part of the first phase of construction . Only the precentor 's manse is substantially intact ; two others have been incorporated into private buildings . A protective wall of massive proportions surrounded the cathedral precinct , but only a small section has survived . The wall had four access gates , one of which — the Pans Port — still exists .
= = Early cathedral churches of Moray = =
The Diocese of Moray was a regional bishopric unlike the pre @-@ eminent see of the Scottish church , St Andrews , which had evolved from a more ancient monastic Celtic church and administered scattered localities . It is uncertain whether there were bishops of Moray before c . 1120 but the first known prelate — possibly later translated to Dunkeld — was Gregory ( or Gregoir ) . He was probably bishop in name only , with the first resident diocesan being Richard of Lincoln . Gregory was a signatory to the foundation charter of Scone Priory , issued by Alexander I ( Alaxandair mac Maíl Choluim ) between December 1123 and April 1124 , and again in a charter defining the legal rights of the same monastery . He is recorded for the last time when he witnessed a charter granted by David I to Dunfermline Abbey in c . 1128 . After the suppression of Óengus of Moray 's rebellion in 1130 , King David must have regarded the continued presence of bishops in Moray as essential to the stability of the province . These early bishops had no settled location for their cathedral , and sited it successively at the churches of Birnie , Kinneddar and Spynie . Pope Innocent III issued an apostolic bull on 7 April 1206 that allowed bishop Bricius de Douglas to fix his cathedral church at Spynie — its inauguration was held between spring 1207 and summer 1208 . A chapter of five dignitaries and three ordinary canons was authorised and based its constitution on that of Lincoln Cathedral . Elgin became the lay centre of the province under David I , who probably established the first castle in the town , and it may have been this castle , with its promise of better security , that prompted Bricius , before July 1216 , to petition the Pope to move the seat from Spynie .
= = Cathedral church at Elgin = =
Despite Bricius 's earlier appeal , it was not until Andreas de Moravia 's episcopate that Pope Honorius III issued his bull on 10 April 1224 authorising his legates Gilbert de Moravia , Bishop of Caithness , Robert , Abbot of Kinloss and Henry , Dean of Ross to examine the suitability of transferring the cathedra to Elgin . The Bishop of Caithness and the Dean of Ross performed the translation ceremony on 19 July 1224 . On 10 July , Alexander II ( Alaxandair mac Uilliam ) had agreed to the transference in an edict that referred to his having given the land previously for this purpose . The land grant predated the Papal mandate and there is evidence that building had started in around 1215 . Construction of the cathedral was completed after 1242 . Chronicler John of Fordun recorded without explanation that in 1270 the cathedral church and the canons ' houses had burned down . The cathedral was rebuilt in a larger and grander style to form the greater part of the structure that is now visible , work that is supposed to have been completed by the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence in 1296 . Although Edward I of England took an army to Elgin in 1296 and again in 1303 , the cathedral was left unscathed , as it was by his grandson Edward III during his assault on Moray in 1336 .
Soon after his election to the see in 1362 – 63 , Bishop Alexander Bur requested funds from Pope Urban V for repairs to the cathedral , citing neglect and hostile attacks . In August 1370 Bur began protection payments to Alexander Stewart , Lord of Badenoch , known as the Wolf of Badenoch , who became Earl of Buchan in 1380 , and who was son of the future King Robert II . Numerous disputes between Bur and Buchan culminated in Buchan 's excommunication in February 1390 and the bishop turning to Thomas Dunbar , son of the Earl of Moray , to provide the protection service .
These acts by the bishop , and any frustration Buchan may have felt about the reappointment of his brother Robert Stewart , Earl of Fife as guardian of Scotland , may have caused him to react defiantly : in May , he descended from his island castle on Lochindorb and burned the town of Forres , followed in June by the burning of Elgin and the cathedral with its manses . It is believed that he also burned Pluscarden Priory at this time , which was officially under the Bishop 's protection . Bur wrote to Robert III seeking reparation for his brother 's actions in a letter stating :
Robert III granted Bur an annuity of £ 20 for the period of the bishop 's lifetime , and the Pope provided income from the Scottish Church during the following decade . In 1400 , Bur wrote to the Abbot of Arbroath complaining that the abbot 's prebendary churches in the Moray diocese had not paid their dues towards the cathedral restoration . In the same year Bur wrote to the rector of Aberchirder church , telling him that he now | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
owed three years ' arrears of the subsidy that had been imposed on non @-@ prebendary churches in 1397 . Again , on 3 July 1402 , the burgh and cathedral precinct were attacked , this time by Alexander of Lochaber , brother of Domhnall of Islay , Lord of the Isles ; he spared the cathedral but burned the manses . For this act , Lochaber and his captains were excommunicated , prompting Lochaber 's return in September to give reparation and gain absolution . In 1408 , the money saved during an ecclesiastic vacancy was diverted to the rebuilding process and in 1413 a grant from the customs of Inverness was provided . Increasingly , the appropriation of the parish church revenues led in many cases to churches becoming dilapidated and unable to attract educated priests . By the later Middle Ages , the standard of pastoral care outside the main burghs had significantly declined .
Bishop John Innes ( 1407 – 14 ) contributed greatly to the rebuilding of the cathedral , as evidenced by the inscription on his tomb praising his efforts . When he died , the chapter met secretly — " in quadam camera secreta in campanili ecclesie Moraviensis " — and agreed that should one of their number be elected to the see , the bishop would grant one third of the income of the bishopric annually until the rebuilding was finished . The major alterations to the west front were completed before 1435 and contain the arms of Bishop Columba de Dunbar ( 1422 – 35 ) , and it is presumed that both the north and south aisles of the choir were finished before 1460 , as the south aisle contains the tomb of John de Winchester ( 1435 – 60 ) . Probably the last important rebuilding feature was the major restructuring of the chapterhouse between 1482 and 1501 , which contains the arms of Bishop Andrew Stewart .
= = = Diocesan organisation = = =
The dignitaries and canons constituted the chapter and had the primary role of aiding the bishop in the governance of the diocese . Often the bishop was the titular head of the chapter only and was excluded from its decision @-@ making processes , the chapter being led by the dean as its superior . As the diocese of Moray based its constitution on that of Lincoln Cathedral , the bishop was allowed to participate within the chapter but only as an ordinary canon . Moray was not unique in this : the bishops of Aberdeen , Brechin , Caithness , Orkney and Ross were also canons in their own chapters . Each morning , the canons held a meeting in the chapterhouse where a chapter from the canonical rule book of St Benedict was read before the business of the day was discussed .
Bishop Bricius 's chapter of eight clerics consisted of the dean , precentor , treasurer , chancellor , archdeacon and three ordinary canons . His successor , Bishop Andreas de Moravia , greatly expanded the chapter to cater for the much enlarged establishment by creating two additional hierarchical posts ( succentor and subdean ) and added 16 more prebendaries . In total , 23 prebendaries had been created by the time of Andreas ' death , and a further two were added just before the Scottish Reformation . Prebendary churches were at the bestowal of the bishop as the churches either were within the diocesan lands or had been granted to the bishop by a landowner as patronage . In the case of Elgin Cathedral , the de Moravia family , of which Bishop Andreas was a member , is noted as having the patronage of many churches given as prebends .
Rural Deans , or deans of Christianity as they were known in the Scottish Church , supervised the priests in the deaneries and implemented the bishop 's edicts . There were four deaneries in the Moray diocese — Elgin , Inverness , Strathspey and Strathbogie — and these provided the income not only for the cathedral and chapter but also for other religious houses within and outside the diocese . Many churches were allocated to support designated canons , and a small number were held in common . The bishop received mensal and prebendary income in his separate positions as prelate and canon .
The government of the diocese affecting both clergy and laity was vested entirely in the bishop , who appointed officers to the ecclesiastical , criminal and civil courts . The bishop , assisted by his chapter , produced the church laws and regulations for the bishopric and these were enforced at occasional diocesan synods by the bishop or , in his absence , by the dean . Appointed officials adjudicated at consistory courts looking at matters affecting tithes , marriages , divorces , widows , orphans , wills and other related legal matters . In Moray , these courts were held in Elgin and Inverness . By 1452 the Bishop of Moray held all his lands in one regality and had Courts of Regality presided over by Bailiffs and Deputies to ensure the payment of revenues from his estates .
= = = Cathedral offices = = =
Large cathedrals such as Elgin had many chapel altars and daily services and required to be suitably staffed with canons assisted by a plentiful number of chaplains and vicars . Bishop Andreas allowed for the canons to be aided by seventeen vicars made up of seven priests , five deacons and five sub @-@ deacons — later the number of vicars was increased to twenty five . In 1350 the vicars at Elgin could not live on their stipends and Bishop John of Pilmuir provided them with the income from two churches and the patronage of another from Thomas Randolph , second Earl of Moray . By 1489 one vicar had a stipend of 12 marks ; six others , 10 marks ; one , eight marks ; three , seven marks , and six received five marks ; each vicar was employed directly by a canon who was required to provide four months ' notice in the event of his employment being terminated . The vicars were of two kinds : the vicars @-@ choral who worked chiefly in the choir taking the main services and the chantry chaplains who performed services at the individual foundation altars though there was some overlapping of duties . Although the chapter followed the constitution of Lincoln , the form of divine service copied that of Salisbury Cathedral . It is recorded that Elgin 's vicars @-@ choral were subject to disciplinary correction for shortcomings in the performance of the services , resulting in fines . More serious offences could end in corporal punishment , which was administered in the chapterhouse by the sub @-@ dean and witnessed by the chapter . King Alexander II founded a chaplaincy for the soul of King Duncan I who died in battle with Macbeth near Elgin . The chapel most frequently referenced in records was St Thomas the Martyr , located in the north transept and supported by five chaplains . Other chaplaincies mentioned are those of the Holy Rood , St Catherine , St Duthac , St Lawrence , St Mary Magdalene , St Mary the Virgin and St Michael . By the time of Bishop Bur 's episcopate ( 1362 – 1397 ) , the cathedral had 15 canons ( excluding dignitaries ) , 22 vicars @-@ choral and about the same number of chaplains .
Despite these numbers , not all the clergy were regularly present at the services in Elgin Cathedral . Absence was an enduring fact of life in all cathedrals in a period when careerist clerics would accept positions in other cathedrals . This is not to say that the time spent away from the chanonry was without permission , as some canons were appointed to be always present while others were allowed to attend on a part @-@ time basis . The dean of Elgin was permanently in attendance ; the precentor , chancellor , and treasurer , were available for half the year . The non @-@ permanent canons had to attend continuously for three months . The chapter decided in 1240 to penalise persistently absent canons who broke the terms of their attendance by removing one seventh of their income . In the Diocese of Aberdeen and it is assumed in other bishoprics also , when important decisions of the chapter had to be taken , an absentee canon had to appoint a procurator to act on his behalf — this was usually one of the dignitaries who had a higher likelihood of being present . At Elgin in 1488 , many canons were not abiding by the terms of their leave of absence , resulting in each of them receiving a formal warning and a summons ; despite this , ten canons refused to attend and had a seventh of their prebendary income deducted . The bulk of the workload fell to the vicars and a smaller number of permanent canons who were responsible for celebrating high mass and for leading and arranging sermons and feast day processions . Seven services were held daily , most of which were solely for the clergy and took place behind the rood screen which separated the high altar and choir from lay worshipers . Only cathedrals , collegiate churches and large burgh churches were resourced to perform the more elaborate services ; the services in the parish churches were more basic .
The clergy were augmented by an unknown number of lay lawyers and clerks as well as masons , carpenters , glaziers , plumbers , and gardeners . Master Gregory the mason and Master Richard the glazier are mentioned in the chartulary of the cathedral .
= = = Chanonry and burgh = = =
The chanonry , referred to in the cathedral 's chartulary as the college of the chanonry or simply as the college , was the collection of the canons ' manses that were grouped around the cathedral . A substantial wall , over 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high , 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick and around 820 metres ( 2 @,@ 690 ft ) in length , enclosed the cathedral and manses and separated the church community from the laity ; only the manse of Rhynie lay outside the west wall . The houses of 17 vicars and the many chaplains were also situated outside the west wall . The wall had four gates : the West Port gave access to the burgh , the North Port provided access to the road to the bishop 's palace of Spynie , the South Port opened opposite the hospital of Maison Dieu and the surviving East or Panns Port allowed access to the meadowland called Le Pannis . The Panns Port illustrates the portcullis defences of the gate @-@ houses ( Fig . 1 ) . Each canon or dignitary was responsible for providing his own manse and was built to reflect his status within the chapter . The castle having become unsuitable , Edward I of England stayed at the manse of Duffus on 10 and 11 September 1303 as did James II in 1455 . In 1489 , a century after the incendiary attack on the cathedral and precinct in 1390 and 1402 , the cathedral records revealed a chanonry still lacking many of its manses . The chapter ordered that 13 canons , including the succentor and the archdeacon , should immediately " erect , construct , build , and duly repair their manses , and the enclosures of their gardens within the college of Moray " . The manse of the precentor , erroneously called the Bishop 's House , is partially ruined and is dated 1557 . ( Fig . 2 ) Vestiges of the Dean 's Manse and the Archdeacon 's Manse ( Fig . 3 ) are now part of private buildings .
The hospital of Maison Dieu , dedicated to St Mary and situated near the cathedral precinct but outside the chanonry , was established by Bishop Andreas before 1237 for the aid of the poor . It suffered fire damage in 1390 and again in 1445 . The cathedral clerks received it as a secular benefice but in later years it may , in common with other hospitals , have become dilapidated through a lack of patronage . Bishop James Hepburn granted it to the Blackfriars of Elgin on 17 November 1520 , perhaps in an effort to preserve its existence . The property was taken into the ownership of the Crown after the Reformation and in 1595 was granted to the burgh by James VI for educational purposes and for helping the poor . In 1624 , an almshouse was constructed to replace the original building , but in 1750 a storm substantially damaged its relatively intact ruins . The remnants of the original building were finally demolished during a 19th @-@ century redevelopment of the area .
There were two friaries in the burgh . The Dominican Black Friars friary was founded in the western part of the burgh around 1233 . The Franciscan ( Friars Minor Conventual ) Grey Friars friary was later founded in the eastern part of the burgh sometime before 1281 . It is thought that this latter Grey Friars foundation did not long survive , but was followed between 1479 and 1513 by the foundation of a friary near Elgin Cathedral by the Franciscan ( Observants ) Grey Friars . The building was transferred into the ownership of the burgh around 1559 and later became the Court of Justice in 1563 . In 1489 , the chapter founded a school that was not purely a song school for the cathedral but was also to be available to provide an education in music and reading for some children of Elgin .
= = = Post – Reformation = = =
In August 1560 , parliament assembled in Edinburgh and legislated that the Scottish church would be Protestant , the Pope would have no authority and that the Catholic mass was illegal . Scottish cathedrals now survived only if they were used as parish churches and as Elgin had been fully served by the Kirk of St Giles , its cathedral was abandoned . An act of parliament passed on 14 February 1567 authorised Regent Lord James Stewart 's Privy Council to order the removal of the lead from the roofs of both Elgin and Aberdeen cathedrals , to be sold for the upkeep of his army , but the overladen ship that was intended to take the cargo to Holland capsized and sank in Aberdeen harbour . In 1615 , John Taylor , the ' Water Poet ' , described Elgin Cathedral as " a faire and beautiful church with three steeples , the walls of it and the steeples all yet standing ; but the roofes , windowes and many marble monuments and tombes of honourable and worthie personages all broken and defaced " .
Decay had set in and the roof of the eastern limb collapsed during a gale on 4 December 1637 . In 1640 the General Assembly ordered Gilbert Ross , the minister of St Giles kirk , to remove the rood screen which still partitioned the choir and presbytery from the nave . Ross was assisted in this by the Lairds of Innes and Brodie who chopped it up for firewood . It is believed that the destruction of the great west window was caused by Oliver Cromwell 's soldiers sometime between 1650 and 1660 .
At some point the cathedral grounds had become the burial ground for Elgin . The town council arranged for the boundary wall to be repaired in 1685 but significantly , the council ordered that the stones from the cathedral should not be used for that purpose . Although the building was becoming increasingly unstable the chapterhouse continued to be used for meetings of the Incorporated Trades from 1671 to 1676 and then again from 1701 to around 1731 . No attempt was made to stabilise the structure and on Easter Sunday 1711 the central tower gave way , demolishing the nave . Following this collapse , the " quarrying " of the cathedral 's stone work for local projects began . Many artists visited Elgin to sketch the ruins , and it is from their work that the slow but continuing ruination can be observed . By the closing years of the 18th century , travellers to Elgin began to visit the ruin , and pamphlets giving the history of the cathedral were prepared for those early tourists . In 1773 Samuel Johnson recorded , " a paper was put into our hands , which deduced from sufficient authorities the history of this venerable ruin . "
Since the abolition of bishops within the Scottish Church in 1689 , ownership of the abandoned cathedral fell to the crown , but no attempt to halt the decline of the building took place . Acknowledging the necessity to stabilise the structure , the Elgin Town Council initiated the reconstruction of the perimeter wall in 1809 and cleared debris from the surrounding area in about 1815 . The Lord Provost of Elgin petitioned the King 's Remembrancer for assistance to build a new roof for the chapterhouse and in 1824 , £ 121 was provided to the architect Robert Reid for its construction . Reid was significant in the development of a conservation policy for historical buildings in Scotland and was to become the first Head of the Scottish Office of Works ( SOW ) in 1827 . It was probably during his tenure at the SOW that the supporting buttresses to the choir and transept walls were built .
In 1824 John Shanks , an Elgin shoemaker and an important figure in the conservation of the cathedral , started his work . Sponsored by local gentleman Isaac Forsyth , Shanks cleared the grounds of centuries of rubbish dumping and rubble . Shanks was officially appointed the site 's Keeper and Watchman in 1826 . Although his work was highly valued at the time and brought the cathedral back into public focus , his unscientific clearance work may have resulted in much valuable evidence of the cathedral 's history being lost . He died on 14 April 1841 , aged 82 . A fortnight later , the Inverness Courier published a commemorative piece on Shanks , calling him the " beadle or cicerone of Elgin Cathedral " , and writing :
Some minor works took place during the remainder of the 19th century and continued into the early 20th century . During the 1930s further maintenance work ensued that included a new roof to protect the vaulted ceiling of the south choir aisle . From 1960 onwards the crumbling sandstone blocks were replaced and new windows were fitted in the chapterhouse , which was re @-@ roofed to preserve its vaulted ceiling . From 1988 to 2000 , the two western towers were substantially overhauled with a viewing platform provided at the top of the north tower .
= = Building phases = =
= = = Construction 1224 – 1270 = = =
The first church was markedly cruciform in shape and smaller than the present floor plan . This early structure had a choir without aisles and more truncated , and a nave with only a single aisle on its north and south sides ( Fig . 4 ) . The central tower rose above the crossing between the north and south transepts and may have held bells in its upper storey . The north wall of the choir is the earliest extant structure , dating to the years immediately after the church 's 1224 foundation ; the clerestory windows on top of it are from the later post @-@ 1270 reconstruction . This wall has blocked up windows extending to a low level above ground , indicating that it was an external wall and proving that the eastern limb then had no aisle ( Fig . 5 ) .
The south transept 's southern wall is nearly complete , displaying the fine workmanship of the first phase . It shows the Gothic pointed arch style in the windows that first appeared in France in the mid @-@ 12th century and was apparent in England around 1170 , but hardly appeared in Scotland until the early 13th century . It also shows the round early Norman window design that continued to be used in Scotland during the entire Gothic period ( Fig . 6 ) . The windows and the quoins are of finely cut ashlar sandstone . A doorway in the south @-@ west portion of the wall has large mouldings and has a pointed oval window placed above it . Adjacent to the doorway are two lancet @-@ arched windows that are topped at the clerestory level with three round @-@ headed windows . The north transept has much less of its structure preserved , but much of what does remain , taken together with a study by John Slezer in 1693 , shows that it was similar to the south transept , except that the north transept had no external door and featured a stone turret containing a staircase .
The west front has two 13th century buttressed towers 27 @.@ 4 metres ( 90 ft ) high that were originally topped with wooden spires covered in protective lead . Although the difference between the construction of the base course and the transepts suggests that the towers were not part of the initial design , it is likely that the building process was not so far advanced that the masons could fully integrate the nave and towers into each other ( Fig . 7 ) .
= = = Enlargement and re @-@ construction after 1270 = = =
After the fire of 1270 , a programme of reconstruction was launched , with repairs and a major enlargement . Outer aisles were added to the nave , the eastern wing comprising the choir and presbytery was doubled in length and had aisles provided on its north and south sides , and the octagonal chapterhouse was built off the new north choir aisle ( Figs . 8 & 9 ) . The new northern and southern aisles ran the length of the choir , past the first bay of the presbytery , and contained recessed and chest tombs . The south aisle of the choir contained the tomb of bishop John of Winchester , suggesting a completion date for the reconstructed aisle between 1435 and 1460 ( Fig . 10 ) . Chapels were added to the new outer aisles of the nave and were partitioned from each other with wooden screens . The first bay at the west end of each of these aisles and adjacent to the western towers did not contain a chapel but instead had an access door for the laity .
In June 1390 , Alexander Stewart , Robert III 's brother , burned the cathedral , manses and burgh of Elgin . This fire was very destructive , requiring the central tower to be completely rebuilt along with the principal arcades of the nave . The entire western gable between the towers was reconstructed and the main west doorway and chapterhouse were refashioned . The internal stonework of the entrance is late 14th or early 15th century and is intricately carved with branches , vines , acorns and oak leaves . A large pointed arch opening in the gable immediately above the main door contained a series of windows , the uppermost of which was a circular or rose window dating from between 1422 and 1435 . Just above it can be seen three coats of arms : on the right is that of the bishopric of Moray , in the middle are the Royal Arms of Scotland , and on the left is the armorial shield of Bishop Columba Dunbar ( Fig . 11 ) . The walls of the nave are now very low or even at foundation level , except one section in the south wall which is near its original height . This section has windows that appear to have been built in the 15th century to replace the 13th century openings : they may have been constructed following the 1390 attack ( Fig . 12 ) . Nothing of the elevated structure of the nave remains , but its appearance can be deduced from the scarring seen where it attached to the eastern walls of the towers . Nothing of the crossing now remains following the collapse of the central tower in 1711 . Elgin Cathedral is unique in Scotland in having an English style octagonal chapterhouse and French influenced double aisles along each side of the nave ; in England , only Chichester Cathedral has similar aisles . The chapterhouse , which had been attached to the choir through a short vaulted vestry , required substantial modifications and was now provided with a vaulted roof supported by a single pillar ( Figs . 13 & 14 ) . The chapterhouse measures 10 @.@ 3 metres ( 34 ft ) high at its apex and 11 @.@ 3 metres ( 37 ft ) from wall to opposite wall ; it was substantially rebuilt by Bishop Andrew Stewart ( 1482 – 1501 ) , whose coat of arms is placed on the central pillar . Bishop Andrew was the half @-@ brother of King James II . The delay to the completion of these repairs until this bishop 's episcopacy demonstrates the extent of the damage from the 1390 attack .
= = = 19th and 20th century stabilisation = = =
In 1847 – 8 several of the old houses associated with the cathedral on the west side were demolished , and some minor changes were made to the boundary wall . Structural reinforcement of the ruin and some reconstruction work began in the early 20th century , including restoration of the east gable rose window in 1904 and the replacement of the missing form pieces , mullions , and decorative ribs in the window in the north @-@ east wall of the chapterhouse ( Fig . 15 ) . By 1913 , repointing the walls and additional waterproofing of the wall tops were completed . In 1924 the ground level was lowered and the 17th century tomb of the Earl of Huntly was repositioned . Further repairs and restoration ensued during the 1930s , including the partial dismantling of some 19th century buttressing ( Fig . 16 ) , the reconstruction of sections of the nave piers using recovered pieces ( Fig . 17 ) , and the addition of external roofing to the vault in the south choir in 1939 ( Fig . 18 ) . From 1960 to 2000 , masons restored the cathedral 's crumbling stonework ( Fig . 19 ) and between 1976 and 1988 , the window tracery of the chapterhouse was gradually replaced , and its re @-@ roofing was completed ( Fig . 20 ) . Floors , glazing , and a new roof were added to the south @-@ west tower between 1988 and 1998 and comparable restoration work was completed on the north @-@ west tower between 1998 and 2000 ( Fig . 21 ) .
= = Burials = =
Andreas de Moravia – buried in the south side of the choir under a large blue marble stone
David de Moravia – buried in the choir
William de Spynie – buried in the choir
Andrew Stewart ( d . 1501 )
Alexander Gordon , 1st Earl of Huntly
Columba de Dunbar ( c . 1386 – 1435 ) was Bishop of Moray from 1422 until his death
= = Referenced figures = =
= St Mary 's Church , Nether Alderley =
St Mary 's Church is an Anglican church at the end of a lane to the south of the village of Nether Alderley , Cheshire , England . It dates from the 14th century , with later additions and a major restoration in the late @-@ 19th century . The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building .
The church was built in the Gothic style , and has historically been associated with the Stanley family of Alderley . Its major features include a fine tower , the Stanley pew which is entered by an outside staircase , a 14th @-@ century font , the western gallery , and monuments to the Lords Stanley of Alderley . The grounds contain a 17th @-@ century former schoolhouse , now used as a parish hall , a medieval church cross , and the Stanley Mausoleum , which dates from 1909 . An ancient yew tree stands in the churchyard .
St Mary 's is an active parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Macclesfield , and the deanery of Knutsford . Its benefice is combined with that of St Catherine 's , Birtles .
= = History = =
The oldest parts of the church date from around 1300 , but it is likely that a timber @-@ framed church existed on the site before then . The church 's original dedication was to Saint Lawrence , but that was later changed to Saint Mary . A clerestory was added in the 15th century . The tower was built in 1530 , and the Stanley pew was added in about 1600 . The west gallery , which contained an organ , was installed in 1803 . In 1856 , the chancel was completely rebuilt , to a design by Cuffley and Starkey , paid for by the Stanley family . The vestry was constructed in 1860 . The church was restored between 1877 and 1878 by Paley and Austin ; the nave floor was lowered , the pulpit was replaced , plaster was removed from the roof and the walls , and the box pews were replaced by new oak pews . The tower clock , made in 1743 , was renovated in 1997 . In 2000 , the 16th @-@ century wooden bell @-@ frame was strengthened by the addition of a steel frame , and the Stanley pew was restored .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
St Mary 's is built of ashlar buff and red sandstone quarried locally at Alderley Edge , and the roof is of Kerridge stone slates . Its plan consists of a tower at the west end , a four @-@ bay nave with north and south aisles , a chancel with a vestry to its north , and a south porch . Over the north aisle is a dormer window . The tower has diagonal buttresses . Its west door has 14th @-@ century mouldings and above the door is a three @-@ light window . The stage above this contains ringers ' windows on the north and west faces and a diamond @-@ shaped clock on the south face . Above these the belfry windows on all faces have two lights . The top of the tower is embattled and contains the bases of eight pinnacles . Below the parapet is a string course with large grotesque gargoyles . At the west end of the nave roof is a bellcote . The Stanley pew projects to the east of the south porch . In the porch are grooves which were cut where arrows were sharpened .
= = = Interior = = =
The barrel @-@ shaped nave roof dates possibly from the early 16th century . The early 17th @-@ century Stanley pew at the eastern end of the south aisle is at the level of an upper storey , and is entered by a flight of steps from outside the church . Its front is richly carved and displays six panels with coats of arms . Richards states that it is one of the finest of its kind in the country and that it is unique in Cheshire . At the west end of the church is a late @-@ 18th @-@ century musicians ' gallery , whose front panel has painted coats of arms . The gallery contains the organ which replaces an earlier organ . This was presented by Lady Fabia Stanley in 1875 and was made by Hill and Company of London at a cost of £ 350 ( equivalent to £ 30 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , An oak document chest in the tower has been dated to 1686 . The 14th @-@ century font was buried in the churchyard during the Commonwealth , dug up in 1821 and restored to use in the church in 1924 . It consists of a plain circular bowl on four short cylindrical columns with moulded bases . Richards considers it to be one of the finest examples of 14th @-@ century work in Cheshire . The church has two old Bibles , a Vinegar Bible and a Breeches Bible .
The chancel contains memorials to the Lords Stanley of Alderley . The memorial to John Stanley , 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley contains his effigy dressed in peer 's robes lying under a canopy with his hand on a book , dated 1856 and by Richard Westmacott . On the other side of the chancel is a memorial to his son Edward Stanley , his effigy holding a scroll in his hand and with a dog at his feet . Engraved in brass on the side of the memorial are the figures of his widow and children . Lady Stanley is seated in the middle with their four surviving sons on her right , five surviving daughters on her left and three children who had died at a young age at her knee and on her lap . A memorial tablet to John Constantine Stanley , who died in 1878 , is by Joseph Boehm . The chancel contains a monument to Rev. Edward Shipton , rector of the church from 1625 to 1630 .
The stained glass in the east window , dated 1856 , was made by William Wailes . The glass in a south window in the chancel of 1909 was made by Morris & Co . The east window in the north aisle , dated 1920 is by Irene Dunlop . The stained glass window to the left of the pulpit was donated by the Greg family of Styal Mill . The stained glass in the window at the west end of the north aisle is to the memory of the wife of Edward John Bell , rector from 1870 to 1907 , and was made by Clayton and Bell in 1877 . The tower holds a ring of six bells , hung for change ringing , five of which were cast in 1787 by Rudhall of Gloucester , and the sixth by Charles and George Mears at the Whitechapel Bell Foundry in 1847 . A seventh , unused , bell dates from 1686 and has been noted as being of historical importance by the Church Buildings Council of the Church of England . The parish registers begin in 1629 , and the churchwardens ' accounts in 1612 .
= = External features = =
The sandstone schoolhouse in the churchyard was built in 1628 ; the school room was on the ground floor and the schoolmaster 's accommodation was above . A large room was added to the rear in 1817 , and in 1908 the building was restored and presented to the parish by Lord Stanley . It is now used as a parish hall and is listed Grade II * .
The medieval church cross in the churchyard , the Stanley Mausoleum , and the churchyard walls , gate piers and gates , are Grade II listed .
The mausoleum was built in 1909 by Edward Lyulph , 4th Lord Stanley . He died in 1925 and it contains his ashes and those of his wife , Mary Katherine , who died in 1929 . The mausoleum is built in ashlar buff and red sandstone with a Kerridge stone @-@ slate roof . It was designed in the neo @-@ Jacobean style by Paul Phipps , and is rectangular in shape , with two storeys and a three @-@ bay north front . The central bay contains a door , above which is the Stanley crest , a three @-@ light window and a date plaque in the gable . On the sides of the upper storey are three four @-@ light windows . Inside the mausoleum is a white marble sarcophagus . The yew tree in the churchyard is 1 @,@ 200 years old .
= = Rediscovery of the crypt = =
It had been known that under the church was a vault containing the remains of some members of the Stanley family but its whereabouts were not known until they were discovered by an architect in 2007 . A stone slab was removed exposing steps leading to a crypt under the chancel . This contained six coffins , four of which contained the bodies of the first and second Lords Stanley and their wives . Once the details had been recorded , the crypt was resealed .
= = Present activities = =
St Mary 's holds a variety of Anglican services on Sundays and offers a range of church activities . The church is open to visitors at advertised times and guided tours are available . A parish magazine is published monthly .
= Tawny nurse shark =
The tawny nurse shark ( Nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family Ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus Nebrius . It is found widely along coastlines in the Indo @-@ Pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) . With a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( Ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the Atlantic and East Pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed @-@ tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle @-@ shaped pectoral fins . The maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) .
Nocturnal in habits , the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges . At night , it is an active @-@ swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices . The diet of this species consists mainly of octopus , though they also take other invertebrates , small bony fishes , and rarely sea snakes . It is aplacental viviparous , meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother . It is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus . The litter size may be as small as one or two , based on the large size of near @-@ term embryos .
Compared to the nurse shark , the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it . However , it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth . This species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat , fins , liver oil , leather , and fishmeal . It is also esteemed as a game fish off Queensland , Australia , and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as Vulnerable , with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The tawny nurse shark was first described by French naturalist René @-@ Primevère Lesson as Scyllium ferrugineum , based on a 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) long specimen from New Guinea . His short account was published in 1831 in Voyage au tour du monde , sur la corvette La Coquille . A more detailed description , along with an illustration , was published by German naturalist Eduard Rüppell in 1837 as Nebrius concolor , based on a specimen from the Red Sea . Both names were retained , often in separate genera ( Ginglymostoma and Nebrius respectively ) , until they were synonymized by Leonard Compagno in 1984 . Compagno recognized that the tooth shape differences used to separate these species were the result of differences in age , with N. concolor representing younger individuals .
The genus name Nebrius is derived from the Greek word nebris or nebridos , meaning the skin of a fawn . The specific epithet ferrugineus is Latin for " rust @-@ colored " . Other common names for this species include giant sleepy shark , Madame X ( a name coined by the shark fisherman Norman Caldwell in the 1930s for the then @-@ unidentified Australian specimens ) , nurse shark , rusty catshark , rusty shark , sleepy shark , spitting shark , and tawny shark . Based on morphological similarities , Nebrius is believed to be the sister genus of Ginglymostoma , with both being placed in a clade that also contains the short @-@ tail nurse shark ( Pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum ) , the whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) , and the zebra shark ( Stegostoma fasciatum ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The tawny nurse shark is widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific region . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa northward to the Red Sea , Persian Gulf and India , including Madagascar , Mauritius , the Chagos Archipelago , the Seychelles , and the Maldives . In the western Pacific , it occurs from southern Japan and the coast of China to the Philippines , Southeast Asia , and Indonesia , to as far south as the northern coast of Australia . In the central Pacific , it has been reported from off New Caledonia , Samoa , Palau , the Marshall Islands , and Tahiti . Fossil teeth belonging to this species have been found in the Pirabas Formation of northern Brazil , dating back to the Lower Miocene ( 23 – 16 Ma ) . The presence of these fossils indicates that the range of the tawny nurse shark once extended to the tropical Atlantic Ocean , prior to the formation of the Isthmus of Panama .
An inshore species , the tawny nurse shark inhabits continental and insular shelves over sandy flats or beds of seagrass , as well as along the outer edges of coral or rocky reefs . This shark may be found from the surf zone , often in water barely deep enough to cover its body , to a maximum depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) on coral reefs ; it is most common at a depth of 5 – 30 m ( 16 – 98 ft ) . Young sharks are generally found in the shallow areas of lagoons , while adults may be encountered across a variety of habitats .
= = Description = =
The tawny nurse shark grows to a maximum length of 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) . It has a robust , cylindrical body with a broadly rounded and flattened head . The eyes are small and face laterally , with prominent ridges over them and smaller spiracles behind . There are a pair of long , slender barbels in front of the nostrils . The mouth is small , with the lower lip divided into three lobes . There are 29 – 33 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 26 – 28 tooth rows in the lower jaw , arranged in an imbricate ( overlapping ) pattern with the outermost 2 – 4 functional rows separated from the rest by a narrow space . Each tooth resembles a fan , with a broad base rising to a small , sharp central point flanked by 3 or more smaller cusps on both sides . As the shark ages , the teeth become relatively taller and thicker . The fourth and fifth pairs of gill slits are placed much closer together than the others .
The dorsal and pelvic fins are angular , with the first dorsal fin larger than the second . The pectoral fins are narrow , pointed , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) ; their shape separates this species from the similar @-@ looking nurse shark . The origin of the first dorsal fin is about even with the origin of the pelvic fins , while the origin of the anal fin is even with or somewhat behind the origin of the second dorsal fin . The caudal fin has a shallow upper lobe and barely present lower lobe , comprising about a quarter of the total length in adults . The dermal denticles are diamond @-@ shaped , bearing 4 – 5 faint ridges radiating from a blunt point . Tawny nurse sharks are yellowish , reddish , or grayish brown above and off @-@ white below , and are capable of slowly changing their color to better blend with the environment . Young sharks have starkly white lower eyelids .
Many tawny nurse sharks found off the coasts of Japan , Taiwan , and the Ryukyu Islands lack a second dorsal fin . This physical abnormality has been speculated to result from pregnant females being exposed to water of unusually high salinity and / or temperature , possibly from human activity . In 1986 , a 2 @.@ 9 m ( 9 ft 6 in ) long adult male with both a missing dorsal fin and partial albinism ( in the form of white body color with gray @-@ brown eyes ) was captured off Wakayama Prefecture , Japan . This anomalous individual is the largest albino shark known to date , having survived for a long time in the wild despite its lack of camouflage .
= = Biology and ecology = =
With a more streamlined form than other nurse sharks , the tawny nurse shark is believed to be a less benthic , more active swimmer . The characteristics of its body , head , fins , and teeth are comparable to other active reef sharks sharing its range , such as the sicklefin lemon shark ( Negaprion acutidens ) . Tawny nurse sharks are primarily nocturnal , though they are said to be active at all hours off Madagascar , and in captivity they will become diurnally active if presented with food . During the day , groups of two dozen or more sharks can be found resting inside caves and under ledges , often stacked atop one another . Individual sharks have small home ranges that they consistently return to each day .
The tawny nurse shark has few natural predators ; attacks on this species have been reported from bull sharks ( Carcharhinus leucas ) and great hammerheads ( Sphyrna mokarran ) , while the related nurse shark has been known to fall prey to tiger sharks ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) and lemon sharks ( Negaprion brevirostris ) . Known parasites of this species include five species of tapeworms in the genus Pedibothrium , which infest the shark 's spiral intestine .
= = = Feeding = = =
The tawny nurse shark may be one of the few fishes specializing in preying on octopus . Other known food items include corals , sea urchins , crustaceans ( e.g. crabs and lobsters ) , squid , small fishes ( e.g. surgeonfish , queenfish , and rabbitfish ) , and the occasional sea snake . Hunting tawny nurse sharks swim slowly just above the sea floor , poking their heads into depressions and holes . When a prey item is found , the shark forcefully expands its large , muscular pharynx , creating a powerful negative pressure that sucks the prey into its mouth .
= = = Life history = = =
Mating in the tawny nurse shark is known to occur from July to August off Madagascar . Adult females have one functional ovary and two functional uteruses . The mode of reproduction is aplacental viviparity , meaning that the embryos hatch inside the uterus ; females in captivity have been documented depositing up to 52 non @-@ viable egg capsules , which has led to erroneous reports of this shark being oviparous . The egg capsules of this species are onion @-@ shaped , with thin , brown , translucent shells . The tawny nurse shark is the only carpet shark in which there is oophagy : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , they gorge on eggs produced by the mother and acquire the distended abdomen characteristic of such oophagous embryos . Unlike in mackerel sharks , the eggs consumed by the embryos are large and shelled rather than small and undeveloped . There is no evidence of sibling cannibalism as in the sand tiger shark ( Carcharias taurus ) .
Various authors have reported the length at birth anywhere from 40 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , with the discrepancy possibly reflecting geographic variation . Although females release up to four fertilized eggs into each uterus , the very large size of the newborns suggest that the litter size may be as few as one or two . In one examined female that had two embryos sharing a single uterus , one embryo was much smaller and thinner than the other , implying that competition may eliminate the additional siblings . Males attain sexual maturity at a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) , and females at a length of 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 7 ft 7 in – 9 ft 6 in ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Encounters with tawny nurse sharks underwater indicate a more docile demeanor than the similar nurse shark ; usually divers are able to approach the sharks closely and even touch and play with them without incident . However , this species has been infrequently provoked into biting , and merits respect due to its strength , small but sharp teeth , and extremely powerful jaws . Tawny nurse sharks are favored attractions for ecotourist divers off Thailand , the Solomon Islands , and elsewhere . This species also adapts well to captivity and is displayed in public aquaria in Europe , the United States , Okinawa , and Singapore , where they may become tame enough to be hand @-@ fed .
The tawny nurse shark is taken by commercial fisheries operating throughout its range , including off Pakistan , India , Thailand , and the Philippines ; an exception is in Australian waters , where it is only taken in small numbers as bycatch . This shark is caught using demersal trawls , floating and fixed bottom gill nets , and on hook @-@ and @-@ line . The meat is sold fresh or dried and salted , the fins are used for shark fin soup , and the offal processed into fishmeal . In addition , the liver is a source of oil and vitamins , and the thick , tough skin is made into leather products . Off Queensland , Australia , the tawny nurse shark is valued by big @-@ game anglers . When hooked , large individuals are tenacious opponents and are difficult to subdue due to their habit of spinning . They are also capable of spitting a powerful jet of water into the faces of their captors , making grunting noises in between jets ( making the tawny shark one of the few species of sharks to produce a noise ) ; whether this is a deliberate defensive behavior is uncertain .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as Vulnerable worldwide , as it faces heavy fishing pressure and its low reproductive and dispersal rates limit the ability of over @-@ exploited populations to recover . Furthermore , this shark 's inshore habitat renders it susceptible to habitat degradation , destructive fishing practices ( e.g. poisons and explosives , especially prevalent off Indonesia and the Philippines ) , and human harassment . Localized declines or extirpations of the tawny nurse shark have been documented off India and Thailand . Off Australia , this species has been assessed as of Least Concern , as there it is not targeted by fisheries .
= California State Route 243 =
State Route 243 ( SR 243 ) , or the Banning @-@ Idyllwild Panoramic Highway , is a 30 @-@ mile ( 50 kilometer ) two @-@ lane highway that runs from Banning , California ( in the north ) to Idyllwild , California ( in the south ) in Riverside County , California . The highway is a connector between Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) and SR 74 . Along its route , it provides access to the San Bernardino National Forest . A road from Banning to Idyllwild was planned around the turn of the twentieth century , and was open by 1910 . The road was added to the state highway system in 1970 .
= = Route description = =
SR 243 begins at SR 74 in the San Jacinto Wilderness near Mountain Center , Riverside County as Idyllwild Road . The highway traverses north along a winding road through the community of Idyllwild . SR 243 makes a left turn at the intersection with Circle Drive and continues through Pine Cove . The road continues through the forest past Mount San Jacinto State Park through Twin Pines and the Morongo Indian Reservation before making a few switchbacks and descending en route to the city of Banning as the Banning Idyllwild Panoramic Highway . The highway continues as San Gorgonio Avenue into the city before making a left onto Lincoln Street and a right onto 8th Street and terminating at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 10 .
SR 243 is part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . SR 243 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , and is officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) , meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a " memorable landscape " with no " visual intrusions " , where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community . In 2007 , it was named the Esperanza Firefighters Memorial Highway in honor of five firefighters who died while fighting the Esperanza Fire in October 2006 . In 2013 , SR 243 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 1 @,@ 650 between Marion Ridge Drive in Idyllwild and San Gorgonio Avenue in Banning , and 6 @,@ 500 at the northern terminus in Banning , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
A road from Banning to Idyllwild was under construction in 1904 , and 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the road was open by August , with an additional six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the road planned . Another four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) were commissioned in 1908 . The oiled road was completed by September 1910 , and provided a view of Lake Elsinore and the Colorado Desert , and it was expected to help with transporting lumber and stopping fires ; because of this , the federal government provided $ 2 @,@ 000 for the construction . The road became a part of the forest highway system in 1927 .
A new " high @-@ gear " road from Banning to Idyllwild was under way by 1935 , and two years later , the Los Angeles Times considered the road to be " high @-@ gear " . Efforts to pave the road were under way in 1950 . The road from Banning through Idyllwild to SR 74 was known as County Route R1 ( CR R1 ) by 1966 . By 1969 , plans were in place to add the Banning to Idyllwild to Mountain Center road as a state highway ; earlier , State Senator Nelson Dilworth proposed legislation to require the road to be added to the state highway system if SR 195 was removed , as the two were of roughly the same length , but the latter remained in the system . SR 243 was added to the state highway system in 1970 . The Division of Highways suggested deleting the highway in 1971 . In 1998 , Caltrans had no plans to improve the route through 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Riverside County .
= = Other important information = =
Firearm Transportation Due to the fact that CA @-@ 243 passes Idyllwild School , pursuant to the Gun @-@ Free School Zones Act of 1990 , firearms , including those in vehicles , must be within the guidelines of 18 U.S.C. § 922 ( q ) ( 2 ) ( B ) within the school zone , which is , as defined by 18 U.S.C. § 921 ( a ) ( 25 ) , is 1000 feet . Violators will be , according to 18 U.S.C. § 924 ( a ) ( 4 ) , " fined under this title , imprisoned for not more than 5 years , or both . "
= The Amps =
The Amps were an American alternative @-@ indie rock group . Formed by Kim Deal in 1995 after her band the Breeders went on hiatus , the group consisted of Deal , vocals and guitars ; Luis Lerma , bass ; Nate Farley , guitars ; and the Breeders ' Jim Macpherson , drums . The Breeders ' Kelley Deal , Kim 's sister , was also briefly involved , but had to leave the band due to drug problems . The group was named when Kim Deal started calling herself Tammy Ampersand for fun , and the band Tammy and the Amps . They recorded the album Pacer in Ireland and the United States .
Pacer was released in October 1995 . The group toured the United States , Europe , and Australia , with bands including the Foo Fighters , Sonic Youth , and Guided by Voices . Critics commented on the loose and rough quality of these performances . The Amps continued as a group until 1996 , when Deal changed their name back to the Breeders . By 2000 , Macpherson , Lerma , and Farley had left the band ; they were all at times involved in various projects with Guided by Voices ' Robert Pollard . Deal 's next album , the Breeders ' Title TK , was released seven years after Pacer .
= = Background and formation = =
From 1986 to 1992 , Deal was a member of the Pixies , and from 1989 onwards , the Breeders . In August 1993 , the Breeders released their second album , Last Splash , which went platinum in the USA , gold in Canada , and silver in the UK . The other members of the group at that time were Kim 's twin sister Kelley Deal , Josephine Wiggs and Jim Macpherson . By late 1994 , after two years of straight touring and recording , and culminating in the Lollapalooza tour , the band members were exhausted ; they decided to take some time off from the Breeders , but this hiatus ended up being longer than expected . Kelley was arrested on drug charges in late 1994 and spent time in and out of rehabilitation , while Wiggs became involved in musical projects in New York , including collaborations with members of Luscious Jackson .
Meanwhile , Kim Deal was eager to continue recording and performing . At first , she envisioned her next album as a solo record , on which she would play all of the instrument parts . When she was recording initial demos for the project , she asked Kelley to play on some of them , to distract her from her drug difficulties . Since Kelley was now also involved , Deal decided not to go solo , but formed a new group . She recruited Macpherson to play drums , musician Luis Lerma , bass , and Nate Farley , guitar . Later , Kelley dropped out of the project for rehabilitation and moved to Saint Paul , Minnesota . For fun , Deal began calling herself Tammy Ampersand , and the group , Tammy and the Amps . This later became simply the Amps .
= = Recording and touring = =
The Amps released one album , Pacer , which was recorded at several different studios . The first session , at Easley Studios in Memphis , Tennessee , was engineered by Davis McCain and Doug Easley . There Deal recorded new songs , including what would become Pacer 's single , " Tipp City " . This recording opportunity came about when she was producing a planned record by Guided by Voices ; when that group abandoned work on their album , Deal used the leftover studio time for her own songs . Following the Easley Studios session , recording for Pacer continued at six other locations in total , including studios in Chicago , Los Angeles , Dublin , and Deal 's hometown , Dayton , Ohio . Engineers Steve Albini , John Agnello , Bryce Goggin and others each helped record one or more of these sessions . Pacer came out in October 1995 .
The Amps toured throughout 1995 and 1996 . Early performances , before releasing Pacer , included June 1995 shows in Dayton : one with Poster Children and another with Guided by Voices . They toured with Guided by Voices and Chavez in the United Kingdom in September , in cities such as London , Glasgow , and Sheffield , and played another show with Guided by Voices in Ohio in October . The Amps performed a series of US concerts in October and November with Sonic Youth , including shows in Detroit and Chicago with Helium , in Seattle and Portland with Bikini Kill , and in Los Angeles with Mike Watt . Following the concerts with Sonic Youth , the Amps did a tour of Europe . In January 1996 , they played the Summersault festival in Australia . That year , the Amps toured with the Foo Fighters in the United States , in locations such as Chicago ( with That Dog ) , Worcester , Massachusetts , and Austin , Texas ( with Jawbreaker ) . In 1995 or 1996 , they also played shows with the Tasties and Brainiac .
Reviewers described live concerts by the Amps as unpolished and relaxed . The Chronicle 's Drema Crist praised their show at an unidentified location as " fun @-@ spirited and silly " . Greg Kot of The Chicago Tribune described one of their Chicago performances as " off @-@ kilter " and wrote that " Deal 's pungent vocals were swallowed up by the guitars , and the foursome 's slight melodies were lost amid all the bashing . " A review in The Chicago Reader of the same concert noted that " The Amps play with a low @-@ key , hangout sound . " The Phoenix 's Matt Ashare felt that at their December 1995 show in Boston " the Amps didn 't click in a way that would suggest that this was Deal 's new , full @-@ time band " ; he added that it was " an unpretentiously gritty way for Deal to let off some steam while the Breeders [ took ] a little break " . In Boston Rock , this concert was characterized as " sloppy " but " charm [ ing ] ... hanging loosely off Kim 's gruff vocals and ebullient personality " .
= = Reforming the Breeders = =
Later in 1996 , Deal changed the name of the group back to the Breeders , originally with almost the same line @-@ up as the Amps . Until then , Deal had been waiting for Wiggs and Kelley to rejoin the Breeders and record a new album together , and had held back from reforming the Breeders out of respect for them . In May 1996 , Wiggs revealed that she would not be involved in any immediate Breeders activity ; Kelley also chose to stay in Saint Paul , to be close to her rehabilitation facility . Deal then decided that she did not want to wait any longer to reform the group , partly because the Breeders ' repertoire was larger than the Amps ' , thereby allowing longer concerts . Deal added violinist Carrie Bradley ( who had played on the Breeders ' Pod album ) , and with Macpherson , Lerma , and Farley , played some shows in 1996 with Primus .
By 1998 , Kelley had rejoined and Macpherson had left the group , and by 2000 Lerma and Farley had also left . The Breeders , with a line @-@ up including the Deal sisters and new members Mando Lopez and Jose Medeles , released the albums Title TK in 2002 and Mountain Battles in 2008 . Meanwhile , Macpherson was a member of Guided by Voices from 1998 to 2001 , and participated in other projects with Guided By Voices ' Robert Pollard until 2005 . Lerma and Farley have been members of the Tasties , and in 1999 participated in Pollard 's Lexo and the Leapers side project group ; Farley was also a member of Guided by Voices from 1999 to 2004 . In 2013 , the Last Splash @-@ era Breeders line @-@ up of Kim and Kelley Deal , Macpherson , and Wiggs reunited to tour to celebrate the 20th anniversary of that album .
= = Members = =
Kim Deal – vocals , guitars
Luis Lerma – bass
Nate Farley – guitars
Jim Macpherson – drums
= = Discography = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Single = = =
= Exploration of Jupiter =
The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft . It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973 , and , as of 2016 , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions . All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit . These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System 's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time . On 5th July 2016 , spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet 's orbit — the second craft ever to do so . Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties , especially due to the probes ' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet 's harsh radiation environment .
The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in 1973 , followed a year later by Pioneer 11 . Aside from taking the first close @-@ up pictures of the planet , the probes discovered its magnetosphere and its largely fluid interior . The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes visited the planet in 1979 , and studied its moons and the ring system , discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa . Ulysses further studied Jupiter 's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000 . The Cassini probe approached the planet in 2000 and took very detailed images of its atmosphere . The New Horizons spacecraft passed by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its and its satellites ' parameters .
The Galileo spacecraft was the first to have entered orbit around Jupiter , arriving in 1995 and studying the planet until 2003 . During this period Galileo gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system , making close approaches to all of the four large Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them , as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath their surfaces . It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede . As it approached Jupiter , it also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 . In December 1995 , it sent an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere , so far the only craft to do so .
In July 2016 , the Juno spacecraft , launched in 2011 , completed its orbital insertion maneuver successfully , and is now in orbit around Jupiter and preparing for its science programme .
The European Space Agency selected the L1 @-@ class JUICE mission in 2012 as part of its Cosmic Vision programme to explore three of Jupiter 's Galilean moons , with a possible Ganymede lander provided by Roscosmos . JUICE is proposed to be launched in 2022 .
= = Technical requirements = =
Flights from Earth to other planets in the Solar System have a high energy cost . It requires almost the same amount of energy for a spacecraft to reach Jupiter from Earth 's orbit as it does to lift it into orbit in the first place . In astrodynamics , this energy expenditure is defined by the net change in the spacecraft 's velocity , or delta @-@ v. The energy needed to reach Jupiter from an Earth orbit requires a delta @-@ v of about 9 km / s , compared to the 9 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 5 km / s to reach a low Earth orbit from the ground . Gravity assists through planetary flybys ( such as by Earth or Venus ) can be used to reduce the energetic requirement ( i.e. the fuel ) at launch , at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration to reach a target such as Jupiter when compared to the direct trajectory . Ion thrusters capable of a delta @-@ v of more than 10 kilometers / s were used on the Dawn spacecraft . This is more than enough delta @-@ v to do a Jupiter fly @-@ by mission from a solar orbit of the same radius as that of Earth without gravity assist .
A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface on which to land , as there is a smooth transition between the planet 's atmosphere and its fluid interior . Any probes descending into the atmosphere are eventually crushed by the immense pressures within Jupiter .
Another major issue is the amount of radiation to which a space probe is subjected , due to the harsh charged @-@ particle environment around Jupiter ( for a detailed explanation see Magnetosphere of Jupiter ) . For example , when Pioneer 11 made its closest approach to the planet , the level of radiation was ten times more powerful than Pioneer 's designers had predicted , leading to fears that the probes would not survive . With a few minor glitches , the probe managed to pass through the radiation belts , but it lost most of the images of the moon Io , as the radiation had caused Pioneer 's imaging photo polarimeter to receive false commands . The subsequent and far more technologically advanced Voyager spacecraft had to be redesigned to cope with the radiation levels . Over the eight years the Galileo spacecraft orbited the planet , the probe 's radiation dose far exceeded its design specifications , and its systems failed on several occasions . The spacecraft 's gyroscopes often exhibited increased errors , and electrical arcs sometimes occurred between its rotating and non @-@ rotating parts , causing it to enter safe mode , which led to total loss of the data from the 16th , 18th and 33rd orbits . The radiation also caused phase shifts in Galileo 's ultra @-@ stable quartz oscillator .
= = Flyby missions = =
= = = Pioneer program ( 1973 and 1974 ) = = =
The first spacecraft to explore Jupiter was Pioneer 10 , which flew past the planet in December 1973 , followed by Pioneer 11 twelve months later . Pioneer 10 obtained the first @-@ ever close @-@ up images of Jupiter and its Galilean moons ; the spacecraft studied the planet 's atmosphere , detected its magnetic field , observed its radiation belts and determined that Jupiter is mainly fluid . Pioneer 11 made its closest approach , within some 34 @,@ 000 km of Jupiter 's cloud tops , on December 4 , 1974 . It obtained dramatic images of the Great Red Spot , made the first observation of Jupiter 's immense polar regions , and determined the mass of Jupiter 's moon Callisto . The information gathered by these two spacecraft helped astronomers and engineers improve the design of future probes to cope more effectively with the environment around the giant planet .
= = = Voyager program ( 1979 ) = = =
Voyager 1 began photographing Jupiter in January 1979 and made its closest approach on March 5 , 1979 , at a distance of 349 @,@ 000 km from Jupiter 's center . This close approach allowed for greater image resolution , though the flyby 's short duration meant that most observations of Jupiter 's moons , rings , magnetic field , and radiation environment were made in the 48 @-@ hour period bracketing the approach , even though Voyager 1 continued photographing the planet until April . It was soon followed by Voyager 2 , which made its closest approach on July 9 , 1979 , 576 @,@ 000 km away from the planet 's cloud tops . The probe discovered Jupiter 's ring , observed intricate vortices in its atmosphere , observed active volcanoes on Io , a process analogous to plate tectonics on Ganymede , and numerous craters on Callisto .
The Voyager missions vastly improved our understanding of the Galilean moons , and also discovered Jupiter 's rings . They also took the first close @-@ up images of the planet 's atmosphere , revealing the Great Red Spot as a complex storm moving in a counter @-@ clockwise direction . Other smaller storms and eddies were found throughout the banded clouds ( see animation on the right ) . Two new , small satellites , Adrastea and Metis , were discovered orbiting just outside the ring , making them the first of Jupiter 's moons to be identified by a spacecraft . A third new satellite , Thebe , was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io .
The discovery of volcanic activity on the moon Io was the greatest unexpected finding of the mission , as it was the first time an active volcano was observed on a celestial body other than Earth . Together , the Voyagers recorded the eruption of nine volcanoes on Io , as well as evidence for other eruptions occurring between the Voyager encounters .
Europa displayed a large number of intersecting linear features in the low @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 1 . At first , scientists believed the features might be deep cracks , caused by crustal rifting or tectonic processes . The high @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 2 , taken closer to Jupiter , left scientists puzzled as the features in these photos were almost entirely lacking in topographic relief . This led many to suggest that these cracks might be similar to ice floes on Earth , and that Europa might have a liquid water interior . Europa may be internally active due to tidal heating at a level about one @-@ tenth that of Io , and as a result , the moon is thought to have a thin crust less than 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) thick of water ice , possibly floating on a 50 @-@ kilometers @-@ deep ( 30 mile ) ocean .
= = = Ulysses ( 1992 ) = = =
On February 8 , 1992 , the Ulysses solar probe flew past Jupiter 's north pole at a distance of 451 @,@ 000 km . This swing @-@ by maneuver was required for Ulysses to attain a very high @-@ inclination orbit around the Sun , increasing its inclination to the ecliptic to 80 @.@ 2 degrees . The giant planet 's gravity bent the spacecraft 's flightpath downward and away from the ecliptic plane , placing it into a final orbit around the Sun 's north and south poles . The size and shape of the probe 's orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree , so that its aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU ( Jupiter 's distance from the Sun ) , while its perihelion lay somewhat beyond 1 AU ( Earth 's distance from the Sun ) . During its Jupiter encounter , the probe made measurements of the planet 's magnetosphere . Since the probe had no cameras , no images were taken . In February 2004 , the probe arrived again at the vicinity of Jupiter . This time the distance from the planet was much greater — about 240 million km — but it made further observations of Jupiter .
= = = Cassini ( 2000 ) = = =
In 2000 , the Cassini probe , en route to Saturn , flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest @-@ resolution images ever taken of the planet . It made its closest approach on December 30 , 2000 , and made many scientific measurements . About 26 @,@ 000 images of Jupiter were taken during the months @-@ long flyby . It produced the most detailed global color portrait of Jupiter yet , in which the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km ( 37 mi ) across .
A major finding of the flyby , announced on March 6 , 2003 , was of Jupiter 's atmospheric circulation . Dark belts alternate with light zones in the atmosphere , and the zones , with their pale clouds , had previously been considered by scientists to be areas of upwelling air , partly because on Earth clouds tend to be formed by rising air . Analysis of Cassini imagery showed that the dark belts contain individual storm cells of upwelling bright @-@ white clouds , too small to see from Earth . Anthony Del Genio of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies said that " the belts must be the areas of net @-@ rising atmospheric motion on Jupiter , [ so ] the net motion in the zones has to be sinking " .
Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric @-@ haze , about the size of the Great Red Spot , near Jupiter 's north pole . Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles , with bands of globe @-@ encircling winds , and adjacent bands moving in opposite directions . The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter 's rings . Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles were irregularly shaped ( rather than spherical ) and likely originated as ejecta from micrometeorite impacts on Jupiter 's moons , probably on Metis and Adrastea . On December 19 , 2000 , the Cassini spacecraft captured a very @-@ low @-@ resolution image of the moon Himalia , but it was too distant to show any surface details .
= = = New Horizons ( 2007 ) = = =
The New Horizons probe , en route to Pluto , flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist and was the first probe launched directly towards Jupiter since the Ulysses in 1990 . Its Long Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) took its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4 , 2006 . The spacecraft began further study of the Jovian system in December 2006 , and made its closest approach on February 28 , 2007 .
Although close to Jupiter , New Horizons ' instruments made refined measurements of the orbits of Jupiter 's inner moons , particularly Amalthea . The probe 's cameras measured volcanoes on Io , studied all four Galilean moons in detail , and made long @-@ distance studies of the outer moons Himalia and Elara . The craft also studied Jupiter 's Little Red Spot and the planet 's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system .
On March 19 , 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself , causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode . The craft fully recovered within two days , with some data loss on Jupiter 's magnetotail . No other data loss events were associated with the encounter . Due to the immense size of the Jupiter system and the relative closeness of the Jovian system to Earth in comparison to the closeness of Pluto to Earth , New Horizons will send back more data to Earth from the Jupiter encounter than the Pluto encounter .
= = Orbiter missions = =
= = = Galileo ( 1995 – 2003 ) = = =
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo orbiter , which went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7 , 1995 . It orbited the planet for over seven years , making 35 orbits before it was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on September 21 , 2003 . During this period , it gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system ; the amount of information was not as great as intended because the deployment of its high @-@ gain radio transmitting antenna failed . The major events during the eight @-@ year study included multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons , as well as Amalthea ( the first probe to do so ) . It also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994 and the sending of an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere in December 1995 .
Cameras on the Galileo spacecraft observed fragments of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 between 16 and 22 July 1994 as they collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere at a speed of approximately 60 kilometres per second . This was the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects . While the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth , Galileo , then at a distance of 1 @.@ 6 AU from the planet , was able to see the impacts as they occurred . Its instruments detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24 @,@ 000 K , compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K ( − 143 ° C ) , with the plume from the fireball reaching a height of over 3 @,@ 000 km .
An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995 , entering the planet 's atmosphere on December 7 , 1995 . After a high @-@ g descent into the Jovian atmosphere , the probe discarded the remains of its heat shield , and it parachuted through 150 km of the atmosphere , collecting data for 57 @.@ 6 minutes , before being crushed by the pressure and temperature to which it was subjected ( about 22 times Earth normal , at a temperature of 153 ° C ) . It would have melted thereafter , and possibly vaporized . The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21 , 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s , in order to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and contaminating Europa .
Major scientific results of the Galileo mission include :
the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet 's atmosphere — the atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths ;
confirmation of extensive volcanic activity on Io — which is 100 times greater than that found on Earth ; the heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth ;
observation of complex plasma interactions in Io 's atmosphere which create immense electrical currents that couple to Jupiter 's atmosphere ;
providing evidence for supporting the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa 's icy surface ;
first detection of a substantial magnetic field around a satellite ( Ganymede ) ;
magnetic data evidence suggesting that Europa , Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid @-@ saltwater layer under the visible surface ;
evidence for a thin atmospheric layer on Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto known as a ' surface @-@ bound exosphere ' ;
understanding of the formation of the rings of Jupiter ( by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids which smash into the planet 's four small inner moons ) and observation of two outer rings and the possibility of a separate ring along Amalthea 's orbit ;
identification of the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet 's magnetosphere .
On December 11 , 2013 , NASA reported , based on results from the Galileo mission , the detection of " clay @-@ like minerals " ( specifically , phyllosilicates ) , often associated with organic materials , on the icy crust of Europa , moon of Jupiter . The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists .
= = = Juno ( 2016 ) = = =
NASA launched Juno on August 5 , 2011 to study Jupiter in detail from a polar orbit when it arrives in 2016 . The spacecraft will be placed in a polar orbit to study the planet 's composition , gravity field , magnetic field , and polar magnetosphere . Juno will also search for clues about how Jupiter formed , including whether the planet has a rocky core , the amount of water present within the deep atmosphere , and how the mass is distributed within the planet . Juno will also study Jupiter 's deep winds , which can reach speeds of 600 km / h . Juno started orbiting Jupiter on the night of 4th July 2016 .
= = = Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( 2022 ) = = =
ESA 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) has been selected as part of ESA 's Cosmic Vision science program . It is expected to launch in 2022 and , after a series of flybys in the inner Solar System , arrive in 2030 . In 2012 , the European Space Agency 's selected the JUpiter ICy moon Explorer ( JUICE ) as its first Large mission , replacing its contribution to EJSM , the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter ( JGO ) . The partnership for the Europa Jupiter System Mission has since ended , but NASA will continue to contribute the European mission with hardware and an instrument .
= = Proposed missions = =
The Europa Clipper is a mission proposed to NASA to focus on studying Jupiter 's moon Europa . In March 2013 , funds were authorized for " pre @-@ formulation and / or formulation activities for a mission that meets the science goals outlined for the Jupiter Europa mission in the most recent planetary decadal survey " . The proposed mission would be set to launch in the early 2020s and reach Europa after a 6 @.@ 5 year cruise . The spacecraft would fly by the moon 32 times to minimize radiation damage .
= = = Canceled missions = = =
Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa , Ganymede and Callisto , there has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail . Funding difficulties have delayed progress . The Europa Orbiter was a planned NASA mission to Europa , which was canceled in 2002 . Its main objectives included determining the presence or absence of a subsurface ocean and identifying candidate sites for future lander missions . NASA 's JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) , which was canceled in 2005 , and a European Jovian Europa Orbiter mission were also studied , but were superseded by the Europa Jupiter System Mission .
The Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter and its moons . In February 2009 it was announced that both space agencies had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission . The proposal included a launch date of around 2020 and consists of the NASA @-@ led Jupiter Europa Orbiter , and the ESA @-@ led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter . ESA 's contribution had encountered funding competition from other ESA projects . However , the Jupiter Europa Orbiter ( JEO ) , NASA 's contribution , was considered by the Planetary Decadal Survey to be too expensive . The survey supported a cheaper alternative to JEO .
= = Human exploration = =
While scientists require further evidence to determine the extent of a rocky core on Jupiter , its Galilean moons provide the potential opportunity for future human exploration .
Particular targets are Europa , due to its potential for life , and Callisto , due to its relatively low radiation dose . In 2003 , NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration ( HOPE ) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons . NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s . In the Vision for Space Exploration policy announced in January 2004 , NASA discussed missions beyond Mars , mentioning that a " human research presence " may be desirable on Jupiter 's moons . Before the JIMO mission was cancelled , NASA administrator Sean O 'Keefe stated that " human explorers will follow . "
= = = Potential for colonization = = =
NASA has speculated on the feasibility of mining the atmospheres of the outer planets , particularly for helium @-@ 3 , an isotope of helium that is rare on Earth and could have a very high value per unit mass as thermonuclear fuel . Factories stationed in orbit could mine the gas and deliver it to visiting craft . However , the Jovian system in general poses particular disadvantages for colonization because of the severe radiation conditions prevailing in Jupiter 's magnetosphere and the planet 's particularly deep gravitational well . Jupiter would deliver about 36 Sv ( 3600 rem ) per day to unshielded colonists at Io and about 5 @.@ 4 Sv ( 540 rems ) per day to unshielded colonists at Europa , which is a decisive aspect due to the fact that already an exposure to about 0 @.@ 75 Sv over a period of a few days is enough to cause radiation poisoning , and about 5 Sv over a few days is fatal .
Ganymede is the Solar System 's largest moon and the Solar System 's only known moon with a magnetosphere , but this does not shield it from cosmic radiation to a noteworthy degree , because it is overshadowed by Jupiter 's magnetic field . Ganymede receives about 0 @.@ 08 Sv ( 8 rem ) of radiation per day . Callisto is farther from Jupiter 's strong radiation belt and subject to only 0 @.@ 0001 Sv ( 0 @.@ 01 rem ) a day . For comparison , the average amount of radiation taken on Earth by a living organism is about 0 @.@ 0024 Sv per year ; the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are recorded around Ramsar hot springs at about 0 @.@ 26 Sv per year .
One of the main targets chosen by the HOPE study was Callisto . The possibility of building a surface base on Callisto was proposed , because of the low radiation levels at its distance from Jupiter and its geological stability . Callisto is the only Galilean satellite for which human exploration is feasible . The levels of ionizing radiation on Io , Europa , and Ganymede are hostile to human life , and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised .
It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System . In 1997 , the Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa . According to this plan , explorers would drill down into the Europan ice crust , entering the postulated subsurface ocean , where they would inhabit artificial air pockets .
= Fort Glanville Conservation Park =
Fort Glanville Conservation Park is a protected area located in the Australian state of South Australia located in Semaphore Park , a seaside suburb of Adelaide consisting of a functional 19th century fort listed on the South Australian Heritage Register and some adjoining land . The fort was built after more than 40 years of indecision over the defence of South Australia . It was the first colonial fortification in the state and is the best preserved and most functional in Australia . Fort Glanville was designed by Governor Major General Sir William Jervois and Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scratchley , both important figures in early Australian colonial defence . When built it was designed to defend both Semaphore 's anchorage and shipping entering the Port River from naval attack .
Construction of the fort began in 1878 . It was officially opened in October 1880 and completed by 1882 . Due to changes in the Port River and shipping movements , Fort Largs surpassed it for strategic importance by 1890 . By the close of the 19th century , the fort was largely unused and had no defence significance . It was briefly used for military purposes during World War I and World War II , though not for its original defensive role . For much of the 20th century the area was put to a variety of uses including accommodation , a caravan park and a boy scout campsite . After coming into state government hands in 1951 it was declared as a conservation park and is now managed by the Department of Environment , Water and Natural Resources ( DEWNR ) ; preserving and showcasing its historic value . The fort and surrounds occupy the northern half of the 5 @-@ hectare ( 12 @-@ acre ) conservation park , the southern half is a caravan park . The fort is a lunette shaped defensible battery that was supported by land forces for self @-@ defence . When constructed it was seen as state of the art , incorporating powerful and modern weapons . Its main armament is two rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) 10 inch 20 ton guns backed up by two RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , both rare in their particular configuration . The fort retains its original 19th century cannons and three have been restored to working condition .
Fort Glanville Historical Association operates the park under license and conducts open days in the park , recreating the past operation of the fort including military drill and the firing of period weapons . The Association , park service , other volunteers and various grants have all helped ensure the fort is presented in close to original condition . It is the most complete 19th Century fort in Australia , and one of very few in the world that remains in original condition . Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge passenger steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum .
= = Historic background = =
In the early years of colonial South Australia , the colonists saw themselves as part of the British Empire and external defence as an Imperial responsibility . Communication lines were long and the empire 's wars remote . Great Britain had undisputed military predominance and she was expected by all to protect her colonies , even one as distant . For local defence , Governor Gawler raised the first military force in 1840 , composed solely of volunteers and known as the South Australian Volunteer Militia Brigade . It was granted the " Royal " title in 1841 but the brigade had all but ceased to exist a year later . The colony obtained its first artillery in 1847 with the arrival of six field guns of various types .
Tensions between Britain and the Russian Empire in the 1850s , as starkly demonstrated by the Crimean War , along with Australia @-@ wide moves towards self @-@ government caused a reassessment of the colony 's defence posture . The various colonies regarded themselves as possible targets for the Russian Pacific Fleet , then based in Siberia . In 1854 , Governor Henry Young appointed a commission under Boyle Travers Finniss to report on the defence of the colony , in case of war . Boyle 's report recommended leaving strategic defence in the hands of the Imperial Navy , though South Australia was to purchase a 400 ton naval vessel . Local defence was to be largely handled by the existing small Imperial garrison and local colonial force , supported by the artillery obtained in 1847 . When the Crimean War ended in 1856 , the danger passed and the perceived need for expensive defence preparations with it . For many years nothing substantive came about from debate on defence of the colony . Over time there formed a consensus favouring Semaphore for fixed defences or fortification ; a strategy also argued by the government established Hart Commission in 1858 . Raiders were seen as unlikely to force the shallows of the Port River but instead were expected to stand off Semaphore , shell the port and use their guns to support landings . The Hart Report recommended building of martello towers at Semaphore and Glenelg , the first report to recommend permanent fortification at Semaphore , though none were built mainly due to the cost .
The volunteer military force was revived in 1859 , with new and modern arms for the infantry , cavalry and artillery . Though there was a few years of enthusiasm and a restructuring in 1866 , by 1870 the force was virtually disbanded . In that year also , British troops were withdrawn from the other Australian colonies ; none were by then stationed in South Australia . With no definitive defence policy , in 1864 the government had sought advice from Captain Parkin of HMS Falcon and Commodore Sir William Wiseman commander of the Australian station ; both visiting British naval officers . They both recommended fixed fortifications for the coast supported by gunboats . Sir Wiseman 's report particularly recommended construction of forts at Semaphore , Port Creek 's entrance and one midway between . In 1864 a story circulated , supported by press speculation , that there was a danger of the Russian fleet attacking Melbourne should Russia and Britain find themselves at war . The South Australian Register produced an editorial decrying the states lack of defences . Within days £ 20 @,@ 000 ( A $ 4 @.@ 14 million in 2005 ) was provided by the government for defence , an amount then seen as insufficient for significant preparation . The danger passed without any lasting defence action except the government 's in @-@ principle adoption of Sir Wiseman 's recommendations . To curtail costs only the Semaphore fort was to be built initially , as it was considered the most critical . Site preparation begun and two 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns were purchased , but escalating cost estimates caused the plan to be abandoned by 1868 .
During the early 1870s South Australia 's defence was solely dependent on the volunteer military , and a few artillery pieces purchased during earlier war scares . British troops had been withdrawn from the Australian colonies in 1870 , leaving the state dependent on its own military resources . In a report to the government in 1866 , Colonel Freeling and Major Peter Scratchley recommended establishment of a permanent military force . In 1876 the South Australian government , along with those from New South Wales , Victoria and Queensland requested from the War Office that Major General Sir William Jervois , a noted coastal fortification expert , be appointed to advise on defence needs . He arrived in Sydney in mid @-@ 1877 with then Lieutenant Colonel Scratchley . The 1877 report , delivered after he became South Australian Governor , called for three batteries , at Largs Bay , Semaphore and Glenelg , connected by a military road and supported by field gun emplacements , naval elements and mobile forces . He determined that South Australia 's most probable defence risk was an attack by up to two ships rather than a larger force , and this formed the basis of the final fortification design . His report called for Military Road to be extended to Marino , an electro @-@ contact torpedo station be established on Torrens Island and that a gun boat be provided . In November 1878 the government passed the Military Forces Act , which provided for the raising of a permanent military force and reserve . Two volunteer reserve rifle companies were formed in 1878 and a permanent artillery unit in 1882 .
At this time Semaphore , with its jetty built in 1860 , was the state 's main entry point for passengers and mail . It had a signal station ( built 1872 ) and a time ball tower ( built 1875 ) . Semaphore remained of great maritime significance for the state until the 1880s . When the decision was made to build the fort , in 1878 , the state 's population had reached approximately 250 @,@ 000 . Settlement extended beyond Port Augusta , though Adelaide remained the dominant feature in the economy partly due to the layout of the rail network . At this point Adelaide had a population of over 30 @,@ 000 . Port Adelaide was the main port for South Australia , with over 1000 ships visiting each year , and a local population of over 2 @,@ 500 .
= = Foundation = =
Scratchley had inspected the proposed South Australian fort sites , and Jervois and Scratchley were both responsible for the final fort design and location . The first fort was erected to guard both the entrance to Port Adelaide and the anchorage at Semaphore . It was built on sandhills near Glanville Hall at Semaphore , on a promontory called " Point Malcom " — a name that is now used for an adjacent reserve . The site was chosen so as to best guard shipping sailing to both the Port River and the Outer Harbour ; and a second northern fort was to protect the entrance to Port River itself . At the time of its construction it was seen as a defence against foreign threats , mainly Russian . Scratchley had offered to design the battery , the offer accepted by Cabinet in January 1878 , and he was primarily responsible for the design of both Fort Glanville and Fort Largs . The plans were drawn by Alexander Bain Moncrieff of the South Australian Engineer @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Department , supervised by Scratchley in his Melbourne headquarters . Moncrieff , at Scratchley 's suggestion , was later to supervise the fort 's construction . Plans for both batteries were completed in June 1878 , tenders called for in July and the contract for Fort Glanville awarded in August to John Robb of Kapunda , South Australia for the sum of £ 15 @,@ 893 12s 7d .
Construction began in 1878 and though completed by 1882 the fort was operational in 1880 . Changes were made to the design during construction . Some forced by armament changes and others made to ensure additional security , including a rear @-@ defence wall and connecting road from Military Road . By January 1880 two guns were in place and the fort opened later the same year with an extensive opening ceremony on 2 October . In addition to parades , a small target was moored 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) offshore and fired on by all guns . A total of sixteen shots were fired during which one of the ten inch guns proved faulty . Only one ranging shot was fired and the shots were estimated to land from on @-@ target to 350 yards short . The fort 's final cost was approximately £ 36 @,@ 000 ( A $ 7 @.@ 05 million in 2005 ) consisting of £ 23 @,@ 600 for physical structures and the remainder for armament and fittings . At the time of its construction it was at the forefront of such fortification design , and was considered state of the art .
When first conceived , it was known as the Semaphore Battery , later changed to South Battery and then Fort Glanville by the opening ceremony . The name Glanville came from nearby Glanville Hall , residence of John Hart ( 1809 – 1873 ) thrice Premier of South Australia . Hart had named the house after his mother 's maiden name ( Mary Glanville ) .
= = Personnel = =
For the eighteen months after its opening , the fort was manned by B company of the South Australian Volunteer Artillery but only on weekends . This changed in mid @-@ 1882 when South Australia 's first permanent military force was formed . The fort became the headquarters for the South Australian Permanent Military Force , then the state 's entire standing army of one officer and eighteen other ranks . Some of the unit was stationed at nearby Fort Largs from 1886 ; and , by 1889 the unit had grown to one officer and 45 other ranks . This force grew to 53 of all ranks by 1892 and was by then known as the Permanent Artillery . The unit trained 27 more non @-@ commissioned officers and men who were sent to man the King George Sound batteries near Albany , Western Australia . Though some of the gunners served in the Second Boer War , the unit itself never saw action . Fort Glanville 's section was called out in 1890 , marching to assist the police with a waterside worker 's strike in Port Adelaide . In this case no shots were fired and the strikers did not confront the police or troops . Additional defence acts were passed in 1886 , 1890 and 1895 but , until defence passed into federal hands after 1901 , the state 's permanent military force was composed solely of artillery . Shortly after the federation of Australia , a regiment of the Royal Australian Artillery ( RAA ) was formed and what had been the Permanent Artillery became No.10 company RAA . The fort was manned to an extent during World War I , with one non @-@ commissioned officer and 11 gunners stationed as of November 1914 . Military reports and orders show the fort manned to at least mid @-@ 1918 , though at this point it is doubtful if the guns were fit to engage targets .
There is little in the way of surviving personnel records from the fort 's active time . They may have either been destroyed or transferred to Melbourne after federation . The fort 's record book shows it manned by a section of either the Royal Australian Artillery or B Company of the militia garrison artillery . For the time covered by the book , strength varied from 56 to 108 men of all ranks . Two figures who served at the fort are remembered for their impact outside its operation :
Battery Sergeant Major Charles Moritz , who initially joined the volunteer artillery and was the Permanent Artillery 's first recruit .
Joseph Maria Gordon ( 1856 – 1929 ) , the fort 's first commander and later military commandant for South Australia . Gordon retired in 1914 as Chief of the General Staff , Australian Military Forces .
= = Structure = =
The fort is designed as a defensible battery , rather than a defensive strongpoint . The faces of the fort join to form a half @-@ moon shape or lunette . The guns ' primary role was to defend Port Adelaide and the Semaphore anchorage rather than the fort itself , and the design reflects this . It was intended to be supported by field artillery , cavalry and infantry for self @-@ defence and to repel landings . While the fort retains its original form , the ditch and glacis ( embankment ) have been modified and are largely non @-@ existent in some areas . Ground levels have been changed to accommodate paths and a caravan park , and the original western fence no longer exists .
The entrance road was constructed from Military Road to the fort 's rear gates . Its path is largely followed by the modern Queen Elizabeth II walk , though the former road was slightly to the south . This walk links the conservation park 's visitor centre to the fort gates ; some of the old road can still be seen close to the gates . What was the muster ground is partly taken up by the caravan and camping park and a car park . It was levelled and filled in the 1950s for this use . What remains of this ground , north of the caravan park , was returned to its 1880s profile in 1993 funded by a Federal Government grant . In the 19th century , the muster ground was used for training of the Volunteer Military Force including artillery , who camped on the site . As designed the fort 's rear was protected with a wooden palisade or stockade . In 1881 a masonry wall was added , greatly strengthening defence . Most of the stockade was reconstructed in the 1970s ; some of the original wooden structure is visible in the fort 's north .
= = = Fortification = = =
The main defensive structure is a revetted lunette shaped earthwork . It has a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) thick rampart with 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) of concrete and 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft ) of brick forming a retaining wall for the earth fill . The rampart is covered by natural vegetation and , in both the 19th and 21st century operation , is closed to access to preserve this . The glacis gives extra protection to the fort and was designed to blend the fort into the landscape . It surrounded the fort on the north , south and seaward sides and was made by forming the surrounding sandhills . The side facing the fort — the scarp — is steep and , with the front face of the rampart , forms a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide ditch that can be raked by rifle fire from the caponier or the stockade 's sides . The outer face is a gentle slope and is designed to be covered by case shot fired from the fort 's 64 @-@ pounder guns . The southern glacis section was removed during sand mining and construction of the caravan park , both after World War II . The western glacis is changed , but still visible , and the northern glacis was recreated in 1993 — showcasing the purpose of the glacis and the function of the caponier . Access to the fort is via double gates at the fort 's rear , one each through the stockade and the rear defence wall . Both gates were removed or destroyed over time and the 21st century gates are reconstructions . The formal parade ground or manning parade lies between the rear walls and barracks , and the raised terreplein . It was formerly used for drill training , assembly and formal parades . First gravelled when constructed , it was paved with tar in the 1890s to solve drainage problems . Around the seaward side of the manning parade runs the terreplein . It is a raised crescent shaped level on which the guns platforms sit , and is ascended from the manning parade by ramps and stairs .
After numerous proposals the sand hills rear and north of the fort were removed in 1882 , improving the fort 's land defence and allowing the 64 @-@ pounder guns to sweep the Semaphore jetty . This now levelled area was used as a bivouac and exercise area for the colony 's volunteer troops . A stable , office , shed and gunner 's store were also erected north of the fort . The gunner 's shed was damaged by fire in 1895 and replaced further eastward . These buildings did not survive into the 21st century .
= = = Internal rooms = = =
On either side of the terreplein , wide of the 64 @-@ pound guns , are two small rooms known as the expense stores . They were used for ready @-@ to @-@ use ammunition for the adjacent guns , except for armour piercing shells which were stored in the rear @-@ defence wall 's archways . Between the 64 @-@ pounders and the 10 " gun positions are two raised observation platforms set into the structure for gun commanders to spot the fall of outgoing shells . Ranging was either performed from here or from a ranging position set in the sand hills to the fort 's north . Between the 10 " guns is a T @-@ shaped loading gallery that draws shells and gunpowder via a hoist system from the magazine below . Either side of the gallery was installed the Armstrong mechanical loading systems for the 10 " guns . These mechanical systems proved unsuccessful and were removed in the 1890s , though the southern one has been reconstructed . The magazine is accessed from the manning parade and is directly beneath the 10 " gun loading gallery . Voice pipes and hoists originally installed have been removed but their remains are visible .
The caponier ( rifle gallery ) extends into the ditch between the rampart and glacis from the fort 's north west corner . It is connected to the fort via a tunnel , running under the rampart from the manning parade . For blast protection and defensibility the tunnel was built with a dogleg . The caponier has rifle firing ports and was originally protected from direct artillery fire by the glacis . Early plans showed the caponier extending from the fort 's south west , and a tunnel linking the magazine and southern guns .
= = = Buildings = = =
The barracks consists of two levels , with rifle firing holes on all sides . Iron shutters closed on the inside and were locked with wooden beams . In 1885 the verandah facing the manning parade was enclosed with wooden shutters to keep the weather out . These shutters were removed during 20th @-@ century restoration work and the verandah returned to original condition . The roof was at first flat timber overlaid by 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of lime concrete . This first roof leaked and an iron roof was added in 1885 . The first floor of the barracks contains the officer 's rooms and troop 's barracks room . Its eastern ( outer ) wall is not flat , incorporating a design feature known as " hornwork " , which opens the field of fire from the rifle holes . Some of the firing holes were bricked in during the 1930s ; this has been only partly rectified during restoration .
The basement contains the gunner 's mess , canteen , No. 1 ancillary store , pantry and officer 's kitchen . The canteen sold everyday necessities as well as a few items like biscuits , sweets and tobacco to the stationed troops . Profits from the canteen were used to fund sporting equipment for the garrison . The No.1 ancillary store was used for various pieces of delicate equipment , fuses , friction tubes and rockets . In 1887 an explosion in the room caused a number of injuries , damage to the store and to the above officer 's quarters . The barracks room and officer 's quarters are connected with a door , probably added in the 1930s as it is not part of the original plans . The barracks room accommodated approximately 20 men . For display purposes it is outfitted as for similar period barracks .
A laboratory is built into the rear wall , on the forts southern side . This room is set into the end of the rampart and was used to prepare gunpowder charges . A guardhouse was built at the manning parade 's southern end in 1885 . It is now used as a duty room for the drill squad during recreation demonstrations but originally was a guard 's room and separate cells connected by telephone to Fort Largs . Up to three men appear to have been accommodated in the guard 's room . When the fort was converted to use as a caravan park the guard house was converted to an ablution block . A store and ablution block were also built in 1885 between the stockade and rear defence wall .
= = Armament = =
Early plans for the fort 's armament were drawn up by Harding Stewart of the British War Office . They called for four 9 in ( 230 mm ) 12 long tons ( 12 t ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns , two mounted in turrets and two behind vertical iron shields . This configuration of siege artillery had not been tried before and the plan was abandoned due to the large expected cost . Two of the 9 in guns had been in South Australia since c.1868 after a Colonial Government request , but were not used in the eventual fort design . The final Jervois / Scratchley design omitted the turret and iron shields . 64 @-@ pounder RML guns were substituted for two of the 9 in guns and 10 in 20 ton RML guns for the remaining two . The 20 ton guns were chosen over the then standard 18 ton gun by Jervois after he saw the plans in England , the decision influenced by the then fully committed nature of the Royal Arsenal . Jervois had originally ordered the 18 ton guns but cancelled the order and changed to the Armstrong 20 ton when the arsenal was unable fulfil the order . He also ordered Armstrong 's mechanical loading and protected barbette system for the 20 ton guns . This original battery of four heavy guns remains in place at the fort .
= = = 10 inch RML guns = = =
The fort 's main armament were the two RML 10 inch 20 ton guns — Numbers 3470 and 3472 . They were manufactured in 1879 by WG Armstrong and Company and originally used the Armstrong protected barbette loading system . They were made to the 1878 pattern and supplied on traversing slides . The guns have a 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) calibre , a range of 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) with a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 630 feet per second ( 497 m / s ) and are capable of penetrating 11 inches ( 28 cm ) of iron at 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
They fire 400 @-@ pound ( 181 kg ) projectiles using a 130 @-@ pound ( 59 kg ) gunpowder cartridge . Though they were insufficient against contemporary battleships , they were seen as adequate for the light cruisers that the fort was expected to face . The carriages weighed 13 long tons ( 13 t ) and moved on semi @-@ circular traverses . The guns were loaded either manually — using the Woolwich ( derrick ) system — or via the Armstrong mechanical loader . The Armstrong system enabled loading of the guns from behind the protection of the rampart whereas the manual system required at least two crew to be exposed on the rampart 's top . Despite this the guns were manually loaded for most of their operational life as the Armstrong cable drive was faulty and too difficult to maintain . The guns had a 14 @-@ man crew and loading took about 2 minutes , a rate of fire that was only slightly faster using the Armstrong equipment .
By 1902 the guns had together fired 219 rounds , though not all at full charge with the records showing only 125 effective full charges . The platforms and traverses were scrapped in 1937 but the gun barrels were uneconomic to cut up and were left in place . One gun platform and its equipment was rebuilt in 1997 using money raised by Fort Glanville Historical Association volunteers working at the Australian Grand Prix .
= = = 64 pounder RML guns = = =
In the flank barbettes are mounted two mark III RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , numbers 462 and 463 . They are rifled muzzle @-@ loading heavy guns weighing 64 long hundredweight ( 3 @,@ 300 kg ) with a 6 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) calibre steel barrel . They were made to the model 's 1867 pattern by the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , England in 1872 . Their intended use was to protect the flanks and approaches to the fort . These smaller guns use an 8 lb ( 4 kg ) charge of gunpowder to send a 64 lb ( 29 kg ) projectile up to 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . There are iron rings fixed in the rampart wall that indicate traversing gun carriages were intended to be mounted , though this never eventuated . The guns were supplied with siege over @-@ bank carriages . The lower carriage sections are the type made for the guns when used as field pieces and the upper sections are brackets that raise the guns to the over @-@ bank firing position . In this particular configuration the two guns are thought to be the last in the world .
By the end of their active use in 1902 together they had fired 1540 rounds in practice , though not all at full power as they are recorded as firing under 300 effective full charges . By then the wheels were significantly rotted and the ammunition limbers had become unserviceable . Less wheels , the guns were removed from the fort in 1909 ; Adelaide 's city council then set them in Brougham Gardens , North Adelaide . Both were returned to the fort in 1976 and remounted on restored carriages of the original design . They are the only two guns of their type remaining in Australia . The southern gun ( Number 463 ) fired three blank charges in 1980 to mark the centenary of the first firing at the fort . This same gun is fired regularly by the volunteers of the Fort Glanville Historical Association ( FGHA ) .
Both types of heavy guns used where the only ones of their specific series and type to come to Australia . Though they were never fired in anger , the battery is only 40 feet ( 12 m ) above mean sea level which would have limited the accuracy of the mark III depression rangefinders used .
= = = Other weaponry = = =
Prior to 1895 two 6 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns had been imported for use in small boats . This use was rejected by military authorities and the guns sat unused . In 1895 the South Australian Defence Committee proposed that the guns be mounted at Fort Glanville , replacing the 64 @-@ pounders whose siege carriages were then unfit for service . This proposal would have greatly extended the useful life of the fort , at little cost . The two military branches , army and navy , could not reach agreement and the proposal was abandoned by 1897 . The gun 's eventual fate is unknown , though a gun found in the Port River later indicates they may have been dumped .
Gun emplacements were made , about a mile apart south of the fort , for six 16 @-@ pounder field guns to provide close defence in case of an attempted beach landing . From 1890 the fort was equipped with moveable armament . It received an 1867 Whitworth 12 @-@ pounder RML field gun and a 5 @-@ barrel 0 @.@ 45 " Martini @-@ henry cartridge firing Nordenfelt gun . The 12 @-@ pounder had fired 222 effective full charges by 1902 ; at which time both weapons were obsolete and their eventual fate is unknown . A 32 @-@ pounder 56 long cwt ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) smoothbore gun on a stepped wooden carriage was purchased in 1878 . Manufactured by the Royal Arsenal in 1806 , it was the familiar " ships cannon " and came to South Australia with two other identical guns . By 1902 no ammunition was held for it and it was listed as for instruction only . The gun was probably destroyed in the 1930s — certainly by the end of the 1940s — with pieces of such a gun found on site in 1983 .
In the late 20th century the fort acquired three 16 @-@ pounder RML mark I field guns . They were formerly used by A battery , South Australian Volunteer Artillery from 1880 until 1901 . Gun number 288 is complete and used for blank firings by the Historical Association . Also acquired is a 2 @-@ pounder RML Whitworth mountain gun made in 1867 . It was also used by A Battery , subsequently by Fort Largs as a signal gun . It is one of only two of this type known to exist , the other in the United Kingdom . The visitors centre has two 9 @-@ pounder brass smoothbore field guns made by H & C King in 1819 . They arrived in South Australia in 1857 and were used for practice shoots near the fort c.1860 ; one is known to have been on the manning parade in 1890 though its use is unknown . They later became saluting guns at Fort Largs , moving by 1919 to near the Jervois Wing of the State Library of South Australia . The Art Gallery of South Australia saved them from a 1941 wartime scrap drive and mounted them on reproduction naval carriages in front of Government House in 1962 . The gallery took them back in late 1977 and transferred them to the History Trust of South Australia in 1988 . The History Trust has loaned them to Fort Glanville for display . Outside the visitor 's centre is a 6 in ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading Armstrong 80 long cwt ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) gun ( No.4242 ) that was made in 1884 and used in Victoria . The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) brought it to the state in 1966 for research , subsequently moving it to Perry Engineering at Mile End . In 1984 the CSIRO donated the gun to the park .
= = Defence significance = =
Work began in 1882 on Fort Glanville 's northern sister Fort Largs — then known as the Port Adelaide battery — to the same specification as Fort Glanville ; its barracks and rear defence wall were finished in 1885 . Though guns had already been purchased specially , plans for the third fort at Glenelg were not proceeded with . South Australia was experiencing a depression in 1886 and that coupled with a report by General James Bevan Edwards scuttled plans for the third coastal fort . As early as 1888 the emphasis for defence of the Adelaide coast had already shifted to Fort Largs ; a fact cited as part of the reason for abandonment of the Glenelg fortifications .
From this point Fort Glanville 's significance declined rapidly . Fort Largs was equipped in 1889 with two 6 inch breech @-@ loading disappearing guns which outranged Glanville 's armament . The decline was also linked to changes in Port Adelaide 's maritime facilities and the consequent northward movement of anchored and berthed vessels . During the 1880s the Port River was deepened enabling large ships to sail up and berth , rather than the former practice of anchoring off @-@ shore .
The fort remained as headquarters of South Australia 's permanent military force until the 1890s and as late as 1895 there were still plans to upgrade the 64 @-@ pounder armament , though without result . By 1901 the fort was manned on a caretaker basis only and no permanent forces were stationed . The Federal Government assumed responsibility for South Australian defence in 1903 and took over the fort . Though Glanville by then had no significant defence role , the state received £ 14 @,@ 739 in compensation . From that point its significance was not defence related but as the first and best preserved 19th @-@ century fortification in South Australia .
= = 20th century = =
At Federation in 1901 South Australia 's defences became a federal responsibility . Though both infantry and artillery units were housed at the site on occasion , by 1903 there was no longer a permanent military presence at the fort . For most of the 20th century the site was neglected and largely vacated . It did attract some usage though not always of a military nature . During World War I it was partly revived for a former use , with ammunition stored on site . During the same period however the military used it as a detention barracks . Some or all of the fort was leased for private accommodation during the great depression . During the 1930s the magazine was again used , this time to store small arms ammunition . From June 1931 until the beginning of World War II the site housed a Sea Scout detachment , and was used as a district camp @-@ site for the Boy Scouts . The Department of Defence decided in 1937 that much of the equipment and fittings at the fort were surplus to requirements . Consequent to this the mountings and carriages for the 10 inch guns were removed and sold as scrap ; though effort was made to scrap the barrels it proved uneconomic and they were left in place . In an unusual turn of events , the fort briefly housed refugees . Twenty @-@ nine islanders from the Maldives were rescued from their sinking dhow by a ship bound for Wallaroo . They stayed at the fort for a week in 1938 , before repatriation could be arranged . During World War II the fort again attracted military related use . During 1944 the Proof and Experimental Establishment at Port Wakefield made use of the site to proof ordnance QF 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns manufactured at General Motors Holden in Woodville . The fort was also used as a residence again , with at least two families reported as living in the under @-@ ground sections during the war .
After the war , the State Government negotiated with its federal counterpart to gain control of Fort Glanville . This eventuated in the 1951 sale of the 13 @-@ acre ( 5 ha ) site , which was subsequently administered by the State Tourist Department as a caravan and camping park . The park occupied the muster ground outside the fort and the fort 's barracks building was used as a manager 's residence . The caravan park has had various managers since establishment : Until 1981 it was managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , by Woodville Council until 1986 and subsequently by a private operator under a long @-@ term lease .
A significant change in the fort 's conservation and preservation outlook was its declaration as a Historic Relic under the Aboriginal and Historic Relics Preservation Act in 1972 . Up to then there had been growing awareness of the significance of the site in terms of the state 's colonial heritage . Control of the park was moved to the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , and the fort and surrounds became designated as Fort Glanville Conservation Park . The National Estate Grants Program provided funds in 1975 for conservation work ; NPWS began this work in the same year and the caravan park boundary was moved southwards . Though the site had long been neglected , there was minimal permanent damage to its structure . During the 1970s reconstruction , much of the stockade was replaced . The replaced timbers are visibly different as they have shrunk significantly with large gaps that are not evident in the original timber . Adelaide City Council agreed to return the 64 @-@ pounder guns and new wheels were made ; replacing those rotted over half a century before . In a ceremony on 2 October 1980 , the 100th anniversary of the guns first firing , one of the 64 @-@ pounders was fired again ; later a commemoration plaque was added to the fort 's flagpole 's base . Shortly after this firing the Fort Glanville Historical Association was formed , and was incorporated in 1981 . Fort Glanville was opened for public visitation in 1981 .
As part of South Australia 's sesquicentenary , the South Australia Jubilee 150 board granted $ 250 @,@ 000 for work on the fort , allowing construction of a visitor centre . Queen Elizabeth II visited and inspected the site , and newly constructed visitor centre , for almost an hour on 13 March 1986 . For the visit the historical association demonstrated firing of both the 64 and 2 pounder cannons . The visitor centre was officially opened one month after this visit . Governor Dame Roma Mitchell named the old road " Queen Elizabeth II Walk " in March 1991 ceremony , commemorating the 5th anniversary of the queen 's visit . Considerable subsequent restoration work has been completed on the fort , including the barrack 's interior . The portion of the muster ground that is not within the caravan park was returned to its original level in 1993 .
= = Park and fort today = =
Fort Glanville Conservation Park is one of South Australia 's most important heritage sites . It is the premier site in the state , and possibly Australia , for showcasing colonial era defences and fortifications . The fort is listed on both the South Australian Heritage Register and the National Trust 's classified list . It is considered significant , in national historical military terms , for its association with Jervois and Scratchley ; both leading British defence experts who influenced Australian defence thinking in the late 19th century . The fort was very well constructed with high quality materials ; facts that have been noted as contributing to its preservation . The fort is largely intact and in original condition and is , along with Bluff Battery in Hobart , the best preserved Jervois @-@ Scratchley designed fort in Australia . It is the only Australian colonial fort to still have all of its original armament , and the only to have a regular living history program . Its companion Fort Largs does survive but in greatly modified condition , converted for use as the South Australia Police academy . The fort retains its original armament ; armament that is both rare in Australia and worldwide .
The conservation park is in the suburb of Semaphore Park at the southern end of the Lefevre Peninsula . It covers approximately 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) and is bounded by Bower and Military roads , the Point Malcolm Reserve and Semaphore beach . The land is entirely crown land and is administered by the DEWNR . It is divided into roughly two halves with the northern containing the fort and the southern half containing a caravan park . While it is managed by the DEWNR , the Fort Glanville Consultative Committee and Fort Glanville Historical Association are heavily involved . The committee is appointed by the Minister for Environment and Planning and acts to advise the Minister and liaise with the community . As of 1988 , the fort hosted approximately 7 @,@ 000 visitors annually , and is used as an event venue including the annual City of Charles Sturt citizenship ceremony .
The historical association is an incorporated body of volunteers who use the fort under licence from the Minister . The association operate the fort and visitor centre , holding monthly public open days at which the history of the fort is recreated ; this includes drill demonstrations and firing of the fort 's weapons . The association maintain static displays of the fort 's active period and sell souvenirs . The association 's goal is to have the site open as a fully operational fort for interpretation , tourism and education . The volunteers are involved with recreation , living history and ceremonial work outside the fort . They act as guards of honour at some Government House functions and attended the restoration opening of the Albany , Western Australia fort , and the annual re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Waterloo in Keyneton , Victoria . The fort has living history displays , including the barracks laid out and furnished in period detail . The visitor centre has displays showing the development of South Australia 's colonial defence from 1836 and artifacts found on site during restorations .
Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum . The railway opened in December 1992 and , as of 2002 , carried over 16 @,@ 000 passengers annually .
= Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom =
The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority , privilege , and immunity , recognised in the United Kingdom as the sole prerogative of the Sovereign and the source of many of the executive powers of the British government .
Prerogative powers were formerly exercised by the monarch acting on his or her own initiative . Since the 19th century , by convention , the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet — who are then accountable to Parliament for the decision — has been required in order for the prerogative to be exercised . The monarch remains constitutionally empowered to exercise the royal prerogative against the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet , but in practice would only do so in emergencies or where existing precedent does not adequately apply to the circumstances in question .
Today the royal prerogative is available in the conduct of the government of the United Kingdom , including foreign affairs , defence , and national security . The monarchy has a significant constitutional presence in these and other matters , but limited power , because the exercise of the prerogative is in the hands of the prime minister and other ministers or other government officials .
= = Definition = =
The royal prerogative has been called " a notoriously difficult concept to define adequately " , but whether a particular type of prerogative power exists is a matter of common law to be decided by the courts as the final arbiter . A prominent constitutional theorist , A. V. Dicey , proposed in the nineteenth century that :
The prerogative appears to be historically and as a matter of fact nothing else than the residue of discretionary or arbitrary authority which at any given time is legally left in the hands of the crown . The prerogative is the name of the remaining portion of the Crown 's original authority ... Every act which the executive government can lawfully do without the authority of an Act of Parliament is done in virtue of the prerogative .
While many commentators follow the Diceyan view , there are constitutional lawyers who prefer the definition given by William Blackstone in the 1760s :
By the word prerogative we usually understand that special pre @-@ eminence which the King hath , over and above all other persons , and out of the ordinary course of common law , in right of his regal dignity ... it can only be applied to those rights and capacities which the King enjoys alone , in contradiction to others , and not to those which he enjoys in common with any of his subjects .
Dicey 's opinion that any action of governance by the monarch beyond statute is under the prerogative diverges from Blackstone 's that the prerogative simply covers those actions that no other person or body in the United Kingdom can undertake , such as the dissolution of Parliament . Case law exists to support both views . Blackstone ’ s notion of the prerogative being the powers of an exclusive nature was favoured by Lord Parmoor in the De Keyser ’ s Royal Hotel case of 1920 , but some difficulty with it was expressed by Lord Reid in the Burmah Oil case of 1965 . A clear distinction has not been necessary in the relevant cases , and the courts may never need to settle the question as few cases deal directly with the prerogative itself .
= = History = =
The royal prerogative originated as the personal power of the monarch . From the 13th century in England , as in France , the monarch was all @-@ powerful , but this absolute power was checked by " the recrudescence of feudal turbulence in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries " . An early attempt to define the royal prerogative was stated by Richard II 's judges in 1387 .
During the 16th century , this " turbulence " began to recede , and the monarch became truly independent . Under Henry VIII and his successors , the king was the head of the Protestant English church , and therefore not answerable to the clergy . The rise of Parliament in this period , however , was problematic . While the monarch was " the predominant partner in the English constitution " , the courts stopped short of declaring him all @-@ powerful , recognizing the role that Parliament played . In Ferrer 's Case , Henry recognised this , noting that he was far more powerful with the consent of Parliament than without . Nowhere was this more apparent than in the matter of taxation : Sir Thomas Smith and other writers of the period pointed out the monarch could not impose taxation without Parliament 's consent .
At the same time , Henry and his descendants normally followed the will of the courts , despite the fact they were theoretically not bound by judges . William Holdsworth infers that by regularly asking the legal officers of the crown and judiciary for legal advice and consent , Henry recognised the need for a stable government to follow the law . He also contends that the view that the law is supreme over all " was the view of all the leading lawyers and statesmen and publicists of the Tudor period " . It was accepted that while the King had " unfettered discretion " , he was limited in areas where the courts had imposed conditions on the use of the prerogative , or where he had chosen to do so .
The first dent in this stability came about in 1607 , with the Case of Prohibitions . James VI and I claimed that as monarch , he had a divine right to sit as a judge and interpret the common law as he saw fit . Led by Sir Edward Coke , the judiciary rejected this idea , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; Coke pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Similarly , in the Case of Proclamations in 1611 , Coke held that the monarch could only exercise those prerogatives he already had , and not create new ones .
With the Glorious Revolution , King James VII and II was replaced by Queen Mary II and her husband King William III . At the same time the Bill of Rights 1689 was drafted , which cemented the monarch 's subservience to Parliament . It specifically limited the royal prerogative , with Article 1 holding that the " power of suspending the laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal " , and article 4 confirming that " levying money for or to the use of the Crown by pretence of prerogative , without grant of Parliament , for longer time , or in other manner than the same is or shall be granted , is illegal " . The Bill also confirmed that Parliament had the right to limit the use of remaining prerogatives , as evidenced by the Triennial Act 1694 , which required the monarch to dismiss and call Parliament at certain times .
= = Prerogative powers = =
= = = Legislature = = =
One of the monarch 's historic prerogatives was the dissolution of Parliament , which was " perhaps the most important residual prerogative exercised personally by the sovereign , and represents the greatest potential for controversy . " This prerogative was normally exercised at the request of Parliament and the prime minister , either at his or her discretion or following a motion of no confidence . Constitutional theorists have had differing views as to whether a unilateral dissolution of Parliament would be possible today ; Sir Ivor Jennings wrote that a dissolution involves " the acquiescence of ministers " , and as such the monarch could not dissolve Parliament without ministerial consent ; " if ministers refuse to give such advice , she can do no more than dismiss them " . A. V. Dicey , however , believed that in certain extreme circumstances the monarch could dissolve Parliament single @-@ handedly , on the condition that " an occasion has arisen on which there is fair reason to suppose that the opinion of the House is not the opinion of the electors ... A dissolution is allowable , or necessary , whenever the wishes of the legislature are , or may fairly be presumed to be | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on 14 March 1891 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 September 1892 . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Aretusa served with the 3rd Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the protected cruisers Vesuvio and Ettore Fieramosca and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Aretusa was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Minerva , Euridice , Iride , Urania , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli . As of 1898 , Aretusa was assigned to the Active Squadron , with included the ironclads Sicilia and Sardegna and two other cruisers .
At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Aretusa was stationed in Italian Eritrea in the Red Sea Squadron . Italian naval forces in the region also included five protected cruisers and several smaller vessels . Shortly after the start of the war on 2 October , Aretusa and the gunboat Volturno encountered the Ottoman torpedo cruiser Peyk @-@ i Şevket off Al Hudaydah . In a short engagement , the Italians vessels forced the Ottoman ship to flee into Al Hudaydah , bombarded the port facilities , and then withdrew . Peyk @-@ i Şevket was later interned in British @-@ controlled Suez The threat of an Ottoman attack from the Arabian Peninsula led the Italian High Command to reinforce the Red Sea Squadron ; the additional ships included another cruiser and several destroyers . The protected cruiser Piemonte and two destroyers annihilated a force of seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay on 7 January 1912 .
Following the neutralization of Ottoman naval forces in the region , Aretusa and the rest of the Italian ships then commenced a bombardment campaign against the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . On 27 July and 12 August , Aretusa , her sister ship Caprera , and Piemonte conducted two bombardments of Al Hudaydah . During the second attack , they destroyed an Ottoman ammunition dump . With the threat of an Ottoman attack greatly reduced , the High Command thereafter began to withdraw forces from the Red Sea Squadron . By the end of August , the unit was reduced to three protected cruisers , Aretusa , Caprera and two auxiliaries . On 14 October , the Ottoman government agreed to sign a peace treaty , ending the war . Aretusa 's career ended shortly thereafter ; the Regia Marina discarded the ship in December and she was subsequently broken up for scrap .
= M @-@ 6 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 6 , or the Paul B. Henry Freeway , is a 19 @.@ 696 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 698 km ) freeway and state trunkline highway in the United States that serves portions of southern Kent and eastern Ottawa counties south of Grand Rapids , Michigan . Although the freeway is named for Paul B. Henry , local residents and the press continue to use the original name , South Beltline as well on occasion . The freeway connects Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) on the west with I @-@ 96 on the east . M @-@ 6 also provides a connection to U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in the middle of its corridor while running through several townships on the south side of the Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan . Each end is in a rural area while the central section has suburban development along the trunkline .
The freeway was originally conceived in the 1960s . It took 32 years to approve , plan , finance , and build the freeway from the time that the state first authorized funding in 1972 to the time of the ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony in 2004 that opened the South Beltline to traffic . The project cost around $ 700 million or around $ 35 million per mile ( approximately $ 22 million per kilometer ) . Initial construction started in November 1997 , with the first phase opened in November 2001 . The full freeway was opened in November 2004 . The first phase of construction was completed in asphalt , while the second and third phases were built in concrete . The project was built with two firsts : the first single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ; / ˈspuːiː / ) in Michigan , and a new technique to apply the pavement markings , embedding them into the concrete to reduce the chance of a snowplow scraping them off . In advance of the opening of the freeway to traffic , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) allowed the public to walk or bike the South Beltline in an open @-@ house event called the " Southbelt Shuffle " .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 6 starts at exit 64 on I @-@ 196 in Ottawa County near Hudsonville . The freeway runs southeast from the interchange through the rural Georgetown and Jamestown townships toward the county line . Through this area , MDOT traffic surveys measured a traffic count of 27 @,@ 117 vehicles on average per day , the lowest along the freeway , in 2010 . At Kenowa Avenue , the South Beltline crosses into Byron Township in Kent County . The freeway corridor is bounded on each side by farmland , scattered subdivisions , and small pockets of woodland . Near the Wilson Avenue interchange , M @-@ 6 curves to the northeast around the edge of the Ironwood Golf Course and heads for the interchange with Byron Center Avenue . On either side of the freeway at Byron Center Avenue , there are two hospitals , Metro Health and St. Mary 's Southwest , the former located on the very southern edge of the city of Wyoming . Continuing east , the beltline curves to the southeast and into the cloverleaf interchange complex at US 131 . This " mammoth " interchange stretches over a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) in one direction and over a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in the other , encompassing 27 bridges and 18 retaining walls . This makes it the largest freeway interchange in Western Michigan . There are four overpasses which carry M @-@ 6 over the US 131 freeway : two for the main carriageways in each direction and two for the collector @-@ distributor lanes on each side . The auxiliary lanes funnel the traffic using the interchange off the main carriageways to eliminate conflicts between merging streams of traffic . In the eastbound direction , the collector @-@ distributor lane also has access to a ramp for traffic bound for 68th Street , which runs parallel to , and south of , the M @-@ 6 freeway . No such access to 68th Street is provided for westbound M @-@ 6 traffic , although 68th Street traffic can access each direction of M @-@ 6 or US 131 .
East of US 131 , M @-@ 6 crosses over Division Avenue and enters Gaines Township through a series of sound barrier walls as the freeway ramps merge back into the main lanes . This area had the highest traffic counts in 2011 at 55 @,@ 236 vehicles per day . Near Kalamazoo Avenue , the freeway passes through an area with retail businesses and movie theaters on each side of the interchange ; to the northeast is East Kentwood High School . On the approach to the East Paris Avenue underpass , M @-@ 6 curves first to the northeast and then back to the southeast , passing near one of Steelcase 's office buildings , the pyramid @-@ shaped Corporate Development Center . The freeway begins to curve to the northeast as it crosses into Caledonia Township , with an interchange for M @-@ 37 ( Broadmoor Avenue ) and an overpass for 60th Street . M @-@ 6 curves around the southeast side of the Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Cascade Township . As the South Beltline nears I @-@ 96 , it crosses 48th Street next to the Thornapple Pointe Golf Course . The carriageway splits into ramps for each direction of I @-@ 96 , the ramps to eastbound I @-@ 96 crossing over the Thornapple River in the process . This interchange marks the eastern terminus of the Paul B. Henry South Beltline Freeway . The entire length of the freeway is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .
The right @-@ of @-@ way along M @-@ 6 includes a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) pedestrian path known as the Frederik Meijer Trail . Previously called the M @-@ 6 Trail , it links the Kent Trails west of Byron Center Avenue in Wyoming with the Paul Henry Rail Trail at 60th Street and Wing Avenue by Paris Park in Kentwood .
= = History = =
= = = Earlier designations = = =
The first appearance of M @-@ 6 was in 1926 as a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) road in Keweenaw County in the Upper Peninsula . The highway ran from US 41 at Phoenix to north of Eagle River . The Michigan State Highway Department redesignated the highway as M @-@ 111 in 1938 , and it was redesignated two years later to become a part of the route of M @-@ 26 .
In the late 1970s , during the second phase of construction of the I @-@ 696 ( Walter P. Reuther Freeway ) in Metro Detroit , lobbying efforts and lawsuits attempted to block construction of the central section . If successful , the efforts would have left the freeway with a gap in the middle between the first ( western ) and second ( eastern ) phases of construction . During this time , MDOT assigned M @-@ 6 to the eastern section of the freeway under construction . Signs were erected along the service roads that followed 11 Mile Road to connect the already built stack interchange at I @-@ 75 east to I @-@ 94 . By the time the eastern freeway segment was completed in 1979 , the signage for M @-@ 6 was removed and replaced with I @-@ 696 signage , leaving an eight @-@ mile ( 13 km ) gap in the I @-@ 696 freeway until completion of the central section in 1989 .
= = = Current freeway = = =
= = = = Planning = = = =
The South Beltline Freeway near Grand Rapids was a project that took about 32 years to complete . The idea dates back to the 1940s , but serious proposals were not made until the 1960s . The 1955 planning map for the Grand Rapids area Interstate Highways included a freeway roughly along the M @-@ 6 corridor before I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 were shifted north and east to their current locations . An increase in the state gas tax was approved in 1972 with the goal to finance local road projects in the state , including the South Beltline . The project was anticipated to cost $ 30 – 100 million ( equivalent to $ 214 – 713 million in 2015 ) in June 1975 with an expected groundbreaking in 1982 – 85 . The highway was studied in January 1981 for $ 144 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 575 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The choice of consultants on the project was controversial ; local planners felt that MDOT picked BKI Inc. only because they used a minority @-@ owned subcontractor and not because they would be qualified for the assignment .
As this study was initiated , the route for the proposed freeway was located between 60th and 68th streets with a western end in Hudsonville and an eastern end in Lowell Township . The consultants were asked to study a full freeway and a limited access boulevard design . One final option was a " no @-@ build " alternative ; under this option , existing roads would be upgraded but no new roads would be built . The City of Grand Rapids opposed the freeway while the suburbs and townships south and west of the city supported it . City officials were concerned about the impact to commercial and industrial business in Grand Rapids . Hudsonville 's city manager favored the proposal as a benefit to local vegetable producers who shipped produce to Detroit or Cleveland . Other supporters , such as the Georgetown Township supervisor , were concerned that delays in starting the project could increase costs . State and local officials expected the freeway in January 1981 to cost between $ 40 – 100 million ( equivalent to $ 160 – 400 million in 2015 ) . The road was to be started no sooner than 1990 .
The boundaries for the highway corridor were determined by the consultants in April 1982 , running between 60th and 84th streets , " dipping like a hammock beneath the cities of Kentwood and Wyoming " . The results of the study by BKI were criticized by local planners in May 1982 , who called the study " shabby and unprofessional work " , and asked the state to fire the consulting firm . Local residents distributed 2 @,@ 000 fliers to their neighbors in opposition to the freeway . The South Belt Local Advisory Board criticized BKI 's 110 @-@ page study report as " filled with errors " ; the consultants ' earlier 26 @-@ page paper had been rejected by the board and MDOT as " unusable " . An editorial in the The Grand Rapids Press stated that the study did not help advance the project in the area , instead opening the proposed freeway up to new controversies . Doubts about the state 's budget in 1982 to build the roadway combined with issues over the consultants and their study results .
A second citizens group , the South Belt Citizens Committee , was formed in July 1982 to gain additional public information on the project and supplement the work of the other groups , including the South Belt Local Advisory Board . BKI was fired as consultant on the project by MDOT on September 9 , 1982 . The switch to a new consultant delayed further study because of the timetable to take bids and interview the candidates . In the interim , work was shifted to local and state planners until a new consultant could be retained in an effort to minimize the delays involved . These local projects were focused on updating the information and maps from BKI 's study and refining the scope of the highway 's corridor .
Gaines , Cascade , and Caledonia townships and the city of Kentwood circulated a survey amongst their communities ' planning commissions and elected boards in 1982 . The survey showed an inconclusive preference for a limited @-@ access highway in what was termed a " gut level reaction " to the proposed roadway . The South Belt Citizens Committee actively started to oppose the roadway during the fall of 1982 , pressing local candidates for political office to take positions on the project . The group called the roadway a " holocaust " in its mailings to the candidates . Future Lieutenant Governor Dick Posthumus , then a member of the Michigan State Senate , called for an end to the studies in 1983 ; he would later reverse and become one of the project 's biggest supporters .
MDOT hired a new consultant , Schimpeler / Coradino Associates , in 1984 to study the proposed freeway . The consultant recommended the freeway in March 1985 . The South Beltline was included in the ten @-@ year highway plan in 1986 . By 1989 , the state wanted to set the route in 1991 with construction starting in 1993 . The freeway was studied as a possible toll road in June 1991 after three alternative routes were proposed the previous year . That September , the final route was set with a projected start date in 1997 . The toll road concept was revived in September 1995 to offset the failure of a proposed gas tax increase . As a cost @-@ saving measure , the number of interchanges was reduced to four from eight in June 1996 . When a gas tax increase was passed in 1997 , Governor John Engler promised at least seven access points for the freeway . The South Beltline was touted as " [ cutting ] travel time around Grand Rapids virtually in half " .
= = = = Phase I = = = =
Proposals for the South Beltline Freeway were nearly 25 years old by the time initial construction was started in 1997 . The Michigan State Legislature named the South Beltline around the same time for the Congressman Paul B. Henry , who died in office in 1993 , serving in Gerald Ford 's old US House seat . The cost of the construction of new roads like the South Beltline was a campaign issue when Engler ran for re @-@ election against Geoffrey Feiger in 1998 . The entire freeway was projected to open by 2008 , with the first phase opening in 2002 . MDOT gave the South Beltline its numerical designation on the July 1999 edition of the state map , marking M @-@ 6 for the first time as a dotted line , to denote it was " under construction " . The legislature approved Engler 's " Build Michigan III " program in 2000 ; the plan accelerated road projects in the state . The capital outlay for the year was $ 82 million ( equivalent to $ 132 million in 2015 ) . Condemnation proceedings were initiated in the Kent County Circuit Court in 1999 to clear the way for the acquisitions . Land that contained homes , farms , trailer parks , and businesses was purchased by MDOT to acquire the right @-@ of @-@ way needed for the freeway . The land needed measured 360 feet ( 110 m ) wide and 20 miles ( 32 km ) long . Land acquisitions for the South Beltline Freeway were completed in July 2001 . Construction started later in the fall of 2001 on the second and third phases of the project .
The first leg of the South Beltline Freeway , located between M @-@ 37 ( Broadmoor Avenue ) and I @-@ 96 , was finished six months early . Dry summer weather allowed the roadbed contractors to finish their portion of the five @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) section of the freeway early , earning them a $ 300 @,@ 000 bonus ( equivalent to $ 449 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The overpasses for the remaining sections of the freeway were completed while the first phase was under construction , leaving the interchanges at US 131 and I @-@ 196 and the connecting roadbed to be completed at that time . The first section was paved in asphalt after MDOT reversed the decision to pave the whole freeway in concrete . That stretch of freeway opened to traffic on November 20 , 2001 . The state kept the overall project in an accelerated status headed into the next phases in 2002 .
= = = = Phases II and III = = = =
Construction of the remaining phases between US 131 and M @-@ 37 and between I @-@ 196 and US 131 was started on April 1 , 2002 . Area roads that crossed the path of the new freeway were closed to traffic with posted detours so that work could begin on the roadbed for the freeway . The last major project for the freeway was to replace bridge beams in the overpasses from westbound I @-@ 196 to eastbound M @-@ 6 . Design flaws were found in 2002 in the size of the beams in the bridges over eastbound I @-@ 196 and the ramp from westbound M @-@ 6 to westbound I @-@ 196 . The replacement was originally supposed to close traffic along I @-@ 196 over a weekend in 2004 , but kept a lane closed for a full week , backing up traffic on the Interstate for two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) ; completion of the work was delayed when human error caused a shortage of nuts and bolts .
MDOT hosted an open house along the unopened section of M @-@ 6 between Kalamazoo and Byron Center avenues . This event took place on October 2 , 2004 , and was billed as the " Southbelt Shuffle " , allowing the public to walk or bike along the freeway . The event was planned to draw attention to the M @-@ 6 Trail that runs parallel to the freeway . Some event participants brought their horses for the chance to ride on the freeway . The whole freeway was opened to traffic on November 17 , 2004 , after a ribbon cutting ceremony . When opened , reconstruction work was still being completed on overpass bridges at the I @-@ 196 interchange on the west end . The entire project cost $ 700 million ( equivalent to $ 933 million in 2015 ) to complete over the five @-@ year construction period , about $ 35 million / mi ( approximately $ 22 million / km , equivalent to $ 47 million / mi or $ 29 million / km in 2015 ) . When the freeway was opened , it was the first in the state of Michigan to use a SPUI located at the Kalamazoo Avenue exit . All of the bridges and sound barrier walls were painted sienna beige as part of a " color theme " to the freeway . MDOT also used a new technique to recess the pavement markings into the concrete , designed to reduce the likelihood that snowplows would scrape them off . The signs are in miles , but " the entire M @-@ 6 freeway was designed and constructed in metric " , according to MDOT manager Suzette Peplinski . The final ramps opened to traffic on December 9 , 2004 .
= = = = After construction = = = =
MDOT added the completed M @-@ 6 to the state maps in an updated printing in June 2005 . At the time , the various online mapping services still did not show a complete freeway in eastern Ottawa or southern Kent counties . Services such as Mapquest and Yahoo ! Maps rely on Tele Atlas out of New Hampshire for their mapping information , which , in turn , relies on agencies like MDOT to update their data . MDOT 's map update came out nearly eight months after the initial opening due to its inclusion in a large @-@ scale update to the state highway map .
A year after the freeway opened , traffic volumes along parallel roads like 44th , 56th and 68th streets dropped 40 – 50 % . At the same time , roads with interchanges along the freeway saw increased traffic . Wilson Avenue experienced a 120 % increase and sections of Byron Center Avenue jumped 100 % in traffic levels a month after M @-@ 6 opened . Property values in the townships surrounding the freeway increased 11 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 4 % by 2006 as a result of development attached to the freeway . Local officials credited the freeway for increased access to the area , driving housing starts as residents flocked to the communities for their schools and quality of life . In 2007 , the Metro Health Village , a commercial development centered around the Byron Center Avenue exit and the hospital opened . Described as being similar to a mall with the hospital as a tenant , the village features restaurants , shops , offices and a hotel . Metro Health relocated from Grand Rapids to the location in Wyoming in the face of opposition to planned expansions of their previous location . Since opening , even though the freeway was officially named for Paul Henry , the original South Beltline name is still in use .
Reactions to the new freeway were not all positive . In a special editorial in the The Grand Rapids Press after the freeway opened in 2004 , local resident Curt MacDougall summarized the criticisms of the new freeway . He cited the loss of rural farmland and wetlands as a negative effect of the highway . The editorial also discussed that the freeway does decrease travel times for some residents , but it will mean increased development . That development will mean further urban sprawl , and could spur the creation of additional highways in the area .
The M @-@ 6 Trail was constructed in a $ 3 @.@ 5 million project ( equivalent to $ 4 million in 2015 ) that started in 2008 . The goal was to create a 10 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) path linking the Kent Trails with the Paul Henry Rail Trail . The M @-@ 6 Trail was the brainchild of Gaines Township Supervisor Don Hilton , Sr. He had pushed to have the path included in the original freeway construction and opened with the rest of the South Beltline . The trail project was funded by $ 2 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) in federal grants and $ 300 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 350 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) from the Frederik and Lena Meijer Foundation . The balance came from Kent County and the townships . Work on the trail was completed in November 2008 .
In 2009 , the asphalt section of M @-@ 6 had to be repaired . This section of roadway between East Paris Avenue and 48th Street was rated poorly by the Michigan Infrastructure and Transportation Association , while the concrete west of Broadmoor Avenue had favorable marks . MDOT budgeted $ 2 million in repairs on top of previous crack @-@ related fixes that were handled by the original pavement contractor under a warranty in 2006 . The local press described the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of road as " troublesome " in relation to pavement quality issues .
Legislation was signed by Governor Rick Snyder on December 27 , 2014 , to name the section of M @-@ 6 between Byron Center and Kalamazoo avenues the David John Warsen Memorial Highway . Warsen , a US Navy SEAL , was killed in a helicopter accident in Afghanistan in 2012 . This section of the highway was dedicated on August 15 , 2015 .
= = Exit list = =
= Hi , Infidelity =
" Hi , Infidelity " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fiftieth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on The CW on November 17 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates an accusation that she plagiarized a criminology paper only to find out that her teacher is having an affair with Mindy O 'Dell ( Jamie Ray Newman ) . Meanwhile , Stosh " Piz " Piznarski ( Chris Lowell ) invites Veronica to go bowling , and Wallace Fennel ( Percy Daggs III ) must choose between basketball and his studies .
The episode features the return of Laura San Giacomo as Harmony Chase and the introduction of the recurring character of Max ( Adam Rose ) . San Giacomo and Colantoni , who had previously co @-@ starred on the sitcom Just Shoot Me ! , lobbied for more storylines together after rekindling their friendship during production of " Charlie Don 't Surf " , her first appearance . Rose 's character had been planned to begin a later romantic relationship with Mac since the writing of this episode and went on to fulfill this role in several future episodes . At the time of its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 75 million people and received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
Following the events of the previous episode , Veronica confronts Claire Nordhouse ( Krista Kalmus ) for faking her rape after she publishes a story on it . Wallace Fennel and a lawyer are taken in to Dean O ’ Dell ’ s ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) office , where he is caught for cheating on a test . Veronica ’ s criminology paper is praised by her teacher , Hank ( Patrick Fabian ) leading her to praise him incessantly . Harmony Chase ( Laura San Giacomo ) , a former client who asked Keith Mars ( Enrico Colantoni ) to investigate her possibly adulterous husband , calls him and asks him on a date . Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) , Hank 's teaching assistant , tells Veronica that she plagiarized her paper , even though she did not . Hank gives her three days to prove that she is innocent . Veronica learns that a student named Jeff Ratner accused her . Veronica goes to a computer student and ascertains the email address of the person who faked her paper . Stosh " Piz " Piznarski invites Veronica bowling , and she invites Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) as well .
Veronica gets caught snooping in the Dean ’ s office , although she makes up a hasty lie that she was searching for class notes , and it diverts his attention . Wallace decides not to drop the class on whose test he cheated . Veronica proves that the essay hers was supposedly plagiarized from was posted after she turned in her paper ; nevertheless , she still wants to find who framed her . Parker Lee , Veronica , Piz , and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) bowl and have fun together . When Veronica and Logan get room service , Veronica spots Jeff Ratner and questions him . Parker is romantically interested in Piz , and she tasks Veronica with talking to him about her . After talking to Mercer Hayes ( Ryan Devlin ) , Parker informs Veronica that she remembers Mercer 's cologne from the night of her rape . Veronica goes to Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) with this news ; Wallace drops basketball to study for the class . Veronica runs into Keith at the hotel before learning that the room that belongs to " Rory Finch " is actually Hank , who is having an affair with Mrs. O ’ Dell .
On their second date , Harmony suggests that they have sex , but Keith declines the proposal . On the way back , Keith ’ s becomes involved in a traffic collision , but the airbag catches him . This traumatic experience makes him go back to Harmony , and they sleep together . Veronica talks to Tim Foyle , who made her follow the trail of " Rory Finch " deliberately in order for her to discover the professor ’ s affair . Tim was the professor ’ s protégé , and he wants Veronica to discover Hank 's flaws before she becomes more involved with him . Logan runs up to Veronica and tells her that Mercer has been arrested for the rapes on campus , despite the fact that he believes that Mercer is innocent . Logan begs Veronica to defend Mercer , as he was with him the night of one of the rapes . However , he refuses to tell Veronica what they were doing .
= = Production = =
" Hi , Infidelity " was written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , marking Enbom 's twelfth writing credit and Fields 's sixth directing credit for the series . The episode features the second of three appearances by Laura San Giacomo as Harmony Chase . She and Enrico Colantoni had become friends when they co @-@ starred on the sitcom Just Shoot Me ! . They rekindled their friendship during production of " Charlie Don 't Surf " , San Giacomo 's first appearance , so they lobbied for more storylines together . Thomas was open to the possibility , saying , " I wouldn 't hesitate to go back to this , because I was really happy with how it played out . "
Adam Rose made his first appearance in this episode as a suspect ; he would make appearances later in the season as well . From the very beginning of his appearances , Rose 's character , Max , was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac ( Tina Majorino ) . Rose was roommates with Michael Mitchell , who played Bronson , another love interest for Mac . When Rose received the call that he would have a romantic storyline with Mac , he reportedly stated , " but I thought that 's what my roommate was doing . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
At the time of its initial broadcast , " Hi , Infidelity " was viewed by 2 @.@ 75 million people , ranking 94th out of 97 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " good " , but his review was mixed . Comparing it with the rest of the season , he opined that it suffered from some of the same problems of previous episodes . He thought that the actions of many of the characters in " Hi , Infidelity " were out of character or unrealistic . While writing that " the rape storyline is still not feeling nearly as weighty as it should , " he praised the development of the rape mystery for hinting that there were larger forces at work . Price Peterson of TV.com gave a positive review , praising the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week 's emotional connection to Veronica for " [ raising ] the stakes " and Piz 's increased role . He also believed that all the series regulars , excluding Wallace , had an important and interesting role to play . Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " , which is one of its highest ratings given for the season .
Alan Sepinwall praised the episode compared to the first few episodes of the season , writing it balanced Veronica 's character traits well , including her jealousy and generosity . He also wrote that it showed her as a character with some " baser instincts " , giving the scene with Jeff as an example . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mixed review . The reviewer was very critical of what he called the " ' radical feminist fakes her own rape ' " storyline , but he praised the episode as the first one of the third season to make the college setting feel natural . Although he thought that the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week contributed to his overall positive view of the episode , he thought that " it 's mostly the little things that make it work " , pointing out Piz 's increased role as an example .
= Ceratopsia =
Ceratopsia or Ceratopia ( / ˌsɛrəˈtɒpsiə / or / ˌsɛrəˈtoʊpiə / ; Greek : " horned faces " ) is a group of herbivorous , beaked dinosaurs that thrived in what are now North America , Europe , and Asia , during the Cretaceous Period , although ancestral forms lived earlier , in the Jurassic . The earliest known ceratopsian , Yinlong downsi , lived between 161 @.@ 2 and 155 @.@ 7 million years ago . The last ceratopsian species , Triceratops prorsus , became extinct during the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , 66 million years ago .
Early members of the ceratopsian group , such as Psittacosaurus , were small bipedal animals . Later members , including ceratopsids like Centrosaurus and Triceratops , became very large quadrupeds and developed elaborate facial horns and frills extending over the neck . While these frills might have served to protect the vulnerable neck from predators , they may also have been used for display , thermoregulation , the attachment of large neck and chewing muscles or some combination of the above . Ceratopsians ranged in size from 1 meter ( 3 ft ) and 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) to over 9 meters ( 30 ft ) and 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 12 @,@ 000 lb ) .
Triceratops is by far the best @-@ known ceratopsian to the general public . It is traditional for ceratopsian genus names to end in " -ceratops " , although this is not always the case . One of the first named genera was Ceratops itself , which lent its name to the group , although it is considered a nomen dubium today as its fossil remains have no distinguishing characteristics that are not also found in other ceratopsians .
= = Anatomy = =
Ceratopsians are easily recognized by features of the skull . On the tip of a ceratopsian upper jaw is the rostral bone , an edentulous ( toothless ) ossification , unique to ceratopsians . Othniel Charles Marsh recognized and named this bone , which acts as a mirror image of the predentary bone on the lower jaw . This ossification evolved to morphologically aid the mastication of plant matter . Along with the predentary bone , which forms the tip of the lower jaw in all ornithischians , the rostral forms a superficially parrot @-@ like beak . Also , the jugal bones below the eye are very tall and flare out sideways , making the skull appear somewhat triangular when viewed from above . This triangular appearance is accentuated in later ceratopsians by the rearwards extension of the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull roof , to form the neck frill .
The epoccipital is a distinctive bones found lining the frills of ceratopsians . The name is a misnomer , as they are not associated with the occipital bone . Epoccipitals begin as separate bones that fuse during the animal 's growth to either the squamosal or parietal bones that make up the base of the frill . These bones were ornamental instead of functional , and may have helped differentiate species . Epoccipitals probably were present in all known ceratopsids with the possible exception of Zuniceratops . They appear to have been broadly different between short @-@ frilled ceratopsids ( centrosaurines ) and long @-@ frilled ceratopsids ( chasmosaurines ) , being elliptical with constricted bases in the former group , and triangular with wide bases in the latter group . Within these broad definitions , different species would have somewhat different shapes and numbers . In centrosaurines especially , like Centrosaurus , Pachyrhinosaurus , and Styracosaurus , these bones become long and spike- or hook @-@ like . A well @-@ known example is the coarse sawtooth fringe of broad triangular epoccipitals on the frill of Triceratops . When regarding the ossification 's morphogenetic traits , it can be described as dermal . The term epoccipital was coined by famous paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889 .
= = History of study = =
The first ceratopsian remains known to science were discovered during the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories led by the American geologist F.V. Hayden . Teeth discovered during an 1855 expedition to Montana were first assigned to hadrosaurids and included within the genus Trachodon . It was not until the early 20th century that some of these were recognized as ceratopsian teeth . During another of Hayden 's expeditions in 1872 , Fielding Bradford Meek found several giant bones protruding from a hillside in southwestern Wyoming . He alerted paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope , who led a dig to recover the partial skeleton . Cope recognized the remains as a dinosaur , but noted that even though the fossil lacked a skull , it was different from any type of dinosaur then known . He named the new species Agathaumas sylvestris , meaning " marvellous forest @-@ dweller " . Soon after , Cope named two more dinosaurs that would eventually come to be recognized as ceratopsids : Polyonax and Monoclonius . Monoclonius was notable for the number of disassociated remains found , including the first evidence of ceratopsid horns and frills . Several Monoclonius fossils were found by Cope , assisted by Charles Hazelius Sternberg , in the summer of 1876 near the Judith River in Chouteau County , Montana . Since the ceratopsians had not been recognised yet as a distinctive group , Cope was uncertain about much of the fossil material , not recognizing the nasal horn core , nor the brow horns , as part of a fossil horn . The frill bone was interpreted as a part of the breastbone .
In 1888 and 1889 , Othniel Charles Marsh described the first well preserved horned dinosaurs , Ceratops and Triceratops . In 1890 Marsh classified them together in the family Ceratopsidae and the order Ceratopsia . This prompted Cope to reexamine his own specimens and to realized that Triceratops , Monoclonius , and Agathaumas all represented a single group of similar dinosaurs , which he named Agathaumidae in 1891 . Cope redescribed Monoclonius as a horned dinosaur , with a large nasal horn and two smaller horns over the eyes , and a large frill .
= = Classification = =
Ceratopsia was coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1890 to include dinosaurs possessing certain characteristic features , including horns , a rostral bone , teeth with two roots , fused neck vertebrae , and a forward @-@ oriented pubis . Marsh considered the group distinct enough to warrant its own suborder within Ornithischia . The name is derived from the Greek κερας / keras meaning ' horn ' and οψις / opsis meaning ' face ' . As early as the 1960s , it was noted that the name Ceratopsia is actually incorrect linguistically and that it should be Ceratopia . However , this spelling , while technically correct , has been used only rarely in the scientific literature , and the vast majority of paleontologists continue to use Ceratopsia . As the ICZN does not govern taxa above the level of superfamily , this is unlikely to change .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Following Marsh , Ceratopsia has usually been classified as a suborder within the order Ornithischia . While ranked taxonomy has largely fallen out of favor among dinosaur paleontologists , some researchers have continued to employ such a classification , though sources have differed on what its rank should be . Most who still employ the use of ranks have retained its traditional ranking of suborder , though some have reduced to the level of infraorder .
This list of ceratopsian genera by classification and location follows a review by Thomas R. Holtz , Jr. in 2010 .
Ceratopsia
Albalophosaurus - ( Japan )
Micropachycephalosaurus - ( Shandong , eastern China )
Stenopelix - ( Germany )
Yinlong - ( Xinjiang , western China )
Family Chaoyangsauridae
Chaoyangsaurus - ( Liaoning , northeastern China )
Xuanhuaceratops - ( Hebei , China )
Family Psittacosauridae
Psittacosaurus - ( China & Mongolia )
Neoceratopsia
Archaeoceratops - ( Gansu , northwestern China )
Auroraceratops - ( Gansu , northwestern China )
Helioceratops - ( Jilin , northwestern China )
Koreaceratops - ( South Korea )
Kulceratops - ( Uzbekistan )
Liaoceratops - ( Liaoning , northeastern China )
Microceratus - ( Mongolia )
Mosaiceratops - ( central China )
Yamaceratops - ( Mongolia )
Family Leptoceratopsidae
Asiaceratops - ( China , Mongolia , Uzbekistan )
Cerasinops - ( Montana , US )
Gryphoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Ischioceratops - ( China )
Leptoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada & Wyoming , US )
Montanoceratops - ( Montana , US )
Prenoceratops - ( Montana , US )
Udanoceratops - ( Mongolia )
Unescoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Zhuchengceratops - ( Zhucheng , China )
Family Bagaceratopidae
Ajkaceratops - ( Hungary )
Bagaceratops - ( Mongolia )
Bainoceratops - ( Mongolia )
Gobiceratops - ( Mongolia )
Lamaceratops - ( Mongolia )
Family Protoceratopsidae
Breviceratops - ( Mongolia )
Graciliceratops - ( Mongolia )
Magnirostris - ( Inner Mongolia , China )
Protoceratops - ( Mongolia )
Superfamily Ceratopsoidea
Turanoceratops - ( Uzbekistan )
Zuniceratops - ( New Mexico , US )
Family Ceratopsidae
Subfamily Centrosaurinae
Albertaceratops - ( Alberta , Canada & ? Montana , USA )
Avaceratops - ( Montana , USA )
Brachyceratops - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )
Centrosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )
Coronosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )
Diabloceratops - ( Utah , USA )
Monoclonius - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )
Nasutoceratops - ( Utah , USA )
Rubeosaurus - ( Montana , USA )
Spinops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Styracosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada & Montana , USA )
Xenoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Tribe Pachyrhinosaurini
Achelousaurus - ( Montana , USA )
Einiosaurus - ( Montana , USA )
Pachyrhinosaurus- ( Alberta , Canada & Alaska , USA )
Sinoceratops - ( Shandong , China )
Subfamily Ceratopsinae
Ceratops - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )
Subfamily Chasmosaurinae
Agathaumas - ( Wyoming , USA )
Agujaceratops - ( Texas , USA )
Anchiceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Arrhinoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Chasmosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )
Coahuilaceratops - ( Coahuila , Mexico )
? Dysganus - ( Montana , USA )
Judiceratops - ( Montana , USA )
Kosmoceratops - ( Utah , USA )
Medusaceratops - ( Montana , USA )
Mojoceratops - ( Alberta & Saskatchewan , Canada )
Pentaceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )
? Polyonax - ( Colorado , USA )
Utahceratops - ( Utah , USA )
Vagaceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Tribe Triceratopsini
Eotriceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Nedoceratops - ( Wyoming , USA )
Ojoceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )
Regaliceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )
Tatankaceratops - ( South Dakota , USA )
Titanoceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )
Torosaurus - ( Wyoming , Montana , South Dakota , North Dakota , & Utah , USA & Saskatchewan , Canada )
Triceratops - ( Montana & Wyoming , USA & Saskatchewan & Alberta , Canada )
Possible ceratopsians from the Southern Hemisphere include the Australian Serendipaceratops , known from an ulna , and Notoceratops from Argentina is known from a single toothless jaw ( which has been lost ) . Craspedodon from the Late Cretaceous ( Santonian ) of Belgium may also be a ceratopsian , specifically a neoceratopsian closer to ceratopsoidea than protoceratopsidae . Possible leptoceratopsid remains have also been described from the early Campanian of Sweden .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
Paleontologists today agree on the overall structure of the ceratopsian family tree , although there are differences on individual taxa . There have been several cladistic studies performed on basal ceratopsians since 2000 . None have used every taxon listed above and many of the differences between the studies are still unresolved .
In clade @-@ based phylogenetic taxonomy , Ceratopsia is often defined to include all marginocephalians more closely related to Triceratops than to Pachycephalosaurus . Under this definition , the most basal known ceratopsians are Yinlong , from the Late Jurassic Period , along with Chaoyangsaurus and the family Psittacosauridae , from the Early Cretaceous Period , all of which were discovered in northern China or Mongolia . The rostral bone and flared jugals are already present in all of these forms , indicating that even earlier ceratopsians remain to be discovered .
The clade Neoceratopsia includes all ceratopsians more derived than psittacosaurids . Another subset of neoceratopsians is called Coronosauria , which currently includes all ceratopsians more derived than Auroraceratops . Coronosaurs show the first development of the neck frill and the fusion of the first several neck vertebrae to support the increasingly heavy head . Within Coronosauria , three groups are generally recognized , although the membership of these groups varies somewhat from study to study and some animals may not fit in any of them . One group can be called Protoceratopsidae and includes Protoceratops and its closest relatives , all Asian . Another group , Leptoceratopsidae , includes mostly North American animals that are more closely related to Leptoceratops . The Ceratopsoidea includes animals like Zuniceratops , which are more closely related to the family Ceratopsidae . This last family includes Triceratops and all the large North American ceratopsians and is further divided into the subfamilies Centrosaurinae and Ceratopsinae ( also known as Chasmosaurinae ) .
= = = = Farke phylogeny = = = =
Andrew Farke and his colleagues in 2014 published a description of a new neoceratopsian , Aquilops americanus , through the peer @-@ reviewed science journal PLOS ONE . They analysed their taxa as well as most other primitive ceratopsians to get a consensus cladogram . They created their own data matrix and through it found that many groups of ceratopsians could be supported , and that Aquilops was a basal neoceratopsian that could potentially be a protoceratopsid , leptoceratopsid , or ceratopsid , although any one of these groups would have a large ghost lineage with Aquilops .
Their study also found an equal consensus cladogram finding Ajkaceratops not as a neoceratopsian but a protoceratopsid . Nothing else about the cladograms changed .
= = = = Xu / Makovicky / Chinnery Phylogeny = = = =
Xu Xing of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) in Beijing , along with Peter Makovicky , formerly of the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) in New York City and others , published a cladistic analysis in the 2002 description of Liaoceratops . This analysis is very similar to one published by Makovicky in 2001 . Makovicky , who currently works at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago , also included this analysis in his 2002 doctoral thesis . Xu and other colleagues added Yinlong to this analysis in 2006 .
Brenda Chinnery , formerly of the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman , Montana , independently described Prenoceratops in 2005 and published a new phylogeny . In 2006 , Makovicky and Mark Norell of the AMNH incorporated Chinnery 's analysis into their own and also added Yamaceratops , although they were not able to include Yinlong . The cladogram presented below is a combination of Xu , Makovicky , and their colleagues ' most recent work .
Chaoyangsaurus is recovered in a more basal position than Psittacosauridae , although Chinnery 's original analysis finds it within Neoceratopsia . Protoceratopsidae is considered to be the sister group of Ceratopsoidea . The fragmentary Asiaceratops was included in these studies and is found to have a variable position , either as a basal neoceratopsian or as a leptoceratopsid , most likely due to the amount of missing information . Removal of Asiaceratops stabilizes the entire cladogram .
Makovicky 's latest analysis includes IVPP V12722 ( " Xuanhuasaurus " ) , a Late Jurassic ceratopsian from China that , at the time , was awaiting publication , but has since been published as Xuanhuaceratops . Kulceratops and Turanoceratops are considered nomina dubia in this study . Makovicky believes Lamaceratops , Magnirostris , and Platyceratops to be junior synonyms of Bagaceratops , and Bainoceratops to be synonymous with Protoceratops .
= = = = You / Dodson Phylogeny = = = =
You Hailu of Beijing 's Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences , was a co @-@ author with Xu and Makovicky in 2002 but , in 2003 , he and Peter Dodson from the University of Pennsylvania published a separate analysis . The two presented this analysis again in 2004 . In 2005 , You and three others , including Dodson , published on Auroraceratops and inserted this new dinosaur into their phylogeny .
In contrast to the previous analysis , You and Dodson find Chaoyangsaurus to be the most basal neoceratopsian , more derived than Psittacosaurus , while Leptoceratopsidae , not Protoceratopsidae , is recovered as the sister group of Ceratopsidae . This study includes Auroraceratops , but lacks seven taxa found in Xu and Makovicky 's work , so it is unclear how comparable the two studies are . Asiaceratops and Turanoceratops are each considered nomina dubia and not included . Along with Dong Zhiming , You described Magnirostris in 2003 , but to date has not included it in any of his cladograms .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Biogeography = = =
Ceratopsia appears to have originated in Asia , as all of the earliest members are found there . Fragmentary remains , including teeth , which appear to be neoceratopsian , are found in North America from the Albian stage ( 112 to 100 million years ago ) , indicating that the group had dispersed across what is now the Bering Strait by the middle of the Cretaceous Period . Almost all leptoceratopsids are North American , aside from Udanoceratops , which may represent a separate dispersal event , back into Asia . Ceratopsids and their immediate ancestors , such as Zuniceratops , were unknown outside of western North America , and were presumed endemic to that continent . The traditional view that ceratopsoids originated in North America was called into question by the 2009 discovery of better specimens of the dubious Asian form Turanoceratops , which confirmed it as a ceratopsid . It is unknown whether this indicates ceratopsids actually originated in Asia , or if the Turanoceratops immigrated from North America .
= = = Individual variation = = =
Unlike almost all other dinosaur groups , skulls are the most commonly preserved elements of ceratopsian skeletons and many species are known only from skulls . There is a great deal of variation between and even within ceratopsian species . Complete growth series from embryo to adult are known for Psittacosaurus and Protoceratops , allowing the study of ontogenetic variation in these species . Significant sexual dimorphism has been noted in Protoceratops and several ceratopsids .
= = = Ecological role = = =
Psittacosaurus and Protoceratops are the most common dinosaurs in the different Mongolian sediments where they are found . Triceratops fossils are far and away the most common dinosaur remains found in the latest Cretaceous rocks in the western United States , making up as much as 5 / 6ths of the large dinosaur fauna in some areas . These facts indicate that some ceratopsians were the dominant herbivores in their environments .
Some species of ceratopsians , especially Centrosaurus and its relatives , appear to have been gregarious , living in herds . This is suggested by bonebed finds with the remains of many individuals of different ages . Like modern migratory herds , they would have had a significant effect on their environment , as well as serving as a major food source for predators .
Although ceratopsians are generally considered herbivorous , a few paleontologists , such as Darren Naish and Mark Witton , have speculated online that at least some ceratopsians may have been opportunistically omnivorous .
= = = Posture and locomotion = = =
Most restorations of ceratopsians show them with erect hindlimbs but semi @-@ sprawling forelimbs , which suggest that they were not fast movers . But Paul and Christiansen ( 2000 ) argued that at least the later ceratopsians had upright forelimbs and the larger species may have been as fast as rhinos , which can run at up to 56 km or 35 miles per hour .
= = = Daily activity patterns = = =
A nocturnal lifestyle has been suggested for the primitive ceratopsian Protoceratops . However , comparisons between the scleral rings of Protoceratops and Psittacosaurus and modern birds and reptiles indicate that they may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Activity @-@ related bone fractures have been documented in ceratopsians . Periostitis has also been documented in the shoulder blade of a ceratopsian .
= = Timeline of genera = =
= Truth in Numbers ? =
Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia is a 2010 American documentary film that explores the history and cultural implications of the online , user @-@ editable encyclopedia Wikipedia . The film considers the question of whether all individuals or just experts should be tasked with editing an encyclopedia .
The site 's history and background is given , along with commentary from Wikipedia founders Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger . Commentators that appear in the film include author Howard Zinn , Len Downie of The Washington Post , Bob Schieffer of CBS News , former Encyclopædia Britannica chief Robert McHenry and former Central Intelligence Agency director James Woolsey . The documentary discusses incidents that shed a negative light on Wikipedia , including the Essjay controversy and the Wikipedia biography controversy .
The long @-@ delayed film premiered at Wikimania 2010 in Gdańsk in July 2010 , and was screened at the Paley Center for Media in New York City in October 2010 . It was shown as part of the Savannah Film Festival on November 3 , 2010 , at Savannah College of Art and Design 's Trustees Theater . Truth in Numbers ? received a mixed reception , with favorable commentary from author Ted Leonsis , in the AOL publication Urlesque , and coverage at the Savannah Film Festival by Carlos Serrano of District .
= = Contents = =
Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia , an American documentary film , explores the history and cultural implications of Wikipedia . The film presents Wikipedia as a new form of communication and cultural dialog . The directors attempt to answer the question of whether ordinary individuals should be tasked with collecting knowledge for presentation online , or this should be relegated solely to academic scholars in specific fields . The film gives an overview of the history of the enterprise , as well as biographical information on founder Jimmy Wales . Wales is shown discussing Wikipedia with an Indian reader , who points out an inaccuracy in an article . Wales proceeds to show the reader how to click the " edit " tab on the website . Wikipedia founder Larry Sanger is featured in the documentary and speaks critically about the website 's embracing of editors from the general public as opposed to soliciting expert contributors .
Journalism and media commentators who appear and are interviewed in the film include author Howard Zinn ; Len Downie , ( executive editor of The Washington Post ) ; Bob Schieffer ( CBS News ) ; Robert McHenry ( former chief of Encyclopædia Britannica ) ; James Woolsey ( former director of the Central Intelligence Agency ) ; Chris Wilson ( reporter for Slate Magazine ) ; Cade Metz ( reporter for The Register who has written critically about Wikipedia ) ; Richard Branson and Noam Chomsky . The film documents an initiative in India and Africa called " Wikipedia Academies " . Controversies discussed in the film include the Essjay controversy , where a member of Wikipedia made false assertions about his academic background ; and the Wikipedia biography controversy , where false statements were inserted into the Wikipedia entry for journalist John Seigenthaler . Musician KRS @-@ One comments about the site after reading his biography on Wikipedia : " I can say to you , these are the facts but they are not true . "
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
The idea for the film originated from a suggestion by Michael Ferris Gibson , who had made the 2005 documentary 24 Hours on Craigslist . Gibson , a producer on the film , met with co @-@ director Nic Hill . Gibson financed Hill 's travels while making the film . The working title for the film was Truth in Numbers : The Wikipedia Story . Gibson chose to finance the film through a request for funding from Internet visitors ; the initial request drew in US $ 20 @,@ 000 in initial investment . The production team made their initial work on the project known to Internet viewers via the website www.wikidocumentary.org. Another collaborative website focused on the documentary was formed at Wikia , located at wikidocumentary.wikia.com. Regarding his financing strategy , Gibson commented to the San Francisco Chronicle , that smaller incremental donations from multiple individuals showed genuine interest in his initiative .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming started in August 2006 at the Wikimania 2006 conference , and by April 2007 the team had aggregated 100 hours of footage . Co @-@ director Hill accompanied Wales during 2007 , filming him as he journeyed around the globe . Hill took a two @-@ person film crew and traveled to China , Indonesia , India , South Africa , Australia and Europe , interviewing editors and contributors . Hill is himself an editor of Wikipedia , starting an article about a graffiti artist . Gibson and Hill required expertise in the creative and funding aspects of film @-@ making and invited Scott Glosserman to join the venture . Glosserman 's involvement with the film began during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . After Glosserman signed on , the breadth of the endeavor became larger . The film ended up taking an additional three years to finish after Glosserman joined the production .
Eric Koretz served as director of photography ; he joined the team during a shift in focus in January 2008 . Koretz used a Panasonic AG @-@ HPX500 P2 HD camcorder . He commented to industry publication Videography about the choice of technique , that due to the intensity of the production team 's travel schedule tape format would not have been an option . He stated he preferred using P2 cards over the HDD @-@ based format due to its superior reliability . During the editing process , Glen Echo Entertainment utilized eight Apple Macintosh computers with Intel processors , equipped with Apple 's Final Cut Pro editing software .
= = = Re @-@ focus = = =
Glosserman and the rest of the production team met together to put together a focus for the film ; they centered their efforts on answering the question : " How does Wikipedia get at the truth ? " They also wanted to provide information for everyday individuals wanting to know about Wikipedia 's background and functioning . Experts were sought out , including the author of The Age of American Unreason Susan Jacoby , to discuss Wikipedia 's approach to scholars knowledgeable about specific subject matter . Glosserman commented in an interview with IndieWire , " We tried to get people offering compelling arguments for either side of any particular topic because our intention was to be objective and to let the viewer make up his or her own mind . " The narrative structure of the film What the Bleep Do We Know ! ? served as an inspiration for Glosserman during the production process . As a non @-@ profit project , the film had received more than $ 55 @,@ 000 in donations by March 2009 .
= = Release = =
The release for the film was originally planned for 2007 , then 2008 and 2009 , before its 2010 release . Clips of the film were shown at Wikimania 2007 in Taipei prior to its completion . Editors in the audience had mixed views on the film . In 2008 , footage from the film was used in an official fundraising video by the Wikimedia Foundation . The film had its premiere at Wikimania 2010 in Gdańsk in July 2010 , before an audience of approximately 300 people . A trailer for the movie was released in October 2010 .
The film was screened at the Paley Center for Media in New York City on October 20 , 2010 . It was shown in conjunction with the Robert M. Batscha University Seminar Series . The Paley Center screening included an online streaming broadcast — the first simultaneous film screening and panel question @-@ and @-@ answer for online and local audiences . The panel discussion was moderated by The New York Times journalist Noam Cohen , and featured both co @-@ directors , in addition to Wikimedia Foundation representative Samuel Klein and Wikipedian in Residence at the British Museum Liam Wyatt . After the event , SnagFilms subsequently made the film available for free for six days to viewers in the United States .
The film was screened at the Savannah Film Festival on November 3 , 2010 , at Savannah College of Art and Design 's Trustees Theater . It was scheduled for a limited theatrical release in the United States on November 30 , 2010 .
= = Reception = =
Wales wrote favorably about the film in 2007 during its production , and noted , " Director Nic Hill is making what looks to be a fabulous film about Wikipedia and Wikipedians worldwide . " However , Wales commented negatively about the delayed release , in a statement to PRNewser . He said the movie was dated due to its delay . He commented that the documentary was lopsided towards reliance on expert commentary and did not feature enough weight towards depicting community involvement in the online project . Wales posted to a Wikimedia Foundation mailing list , " the film was poorly received in Poland , and it is seriously out of date . " Larry Sanger commented he thought the film was , " Not too bad , from what I saw . " Wikimedia Foundation board member Samuel Klein commented , " In general , I like the film a lot more after seeing it for the second time , in a very different audience ( and seeing their live reactions ) . " Sage Ross , an attendee of Wikimania 2010 , commented that the film appears to take a mainly negative point of view towards Wikipedia , " The film gives a lot of focus to some shallow or misleading lines of criticism , and on an intellectual level , it comes off as largely anti @-@ Wikipedia , contrasting the reasonable @-@ sounding arguments of mature critics with the naive optimism of youthful Wikipedians . " Author Ted Leonsis commented favorably about the documentary , at his blog , Ted 's Take , characterizing it as , " A great film about the Wikipedia movement . " He concluded , " This is a must see film , a premiere film . You gotta watch it to remain socially relevant ! "
Daniel D 'Addario reviewed Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia for the AOL Inc. publication , Urlesque . D 'Addario commented , " the film raises interesting questions about authority , only somewhat intentionally . " He noted the dated bits observing , " Truth in Numbers ? may well be coming too late . " D 'Addario concluded his assessment by noting that at the time of his review , the Wikipedia article for the film was under threat of being deleted : " According to the site , the entry for Truth in Numbers ? is being considered for deletion – it links to few other articles on the site , and is an ' orphan . ' Given the tenor of Truth in Numbers ? , which combines avid interest in Wikipedia with wide @-@ eyed dismay at much of its particulars , this is either very surprising or not surprising at all . "
In his review for the Savannah Film Festival , Carlos Serrano of District wrote that though the subject matter covered a lot of ground , it utilized an efficient presentation : " Sounds like a lot to put in to one movie , but the film manages to make good use of its 85 minute running time . " Serrano commented on the presentation of Jimmy Wales during the film , " In the end , I came out of the theater thinking of him as a three @-@ dimensional figure , very much a man with passion but neither completely good or evil . To be honest , this is very important in a film like this and is a definite plus for the movie . " Serrano recommended the documentary , and concluded , " This is definitely a solid film . ... This film is definitely worth a viewing . It ’ s interesting , well made , and presents varied perspectives on Wikipedia that help the narrative stay interesting . "
= Hope Highway =
The Hope Highway , also known as the Hope Road Turnoff , is a Forest Highway located in the Kenai Peninsula Borough , in the U.S. state of Alaska . The highway connects the city of Hope to the Seward Highway , and travels through 17 miles ( 27 km ) of the Chugach National Forest . The road passes the ghost town of Sunrise City and several smaller settlements , remnants of the gold rush that occurred in that area . The highway was created circa 1928 and was designated as Forest Highway 14 by the Federal Highway Administration .
= = Route description = =
The Hope Highway begins at an intersection with the Seward Highway ( AK @-@ 1 ) , inside Chugach National Forest . The highway proceeds north , traveling through several miles of pine forest , in a valley in the Kenai Mountain range . The highway passes alongside the Resurrection Creek , which was the source for the settlement of this area . The road proceeds through the abandoned settlement of Sunrise City , which was an old mining town . The roadway proceeds to the Turnagain Arm , and turns in a westward direction . The road continues along the arm for several miles before entering the city of Hope . The highway passes through Hope , intersecting the Old Hope Highway and several smaller streets before exiting the town and reentering the forest . The highway reaches its northern terminus , an access road to the Porcupine Creek Campgrounds . The entire length of the Hope Highway is located in the Chugach National Forest . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System .
= = = Traffic = = =
Traffic on the Hope Highway is very low , with the highest traffic count being just over 400 vehicles daily , at its intersection with the Seward Highway . The daily average vehicle count for the highway is just under 300 .
= = History = =
The Hope Highway was first established in 1928 . The original highway connected the city of Hope to Moose Pass , which then took people to Anchorage via the Alaska Railroad . The Seward Highway was completed in 1951 , which allowed travelers to get to Hope without having to transport their vehicle on a train . The highway operated as an improved dirt road until 1952 or 1953 , when the highway was finally paved . The portion of the highway that connected Hope to the campgrounds was created in the 1970s . Around the same time as the extension of the route , the Hope Highway was rerouted around the city of Hope , with the original path that traveled through the city being renamed the Old Hope Highway . In 1982 , during the expansion of the Federal Forest Highway System , the Hope Highway was added to the system , due to its location and local importance .
= = Major junctions = =
The entire highway is in Kenai Peninsula Borough .
= = Old Hope Highway = =
The Old Hope Highway is a short , historic route of the Hope Highway located in the city of Hope . The road is just 0 @.@ 259 miles ( 0 @.@ 417 km ) long , and connects the Hope Highway to the central region of Hope . The road has an unpaved , gravel surface , and passes several small businesses and homes located in Hope . The road was part of the original Hope Highway , which was created in 1928 , and remained part of the highway until circa 1970 , when the highway was rerouted around Hope .
= Super Mario Land =
Super Mario Land is a 1989 side @-@ scrolling platform video game , the first in the Super Mario Land series , developed and published by Nintendo as a launch title for their Game Boy handheld game console . In gameplay similar to that of the 1985 Super Mario Bros. , but resized for the smaller device 's screen , the player advances Mario to the end of 12 levels by moving to the right and jumping across platforms to avoid enemies and pitfalls . Unlike other Mario games , Super Mario Land is set in Sarasaland , a new environment depicted in line art , and Mario pursues Princess Daisy . The game introduces two Gradius @-@ style shooter levels .
At Nintendo CEO Hiroshi Yamauchi 's request , Game Boy creator Gunpei Yokoi 's Nintendo R & D1 developed a Mario game to sell the new console . It was the first portable version of Mario and the first to be made without Mario creator and Yokoi protégé Shigeru Miyamoto . Accordingly , the development team shrunk Mario gameplay elements for the device and used some elements inconsistently from the series . Super Mario Land was expected to showcase the console until Nintendo of America bundled Tetris with new Game Boys . The game launched alongside the Game Boy first in Japan ( April 1989 ) and later worldwide . Super Mario Land was later rereleased for the Nintendo 3DS via Virtual Console in 2011 again as a launch title , which featured some tweaks to the game 's presentation .
Initial reviews were laudatory . Reviewers were satisfied with the smaller Super Mario Bros. , but noted its short length . They considered it among the best of the Game Boy launch titles . The handheld console became an immediate success and Super Mario Land ultimately sold over 18 million copies , more than that of Super Mario Bros. 3 . Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers praised the game 's soundtrack . Later reviews were critical of the compromises made in development and noted Super Mario Land 's deviance from series norms . The game begot a series of sequels , including the 1992 Super Mario Land 2 : 6 Golden Coins , 1994 Wario Land : Super Mario Land 3 , and 2011 Super Mario 3D Land , though many of the original 's mechanics were not revisited . The game was included in several top Game Boy game lists and debuted Princess Daisy as a recurring Mario series character .
= = Gameplay = =
As a side @-@ scrolling platform game and the first in the Super Mario Land series , Super Mario Land is similar in gameplay to its forebears : as Mario , the player advances to the end of the level by moving to the right and jumping across platforms to avoid enemies and pitfalls . In Super Mario Land , Mario travels to Sarasaland to save Princess Daisy from Tatanga , an evil spaceman . Two of the game 's twelve levels are " forced @-@ scrolling " Gradius @-@ style shooters where Mario helms a submarine or airplane and fires projectiles towards oncoming enemies and bosses . Levels end with a platforming challenge to reach an alternative exit located above the regular exit . The former leads to a bonus minigame that awards extra lives .
Unlike other Mario games , which take place in the Mushroom Kingdom , Super Mario Land is set in Sarasaland and drawn in line art . Mario pursues Princess Daisy , in her debut , rather than the series standard damsel in distress , Princess Peach . Koopa shells explode rather than slide , Mario throws bouncing balls rather than fireballs , 1 @-@ Up Mushroom power @-@ ups are depicted as hearts , and the level @-@ end flagpoles are replaced with a platforming challenge . Some elements recur from previous Mario games , such as blocks suspended in midair , pipes that lead to other areas , and Goomba enemies .
= = Development = =
Super Mario Land was developed by Nintendo R & D1 and published by Nintendo in 1989 as a launch title for their Game Boy handheld console . Nintendo CEO Hiroshi Yamauchi believed that fun games sold consoles , so when the company created the Game Boy handheld console , he wanted a fun game that would feature Nintendo 's mascot , Mario , and subsequently sell consoles . The job fell to Nintendo R & D1 , a development team led by Game Boy inventor Gunpei Yokoi . Yokoi had previously created the Game & Watch series and worked with his protégé , Shigeru Miyamoto , on the game that invented Mario , Donkey Kong . Super Mario Land was the fourth Super Mario title , the first portable Mario game , and the first in the series to be made without Miyamoto .
Absent Miyamoto 's direction , the development team used elements new and inconsistent with the series as Super Mario Land shrunk elements of the series to fit the portable device 's small screen . Yokoi , the head of R & D1 , served as producer , and Satoru Okada served as director . They had previously developed Metroid ( 1986 ) and Kid Icarus ( 1986 ) together , and the two subsequently designed the Game Boy — Yokoi on its industrial design , and Okada on its engineering . Their Super Mario Land was planned as the portable console 's showcase title until Henk Rogers brought Tetris to Nintendo of America and convinced Minoru Arakawa that the addictive computer game would help Nintendo reach the largest audience . The company subsequently chose to bundle Tetris with every Game Boy purchase .
The Game Boy was released in Japan in April 1989 , North America in July , and Europe in September 1990 , and Super Mario Land was a launch title . The game 's official first released was on April 21 , 1989 , in Japan , and its North American release followed in August . About 22 years later , Super Mario Land was released for the Nintendo 3DS via Virtual Console on June 6 , 2011 , as one of its opening titles . Its added features include an increased size ( about 60 percent zoom ) and an optional " shades of green " color palette to match the effect of the original Game Boy 's monochrome .
= = Reception = =
Critics saw Super Mario Land as a " smaller " and shorter version of Super Mario Bros. IGN 's Lucas Thomas wrote that the protagonist , enemies , and overall game were shorter , and noted that Mario himself was just 12 pixels in height on the Game Boy 's small screen . With this in mind , Thomas was concerned about player " eyestrain " in rereleases of the game . Still , IGN 's Levi Buchanan thought the game made no compromises in its size reduction . At the time of its release in 1989 , reviewers were excited to have a portable Mario game . Paul Rand of Computer and Video Games called the game " an arcade machine in your pocket " and the graphics " remarkable " for their size . French games magazine Player One felt that Super Mario Land adequately compromised where necessary to bring Mario to a portable device . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Steve Harris considered the game " fantastic " and " very fun to play " , albeit short . Ed Semrad and Donn Nauert of the same outlet both declared Super Mario Land " easily the best Game Boy cart " of the time . Complex 's Gus Turner wrote that the graphics were " simple " , and Official Nintendo Magazine said the game was " ridiculously short " . Eurogamer reported that the game could be finished in under an hour .
Complex 's Gus Turner wrote that the game had the fun , intuitiveness , and difficulty associated with the series , and Tony Mott of Superplay said the game proved that Nintendo 's Game Boy " had playability to match " its competitors . Matt Regan of Mean Machines agreed : " Playability to the nth degree ! " British magazines Mean Machines and The Games Machine both commented on the game 's number of secrets to find . Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling called Hirokazu Tanaka 's soundtrack " surely one of the all @-@ time greats " , and Official Nintendo Magazine said it was among the " greatest videogame music ever composed " . Player One , Eurogamer , and Complex too complimented the music . Player One further pronounced Super Mario Land a " masterpiece " , " the pinnacle of portable video gaming " .
Following the Game Boy 's " overnight success " , Super Mario Land sold over 18 million copies — more than that of Super Mario Bros. 3 .
= = Legacy = =
The game begot a Super Mario Land series of portable Mario games . Super Mario Land 2 : 6 Golden Coins added a non @-@ linear overworld and introduced Wario , an evil version of Mario , as the game 's villain . The subsequent Wario Land : Super Mario Land 3 began the Wario franchise . After 19 years , the 2011 title Super Mario 3D Land for the Nintendo 3DS became Mario 's first game in stereoscopic 3D . Audrey Drake of IGN argued that both Wario Land and Super Mario 3D Land were not " legitimate sequels " , and wrote that the latter felt more like " Super Mario Bros. 3 with Mario Galaxy influences " than a successor to Super Mario Land 2 .
Super Mario Land is remembered for its miniaturized Super Mario elements and " twist on just | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
=
Anthony Mandler directed the music video for " Man Down " in April 2011 on a beach in Portland Parish , on the northeastern Jamaican coast . Rihanna told Rap @-@ Up that the video has a " strong underlying message [ for ] girls like me ! " On May 1 , 2011 , three camera phone teaser photos , of Rihanna on a beach in a white Dolce & Gabbana dress and riding a bicycle in Portland Parish , were released . The music video premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on May 31 , 2011 . In an interview for MTV News , Mandler said that " Man Down " required " a strong narrative and visual " and that fans could expect something " dramatic and shocking and intense and emotions and uplifting and enlightening " .
The video opens as the protagonist ( Rihanna ) shoots and kills a man while he walks through a busy train station . She flees before a flashback to the previous day , when she rides her bike , meets friends and is alone in a bedroom at dusk . At a nightclub the protagonist dances and flirts with another club @-@ goer , who then attacks her when she leaves the club . Disheveled , the woman cries in the street after an implied sexual assault , and the video ends as she runs home to grab a gun hidden in a dresser drawer .
= = = Analysis and reception = = =
Janell Hobson analysed the imagery presented in the video for " Man Down " in her book Body as Evidence : Mediating Race , Globalizing Gender , which " challenges postmodernist dismissals of identity politics and the delusional belief that the Millennial era reflects a ' postracial ' and ' postfeminist ' world . " In the chapter titled " Disclosures : Black Women 's Resistance to Sexual Violence " , Hobson explores how black women have " found the courage " to speak out about sexual violence , protest against it and not remain a silent victim . She recalled Rihanna 's interview for 20 / 20 with Diane Sawyer , which aired on November 6 , 2009 . Having remained silent about her altercation with Brown on the evening of the Grammy Party in February that year , whereby Brown assaulted her , Rihanna decided to speak about it for the first time . The author noted how Sawyer decided to approach the interview by presenting the couples relationship and assault case as an " anomaly " and accused Rihanna of " projecting a ' fake ' imagery of strong black woman " , rather than presenting her another domestic violence victim not only in the United States , but in the world . " I am strong , " Rihanna responded . Hobson wrote that from then on , the singer decided to project an image of " hardcore masculinity and dominatrix @-@ type femininity in her music trajectory " .
Subsequently , several of Rihanna 's songs and music videos have courted controversy for their violent themes , which Hobson attributes to the leaking of a photo showing the singers " battered face " on the evening of the assault by TMZ which circulated the internet without the permission of Rihanna . Hobson writes : " Because of this , Rihanna has had to wrest back control of the ' victim ' image foisted on her , and she in turn has challenged us rhetorically and visually to question and examine the power , danger , and violences that shape our relationships . " She continued to highlight the music videos for " Russian Roulette " , " Hard " , " We Found Love " , " Love the Way You Lie " with Eminem which documents domestic violence , and " S & M " , which contains references to bondage and fetishism and is , in part , Rihanna 's response to disparaging critics , as examples . At one point in the video for " S & M " , Rihanna is literally tied up as a victim .
However , Hobson noted that Rihanna " rejects the victim stance " in the video for " Man Down " , and elucidated that she played the role of a rape survivor who shot her attacker . She attributed the location of shooting the video in Jamaica as significant , due to how the image of a gun proliferated during 1990s Jamaican dance hall 's to " express female rage " . The prologue depicts Rihanna as a " dark @-@ hooded " femme fatale whereby the narrative explains her motives for murder and provokes the spectator to sympathize with her because she danced in a provocative manner with a man in a club , which Hobson suggests is " somehow deserving of rape " . She continued to explain that Rihanna is inviting the audience to consider what justice means by " pointing both a literal and lyrical gun at the issue " . Hobson concluded that Rihanna is protecting her vulnerability and countering the image of the abused black woman who is looked at unsympathetically in society .
Beck Bain of Idolator described the video as " visually stunning " , while Metro writer Lee Ann labelled it as " shocking " . Co @-@ writer of " Man Down " Theron Thomas felt that the video was very theatrical and that Rihanna played her role " perfectly " . He continued to say that had the video been a lyric @-@ by @-@ lyric representation , the narrative would have been more " graphic " .
= = = Controversy = = =
The Parents Television Council ( PTC ) criticized Rihanna for her portrayal of " cold , calculated execution of murder " in the music video , and argued that murdering a rapist as socially @-@ acceptable justice is impermissible . The group disagreed with Rihanna 's rationale for the storyline : that the video has " a very strong underlying message [ for ] girls " like Rihanna . According to the PTC and Industry Ears , if Chris Brown murdered a woman in a video that premiered on BET " the world would stop " and Rihanna should not have been allowed to release her clip . The week before the council 's statement about the video it had objected to Rihanna and Britney Spears ' performance of the " S & M " remix at the Billboard Music Awards , having called it a " profanity @-@ laced , S & M sex show on prime @-@ time broadcast television " .
After the PTC 's statement , Julianne Escobedo Shepherd of AlterNet wrote that the group seemed to employ a double standard ; it had not condemned Kanye West 's music video for " Monster " , in which dead women hang from ceilings and West holds a decapitated head . Shepard added that Eminem and Rihanna 's video for " Love the Way You Lie " had not been criticized , despite " glorified and romanticized " domestic violence . A Mothers Against Violence spokesperson criticised Rihanna for failing to present a solution , rather than encouraging the vulnerable youth , for which rape is a reality for many people . Director Anthony Mandler addressed the controversy in an interview for The Hollywood Reporter , saying that the visual evoked the reaction he intended and that it highlighted an issue still taboo in modern society . He recalled growing up in an era in which artists such as Madonna released controversial music videos , and noted that contemporary videos no longer tackle taboo subjects as frequently .
Rihanna responded to the PTC 's criticism on Twitter , and said that parents should not expect her to parent their children and that " touchy subject matters " should not be hidden from children otherwise they will not learn how to adapt in society , and that it empowers abusers even more because children are embarrassed to talk about rape . The singer continued to state that " the industry isn 't ' Parent 's ' R Us ' " and that singers " have the freedom to create art " . In an interview for BET , Rihanna further explain why rape was used as the vehicle to push the story forward in the video despite the lyrics not mentioning rape , saying " Making that into a mini @-@ movie or video , we needed to go back to why it happened . Obviously she 's not a cold @-@ blooded killer . It had to be something so offensive . And we decided to hone in on a very serious matter that people are afraid to address , especially if you 've been victimized in this scenario . " Rihanna added that the character is remorseful for her actions .
Actress and women 's @-@ health advocate Gabrielle Union , a rape victim , voiced support for the video on Twitter . Union called it " brave " and , although she did not agree with the eye @-@ for @-@ an @-@ eye sentiment , she could relate to the situation . Union said that every rape victim or survivor is a unique situation , and that they all have an idea of how justice should be served . She admitted that she tried to shoot her rapist , but missed , and that she has since realised that committing murder as a form of justice for herself would not have made the situation better . She continued to say that while it is " understandable " to desire to kill a rapist , unless it is in self @-@ defense then it is not advisable .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Rihanna has included " Man Down " on the set lists of several concerts and tours , including the 2011 Loud Tour , BBC Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 and the 2013 Diamonds World Tour . For the Loud Tour , Rihanna performed the song on " a levitating , rotating platform , a conveyer belt and graffiti @-@ laden car shell . " Although Kitty Empire described " Man Down " as " terrific " , the critic felt let down by the " baffling lack of creativity " from Rihanna 's production team for the stage set up during Rihanna 's performance . She wrote that she did not understand why a truck bonnet was in the middle of the stage . Maza praised the tracks placement on the set @-@ list . " Man Down " was performed as the fourth song on the Loud Tour , following its opener " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " Disturbia " and " Shut Up and Drive " . Maza noted that the tempo of " Man Down " should have " slowed down the momentum she 'd accumulated until then but that was instead an ideal marriage of production and performance . " Instead , the red lights on the stage played up the " ominous " tone of the song as it gradually increased its tempo to the point whereby the end of the song was on the verge of sounding like an incantation .
For the Diamonds World Tour , Rihanna performed " Man Down " in a Caribbean @-@ theme section of the show , which also included " You da One " , " No Love Allowed " , " What 's My Name ? " and " Rude Boy " . James Lachno of The Telegraph highlight the Caribbean @-@ themed section as the show 's highlight . Manchester Evening News writer Katie Fitzpatrick commented that Rihanna transported the audience to the Caribbean with a " grinding groove " . However , Gary Graff of The Oakland Press was disappointed with the lack of variety in the section , writing that it was " addled by a sonic sameness , even with Nuno Bettencourt of Extreme , whose guitar was buried in the bass @-@ heavy mix , playing some intriguing licks and accents " .
British singer and songwriter Leona Lewis performed a mashup of " Man Down " with her 2008 single " Better in Time " at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge in June 2011 . She also included the mashup on the set list of her 2013 Glassheart Tour . Her rendition received a mixed response from critics . Katherine Hollisey @-@ McLean of the Worthing Herald complimented the fusion of " Better in Time " with reggae beats . But The Guardian 's Malcolm Jack thought the performance was cringeworthy and called Lewis a " reasonably priced Rihanna " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Marauders ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Marauders " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the 32nd episode overall . It first aired on October 30 , 2002 , on the UPN network within the United States . The story was created by executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga with a teleplay by David Wilcox . A similar premise had been included in the original pitch for Star Trek by Gene Roddenberry .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , while in search of deuterium , Enterprise discovers a mining colony that is being controlled by Klingons who are bullying the inhabitants and hoarding their supplies . The crew conduct repairs on the colony and train the colonists to fight off the Klingons .
This episode was mostly filmed on location in a quarry in Ventura County , California , and the majority of the guest stars were stunt performers . Both Larry Cedar and Bari Hochwald had previously appeared in different episodes of Deep Space Nine and Voyager . " Marauders " was watched by 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , the second highest audience for an episode of the second season . Reviews were mixed , with some critics responding negatively to the lack of consequences from the fighting sequences while another praised the characters interactions and felt it was a good example of the western genre .
= = Plot = =
Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) , and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) fly down to a small colony of 76 miners in order to trade for deuterium . They initially try to barter with Tessic ( Larry Cedar ) , the colony 's leader , but he appears reluctant to part with any of the 80 @,@ 000 liters in inventory , which is being held for ' someone else ' . After negotiations however , a deal is struck − 200 liters of deuterium for four power cells and whatever medical supplies Enterprise can spare , on the proviso that the Enterprise crew can fix two offline pumps in two days .
Despite deuterium being a valuable commodity , Archer is startled by the lack of basic medical supplies and the run @-@ down nature of the colony . The reason becomes apparent when seven Klingons show up to collect deuterium according to their ' regular arrangement ' . When Tessic informs Korok ( Robertson Dean ) , the leader of the Klingons , that they do not have all the deuterium because two pumps were not working , Korok hits him and gives them four days to meet the order . Later , when Tucker and Archer attempt to talk them into fighting against the Klingons , Tessic tell them to take their 200 liters and leave . However , leaving does not sit well with Archer and he convinces the leader to resist with their support .
On Enterprise , T 'Pol teaches some of the colonists how to evade edged @-@ weapon attacks ( from Vulcan martial @-@ art ' Suus @-@ mahna ' ) , while Ensign Hoshi Sato ( Linda Park ) and Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) teach other colonists how to fire their weapons more accurately . Archer and Tucker then suggest the colonists shift the entire colony to the south 50 meters . When the Klingon marauders arrive , the colony appears deserted and silent . Finally the defenders show themselves , and in the ensuing fight the Klingons are lured into an area surrounded by the capped @-@ off deuterium well heads . On cue , the wells are ignited , surrounding the Klingons with flames . Tessic then tells the Klingons to leave and never come back . After they depart , Archer is rewarded with 2 @,@ 000 liters of deuterium by the grateful miners .
= = Production = =
The initial pitch for Star Trek : The Original Series by Gene Roddenberry included a similar episode premise called " Kentucky , Kentucky " . This story would have had Captain Robert M. April and the crew of the S.S. Yorktown visit a human colony which had been previously attacked by Viking @-@ like aliens . This resulted in the colonists reverting in appearance to that seen during the American frontier @-@ era . April and his crew band together to help the colonists fight off the aliens .
Executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga developed the story , which was turned into a teleplay by David Wilcox . It was directed by Mike Vejar , his fourth episode of the series , although he had also developed several more episodes of the other series in the franchise . Filming on " Marauders " began on August 21 , 2002 , utilising the standing ship sets . The shoot on the following day mostly took place on a sound stage , while the third day 's on set filming used the shuttlepod set as well as a newly created ship 's gym set . The remainder of the eight days filming took place on location at a quarry in Ventura County , California , located about an hour 's journey north west of Los Angeles . Temperatures were mild for that time of year , but the actors were still told to wear sunscreen and drink plenty of water . The actors portraying the Klingons joined on the second of the five days on location , with the majority of them played by stunt men . According to Bakula , the set used for the colony was the largest build so far for Enterprise .
Robertson Dean played the sole speaking Klingon , he had previously appeared in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Face of the Enemy " . Other members of the guest cast included Cedar , portraying the colonist Tessic , who had previously appeared in individual episodes of both Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Voyager . Likewise , Bari Hochwald also appeared in those two series . While appearing in " Marauders " , she was also performing in the play Fedunn at the Odyssey Theatre in Los Angeles .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Marauders " was first broadcast on the UPN network within the United States on October 30 , 2002 . It was watched by 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , equating to Nielsen ratings of 3 @.@ 9 / 6 percent . This meant that the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 9 percent of possible viewers , and six percent of those watching television at the time . This was the second most watched episode of the season , behind " A Night in Sickbay " , which was broadcast a week prior .
J.C. Maçek III , while writing for the website PopMatters , described " Marauders " as forming the first part of a loose trilogy of episodes within the second season focusing on re @-@ introducing the Klingons to the series . The following episodes in the group were said to be " Judgment " and " Bounty " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " gave the episode two out of four , said that there was nothing exciting in " Marauders " and that the action sequences towards the end were unrealistic because despite all the apparent violence , not a single person even gets injured during the scene . He called the general premise " classic trek " , but that it lacked depth and didn 't pose any interesting questions . He summed it up by saying it was " a bloodless , light @-@ as @-@ a @-@ feather action show with handsome production values but absolutely and positively no edge . "
Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation , said that the episode seemed to follow the same story as the 1998 animated film A Bug 's Life , but was very much set in the western genre which inspired Roddenberry 's original Star Trek pitch with other comparisons to the 1960 film The Magnificent Seven . She felt that there was several scenes which enabled some character building moments for Hoshi , Travis Mayweather and Tucker , and described it overall as " a decent genre piece with good character work " .
The first home media release of " Marauders " was part of the season two DVD box set , released in the United States on August 7 , 2005 . A release on Blu @-@ ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20 , 2013 .
= Johnny McNichol =
John " Johnny " McNichol ( 20 August 1925 – 17 March 2007 ) was a Scottish footballer who played more than 500 games in the Football League in England . An inside forward , he played more than 150 games for Brighton & Hove Albion and more than 200 for each of Chelsea and Crystal Palace .
McNichol graduated from junior footballer and apprentice motor mechanic in his native Scotland to a professional contract with English First Division club Newcastle United . After two years , he had found success with the reserve team but was never selected in the first eleven . Brighton & Hove Albion , struggling in the Third Division , broke their transfer record to sign him . McNichol spent four years with the club , acquiring " the reputation as the finest inside @-@ forward in the Third Division " , before moving to the First Division as Chelsea manager Ted Drake 's first signing . He was part of the Chelsea team that won the League championship in the 1954 – 55 season . In 1958 he joined Crystal Palace , whom he captained to promotion from the Fourth Division , and finished his on @-@ field career in the Southern League as player @-@ manager of Tunbridge Wells Rangers . He then spent 25 years working on the commercial side of football with two of his previous clubs .
= = Early life and career = =
McNichol was born in Kilmarnock , Ayrshire . His father , Danny , died when he was five , so McNichol and seven siblings were raised by their mother , Catherine . He attended St Joseph 's School in Kilmarnock , and started work as a messenger boy for a local draper 's shop when he left school . His shop work stopped him playing football on Saturdays , but he was able to play some midweek football for Junior club Hurlford United . When he was taken on at the local bus garage as an apprentice motor mechanic , he became available on Saturdays as well . Hurlford paid him ten shillings a game , nearly as much as his apprentice 's wages . During the Second World War , McNichol was called up to the Fleet Air Arm as a mechanic , but was able to play friendly matches for Inverness @-@ based club Clachnacuddin . Because of the number of professional players stationed around the country , such matches were played at a fairly high standard .
= = Newcastle United = =
After the war , McNichol returned to Hurlford , but , amid interest from other clubs , he accepted a trial with Newcastle United . After two trial matches , he signed professional forms with the club on his 21st birthday . McNichol spent two years at Newcastle , but never made a first @-@ team appearance . Behind the likes of England international forwards Roy Bentley and Len Shackleton in the pecking order , he doubled his income working as a motor mechanic for a local funeral director whose " two or three Rolls @-@ Royces [ made ] a nice change from working on bus engines " . In his second season , he was part of the reserve team that won the Central League title , but a disagreement over personal terms on his contract renewal – the Newcastle management felt a lower wage was justified because of the player 's earnings outside the game – prompted McNichol to seek first @-@ team football elsewhere .
= = Brighton & Hove Albion = =
Brighton & Hove Albion had finished bottom of the Third Division South the season before and were struggling financially , yet manager Don Welsh persuaded the directors to break the club transfer record by paying £ 5 @,@ 000 for a player yet to make his debut in the Football League , and persuaded McNichol to sign . He made his first appearance in the League on 21 August 1948 , at the age of 23 , as Brighton drew with Swindon Town at home . The club finished sixth in the division in McNichol 's first season and eighth , despite having no regular goalscorer – McNichol 's nine goals made him top scorer – in 1949 – 50 . The next year , McNichol played in all of Brighton 's games , the only man so to do , and again finished as top scorer for the season , this time with 14 goals . According to Carder and Harris , he " had a superb season with a brand of play which won him the reputation as the finest inside @-@ forward in the Third Division " . Appointed club captain when Billy Lane took over from Welsh as manager , McNichol flourished under Lane 's attacking policy . He scored 14 goals in the 1951 – 52 season as Brighton narrowly failed to mount a successful challenge to Plymouth Argyle for the title , " was again the star of the side " , and " was thought by many to be the most stylish inside @-@ forward to play for the Albion " .
That season , McNichol scored a hat @-@ trick against eventual runners @-@ up Reading , which caught the eye of manager Ted Drake . Shortly before the next season started , he became Drake 's first signing for his new club , Chelsea , at a fee of £ 12 @,@ 000 plus the player Jimmy Leadbetter , a club record fee received for Albion . He had scored 39 goals in all competitions from 165 appearances . Although scouts from bigger clubs had been watching the player since soon after his arrival at the club – he had apparently already turned down moves to Manchester City , Everton and Huddersfield Town – Brighton 's supporters were disappointed , seeing his sale as a backward step .
= = Chelsea = =
On his Chelsea debut away at Manchester United , McNichol found himself playing at right back after ten minutes when Sid Tickridge sustained an injury . Once restored to the forward line , his goals helped Chelsea avoid relegation to the Second Division at the end of his first season . A " dramatic last @-@ minute goal ... enabled Chelsea to snatch a lucky victory at West Bromwich " with three games left , and he scored the third goal of Chelsea 's 3 – 1 defeat of Manchester City in their last fixture of the season which confirmed their escape from the relegation positions .
Two seasons later , Chelsea won the First Division title for the first time . As they beat Charlton Athletic in March 1955 to " maintain their challenging position in the Championship " , The Times ' reporter described how " McNichol filled the role of general , and was instigator of many dangerous movements " . Two weeks later , McNichol , " the most effective of their forwards " , scored twice as a Chelsea team displaying " a propensity to play the man in preference to the ball " beat Tottenham Hotspur 4 – 2 , and the title was confirmed with one game still to play . McNichol had missed only two games in the 42 @-@ game season , and scored 14 goals , a good return for a player in his position ; an inside forward was normally more a creator than a scorer of goals , but his profile on Chelsea 's website describes him as " clever , astute and most of all a clinical finisher " .
He stayed at the club for three more seasons , but later lost his place in the side to the young Jimmy Greaves : " There was no disgrace in losing my place to him . I couldn 't grumble about that . We used to get on very well , and he would listen to the instructions I gave him . Then he became world famous ! " The respect was mutual : though Greaves described the Chelsea title @-@ winning side as " almost certainly one of the least talented teams ever to win the title " , he made an exception for McNichol , " the ball player of the team " . In all competitions , he made 202 appearances for Chelsea and scored 66 goals .
While at Brighton , McNichol had worked in a local garage , wanting to keep up his skills in case injury put an early end to his football career . When he joined Chelsea , his decision to remain living in the area had upset Drake . In addition , he bought a newsagent 's shop in Hove , so not only did he have to travel by train from the south coast – as did teammates Stan Willemse and Eric Parsons – he further annoyed the Chelsea management by getting up even earlier each morning to open the shop before coming in to training . His wife Connie , whom he had known since childhood , ran the business in his absence . He claimed to have " earned more working in that shop than playing for Chelsea . Even in that championship season . "
= = Crystal Palace = =
Just ahead of the transfer deadline in March 1958 , McNichol signed for Third Division South club Crystal Palace . He was expected to fill a role " similar to the one he has performed so well at Stamford Bridge – helping in the development of promising young forwards " , and was appointed captain . He scored on his debut for the club , and produced seven goals from the twelve games he played in what remained of the 1957 – 58 season . By October 1958 , manager George Smith felt the player was feeling the strain of his dual role , so relieved him of the captaincy . As McNichol grew older , his playing position became more defensive , as he became first a wing half , then a full back . Palace had been placed in the Fourth Division when the Football League structure was reorganised on national lines prior to the 1958 – 59 season , and McNichol , long since restored to the captaincy , led them to promotion to the Third Division in 1961 , their first promotion for 40 years . Soon afterwards , he applied for the managerial post at former club Brighton & Hove Albion , then in the Second Division , but was unsuccessful . A broken arm suffered in August 1961 forced McNichol to miss a Palace match for the first time in a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year club career . He played on for two seasons , but his professional career was brought to a close by facial injuries , a fractured cheekbone and broken jaw , sustained during the 1962 – 63 season . In all competitions , he scored 15 goals from 205 appearances .
= = Later life and career = =
McNichol remained in the South of England , spending four years as player @-@ manager of Tunbridge Wells Rangers in the Southern League . Having sold the newsagents , he returned to Crystal Palace to work in the commercial side of the game , where he was responsible for the establishment of weekly pools and bingo competitions as a means of raising funds for the club . He moved back to Brighton & Hove Albion to occupy a similar role from 1979 to 1992 , and after retirement continued to live in the Saltdean area of Brighton .
Despite the successes of his career , McNichol had regrets . He described Chelsea 's decision not to accept their invitation to participate in the inaugural season of the European Cup as his " one big disappointment " , and " thought it was strange at the time " , despite the national team selectors ' preference for players plying their trade for Scottish clubs , that he was never chosen to represent his country .
McNichol retained contact with his previous clubs . One of 24 former players and managers nominated as " Albion Legends " as part of Brighton 's centenary events in 2001 , he took an active role in the celebrations . The surviving members of Chelsea 's 1955 title @-@ winning team used to meet for an annual dinner , and were guests of the club at the last match of the 2004 – 05 season as they celebrated their second League title , 50 years after the first .
He died of a stroke on 17 March 2007 at the age of 81 .
= = Honours = =
Newcastle United Reserves
The Central League winners : 1947 – 48
Chelsea
Football League First Division winners : 1954 – 55
Crystal Palace
Football League Fourth Division runners @-@ up : 1960 – 61
= Otra Nota =
Otra Nota ( English : Another Note ) is the debut album by American singer Marc Anthony that was released on January 26 , 1993 , by RMM Records . Produced by Sergio George , it was the first album by Anthony to record in salsa after starting his career as a freestyle musician . Recording of the album began after Anthony asked RMM president Ralph Mercado to record Juan Gabriel 's " Hasta Que Te Conocí " in salsa after hearing it on the radio during a taxi ride . Recorded on a low budget , the album peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart and reached No. 30 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart .
The album was well received by critics who complimented George 's production and Anthony 's youthful voice . Anthony received two awards for " Best New Artists " at the Billboard Latin Music Awards and the Lo Nuestro Awards . The album produced three singles : " Hasta Que Te Conocí " , " Palabras del Alma " , and " Si Tú No Te Fueras " , all of which charted on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . As of 2002 , Otra Nota has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
Marc Anthony began his recording career in 1980s as a freestyle musician during which he was a backup vocalist for boy bands such as Menudo and the Latin Rascals . Anthony also wrote songs for his school friend Sa @-@ Fire , including " Boy I 've Been Told " which became a hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Anthony got his start as a lead vocalist when he collaborated with Little Louie Vega on the album When the Night Is Over . The lead single " Ride on the Rhythm " became a number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
RMM manager Ralph Mercado invited Anthony to record a salsa album , but Anthony declined the offer due to a lack of interest to record in Spanish . The following day , while in a taxi , Anthony was listening to Juan Gabriel 's song " Hasta Que Te Conocí " ( " Until I Met You " ) on the radio and was motivated to record in the song in salsa and told Mercado about his change of decision . Mercado introduced Anthony to Sergio George who would produce the album . According to George , the album was an " total experiment " , citing that it was on low budget , recorded with one musician at a time without a band , and the full production was done on computers while George handled the keyboards .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album includes five compositions and three cover songs . The lead track " Palabras del Alma " ( " Words from the Soul " ) is a cover originally performed and written by Ilan Chester . " Si Tú No Te Fueras " ( " If You Would Not Leave " ) was composed by Nelson Frank and Jaime Gutierrez . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " was first performed and written by Juan Gabriel . " El Último Beso " was composed by Anthony 's father Felipe Muñíz . " Make It With You " is a cover of American band Bread 's song . " Necesito Amarte " was written by Luis Castillo who composed songs for RMM recording artists including José Alberto and Tito Nieves . Sergio George co @-@ wrote " ¿ Juego O Amor " ( " Game or Love ? " ) along with Adam Sez . The final track , " Si He de Morir " ( " If I Were to Die " ) was composed by Luis Díaz .
= = Commercial reception = =
Otra Nota debuted and peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart during the week of April 17 , 1993 , behind Jerry Rivera 's Cuenta Conmigo and remained at this position for eight weeks . During the week of June 11 , 1994 , the album debuted and peaked at No. 30 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums , where it spent nineteen weeks on the chart . Otra Nota has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies as of 2002 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Hasta Que Te Conocí " was the first single to be released from the album and peaked at No. 13 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The second single " Palabras del Alma " peaked at No. 15 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Si Tú No Te Fueras " was the last single released from the album which peaked at No. 31 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and complemented Anthony 's voice as " developed , unique , and individual " and felt that Anthony 's debut " brought quality and passion to his listeners from the beginning . " Gutierrez also found the songs in salsa enjoyable while calling the ballads . Gutierrez praised Sergio George 's arrangements as " outstanding " though he felt the production was outdated in places . Enrique Lopetegui gave the album 3 out of 4 stars , noting that while Anthony was viewed with skepticism on the salsa market , he felt that Anthony " may be the best of the many newborn salseros . " Lopetegui also praised Anthony 's vocals as " excellent " and described the overall album as " noble effort " though he criticized Anthony 's cover of " Make It With You " as unnecessary . In 1994 , Anthony received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Tropical / Salsa New Artist of the Year " and a Lo Nuestro award for " Tropical - New Artist of the Year " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from Allmusic .
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= St Peulan 's Church , Llanbeulan =
St Peulan 's Church , Llanbeulan is a disused medieval church in Llanbeulan , in Anglesey , north Wales . The nave , which is the oldest part of the building , dates from the 12th century , with a chancel and side chapel added in the 14th century . The church has a font of early date , possibly from the first half of the 11th century : one historian has said that it would initially have been used as an altar and that " as an altar of the pre @-@ Norman period it is a unique survivor in Wales and , indeed , in Britain " .
The church is now redundant and has been in the care of the charity , the Friends of Friendless Churches since 2005 . It is a Grade II * listed building , a designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a medieval church of " typical Anglesey type " that has retained its simple character despite 19th @-@ century alterations .
= = History and location = =
The date of foundation of the church in Llanbeulan is not known for certain , although it is said that a church was founded on this site in 630 by St Peulan . He was a disciple of the Anglesey saint Cybi . The earliest parts of the building date from the 12th century . It was the parish church of the area , and had a chapel of ease at St Mary 's Church , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn ( now also closed ) . In November 1349 , records of an inquisition in Beaumaris show that the priest serving St Peulan 's was one of a number of Anglesey clergymen to have died about that time , which was when the Black Death was affecting Anglesey . During the 19th century , a significant amount of church rebuilding and restoration work took place throughout Anglesey , and St Peulan 's was given a new roof and new internal fittings at this time . It is now a redundant church and has been in the hands of the Friends of Friendless Churches since 2004 ; it is one of four churches on Anglesey for which the charity has responsibility . The charity holds a 999 @-@ year lease with effect from 10 June 2005 .
The church gave its name to the parish of Llanbeulan : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ beulan " is a modified form of the saint 's name . It is in a thinly populated part of rural Anglesey , about 1 @.@ 75 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 09 mi ) to the south @-@ west of the village of Gwalchmai , and about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Bryngwran . A grassed track runs from the road to the church . To the east of the church , the churchyard contains a war grave of a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier of the First World War .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry , dressed with gritstone . The nave measures 27 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) , the chancel is 15 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 6 m ) , and the south chapel is 11 feet 3 inches by 16 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) . The building has a slate roof with copings of stone . At the west end , there is a gabled bellcote with one bell ; crosses made of iron are fixed to the roofs of the chancel and south chapel . The nave of the church , which has two bays , was probably built in the 12th century . An entrance at the west end of the nave has been blocked up and plastered over on the outside . The chancel , which is smaller than the nave , and a chapel ( on the south side of the building attached to the nave ) were added in the 14th century , and the arches dividing the nave from the chapel and the chancel are of this date . The entrance door , from the 19th century , is positioned on the east side of the chapel and has a pointed archway . Alongside the doorway is a stone inscribed with the year 1637 , and next to that is a round @-@ headed small window dating from the 12th century , reset in the chapel wall of later date . It has been suggested that this window may been reused from the blocked nave entrance .
The east window of the chancel , from the 15th century , has two lights topped with trefoils and decorated with carved heads . There is also a blocked 14th @-@ century window in the chancel 's north wall and an early 16th @-@ century window in the south wall . Other windows in the church date from the 17th century ( chapel south window ) and 19th century ( nave ) . The pews date from the 17th century : one stall in the chancel bears an inscribed panel of wood , dated 1664 , recording that it is the seat of William Bold of Treyrddol . There are a number of memorials inside the church from the 17th , 18th and early 19th centuries . The church 's 19th @-@ century fittings , such as the pulpit and altar rail , are plain .
The most notable feature of the church is its font , which dates from the late 12th century , or possibly even the first part of the 11th century . It measures 2 feet 1 inch ( 63 @.@ 5 cm ) by 2 feet 11 inches ( 88 @.@ 9 cm ) ( external measurements ) and is 11 inches ( 27 @.@ 9 cm ) deep . It is rectangular and decorated on three sides . One of the shorter sides has a cross with four arms of equal length imposed on a ring ; at the base are two small hemispheres , and the design is framed with bands ( some plain , some decorated with chevrons or a twisted rope pattern ) . It has been suggested that the hemispheres are bee skeps . One of the longer sides has a row of arches forming an arcade above a pattern of lozenges . The other shorter side has a chequerwork pattern . The archeologist David Petts has noted that it is one of a number of fonts on Anglesey that has an area with little or no carving , perhaps because it was never anticipated that the plain side of the font would be seen or because the font was carved after being put in its position in the church . Although similar in style to other Anglesey fonts , its rectangular shape is " unique " , according to Petts , and the cross on one side " finds no parallels among fonts of this period . "
One writer , the historian Peter Lord , has suggested that it was initially used as an altar . Accepting the 11th @-@ century dating , Lord stated that " as an altar of the pre @-@ Norman period it is a unique survivor in Wales and , indeed , in Britain " . Petts considers this " unlikely " , suggesting that it may originally have been a reliquary . The Friends of Friendless Churches describes the font as the building 's " chief glory " . It has also been called " the best of Anglesey 's remarkable Romanesque series . " It has similarities of design and style with the fonts of two other churches on Anglesey ( St Llwydian 's Church , Heneglwys and St Iestyn 's Church , Llaniestyn ) and with one of the stone crosses at St Seiriol 's Church , Penmon .
= = Assessment = =
The church is a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest ( of three ) grade of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 5 April 1971 , and has been listed because it is " a rural Medieval church retaining its simple character . " It is described by Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) as a church " of typical Anglesey type " , where the 19th @-@ century restoration work has " retained the simplicity of design and construction " , and also the church 's medieval character .
In the 19th century , the writer Samuel Lewis said that it was " small and of rude workmanship " , but had " several curious features " such as the font that made it " valuable " . The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd , writing in 1833 , described it as " a small cruciform structure , situated in a little barren valley " , with the south transept " bearing evidence of very great antiquity . " She stated that there were some windows " in the later English style , of good design , especially the east window of the chancel , which is a very superior composition . "
= The Tramp Dentists =
The Tramp Dentists is a 1913 American silent short comedy film released by the newly formed Joker productions by the Universal Film Manufacturing Company . Directed by Allen Curtis , the film 's cast includes Max Asher , Lee Morris , Eddie Boland Joseph Singleton and Bobby Vernon . The film is centered on two tramps , Dusty and Weary , who take over a dentist shop and get rich through their untrained dentistry , extracting teeth with pincers and ice tongs . After earning a large amount of money , the tramps return to their old way of life . Released on October 29 , 1913 , this film was the second Joker comedy . The film received some criticism for its vulgar humor . The film had a wide national release in the United States , but the film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Two tramps , named Dusty and Weary , awake from their slumber in a hay stock and are overcome with thirst . The two drink from a horse trough and Dusty complains of toothache . The two go to the dentist office only to be kicked out . When the dentist departs on a cruise the two tramps then pose as dentists and occupy the office and pull teeth with pincers and tongs . When the rightful owners return they drive off again . The tramps continue in their venture and quickly make a large sum of money before they desire their old way of life . The two tramps then surrender the office to its rightful owners .
= = Cast = =
Max Asher
Lee Morris
Eddie Boland
Joseph Singleton
Bobby Vernon credited as Sylvion De Jardins
= = Production = =
The term " tramp dentist " refers to an unskilled individual who practices dentistry . The appearance of the word and its usage was popularized in the 1890s and often applied as a literal definition of a tramp , a traveling long @-@ term homeless person , who engages in dentistry . The term was not exclusive to the United States as noted in Tracey Adams 's A Dentist and a Gentleman : Gender and the Rise of Dentistry in Ontario which refers to local blacksmiths and gunsmiths who would pull teeth and even create dentures of questionable effectiveness and quality . The single reel film was directed by Allen Curtis and released on October 29 , 1913 . The film was the second release of the newly formed Joker line of comedies , following The Cheese Special . The film was not heralded with as much fanfare , but records show that the film was still advertised in theaters in July 1914 .
= = Reception = =
The Moving Picture World reviewed the film as being a low comedy that featured " somewhat disgusting " dental humor with the extraction of teeth with pincers and ice tongs . A more direct review in response to the film 's comedic antics came from a letter to the editor of The Motion Picture Story Magazine which appealed the vulgar antics in the film as going to alienate members the audience and risk their continued patronage . The film had a wide national release that was shown in theaters throughout the United States . Locations included Chicago , Illinois , Atlanta , Georgia , Oklahoma , Ohio , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Oregon , Wisconsin , and Kansas .
The Tramp Dentists is presumed lost , but the date of disappearance is unknown . If the film were to have survived in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .
= Qedarite =
The Qedarites ( also Kedarites / Cedarenes , Cedar / Kedar / Qedar , and Kingdom of Qedar ) were a largely nomadic , ancient Arab tribal confederation . Described as " the most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes " , at the peak of its power in the 6th century BCE it controlled a large region between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula .
Biblical tradition holds that the Qedarites are named for Qedar , the second son of Ishmael , mentioned in the Bible 's books of Genesis ( 25 : 13 ) and 1 Chronicles ( 1 : 29 ) , where there are also frequent references to Qedar as a tribe . The earliest extrabiblical inscriptions discovered by archaeologists that mention the Qedarites are from the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire . Spanning the 8th and 7th centuries BCE , they list the names of Qedarite kings who revolted and were defeated in battle , as well as those who paid Assyrian monarchs tribute , including Zabibe , queen of the Arabs ( šar @-@ rat KUR.a @-@ ri @-@ bi ) . There are also Aramaic and Old South Arabian inscriptions recalling the Qedarites , who further appear briefly in the writings of Classical Greek , such as Herodotus , and Roman historians , such as Pliny the Elder , and Diodorus .
It is unclear when the Qedarites ceased to exist as a separately defined confederation or people . Allies with the Nabataeans , it is likely that they were absorbed into the Nabataean state around the 2nd century CE . In Islam , Isma 'il is considered to be the ancestral forefather of the Arab people , and in traditional Islamic historiography , Muslim historians have assigned great importance in their accounts to his first two sons ( Nebaioth and Qedar ) , with the genealogy of Muhammad , a Messenger of God in Islam , alternately assigned to one or the other son , depending on the scholar .
= = Etymology = =
It has been suggested that the name of the Qedarites is derived from the name for Ishamel 's second son Qedar . Though the tribal name is Arabic , it was first transcribed in Assyrian ( 8th century BCE ) and Aramaic ( 6th century BCE ) , as the Arabic alphabet had not yet been developed . In the Mareshah onomasticon , the Qedarites are listed as an ethnic group whose name in Aramaic transliteration is QDRYN .
The Arabic triliteral root q @-@ d @-@ r means " to measure , compute , estimate " ; " to decree , appoint , ordain " ; and " to have power , or ability . " Qidr , a noun derived from the same root , means " cauldron , kettle " , and also gives the verbal derivation , " to cook " . Ernst Axel Knauf , a biblical scholar who undertook a historical study of the Ishmaelites and determined that they were known in Assyrian inscriptions as the Šumu 'il , surmises that the name of the Qedarites was derived from the verb qadara , with its meaning of " to ordain , to have power " . As this etymology is a deduction based solely on the prominence of the Qedar among the Šumu 'il tribes , it is viewed as inconclusive by other scholars .
= = Geographical scope = =
The Qedarites were an " Arab tribal confederation , " or " alliance of nomadic Arab tribes . " According to Philip J. King , theologian and historian , they lived in the northwest Arabian desert and were " an influential force from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE . " Geoffrey Bromiley , historical theologist and translator , transcribes their name as Kedar and states they lived in an area southeast of Damascus and east of the Transjordan .
8th century BCE Assyrian inscriptions place the Qedarites as living in the area to the east of the western border of Babylon . Moving further east into areas of the Transjordan and southern Syria in the 7th century BCE , by the 5th century BCE they had spread into the Sinai and as far as the Nile Delta . Qedarite domination of northwest Arabia involved alliances between the kings of Qedar and the kings of Dedan ( Al-`Ula ) . Historian Israel Eph 'al writes that the " breadth of Qedarite distribution suggests a federation of tribes with various sub @-@ divisions . "
Oases in the largely desert region lived in by the Qedarites - such as Dedan , Tayma , and Dumah - played an important role as sites of settlement , trade , and watering @-@ places . Dumah , a remote desert city to the west , known later as Dumat Al @-@ Jandal and today as al @-@ Jawf , was the most important of these , sitting as it did between the empires of Babylonia and Assyria . Serving as the base for Qedarite religious ceremonies , Dumah 's strategic position on the north @-@ south trade route in the area meant that relations with its inhabitants were sought after by both empires , though Dumah and the Qedarites were closer in both geographical and political terms to Babylonia . Those coming from the south and wishing to access Mesopotamia were obliged to pass through Dumah , which also lay on an alternate route to the northwest , leading to the city of Damascus , and from there , on to Assyria and Anatolia .
During the period of Persian imperial rule in the region ( c . 550 – 330 BCE ) , the Qedarites exercised control over the desert areas bordering Egypt and Israel and the traffic related to Arabian incense trade upon which Gaza depended . Herodotus ( c . 484 – 425 BCE ) writes of their presence in the northern Sinai near the Egyptian border where they may have been engaged by the Achaemenids , the Persian imperial authorities , to keep that border secure as well as their control of the city of Gaza .
= = Historical references = =
= = = Extrabiblical = = =
= = = = Assyrian inscriptions = = = =
The first documented mention of Qedar is from a stele ( c . 737 BCE ) of Tiglath @-@ Pileser III , a king of the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire , that lists leaders from the western part of Mesopotamia that pay him tribute . To the Assyrians , the Qedarites were known as Qidri or qi @-@ id @-@ ri with other cuneiform inscriptions also using Qadri , Qidarri , Qidari and Qudari ( Neo Babylonian ) . Zabibe ( c . 738 BCE ) is listed among those paying tribute under the title " queen of the Qidri and the Aribi " ( Aribi meaning " Arabs " ) .
Also mentioned in Assyrian royal inscriptions is Zabibe 's successor Yatie ( c . 730 BCE ) , who sent forces headed by her brother Baasqanu to aid Merodach @-@ Baladan in his bid to hold onto power in Babylon . Together with an army from Elam , this alliance faced the forces of Sennacherib , on the Assyrian king 's first campaign in 703 BCE . The events of the battle are recorded in the annals of Sennacherib which describe Yatie as " queen of the Arabs , " and tell of the capture of her brother Baasqanu in battle . Israel Eph 'al writes that this is the first mention in Assyrian documents of Arabs as an ethnic element in Babylonia .
Statements about the Qedarites in the annals of the Assyrian kings of Ashurbanipal and his son Esarhaddon indicate that the term Kedar was almost synonymous with Arabia . Hazael , who ruled c . 690 – 676 BCE , is described as a Qedarite king by Ashurbanipal and " king of the Arabs " by Esarhaddon . After Sennacherib 's invasion of Babylonia in 691 – 689 BCE , Hazael fled to Dumah . Dumah is referred to as Adummatu by the Assyrians , and the city is described by them as the seat of the Qedar confederation and the base of their cult .
Te 'elkhunu and Tabua , both referred to as both " queens of Qidri " and " queens of Aribi , " have Adummatu explicitly denoted as their seat and capital city in the inscriptions . While the capital city for the three other queens referred to as " queens of Aribi " ( Samsi , Zabibe and Yatie ) is not explicitly mentioned , it is thought to have been Adummatu as well . Numerous inscriptions discovered in Dumah itself are further indications for a strong Qedarite presence , one of which asks of three deities known to the Assyrians as gods of Qedar ( Ruda , Nuha and Atarsamain ) for " help in the matter of my love . "
The conquest of Adummatu by Sennacherib in 690 BCE and the capture of a Qedarite queen , Te 'elkhunu , who was brought back to Assyria with other loot , including divine images , is also mentioned in the annals of the Assyrian monarchs . Esarhaddon eventually returned the " renewed " images of the Arab gods to Adummatu with Tabua , " who grew up in the palace of Sennacherib , " and was appointed Qedarite queen by Esarhaddon to replace Te 'elkhunu . However , strained relations between the Assyrians and the Qedarites meant that she ruled for only a brief period , with Esarhaddon recognizing Hazael as the king of Qedar after he increased his tribute to the Assyrian monarch by 65 camels . Esarhaddon then appointed Yauta , son of Hazael , as a Qedarite king , following Hazael 's death . That Yauta paid a tribute in the form of 10 minas of gold , 1 @,@ 000 precious stones , 50 camels , and 1 @,@ 000 leather pouches of aromatics is also recorded .
The defeat of Ammuladi and Yauta after they mounted Qedarite forces to march against the kings of the Amurru is recorded by Ashurbanipal . Yauta is said to have " roused the people of Arabia to revolt with him . " His wife , Adiya , is the only woman mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions as both a Qedarite queen and the wife of a Qedarite king , and is thought to be the only woman who was not a ruler in her own right . The inscriptions record how Adiya was sent by Yauta to accompany Ammuladi and the Qedarite forces , and their subsequent defeat and capture in 604 BCE by the forces of Kamushaltu , king of Moab and a loyal vassal of the Assyrian empire . Yauta is said to have " fled to the Nabataeans . " His subsequent capture and sentencing in Nineveh are recorded by Ashurbanipal who relates that , " I put a dog chain upon him and made him guard a kennel . " Abiyate was appointed as Yauta 's successor , and soon joined with the Nabataeans to revolt against Assyria again , prompting Ashurbanipal to launch a three @-@ month campaign to end it , beginning in Palmyra , continuing on to Damascus and ending in the southern part of al @-@ Leja .
= = = = Old South Arabic and Aramaic inscriptions = = = =
Old South Arabic inscriptions mention qdrn ( " Qadirān " or " Qadrān " ) as a person or people . Graffiti found in al @-@ Ula , known as the Graffito of Niran at Dedan , mentions Gashmu I , son of Shahr I , as King of Qedar .
A " king of Qedar " is also mentioned in a late 5th century BCE Aramaic inscription on a silver vessel found at Tell Maskhuta in the eastern Nile Delta in lower Egypt . The inscription names him as " Qainū son of Gashmu , " with the vessel described as an , " offering to han- ' Ilāt " .
While it does not specifically mention the Qedar and is therefore a subject of debate , an Aramaic inscription dating to 5th century BCE discovered on an incense altar at Lachish and dedicated to , " Iyas , son of Mahaly , the king , " is interpreted by André Lemaire as a possible reference to kings of Qedar .
= = = = Classical Antiquity = = = =
Herodotus has documented that the Qedarites were called upon to assist Cambyses II of the Persian empire in his invasion of Egypt in 525 BCE . The Qedarites and Nabataens were known to enjoy close relations , even engaging as wartime allies against the Assyrians . It is possible that the Qedarites were eventually incorporated into the Nabataen state which emerged as the strongest Ishmaelite presence in northwestern Arabia c. the 2nd century CE . In The Cambridge Ancient History , some of the ( Arab ) Nabataens mentioned by Diodorus in his retelling of events that took place in 312 BCE are said to be Qedarites .
Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 CE ) , who refers to the Cedrei and Cedareni ( " Cedarenes " ) in the context of other Arabian tribes , placing their domain to the south of the Conchlei and adjacent to that of the Nabataei , is thought to be referring to the Qedar . Jerome ( c . 357 – 420 CE ) , also writing in Latin , transcribes Qedar as Cedar , and refers to it as a region . In one entry , he describes it as , " a region of the Saracens , who are called Ishmaelites in scripture " ; in another , he writes that it was a " once uninhabitable region across Saracen Arabia " ; and in a third , he writes that it is a " deserted region of the Ishmaelites , whom they now call Saracens . " According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , Theodoret ( c . 393 – c . 457 ) mentions that in his time , the Qedar lived near Babylon .
= = = = 19th century = = = =
There are brief references to the Qedar in the writings of Western travellers to the Levant in the 19th century . Drawing on biblical motfis , comparisons are made between the Bedouins and the Qedar . For example , Albert Augustus Isaacs describes the imposing spectacle of a Bedouin encampment on a plain upon which , " the black tents of Kedar were spread far and wide . " An earlier account by Charles Boileau Elliot describes the Arabs as falling into two main groups , Fellahs and Bedouins , and identifies the latter with Ishmael and the Qedar as follows :
[ ... ] the Bedouins still retain the wandering habits of their father Ishmael ; their ' hand is against every man , and every man 's hand is against ' them ; the wild desert is their home ; the ground their pallet and their canopy the sky ; or , if luxurious their choicest place of sojourn is a little tent ' black as the tents of Kedar ' their progenitor [ ... ]
Charles Forster identifies the Arab tribe of the Beni Harb as the modern descendants of the Kedar . He proposes that Beni Harb ( " sons of war " ) is a patronym and nom de guerre that was adopted by the tribe at least 2 @,@ 000 years ago , replacing Kedar as the national moniker .
= = = Biblical = = =
The descendants of Abraham and Hagar are called Ishmaelites , after Ishmael , their firstborn , and the Qedarites are named for his second son , Qedar . The Bible refers to both the Qedarites and Qedar frequently . Old Testament references include Genesis ( 25 : 13 ) , Isaiah ( 21 : 16 @-@ 17 , 42 : 11 , 60 : 7 ) , Jeremiah ( 2 : 10 , 49 : 28 @-@ 33 ) , Ezekiel ( 27 : 21 ) , and Chronicles ( 1 : 29 ) . Twice , Qedar is used to refer to the actual son of Ishmael , as in the books of Genesis and Chronicles , while remaining references are to his descendants , referring either to his most prominent North Arabian sons , or to the Arabs and Bedouins as a more general collective . The " tents of Kedar " equated with " the peace @-@ hating Meshech " mentioned in the Book of Psalms ( 120 : 5 ) were likely a Qedarite sub @-@ group .
In Canticles ( 1 : 5 ) , the tents of the Qedarites are described as black : " Black I am , but beautiful , ye daughters of Jerusalem / As tents of Qedar , as tentcloth of Salam black . " Their tents are said to be made of black goat hair . A tribe of Salam was located just south of the Nabateans in Madain Salih , and Knauf proposed that the Qedarites mentioned in this Masoretic text were in fact Nabataeans and played a crucial role in the spice trade in the 3rd century BCE .
Biblical descriptions indicate there were two major types of Qedarites : nomads ( Arabic : wabariya ) living in tents and sedentary people ( Arabic : ḥaḍariya ) living in villages . Jeremiah describes them as " a nation at ease , that dwells securely " ( 49 : 31 ) and notes that they engage in the pagan practice of shaving their temples . Isaiah recalls their warrior activities and skill with the bow . ( 21 : 16f ) Ezekiel associates , " Arabia and all the princes of Kedar , " and indicates that they engaged in sheep / goat trading with the Phoenicians . The three books list the flocks of the Qedarites as including lambs , rams , goats and camels .
Jeremiah also tells of a campaign by Nebuchadnezzar ( 630 – 562 BCE ) against the Qedarites during the Babylonian period . Gashmu , the king of the Qedarites mentioned in the 5th century BCE Aramaic inscription described above , is also referred to as " Geshem the Arab " or " Geshem the Arabian " by Nehemiah who lists him as one of his adversaries , since Gashmu stands opposed to Nehemiah 's governorship over Judea in 447 BCE .
= = Culture and society = =
Biblical and extrabiblical evidence suggests that of the Arabian tribes , the Qedarites were most prominent in their contacts with the world outside of Arabia . Like other nomadic groups , they lived primarily in unfortified encampments . Pastoralists and traders in livestock , such as male lambs , rams and goats , they also played a key role in the prosperity of Gaza 's incense trade , controlling traffic in the desert regions between Egypt and Palestine . As a result of their trading activities , there were clans from among the Qedarites that became wealthy .
Though they were vassals under Assyrian rule and were often engaged in rebellion against that empire , the rise to dominance of the Persian empire proved beneficial to the Qedarites . Qedarite control of the trade routes and the access they afforded the Persians translated into what Herodotus described as a friendly relationship .
= = = Language = = =
The Qedarites are among a number of North Arabian tribes whose interactions with Arameaen tribes beginning in the 8th century BCE resulted in cultural exchanges between these two large Semitic groups . Early Arab tribal groups like the Qedarites spoke early Arab dialects , but as the Arabic alphabet had not yet been developed , they used the Aramaic alphabet to write . " The tongue of Kedar " is used in rabbinical sources as a name for the Arabic language .
Papponymy , the practice of naming boys after their grandfathers , was common among the Qedar . Some Qedarites had Aramaic personal names ( e.g. Hazael or Haza @-@ el ) , while others had Arabic personal names ( e.g. Gashmu and Zabibe ) . Aramaic civilization and its peoples were gradually absorbed by the Arabs with Arabic dialects in Lebanon , Palestine , Syria , and Iraq in particular exhibiting the influence of Aramaic .
= = = Religion = = =
Religious worship among the Qedar , as was the case for most of the inhabitants of Arabia until the 7th century CE , was centered around a polytheistic system in which women rose to prominence . Divine images of the gods and goddesses worshipped by Qedarite Arabs , as noted in Assyrian inscriptions , included representations of Atarsamain , Nuha , Ruda , Daa , Abirillu , and Atarquruma . The female guardian of these idols , usually the reigning queen , served as a priestess ( apkallatu , in Assyrian texts ) who communed with the other world . As mentioned above , there is also evidence that the Qedar worshipped Al @-@ lāt , to whom the inscription on a silver bowl from a king of Qedar is dedicated . In the Babylonian Talmud , which was passed down orally for centuries before being transcribed c . 500 CE , in tractate Taanis ( folio 5b ) , it is said that most Qedarites worshiped pagan gods .
= = = Tomb = = =
There is a mausoleum assigned to him in Qeydar city Zanjan Province , Iran
= = Genealogy = =
The biblical view of the late Iron Age political and cultural map describes it as a set of branching genealogies . Biblical figures three generations forward from Terah are invariably described as the eponymous founders of different tribes and polities that interacted with the Kingdom of Judah between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE . Such is the case of the Qedarite Arabs , who according to biblical tradition , are the offspring of the Abraham @-@ Ishmael @-@ Kedar genealogical line .
The majority of Sayyid believe they are one of the modern day descendants of Muhammad , and that they are therefore the descendants of Ishmael and his second son Qedar . Abu Ja 'far al @-@ Baqir ( 676 – 743 CE ) wrote that his father Ali ibn Husayn informed him that Mohammed had said : " The first whose tongue spoke in clear Arabic was Ishmael , when he was fourteen years old . " Hisham Ibn Muhammad al @-@ Kalbi ( 737 – 819 CE ) established a genealogical link between Ishmael and Mohammed using writings that drew on biblical and Palmyran sources , and the ancient oral traditions of the Arabs . His book , Jamharat al @-@ Nasab ( " The Abundance of Kinship " ) , seems to posit that the people known as " Arabs " are all descendants of Ishmael . Ibn Kathir ( 1301 – 1373 ) writes , " All the Arabs of the Hijaz are descendants of Nebaioth and Qedar . " Medieval Jewish sources also usually identified Qedar with Arabs and / or Muslims . According to author and scholar Irfan Shahîd , Western scholars viewed this kind of " genealogical Ishmaelism " with suspicion , seeing it as ,
[ ... ] a late Islamic fabrication because of the confusion in Islamic times which made it such a capacious term as to include the inhabitants of the south as well as the north of the Arabian Peninsula . But shorn of this extravagance , the concept is much more modest in its denotation , and in the sober sources it applies only to certain groups among the Arabs of pre @-@ Islamic times . Some important statements to this effect were made by Muhammed when he identified some Arabs as Ishmaelites and others as not .
Ishmaelism in this more limited definition holds that Ishmael was both an important religious figure and eponymous ancestor for some of the Arabs of western Arabia . Prominence is given in Arab genealogical accounts to the first two of Ishmael 's twelve sons , Nebaioth ( Arabic : نبيت , Nabīt ) and Qedar ( Arabic : قيدار , Qaydār ) , who are also prominently featured in the Genesis account . It is likely that they and their tribes lived in northwestern Arabia and were historically the most important of the twelve Ishamelite tribes .
In accounts tracing the ancestry of Mohammed back to Ma 'ad ( and from there to Adam ) , Arab scholars alternate , with some citing the line as through Nebaioth , others Qedar .
= Super Science Stories =
Super Science Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine published by Popular Publications from 1940 and 1943 , and again from 1949 to 1951 . Popular launched it under their " Fictioneers " imprint , which they used for magazines paying writers less than one cent per word . Frederik Pohl was hired in late 1939 , at 19 years old , to edit the magazine ; he also edited Astonishing Stories , a companion science fiction publication . Pohl left in mid @-@ 1941 , and Super Science Stories was given to Alden H. Norton to edit ; a few months later Norton rehired Pohl as an assistant . Popular gave Pohl a very low budget , so most manuscripts submitted to Super Science Stories had already been rejected by the higher @-@ paying magazines . This made it difficult to acquire good fiction , but Pohl was able to acquire stories for the early issues from the Futurians , a group of young science fiction fans and aspiring writers .
Super Science Stories was an initial success , and within a year Popular increased Pohl 's budget slightly , allowing him to pay a bonus rate on occasion . Pohl wrote many stories himself , to fill the magazine and to augment his salary . He managed to obtain stories by writers who subsequently became very well known , such as Isaac Asimov and Robert Heinlein . After Pohl entered the army in early 1943 , wartime paper shortages led Popular to cease publication of Super Science Stories . The final issue of the first run was dated May of that year . In 1949 the title was revived with Ejler Jakobsson as editor ; this version , which included many reprinted stories , lasted almost three years , with the last issue dated August 1951 . A Canadian reprint edition of the first run included material from both Super Science Stories and Astonishing Stories ; it was unusual in that it printed some original fiction rather than just reprints . There were also Canadian and British reprint editions of the second incarnation of the magazine .
The magazine was never regarded as one of the leading titles of the genre , but has received qualified praise from science fiction critics and historians . Science fiction historian Raymond Thompson describes it as " one of the most interesting magazines to appear during the 1940s " , despite the variable quality of the stories . Critics Brian Stableford and Peter Nicholls comment that the magazine " had a greater importance to the history of sf than the quality of its stories would suggest ; it was an important training ground " .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming , and several new sf magazines were launched in 1939 . Frederik Pohl , a science fiction fan and aspiring writer , visited Robert Erisman , the editor of Marvel Science Stories and Dynamic Science Stories , to ask for a job . Erisman did not have an opening for him , but told Pohl that Popular Publications , a leading pulp publisher , was starting a new line of low @-@ paying magazines and might be interested in adding a science fiction title . On October 25 , 1939 , Pohl visited Rogers Terrill at Popular , and was hired immediately , at the age of nineteen , on a salary of ten dollars per week . Pohl was given two magazines to edit : Super Science Stories and Astonishing Stories . Super Science Stories was intended to carry longer pieces , and Astonishing focused on shorter fiction ; Super Science Stories was retitled Super Science Novels Magazine in March 1941 , reflecting this policy , but after only three issues the title was changed back to Super Science Stories .
Popular was uncertain of the sales potential for the two new titles and decided to publish them under its Fictioneers imprint , which was used for lower @-@ paying magazines . Super Science Stories ' first issue was dated March 1940 ; it was bimonthly , with Astonishing Stories appearing in the alternate months . In Pohl 's memoirs he recalls Harry Steeger , one of the company owners , breaking down the budget for Astonishing for him : " Two hundred seventy @-@ five dollars for stories . A hundred dollars for black and white art . Thirty dollars for a cover . " For Super Science Stories , Steeger gave him an additional $ 50 as it was 16 pages longer , so his total budget was $ 455 per issue . Pohl could only offer half a cent per word for fiction , well below the rates offered by the leading magazines . Super Science Stories sold well , despite Pohl 's limited resources : Popular was a major pulp publisher and had a strong distribution network , which helped circulation . Steeger soon increased Pohl 's budget , to pay bonuses for popular stories . Pohl later commented that he was uncertain whether the additional funds really helped to bring in higher quality submissions , although at the time he assured Steeger it would improve the magazine . Some of the additional money went to Ray Cummings , a long @-@ established sf writer who came to see Pohl in person to submit his work . Cummings refused to sell for less than one cent a word ; Pohl had some extra money available when Cummings first visited him , and though he disliked Cummings ' work was never able to bring himself to reject Cummings submissions , or even to tell him that he could not really afford to pay the rate Cummings was asking . Pohl comments in his memoirs that " for months he [ Cummings ] would turn up regularly as clockwork and sell me a new story ; I hated them all , and bought them all . "
By reducing the space he needed to fill with fiction Pohl managed to stretch his budget . A long letter column took up several pages but required no payment , and neither did running advertisements for Popular 's other magazines . Some authors sent inaccurate word counts with the stories they submitted , and savings were made by paying them on the basis of whichever word count was less — the author 's or one done by Popular 's staff . The result was a saving of forty to fifty dollars per issue . Snipped elements of black and white illustrations were also reused to fill space , as multiple uses of the same artwork did not require additional payments to the artist .
Towards the end of 1940 Popular doubled Pohl 's salary to twenty dollars per week . In June 1941 Pohl visited Steeger to ask for a further raise , intending to resign and work as a free @-@ lance writer if he was unsuccessful . Steeger was unreceptive , and Pohl commented later " I have never been sure whether I quit or got fired " . Instead of replacing Pohl , Popular assigned editor @-@ in @-@ chief Alden H. Norton to add the magazines to his responsibilities . The arrangement lasted for seven months , after which Norton asked Pohl to return as his assistant . Norton offered Pohl thirty @-@ five dollars a week as an associate editor , substantially more than the twenty dollars a week he had received as editor , and Pohl readily accepted .
Pohl was not eligible to be drafted for military service as he was married , but by the end of 1942 his marriage was over and he decided to enlist . As voluntary enlistment was suspended he was unable to immediately join the army , but eventually was inducted on April 1 , 1943 . Paper was difficult to obtain because of the war , and Popular decided to close the magazine down ; the final issue , dated April 1943 , was assembled with the assistance of Ejler Jakobsson .
In late 1948 , as a second boom in science fiction publishing was beginning , Popular decided to revive the magazine . Jakobsson later recalled hearing about the revival while on vacation , swimming in a lake , five miles from a phone : " A boy on a bicycle showed on shore and shouted , ' Call your office . ' " When he reached a phone , Norton told him that the magazine was being relaunched and would be given to Jakobsson to edit . Damon Knight , who was working for Popular at the time , also worked on the magazine as assistant editor , although he was not credited . The relaunched magazine survived for almost three years , but the market for pulps was weak , and when Knight left in 1950 to edit Worlds Beyond Jakobsson was unable to sustain support for it within Popular . It ceased publication with the August 1951 issue .
= = Contents and reception = =
Because of the low rates of pay , the stories submitted to Super Science Stories in its first year had generally already been rejected elsewhere . However , Pohl was a member of the Futurians , a group of science fiction fans that included Isaac Asimov , C.M. Kornbluth , Richard Wilson and Donald Wollheim ; the Futurians were eager to become professional writers and were eager to submit stories to Pohl . The Futurians were prolific ; in Pohl 's first year as an editor he bought a total of fifteen stories from them for the two magazines . Pohl contributed material himself , usually in collaboration with one or more of the Futurians . Particularly after his marriage to Doris Baumgardt in August 1940 , Pohl realized that his salary covered their apartment rent with almost no money left over , and began to augment his income by selling to himself as well as to other magazines . The first story Pohl ever published that was not a collaboration was " The Dweller in the Ice " , which appeared in the January 1941 Super Science Stories . All of the stories Pohl bought from himself were published under pseudonyms , though in fact Pohl used pseudonyms for everything he wrote until the 1950s .
The first issue , dated March 1940 , contained " Emergency Refueling " , James Blish 's first published story , two stories by John Russell Fearn ( one under the pseudonym " Thornton Ayre " ) , fiction by Frank Belknap Long , Ross Rocklynne , Raymond Gallun , Harl Vincent and Dean O 'Brien ; and a poem by Kornbluth , " The Song of the Rocket " , under the pseudonym " Gabriel Barclay " . Blish 's most notable contribution to the magazine was " Sunken Universe " , which appeared in the May 1942 issue under the pseudonym " Arthur Merlyn " . This later formed part of " Surface Tension " , one of Blish 's most popular stories . Other writers whose first story appeared in Super Science Stories include Ray Bradbury , Chad Oliver , and Wilson Tucker . Bradbury 's first sale , " Pendulum " , was bought by Norton , and appeared in the November 1941 issue ; Tucker 's writing career began with " Interstellar Way Station " in May 1941 , and Oliver 's " The Land of Lost Content " appeared in the November 1950 Super Science Stories . Asimov appeared four times in Super Science Stories , starting with " Robbie " , his first Robot story , under the title " Strange Playfellow " .
Although most stories submitted to Super Science Stories were rejects from the better @-@ paying markets such as Astounding Science Fiction , Pohl recalled in his memoirs that John W. Campbell , the editor of Astounding , would occasionally pass on a good story by a prolific author because he felt readers did not want to see the same authors in every issue . As a result , Pohl was able to print L. Sprague de Camp 's Genus Homo , in the March 1941 Super Science Stories , and Robert Heinlein 's " Let There Be Light " and " Lost Legacy " in the May 1940 and November 1941 issues : these were stories which , in Pohl 's opinion , " would have looked good anywhere " . Pohl also suggested that Campbell rejected some of Heinlein 's stories because they contained mild references to sex . A couple of readers did complain , with one disgusted letter writer commenting " If you are going to continue to print such pseudosophisticated , pre @-@ prep @-@ school tripe as " Let There Be Light " , you should change the name of the mag to Naughty Future Funnies " .
The second run of Super Science Stories included some fiction that had first appeared in the Canadian reprint edition , which outlasted the U.S. original and printed eleven stories that had been acquired but not printed by the time Popular shut Super Science Stories and Astonishing down in early 1943 . These included " The Black Sun Rises " by Henry Kuttner , " And Then – the Silence " , by Ray Bradbury , and " The Bounding Crown " by James Blish . From mid @-@ 1950 a reprint feature was established . This led to some reader complaints , with one correspondent pointing out that it was particularly galling to discover that Blish 's " Sunken Universe " , reprinted in the November 1950 issue , was a better story than the original material in the magazine . The magazine also reprinted stories from Famous Fantastic Mysteries , which Popular had acquired from Munsey Publishing in 1941 .
Some of the original stories were well @-@ received : for example , Ray Bradbury 's " The Impossible " , which appeared in the November 1949 issue , and was later included in Bradbury 's book The Martian Chronicles , is described by sf historian Raymond Thompson as a " haunting ... comment on man 's attempts to realize his conflicting hopes and dreams " . Thompson also comments positively on Poul Anderson 's early story " Terminal Quest " , in Super Science Stories 's final issue , dated August 1951 ; and on Arthur C. Clarke 's " Exile of the Eons " in the March 1950 issue . John D. MacDonald also contributed good material .
The book reviews in Super Science Stories were of a higher standard than elsewhere in the field , and historian Paul Carter regards Astonishing and Super Science Stories as the place where " book reviewing for the first time began to merit the term ' literary criticism ' " , adding that " it was in those magazines that the custom began of paying attention to science fiction on the stage and screen also " . The artwork was initially amateurish , and although it improved over the years , even the better artists such as Virgil Finlay and Lawrence Stevens continued to produce cliched depictions of half @-@ dressed women threatened by robots or aliens . H. R. van Dongen , later a prolific cover artist for Astounding , made his first science fiction art sale to Super Science | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
single @-@ foot to cover rough ground at around 7 miles per hour ( 11 km / h ) and short stretches of smooth ground at up to 16 miles per hour ( 26 km / h ) . The faster speed is known as the rack . In comparison , the average medium trot speed is 6 to 8 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 9 km / h ) .
= = History = =
Eastern Kentucky is known for its gaited breeds , created through a mixture of Spanish horses from the southern United States and English horses from the North . American Saddlebreds , Tennessee Walking Horses and Missouri Fox Trotters also originated in the same general geographic area , from the same mixing of Spanish and English blood . Rocky Mountain Horses have a similar history to the Kentucky Mountain Saddle Horse , and together are sometimes called " Mountain Pleasure Horses " . The Rocky Mountain Horse originated in eastern Kentucky from a foundation stallion brought to the Appalachian Mountains from the Rocky Mountains around 1890 . Brought to the area as a colt , oral histories state that the " Rocky Mountain Horse " , as he was known , possessed the preferred chocolate color and flaxen mane and tail found in the breed today , as well as the single @-@ foot gait . He was used to breed local saddle mares , and due to the small area in which he was bred , a local strain of horse originated .
This foundation stallion produced a descendent , named Old Tobe , who became the more modern father of the Rocky Mountain Horse breed . Old Tobe was owned by a resident of Spout Springs , Kentucky named Sam Tuttle . For most of the 20th century , Tuttle was a prominent breeder of Rocky Mountain Horses , and helped to keep the strain alive during the Great Depression and World War II . After World War II , despite declining horse populations in the US , Tuttle kept his herd , and continued to use Old Tobe as a breeding stallion . Tuttle held the Natural Bridge State Park concession for horseback riding , and used Old Tobe for trail rides in the park and for siring additional trail horses , the latter until the stallion was 34 years old . Old Tobe died at the age of 37 . The presence of the single @-@ foot gait makes it possible that the breed is in part descended from the Narragansett Pacer , a breed known for passing its gaited ability on to other American breeds .
In 1986 , the Rocky Mountain Horse Association was created to increase population numbers and promote the breed ; there were only 26 horses in the first batch of registrations . Since then , the association has , over the life of the registry , registered over 25000 horses as of 2015 , and the breed has spread to 47 states and 11 countries . In order to be accepted by the registry , a foal 's parentage must be verified via DNA testing . Horses must also , after reaching 23 months of age , be inspected to ensure that they meet the physical characteristic and gait requirements of the registry . The Rocky Mountain Horse is listed at " Watch " status by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy , meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is fewer than 15 @,@ 000 , with fewer than 800 registrations annually in the US .
The breed was originally developed for general use on the farms of the Appalachian foothills , where it was found pulling plows and buggies , working cattle and being ridden by both adults and children . Today , it is still used for working cattle , as well as endurance riding and pleasure riding . The breed 's gait and disposition make it sought out by elderly and disabled riders . Each September , the Kentucky Horse Park hosts the International Rocky Mountain Horse Show .
= Somerset County Cricket Club in 2009 =
Somerset County Cricket Club competed in four domestic competitions during the 2009 English cricket season : the first division of the County Championship , the Friends Provident Trophy , the first division of the NatWest Pro40 League and the Twenty20 Cup . Through their performance in the Twenty20 Cup , the team qualified for the Champions League Twenty20 . They enjoyed a successful season , but fell short of winning any competitions , prompting Director of Cricket Brian Rose to say " We 've had enough of being cricket 's nearly men . "
Consistent performances in the County Championship helped Somerset remain challengers for the competition until the last few weeks of the season , but the batting @-@ friendly pitch at their home ground , the County Ground , Taunton , meant that the county finished with too many draws to claim their first Championship title . Consistency was also key for Somerset 's success in one @-@ day cricket , where they remained unbeaten in the group stage of the Friends Provident Trophy , but were eliminated in the first knock @-@ out round , and finished runners @-@ up by one point in the NatWest Pro40 . In the Twenty20 Cup , Somerset finished as losing finalists . This meant that they qualified for the Champions League Twenty20 , where they progressed into the second group stage of the competition . They failed to win any matches in that phase of the competition , resulting in their elimination .
Somerset were captained for the third successive season by their Australian overseas player , Justin Langer , who announced during the season that it would be his last with Somerset . Marcus Trescothick topped the national batting tables , scoring almost 3 @,@ 000 runs in all competitions in 2009 ; as a result , he was named as both Professional Cricketers ' Association ( PCA ) Player of the Year and the PCA 's Most Valuable Player of the Year .
= = Background = =
After promotion from the second division of the County Championship in 2007 , Somerset were among the first division title contenders in the 2008 . A loss to Lancashire in the final match of the season meant they finished in fourth place . David Foot , writing in Wisden , claimed that too many of the Somerset batsmen had " lost their way " in one @-@ day cricket , as they narrowly avoided relegation in the NatWest Pro40 , and were eliminated in the Friends Provident Trophy .
Somerset promoted four players from their academy for the 2009 season , giving contracts to Jos Buttler , Adam Dibble , Chris Jones and James Burke . Of these , only Buttler appeared in the first @-@ team during the season . They also signed David Stiff , a fast bowler capped at Under @-@ 19 level for England , on a two @-@ month contract at the beginning of the season , which was later extended to the end of the season . Ian Blackwell , captain of the side in 2005 and 2006 , left for Durham after coach Andy Hurry and captain Justin Langer made it clear that they regarded fitness as a priority . John Francis and Keith Parsons both retired at the end of 2008 , Francis cited lack of first @-@ team opportunities for his departure , while at the age of 35 , Parsons declared that : " There comes a time when your body tells you it 's time to pack in professional sport . "
In his preview of the 2009 season for ESPNcricinfo , Andrew McGlashan identified Somerset 's opening partnerships with bat and ball as their main strengths , but predicted that the middle order would struggle to make an impact in the County Championship , stating that " none [ of the middle order ] jump out as potential match @-@ winners in four @-@ day cricket . " He speculated that the team 's best chance of success would come in the one @-@ day competitions . The Daily Telegraph provided a more positive outlook , claiming that the county had " enough depth in batting and seam bowling to challenge [ for the County Championship ] again . " They identified spin bowling as an area of weakness following the departure of Blackwell . Bob Willis , writing in The Guardian , shared this view , and predicted that Somerset would also be hindered by the difficulty of getting 20 wickets at home , resulting in too many draws .
= = Squad = =
The following players made at least one appearance for Somerset in first @-@ class , List A or Twenty20 cricket in 2009 . Age given is at the start of Somerset 's first match of the season ( 15 April 2009 ) .
= = County Championship = =
Although Marcus Trescothick had a season which David Foot described as " imperiously assured " , Somerset failed to win enough matches to pose a real challenge in the 2009 County Championship . The flat pitch at the County Ground , Taunton did not help their efforts ; the imbalance in favour of the batsmen meant that all but one match at the ground was drawn . Sussex 's total of 742 / 5 declared was the fifteenth highest total in the history of the County Championship , while Murray Goodwin 's innings of 344 not out in that match was the sixth highest score by a batsman in the history of the competition . In total , six of Somerset 's eight home matches contained scores of 500 or over in a single innings . In contrast , 500 was reached in only one of their away matches , by Hampshire at The Rose Bowl . The home conditions helped three of Somerset 's batsmen pass 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs in the season , including Craig Kieswetter and Arul Suppiah , who were both awarded their county caps after passing the landmark . Trescothick 's 1 @,@ 817 runs were the most by any batsman in the 2009 competition , finishing over 200 runs ahead of the next most prolific batsman , and he was named as both PCA Player of the Year and the PCA 's Most Valuable Player of the Year for 2009 . He was also selected as part of the team of the year , along with wicket @-@ keeper Kieswetter .
In contrast to the strong batting line @-@ up , Foot suggested that Somerset " lacked a seam bowler to compensate for Andrew Caddick 's withdrawal " . Caddick — who made his first @-@ class debut for Somerset in 1991 — only played five matches in 2009 , and announced his intention to retire at the end of the season . He took ten wickets in 2009 , and finished his career as Somerset 's sixth highest wicket @-@ taker of all @-@ time . This placed the majority of the wicket @-@ taking burden upon Charl Willoughby , the South African fast @-@ medium pace bowler . He responded well , and took 54 wickets in the County Championship , more than any other bowler in the first division . He was aided by seam bowlers David Stiff , who returned to the first @-@ class game for the first time since 2006 , and Alfonso Thomas . Stiff took 31 wickets , more than quadrupling his career first @-@ class wicket total , and Thomas took 35 , his highest return in an English domestic season . Somerset lacked an effective spin bowler in 2009 following the departure of Ian Blackwell the previous season , and the spinners combined only claimed 31 wickets , bowling less balls between them than Willoughby alone .
Somerset began their season by playing out a high @-@ scoring draw at home against Warwickshire , in which both teams reached 500 in their first innings . James Hildreth scored a triple @-@ century , reaching the milestone earlier in an English season than any player previously , and became the first English player to pass 300 runs in an innings for Somerset since Harold Gimblett in 1948 . In contrast , Somerset had to battle back for a draw in their second match . After Durham scored 543 in their first innings , Somerset collapsed to 69 all out in reply ; only Langer passed 20 runs , while six of his batting colleagues made ducks . After being forced to follow @-@ on , Trescothick , Langer and Kieswetter all scored centuries to secure a draw . Somerset 's third match resulted in their only loss of the County Championship season , coming against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge ; and at the end of May , they were second bottom in the first division . Their next match finished in a draw against Lancashire , a result which was always likely after the first day was lost to rain . Somerset next picked up victories against Yorkshire and Sussex before scoring the second @-@ highest ever fourth innings winning total in the County Championship to beat Yorkshire at Taunton . These three wins propelled Somerset to third in the competition at the start of July , and they did not drop below this position for the remainder of the season .
In each of their following two matches , at home against Hampshire and away to Worcestershire , Somerset batted first and then enforced the follow @-@ on after bowling their opponents out cheaply . In each their opponents managed to avoid defeat , and both matches resulted in draws . During the Worcestershire match , Langer 's first innings 107 took him past Sir Donald Bradman 's total of 28 @,@ 067 first @-@ class runs to become the highest @-@ scoring Australian batsman . Successive draws against Nottinghamshire , Warwickshire , Sussex and Hampshire meant that Somerset travelled to Durham requiring a victory to maintain any realistic hopes of claiming the County Championship title . No play was possible on the third and fourth days , and the match resulted in another draw , leaving Somerset with only a slim mathematical chance of the title . Another draw , against Lancashire , while Durham beat Nottinghamshire , meant that Durham clinched the title . Somerset drew with Worcestershire ( their ninth draw in a row in the competition ) , and finished third in the first division .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , D =
Draws , T
= Ties , A =
Abandonments , Bat
= Batting points , Bwl =
Bowling points , Adj
= Adjustments / Penalties , Pts =
Points .
Adjustments :
Hampshire deducted 3 points for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Worcestershire .
Durham deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Sussex .
Somerset deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Durham .
Sussex deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Worcestershire.Notes :
Team marked ( C ) won the County Championship .
Teams marked ( R ) were relegated to Division Two of the County Championship .
= = = Match log and statistics = = =
= = Friends Provident Trophy = =
In the 2009 Friends Provident Trophy , the first one @-@ day competition in the English domestic calendar , Somerset showed a marked improvement from the previous season . They were described by Steve James , writing in Wisden , as " the most impressive qualifiers " from the group stage , and both Trescothick and Kieswetter were praised for their batting form . They were the only side in the competition to remain unbeaten in the group stages , finishing with seven victories and one no result . In the quarter @-@ final , against Group C runners @-@ up Sussex , Somerset won the toss and opted to bat at Taunton . They struggled initially , losing the early wickets of Trescothick , James Hildreth and Ben Phillips for just 39 runs . A fourth @-@ wicket partnership of 167 , dominated by powerful hitting from Kieswetter in which he scored a " superb century " according to ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan , helped Somerset to recover to make 285 / 8 , but Sussex chased the total down in the final over to eliminate the home side .
During the group stages of their campaign , Somerset achieved a number of large victories . They won by eight wickets against Warwickshire and Middlesex , and by more than a hundred runs against Kent and Scotland . Their match against Middlesex at Lord 's was marred by some controversy , after Somerset were allowed too many powerplay overs in the rain @-@ affected fixture . Somerset were set a reduced target of 290 off 41 overs , of which 19 were allocated by the umpires as being powerplay overs , three more than there should have been . The England and Wales Cricket Board ( ECB ) rejected Middlesex 's request to replay the match , stating that they were upholding " the precedent that umpire errors cannot form the basis to declare a match null and void " .
The two matches played against Middlesex were in stark contrast ; in the match played at the Recreation Ground , Bath , Somerset bowled the London side out for 65 , the joint second @-@ lowest total made against Somerset in a List A match , while the 341 / 7 which Middlesex made at Lord 's was the fourth @-@ highest total scored against Somerset in the format . Somerset themselves scored their second @-@ highest List A total , amassing 403 / 3 against Scotland , a game in which Hildreth scored 151 , his highest List A score , and Somerset 's highest score by a batsman at number three in List A cricket .
Zander de Bruyn finished the competition with the highest batting average amongst batsmen who played five or more innings . Four Somerset batsmen scored over 300 runs in the tournament ( Trescothick , 476 ; Kieswetter , 395 ; de Bruyn , 388 ; Hildreth , 313 ) , more than any other county except eventual winners Hampshire . Amongst the bowlers , Alfonso Thomas finished as the tournament 's joint leading wicket @-@ taker , claiming 20 wickets to finish level with Chris Schofield and Dominic Cork . Peter Trego 's 18 wickets were the next most in the competition .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , T
= Ties , L =
Losses , NR
= No result , Pts =
Points , NRR = Net run rate .
Notes :
Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .
Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = Twenty20 Cup = =
Somerset finished as runners @-@ up to Sussex in the 2009 Twenty20 Cup , having reached Finals Day in what captain Justin Langer described as " bizarre " fashion . Somerset qualified for the knock @-@ out stages of the competition as the best third @-@ placed team during the group stage , then beat Lancashire in a bowl @-@ out to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . After overcoming Kent in the semi @-@ final , Somerset were comprehensively beaten by Sussex in the final .
After the Indian Premier League 's second season demonstrated the importance of spin bowling in Twenty20 cricket , and due to Somerset 's lack of a front @-@ line spin bowler , Somerset picked young leg spinner Max Waller to make his Twenty20 debut in their opening match of the campaign . He claimed three wickets in two overs to help Somerset win by one run , and finished the competition as Somerset 's joint second @-@ highest wicket @-@ taker with 10 wickets . Despite a number of good performances by Somerset 's bowlers , a batsman was named man of the match in each of the team 's victories : James Hildreth , Craig Kieswetter and Marcus Trescothick were all awarded the accolade once , while Zander de Bruyn picked up the award on three occasions . Somerset completed the group stage with six wins , three losses and one no result , placing them third in the Midlands / Wales / West Division . They qualified for the knockout @-@ stage as they were the best third @-@ placed team in the three groups .
Somerset 's quarter @-@ final , against Lancashire , was scheduled for Tuesday 28 July 2009 . Bad weather meant that no play was possible on either the Tuesday or Wednesday , as a result of which the teams requested special dispensation from the ECB for an additional reserve day on the Thursday , which was granted . The wet weather continued , forcing the teams to play a bowl @-@ out . Each team had to select five bowlers , each of whom had two deliveries at a set of unguarded stumps . Somerset won the bowl @-@ out 5 – 1 , with Ben Phillips , Peter Trego and Willoughby each hitting the stumps once , and Thomas hitting them twice .
In the second semi @-@ final of 2009 Finals Day , Somerset won the toss and elected to field against Kent . Economical bowling from Thomas and Willoughby , as well as the early wickets of Joe Denly and Martin van Jaarsveld , helped to limit Kent to 145 / 5 . On a slow pitch , Trescothick played what ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan described as a " brutal innings " , scoring 56 runs off 32 balls . He shared an opening partnership of 73 with captain Langer , and by the time of Trescothick 's dismissal after 8 @.@ 1 overs , Somerset required 62 runs off 71 balls . Hildreth and de Bruyn took 10 overs to add another 57 runs , and after Hildreth was bowled for 36 , Kieswetter added two runs to grant Somerset victory with seven balls remaining . Against Sussex in the final , Somerset once again won the toss and elected to field . A strong batting display by Sussex , highlighted by Dwayne Smith 's 59 runs off 26 balls , set Somerset a target of 173 to win . In the opening overs of Somerset 's reply , Trescothick scored powerfully , making the chase " look simple " according to McGlashan . However , after he was caught on 33 , Somerset lost regular wickets . A partnership of 41 between de Bruyn and Trego steadied Somerset for a time , but when the pair were dismissed in subsequent overs , their team collapsed from 104 / 4 to 109 all out .
At the start of the competition , Somerset played with aggressive batting tactics , opening the innings with Kieswetter and Trescothick for the first six matches . This opening pair only passed 20 runs together on one occasion , against Glamorgan , and for the rest of the tournament , Kieswetter dropped down the batting order and Langer joined Trescothick at the top of the innings , in a move that Kieswetter said " adds a bit of balance to the side by putting a bit more firepower down the end and experience up top " . The more experienced pair passed 40 runs together on four out of five occasions . The county 's bowling relied heavily on medium pace , a fact which cricket writer Scyld Berry suggested was exposed in the final .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , NR
= No result , Pts =
Points , NRR = Net run rate .
Notes :
Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .
Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = NatWest Pro40 = =
Somerset 's first match of the 2009 NatWest Pro40 , against Nottinghamshire , ended just one over short of the requirement for a match . Chasing 248 to win , Somerset were significantly behind the required rate when rain halted play in the ninth over . The side responded positively to this stroke of luck , winning their next three matches by significant margins , before losing to Essex . Having been put in to bat at Taunton , each of Somerset 's top six batsman reached double figures , but none of them managed to pass 50 and the home side were eventually all out for 205 . Despite taking early wickets during Essex 's innings — at one stage having the visitors 12 / 3 — the batting of John Maunders , James Foster and Tim Phillips propelled Essex past Somerset 's total with five balls remaining . Two further victories ensured that Somerset entered their final match of the season with a chance to win the title .
Somerset had performed well but missed out narrowly in both the other one @-@ day competitions in 2009 , and could have clinched the competition with victory in their final match . News filtered through to the County Ground during their final match , against Durham , that leaders Sussex had lost to Worcestershire , meaning that a win against the north @-@ eastern team would guarantee Somerset the title . The result rarely looked likely ; a rapid opening to the chase by Durham openers Phil Mustard and Ian Blackwell provided a platform for their team to claim victory , and deny Somerset the title . Three of Somerset 's bowlers claimed ten or more wickets in the competition ( Ben Phillips , 14 ; Alfonso Thomas , 13 ; Charl Willoughby , 11 ) , more than any other county in Division One .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , T
= Ties , L =
Losses , NR
= No result , Pts =
Points , NRR = Net run rate .
Notes :
Team marked ( C ) won the NatWest Pro40 .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = Champions League Twenty20 = =
By finishing as runners @-@ up in the Twenty20 Cup , Somerset qualified to compete in the 2009 Champions League Twenty20 , the first global club cricket tournament . Media attention surrounded Trescothick , who had returned home early from his last overseas tour in 2006 – 07 with a " stress @-@ related illness " . Brian Rose stressed that there was no pressure on Trescothick to take part in the tournament , and that the county would do everything possible to support him . The former England batsman did take part in the tournament , arriving three days after the rest of the squad . He played in both of Somerset 's matches in the group stage of the competition , though he only managed to score 17 runs between his two innings .
Somerset won their first match , in which Alfonso Thomas scored two boundaries off the last three balls of the match to secure victory . Their opponents , Deccan Chargers scored 153 off their 20 overs , and with three wickets remaining , Somerset required 55 runs off 37 balls to win . A record eighth @-@ wicket partnership between James Hildreth and Thomas of 50 brought the victory within reach , and Thomas ' highest @-@ score in Twenty20 cricket granted Somerset the win . Somerset lost their second match , being bowled out for their second @-@ lowest Twenty20 total , 106 by Trinidad and Tobago .
Somerset progressed to the second round of the competition after Trinidad and Tobago beat Deccan in the final group match , but lost Trescothick , who flew home after a recurrence of his illness . Wes Durston , who replaced Trescothick in the side , top @-@ scored for Somerset in their next match , making 57 . Only two other players reached double @-@ figures for the county , and the Diamond Eagles chased down the total with eight balls to spare . Somerset went into their final match , against the New South Wales Blues with a slim mathematical chance of progressing , but a strong bowling display from Brett Lee and Stuart Clark restricted Somerset to 111 , which the Australian side reached with ease .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , NR
= No result , Pts =
Points , NRR = Net run rate .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = Reaction = =
After the conclusion of the Champions League tournament , Justin Langer retired from professional cricket . Trescothick replaced him as Somerset captain for the 2010 season . Somerset also lost Andrew Caddick , who at the age of 40 said that he opted to retire " while I was still physically and mentally strong " . Wicket @-@ keeper Carl Gazzard also announced his retirement at the end of the season aged 27 , having lost his place in the Somerset side to Craig Kieswetter . Additionally , Somerset released Wes Durston and Omari Banks , both of whom they felt were surplus to requirements . Somerset addressed the weakness of their spin bowling by signing Murali Kartik as their overseas player for 2010 .
Kieswetter 's performances in the 2009 season led to his inclusion in the England Performance Programme squad in November and December of that year , and he was part of the England Lions squad which toured the United Arab Emirates in early 2010 , along with Somerset team @-@ mate Peter Trego . His full England debut came shortly after in Bangladesh . Additionally , two of Somerset 's young players , Jos Buttler and Calum Haggett played for England Under @-@ 19s during the English winter .
Financially , Somerset broke even in 2009 , generating a gross turnover of £ 4 @.@ 5 million . The club achieved this despite carrying out significant building work on the County Ground during the period : the " Somerset Stand " , a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat grandstand opened in April , while the " Andy Caddick Pavilion " was completed just over a month later , providing new dressing rooms and club offices . Andy Nash , the Somerset chairman , highlighted the catering department and match @-@ day income as being particularly successful in 2009 , with both areas exceeding £ 1 million in revenue during the year .
= Texas A & M Singing Cadets =
The Texas A & M Singing Cadets are a male choral group at Texas A & M University . Nicknamed " The Voice of Aggieland " , the Singing Cadets have been touring for 109 seasons , with their roots in a glee club founded on the A & M campus in 1893 . The Singing Cadets are one of the oldest collegiate singing organizations in the world . They have toured both in America and abroad and have earned recognition by doing so , including invitations to sing for American presidents . Contrary to their name , the Singing Cadets are not all members of the Corps of Cadets and have not been since 1965 , when the university as a whole ceased mandating Corps membership . Between 1996 and 2006 , the Singing Cadets traveled over 35 @,@ 000 miles and performed more than 450 concerts worldwide .
= = History = =
The first record of a singing organization at Texas A & M ( then known as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas ) was in 1893 . The nine member glee club was composed of both students and faculty . The group grew to around twenty members through the turn of the century . Their first recorded field trip in 1905 , was to Houston , Texas , where they participated in a four hundred member chorus . Other tours in this period included a trip to Fort Worth in 1907 , where they met noted violinist Fritz Kreisler . One year later , the director of the group , Professor T.P. Junkin , left the A & M Glee Club .
The next paradigm shift came in 1910 when it was reorganized by F.D. Steger , and subsequently performed for a number of audiences throughout Texas . After several restructuring efforts and directors , the organization laid down an official constitution during the 1937 @-@ 1938 school year . The Cadets entered the national spotlight when they performed at the 1939 Sugar Bowl game . After A & M professor J. J. Woolket became director in 1940 , the chorus was renamed the " Singing Cadets " following a naming contest . The Singing Cadets first full @-@ time director , Richard Jenkins , raised the organization 's profile though a series of tours throughout the American South . Under his aegis in 1942 , the group provided choral music for the propaganda film We 've Never Been Licked .
The Singing Cadets next long term director , William Turner , held the post for fifteen years . By the early 1950s membership had stabilized at around sixty members . They performed primarily in Texas , and made a trip to Mexico in 1952 . The group garnered prestige and attention by singing in front of the Texas Legislature several times .
In 1960 , the Singing Cadets next director , Robert L. Boone , expanded the group 's national recognition . The group performed its first telecast in 1963 during the nationally televised Miss Teenage America pageant . For the next 8 years , the group served as contestant escorts , performers , and background for the show . They met Sergio Franchi during the December 10 , 1970 pageant . Subsequently , the group appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show with Sergio Franchi singing " No Man is An Island " on January 24 , 1971 . However , they did not get to appear on a second solo performance because an earlier show ran over the allotted time . They did , however , release a 45 rpm single " No Man Is An Island " accompanying Franchi in the same year . Later that year , the Singing Cadets were invited to the White House by Senator John Tower to sing for numerous dignitaries , including President Richard Nixon .
The Singing Cadets took their first trip overseas in 1974 to Romania as part of a goodwill tour sponsored by the State Department , performing several shows over a 3 week period . The Cadets accompanied the Aggie Band onto Kyle Field during the halftime of football games during special occasions of the university , such as the centennial celebration of Texas A & M University ( 1976 ) , and in 1980 to dedicate the expansion of the football stadium .
Under Boone 's direction , the Singing Cadets won several international singing competitions . They won the silver medal in an International Choral Festival in Hawaii in 1979 . In 1983 they received the silver medal in Mexico . In 1993 , they returned to Hawaii , taking the gold medal . Other major tours during the 1980s included several occasions marking the Texas sesquicentennial anniversary in 1986 , and European tours in 1987 and 1989 . In 2004 , the Singing Cadets journeyed to Australia , and sang the Australian national anthem ( Advance Australia Fair ) on the first concert of that tour . In May 2006 the Cadets performed at the White House at the invitation of President George W. Bush for an event to honor America 's returning athletes from the 2006 Winter Olympics . Also in 2006 , the cadets performed at the Miss Texas Pageant . In its 2006 @-@ 2007 season , the Cadets performed over sixty concerts in the United States , plus a tour to South America during the summer , where they traveled to Argentina , Uruguay and Brazil . The Singing Cadets toured South Africa in 2010 and will be touring China in May 2013 .
= = Music = =
The Singing Cadets have sung a wide variety of music in their history . Their repertoire has included Christian hymns and gospel music , as well as Texas A & M school songs such as the Aggie War Hymn . Musical selections varied through the decades , although Southern songs and songs from the 1940s , 1950s , and 1960s remain perennial favorites .
Currently , eight recordings produced by the Singing Cadets are available for purchase . In chronological order , the titles are : God Bless the USA , Live from South America , Tradition ; Duty , Honor , Country : A Tribute to President Bush , Remembrance , Centennial , Let Freedom Ring , and Kennedy Center .
= = Organization = =
Members of the Corps of Cadets make up a small minority of the Singing Cadets ; the group dropped Corps Membership as a requirement in 1963 . The Singing Cadets holds auditions twice each school year , with membership open to any male Texas A & M student . The choir is one of three within Texas A & M. The others are the all @-@ female Women 's Chorus , and co @-@ ed choir the Century Singers . All three practice in the Memorial Student Center ( MSC ) .
The group is typically backed by a pianist and conducted by a director , and regularly are accompanied by instruments , including electric guitar , drums and bass guitar . The Singing Cadets use costumes and pantomime to accompany their music , incorporating a number of forms of entertainment into their concerts . A barbershop quartet side group called The Aggienizors performs at some shows , as entertainment between the main musical numbers .
Presently , the Singing Cadets perform primarily in state , along with a sprinkling of national and international tours . The Cadets perform 70 @-@ 80 concerts a year .
= = Directors = =
Professor A. M. Soule
Professor Tyrrel
Professor T. P. Junkin
F. D. Steger
D. Ford
K. H. Beach
E. W. Glenn
Professor J. J. Woolket
Richard W. Jenkins
Ewell Porter
William M. Turner
Robert L. Boone
David Kipp
= Ontario Highway 36 =
King 's Highway 36 , commonly referred to as Highway 36 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connected Highway 7 and Highway 35 in Lindsay with Highway 28 in Burleigh Falls , providing access to recreational cottages along the northern shore of several of the Kawartha lakes as well as to multiple communities , including Bobcaygeon . Today it is known as Kawartha Lakes City Road 36 and Peterborough County Road 36 .
The route was first assumed in 1931 as a depression relief project and extended in 1937 . It remained generally unchanged for the next 60 years before being decommissioned in 1998 . However , a realignment near Lindsay in the late 1950s changed the southern terminus of the route from the centre of the town to southeast of it ; the original route through Lindsay became Highway 36B and is now known as Kawartha Lakes Road 17 .
= = Route description = =
The route and surroundings of former Highway 36 have largely remained unaltered since the highway was decommissioned in 1998 . Within the City of Kawartha Lakes , the road is now known as Kawartha Lakes Road 36 , while within the County of Peterborough , it is known as Peterborough County Road 36 .
The route begins east of Lindsay at an intersection with Highway 7 and progresses north , crossing a former railway ( now the Kawartha Rail Trail ) before intersecting Kawartha Lakes Road 17 . The western leg of Road 17 , which travels to downtown Lindsay , was the original route of Highway 36 and later became Highway 36B . Continuing north , Highway 36 jogs north and east , serving cottages and communities lining the southern shore of Sturgeon Lake , but remains inland by over a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) itself . At Dunsford , which is bypassed , the highway intersects Kawartha Lakes Roads 7 and 24 — the former travels south to Omemee and the latter provides an alternative route to Bobcaygeon . Former Highway 36 continues , alternating directions between east and north twice before entering the village of Bobcaygeon .
Within Bobcaygeon , Highway 36 crosses the Trent – Severn Waterway and intersects the eastern end of Kawartha Lakes Road 8 . At this point it is following the southernmost section of the Bobcaygeon Colonization Road . At the intersection with Main Street in the northern end of the village , the route turns northeast while former Highway 649 continues north .
Exiting Bobcaygeon , the former highway serves cottages along the northern shore of Pigeon Lake and Little Bald Lake . After passing Nogies Creek , the highway descends a hill and encounters the Canadian Shield for the first time . The road runs along the border of the Precambrian shield and the Ordovician limestone plateau en route to Burleigh Falls . The shield lies to the north and is overlain by the plateau to the south . The highway turns south at Flynns Corner , intersecting former Highway 507 . It enters the town of Buckhorn from the north , then drivers must turn to remain on the route , which exits the town to the east . Between Buckhorn and Burleigh Falls , the highway serves the cottages that line the northern shore of Lower Buckhorn Lake .
= = History = =
Highway 36 was first assumed by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) on July 1 , 1931 , and was one of several highways completed as part of a depression – relief program . The highway initially connected downtown Lindsay with Bobcaygeon . This section was fully paved by the end of 1937 . On August 11 , 1937 , the DHO extended the highway east to Highway 28 at Burleigh Falls .
Highway 36 remained essentially unchanged between 1937 and 1997 , with the exception of a being rerouted east of Lindsay in 1958 . However , on January 1 , 1998 , the entirety of Highway 36 was downloaded to Victoria County and Peterborough County , both of which redesignated it as County Road 36 . Victoria County became the City of Kawartha Lakes in 2001 , and that section of the route is now known as City Road 36 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 36 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . In addition , it includes some minor junctions .
= Arizona State Route 67 =
State Route 67 ( SR 67 ) is a 43 @.@ 4 mi ( 69 @.@ 8 km ) long , north – south state highway in northern Arizona . Also called the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway , SR 67 is the sole road that links U.S. Route 89A ( US 89A ) at Jacob Lake to the North Rim of Grand Canyon National Park . Along the route , the road heads through the national park as well as Kaibab National Forest and is surrounded by evergreen trees . The section inside the national park is maintained by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , whereas the section north of the entrance , completely within Kaibab National Forest , is owned by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) . The road was built in the late 1920s and improved through the 1930s . In 1941 , the road received its number , and was given its designation as the parkway in the 1980s . The parkway has received designations as a National Forest Scenic Byway as well as a National Scenic Byway .
= = Route description = =
Signage for SR 67 begins at Bright Angel Point along the North Rim of the Grand Canyon National Park . ADOT does not officially own this section of road , but it is signed as SR 67 . The road heads north as the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway through the small town of North Rim , surrounded by evergreen trees . The parkway enters a small clearing before meeting the park entrance , where ownership by ADOT begins . Heading into Kaibab National Forest on a northward path , the roadway is surrounded by a narrow meadow bordered by evergreen trees . As it passes the nearby Deer Lake , SR 67 meets an unpaved National Forest road . The landscape around the route is crisscrossed by these routes as SR 67 makes several turns , turning back toward the north . The highway , with the new name of Grand Canyon Highway in addition to its other designation , makes several turns as it heads north through the woods . It takes a more northwesterly path as it runs through Coconino County . Near its terminus , the road turns back northeast toward its terminus at US 89A in Jacob Lake .
The northern segment of the highway is maintained by ADOT , who is responsible for maintaining SR 67 like all other highways around the state . As part of this job , ADOT periodically surveys traffic along its routes . These surveys are most often presented in the form of average annual daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles who use the route on any average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that around 1 @,@ 100 vehicles used the route daily at its northern terminus in Jacob Lake . The Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) lists the highway as a National Scenic Byway , and the National Forest Service has also designated it a National Forest Service Byway . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Due to the closure of park facilities on the north rim of the Grand Canyon during winter , winter maintenance is not undertaken after December 1st , with the result that SR 67 is usually closed to vehicular traffic from December 1st until spring .
= = History = =
SR 67 existed as a route to reach the north rim of the Grand Canyon National Park as early as 1927 as a dirt road . By 1935 , the road had been improved to a gravel road , and by 1938 it had been paved . In 1941 , the road was designated as a state highway and signed as SR 67 . In 1985 , the highway received the designation of Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway as an Arizona State Scenic Byway . The designation included SR 67 in its entirety as well as extending south into Grand Canyon National Park . Two years later , ADOT obtained the right @-@ of @-@ way for improvement of the highway from its northern terminus approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south . In 1989 , an additional right @-@ of @-@ way was acquired by ADOT from its southern terminus approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north . By June of that year , the parkway received the designation of a National Forest Scenic Byway , and in June 1998 , the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway received another designation , this time as a National Scenic Byway . Since establishment , the route has not been realigned and retains its original routing .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Coconino County .
= Josce de Dinan =
Josce de Dinan ( sometimes Joce de Dinan , Josselin de Dinan , Joce de Dynan ; Jocelin de Dinan , Joyce de Dinan , or Joceas de Dinan ; died 1166 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman who lived during and after the civil war between King Stephen of England and his cousin Matilda over the throne of England . He was a landholder in the Welsh Marches when he was married by Stephen to the widow of Pain fitzJohn , a union that gave Josce control of Ludlow Castle . Control of the castle was contested by other noblemen , and the resulting warfare between the nobles forms the background to a late medieval romance known as Fouke le Fitz Waryn , which is mainly concerned with the actions of Josce 's grandson , but also includes some material on Josce 's lifetime . Josce eventually lost control of Ludlow and was granted lands in compensation by Matilda and her son , King Henry II of England , who succeeded Stephen in 1154 .
= = Background and early life = =
Following King Henry I 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed between the king 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. King Henry 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father , who married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but after the king 's death in 1135 Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald contented himself with his possessions in France . But Matilda was less sanguine , and secured the support of her maternal uncle , the Scottish king David I , and in 1138 also that of her half @-@ brother Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I. Nobles in the Welsh Marches revolted against Stephen in 1136 , but the revolt was not settled until 1138 . In 1139 , Matilda invaded southern England with her half @-@ brother 's support and the period of civil war began .
Josce was the youngest son of Geoffrey de Dinan and Radegonde Orieldis , and had two older brothers , Oliver of Dinan and Alan of Becherel . Josce 's family was from Brittany , and he was described by the historian Marjorie Chibnall as an " obscure Breton adventurer " . Josce moved from Devon in southern England to the Welsh Marches , the border between England and Wales , because the lords of Monmouth were also of Breton extraction . While in the Marches he joined King Stephen 's household .
= = Ludlow Castle = =
Josce was married to Sybil , the widow of Pain fitzJohn , who died in 1137 . Sybil had held Ludlow Castle against Stephen in 1139 , but surrendered after a siege . Ludlow was an important strategic stronghold for control of the Welsh Borders , and Stephen decided to marry Pain 's widow to someone he felt was trustworthy . Upon his marriage Josce also acquired control of the castle , built in the late 11th century . Josce probably also received many of the de Lacy family 's holdings in southern Shropshire , but he rebelled against Stephen and fortified Ludlow against the king . Josce 's position was so strong that when Stephen granted much of the surrounding lands to Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester , Ludlow was specifically exempted . Stephen told Robert that he would have a royal grant of the castle if he could secure Josce 's submission as a vassal .
Custody of Ludlow was contested not only by Stephen but also by Gilbert de Lacy , whose efforts to wrest the castle from Josce are the background to the medieval romance Fouke le Fitz Waryn ; the extant prose version dates from the 14th century , but it was originally a 13th @-@ century poem , now lost . Gilbert claimed the castle through his familial link with Sybil , fitzJohn 's widow , who was a member of the de Lacy family . Others trying to take Ludlow were Hugh de Mortimer and Gilbert de Lacy . According to the Chronicle of Wigmore Abbey , some time after September 1148 Mortimer and Josce became embroiled in a private war , during which Josce seized Mortimer while the latter was travelling . Josce imprisoned his captive in Ludlow and demanded a ransom of 3 @,@ 000 silver marks , as well as , according to the Chronicle , Mortimer 's " plate , his horses , and his birds " . Presumably , Mortimer met the ransom , as he is later known to have been a free man .
While Josce was absent from Ludlow , Gilbert de Lacy was able to take the castle . Josce laid siege to the castle but was unsuccessful in his attempt to retake it , and retreated to Lambourn with his military forces . Although the exact date of this event is unknown , it appears to have been some time about 1150 or shortly before . Matilda gave Josce some lands around Lambourn after Ludlow 's fall as compensation . Later he was given land in Berkshire by King Henry II ( became king in 1154 ) , Matilda 's son , as further recompense for the loss of Ludlow . In 1156 Josce held lands in Berkshire , Wiltshire , Hampshire , Devonshire and Somerset . These holdings included the manor of Lambourn , worth £ 76 in income per year , as well as the manor of Stanton ( now known as Stanton Fitzwarren in Wiltshire ) in addition to the lands scattered in other counties .
Josce 's grandson Fulk fitzWarin , who died in 1258 , is ostensibly the hero of a lost romantic poem called Fouke le Fitz Waryn . The work survives as French prose in a loose corpus of medieval literature known as the Matter of England . However , it appears to confuse events of Fulk fitzWarin 's lifetime with those of his grandfather 's . Other errors in the work include transposing some of the Welsh Marcher barons of King Henry I of England 's reign into nobles of William the Conqueror 's time , and omitting an entire generation of fitzWarins . Although scholars believe Fouke le Fitz Waryn draws on genuine tradition , the difficulty in separating the fitzWarin biographies makes it a problematic source .
= = Family = =
Josce died in 1166 . He was survived by two daughters : Sibil , who married Hugh de Pulgenet and died in 1212 , and Hawise who married Fulk FitzWarin , who died in 1197 . In 1199 his two daughters petitioned the king regarding the ownership of the town and castle of Ludlow but were turned down .
= World War I Memorial ( East Providence , Rhode Island ) =
The World War I Memorial is a bronze sculpture by Pietro Montana and is located at the intersection of Taunton Avenue , Whelden Avenue , and John Street in East Providence , Rhode Island , United States . The sculpture is modeled on Charles Atlas and depicts a dynamically posed soldier standing on a granite base . Montana 's original design was modified by the East Providence Memorial Committee for being " too brutal " . Dedicated on July 30 , 1927 , Major General Charles Pelot Summerall gave an address which highlighted the handicap placed upon the soldiers by a lack of preparedness and " invoked the fighting ideal embodied by Montana 's doughboy . " The World War I Memorial was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = Design = =
The World War I Memorial was designed by Pietro Montana , an Italian @-@ born painter and sculptor . Montana studied at the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in Manhattan , New York City , New York . Montana 's monuments were well @-@ known , particularly in New York , and included an earlier " Doughboy " sculpture erected in 1920 to honor the war dead of the Bushwick , Brooklyn and Ridgewood , Queens . The success of this the earlier " Fighting Doughboy " memorial resulted in the production of three copies by 1921 . By 1932 , he had produced over 40 statues and won a gold medal from the National Academy of Design for " Orphans " in 1931 .
For the design of the sculpture , Montana modeled Charles Atlas and " strove to communicate the U.S. doughboy 's upstanding character and valor by way of a muscle @-@ bound physique " . In 1926 , the East Providence Memorial Committee expressed concerns that Montana 's design was " too brutal " and modified the original design provided by Montana . The statue was erected in 1927 , and formally dedicated on July 30 , 1927 . At the dedication , Major General Charles Pelot Summerall gave an address which highlighted the handicap placed upon the soldiers by a lack of preparedness and " invoked the fighting ideal embodied by Montana 's doughboy . "
The sculpture of a soldier stands 7 @.@ 75 feet ( 2 @.@ 36 m ) tall , 2 @.@ 583 feet ( 0 @.@ 787 m ) wide and 2 @.@ 66 feet ( 0 @.@ 81 m ) deep . Ronald J. Onorato , author of the National Register nomination , writes that " the soldier stands with legs apart , his left hand at his belt , the right at his side . The face is impassive and expressionless . He wears a disheveled infantry uniform , rough shoes , the shirt collar open and askew , the sleeves rolled back , the knee torn open , his helmet on the ground behind his left foot . ... A holster hangs from the belt on the soldier 's right hip . " Montana signed the sculpture with " Pietro Montana / SC / 1927 . "
The sculpture rests atop a grey granite base that is 6 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall , 3 @.@ 166 feet ( 0 @.@ 965 m ) wide and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) deep . The corners of the base have small leaf designed and has 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) by 2 @.@ 66 feet ( 0 @.@ 81 m ) bronze reliefs with arched tops on each side . The front relief states that it was erected in the memory of the citizens of East Providence who served in World War I from 1917 to 1918 , and lists the names of twenty three soldiers . The left relief depicts a marching infantry column of one man on horseback and four on foot , the right relief depicts four or five men loading a cannon and the rear relief depicts a nurse assisting two wounded soldiers .
At the time of its nomination , the sculpture was described as in " moderately good condition " , with the surface being both stained and pitted , but free or breaks or missing pieces . The statue still stands in its original location in front of a school that has since been re @-@ purposed for residential housing .
= = Importance = =
The World War I Memorial designed by Montana is " historically significant as the city 's principal effort to honor those who served in the first World War and because it is an unusually successful depiction of the soldier in battle . " The larger @-@ than @-@ life masculine figure depicted in the sculpture stands apart from the stock figures of other war monuments by its dynamic pose , as if the soldier was " [ arising from ] the heat of battle " . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 19 , 2001 .
= Oldham =
Oldham / ˈɒldəm / is a large town in Greater Manchester , England , amid the Pennines between the rivers Irk and Medlock , 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rochdale and 6 @.@ 9 miles ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester . Together with several smaller surrounding towns , it is part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham of which it is the administrative centre .
Historically in Lancashire , and with little early history to speak of , Oldham rose to prominence in the 19th century as an international centre of textile manufacture . It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution , and among the first ever industrialised towns , rapidly becoming " one of the most important centres of cotton and textile industries in England " . At its zenith , it was the most productive cotton spinning mill town in the world , producing more cotton than France and Germany combined . Oldham 's textile industry fell into decline in the mid @-@ 20th century ; the town 's last mill closed in 1998 .
The demise of textile processing in Oldham depressed the local economy . Today Oldham is a predominantly residential town , and a centre for further education and the performing arts . It is , however , still distinguished architecturally by the surviving cotton mills and other buildings associated with that industry . The town has a population of 103 @,@ 544 and an area of around 26 square miles ( 67 km2 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The toponymy of Oldham seems to imply " old village or place " from Eald ( Saxon ) signifying oldness or antiquity , and Ham ( Saxon ) a house , farm or hamlet . Oldham is however known to be a derivative of Aldehulme , undoubtedly an Old Norse name . It is believed to be derived from the Old English ald combined with the Old Norse holmi or holmr , meaning " promontory or outcrop " , possibly describing the town 's hilltop position . It has alternatively been suggested that it may mean " holm or hulme of a farmer named Alda " . The name is understood to date from 865 , during the period of the Danelaw .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest known evidence of a human presence in what is now Oldham is attested by the discovery of Neolithic flint arrow @-@ heads and workings found at Werneth and Besom Hill , implying habitation 7 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Evidence of later Roman and Celtic activity is confirmed by an ancient Roman road and Bronze Age archaeological relics found at various sites within the town . Placenames of Celtic origin are still to be found in Oldham : Werneth derives from a Celtic personal name identical to the Gaulish vernetum , " alder swamp " , and Glodwick may be related to the modern Welsh clawdd , meaning " dyke " or " ditch " . Nearby Chadderton is also pre @-@ Anglo @-@ Saxon in origin , from the Old Welsh cadeir , itself deriving from the Latin cathedra meaning " chair " . Although Anglo @-@ Saxons occupied territory around the area centuries earlier , Oldham as a permanent , named place of dwelling is believed to date from 865 , when Danish invaders established a settlement called Aldehulme .
From its founding in the 9th century until the Industrial Revolution , Oldham is believed to have been little more than a scattering of small and insignificant settlements spread across the moorland and dirt tracks that linked Manchester to York . Although not mentioned in the Domesday Book , Oldham does appear in legal documents from the Middle Ages , invariably recorded as territory under the control of minor ruling families and barons . In the 13th century , Oldham was documented as a manor held from the Crown by a family surnamed Oldham , whose seat was at Werneth Hall .
= = = Industrial Revolution and cotton = = =
Much of Oldham 's history is concerned with textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution ; it has been said that " if ever the Industrial Revolution placed a town firmly and squarely on the map of the world , that town is Oldham . " Oldham 's soils were too thin and poor to sustain crop growing , and so for decades prior to industrialisation the area was used for grazing sheep , which provided the raw material for a local woollen weaving trade .
By 1756 , Oldham had emerged as centre of the hatting industry in England . The rough felt used in the production process is the origin of the term " Owdham Roughyed " a nickname for people from Oldham . It was not until the last quarter of the 18th century that Oldham changed from being a cottage industry township producing woollen garments via domestic manual labour , to a sprawling industrial metropolis of textile factories . The climate , geology , and topography of Oldham were unrelenting constraints upon the social and economic activities of the human inhabitants . At 700 feet ( 213 m ) above sea level and with no major river or visible natural resources , Oldham had poor geographic attributes compared with other settlements for investors and their engineers . As a result , Oldham played no part in the initial period of the Industrial Revolution , although it did later become seen as obvious territory to industrialise because of its convenient position between the labour forces of Manchester and southwest Yorkshire .
Cotton spinning and milling were introduced to Oldham when its first mill , Lees Hall , was built by William Clegg in about 1778 , the beginning of a spiralling process of urbanisation and socioeconomic transformation . Within a year , 11 other mills had been constructed , and by 1818 there were 19 – not a large number in comparison with other local settlements . Oldham 's small local population was greatly increased by the mass migration of workers from outlying villages , resulting in a population increase from just over 12 @,@ 000 in 1801 to 137 @,@ 000 in 1901 . The speed of this urban growth meant that Oldham , with little pre @-@ industrial history to speak of , was effectively born as a factory town .
Oldham became the world 's manufacturing centre for cotton spinning in the second half of the 19th century . In 1851 , over 30 % of Oldham 's population was employed within the textile sector , compared to 5 % across Great Britain . It overtook the major urban centres of Manchester and Bolton as the result of a mill building boom in the 1860s and 1870s , a period during which Oldham became the most productive cotton @-@ spinning town in the world . In 1871 , Oldham had more spindles than any country in the world except the United States , and in 1909 , was spinning more cotton than France and Germany combined . By 1911 there were 16 @.@ 4 million spindles in Oldham , compared with a total of 58 million in the United Kingdom and 143 @.@ 5 million in the world ; in 1928 , with the construction of the UK 's largest textile factory Oldham reached its manufacturing zenith . At its peak , there were more than 360 mills , operating night and day ;
Oldham 's townscape was dominated by distinctive rectangular brick @-@ built mills . Oldham was hit hard by the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 – 1865 , when supplies of raw cotton from the United States were cut off . Wholly reliant upon the textile industry , the cotton famine created chronic unemployment in the town . By 1863 a committee had been formed , and with aid from central government , land was purchased with the intention of employing local cotton workers to construct Alexandra Park , which opened on 28 August 1865 . Said to have over @-@ relied upon the textile sector , as the importation of cheaper foreign yarns grew during the 20th century , Oldham 's economy declined into a depression , although it was not until 1964 that Oldham ceased to be the largest centre of cotton spinning . In spite of efforts to increase the efficiency and competitiveness of its production , the last cotton spun in the town was in 1998 .
= = = = Engineering = = = =
Facilitated by its flourishing textile industry , Oldham developed extensive structural and mechanical engineering sectors during the 18th and 19th centuries . The manufacture of spinning and weaving machinery in Oldham belongs to the last decade of the 19th century , when it became a leading centre in the field of engineering . The Platt Brothers , originated in nearby Dobcross village , but moved to Oldham . They were pioneers of cotton @-@ spinning machinery , developing innovative products that enabled the mass @-@ production of cotton yarn . Platt Brothers became the largest textile machine makers in the world , employing over 15 @,@ 000 people in the 1890s , twice the number of their nearest rivals Dobson & Barlow in Bolton and Asa Lees on Greenacres Moor . They were keen investors in the local area and at one time , were supporting 42 % of the population . The centre of the company lay at the New Hartford Works in Werneth , a massive complex of buildings and internal railways on a site overlooking Manchester . The railway station which served this site later formed the basis of Oldham Werneth railway station . The main building exists to this day . Platts gained prestigious awards from around the world , and were heavily involved with local politics and civic pride in Oldham . John and James Platt were the largest subscribers for promoting Oldham from a township to a Borough , pledging £ 100 ( more than double the next largest sum ) in advance towards any expenses which may have been incurred by the Royal Charter . In 1854 John Platt was made the ( fourth ) Mayor of Oldham , an office he was to hold twice more in 1855 – 56 and 1861 – 62 . John Platt was elected in 1865 to become Member of Parliament for Oldham , and was re @-@ elected in 1868 ; he remained in office until his death in 1872 . A bronze statue of Platt existed in the town centre for years , though was moved to Alexandra Park . There have been recommendations for it to be returned to the town centre .
Abraham Henthorn Stott , the son of a stonemason , was born in nearby Shaw and Crompton in 1822 . He served a seven @-@ year apprenticeship with Sir Charles Barry , before starting a structural engineering practice in Oldham in 1847 that went on to become the pre @-@ eminent mill architect firm in Lancashire . Philip Sydney Stott , third son of Abraham and later titled as Sir Philip Stott , 1st Baronet , was the most prominent and famous of the Stott mill architects . He established his own practice in 1883 and designed over a hundred mills in several countries . His factories , which improved upon his father 's fireproof mills , accounted for a 40 % increase in Oldham 's spindles between 1887 and 1914 .
Although textile @-@ related engineering declined with the processing industry , leading to the demise of both Stotts and Platts , other engineering firms existed , notably electrical and later electronic engineers Ferranti in 1896 . Ferranti went into receivership in 1993 , but some of its former works continue in other hands . Part of the original Hollinwood site was operated by Siemens Metering and Semiconductor divisions . The remainder of the site is occupied by Mirror Colour Print Ltd ; the printing division of the Trinity Mirror group , which prints and distributes thirty @-@ six major newspapers , and employs five hundred staff .
= = = = Coal mining = = = =
On the back of the Industrial Revolution , Oldham developed an extensive coal mining sector , correlated to supporting the local cotton industry and the town 's inhabitants , though there is evidence of small scale coal mining in the area as early as the 16th century . The Oldham Coalfield stretched from Royton in the north to Bardsley in the south and in addition to Oldham , included the towns of Middleton and Chadderton to the west . The Oldham Coalfield was the site of over 150 collieries during its recorded history . Although some contemporary sources suggest there was coal mining in Oldham at a commercial scale by 1738 , older sources attribute the commercial expansion of coal mining with the arrival in the town of two Welsh labourers , John Evans and William Jones , around 1770 . Foreseeing the growth in demand for coal as a source of motive and steam power , they acquired colliery rights for Oldham , which by 1771 had 14 colliers . The mines were largely to the southwest of the town around Hollinwood and Werneth and provided enough coal to accelerate Oldham 's rapid development at the centre of the cotton boom . At its height in the mid @-@ 19th century , when it was dominated by the Lees and Jones families , Oldham coal was mainly sourced from many small collieries whose lives varied from a few years to many decades , although two of the four largest collieries survived to nationalisation . In 1851 , collieries employed more than 2 @,@ 000 men in Oldham , although the amount of coal in the town was somewhat overestimated however , and production began to decline even before that of the local spinning industry . Today , the only visible remnants of the mines are disused shafts and boreholes .
= = = Social history = = =
Oldham 's social history , like that of other former unenfranchised towns , is marked by politicised civil disturbances , as well as events related to the Luddite , Suffragette and other Labour movements from the working classes . There has been a significant presence of " friendly societies " . It has been put that the people of Oldham became radical in politics in the early part of the 19th century , and movements suspected of sedition found patronage in the town . Oldham was frequently disturbed by bread and labour riots , facilitated by periods of scarcity and the disturbance of employment following the introduction of cotton @-@ spinning machinery .
On 20 April 1812 , a " large crowd of riotous individuals " compelled local retailers to sell foods at a loss , whilst on the same day Luddites numbering in their thousands , many of whom were from Oldham , attacked a cotton mill in nearby Middleton . On 16 August 1819 , Oldham sent a contingent estimated at well above 10 @,@ 000 to hear speakers in St Peter 's Fields at Manchester discuss political reform ; it was the largest contingent sent to Manchester . John Lees , a cotton operative and ex @-@ soldier who had fought at Waterloo , was one of the fifteen victims of the Peterloo Massacre which followed . The ' Oldham inquest ' which proceeded the massacre was anxiously watched ; the Court of King 's Bench , however , decided that the proceedings were irregular , and the jury were discharged without giving a verdict .
Annie Kenney , born in nearby Springhead , and who worked in Oldham 's cotton mills , was a notable member of the Suffragette movement credited with sparking off suffragette militancy when she heckled Winston Churchill , and later ( with Emmeline Pankhurst ) the first Suffragist to be imprisoned . Oldham Women 's Suffrage Society was established in 1910 with Margery Lees as president and quickly joined the Manchester and District Federation of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies . The Chartist and Co @-@ operative movements had strong support in the town , whilst many Oldhamers protested against the emancipation of slaves . The Riot Act was read in 1852 on election day following a mass public brawl over the Reform Act , and irregularities with parliamentary candidate nominations .
For three days in late May 2001 , Oldham became the centre of national and international media attention . Following high profile race @-@ related conflicts , and long @-@ term underlying racial tensions between local White British and Asian communities , major riots broke out in the town . Occurring with particular intensity in the Glodwick area of the town , the Oldham riots were the worst racially motivated riots in the United Kingdom for fifteen years prior , briefly eclipsing the sectarian violence in Northern Ireland in the media . At least 20 people were injured in the riots , including 15 police officers , and 37 people were arrested . Similar riots took place in other towns in northern England over the following days and weeks . The 2001 riots prompted governmental and independent inquiries , which collectively agreed on community relations improvements and considerable regeneration schemes for the town . There were further fears of riots after the death of Gavin Hopley in 2002 .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
Lying within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire since the early 12th century , Oldham was recorded in 1212 as being one of five parts of the thegnage estate of Kaskenmoor , which was held on behalf of King John by Roger de Montbegon and William de Nevill . The other parts of this estate were Crompton , Glodwick , Sholver , and Werneth . Oldham later formed a township within the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham , in the hundred of Salford .
In 1826 commissioners for the social and economic improvement of Oldham were established . The town was made part of a parliamentary borough , in 1832 , though it was in 1849 when Oldham was incorporated as a municipal borough , giving it borough status in the United Kingdom , and in 1850 the Borough Council obtained the powers of the improvement commissioners . In 1880 , parts of the Hollinwood and Crossbank areas of Chadderton and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne townships were added to the Borough of Oldham . Oldham Above Town and Oldham Below Town were , from 1851 until c . 1881 , statistical units used for the gathering and organising of civil registration information , and output of census data .
The Local Government Act 1888 created elected county councils to administer services throughout England and Wales . Where a municipal borough had a population of more than 50 @,@ 000 at the 1881 Census it was created a county borough , with the powers and duties of both a borough and county council . As Oldham had an 1881 population of 111 @,@ 343 it duly became a county borough on 1 April 1889 . The borough , while independent of Lancashire County Council for local government , remained part of the county for purposes such as the administration of justice and lieutenancy .
In 1951 parts of the Limehurst Rural District were added to the County Borough of Oldham , and in 1954 further parts of the same district added to it on its abolition . Since 1961 , Oldham has been twinned with Kranj in Slovenia . Under the Local Government Act 1972 , the town 's autonomous county borough status was abolished , and Oldham has , since 1 April 1974 , formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , within the Metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
The boundaries of two parliamentary constituencies divide Oldham : Oldham East and Saddleworth , and Oldham West and Royton ( which includes the town centre ) , represented by Labour Members of Parliament Debbie Abrahams and Michael Meacher respectively .
Created as a parliamentary borough in 1832 , Oldham 's first parliamentary representatives were the radicals William Cobbett and John Fielden . Winston Churchill began his political career in Oldham . Although unsuccessful at his first attempt in 1899 , Churchill was elected as the member of Parliament for the Oldham parliamentary borough constituency in the 1900 general election . He held the constituency for the Conservative Party until the 1906 general election , when he won the election for Manchester North West as a Liberal MP . After he became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1940 , Churchill was made a Honorary Freeman of the Borough of Oldham , on 2 April 1941 .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 32 ′ 39 ″ N 2 ° 7 ′ 0 @.@ 8 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5444 ° , − 2 @.@ 1169 ° ) , and 164 miles ( 264 km ) north @-@ northwest of London , Oldham stands 700 feet ( 213 m ) above sea level , 6 @.@ 9 miles ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester city centre , on elevated ground between the rivers Irk and Medlock . Saddleworth and the South Pennines are close to the east , whilst on all other sides , Oldham is bound by smaller towns , including Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Chadderton , Failsworth , Royton and Shaw and Crompton , with little or no green space between them . Oldham experiences a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year .
Oldham 's topography is characterised by its rugged , elevated Pennine terrain . It has an area of 6 @.@ 91 square miles ( 17 @.@ 90 km2 ) . The geology of Oldham is represented by the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures series of rocks . The River Beal , flowing northwards , forms the boundary between Oldham on one side and Royton and Shaw and Crompton on the other .
To the east of this river the surface rises to a height of 1 @,@ 225 feet ( 373 m ) at Woodward Hill , on the border with the parish of Saddleworth . The rest of the surface is hilly , the average height decreasing towards the southwest to Failsworth and the city of Manchester . The ridge called Oldham Edge , 800 feet ( 244 m ) high , comes southward from Royton into the centre of the town .
Oldham 's built environment is characterised by its 19th @-@ century red @-@ brick terraced houses , the infrastructure that was built to support these and the town 's former cotton mills – which mark the town 's skyline . The urban structure of Oldham is irregular when compared to most towns in England , its form restricted in places by its hilly upland terrain . There are irregularly constructed residential dwellings and streets clustered loosely around a central business district in the town centre , which is the local centre of commerce . In 1849 , Angus Reach of Inverness said :
The visitor to Oldham will find it essentially a mean @-@ looking straggling town , built upon both sides and crowning the ridge of one of the outlying spurs which branch from Manchester , the neighbouring ' backbone of England ' . The whole place has a shabby underdone look . The general appearance of the operatives ' houses is filthy and smouldering .
In the 1870s , John Marius Wilson described Oldham as consisting of :
... numerous streets , and contains numerous fine buildings , both public and private ; but , in a general view , is irregularly constructed , presents the dingy aspect of a crowded seat of manufacture , and is more notable for factories than for any other feature .
Although Oldham had a thriving economy during the 19th century , the local merchants were broadly reluctant to spend on civic institutions , and so the town lacks the grandeur seen in comparable nearby towns like Bolton or Huddersfield ; public expenditure was seen as an overhead that undermined the competitiveness of the town . Subsequently , Oldham 's architecture has been described as " mediocre " . The town has no listed buildings with a Grade I rating .
There is a mixture of high @-@ density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Oldham . There is some permanent grassland but overwhelmingly the land use in the town is urban . The territory of Oldham is contiguous with other towns on all sides except for a small section along its eastern and southern boundaries , and for purposes of the Office for National Statistics , forms the fourth largest settlement of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third largest conurbation . The M60 motorway passes through the southwest of Oldham , through Hollinwood , and a heavy rail line enters Oldham from the same direction , travelling northeast to the town centre before heading northwards through Derker towards Shaw and Crompton .
= = = Divisions and suburbs = = =
Many of Oldham 's present divisions and suburbs have origins as pre @-@ industrial hamlets , manorial commons and ancient chapelries . Some , such as Moorside , exist as recently constructed residential suburbia , whilst places like Hollinwood exist as electoral wards and thoroughly industrialised districts . Throughout most of its recorded history , Oldham was surrounded by large swathes of moorland , which is reflected in the placenames of Moorside , Greenacres moor , Littlemoor , Northmoor among others .
A large portion of Oldham 's residences are " low value " Victorian era Accrington red @-@ brick terraced houses in a row formation , built for the most part from 1870 to 1920 , to house the town 's cotton mill workers . There is more modern housing in the semi @-@ rural east of the town , in the most sought after area in areas such as the village Moorside , although terraces are found in almost all parts of Oldham .
One of the oldest recorded named places of Oldham is Hathershaw , occurring in a deed for 1280 with the spelling Halselinechaw Clugh . Existing as a manor in the 15th century , Hathershaw Hall was the home of a Royalist family in the 17th century who lost part of their possessions due to the English Civil War . Waterhead , an upland area in the east of Oldham , traces its roots to a water cornmill over the border in Lees .
Recorded originally as Watergate and Waterhead Milne , it was for a long time a hamlet in the parish of Oldham that formed a significant part of the Oldham Above Town registration sub @-@ district . Derker was recorded as a place of residence in 1604 with the name Dirtcar . Bound by Higginshaw to the north , Derker is the location of Derker railway station and , said to have terraced residencies " unsuited to modern needs " , is currently being redeveloped as part of the Housing Market Renewal Initiative .
Coldhurst , an area along Oldham 's northern boundary with Royton , was once a chapelry and the site of considerable industry and commerce , including coal mining , cotton spinning and hat manufacture . It is said to have been the scene of an action in the English Civil War in which the Parliamentarians were defeated .
= = Demography = =
According to data from the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Oldham had a total resident population of 103 @,@ 544 , making it the 55th most populous settlement in England , and the 5th most populous settlement of the Greater Manchester Urban Area . This figure in conjunction with its area provides Oldham with a population density of 3 @,@ 998 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 544 per km ² ) . The local population has been described as broadly " working class " ; the middle classes tending to live in outlying settlements .
Oldham , considered as a combination of the 2001 electoral wards of Alexandra , Coldhurst , Hollinwood , St. James , St. Marys , St. Pauls , Waterhead and Werneth , has an average age of 33 @.@ 5 , and compared against the average demography of the United Kingdom , has a high level of people of South Asian heritage , particularly those with roots in Pakistan and Bangladesh . Due to the town 's prevalence as an industrial centre and thus a hub for employment , Oldham attracted migrant workers throughout its history , including those from wider @-@ England , Scotland , Ireland and Poland .
During the 1950s and 1960s , in an attempt to fill the shortfall of workers and revitalise local industries , citizens of the wider Commonwealth of Nations were encouraged to migrate to Oldham and other British towns . Many came from the Caribbean and Indian subcontinent and settled throughout the Oldham borough .
Today , Oldham has large communities with heritage from Bangladesh , India , Pakistan and parts of the Caribbean . At the time of the 2001 census , over one in four of its residents identified themselves as from a South Asian or British Asian ethnic group . Cultural divisions along ethnic backgrounds are strong within the town , with poor cross @-@ community integration and cohesion along Asian and white backgrounds .
With only a small local population during medieval times , as a result of the introduction of industry , mass migration of village workers into Oldham occurred , resulting in a population change from under 2 @,@ 000 in 1714 to 12 @,@ 000 in 1801 to 137 @,@ 000 in 1901 In 1851 its population of 52 @,@ 820 made Oldham the 12th most populous town in England . The following is a table outlining the population change of the town since 1801 , which demonstrates a trend of rapid population growth in the 19th century and , after peaking at 147 @,@ 483 people in 1911 , a trend of general decline in population size during the 20th century .
In 2011 , 77 @.@ 5 % of the Oldham metropolitan borough population were White British , 18 @.@ 1 % Asian and 1 @.@ 2 % Black . While in the town of Oldham , which had a 2011 population of 96 @,@ 555 , 55 @.@ 4 % of the population were White British .
= = Economy = =
For years Oldham 's economy was heavily dependent on manufacturing industry , especially textiles and mechanical engineering . Since the deindustrialisation of Oldham in the mid @-@ 20th century , these industries have been replaced by home shopping , publishing , healthcare and food processing sectors , though factory @-@ generated employment retains a significant presence . Many of the modern sectors are low @-@ skill and low @-@ wage .
Park Cake Bakeries , sold in 2007 by Northern Foods Group to Vision Capital , have a large food processing centre in Hathershaw , which employs in excess of 1 @,@ 600 people . Over 90 % of the cakes produced go to Marks & Spencer . Long existing as an industrial district , Hollinwood is home to the Northern Counties Housing Association ,
Oldham 's town centre contains the highest concentration of retailing , cultural facilities and employment in the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham . It has been extensively redeveloped during the last few decades , and its two shopping centres , Town Square and the Spindles , now provide one of the largest covered retail areas in Greater Manchester . The Spindles ( named with reference to textile spindles ) is a modern shopping centre with over 40 retailers , banks , building societies and catering outlets . It houses one of Europe 's largest stained glass roofs , created by local artist Brian Clarke in celebration of the music of one of Oldham 's famous sons , composer and conductor Sir William Walton .
Ferranti Technologies is an electronic , electromechanical and electrical engineering company based in Waterhead .
A number of culinary and medical advances have been developed in Oldham . There are claims that Oldham was the birthplace of the first chip shop . The sometimes disputed claim of trade in deep @-@ fried chipped potatoes is said to have been started around 1858 – 60 from an outlet owned by a John Lees , on what is the present site of Oldham 's Tommyfield Market . In 1900 Oldham had the highest concentration of chip shops in the country , one for every 400 people . Rag Pudding is a savoury dish said to be native to Oldham . Yates Wine Lodge was founded in Oldham by Peter and Simon Yates in 1884 .
The tubular bandage was invented and developed in Oldham in 1961 . That " vital contribution to advancing medical science " resulted from a collaboration between local firm Seton and a cotton manufacturer in the town .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Town Hall = = =
Oldham 's Old Town Hall is a Grade II listed Georgian neo @-@ classical town hall built in 1841 , eight years before Oldham received its borough status . One of the last purpose @-@ built town halls in northwest England , it has a tetrastyle Ionic portico , copied from the temple of Ceres , on the River Ilissos , near Athens . Winston Churchill made his inaugural acceptance speech from the steps of the town hall when he was first | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
She also performed the song as a duet with Blake Shelton while touring at Nokia Theatre L.A. Live , Los Angeles . The song 's accompanying music video is composed of the live footage from the Country Music Association awards which was directed by Paul Miller .
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was covered by Colton Dixon and Skylar Laine in the eleventh season of American Idol . Natalie Finn of E ! gave a mixed review of the pair 's performance , writing " Skylar handled Kelly Clarkson better than Colton played Jason Aldean on " Don 't You Wanna Stay , " but she 's the country girl , so it made sense . " Brian Mansfield of USA Today felt that the song was out of Dixon 's comfort zone and a little out of Laine 's range . Gil Kaufman of MTV remarked that the chemistry between the pair was more like cold fusion . Jennifer Still of Digital Spy said the performance " isn 't anything incredible " .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Don 't You Wanna Stay " ( with Kelly Clarkson ) – 4 : 16
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Tropical Storm Domoina =
Severe Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 caused 100 year floods in South Africa and record rainfall in Swaziland . The fourth named storm of the season , Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar . With a ridge to the north , the storm tracked generally westward and later southwestward . On January 21 , Domoina struck eastern Madagascar , the third storm in six weeks to affect the nation ; collectively , the storms caused 42 deaths and $ 25 million in damage ( 1984 USD ) . After crossing the country , Domoina strengthened in the Mozambique Channel to peak 10 minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On January 28 , the storm made landfall in southern Mozambique , and slowly weakened over land . Domoina crossed into Swaziland and later eastern South Africa before dissipating on February 2 .
In Mozambique , Domoina dropped heavy rainfall in the capital Maputo that accounted for 40 % of the annual total . Floods in the country destroyed over 50 small dams and left widespread crop damage just before the summer harvest . Later , the rains caused the worst flooding in over 20 years in Swaziland , which damaged or destroyed more than 100 bridges . Disrupted transport left areas isolated for several days . In South Africa , rainfall peaked at 950 mm ( 37 in ) , which flooded 29 river basins , notably the Pongola River which altered its course after the storm . Flooding caused the Pongolapoort Dam to reach 87 % of its capacity ; when waters were released to maintain the structural integrity , additional flooding occurred in Mozambique , forcing thousands to evacuate . Throughout the region , Domoina caused widespread flooding that damaged houses , roads , and crops , leaving about $ 199 million in damage . There were 242 deaths in southeastern Africa .
= = Meteorological history = =
In January and February 1984 , conditions were favorable for tropical cyclogenesis in the southwest Indian Ocean , including warmer than normal sea surface temperatures and an active monsoon trough . On January 16 , a spiral area of convection persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar , associated with the intertropical convergence zone . That day , it organized enough to warrant a satellite @-@ based Dvorak rating of T2.5 , prompting the Réunion Meteorological Service to name it Domoina . Around that time , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) estimated winds of about 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Domoina initially tracked to the west @-@ northwest , passing near Tromelin Island on January 18 . Around that time , the storm had begun moving to the southwest , and MFR estimated that it weakened to tropical depression status . On January 19 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began warning on Domoina , designating it Tropical Cyclone 14S . The same day , MFR again upgraded Domoina into a moderate tropical storm . On January 21 , the storm made landfall just south of Tamatave in southeastern Madagascar .
While crossing Madagascar on a westward trajectory , Domonia weakened ; JTWC estimated the winds decreased to 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , after earlier estimating winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) before landfall . On January 23 , the storm emerged into the Mozambique Channel near Belo , and due to a ridge to the north , it resumed its southwest motion . Domoina executed two small loops off the western coast of Madagascar while progressing generally southwestward . On January 25 , MFR estimated that Domonia attained peak 10 minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) near Europa Island ; this made it a severe tropical storm . Two days later , the JTWC estimated peak 10 minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Early on January 28 , Domonia made a second landfall on southeastern Mozambique near peak intensity . It slowly weakened over land while moving across southern Mozambique . The JTWC discontinued advisories on January 29 when the storm was near the border of Mozambique and Swaziland . The next day , Domonia crossed into Swaziland and subsequently into eastern South Africa , weakening into a tropical depression while passing near Durban . At around that time , the system was dissipating , although MFR continued tracking Domonia until February 2 , when it dissipated just offshore the east coast of South Africa .
= = Impact = =
Throughout its path , Domoina left thousands of people homeless , and caused widespread flooding due to drawing moisture from the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique channel . The rains led to rivers bursting their banks , which isolated tens of thousands of people . In the months before Domoina struck , dry conditions persisted across southeastern Africa .
Crossing Madagascar as a moderate tropical storm , Domoina dropped rainfall along its path , reaching 98 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 89 in ) in Mahanoro on the east coast and 166 @.@ 8 mm ( 6 @.@ 57 in ) in Maintirano along the west coast , both over a period of 24 hours . In the latter city , a station recorded winds of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The storm caused heavy damage in Marovoay , which was later affected by Cyclone Kamisy . Domoina was the third storm to strike the country in a six @-@ week period , after cyclones Andry and Caboto . The three storms collectively caused 42 deaths and $ 25 million in damage , much of it from crop damage .
As Domoina made its final landfall in Mozambique , it dropped heavy rainfall reaching 430 mm ( 17 in ) in the town of Goba over a five @-@ day period . Rainfall in the capital Maputo , reaching 300 mm ( 12 in ) over two days , was about 40 % of the annual total . After flooding occurred further south in South Africa , waters were released from the Pongolapoort Dam without warning . This caused many farmers to drown in southern Mozambique . Officials later advised residents along the Maputo River to evacuate to higher grounds , and thousands had to leave their houses . The storm flooded the Maputo , Umbeluzi , Incomati river basins , causing widespread power outages . The storm left the capital Maputo without clean water for several days after a pumping station was damaged , and the main harbor in the city was closed . Also in the city , the storm downed hundreds of trees , wrecked roofs , and damaged houses ; about 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless nationwide . The storm damaged 28 pumping stations nationwide and destroyed over 50 small dams . Floods affected the railroad connecting Maputo to South Africa , disrupted the construction of a dam , and damaged portions of a bridge near Boane . Transport was disrupted in the northern and southern portion of the country . There was widespread crop damage in Mozambique , affecting 350 @,@ 000 farmers , and flooding about 250 @,@ 000 ha ( 620 @,@ 000 acres ) of fields . After an extended drought , many farmers had moved closer to river beds , making their fields more vulnerable . About 119 @,@ 000 tons of fruits , vegetables , and other crops were wrecked , consisting of much of the summer crop , and about 5 @,@ 000 cattle died . About 49 @,@ 000 people lost everything they owned . In the country , the storm caused 109 fatalities , and damage was estimated at $ 75 million .
Later , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Swaziland , reaching 906 mm ( 35 @.@ 7 in ) at Piggs Peak ; there , rainfall reached 615 mm ( 24 @.@ 2 in ) in a one @-@ day period . These were the heaviest rainfall totals on record in the country . Described as the worst flooding in over 20 years , the precipitation increased levels along most rivers in the country , some of which rose 30 m ( 98 ft ) in a few hours . The floods washed out or damaged over 100 bridges , and two railways had cuts in their lines . The floods closed at least 20 major roads and the country 's primary airport . Most schools nationwide were also closed during the storm . There were initial difficulties in determining the extent of the damage due to cut communications and disrupted transportation . For several days , southeastern Swaziland was only accessible by air travel , while rural parts of the country lost access to fresh water . Thousands of livestock died during the storm , and thousands of acres of croplands were flooded . About 10 @,@ 000 citrus trees were destroyed , and crop damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 5 million . About 500 people were left homeless in the small nation , after many homes were damaged or destroyed . Schools and health clinics were also damaged . The storm 's high winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving power outages . Overall damage was estimated at $ 54 million , of which $ 47 @.@ 5 million from infrastructure damage , and Domoina killed 73 people in the country .
While Domoina was moving through South Africa , it drew an area of moisture from the northeast , which produced heavy rainfall that peaked at 950 mm ( 37 in ) between Richards Bay and Sodwana Bay . Totals of over 700 mm ( 28 in ) were reported along the upper Umfolozi , Mkuze , Pongola and middle Usutu and Komati rivers , and along the upper and lower Ingwavuma river . Precipitation spread as far south as Durban , but did not penetrate far into the center of the country . An area of about 107 @,@ 000 km2 ( 41 @,@ 000 sq mi ) received 370 mm ( 15 in ) of rainfall . Along the Umfolozi River , a discharge rate of 16 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 565 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) was recorded , which was three times the rate of a 100 year flood . The river avulsed , or changed its course , near where it met with the Msunduzi River . High rains in the mountains caused the largest flood to date along the Pongola River . The floodplain downstream of the Pongolapoort Dam was inundated to where the Pongola met the Ututu River , which filled many pans – dry lakes – in the region . Along 29 river locations in eastern South Africa , river heights were estimated to have been 1 in 50 year events . The river flooding moved sediment along many banks , and in one location the sediment reached 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) in length . Due to the widespread flooding and the remoteness of the worst affected areas , there were minimal measurements on the river flow along the Pongola , although above the Pongolapoort dam , levels reached 13 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 460 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , which were 18 times higher than the previous record highest . There had been a planned release of water from the Pongolapoort Dam in March 1984 to provide adequate water to the floodplain , but Domoina prevented this from occurring . The dam had its highest hydrology on January 31 and reached 87 % of its capacity . Waters from the dam were released on February 2 to prevent the dam from exceeding capacity . With the future threat of Cyclone Imboa , dam levels continued to drop until returning to normal by February 16 , despite requests to hold the water to prevent further crop damage .
Near the South Africa border with Swaziland , flooding stranded about 80 @,@ 000 people on tribal lands . One road in the country was converted into a makeshift landing strip to allow helicopters and planes to drop off emergency supplies . A period of heavy rain flooded Umfolozi River , which destroyed a rail bridge near Mtubatuba and a bridge crossing highway N2 . The floods were so strong that they washed a boat from Lake St. Lucia to a point 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) away . At the lake , the floods washed away a dredge and severely damaged a nearly @-@ finished canal from the lake to the Umfolozi River . Widespread crop damage occurred along the Umfolozi river plains after being covered by up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of sediment . The South African Weather Bureau considered Domoina as the " first tropical cyclone in recent history to have caused flooding and extensive damage . " Nationwide , the storm caused 60 deaths and damaged the properties of 500 @,@ 000 people , causing R100 million ( 1984 ZAR , $ 70 million 1984 USD ) .
= = Aftermath = =
In Mozambique , workers assisted people in moving to higher grounds following flooding . Members of the Mozambique Red Cross helped distribute food and clothing to the affected residents , and planes helped drop off supplies to residents in isolated areas .
On January 31 , the government of Swaziland declared a state of emergency and requested assistance from the international community . South Africa provided two helicopters to the country to survey the affected areas . Various countries and United Nations agencies provided about $ 1 @.@ 01 million in cash and supplies to Swaziland . The United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs provided $ 20 @,@ 000 . The European Economic Community donated about $ 80 @,@ 000 to purchase tents and blankets . The Lutheran World Federation donated $ 20 @,@ 000 in cash , along with generators and blankets , while World Vision International sent $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash . Within a week , workers reopened most major roads to travel , and by February 24 , most roads were reopened . Workers also quickly restored the downed power lines . Relief items were distributed by both air and road in the weeks following the storm , coordinated by the Swaziland Red Cross and assisted by volunteer organizations . In part due to Domoina as well as the previously occurring drought , the economy of Swaziland stagnated through 1985 .
Following the storm in South Africa , workers restored the original course of the Umfolozi River after it had moved . Officials later purchased a new dredge to remove sediment from Lake St. Lucia , and the canal connecting the lake to the Umfolozi River was later finished . Local governments coordinated relief efforts in the country , including delivering food and providing shelter for those who lost their homes . The South African Red Cross provided food to storm victims , many of whom were beneficiaries of the food program during the extended drought . The South African government declared KwaZulu Natal as a disaster areas . The country 's military provided 25 helicopters to rescue flood victims and donated 3 @,@ 000 tents . The government later authorized $ 85 million to fund repairing damaged rails and roads . The American government donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the country , mostly to purchase supplies . West Germany also donated about $ 231 @,@ 000 , mostly for the feeding program .
= Tales of Destiny 2 =
Tales of Destiny 2 ( Japanese : テイルズ オブ デスティニー 2 , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Desutinī Tsū ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game , co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and Telenet Japan , and published by Namco . It is the fourth main entry in the Tales series of video games , and a direct sequel to 1997 's Tales of Destiny . It released on PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) in November 2002 in Japan , March 2003 in South Korea and August 2003 in China . The overseas versions were published by Sony Computer Entertainment . An updated port for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , developed by Alfa System , was released in February 2007 , and March of the same year in South Korea . This version was published by Namco Bandai Games . Neither version has received a western release .
The story , set eighteen years after Destiny , follows Kyle Dunamis , the son of the previous game 's protagonists Stahn Aileron and Rutee Katrea . Shortly after meeting a mysterious girl named Reala while trying to save Rutee 's orphanage from bankruptcy , Kyle is drawn into conflict with Barbatos , a cruel warrior responsible for killing Stahn , and the machinations of Elraine , a religious leader seeking to bring peace to mankind . The gameplay uses two @-@ dimensional character sprites and backgrounds , and the battle system is a revamped version of the series ' trademark Linear Motion Battle System .
Development began after the release of Tales of Eternia in 2000 , taking approximately two years to complete , and was the last Tales game to be developed by the original Wolfteam before it became Namco Tales Studio . The scenario was handled by Japanese writing company Gekko , the characters were designed by Mutsumi Inomata , and the music was composed by Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura . The PSP port was made after a similar port of Eternia met with commercial success . It was a highly anticipated game , and Namco promoted it heavily in the months prior to release . The game sold over 700 @,@ 000 units by January 2003 , and received critical acclaim from both Japanese and western critics .
= = Gameplay = =
Tales of Destiny 2 is a role @-@ playing video game featuring two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) sprite characters navigating both 2D environments such as dungeons and towns , and a three @-@ dimensional overworld . The overworld features environmental effect such as fog . In towns found across the world , non @-@ playable characters provide both information relevant to the story and world , and provide items and equipment through shops ; merchants accept the Tales series currency , Gald , which can be obtained from battle or treasure chests on the dungeon and town maps .
Throughout the game , visiting certain individuals in towns will activate optional events and side @-@ quests . Prisons , sewers , forests and story @-@ centric locations serve as dungeon locales ; these areas are scattered with treasure chests containing rare items , some of which cannot be purchased in stores . Dungeons frequently contain puzzles and mazes , such as boxes that must be reoriented to form a bridge , which must be cleared to advance ; the " Sorcerer 's Ring " , a relic that shoots tiny plumes of fire , often plays a central role in puzzle resolution , along with the " Sorcerer 's Scope " , a tool that reveals hidden objects . Aspects of characters such as their current experience level , equipment and money levels , party organization , and assigned abilities . Cooking , a recurring series mechanic , is present : characters learn and cook various recipes using a selection of six ingredients which grant boons upon them such as restoring health . Optional voiced conversations between characters called Skits can be activated when they appear in random locations or after story events . Mini @-@ games within the world include acting as a waiter in a restaurant , and battle arenas where players fight against random enemies .
The game 's battle system is the series ' trademark Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS ) , which places up to four playable characters on a 2D plain against enemies in real @-@ time combat similar to a beat ' em up . The version used in Destiny 2 is called the " Trust and Tactical LMBS " . When entering battle , the camera follows characters , zooming in and out depending on their distance from an enemy . During battle , one character is controlled at any one time , with the others being governed by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) : the AI can be customized to behave in various ways , such as adjusting their aggression level , and balancing magical and physical attacks . In addition to real @-@ time commands given in battle , the player can issue commands to all characters by pulling up the battle menu and issuing commands . A character 's performance in battle is governed by their current level of Spirit Points ( SP ) : the more SP a character has , the higher their defensive and offensive abilities . A character 's health is represented by Health Points ( HP ) . Three types of attack are available and activated progressively depending on the number of hits an enemy has taken : a standard attack , named attacks called Artes , and special high @-@ damage attacks called Mystic Artes . At the end of each battle , its performance is assessed an given a Grade , which can sometimes trigger a bonus such as learning new skills . Some bonuses are also carried over into the next playthrough . In addition to the single @-@ player functions , a local multiplayer option is available , supporting up to four players : when additional controllers with players are connected to the system , AI functions for selected characters are disabled , switching to manual control . An auto @-@ battle option , which has the game 's AI controlling all characters during a fight , is also available .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Destiny 2 is set on an unnamed world that was struck by a comet 1000 years before , triggering a prolonged winter . Desperate for heat and energy , the people used a type of gemstone brought by the comet called Lens to create a floating city called Dycroft . The people of Dycroft eventually dominated the people below , which led to a conflict between the two realms known as the War of Heaven and Earth . Eventually , a team of defecting Dycroft scientists developed sentient weapons called Swordians that turned the tide of war in the surface people 's favor . This conflict reemerged eighteen years prior during the events of Tales of Destiny . The Swordians found new masters to wield them against Dycroft 's vengeful ruler , including Stahn Aileron , Rutee Katrea and Leon Magnus . Stahn 's group succeeds in restoring peace , but the world was damaged by Dycroft 's weapons , and Leon was killed after he betrayed the group . Destiny 2 begins eighteen years after the events of Tales of Destiny .
= = = Characters = = =
Kyle Dunamis ( カイル ・ デュナミス , Kairu Dyunamisu ) is the main protagonist of Destiny 2 . Kyle is very much like his father , Stahn , although Kyle remembers little of his father . His defining personality trait is an aversion towards peacefulness and boredom , always seeking out new things to try . Kyle is voiced by Jun Fukuyama .
Reala ( リアラ , Riara ) is the main female protagonist , appearing suddenly and holding an air of mystery . While she bears an overly @-@ strong sense of responsibility , she is also bright and highly inquisitive . She is one of the two avatars of the goddess Fortuna ( フォルトゥナ , Forutuna ) . Reala is voiced by Ryoka Yuzuki .
Loni Dunamis ( ロニ ・ デュナミス , Roni Dyunamisu ) is a young man raised alongside Kyle , being considered a brother by him . A member of the Atamoni Shindan , the military branch of the Order of Atamoni , he has a firm and steady personality that balances against Kyle 's hotheadedness . Loni is voiced by Toshihiko Seki .
Judas ( ジューダス , Jūdasu ) is a mysterious swordsman who appears before Kyle when the latter is in a pinch . A genius swordsman , he wears a beast skull as a mask to hide his face . His true identity is that of Leon Magnus . Judas is voiced by Hikaru Midorikawa .
Nanaly Fletch ( ナナリー ・ フレッチ , Nanarī Furetchi ) is a master archer who opposes the Order of Atamoni . In direct contrast to the Order , she believes that happiness should be won by people rather than given to them . Nanaly is voiced by Tomoko Kawakami .
Harold Belselius ( ハロルド ・ ベルセリオス , Harorudo Beruseriosu ) is a famous scientist , and the original creator of the Swordians . Something of a mad scientist , she shares Kyle 's love of adventure and has a passionate curiosity about the world . Harold is voiced by Akiko Hiramatsu .
Elrane ( エルレイン , Erurein ) is the main antagonist of Destiny 2 . Regarded as a living goddess due to her powers , she has an outwardly meek demeanor and espouses bringing happiness to all mankind . She is one of the two avatars of the goddess Fortuna . Elrane is voiced by Yoshiko Sakakibara .
Barbatos Goetia ( バルバトス ・ ゲーティア , Barubatosu Gētia ) is one of the primary antagonists of Destiny 2 . A veteran of the War of Heaven and Earth , he was forgotten by history and consequently holds a burning desire to be recognized . His chief traits are an intense desire to live and a callous disregard for others . Barbatos is voiced by Norio Wakamoto .
= = = Plot = = =
Kyle Dunamis , the adventurous son of Stahn and Rutee , lives at an orphanage run by Rutee . With the orphanage on the brink of bankruptcy , Kyle defies his mother to go on a quest to search for funds , together with his best friend Loni . Finding a giant Lens , a mysterious girl named Reala emerges from it , claiming to be in search of a hero . Believing that he should become a hero like his parents , he follows Reala so he can prove himself as such . Finding the Lens missing , officials from the Order of Atamoni arrest Kyle and Lori for its theft . They escape with the help of the masked swordsman Judas . After this , Kyle becomes embroiled in the attempts by a man named Barbatos Goetia to kill those who accompanied his parents , eventually learning that Barbatos also killed Stahn when Kyle was five . During his quest , a series of Lens thefts is orchestrated by Elrane , the Holy Woman of the Order of Atamoni who is capable of performing miracles using Lens and seeks to bring happiness to the world through uniting it under a single religion .
During a great theft of Lens , Elrane attacks the group directly , sending them ten years into the future . In this period , the world is beset by conflict between the Order of Atamoni and factions wanting independence from its control . During their travels there , they are joined by Nanaly Fletch . While in this time period , Reala becomes conflicted about who she is , and the group encounters a figure known as the Goddess Fortuna . During this encounter , it is revealed that Elrane and Reala are avatars of Fortuna , designed to save the world and bring happiness to humanity in different ways . Due to her unstable emotions , Reala accidentally transports Nanaly into their time . Feeling guilty because of this , Reala confronts Elrane alone and is captured . Traveling to the ship where the stolen Lens is stored , the group confront Barbatos and Elrane , successfully defeating them and saving Reala . During this confrontation , they learn that " Judas " is in fact the resurrected Leon , who was brought back to life by Elrane just as Barbatos was , but rebelled against her when he knew her full plan .
However , their efforts result in the destruction of the ship , and Reala uses the energy of the Lens to send them through time again . They appear in an alternate timeline where the War of Heaven and Earth was won by the underground dwellers , and Barbatos and Elrane are hailed as saviors . Traveling back to the time of the War , when the initial interference was caused , they ally with Harold Belselius to return history to its proper state . While they are successful and Barbatos is felled , Elrane continues to distort history in her favor . Confronting her one last time , she is defeated , then they are confronted by Fortuna . Defeating her , the group realize that the only way to correct the distorted timeline is to destroy the Lens that forms Fortuna 's life source , which will mean Reala will be erased from history . When Reala comes to terms with this and gives her blessing , Kyle destroys Fortuna 's Lens , which erases all the changes wrought by her agents and returns the timeline to its original state , sending everyone back to their original times and conditions . In the corrected timeline , Kyle , now raised and trained by both Stahn and Rutee , goes on a journey to the temple where he first met Reala . While her Lens is missing , Kyle 's strong will succeeds in bringing Reala back into existence and restoring his memories of her .
= = Development = =
Tales of Destiny 2 was co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and Telenet Japan . Development began after work had finished on Tales of Eternia , taking roughly two years to complete . During its early development , the staff consisted of thirty people : when in full development , a team of between sixty and a hundred worked on it . It was developed under the working title Tales of X. After Eternia was completed , the development team considered what to do next , whether a new standalone game or a sequel . As Destiny had a large amount of lore created for it and there were story possibilities for a next generation of characters , it was decided to make a sequel to Destiny . This would be the first direct sequel in the Tales series . Because of the state of the world as it would have evolved after the events of Destiny , it was decided to set the events eighteen years after them and focus on the son of Destiny 's protagonist . The key themes for the story were " fate " and " happiness " . For the story , the team wanted to effectively portray Kyle 's journey to becoming a hero . For this , they drew on themes of " learning from the teacher " as seen in films such as Star Wars and Raiders of the Lost Ark . To create the atmosphere , the team worked at balancing elements of reality and fantasy . The story and script was handled by Japanese scenario company Gekko . Two separate scripts were created for the main story and additional elements such as skits . Both scripts were quite large .
Character designs were created by Mutsumi Inomata . A key element of the designs was the variation of time periods many characters came from . To make the character sprites as close as possible to the original artwork , the team took Inomata 's artwork and turned them into 2D " dot @-@ by @-@ dot " sprite pictures . This gave the sprites roughly four times the detail of most environments . They then built the world around the sprites . The sprite details sometimes caused problems , as they would appear larger than the environments when the camera zoomed in . The animated cutscenes were created by anime company Production I.G. The game 's opening was the longest ever created for a Tales game up to that point . While many contemporary PS2 role @-@ playing games were being developed around three @-@ dimensional characters , Destiny 2 used two @-@ dimensional sprites for its characters . Part of the reason behind this was that the development team wanted to create the " ultimate 2D RPG " . As opposed to previous Tales games , where gameplay development was focused on the battle system , the development leads requested that the gameplay should be " waste @-@ free and strategic " . The Grade system and new skill customizing elements , later staples of the series , were also developed . The game 's artificial intelligence was markedly improved , the combat system was made both more elaborate and more user @-@ friendly , and health and magic systems were adjusted . The PlayStation 2 hardware enabled the expansion of mini @-@ games , the improvement of the game 's graphics , and the incorporation of advanced interactive elements on the world map .
= = = Audio = = =
The music was composed by regular series composers Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura . Sakuraba primarily worked on the battle themes and arrangements of previous themes , while Tamura handled selected boss battle tracks and created Reala 's theme . They were able to create more tracks with greater detail to them due to the expanded storage capacities of the PS2 . As with previous games , a licensed theme song was created by a Japanese artist for the game 's opening . For Destiny 2 , the theme song was " Key to My Heart " from the album Fairy Tale , by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Mai Kuraki . Its lyrics were designed to " express the world " of Destiny 2 . Arrangements of " Key to My Heart " were featured in the soundtrack . Unlike previous Tales games , where voice work was recorded out of order , the voice work was recorded in order of the game 's events to add dramatic weight to the performances . This consequently created difficulties with scheduling and put an added strain on the actors .
= = Release = =
Destiny 2 was announced in February 2002 at a special conference about future developments and games for the platform . It was the first Tales title to receive a numbered designation in Japan . As with previous Tales games , it featured a characteristic genre name : " RPG to Release Destiny " ( 運命を解き放つRPG , Unmei wo tokihanatsu RPG ) . To promote the game , Namco created a themed PlayStation 2 memory card . In addition , a special competition was organized where the top @-@ tier prizes were copies of the script books for Destiny 2 autographed by the main characters ' voice actors . As a pre @-@ order bonus , a special limited edition DVD featuring interviews with the voice cast was created . In addition , a downloadable ring tone based on the theme song and screen displays featuring the main characters was created for mobile phones of the time and released in 2003 . The game was released on November 28 , 2002 in Japan . It was celebrated with an official launch event , featuring interviews with the production staff and cast . Destiny 2 would be the last Tales game developed by Wolfteam prior to its acquisition by Namco in 2003 and rebranding as Namco Tales Studio .
Destiny 2 was later ported to the PSP . Development began in 2005 , after the commercial success of Eternia 's PSP port . The port was developed by Alfa System , a frequent collaborator with the Tales team on spin @-@ off titles . The project was directed by Yoshito Higuchi , who had worked on Destiny 2 and became the director of the GameCube port of Tales of Symphonia . While the earlier port of Destiny made significant changes , the Destiny 2 port was meant to preserve and add onto the content of the original . Some of the adjustments included minor tweaks to gameplay , adjustments to fit the PSP 's control layout , and adjusting the graphics from 4 : 3 to 16 : 9 screen ratio . A new dungeon featuring added story elements was also created . It was released on February 15 , 2007 .
Outside Japan , Destiny 2 was released in China and South Korea by Sony Computer Entertainment in 2003 : the Korean version was released on March 27 , and the Chinese version was released on August 14 . The game was going to be part of a world tour by Sony Computer Entertainment to promote the next generation of role @-@ playing games , but the tensions between America and Iraq at the time and the consequent risks of a terrorist attack caused them to cancel the trip . Asked at the launch event whether an overseas version of the game was being developed , producer Makoto Yoshizumi said he was " not certain " . The PSP port was released in South Korea by Namco Bandai Games 's local branch on March 5 , 2007 . Neither the original nor the port has been released in the west , making it one of three mainline Tales titles to remain exclusive to Japan .
= = Reception = =
Namco had high expectations for Destiny 2 , anticipating sales of 600 @,@ 000 units . During its debut week , Destiny 2 reached the top of Japanese gaming sales charts : according to different sources , it sold between just over 498 @,@ 000 ( Famitsu ) and under 558 @,@ 000 ( Dengeki ) units . For the next three weeks , it remained in second place on the charts behind Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire , accumulating sales of over 603 @,@ 000 . By January 2003 , the game had sold over 702 @,@ 000 units , becoming the eighth best @-@ selling game within that period . The PlayStation 2 version of Tales of Destiny 2 has shipped 977 @,@ 000 copies worldwide as of December 2007 , being the second most successful title in the series at the time . The PSP version sold 73 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , ranking second in weekly video games sales . By the following week , it had dropped to # 25 . By the end of 2007 , the game had sold just under 115 @,@ 000 units , reached 146th place in the five hundred top @-@ selling games of the year . In South Korea , the game reached # 10 in the country 's gaming sales charts . Worldwide shipments of the port as recorded by Namco have reached 129 @,@ 000 units .
Famitsu Weekly found the story enjoyable , though noted that those who had played Destiny would get more enjoyment out of it , and praised the voice acting . They also found the gameplay and pacing enjoyable , positively noting the option to auto @-@ battle . The game ranked as the 89th all @-@ time favorite game in a 2006 Famitsu readers poll . Japanese website Game Impress Watch found the story impressive , citing its use of time travel and the continued use of Destiny 's world and lore . The gameplay , mini @-@ games and customization options was also generally praised , with the reviewer recommending the title to players of the series . RPGFan 's Woojin Lee was also positive , praising the gameplay despite the very high encounter rate , and was pleased that an auto @-@ battle option was included . One point that received a more mixed response was the game 's music , with the exception of the opening song . In a preview for IGN , David Smith was generally positive about the game . While he disliked the art style and its low @-@ tech look compared to its hardware , he found the gameplay enjoyable and the opening parts of the story fairly relatable . He ended by hoping that Namco would put the effort into localizing the title .
= = = Additional media = = =
Multiple print adaptations have been made of Destiny 2 : these include one three @-@ volume comic anthology , a serialized comic adaptation originally released through Square Enix 's Gangan Comics and later collected into five volumes , and an eight @-@ volume yonkoma comic , and a second single @-@ edition yonkoma . Novel adaptations include a novel focusing on Nanaly called Tales of Destiny 2 : The Amber Wind , and mutlple light novels that told segments of the story from the point of view of different characters , particularly Judas . An illustration book featuring Inomata 's artwork for the game was released in March 2005 . A five @-@ part CD Drama adaptation was also developed , following the events of the game . The five volumes were released between April and August 2003 , under the umbrella titled Tales of Destiny 2 Drama CD .
= In Bloom =
For the 2013 film of the same name , see In Bloom ( 2013 film )
" In Bloom " is a song by American rock band Nirvana . Written by frontman Kurt Cobain , the song addresses people outside of the underground music community who did not understand the band 's message .
Nirvana made its first music video for an early version of " In Bloom " in 1990 ; however the song did not appear on a commercial release until the release of the group 's second album , Nevermind , in 1991 . " In Bloom " became the fourth and final single from the album in late 1992 . It was accompanied by a new music video which parodied musical performances of 1960s variety shows . The music video for " In Bloom " won Best Alternative Video at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1993 .
= = Background and recording = =
Nirvana first played the song the night before it was demoed . Bassist Krist Novoselic recalled that it " originally sounded like a Bad Brains song . Then Kurt turned it into a pop song " . Cobain went home and reworked the song , playing the revised version of it over the phone to Novoselic . The band recorded " In Bloom " with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin during April 1990 . The material recorded at Smart Studios was intended for the group 's second album for the independent record label Sub Pop . The song originally had a bridge section that Vig removed . Novoselic said that after the band recorded the song , Vig cut out the bridge from the 16 @-@ track master tape with a razor blade and threw it in the garbage . The songs from these sessions were placed on a demo tape that circulated amongst the music industry , generating interest in the group among major record labels .
After signing to DGC Records , Nirvana began recording its second album Nevermind in May 1991 . " In Bloom " was one of the first songs the band recorded during the album sessions at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California ; Vig thought it would be good to start recording a song previously recorded at Smart Studios . The arrangements for " In Bloom " and the other songs previously recorded with Vig in 1990 were largely unchanged ; the recently hired drummer Dave Grohl stayed mostly with what his predecessor Chad Channing had recorded , but added more power and precision to the recording . Cobain sang progressively " harder " during the recording of the song , which made it difficult for Vig to balance the volume levels between the verses and choruses . Vig recalled that he had to change the input level " on the fly " and hoped that Cobain would not " change the phrasing or do something different " while recording .
Cobain chose not to overdub a harmony vocal part during the Smart Studios sessions , possibly due to time constraints . During the Nevermind sessions , Vig had Grohl sing harmonies on the song . Grohl had difficulty hitting the proper notes , but ultimately was able to sing what Vig wanted . Vig often had to trick Cobain , who was averse to performing multiple takes , into recording additional takes for overdubs on the record . The producer convinced Cobain to double @-@ track his vocals on " In Bloom " by telling him , " John Lennon did it . " After doubling Cobain 's vocals , Vig decided he might as well double Grohl 's and had the drummer record an additional track of backing harmonies .
= = Composition = =
Like many Nirvana songs , " In Bloom " shifts back and forth between quiet verses and loud choruses . Cobain uses a Mesa Boogie guitar amplifier for the verses , and during the chorus he switches to a Fender Bassman amp ( suggested by Vig ) for a heavier , double @-@ tracked fuzztone sound . The rhythm section of Novoselic and Grohl kept its parts simple ; Grohl stated it was " an unspoken rule " to avoid unnecessary drum fills , while Novoselic said he felt his role was about " serving the song " . During the choruses , vocalist Cobain and drummer Grohl harmonize while singing " He 's the one / Who likes all our pretty songs / And he likes to sing along / And he likes to shoot his gun / But he knows not what it means " . The song 's intro reappears at the end of each chorus .
Cobain 's lyrics address the people outside of the underground music scene that began showing up at Nirvana shows after the release of the group 's debut album Bleach . Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad wrote , " But remarkably , [ the song 's lyrics ] translated even better to the mass popularity the band enjoyed . " Regarding the song 's chorus , Azerrad commented , " The brilliant irony is that the tune is so catchy that millions of people actually do sing along to it . " In his biography of Cobain , Heavier Than Heaven , Charles R. Cross asserted that the song was a " thinly disguised portrait " of Cobain 's friend Dylan Carlson .
= = Release and reception = =
" In Bloom " was released as the fourth single from Nevermind on November 30 , 1992 . The single was only released commercially in the United Kingdom ; promotional copies were released in the United States . The 7 @-@ inch vinyl and cassette editions of the single contained a live version of " Polly " as a B @-@ side , while the 12 @-@ inch vinyl and CD versions featured a performance of " Sliver " ; both songs were recorded at the same December 28 , 1991 concert . The single peaked at number 28 on the British singles chart . While lacking an American commercial release , the song charted at number five on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart .
Nirvana biographer Everett True wrote an uncharacteristically unfavorable review in Melody Maker , accusing the single of being a cash @-@ in on Nevermind 's success . " Whoop whoop bloody whoop " , he wrote , " Forgive me if I don 't sound too thrilled . This release is stretching even my credulity beyond repair . Like , milking a still @-@ breathing ( sacred ) cow , or what ? Badly inferior live versions of ' Polly ' and ' Sliver ' on the flip don 't help matters either . " In 2011 Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song number 415 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .
= = Music video = =
Nirvana first made a music video for " In Bloom " in 1990 for the Sub Pop Video Network Program VHS compilation ( 1991 ) . The recording of the song featured in the video is the version recorded during the Smart Studios sessions . The Sub Pop video features the band walking around various parts of lower Manhattan including the South Street Seaport , the Lower East Side , and Wall Street . While filming the video , Novoselic shaved his head as penance for a bad performance the band gave in New York City . This caused discontinuity in the final cut ; shots of the band feature the bassist with and without hair throughout the video . This video was later compiled on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out ( 2004 ) . The audio of this version of " In Bloom " was later released on CD2 of the 20th Anniversary Deluxe Edition of the Nevermind album in 2011 .
The second video , created to accompany the 1992 single release that was recorded at Sound City Studios , was directed by Kevin Kerslake , who had previously directed the band 's videos for " Come as You Are " and " Lithium " . Cobain 's original concept for the video told the story of a young girl born into a Ku Klux Klan family who one day realizes how evil they are . His concept was too ambitious , so Cobain instead decided to parody musical performances by bands on early 1960s variety shows , such as The Ed Sullivan Show . The humorous tone of the video was a result of Cobain being " so tired for the last year of people taking us so seriously . . . I wanted to fuck off and show them that we have a humorous side to us " . Kerslake filmed the video on old Kinescope cameras , and the band improvised its performance . The video begins with an unnamed variety show host ( played by Doug Llewelyn , former host of The People 's Court ) introducing Nirvana to an in @-@ studio crowd of screaming teenagers ; their non @-@ stop screaming is heard throughout the duration of the song . The band members , whom the host refers to as " thoroughly all right and decent fellas " , perform dressed in Beach Boys @-@ style outfits ; Cobain wears glasses that blurred his vision , while Novoselic cut his hair short and liked it so much he kept it that way afterwards . As the video progresses , the band destroys the set and its instruments .
Three different edits of the Kerslake video were made . Cobain intended to replace the first version of the video after a period with a new take featuring the band wearing dresses instead of suits . MTV 's alternative rock show 120 Minutes insisted on premiering the video , but Cobain felt the program would not properly convey the humor of the " pop idol " version . Instead , a new edit was produced which contained shots of the band in both suits and dresses . The original edit of the video never aired . This video won the award for Best Alternative Video at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards , and topped the music video category in the 1992 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Kurt Cobain .
7 " , cassette
" In Bloom " – 4 : 17
" Polly " ( live ) – 2 : 47
12 " , CD
" In Bloom " – 4 : 17
" Sliver " ( live - Del Mar - 28 @.@ 12 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 06
" Polly " ( live - Del Mar - 28 @.@ 12 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 47
= = Chart positions = =
= = Covers = =
Sturgill Simpson recorded a country cover in 2016 which received air play on alternative stations .
= Lady in the Lake trial =
The Lady in the Lake trial was a 2005 murder case in which Gordon Park ( 25 January 1944 – 25 January 2010 ) a retired teacher from Leece , near Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , Cumbria , England , was jailed for life for the murder of his first wife , Carol Ann Park , in 1976 .
Carol Park went missing on 17 July 1976 , and was never seen alive again by her family . In 1997 , her body was discovered by divers in Coniston Water and Gordon was arrested on suspicion of murder . The charges were subsequently dropped but in 2004 Gordon was arrested again and found guilty of his wife 's murder . The trial judge sentenced him to life imprisonment and recommended that he should serve a minimum of 15 years before being considered for parole . He was held at Garth prison , Leyland , Preston . In December 2007 he lodged an appeal against his conviction which was dismissed in November 2008 . On 25 January 2010 , he was found hanged in his cell , and pronounced dead at the scene .
The details of the murder are sketchy . Carol was killed due to blunt trauma to her face by means of some instrument , alleged in court to have been an ice axe . She was then bound with rope , using complex knots , weighed down with rocks and lead pipes and thrown overboard from a boat on Coniston Water . The body landed on an underwater ledge where it was later found by amateur divers . Had it been dropped a few metres further from the shore , it would have sunk to the much deeper bottom and probably never have been discovered .
There was a great deal of controversy surrounding the case . Gordon received much support from his family and friends and maintained his innocence . There was a large amount of local interest in the trial as shown by the sales of the local paper , the North @-@ West Evening Mail . Some claimed that much of the evidence against him could be discounted and there were vigils and petitions in attempts to free Gordon from prison and clear his name . The case featured prominently in the book No Smoke : The Shocking Truth About British Justice which outlined seven cases the author believed to be examples of innocent people being convicted of murder .
= = Case history = =
= = = Carol Park vanishes = = =
Prior to her disappearance , according to her friends , Carol was feeling depressed . She had talked of tracing her biological parents , as she was adopted . On 17 July 1976 , she went missing . Gordon claimed that she had left home for another man , and Carol had left their home in Leece twice before . It was for this reason , Gordon claimed , that he did not report her missing for six weeks . Carol was said to time her periods away from home to coincide with the school holidays . Gordon claimed that it wasn 't until she didn 't return in time to take up her job as a primary school teacher in September ( the start of the school term ) that he realised that there was a problem . At this time he reported her missing via his solicitor , and her family was informed . On the day she vanished , the family had been due to visit Blackpool on a day trip . However , Carol said she felt unwell and wanted to remain behind in bed . She was never seen alive again by her family . Gordon claimed he returned home to find Carol had left the house , leaving behind her wedding ring , and that there was no sign of a struggle . A missing persons enquiry was launched , but nothing came of it . This missing persons report was subsequently lost , and it was implied by some that it was because both Gordon and a senior police commander ( who , by the time the article was published , had died ) involved in the case were freemasons . This was refuted by Sandra Lean , who , in No Smoke , claimed that Gordon had never been a freemason . At the time , police told Gordon that , should a body be found , he would be the main suspect .
= = = Discovery of body and post mortem results = = =
On 13 August 1997 , amateur divers discovered Carol Park 's body , clad only in a nightdress , 75 feet down at the bottom of Coniston Water . She was nicknamed " the Lady in the Lake " by detectives after the 1943 detective novel by Raymond Chandler , The Lady in the Lake . The body had been wrapped in a pinafore dress , a canvas rucksack and plastic bags , tied with several knots , and weighed down with lead piping . Her eyes had been covered by plasters . It was later reported that the body had landed on an underwater ledge , and had it been thrown into the water a few metres farther from the land , it would probably never have been found .
Details of Carol 's death were revealed in the post mortem . There were severe injuries to the skull , and it was said that her face had been smashed by multiple blows . It was later found in court that the murder weapon had been an ice axe . The body was found to be in a foetal position , which suggested that the body had been dealt with within a few hours of death , before rigor mortis could settle in . It has since been said that the investigators failed to acknowledge that rigor mortis passes in a 24 ‑ to 48 ‑ hour time period , and that the body could feasibly have been trussed once rigor mortis had passed . Many unusual knots were used to tie the body , and the same knots were said to be used in Gordon Park 's house and boat . This was one of the key pieces of evidence used against Gordon in the trial .
= = = Gordon Park is arrested , but charges are dropped = = =
At the time of the discovery of the body , Gordon and his third wife , Jenny , were on a cycling holiday in France . They heard news of the discovery of the body , and are said to have seen footage of the police searching their house . On 24 August , they arrived home , and Gordon was arrested on suspicion of murder at 8.00am the next morning . He was charged with the murder of Carol Park , and remanded in Preston prison . However , after two weeks , his solicitors managed to persuade the court to grant him bail . On 6 January 1998 , the charges against Gordon were dropped due to lack of evidence . The Crown Prosecution Service released a statement saying-
After a conference with leading counsel and the police , a decision was taken , in agreement with all parties , that there was insufficient evidence for a realistic prospect of conviction .
Reportedly he told another inmate that " she deserved it " as had discovered his wife being unfaithful .
After the charges were dropped , Gordon said that he wished to " try to put all this , including the events of 21 years ago , behind me and try to return to my everyday life " . However , the fact that the charges were dropped angered Carol 's brother , Ivor Price , who said that he was disgusted by the way that Carol was portrayed in the proceedings , and talked of how Carol was not " someone who [ was ] cheap or had a string of lovers . "
= = = Gordon Park 's second arrest and trial = = =
Gordon was again arrested on 13 January 2004 . Police said at the time that the murder file had never been closed , and that the arrest followed new leads . These new leads were later reported to be a confession by Michael Wainwright , who claimed to have been a cellmate of Gordon 's during his short prison stay in 1997 . The police then revisited the site where the body was discovered , and found a piece of Westmorland green slate , a stone that matched the rocks that made up the wall of the family 's bungalow . The case was brought to trial at Manchester Crown Court , and lasted ten weeks . There was no single piece of evidence that pointed to Gordon indisputably , but the prosecution argued that when the evidence was placed together , it could only point at Park , and not a " mysterious stranger or secret lover " . Primarily , the case for the prosecution rested on circumstantial evidence , with the jury being asked to consider knots , rocks used to weight down the body and the ice axe , all linking Gordon Park to the crime . However , the statements of Michael Wainwright , and another of Gordon 's cellmates , who had learning difficulties , were also used as evidence by the prosecution . He was sentenced to be jailed for life , and told that he must serve at least 15 years . The judge said that he had taken into account the " terrible concealment " of the body .
Park claimed he and his wife had an open marriage
The court found that Gordon had first put his hands around Carol 's neck to strangle her , but that she had struggled . He then grabbed his ice axe , and brought it down with what was described as " considerable " force on Carol 's face , and smashed the front right @-@ hand side of her face , splitting open her head and smashing her teeth . He then did this again – the attack was described as consisting of " two big heavy , crushing blows " by pathologist Dr. Edwin Tapp . After this , Gordon dumped his wife 's body in the lake , and went back to his day @-@ to @-@ day life . During the trial , the prosecution speculated that Gordon had " drugged his wife , possibly on or around the 17 July , tied her up and stored her body in a chest freezer before dumping it in Coniston Water " .
= = = Gordon Park 's appeal = = =
On 6 December 2007 , it was reported that Clarion Solicitors , representing Gordon Park , said that they would launch an appeal . In a public statement , they said :
The appeal is based upon fresh evidence that was not available at the original trial , it is hoped the conviction will be quashed and a retrial ordered ... Upon his conviction , Mr Park 's family and friends launched a campaign to clear his name , claiming there was no single piece of evidence that pointed indisputably to him .
Representing Park in the appeal was solicitor Rob Rode and Simon Bourne @-@ Arton QC . They did not initially reveal what the new evidence was , only that it " was not available at the original trial " and that it was " very strong and significant " . Cumbria Constabulary released a statement saying :
Detectives from Cumbria Constabulary carried out a full and thorough investigation and the full facts of the case were presented to the CPS . The case was then tried by a jury , where Gordon Park was found guilty of the murder of Carol Park in 1976 .
In October , campaigners in support of Park said " We have in our possession , a signed , witnessed , statement , made this week , by one of the main prosecution witnesses , stating , ‘ police officers did put words in my mouth regarding Gordon Park ’ and ‘ the police told me what to say in court . ’ " Pastor George Harrison , acting as a spokesperson for the campaigners , also claimed that the appeals process was flawed and " rendered virtually impossible " due to costs .
In November 2008 , the appeal bid was rejected by three judges at the Court of Appeal in London . QC Simon Bourne , representing Park , had wanted to call an expert witness to challenge geological evidence used at the trial . Lord Justice Keene said that the new evidence did not raise " a reasonable doubt as to the safety of this conviction " , saying that the geological evidence was only a small element of the " strong circumstantial case against the applicant " . The new evidence presented by geologist Andrew Moncrief concerned the rock found with the body , said to have been from the wall outside the Parks ' house . Moncrief argued that the rock was " indistinguishable " from others in the area , and therefore " meaningless " .
= = = Gordon Park 's death = = =
On 25 January 2010 , the morning of Park 's 66th birthday , he was found hanged and unconscious in his prison cell in Garth Prison , and pronounced dead at the scene later in the morning . It is believed that a ligature was involved , and that Park inflicted the injuries upon himself . Park had not been assessed for the risk of suicide . Jeremy Park said that " we are all completely devastated and still believe his innocence 100 % . " Since his death , Carol Park 's family have tried to trace her ashes .
= = Review = =
On 26 November 2014 , it was confirmed that the Criminal Cases review Commission were examining the verdict , and new DNA evidence had come to light . Carol Park 's niece has accused Gordon Park 's family of ' clutching at straws ' and has argued : " Gordon went to the High Court of Appeal and lost , so what makes them think after all this time they could find any information that could overturn the court ’ s decision ? "
= = Case controversy = =
= = = Support for Park = = =
There was much local interest in the matter , as was shown by the sales of the local paper , the North @-@ West Evening Mail , when it ran special editions on the case . Park maintained his innocence , and received much support from his family and friends . His children , Jeremy and Rachael , appointed a new legal team in an attempt to find grounds for appeal . Jeremy also set up a website , www.freegordon.com , in a bid to raise awareness and support of the case for Gordon . Notable individuals offering support include Tony Benn , who said that there was considerable doubt about Gordon 's conviction , and that he would do all he can to help campaign for his freedom . Benn has been quoted as saying the case is a " grave injustice " . He is one of the over 300 people who have signed the " Gordon Park is Innocent " petition .
A year into Park 's life sentence , around 40 family members and friends held a vigil at Strangeways Prison , in a bid to raise awareness of " the fact that there is an innocent man in prison " . Another was held a year later , led by Jenny Park , and a third on the third anniversary of Park 's imprisonment . It was due to these vigils , claimed Evangelical Pastor George Harrison , that he was barred from visiting Park once he was transferred to Garth prison , in Lancashire . Other fronts for the campaign included an offer of £ 5 @,@ 000 for anyone providing evidence that lead to Gordon 's freedom . Included in this were planned adverts in the North @-@ West Evening Mail and leaflets to 20 @,@ 000 homes in the Furness area . However , this was being organised by Harrison , with whom Gordon and his third wife Jennifer stayed during the trial . Jeremy Park wrote to the North @-@ West Evening Mail to confirm that he wanted nothing to do with the reward , and that Harrison had no right to include his name , contact details or email address , or mention the freegordon website , in the adverts . Subsequently , Harrison claimed to have delivered 6 @,@ 000 booklets and leaflets in the Furness area .
Not everyone with a link to the family supported Gordon 's attempts to clear his name . Vanessa Fisher , Park 's adoptive daughter , appeared as a witness for the prosecution at the trial , telling of how her father would hit the children with " a stick or cane " and how he would not discuss his wife 's disappearance . She was not in court at the time of Park 's sentencing . Ivor Price , Carol 's brother , has spoken publicly at various times about his feelings about Gordon , and the Price family even sat away from Park 's supporters during the trial itself . In a statement shortly after Park 's guilty verdict , he said he had " no doubt " that justice had been done , and added that " Carol was a lovely , bubbly girl who was very clever and intelligent . What has been said about her has been heartbreaking . This was about one thing : justice for Carol . " Around the same time , Price said that although he believed Gordon at the time of Carol 's disappearance , upon the news of a body being found in Coniston Water , he " knew it was her , and knew who had done it " , expressing his conviction of Park 's guilt . More recently , he said that he was " distressed " by the ongoing campaign to free Park . After Park 's unsuccessful appeal , Price 's daughters , Kay Washford and Claire Gardener spoke to the North @-@ West Evening Mail , their parents having died before the appeal was rejected . Washford said " It is brilliant , an amazing result . Our mum and dad Ivor and Maureen Price fought hard for this justice and now they can rest in peace because justice has been done . We are so thankful for the result and so glad he will be staying in there . " She added that " It is finally justice for Carol . " The Park family and Cumbria Constabulary did not comment .
= = = Claims of flawed investigation = = =
The case was reported to be difficult for the prosecution , with the time between the murder and the trial making it extremely difficult to track potential witnesses . Keith Churchman , a police officer involved in the case , said that " the other difficulty was of course the body was taken away from the place where it was killed . " However , on top of the difficulties outlined by the police , the freegordon website detailed a number of what Park 's supporters claim are holes in the evidence used to convict him . A story about the problems with the evidence was published in the Daily Mail on October 12 , 2005 , at the request of Jeremy , though it was not written by him . Bob Woffenden , the author , later wrote an article for Inside Time , in December 2006 , talking about the trial and its controversies . Another similar article , pointing out holes in the evidence , was published in the Sunday Herald , on July 23 , 2006 .
= = = = Witnesses = = = =
The first problem with the evidence is the use of inmate informant evidence , such as that from Michael Wainwright , described as " the most disreputable [ form of evidence ] of all " , despite the fact that it was one of the key pieces of evidence in the trial . Glen Banks , a man with whom Park had briefly shared a cell and who claimed in court that Park had admitted his guilt to him , was described as " highly suggestible " , frequently changed his story , and also claimed that Park had admitted to killing Carol while sailing to Blackpool . Wainwright , the other informant , was said to bea heavy cannabis smoker and admitted to hearing voices . He claimed that Gordon had said that he went upstairs , found Carol in bed with another man , and killed her in a fit of rage . This seemed unlikely , as the Parks lived in a bungalow , and the supposed lover has never come forward . Park also claimed to have never actually met Wainwright .
Joan Young , who was the only first @-@ hand witness , is challenged in both articles . She came forward in 2004 , claiming that she had seen someone push something over the side of a boat on Coniston Water . This testimony is challenged , because so much time has passed and the fact that her husband saw nothing . However , he claims to have been reading his paper at the time . Also , it has been said that Young was too far away to identify the person in the boat , and that it couldn 't have been Carol Park 's body that was being dumped , as the Youngs were positioned so that the location Carol 's body was found would have been visibly blocked by an island . The article even points out that Young described a boat that appeared to be a cruiser yacht . Despite the fact that Gordon did own a large yacht in 1997 , in 1976 he owned only a 505 racing dinghy , which he sold later that year .
There are three witnesses who provide direct evidence supporting the idea that Park was innocent . The first , a neighbour , claims that they saw Carol at the bottom of her driveway . A second , another neighbour , claims that they saw an unidentified man in a Volkswagen Beetle in the Parks ' drive for twenty minutes . The presence of the unidentified car has never been accounted for . Around 6pm that night , another witness , a woman who knew Carol , saw her at Charnock Richard services . She had mentioned to her husband the fact that Carol had not greeted her , describing her as " snobby " .
= = = = Other evidence = = = =
The rock supposedly found in the lake , said to be taken from the Park 's garden wall , has been challenged as evidence in multiple places . Both articles say that the police diver had no memory of recovering it , and he claimed that if he had found it , he would have placed it back . Professor Kenneth Pye , a defense witness , said that there was no evidence that the rock had ever been on the lake bed at all . The article in the Sunday Herald also claims that the policeman said to be responsible for finding the rock fainted when it was produced in court , offering no explanation , but still denying that he ever found it .
Two more issues are addressed in the Sunday Herald article , but not in the Daily Mail article . The first is of the knots used to tie up Carol 's body – the knots on Carol 's body were mostly granny knots , of which there was no evidence that Gordon ever used – indeed during the trial he was specifically asked this , and he responded , " I do not use granny knots " . The granny knot is always a mistake , used by someone who should have used a reef knot ; those learning knot @-@ tying frequently make this mistake . Gordon Park , an experienced knot @-@ tyer , would likely never use a granny knot , and their frequent appearance on the body of Carol is strong evidence that it was not Gordon who tied them . The article also claims that the evidence of knots was irrelevant anyway , as climbers and yachtsmen were so common in the area . The other piece of evidence related to another rock taken from the lakebed , which had supposedly come from the Parks ' roof . However , the prosecution eventually admitted that Westmoreland green slate had been worked in the area for hundreds of years , and could have come from anywhere . The Herald also mentions the fact that the police files from the original missing persons inquiry into Carol Park had gone missing themselves , but does not draw any conclusions from this .
Both articles address the issue of who the killer could alternatively have been , and both of them mention Carol 's other lovers , and John Rapson , responsible for murdering Carol 's sister . Both of the articles mention that he was in the Barrow area around the time of the murder , but both of them are careful to point out that they are not accusing him of being the murderer .
= = = No Smoke = = =
On 1 May 2007 , No Smoke – The Shocking Truth About British Justice , by Sandra Lean , was published by Exposure Publishing . This book features the stories of seven high @-@ profile convicted murderers , including Park , Luke Mitchell and Sion Jenkins . The book claims that the expert testimonies in the Lady in the Lake trial were flawed , that certain evidence was withheld , and that the sensationalist reporting of the press at the time influenced the court by persuading them that Park was the only person who could have killed his wife .
= = Personal life of Gordon Park = =
Park worked as a village primary school teacher , but was retired by the time he was prosecuted for the murder of his first wife , Carol . Park had two children by Carol , Jeremy and Rachael . Gordon and Carol also adopted their niece Vanessa when she was 18 months old after her mother , Christie ( who was Carol 's sister ) , was murdered by her boyfriend in 1969 , aged 17 . This was described as a " rare and appalling coincidence " , but has been picked up on by the case for the defence since the trial .
Park remarried twice after Carol was murdered . His second wife was named Catherine , and his third , to whom he remained married until his death , is named Jenny . Park met all of his wives through teaching , Carol was a teacher at Askam Village School when she was killed . When rejecting Park 's request for appeal , Lord Justice Keene , Mr Justice Beatson and Mr Justice Macduff noted that both Gordon and Carol had had affairs in the year leading up to Carol 's disappearance .
Park 's interests included sailing and climbing , which was relevant to the case due to the knots used to tie his wife 's body . While in prison , Park spent time practising t 'ai chi , taking a maths degree and keeping fit .
In an exclusive written interview with The Westmorland Gazette nine months into his sentence , Park talked of how he had struggled with prison , saying : " They [ other inmates ] may smoke incessantly , play loud music , the TV or video games , rifle your drawers , steal , lie etc . There is not a lot you can do about it ... I watched a guy " chasing the dragon " . It frightened me to death . I had never seen that before . " He refused to answer detailed questions about the trial or case , but protested his innocence , saying " If I knew who killed my wife , how , where , why , then I would have said so . I did not know then . I do not know now . "
= Dover Athletic F.C. =
Dover Athletic Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Dover , Kent , England . The club was formed in 1983 after the dissolution of the town 's previous club , Dover F.C. , whose place in the Southern League was taken by the new club . In the 1989 – 90 season Dover Athletic won the Southern League championship , but failed to gain promotion to the Football Conference as the club 's ground did not meet the required standard . Three seasons later the team won the title again and this time gained promotion to the Conference , where they spent nine seasons before being relegated at the end of the 2001 – 02 season . The club was transferred to the Isthmian League Premier Division in 2004 , but another poor season and financial problems that had been mounting led the club to a further relegation . After three seasons were spent in the Isthmian League Division One South , the club won the championship and with it promotion back to the Premier Division , followed immediately the following season by another championship and with it promotion to Conference South . Five seasons were spent in that division with the club coming close to gaining promotion several times , reaching the play @-@ offs three times . In the 2013 – 14 season , Dover reached the play @-@ off final for the second successive season and defeated Ebbsfleet United to return to the Conference Premier after a twelve @-@ year absence .
The team usually wear white shirts and are consequently nicknamed the Whites . They have played at the Crabble Athletic Ground since the club 's formation . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was an appearance in the third round proper in the 2010 – 11 and 2014 – 15 seasons , while the best performance registered in the FA Trophy , the national competition for higher @-@ level non @-@ league clubs , was a run to the semi @-@ finals in the 1997 – 98 season .
= = History = =
Dover Athletic F.C. was formed in 1983 after the town 's previous club , Dover , folded due to its debts . The new club took Dover 's place in the Southern League Southern Division , with former Dover player Alan Jones as manager and a team consisting mainly of reserve players from the old club . Initially Athletic struggled , finishing second from bottom of the table in the 1984 – 85 season . In November 1985 Steve McRae , who had succeeded Jones a year earlier , was sacked and replaced by Chris Kinnear .
Under Kinnear the club 's fortunes turned round , with two top @-@ five finishes followed by the Southern Division championship , and with it promotion , in the 1987 – 88 season . The team started strongly in the Premier Division , finishing in sixth place at the first attempt , and then winning the championship in the 1989 – 90 season . The club was denied promotion to the Football Conference , however , as the Crabble Athletic Ground did not meet the standard required for that league . After finishing fourth and second in the subsequent two seasons , Dover won the title again in the 1992 – 93 season and this time were admitted to the Conference .
Although Dover finished in eighth place in their first season in the Conference , the following season saw the club struggling against relegation , and Kinnear was dismissed due to a combination of the team 's poor performances and his own personal problems . John Ryan was appointed as the club 's new manager , but his reign was a short one and he was dismissed when the club lost seven of its first eight matches in the 1995 – 96 season . The club then appointed former England international Peter Taylor as manager , but he was unable to steer the team away from the foot of the table , and Dover held onto their place in the Conference only because Northern Premier League runners @-@ up Boston United failed to submit their application for promotion before the required deadline .
Bill Williams took over as manager in 1997 and led the club to the FA Trophy semi @-@ finals in the 1997 – 98 season and a best league finish to date of sixth place in the 1999 – 2000 season . Williams left the club to take a senior position with Conference rivals Kingstonian in May 2001 . By now the club was in severe financial difficulties , with a number of directors resigning and debts exceeding £ 100 @,@ 000 . Amid the crisis the entire board of directors resigned , forcing the club ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour launch ( 160 km / h ) , had opened about a month earlier at Dreamworld in Australia . Superman therefore lost its claim as being the first roller coaster to reach 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , although it was then tied with Tower of Terror as the fastest roller coaster in the world . However , the ride became the first roller coaster in the world to go over 400 ft , therefore becoming the tallest roller coaster in the world at the time .
In June 2004 , Superman : The Escape 's seat belts were modified because of an incident on the Superman – Ride of Steel roller coaster at Six Flags New England . California State Regulators asked the park to make modifications to the rides ' restraint systems to prevent a similar incident in the future .
Just after July 4 weekend of 2010 , Superman : The Escape ceased operations with no reason given . A sign posted in front of the ride indicated that it would not reopen until the 2011 season , with hints that there would be improvements made to the ride experience . After Superman : The Escape 's sister ride , the Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld , underwent a major refurbishment in 2010 which entailed a new vehicle which launches backward , speculation turned to the possibility of a similar modification to the Magic Mountain ride . Six Flags Magic Mountain officials quickly denied rumors that it would receive a Bizarro retheming , similar to roller coasters at other Six Flags parks .
= = = Superman : Escape from Krypton ( 2011 — present ) = = =
On October 20 , 2010 , Six Flags Magic Mountain officially announced the refurbishment and re @-@ theming of Superman : The Escape , in addition to the construction of two new roller coasters . As part of the refurbishment , the ride was renamed to Superman : Escape from Krypton and featured new backward launching cars and a new color scheme . The upgraded ride reopened to the public on March 19 , 2011 .
Superman : Escape from Krypton closed again on February 5 , 2012 ( almost a year after the refurbishment ) to prepare for the new 2012 attraction Lex Luthor : Drop of Doom . Two drop towers , also built by Intamin , were integrated into the existing sides of Superman : Escape from Krypton 's structure . The ride reopened when construction was finished on July 7 , 2012 .
To enable the construction of the park 's 2013 roller coaster , Full Throttle , Superman : Escape from Krypton was temporarily closed from December 2012 . It reopened in mid @-@ January with Six Flags Magic Mountain stating the ride may have intermittent closures as the construction of Full Throttle continues .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue and station = = =
At the entrance to the ride , the Superman " S " shield is imprinted and now painted onto the ground . The entrance area and queue are modeled after the Fortress of Solitude , Superman 's headquarters . The station is lit green , modeled as Krypton , the planet that is full of Kryptonite rock that can take away Superman 's powers . Inside is a crystalline @-@ looking environment which recreates Superman 's fortress in the Arctic . If the Velocetron name had been chosen , the queue and station would have had ancient ruins and a giant laser . A page on display in the Sky Tower , the park 's observation tower , shows the concept art for Velocetron .
= = = Layout = = =
The roller coaster has two parallel tracks , with both tracks being identical . The vehicle is accelerated by Linear Synchronous Motors in reverse out of the station from 0 to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) in approximately 7 seconds . Riders experience a g @-@ force of 4 @.@ 5 during the launch . The vehicle then climbs up 415 feet ( 126 m ) at a 90 degree angle . Riders climb this vertical section facing directly downward , before slightly stopping near the top of the tower . During the vertical section of the ride , riders experience weightlessness for about 6 @.@ 5 seconds . The vehicle drops 328 feet ( 100 m ) and is slowed down before re @-@ entering the station .
= = = Vehicles = = =
The roller coaster originally featured two vehicles , each with three rows of four seats and one row of three seats for a total of 15 riders per vehicle . Both vehicles were built to only run forward . After the ride was refurbished in 2010 , new " streamlined " vehicles with the Superman logo were introduced . The new vehicles were designed with low @-@ profile sides to enhance the open @-@ air feeling . Although they are wider , the row of the three seats in the older vehicle was reduced to two , resulting in a lower total of 14 riders per vehicle . Both of the new trains were configured to run backward , though they were designed to run forward as well . It was reported that the park would eventually run one side forward to give riders a choice , but both trains have remained facing backward .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is approximately 1 @,@ 235 feet ( 376 m ) in length and the height of the tower is approximately 415 feet ( 126 m ) . The tower is in an " L " shape with two parallel tracks . When the ride opened , the entire structure was painted white . After the ride was refurbished , the top third of the structure was painted red , the track was painted yellow and the rest was painted blue .
= = Records = =
For the first four years of operation , Superman : Escape from Krypton was tied with Tower of Terror II as the fastest roller coaster in the world . In 2001 , the speed record was taken by Dodonpa in Japan which features a top speed of 106 @.@ 9 miles per hour ( 172 @.@ 0 km / h ) . Superman : Escape from Krypton held the record for the tallest roller coaster in the world until 2003 when the record was taken by the 420 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 130 m ) Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point . As of 2015 , it has the fifth fastest speed , the third tallest structure and the third @-@ highest drop in the world .
= Battle of Hubbardton =
The Battle of Hubbardton was an engagement in the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought in the village of Hubbardton , Vermont . Vermont was then a disputed territory sometimes called the New Hampshire Grants , claimed by New York , New Hampshire , and the newly organized and not yet recognized but de facto independent government of Vermont . On the morning of July 7 , 1777 , British forces , under General Simon Fraser , caught up with the American rear guard of the forces retreating after the withdrawal from Fort Ticonderoga . It was the only battle in Vermont during the revolution . ( The Battle of Bennington was fought in what is now Walloomsac , New York . )
The American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga began late on July 5 after British cannons were seen on top of high ground , Mount Defiance ( aka Rattlesnake Mountain and Sugar Loaf Hill ) that commanded the fort . The bulk of General Arthur St. Clair 's army retreated through Hubbardton to Castleton , while the rear guard , commanded by Seth Warner , stopped at Hubbardton to rest and pick up stragglers .
General Fraser , alerted to the American withdrawal early on July 6 , immediately set out in pursuit , leaving a message for General John Burgoyne to send reinforcements as quickly as possible . That night Fraser camped a few miles short of Hubbardton , and the German General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , leading reinforcements , camped a few miles further back . Rising early in the morning , Fraser reached Hubbardton , where he surprised some elements of the American rear , while other elements managed to form defensive lines . In spirited battle , the Americans were driven back , but had almost succeeded in turning Fraser 's left flank when Riedesel and his German reinforcements arrived , eventually scattering the American forces .
The battle took a large enough toll on the British forces that they did not further pursue the main American army . The many American prisoners were sent to Ticonderoga while most of the British troops made their way to Skenesboro to rejoin Burgoyne 's army . Most of the scattered American remnants made their way to rejoin St. Clair 's army on its way toward the Hudson River .
= = Background = =
General John Burgoyne began his 1777 campaign for control of the Hudson River valley by moving an army of 8 @,@ 000 down Lake Champlain in late June , arriving near Fort Ticonderoga on July 1 . On July 5 , General Arthur St. Clair 's American forces defending Fort Ticonderoga and its supporting defenses discovered that Burgoyne 's men had placed cannons on a position overlooking the fort . They evacuated the fort that night , with the majority of the army marching down a rough road ( now referred to locally as the 1776 Hubbardton Military Road ) toward Hubbardton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory . The day was hot and sunny , and the pace was rapid and grueling ; most of the army marched 30 miles ( 48 km ) to Castleton before making camp on the evening of July 6 .
= = British troops give chase = =
The British general , a Scotsman named Simon Fraser discovered early on July 6 that the Americans had abandoned Ticonderoga . Leaving a message for General Burgoyne , he set out in pursuit with companies of grenadiers ( 9th , 29th , 34th , and 62nd Foot ) and light infantry ( 24th , 29th , 34th , 53rd , and 62nd ) , as well as two companies of the 24th Regiment and about 100 Loyalists and Indian scouts . Burgoyne ordered Riedesel to follow ; he set out with a few companies of Brunswick jägers and grenadiers , leaving orders for the rest of his troops to come as rapidly as possible . Fraser 's advance corps was only a few miles behind Colonel Ebenezer Francis ' 11th Massachusetts Regiment , which acted as St. Clair 's rear guard .
American general St. Clair paused at Hubbardton to give the main army 's tired and hungry troops time to rest while he hoped the rear guard would arrive . When it did not arrive in time , he left Colonel Seth Warner and the Green Mountain Boys behind , along with the 2nd New Hampshire Regiment under Colonel Nathan Hale , at Hubbardton to wait for the rear while the main army marched on to Castleton . When Francis ' and Hale 's men arrived , Warner decided , against St. Clair 's orders , that they would spend the night there , rather than marching on to Castleton . Warner , who had experience in rear @-@ guard actions while serving in the invasion of Quebec , arranged the camps in a defensive position on Monument Hill , and set patrols to guard the road to Ticonderoga .
Baron Riedesel caught up with Fraser around 4 pm , and insisted that his men could not go further before making camp . Fraser , who acquiesced to this as Riedesel was senior to him in the chain of command , pointed out that he was authorized to engage the enemy , and would be leaving his camp at 3 am the next morning . He then advanced until he found a site about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Hubbardton , where his troops camped for the night . Riedesel waited for the bulk of his men , about 1 @,@ 500 strong , and also made camp .
= = Attack = =
Fraser 's men were up at 3 am , but did not make good time due to the darkness . Riedesel left his camp at 3 am with a picked group of men , and was still behind Fraser when the latter arrived at Hubbardton near dawn and very nearly surprised elements of Hale 's regiment , which were scattered in the early fighting . A messenger had arrived from General St. Clair delivering news that the British had reached Skenesboro , where the elements of the retreating army had planned to regroup , and that a more circuitous route to the Hudson River was now required . St. Clair 's instructions were to follow him immediately to Rutland . Francis ' men had formed a column to march out around 7 : 15 when the British vanguard began cresting the hill behind them . Rapidly reforming into a line behind some cover , the Massachusetts men unleashed a withering volley of fire at the winded British . General Fraser took stock of the situation , and decided to send a detachment around to flank the American left , at the risk of exposing his own left , which he hoped would hold until Riedesel arrived . Riedesel reached the top of another hill , where he observed that the American line , now including parts of Hale 's regiment , was in fact pressing on Fraser 's left . He therefore sent his grenadiers to support Fraser 's flank and directed the jägers against the American center .
At some point early in the conflict , St. Clair was made aware of the gunfire off in the distance . He immediately dispatched Henry Brockholst Livingston and Isaac Dunn to send the militia camped closest to Hubbardton down the road in support of the action . When they reached the area of those camps they found those militia companies in full retreat away from the gunfire in the distance , and no amount of persuasion could convince the men to turn around . Livingston and Dunn continued riding toward Hubbardton .
Falling back to a secure position on Monument Hill , the Americans repulsed several vigorous British assaults , although Colonel Francis was hit in the arm by a shot . He soldiered on , directing troops to a perceived weakness on Fraser 's left . The tide of the battle turned when , after more than an hour of battle , Riedesel 's grenadiers arrived . These disciplined forces entered the fray singing hymns to the accompaniment of a military band to make them appear more numerous than they actually were . The American flanks were turned , and they were forced to make a desperate race across an open field to avoid being enveloped . Colonel Francis fell in a volley of musket fire as the troops raced away from the advancing British and scattered into the countryside .
= = Aftermath = =
The scattered remnants of the American rear laboriously made their way toward Rutland in order to rejoin the main army . Harassed by Fraser 's scouts and Indians , and without food or shelter , it took some of them five days to reach the army , which was by then nearing Fort Edward . Others , including Colonel Hale and a detachment of 70 men , were captured by the British as they mopped up the scene . Colonel Francis , in a sign of respect from his opponents , was buried with the Brunswick dead .
Baron Riedesel and the Brunswickers departed for Skenesboro the next day , much to General Fraser 's chagrin . Their departure left him in " the most disaffected part of America , every person a Spy " , with 600 tired men , a sizable contingent of prisoners and wounded , and no significant supplies . On July 9 he sent the 300 prisoners , under light guard but with threats of retaliation should they try to escape , toward Ticonderoga while he marched his exhausted forces toward Castleton and then Skenesboro .
Livingston and Dunn , the two men sent toward the battle by St. Clair , were met by retreating Americans on the Castleton road after the battle was over . They returned to Castleton with the bad news , and the army marched off , eventually reaching the American camp at Fort Edward on July 12 .
= = Losses = =
The official casualty return for the Hessian troops gives 38 Hessian soldiers and 1 French @-@ Canadian killed and 125 Hessians and 2 French @-@ Canadians wounded . A separate return for the German troops has 10 killed and 14 wounded , for a grand total of 49 killed and 141 wounded . Historian Richard M. Ketchum gives different British casualties of 60 killed and 168 wounded . The American casualties were 41 killed , 96 wounded and 230 captured .
= = Legacy = =
A local body commissioned the erection of a monument on the battlefield site in 1859 , and the state began acquiring battlefield lands in the 1930s for operation as a state historic site . The battlefield was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 , and is the site of annual Revolutionary War reenactments .
= Odaenathus =
Lucius Septimius Udaynath , Latinized as Odaenathus ( Aramaic : ܐܕܝܢܬ / Oḏainaṯ ; Arabic : أذينة / Udaynath ; 220 – 267 ) , was the founder king ( Mlk ) of the Palmyrene Kingdom centered at the city of Palmyra , Syria . He lifted his city from the position of a regional center subordinate to Rome into the supreme power in the East . Odaenathus was born into an aristocratic Palmyrene family who had received Roman citizenship in the 190s under the Severan dynasty . He was the son of Hairan the descendant of Nasor . The circumstances surrounding his rise are ambiguous ; he became the lord ( Ras ) of the city , a position created for him , as early as the 240s and by 258 , he was styled a consularis , indicating a high status in the Roman Empire .
The defeat and captivity of emperor Valerian at the hands of the Persian Sassanian monarch Shapur I in 260 left the eastern Roman provinces largely at the mercy of the Persians . Odaenathus stayed on the side of Rome ; assuming the title of king , he led the Palmyrene army and fell upon the Persians before they could cross the Euphrates to the eastern bank , and inflicted upon them a considerable defeat . Then , Odaenathus took the side of emperor Gallienus , the son and successor of Valerian , who was facing the usurpation of Fulvius Macrianus . The rebel declared his sons emperors , leaving one in Syria and taking the other with him to Europe . Odaenathus attacked the remaining usurper and quelled the rebellion . He was rewarded many exceptional titles by the emperor who formalized his self @-@ established position in the East . In reality , the emperor could have done little but to accept the declared nominal loyalty of Odaenathus .
In a series of rapid and successful campaigns starting in 262 , he crossed the Euphrates and recovered Carrhae and Nisibis . He then took the offensive to the heartland of Persia , and arrived at the walls of its capital Ctesiphon . The city withstood the short siege but Odaenathus reclaimed the entirety of Roman lands occupied by the Persians since the beginning of their invasions in 252 . Odaenathus celebrated his victories and declared himself King of Kings , crowning his son Hairan I as co @-@ king . By 263 , Odaenathus was in effective control of the Levant , Mesopotamia and Anatolia 's eastern region .
Odaenathus observed all due formalities towards the emperor , but in practice ruled as an independent monarch . In 266 , the king launched a second invasion of Persia but had to abandon the campaign and head north to Bithynia to repel the attacks of Germanic riders besieging the city of Heraclea Pontica . He was assassinated in 267 during or immediately after the Anatolian campaign , together with Hairan . The identities of the perpetrator or the instigator are unknown and many stories , accusations and speculations exist in ancient sources . He was succeeded by his son Vaballathus under the regency of his widow Zenobia , who used the power established by Odaenathus to forge the Palmyrene Empire in 270 .
= = Name , Odaenathus I and origin = =
" Odaenathus " is the Roman version of the king 's name who was born Lucius Septimius Udaynath c . 220 AD . " Udaynath " is the king 's personal name , an Arabic name that means " little ear " . " Septimius " was the family 's gentilicium ( surname ) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman Severan dynasty , whose emperor Septimius Severus granted the family Roman citizenship in the late second century .
In the Temple of Bel at Palmyra , a stone block with a sepulchral inscription was found mentioning the building of a tomb and recording the genealogy of the builder : Odaenathus son of Hairan son of Wahb Allat son of Nasor . Traditional scholarship believed the builder to be an ancestor of the king and he was given the designation " Odaenathus I " . In an inscription dated to 251 , the name of the " Ras " ( lord ) of Palmyra Hairan son of Odaenathus is written , and he was thought to be the son of Odaenathus I.
Prior to the 1980s , the earliest known inscription attesting king Odaenathus was dated to 257 , leading traditional scholarship to believe that Hairan Ras of Palmyra is the father of the king and that Odaenathus I was his grandfather . However , an inscription published in 1985 by archaeologist Michael Gawlikowski and dated to 252 mentions king Odaenathus as a " Ras " and records the same genealogy found in the sepulchral inscription confirming the name of king Odaenathus ' grandfather as Wahb Allat . Therefor , it is certain that king Odaenathus is the builder of the tomb ruling out the existence of " Odaenathus I " . Ras Hairan mentioned in the 251 inscription is identical with Odaenathus ' elder son and co @-@ ruler prince Hairan I.
The origin of the family is Aramean , while the king himself appears to be of mixed Aramean and Arab descent ; his name is Arabic , while the names of his ancestors ( father Hairan and great grandfather Nasor ) are Aramaic . Zosimus asserted that Odaenathus descended from " illustrious forebears " , but the position of the family in Palmyra is debated ; it was probably part of the wealthy mercantile class . Alternatively , the family could have belonged to the tribal leadership who amassed a fortune as landowners and patrons of the Palmyrene caravans . In Dura @-@ Europos , a relief dated to 159 was commissioned by Hairan son of Maliko son of Nasor ; this Hairan might have been the head of the Palmyrene trade colony in Dura @-@ Europos and probably belonged to the same family of Odaenathus . " Nasor " father of Maliko mentioned in the Dura @-@ Europos inscription could therefore be Odaenathus ' great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather .
= = Rise = =
Palmyra was an autonomous city subordinate to Rome and part of Syria Phoenice province . Odaenathus descended from an aristocratic family , albeit not a royal one as the city was ruled by a council and had no tradition of hereditary monarchy . Bilingual inscriptions from Palmyra record the title of the Palmyrene ruler as " Ras " in Palmyrene and Exarchos in Greek , meaning the " Lord of Palmyra " . The title was created for Odaenathus , and was not a usual title in the Roman Empire or a part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions ; whether it indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown , but the military role is more likely .
The rise of the aggressive Sasanian Empire in 224 and the Iranian incursions which affected Palmyrene trade , combined with the weakness of the Roman empire , were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council 's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army . The " Ras " title enabled the bearer to tackle the difficult situation that arose due to the Sasanian insurgencies ; the supreme authority of the Ras probably made him the supreme civil and military commander with authority over the entire Palmyrene army , which was previously decentralized and led by different generals .
= = = Ras of Palmyra = = =
An undated inscription refers to Odaenathus as a Ras and records the gift of a throne to him by a Palmyrene citizen named " Ogeilu son of Maqqai Haddudan Hadda " , which confirms the supreme character of Odaenathus ' title . The earliest known inscriptions mentioning the title are dated to October 251 and April 252 ; the 251 inscription refer to Odaenathus ' eldest son Hairan I as Ras while the 252 inscription mention Odaenathus with that title . Hairan I was apparently elevated to co @-@ lordship status by his father . Although the written evidence for Odaenathus lordship dates to 251 , it is possible that he acquired the title as early as the 240s ; following the death of Roman emperor Gordian III in 244 during a campaign against Persia , the Palmyrenes might have elected Odaenathus to defend the city .
Odaenathus was described as Roman senator in the undated tomb inscription and Hairan I was mentioned with the same title in the 251 inscription . Scholarly opinions vary on the exact date of Odaenathus ' elevation to the position ; Gawlikowski and Jean Starcky maintain that the senatorial rank predates the Ras elevation . Udo Hartmann concludes that Odaenathus first became a Ras in the 240s then a senator in 250 . Another possibility is that the senatorial rank and lordship occurred simultaneously ; Odaenathus was chosen as a Ras following Gordian 's death , then after Philip the Arab concluded a peace with the Persians , the emperor ratified Odaenathus ' lordship and admitted him to the senate to guarantee Palmyra 's continuous subordination .
As early as the 240s , Odaenathus inflated the Palmyrene army , recruiting the desert nomads and increasing the numbers of the Palmyrene heavy cavalry units ( clibanarii ) . In 252 , Persian emperor Shapur I started a full @-@ scale invasion of the Roman provinces in the east . During the second campaign of the invasion , Shapur conquered Antioch and headed south where his advance was checked in 253 by Emesa 's priest king Uranius Antoninus . The events of 253 were mentioned in the works of the sixth century historian John Malalas who also mentioned a leader by the name " Enathus " inflicting a defeat upon the retreating Shapur near the Euphrates . " Enathus " is probably identical with Odaenathus , and while Malalas ' account indicate that Odaenathus defeated the Persians in 253 , there is no proof that the Palmyrene leader engaged Shapur before 260 and Malalas ' account seems to be confusing Odaenathus ' future actions during 260 with the events of 253 .
Shapur I destroyed the Palmyrene trade colonies all along the Euphrates ( including the colonies at Anah in 253 and at Dura @-@ Europos in 256 ) ; Peter the Patrician says that Odaenathus approached Shapur to negotiate Palmyrene interests but was rebuffed and the gifts sent to the Persians were thrown into the river . The date for the attempted negotiations is debated ; Some scholars including John F. Drinkwater set the event in 253 while others such as Alaric Watson set it in 256 following the destruction of Dura @-@ Europos .
= = = Governor of Syria Phoenice = = =
Several inscriptions dating to the end of 257 or early 258 show Odaenathus bearing the title " ὁ λαμπρότατος ὑπατικός " ( Clarissimus Consularis ) ; this could be a mere honoring or a sign that he was appointed as the Legatus of Phoenice . However , the title ( ὁ λαμπρότατος ὑπατικός ) was sometimes used in Syria to denote the provincial governor and William Waddington proposed that Odaenathus was indeed the governor of Phoenice .
Five of the inscriptions mentioning Odaenathus as consul are dated to the Seleucid year 569 ( 258 AD ) during which no governor for Phoenice is attested , which might indicate that this was Odaenathus ' year of governorship . In the city of Tyre , Phoenice 's capital , the lines " To Septimius Odaenathus , the most illustrious . The Septimian colony of Tyre " were found inscribed on a marble base ; the inscription is not dated and if it was set after 257 then it indicates that Odaenathus was appointed as the governor of the province .
These speculations cannot be proven without doubt but as a governor , Odaenathus would have been the highest authority in the province and above any legionary commander and provincial officials ; this would make him the commander of the Roman forces in the province . Whatever the case may be , starting from 258 , Odaenathus strengthened his position and extended his political influence in the region . By 260 , Odaenathus held the rank , credibility and power to pacify the Roman east following the Battle of Edessa .
= = = Edessa = = =
Faced with Shapur 's third campaign , the Roman emperor Valerian marched against the Persian monarch but was defeated near Edessa in late spring 260 and taken as a prisoner . The Persian emperor then ravaged Cappadocia , Cilicia and claimed to have captured Antioch , the metropolis of Syria . Taking advantage of the situation , Fulvius Macrianus , the commander of the imperial treasury , declared his sons Quietus and Macrianus Minor as joint emperors in August 260 opposing Valerian 's son Gallienus . Fulvius Macrianus took Antioch as his center and organized the resistance against Shapur ; he dispatched Balista , his praetorian prefect , to Anatolia . Shapur was defeated in the region of Sebaste at Pompeiopolis prompting the Persians to evacuate Cilicia while Balista went back to Antioch . Balista 's victory was only partial , as Shapur withdrew east of Cilicia where the marauding Persian units continued to occupy the area , while a Persian force took advantage of Balista 's return to Syria and headed further west in Anatolia .
= = Reign = =
According to the Augustan History , Odaenathus was declared king of Palmyra as soon as the news of the Roman defeat at Edessa reached the city . It is not known if Odaenathus contacted Fulvius Macrianus and there is no evidence that he took orders from him .
= = = Early Persian war and Syria = = =
Odaenathus assembled the Palmyrene army and Syrian peasants then marched north to meet the Persian emperor , who was back from Cilicia . The Palmyrene monarch fell upon the retreating Shapur at a place between Samosata and Zeugma west of the Euphrates in late summer 260 . Odaenathus defeated the Persians , expelling Shapur from the province of Syria . However , the Sassanians kept the regions east of the Euphrates .
In the beginning of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus headed to Europe accompanied by Macrianus Minor leaving Quietus and Balista in Emesa . Odaenathus ' whereabouts during this episode are not clear ; he could have distributed the army in garrisons along the frontier or might have brought it back to his capital . The Palmyrene monarch seems to have waited until the situation clear , declaring loyalty neither to Fulvius Macrianus nor to Gallienus . In the spring of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus arrived in the Balkans but was defeated and killed along with Macrianus Minor ; Odaenathus then marched on Emesa where Quietus and Balista were staying . The Emesans killed Quietus as Odaenathus approached the city , while Balista was captured and executed by the king in autumn 261 .
= = = = Ruler of the East = = = =
The elimination of the usurpers left Odaenathus as the most powerful leader in the Roman east ; he was granted many titles by the emperor but those honors are debated among scholars :
Dux Romanorum ( commander of the Romans ) : was probably given to Odaenathus to recognize his position as the commander in chief of the forces in the east against the Persians ; it was inherited by Odaenathus ' son and successor Vaballathus .
Corrector totius orientis ( commander of the entire East ) : it is generally accepted by modern scholars that he bore this title . The corrector had an overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region . There are no known attestations of the title during Odaenathus ' lifetime . Evidences for the king bearing the title are two inscriptions in Palmyrene dialect ; one posthumous dedication describing him as MTQNNʿ of the East ( derived from the Aramaic root TQN , meaning to set in order ) , and the other describing his heir Vaballathus with the same title albeit using the word PNRTTʿ instead of MTQNNʿ .
However , the sort of authority accorded by this position is widely discussed . The problem arise from the word MTQNNʿ ; its exact meaning is debated . The word is translated to Latin as corrector but restitutor is another possible translation ; the latter title was an honorary one meant to praise the bearer for driving enemies out of Roman territories . However , the inscription of Vaballathus is clearer as the word PNRTTʿ is not a Palmyrene word but a direct Palmyrene translation of the Greek term Epanorthotes which is usually an equivalent to corrector .
According to David Potter , Vaballathus inherited his father 's exact titles . Hartmann points that there have been cases where a Greek word was translated directly to Palmyrene and a Palmyrene equivalent was also used to mean the same thing . The dedication to Odaenathus would be the using of a Palmyrene equivalent , while the inscription of Vaballathus would be the direct translation . Despite all the arguments , it cannot be certain without doubt that Odaenathus was a corrector .
Imperator totius orientis ( emperor of the entire East ) : only the Augustan History claims that Odaenathus was conferred with this title , and also goes so far as to claim that he was made an Augustus ( co @-@ emperor ) following his defeat of the Persians . Both claims are dismissed by scholars . Odaenathus seems to have been acclaimed as Imperator by his troops which is a salutation reserved for the Roman emperor ; this acclamation might explain the erroneous reports of the Augustan History .
Regardless of the titles , Odaenathus controlled the Roman East with the approval of Gallienus who could do little but to formalize Odaenathus self achieved status and settle for his formal loyalty . Palmyra itself , although officially still part of the Roman empire , became a de facto allied state to Rome instead of a provincial city . Outside of Palmyra , Odaenathus ' authority extended from the Pontic coast in the north to Palestine in the south . This area included the Roman provinces of Syria , Phoenice , Palaestina , Arabia , Anatolia 's eastern regions and later ( following the campaign of 262 ) Osroene and Mesopotamia .
= = = = First Persian campaign 262 = = = =
Perhaps driven by the will to take revenge for the destruction of Palmyrene trade centers and discourage Shapur from initiating future attacks , Odaenathus launched an invasion against the Persians . In the spring of 262 , the king marched north into the occupied Roman province of Mesopotamia , driving out the Persian garrisons and freeing Edessa and Carrhae . The first onslaught was aimed at Nisibis , which Odaenathus regained but sacked since the inhabitants were sympathetic toward the Persian occupation . The Palmyrene monarch destroyed the Jewish city of Nehardea , 45 km west of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , as he deemed the Jews of Mesopotamia loyal to Shapur . By late 262 or early 263 , Odaenathus stood at the walls of the Persian capital .
The exact route taken by Odaenathus from Palmyra to Ctesiphon remains uncertain ; it is probably similar to the route emperor Julian took in 363 during his campaign against Persia . Using this route , Odaenathus would have crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma then moved east to Edessa followed by Carrhae then Nisibis ; here , he would have descended south along the Khabur River to the Euphrates valley and marched alongside the river 's left bank to Nehardea . After taking the city , he penetrated the Sassanian province of Asōristān and marched along the royal canal Naarmalcha towards the Tigris where the Persian capital stood .
Once at Ctesiphon , Odaenathus immediately began the siege of the well @-@ fortified winter residence of the Persian kings ; severe damage was inflicted upon the surrounding areas due to the battles with Persian troops . The city held its ground and the logistical problems of fighting in enemy 's land probably prompted the Palmyrenes to lift the siege . Odaenathus headed north along the Euphrates carrying with him numerous prisoners and booty . The invasion resulted in the full restoration of the Roman lands ( Osroene and Mesopotamia provinces ) occupied by Shapur since the beginning of his invasions in 252 . However , Dura @-@ Europus and other Palmyrene posts south of Circesium , such as Anah , were not rebuilt . Odaenathus sent the captives to Rome and by the end of 263 , Gallienus added Persicus Maximus ( " The great victor in Persia " ) to his titles and held a triumph .
= = = King of Kings = = =
In 263 , after his return , Odaenathus assumed the title King of Kings of the East ( Mlk Mlk ) , and headed to Antioch , the traditional capital of Syria , where he crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings . The title was a symbol of legitimacy in the East , starting with the Assyrians then the Achaemenids who used it to symbolize their supremacy over all other rulers and was adopted by the Parthian monarchs following their defeat of the Seleucids to legitimize their conquests . The first Sassanian monarch Ardashir I adopted the title following his victory over the Parthians . Odaenathus ' son was crowned with a diadem and a tiara ; the choice of the location was probably meant to express that the Palmyrene monarchs were now the successors of the Seleucid and Iranian rulers who controlled Syria and Mesopotamia in the past .
= = = = Relation with Rome = = = =
In the Roman empire 's hierarchical system , a vassal king usage of the King of Kings title did not indicate that he is a peer of the emperor or that the vassalage ties were cut . The title was probably a challenge not to the Roman emperor but to Shapur I ; Odaenathus was declaring that he , not the Persian monarch , was the legitimate King of Kings in the East . A tessera depicting Hairan I shows him wearing a crown shaped like that of the Parthian monarchs , so it must have been Odaenathus ' crown ; this combination of title and imagery indicate that Odaenathus considered himself the rival of the Sassanians and the protector of the region against them .
Odaenathus ' intents are questioned by some historians such as Drinkwater who attribute the attempted negotiations with Shapur to Odaenathus ' quest for power . However , in contrast to the norm of his period when powerful generals proclaimed themselves emperors , Odaenathus chose not to usurp Gallienus ' throne , and minted no coins bearing his own image . The king had total control over his kingdom of Palmyra and effective control over the Roman East where his military authority was absolute . Odaenathus respected Gallienus ' privilege to appoint provincial governors , but dealt swiftly with opposition ; the Anonymus post Dionem mention the story of Kyrinus ( Quirinus ) , a Roman official , who showed dissatisfaction with Odaenathus ' authority over the Persian frontier and was immediately executed by the king .
In general , Odaenathus ' actions were connected to his and Palmyra 's interests only ; his support of Gallienus and his Roman titles did not hide the Palmyrene base of his power and the local origin of his armies , as with his decision not to wait for the emperor to help in 260 . Odaenathus ' status seems to have been , as Watson put it , " something between powerful subject , independent vassal king and rival emperor " .
= = = = Administration = = = =
Outside his kingdom , Odaenathus had an overall administrative and military authority over the provincial governors of the Roman eastern provinces . Inside Palmyra , no Roman provincial official had any authority ; the king filled the government with Palmyrene staffs . In parallelism to the Iranian practice of making the government appear as a family enterprise , Odaenathus bestowed his own gentilicium ( Septimius ) upon his leading generals and officials such as Zabdas , Zabbai and Worod .
The Palmyrene constitutional institutions continued to function normally during Odaenathus ' reign ; he maintained the council and most civic establishments , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . When Odaenathus was on campaign , the kingdom was administered by a viceroy , Septimius Worod .
= = = = Second Persian campaign 266 = = = =
Sources are silent regarding the events following the first Persian campaign but the silence in itself is an indication of the peace that prevailed and that the Persians stopped being a threat to the Roman East . The evidence for the second campaign is meager ; Zosimus is the only one to mention it specifically . A passage in the Sibylline Oracles is interpreted by Hartmann as an indication of the second invasion . The campaign took place in 266 or 267 and was aimed directly at Ctesiphon ; Odaenathus reached the walls of the Persian capital but had to cancel the siege and march north to face the influx of Germanic riders attacking Anatolia .
= = = = Anatolian campaign = = = =
The Romans used the designation " Scythian " to denote many tribes regardless of ethnic origin and sometimes the term would be interchangeable with Goths ; the tribes attacking Anatolia were probably the Heruli who built ships to cross the Black Sea in 267 and ravaged the coasts of Bithynia @-@ Pontus besieging Heraclea Pontica . According to Syncellus , Odaenathus arrived at Anatolia with Hairan I and headed to Heraclea but the riders were already gone . They loaded the spoils onto their ships but many perished in a sea battle probably conducted by Odaenathus ; another possibility is that they were shipwrecked .
= = Assassination = =
Odaenathus was assassinated along with Hairan I in late 267 ; the date is debated and some scholars propose 266 or 268 , but Vaballathus dated his first year of reign between August 267 and August 268 , making late 267 the most probable date . The assassination took place either in Anatolia , or in Syria while the king was returning to Palmyra ; there is no consensus on the manner , perpetrator or the motive behind the act .
According to Syncellus , Odaenathus was assassinated near Heraclea Pontica trying to quell a tribal incursion into Pontus ; he gives the name of the assassin as another Odaenathus who may or may not have been a relative of the king . The assassin was killed by the king 's bodyguard . Hartmann support the theory that Odaenathus was killed in Pontus .
Zosimus simply mention that Odaenathus was killed by conspirators near Emesa at a friend 's birthday party without naming the killer . Zonaras attributes the crime to a nephew of Odaenathus but does not give a name .
The Augustan History claims that a cousin of the king named Maeonius killed him , while the Anonymus post Dionem names the assassin as another Odaenathus .
= = = Burial = = =
The stone block found in the Temple of Bel bearing Odaenathus ' sepulchral inscription was brought from the tomb built by him ; this shrine 's location is unknown . At the western end of the Great Colonnade at Palmyra , a shrine designated the " Funerary Temple no . 86 " ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located . Inside its chamber , steps lead down to a vault crypt which is now lost . This mausoleum might have belonged to the royal family , being the only tomb inside the city 's walls .
= = = Assassination theories = = =
Roman conspiracy : John Antiochenus accuse Gallienus of the assassination . An interesting passage in the work of the Anonymus post Dionem speaks of a certain " Rufinus " who orchestrated the assassination on his own initiative then explained his act to the emperor who condoned the crime . This story talks about Rufinus ordering the murder of an older Odaenathus out of fear that he would rebel , and has the younger Odaenathus complaining to the emperor . Since the older Odaenathus ( Odaenathus I ) was proved to be a fictional character , the story was neglected by most scholars . However , according to Theodor Mommsen , younger Odaenathus is an oblique reference to Vaballathus ; Rufinus should be identified with Cocceius Rufinus , the Roman governor of Arabia between 261 / 262 . The evidence for a Roman conspiracy is very weak and can not be confirmed .
Family feud : According to Zonaras , Odaenathus ' nephew misbehaved during a lion hunt ; he made the first attack and killed the animal to the dismay of the king . Odaenathus warned the nephew who ignored the warning and repeated the act twice causing the king to deprive him of his horse which is a great insult in the East . The nephew threatened Odaenathus and was put in chains as a result ; Hairan I asked his father to forgive his cousin and his request was granted but as the king was drinking , the nephew approached him with a sword and killed him along with Hairan I. The bodyguard immediately executed the nephew .
Zenobia : the wife of Odaenathus was accused by the Augustan History of having formerly conspired with Maeonius , as Hairan I was her stepson and she could not accept that he was the heir to her husband instead of her own children . However , there is no suggestion in the Augustan History that Zenobia was involved in the event that saw her husband 's murder ; the act is attributed to Maeonius ' degeneracy and jealousy . Those accounts by the Augustan History can be dismissed as fiction . The hints in modern scholarship that Zenobia had a hand in the assassination out of her desire to rule the empire and dismay with her husband 's pro @-@ Roman policy can be dismissed as there was no reversal of that policy during the first years following Odaenathus ' death .
Persian agents or Palmyrene traitors : the possibility of a Persian involvement exists but the outcome of the assassination would not have served Shapur without establishing a pro @-@ Persian monarch on the Palmyrene throne . Another possibility would be Palmyrenes dissatisfied with Odaenathus ' reign and the changes of their city 's governmental system .
= = Family and succession = =
Odaenathus was married twice ; nothing is known about his first wife 's name or fate . Zenobia was the king 's second wife whom he married in the late 250s when she was 17 or 18 years old .
The number of children Odaenathus had with his first wife is unknown and only one is attested :
Hairan I : the name appears on a 251 inscription from Palmyra describing him as Ras implying that he was already an adult by then . In the Augustan History , Odaenathus ' eldest son is named Herod ; the inscription at Palmyra dating to 263 celebrating Hairan 's coronation mentions him with the name Herodianus . It is possible that Hairan of the 251 inscription is not the same as Herodianus of the 263 , but this is contested by Hartmann who conclude that the reason for the difference in the spelling is due to the language used in the inscription ( Herodianus being the Greek version ) , meaning that Odaenathus ' eldest son and co @-@ king is Hairan Herodianus .
The children of Odaenathus and Zenobia are :
Vaballathus : he is attested on several coins , inscriptions , and in the ancient literature .
Harian II : his image appear on a seal impression along with his older brother Vaballathus as the sons of Zenobia ; his identity is much debated . Potter suggest that he is the same as Herodianus who was crowned in 263 and that Hairan I mentioned in 251 died before the birth of Hairan II .
Herennianus and Timolaus : the two were mentioned in the Augustan History and are not attested in any other source ; Herennianus might be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus while Timolaus is most probably a fabrication , although Dietmar Kienast suggest that he might be Vaballathus .
Possible descendants of Odaenathus living in later centuries are reported ; " Lucia Septimia Patabiniana Balbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaenathiana " is known through a dedication dating to the late third or early fourth century inscribed on a tombstone erected by a wet nurse to her " sweetest and most loving mistress " . The tombstone was found in Rome at the San Callisto in Trastevere . Another possible relative is " Eusebius " who is mentioned by Libanius in 391 as a son of an " Odaenathus " who was in turn a descendant from the king ; the father of Eusebius is mentioned as fighting against the Persians ( most probably in the ranks of emperor Julian ) . In 393 , Libanius mentioned that Eusebius promised him a speech written by Longinus for the king . In the fifth century , the philosopher " Syrian Odaenathus " lived in Athens and was a student of Plutarch of Athens ; he might have been a distant descendant of the king .
The Augustan History claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating the king . Odaenathus was succeeded by his son , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus under the regency of Zenobia . Hairan II probably died soon after his father , as only Vaballathus succeeded to the throne .
= = Legacy = =
Odaenathus was the founder of the Palmyrene royal dynasty ; he left Palmyra the premier power in the East , and his actions laid the foundation of Palmyrene strength which culminated in the establishment of the Palmyrene Empire in 270 . Many writers wrote about deeds of Odaenathus ; Nicostratus of Trebizond probably accompanied the king on his campaigns and wrote a history of that period starting from Philip the Arab and ending shortly before the king 's death . According to Potter , Nicostratus ' account was meant to glorify Odaenathus and demonstrate his superiority over Roman emperors .
The memory of Odaenathus was highly esteemed in the Roman empire ; the Augustan History , written in the fourth century , places Odaenathus among the Thirty Tyrants ( probably because he assumed the title of king ) . However , it speaks highly of his role in the Persian war and credit him with saving the empire : " Had not Odaenathus , prince of the Palmyrenes , seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian when the strength of the Roman state was exhausted , all would have been lost in the East " .
The king was praised by Libanius , and was the subject of a prophecy in the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle : " Then shall come one who was sent by the sun [ i.e. Odaenathus ] , a mighty and fearful lion , breathing much flame . Then he with much shameless daring will destroy ... the greatest beast — venomous , fearful and emitting a great deal of hisses [ i.e. Shapur ] " .
Odaenathus is viewed negatively in Rabbinic sources ; his sack of Nehardea mortified the Jews , and he was cursed by the Babylonian Jews and the Jews of Palestine .
= Banksia violacea =
Banksia violacea , commonly known as violet banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family Proteaceae ) . It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) high with fine narrow leaves , and is best known for its unusually coloured dark purple @-@ violet inflorescences . The colour of the inflorescences , short leaves , and flattened follicles which are sticky when young , help identify this species from others in the field . It is found in low shrubland in southern regions of Western Australia from Esperance in the east to Narrogin in the west , growing exclusively in sandy soils .
First described in 1927 by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner , the species was at one stage considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa . Although there are no recognised subspecies or varieties , both lignotuberous and nonlignotuberous forms exist for Banksia violacea . Wasps , ants and flies have been recorded visiting flower spikes . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia . Regarded as of little value to floriculture , it is rarely cultivated .
= = Description = =
Banksia violacea grows as a shrub up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) tall , with narrow leaves 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and about 0 @.@ 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) wide . New growth occurs in summer , and flowering ranges from November to April with a peak in February , but can be irregular in timing . Flowers arise from typical Banksia " flower spikes " , and the inflorescences are made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . Roughly spherical with a diameter of 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) , the flower spikes arise from lateral stems lie partly within the foliage . Unusually for Banksia species , the inflorescences are often violet in colour , ranging anywhere from a dark violet @-@ black through various combinations of violet and greenish @-@ yellow in less pigmented blooms . Each flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . The styles are hooked rather than straight , and are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . The old flowers gradually fade to brown . The fruiting structure or follicle is a stout woody " cone " , with a hairy appearance caused by the persistence of old withered flower parts . These follicles are crowded around the globular spike ( called an infructescence at this point ) and are oval to rhomboid , although the crowding makes some irregularly shaped . They measure 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) high and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide . They are quite flattened and lack a ridge along the valve line . When young , the follicles are greenish in colour and slightly sticky , and covered in fine white hairs , fading to tan or grey with age . They open with fire , releasing a winged wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) seed 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) long . The mottled dark grey seed body is falcate ( crescent @-@ shaped ) and measures 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) long and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 25 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide , with a flattened dark brown wing 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The woody separator has the same dimensions as the seed .
The bright green cotyledon leaves of the seedlings are oblong to linear in shape and measure 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The greenish red hypocotyl is hairy , as are the stems of young plants . The hairy seedling leaves are crowded and oppositely arranged . They measure 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have recurved margins . Young plants often begin branching within their first year of life .
= = Taxonomy = =
The type specimen of Banksia violacea was collected by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner on 14 December 1926 in the vicinity of Lake Grace . The following year , he published a description of the species in Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Western Australia . He placed it in section Oncostylis of Bentham 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , giving it the specific epithet violacea in reference to the violet flowers . Thus the full name of the species , with author citation , is Banksia violacea C.A.Gardner. The species has been considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) ; this view was published by William Blackall in his 1954 How to know Western Australian wildflowers . He considered B. violacea to be a variety of B. sphaerocarpa with violet flowers . This description was an invalid publication , however , and a nomen nudum . In 1981 Alex George declared Banksia sphaerocarpa var. violacea Blackall a nomenclatural synonym of B. violacea .
In George 's 1981 arrangement , B. violacea was placed in subgenus Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia " flower spike " ; section Oncostylis because of its hooked styles ; and series Abietinae because its inflorescence is roughly spherical . It was placed in taxonomic sequence between B. incana ( Hoary Banksia ) and B. meisneri ( Meissner 's Banksia ) .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . B. ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic and so it was retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . B. violacea appeared in the last of these :
This clade became the basis of B. subseries Longistyles , which Thiele defined as containing those taxa with very long and slender styles , smoothly convex perianth limbs without a costal ridge , and thickened margins . In accordance with their cladogram , their arrangement placed B. violacea first in taxonomic sequence , followed by B. laricina ( Rose @-@ fruited Banksia ) . However , Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement was not accepted by George , who , questioning the emphasis on cladistics , rejected most of their changes in his 1999 arrangement , restored B. series Abietinae to his broader 1981 definition , and abandoned all of Thiele and Ladiges ' subseries . George commented that the species has no close relatives , being " loosely allied " to B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) and B. telmatiaea ( Swamp Fox Banksia ) . Despite this , the sequence of the series was altered so that B. violacea fell between B. scabrella ( Burma Road Banksia ) and B. incana , and its placement in George 's arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )
B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Abietinae
B. sphaerocarpa ( 3 varieties )
B. micrantha
B. grossa
B. telmatiaea
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
B. lanata
B. scabrella
B. violacea
B. incana
B. laricina
B. pulchella
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
Since 1998 , an American botanist , Austin Mast , has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is very greatly different from George 's arrangement , and somewhat different from Thiele and Ladiges ' . With respect to B. violacea , Mast 's results agree with its placement near B. laricina and B. incana , placing it in a clade with these two species and B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( treated at species rank as B. dolichostyla ) . However , Thiele 's B. subseries Longistyles appears to be polyphyletic , as do both definitions of B. ser . Abietinae — that is , none form a natural grouping .
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subgenus Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. violacea is placed in B. subgenus Spathulatae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
B. violacea occurs in southern regions of Western Australia , from Woodanilling to Esperance and as far north as Hyden . This distribution includes areas of the Avon Wheatbelt , Esperance Plains and Mallee biogeographic regions . It favours white sandy soils , often overlying laterite , clay or quartzite . It usually grows among heath and shrublands , associated with mallee eucalypts and Banksia sphaerocarpa var. caesia . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the 1950 Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia .
= = Ecology = =
Like most other Proteaceae , Banksia violacea has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , thus allowing their uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient soils of Australia . B. violacea is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback .
Banksia violacea is one of a small number of Banksia species that has both lignotuberous and non @-@ lignotuberous populations . In both cases , plants are adapted to release their aerial seed bank following a bushfire , ensuring seedlings are established on clear and relatively fertile ground ; however the possession of a lignotuber makes plants much less reliant on fire regime for population maintenance and regeneration , as maternal plants are not killed by bushfire , but resprout from below ground level . Lignotuberous plants generally occur among the north @-@ eastern populations , in the vicinity of Woodanilling . An investigation into the biogeography of these plants failed to find any vegetative , climatic or other environmental factors associated with the possession of a lignotuber .
Banksia flowerheads in general play host to a variety of birds , mammals and insects . However , only wasps , ants and flies were recorded visiting flower spikes during observations for The Banksia Atlas in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia violacea is rarely cultivated . It is a slow @-@ growing plant that tends to become untidy with age , and generally does not flower until four to five years after sprouting from seed . Flowers are an unusual colour , but occur within the bush where they grow within and are usually obscured by foliage . It tolerates light pruning not below the green foliage , except for the variant with a lignotuber , which may be pruned heavily . George recommends a sunny position in light , sandy soil . Professor Margaret Bernard Sedgley of the Waite Institute suggests the species is of no value to floriculture , as the inflorescences are too small and obscured by the foliage , although she does add that the purple colour may be a worthwhile character to select for in plant breeding . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 19 to 50 days to germinate .
= Rob Howard =
Rob Howard ( born 1954 or 1955 ) is a Canadian politician who was elected to the 39th Parliament of British Columbia as the Member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia from the riding of Richmond Centre . A member of the BC Liberal Party , he replaced retiring BC Liberal Olga Ilich in that riding , by winning the riding in the 2009 provincial election . While his party formed a majority government , Howard was not included in Gordon Campbell 's cabinet but was appointed to several committees , including the Select Standing Committee on Public Accounts in the first two sessions , and Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services in the third and fourth session . Howard introduced one piece of legislation , the Trustee Board of the Church of God , Richmond Municipality , B.C. ( Corporate Restoration ) Act , 2009 ( Pr 402 ) , to retroactively restore that organization 's corporate status .
As chair of the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services , Howard supported Premier Campbell 's efforts at establishing the Harmonized Sales Tax . Following Campbell 's resignation , Howard endorsed Kevin Falcon but Christy Clark won the leadership election . Clark eventually made Howard a Parliamentary Secretary in the Ministry of Transportation . In this position he advocated for Open Sky agreements and continued this advocacy in his post @-@ political life by establishing the non @-@ profit organization OpenSkies4Canada . Howard did not seek re @-@ election during the 2013 provincial election and was replaced by BC Liberal Teresa Wat .
Prior to his election to the legislature , Howard worked in property management . He served as a City Councillor in the Richmond , British Columbia for seven years . He was first elected to the Richmond , British Columbia City Council in the October 2001 by @-@ election as a member of the Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association and was re @-@ elected in the November 2002 and 2005 civic elections as a member of the Richmond First Party . He sat on council as an independent starting in 2006 . While on council he advocated in favour of casino expansion , locating the Olympic speed @-@ skating oval in Richmond , and developing a convention centre .
= = Background = =
Rob Howard was born and raised in Richmond . He graduated from the University of British Columbia where he studied Urban Land Economics . He went on to work at Richmond Savings Credit Union for almost 20 years , and in 1994 , started his own business , NCL Real Estate Management , which specialized in Property Development and property management . He is married to Trudy and has one son , Justin ( Jay ) .
Howard volunteered with the Richmond Minor Hockey Association for over 12 years , and was active with Tourism Richmond , the Richmond Chamber of Commerce , and the Real Estate Institute of BC . While his mother had served as an Alderwoman on the Richmond City Council , Howard 's political career began with a civic bylaw election in October 2001 . Howard , belonging to the civic political party Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association , was elected to one of the three available seats on the Richmond City Council . After less than a year on council , Howard left the Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association to join a new pro @-@ business political party , Richmond First , which he saw as being less controlling and allowing him to make more independent decisions . He was re @-@ elected in the November 2002 civic election , with his Richmond First party taking four of the eight council seats .
On local issues , Howard was an advocate of opening Richmond to gambling facilities , which led to the River Rock Casino Resort . He was supportive of heritage preservation measures but opposed Richmond 's tree preservation bylaw . He was the only one on council who preferred the elevated option for the Canada Line ( then known as the Richmond @-@ Airport @-@ Vancouver Line ) , whereas the other councillors preferred the ground level option or no SkyTrain extension at all . He was an advocate for building a convention centre and the most ardent supporter of removing a 55 @-@ acre piece of land from the Agricultural Land Reserve as a possible location for it , though the removal was refused . When the possibility of the city constructing a speed @-@ skating oval associated with the 2010 Winter Olympics came , Howard was a vocal supporter . He travelled to Lillehammer , Norway , in 2004 as part of a committee to investigate similar facilities built for the 1994 Winter Olympics . He also traveled to Pierrefonds , Quebec and Asia as part of the sister city program . He was not supportive of proposals to build a new soccer facility or financially contributing to tall ships tourism attractions . Because previous councils had made funding commitments at the expense of the city 's reserve funds rather than the tax base , Howard 's time on council was marked with consistent property tax increases around 3 to 4 % each year . Howard unsuccessfully lobbied other councillors to hire more police officers . He became the subject of a lawsuit , along with other Richmond First councillors , alleging a conflict @-@ of @-@ interest occurred after they approved a rezoning allowing a controversial pub .
In the 2005 civic election , he was again elected , though his Richmond First party only won three of the eight seats . He unsuccessfully lobbied his fellow councillors to appoint him to fill one of Richmond 's two seats at Metro Vancouver . With not even his own party members supporting him for the Metro Vancouver seat and finding himself being alone in a number of issues , such as supporting the SkyTrain line being elevated , opposing the tree preservation bylaw , and wanting to hire more police officers , Howard left the Richmond First party in February 2006 to be an independent .
= = Provincial politics = =
Following the announcement by Richmond Centre MLA Olga Ilich that she would not be seeking re @-@ election , Howard announced , in January 2008 , that he would seek to replace Ilich as the BC Liberal Party candidate in the next election . As no one else came forward to challenge Howard , he was acclaimed , in November 2008 , to be the BC Liberal candidate . In the general election , held in May 2009 , he was challenged by a New Democratic Party candidate , notary public Kam Brar , and a Green Party candidate , teacher Michael Wolfe , and Nation Alliance Party candidate , accountant Kang Chen . The riding was considered to be a safe seat for the BC Liberals to win , which the 54 @-@ year @-@ old Howard did win with over 60 % of the vote , with his BC Liberal Party winning a majority government .
As the 39th Parliament began , BC Premier Gordon Campbell did not include Howard in his cabinet . Howard was appoint to the Select Standing Committee on Public Accounts in the first two sessions and then the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services in the third and fourth sessions , in which he chaired the committee and traveled the province gathering public input regarding budget spending priorities . He was also appointed to the Select Standing Committee on Crown Corporations and the Select Standing Committee on Education in the first two sessions , but neither committee held any meetings . He introduced one piece of legislation , a private members bill , the Trustee Board of the Church of God , Richmond Municipality , B.C. ( Corporate Restoration ) Act , 2009 ( Pr 402 ) which retroactively restored that organization 's corporate status .
Howard toured the province advocating for the federal government to enter into Open skies agreements with Asian nations . He also advocated for the Harmonized Sales Tax . Howard remained loyal to Premier Campbell , praising his October 2010 announcement of using the remainder of the budget to cut income tax by 15 % , two weeks before the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services was to deliver its report on public consultation for budget priorities . After Campbell resigned , and the tax cut undone , the 2011 BC Liberal leadership election ensued . Along with Richmond 's other two MLAs , John Yap and Linda Reid , Howard endorsed Kevin Falcon to be the new party leader , citing Falcon 's willingness to listen to all arguments and saying " I think he can bring a new dynamic , a youthful energy to the discussion ; he 's a great speaker , a great debater . " Christy Clark eventually won the leadership and became premier but , like Campbell , did not include Howard in the executive council . In March 2012 , Premier Clark promoted Howard to a parliamentary secretary position under the Ministry of Transportation and directed to focus on air services agreements where he served until September . In early 2013 , Howard was selected by BC Liberal caucus chair , Gordon Hogg , to assist with the party 's investigation into the party 's alleged use of government resources and employees in partisan promotional efforts in certain ethnic communities .
Following a summer of deliberations on his future , Howard cited " personal reasons " including a desire to spend more time with his wife , in his September 2012 announcement that he would not be seeking re @-@ election in the up @-@ coming May 2013 provincial general election . This decision was a surprise to his party because his Richmond Centre riding was considered a safe seat for him to be re @-@ elected . With no obvious successor , a competitive BC Liberal Party primary began . By the end of the year , two candidates announced their intention to run : school trustee Grace Tsang and RCMP officer Gary Law . However , Howard approached Teresa Wat , the CEO of the Chinese language radio station CHMB , to be his replacement . Though she did not live in the riding , she was viewed as a better candidate and , in January 2013 , the party announced she would be the candidate . While the other candidate Tsang withdrew his nomination to accept a position on a political advisory committee , Law alleged he was harassed to drop out and requested a RCMP investigation . Law decided to run as an independent candidate but only received xxx of the vote , with Wat winning the election and subsequently being named Minister of International Trade . Following the election Howard founded the non @-@ profit organization OpenSkies4Canada to advocate for Open Sky agreements to allow more airline competition in Canadian international airports .
= = Electoral history = =
= Oribi =
Oribi ( pronounced / ˈȯrəbē / ) ( Ourebia ourebi ) is a small antelope found in eastern , southern and western Africa . The sole member of its genus , the oribi was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782 . Eight subspecies are identified . The oribi reaches nearly 50 – 67 centimetres ( 20 – 26 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 12 – 22 kilograms ( 26 – 49 lb ) . This antelope features a slightly raised back , and long neck and limbs . The glossy , yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin , throat , underparts and rump . Only males possess horns ; the thin , straight horns , 8 – 18 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base .
Typically diurnal , the oribi is active mainly during the day . Small herds of up to four members are common ; males defend their group 's territory , 25 – 100 hectares ( 62 – 247 acres ) large . The oribi is primarily a grazer , and prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally . A seasonal breeder , the time when mating occurs varies geographically . Unlike all other small antelopes , oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems , depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry . Gestation lasts for six to seven months , following which a single calf is born ; births peak from November to December in southern Africa . Weaning takes place at four to five months .
The oribi occurs in a variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10 – 100 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 – 39 @.@ 4 in ) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above the sea level . This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution , ranging from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape ( South Africa ) . The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN ; numbers have declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the oribi is Ourebia ourebi . The sole member of its genus , the oribi is placed under the family Bovidae . The species was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782 . The oribi was formerly included in the tribe Neotragini , that comprised a variety of other dwarf antelopes , including Dorcatragus ( beira ) , Madoqua ( dik dik ) , Neotragus , Oreotragus ( klipspringer ) and Raphicerus . In 1963 , German mammalogist Theodor Haltenorth separated the oribi and Raphicerus into a new tribe , Raphicerini ; later on , zoologist Jonathan Kingdon assigned the oribi to Ourebini , a tribe of its own . The common name " oribi " ( pronounced / ˈȯrəbē / ) comes from the Afrikaans name for the animal , oorbietjie .
In a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data in 2013 , Eva Verena Bärmann ( of the University of Cambridge ) and colleagues showed that the oribi is the sister taxon to all other antilopines . The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study .
The following eight subspecies are identified :
Of these , zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identify O. o. hastata , O. o. montana , O. o. ourebi and O. o. quadriscopa as independent species in their 2011 publication Ungulate Taxonomy .
= = Description = =
The oribi is a small , slender antelope ; it reaches nearly 50 – 67 centimetres ( 20 – 26 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 12 – 22 kilograms ( 26 – 49 lb ) . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 92 and 110 centimetres ( 36 and 43 in ) . Sexually dimorphic , males are slightly smaller than females ( except for O. o. ourebi , in which females are smaller ) . This antelope features a slightly raised back , and long neck and limbs . The glossy , yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin , throat , underparts and rump . The bushy tail , brown to black on the outside , has white insides ( except in O. o. hastata , that has a completely black tail ) . The subspecies show some variation in colouration ; O. o. ourebi is a rich rufous , while O. o. hastata is yellower .
Only males possess horns ; the thin , straight horns , 8 – 18 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base . The maximum horn length , 19 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , was recorded in 1998 from Malawi . The oribi has at least six different , well @-@ developed scent glands ( such as the prominent preorbital glands near the eyes ) . The body has several modifications , such as the large fossae below the eyes , to accommodate such a large number of glands . Females have four teats .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The oribi is diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) , though some activity may also be observed at night . The animal rests in cover during rain events . Unlike all other small antelopes , oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems , depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry ; polygyny tends to prevail as the female @-@ to @-@ male ratio increases . A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk , as it leads to formation of groups as an anti @-@ predator measure . Small herds of up to four members are also common .
Males defend their group 's territory , 25 – 100 hectares ( 62 – 247 acres ) large ; female members may also show some aggression and drive away intruders . A study showed that the number of females that visit the male 's territory depends on the appearance ( particularly the symmetry ) of the male 's horns . Males mark vegetation and soil in their territories by preorbital gland secretions and excrement ; the intensity of marking increases with the number of male neighbours . Dominant males tend to have greater access to females in and around the territory than other males . An important feature of the social behaviour of oribi is the " dung ceremony " , in which all animals form temporary dung middens . Oribi at least three months old have been observed giving out one to three alarm whistles on sensing danger . These whistles are more common in adults than in juveniles , and males appear to whistle more . Common predators include carnivorans such as jackals .
= = = Diet = = =
Primarily a grazer , the oribi prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally . Grasses can constitute up to 90 % of the diet ; preferred varieties include Andropogon , Eulalia , Hyparrhenia , Loudetia , Pennisetum and Themeda species . Mineral licks are also visited regularly . Oribi have been observed feeding on flowers and Boletus mushrooms . Groups of oribi congregate in the rainy season , when grasses are abundant .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both sexes become sexually mature at 10 to 14 months . A seasonal breeder , the time when mating occurs varies geographically . Mating may peak in the rainy season ( August to September ) . When a female enters oestrus ( which lasts for four to six days ) , it seeks the company of males . During courtship , the male will pursue the female , test her urine to check if she is in oestrus and lick her rump and flanks . Gestation lasts for six to seven months , following which a single calf is born ; births peak from November to December in southern Africa . The newborn is kept in concealment for nearly a month ; the mother pays regular visits to her calf to suckle it for nearly half an hour . Males may guard their offspring from predators and keep away other males . Weaning takes place at four to five months . The oribi lives for 8 to 12 years in the wild , and for 12 to 14 years in captivity .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The oribi occurs in a variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10 – 100 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 – 39 @.@ 4 in ) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above the sea level . Recently burnt areas often attract groups of oribi . The choice of habitat depends on the availability of cover needed to escape the eyes of predators . Population densities typically vary between 2 and 10 individuals per km2 ; however , densities as high as 45 individuals per km2 have been recorded in tropical grasslands that receive over 110 centimetres ( 43 in ) of annual rainfall and open floodplains . The oribi 's range overlaps with those of larger grazers such as the African buffalo , hippopotamus , hartebeest , Thomson 's gazelle and topi . These separate species often occur in close proximity to each other , increasing predator vigilance .
This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution ; it occurs mainly in eastern , southern and western Africa , ranging from Nigeria and Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape ( South Africa ) . It is feared to be extinct in Burundi .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN . The total population ( as of 2008 ) is estimated at 750 @,@ 000 . However , the subspecies O. o. haggardi is listed as Vulnerable because , as of 2008 , the total population is estimated at less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , and is feared to be declining . Hunting is a relatively minor threat , since the oribi shows some tolerance to hunting . Nevertheless , the steep fall of 92 % in oribi populations in Comoé National Park ( Côte d 'Ivoire ) has been attributed to poaching . Numbers have also declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock .
The oribi occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range , such as : Gashaka Gumti National Park in Nigeria , the Pendjari and W National Parks ( Benin ) ; Aouk Hunting Zone ( Chad ) ; Benoue , Bouba Njida and Faro National Parks ( Cameroon ) ; Manovo @-@ Gounda St. Floris National Park ( Central African Republic ) ; Garamba , Upemba and Kundelungu National Parks ( Congo @-@ Kinshasa ) ; Omo National Park ( Ethiopia ) ; Masai Mara Game Reserve and Ruma National Park ( Kenya ) ; Golden Gate Highlands National Park ( South Africa ) ; Serengeti National Park ( Tanzania ) ; Kidepo Valley , Lake Mburo and Murchison Falls National Parks ( Uganda ) ; Kafue and Liuwa Plain National Parks and Bangweulu Swamp ( Zambia ) .
= Rockstar 101 =
" Rockstar 101 " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song features the British @-@ American guitarist Slash of the rock group Guns N ' Roses . It was released on May 18 , 2010 , as the fifth single from the album . Rihanna wrote the song in collaboration with the producers The @-@ Dream and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart ; vocal production was carried out by Makeba Riddick . The album version is a hip hop song , while the remix EP 's consist of dance , dubstep and electronic music adaptations , some of which were remixed by Dave Audé and Mark Picchiotti .
Critical response to " Rockstar 101 " was mixed ; some critics praised Rihanna 's " bravado " while others criticized the " aggressive " tone . The song charted at number 64 on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number two on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . To promote the song , Rihanna performed on American Idol in April 2010 . It has been included on the set lists of her Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) and Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) . Melina Matsoukas directed the song 's music video , which portrays Rihanna impersonating Slash . She wears custom made jewelry designed by Fannie Schiavoni in some parts of the video , while Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker makes a cameo appearance .
= = Background and release = =
Rihanna co @-@ wrote " Rockstar 101 " in collaboration with the song 's producers The @-@ Dream and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart . Her vocals and the instrumentation for the song were recorded at Serenity Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California , the Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California and Triangle Sound Studios in Atlanta , Georgia . It was mixed by Jaycen Joshua at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California ; he was assisted in the process by Giancarlo Lino . Rihanna 's vocals were produced by Makeba Riddick . The song was engineered by Marcus Tovar , Brian " B @-@ LUV " Thomas , Andrew Wuepper and Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan . Additional engineering was done by Pat Thrall . Guitar was provided by Tim Stewart , while Monte Neuble performed additional keys . The song features a guitar performance by Slash , the British @-@ American musician , songwriter and former lead guitarist of the American hard rock band Guns N ' Roses .
" Rockstar 101 " was the fourth single from the album Rated R to be released in the US and the fifth overall . It was sent to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio stations in the US on May 18 , 2010 , and to Australian radio stations on July 19 , 2010 . The song was released as an extended play ( EP ) in the United States through Masterbeat.com on June 2 , 2010 , to the iTunes Store on July 13 , and in the United Kingdom through Amazon on June 29 , 2010 . These EP 's consist of remixes by various DJs and music producers , including Dave Audé and Mark Picchiotti .
= = Composition = =
" Rockstar 101 " is a hip hop song which lasts for three minutes and fifty @-@ eight seconds . It features an " aggressive " guitar solo from Slash , according to Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly . Rihanna uses her lower register and " heavy " modulation to perform the most of the song , and she " growls " the lyric " The only thing I 'm missing is a black guitar " . Rihanna " struts her stuff " as she insists that she is a " big shit talker " as she proclaims that " I 'll never play a victim / I 'd rather be a stalker " . Sean Fennessey for Spin thought that when Rihanna sings the line " Got my middle finger up , I don 't give a fuck " , it sounded as though she had never sworn before due to how she preciously mewls the word ' fuck ' .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Rockstar 101 " received mixed responses from music critics . Brian Linder for IGN praised the song , writing that it " actually works " despite sounding disjointed at first . Emily Tartanella of PopMatters defined " Rockstar 101 " as a " brilliant bit of bravado " during her review of Rated R , while Ailbhe Malone for NME wrote that Rihanna sings with " swagger " on the track , which was something that she has Hova to thank for . Jon Pareles for The New York Times simply highlighted a line from the song , " I never play the victim " . Neil McCormick for The Daily Telegraph thought that " Rockstar 101 " was one of the few songs on the album to retain the " vaguest leftover hints of her warm Caribbean vocal flavouring " . Ann Powers for the Los Angeles Times was critical of Slash 's inclusion on the song , and she described it as an " afterthought " . Powers wrote " she can definitely get by without that ultimate rock phallic symbol " , a reference to Slash . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombell felt that " Rockstar 101 , alike " Russian Roulette " and " The Last Song " , were " instantly @-@ dated missteps from a bygone era when a Slash feature was cool " . He further wrote that " Rockstar 101 " and " G4L " were " harder to justify considering their mindless boasts and torpid production " . The song was met with a negative review from The Guardian 's Alex Petridis , who wrote " At one extreme , the resemblance of ' Umbrella ' ' s chorus to that of a stadium rock ballad seems to have encouraged Rihanna to cut out the middle @-@ man and just start making stadium rock : cue the awful widdly @-@ woo guitars of ' Rockstar 101 ' and ' Fire Bomb ' " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Rockstar 101 " made its first chart appearance on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it peaked at number two ; it stayed on the chart for 14 weeks . The song peaked on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 28 , spending seven weeks on the chart . It subsequently peaked at number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and spent five weeks on the chart . It also peaked at number 10 on the US R & B / Hip @-@ hop Digital Songs chart . " Rockstar 101 " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 50 on August 22 , 2010 ; it peaked at number 24 two weeks later for one week , and remained on the chart for six weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The director Melina Matsoukas filmed the music video for " Rockstar 101 " in April 2010 ; she had previously directed the videos for Rihanna 's singles " Hard " and " Rude Boy " . This video was edited by Nabil Mechi from Murex , who previously edit videos for " S.O.S. " and " Umbrella " . On May 19 , 2010 , Rihanna released a 30 @-@ second sneak @-@ peek preview of the video on the internet , whilst the full video premiered on May 25 , 2010 through the high @-@ definition music video website VEVO .
= = = Synopsis = = =
According to Jayson Rodriguez of MTV , the video is " a mix of goth bondage @-@ esque voyeurism , complete with Rihanna 's gyrating moves and a raging band that features Travis Barker on the drums . " Shortly after the video was released , Slash said that he was " flattered " that Rihanna had impersonated him in the video , saying " The video is way better with her being me than with me being me ... all things considered , it brings an element of sexuality to it that I probably wouldn 't have been capable of . I think it 's hot . Everything works out the way it 's supposed to . "
Although Slash is featured on " Rockstar 101 " , he does not appear in the music video . Instead , Rihanna pays homage to him by impersonating him by presenting herself wearing a skull @-@ laden top hat , wig , leather jacket , dark glasses and toothpick : Rihanna can be seen strumming a guitar Slash 's style . Rihanna is seen in eight different scenes and settings , one of which showed an almost nude Rihanna covered in black body paint wearing only a spiked crown and jewelry chains , which were created by designer Fannie Schiavoni . In other scenes , Rihanna smashes a black electric guitar and can be seen wearing an outfit made from parts of a guitar . Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker makes a cameo appearance and is featured as one of the drummers in Rihanna 's rock band .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna first performed " Rockstar 101 " on American Idol on April 7 , 2010 . She wore a black PVC catsuit and was accompanied on stage by guitarist Nuno Bettencourt ; the set design included flame throwers and a video screen which showed guitars , lightning bolts and skulls . At one point , the singer picked and played up a black Gibson Flying V guitar . Larry Carroll for MTV wrote that the extent of Rihanna 's ability to play the guitar was limited to playing it with one finger on one of the strings . However , he complimented Rihanna 's overall performance , writing that her shoulder pads were " nearly as huge as her presence " . He went on to write that she " half @-@ sung , half @-@ spoke " the song . A reviewer for MTV UK agreed with Carroll , writing that " halfway through the performance [ Rihanna ] donned a ' black flying v guitar ' although we 're not sure you could say she ' played ' it ! " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone praised Rihanna 's performance , writing " if the introductory rules of rock stardom are ' teach thyself to pick slide , ' ' tight clothes ' and ' pyro ! ' then Rihanna has been paying attention in her ' Rockstar 101 ' classes after all " .
A reporter for the Daily Mail wrote that Rihanna displayed her competitive side during her performance on American Idol , after " Lady Gaga set such high standards " . Writing for About.com , Bill Lamb was critical of Rihanna 's decision to perform " Rockstar 101 " on American Idol . He commented that previous media reports had indicated that the singer would be debuting a different album track , " Te Amo " , which was later released as the sixth and final single from Rated R. Lamb thought that " Rockstar 101 " was one of the " weaker " songs on the album , and predicted that it would be " destined to end the streak of three consecutive top 10 pop hits from the album " . While he wrote that the " intensely chilly , distant feel of the song works " within the context of Rated R , Lamb was unsure of whether or not it would appeal to the masses on radio . The song was included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . Clay Cane for BET wrote that Rihanna " deserves a round of applause for doing something different , straying away from being a standard pop tart " . " Rockstar 101 " is also included on Rihanna 's Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Serenity Sound Studios , Los Angeles , CA ; The Boom Boom Room , Burbank CA ; Triangle Sound Studios , Atlanta , GA
Mixed at Larrabee Studios , Universal City , CA
Personnel
Credits adapted from the inlay cover of Rated R.
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio =
St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio is a small medieval church , dating from the 15th century , near Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , in Anglesey , north Wales . It served as a chapel of ease to another church in the area , St Ceidio 's . Some restoration work was carried out in the 19th century , but St Mary 's has since fallen into disuse and is now largely in ruins .
It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is " a late Medieval church of exceptionally simple character " , and is virtually unaltered despite its poor condition . One writer has said that St Mary 's " has the distinction of probably being the most isolated church in Anglesey " .
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is in the countryside in Rhodogeidio , in Anglesey , north Wales . It is about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , towards the north of Anglesey . It is reached by a footpath from a farm – it is only accessible on foot – and is surrounded by a churchyard .
It was built in the 15th century as a chapel of ease to serve St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio , about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 25 km ) to the east . Restoration work was carried out in the 19th century , but the church later fell into disuse . It has been in ruins since sometime between 1937 , when the survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded its condition as " fair " , and 1970 , when it was given listed building status and its " very poor " condition noted .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Mary 's is a small church , measuring 30 feet by 12 feet 3 inches ( about 9 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) . It dates from the late medieval period , and was constructed using rubble masonry and large stones . It had a slate roof , although most of the roof has now | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Varndean Grammar School , he worked at Brighton Museum . Gaining a London External Degree in anthropology in 1935 , he developed a lifelong interest in the religious and magical beliefs of England . After serving in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War , he returned to working at Brighton Museum , but in 1950 was appointed Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in the City of London . Over a six @-@ month period in 1956 and 1957 , he was stationed in Accra , Ghana , where he worked at the National Museum of Ghana , organising the collection in preparation for the country 's independence from the British Empire in March 1957 . Returning to the Guildhall Museum , Merrifield compiled the first detailed study of Roman London for 35 years , which was published as The Roman City of London ( 1965 ) . Following the creation of the Museum of London in 1975 , he became its Deputy Director , a post which he held until his retirement in 1978 .
In the preface of The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic , Merrifield noted that the book 's bias was to the archaeology of London , and that this was particularly evident in its use of illustrations . He dedicated the book to the memory of H.S. Toms , the former Curator of Brighton Museum and a one @-@ time assistant to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers ; in his dedication , Merrifield noted that Toms had been his " first mentor in archaeology and folk studies " .
= = Synopsis = =
In his preface , Merrifield noted that while archaeologists studying prehistoric periods have paid increasing attention to the evidence for ritual and magic in the archaeological record , their counterparts working in later historical periods have failed to follow their lead . Presenting this book as a rectifier , he outlines his intentions and the study 's limitations .
Chapter one , " Ritual and the archaeologist " , begins by describing the ritual deposits from the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age sites of Cadbury Castle and Danebury , hillforts in southern Britain . Merrifield laments the fact that the majority of archaeologists , particularly those studying literate , historical periods , have avoided ritual explanations for unusual phenomenon in the archaeological record ; he believes that they exhibit a " ritual phobia " . He contrasts this view with that of those archaeologists studying the Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain , who have widely accepted the ritual uses of chambered tombs and stone circles . He specifies particular definitions for words such as " ritual " , " religion " and " superstition " , arguing that such terms must be used with precision by archaeologists . Offering a case study , he describes how Neolithic stone axes were adopted as amulets or talismans in the later Roman Iron Age onward in Britain , and that as such archaeologists should expect to find them in non @-@ prehistoric contexts .
In the second chapter , " Offerings to earth and water in Pre @-@ Roman and Roman Times " , Merrifield explores the various forms of archaeological evidence for ritual deposits in the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age of Britain . He provides an overview of the evidence for animal and human sacrifice , as well as that in support of ritual offerings in bodies of water such as the River Thames . Merrifield deals with votive deposits on land , in particular looking at the evidence for deposition in ditches , shafts and wells . He rounds off the chapter by examining evidence for Iron Age rituals that took place at the commencement and termination of building constructions . Chapter three , " Rituals of Death " , deals with the religious rituals accompanying death and burial , and their visibility in the archaeological record . It explains the three main ways which human communities have dealt with the corpses of the dead : through exposing them to elements and scavengers , through inhumation and through cremation . Looing at beliefs surrounding the afterlife , Merrifield discusses ways in which these beliefs might be visible in the archaeological record , such as through the deposition of grave goods . Discussing evidence for rituals of separation through which the deceased is separated from the world of the living , including those that deal with the decapitation of the body , Merrifield then looks at the effect of Christianity on burials in Europe , arguing that it brought a new intimacy with the dead through the collection of relics , which was in contrast to the pagan beliefs of the Roman Empire , which portrayed the deceased as unclean .
The fourth chapter , " From Paganism to Christianity " , explores the continuing practice of ritual in Christian Europe . Discussing the early Roman Catholic Church 's demonisation of pagan deities , Merrifield states that the Church continued propagating a form of polytheism through the " cult of the blessed dead " , the veneration of saints and martyrs , throughout the Middle Ages . Discussing the ritual use of Christian relics , he also looks at votive offerings that were presented in a Christian context at shrines and churches , paying particular reference to the tradition of offering bent coins to shrines in Late Medieval England . Examining the construction of churches on earlier pagan ritual sites , he deals with evidence for the destruction of pagan statues by the early Christians .
Chapter five , " Survivals , revivals and reinterpretations " , continues Merrifield 's exploration of ritual practices in Christian Europe . He examines Late- and Post @-@ Medieval items that have been deposited in rivers , including swords and pilgrimage souvenirs , speculating that their deposition might represent a survival from the pagan tradition of casting votive offerings into water . He speculates that the contemporary practice of throwing a coin into a fountain for good luck is a further survival of the custom . He then discusses the evidence for ritual foundation deposits under buildings , noting the widespread Medieval deposition of an animal 's head or jaw in a construction 's foundations , presumably for protective magical purposes . Proceeding to deal with the Late- and Post @-@ Medieval deposition of pots under foundations , he looks at their place in churches , where it was believed that they aided the acoustics . Continuing with this theme , he discusses the British folk custom of burying a horse 's head under the floor to improve a building 's acoustics , speculating as to whether this was a survival of the pagan foundation deposit custom . Rounding off the chapter , Merrifield examines at magical items that have been intentionally placed in the walls , chimneys and roofs of buildings in Britain , in particular the widespread use of dead cats and old shoes .
In the sixth chapter , " Written spells and charms " , Merrifield discusses the use of the written word in magical contexts . Highlighting archaeological examples from the ancient Graeco @-@ Roman world , he looks at inscriptions on lead tablets that were buried in cemeteries and amphitheatres , both places associated with the dead . Moving on to the use of magic squares , Merrifield highlights various examples of the Sator square in archaeological contexts , before also discussing squares that contained numerical data with astrological significance . He rounds off the chapter with an examination of Post @-@ Medieval curses and charms containing the written word , citing examples that have been found by archaeologists across Britain , hidden inside various parts of buildings . In the seventh chapter , " Charms against witchcraft " , he deals with archaeological evidence for a variety of Early Modern and Modern British spells designed to ward off malevolent witchcraft . After briefly discussing the role of holed stone charms , he looks at the evidence for witch bottles , making reference to their relation to beliefs about witches ' familiars . Proceeding to focus on 19th- and 20th @-@ century examples , Merrifield discusses the case of James Murrell , an English cunning man , and his involvement with the witch bottle tradition . Merrifield 's final chapter , " The ritual of superstition : recognition and potential for study " , provides an overview of the entire book , highlighting the evidence of ritual continuity from pre @-@ Christian periods to the present day . Pointing out what he sees as areas of further exploration for archaeologists , he calls for " systematic investigation " of the subject .
= = Reception and recognition = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic was reviewed by John Hutchings for the Folklore journal , the published arm of The Folklore Society . He highlighted how the work would be of benefit to folklorists , by putting various charms then in museum exhibits – such as dead cats , buried shoes and witch bottles – into the wider context of ritual activity . He opined that it was " a little disappointing " that the examples were almost all from London and the Home Counties , but described the book as " lucidly written , carefully argued , and well illustrated . "
In a short review for The Antiquaries Journal , the historian of religion Hilda Ellis Davidson praised the " cautious and balanced arguments " of Merrifield 's work . She opined that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore , noting that the wide array of evidence for ritual behaviour in the archaeological record would surprise " many readers " .
= = = Wider recognition = = =
Writing Merrifield 's obituary for The Independent newspaper , the Museum of London archaeologist Peter Marsden described The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic as " a masterly study of an unusual subject . " The importance of Merrifield 's book was discussed by the Englishman Brian Hoggard , an independent researcher who authored a 2004 academic paper entitled " The archaeology of counter @-@ witchcraft and popular magic " . Being published in the Beyond the Witch Trials anthology , edited by the historians Owen Davies and Willem de Blécourt , Hoggard recounted that The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic was the " notable exception " to a trend in which archaeological studies of magic were restricted to small journals , magazines and newspaper articles .
The influential nature of Merrifield 's work was also recognised by the Medieval archaeologist Roberta Gilchrist of the University of Reading . In an academic paper published in a 2008 edition of the Medieval Archaeology journal , Gilchrist referenced Merrifield 's study , noting that it offered a " rare contribution " to the archaeology of ritual and magic in Britain . In particular she highlighted his belief that many archaeologists dealing with literate cultures exhibited a " ritual phobia " as accurate .
= History of Braathens SAFE ( 1946 – 93 ) =
Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S or Braathens SAFE was founded by ship @-@ owner Ludvig G. Braathen in 1946 . It started as a charter airline based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in Norway , flying to destinations in the Far East and in South America . At first the airline used Douglas DC @-@ 4s , and later also Douglas DC @-@ 3s . In 1948 , the airline moved to Oslo Airport , Fornebu and started regular scheduled flights to the Far East . In 1952 , the airline started cooperation with the Icelandic airline Loftleidir , where until 1960 the two airlines in cooperation flew flights to Reykjavík . Domestic services started in 1951 , using de Havilland Herons on a route from Oslo to Stavanger via Tønsberg . Braathens SAFE also established at Stavanger Airport , Sola . A second route was started two years later to Trondheim . The Heron routes also stopped in Farsund , Kristiansand , Notodden to Stavanger and Hamar , Røros to Trondheim .
In 1958 , Braathens SAFE started flying to Ålesund and at the same time started flights along the West Coast . In 1959 , Fokker F @-@ 27s were taken into use , and with the Herons taken out of service , Hamar , Farsund and Tønsberg were terminated . During 1960 , the airline flew a single season to Sandefjord and Aalborg . The company also entered the domestic and international charter market during the 1960s , an industry where the airline would eventually grow to become a large Norwegian and Swedish contestant . Services to Bodø and Tromsø started in 1967 , although only from Western Norway . Braathens ' main domestic competitor was Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , which operated all the primary domestic routes Braathens SAFE did not , in addition to the international routes . Braathens took Boeing 737 @-@ 200s and Fokker F @-@ 28s into use in 1969 ; Kristiansund was first served in 1970 and Molde in 1972 . From 1984 , the airline also operated two Boeing 767s , although they were retired along with the F @-@ 28s were in 1986 . Services to Longyearbyen started in 1987 . From 1987 , Braathens SAFE was allowed to make international scheduled flights on certain routes . In 1989 , it opened a route to Billund , in 1991 to Malmö , Newcastle and London , and in 1993 to Murmansk . From 1989 to 1994 , the airline replaced its fleet with Boeing 737 @-@ 400 and -500s . From 1989 to 1994 , Braathens Helikopter operated services on contract with oil companies to their oil platforms in the North Sea .
= = Far East = =
Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S was founded on 26 March 1946 by Ludvig G. Braathen through his shipping company Braathens Rederi . Share capital was NOK 4 million , plus loans from the shipping company . Braathens had made good money during World War II with the participation in the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission , and received permission to use US $ 1 million to purchase aircraft . The idea to start an airline had occurred to Braathen in 1936 , when the ship Brajara had engine trouble while en route to Japan . The Japanese shipyards could not guarantee that they could repair the ship , and at first it was considered whether the ship should be towed to Europe for repairs . The solution chosen was instead to have the necessary piece made in Amsterdam and flown by KLM . Braathen wanted to have an airline that would be able to fly crew and supplies to his and other ships throughout the world — primarily in the Far East .
Braathen traveled to the United States , where he bought several used Douglas C @-@ 54 ( DC @-@ 4 ) aircraft from the United States Air Force . These were rebuilt by Texas Maintenance Company ( Temco ) in Fort Worth , Texas , giving them a capacity of 44 passengers , or 22 passengers and 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) of cargo . Twenty pilots were recruited and sent to Fort Worth for certification . The first plane , LN @-@ HAV Norse Explorer , landed at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen on 26 December 1946 . The next planes were LN @-@ HAT Norse Skyfarer on 11 February 1947 and LN @-@ NAU Norse Trader on 13 March .
The first route ran from Oslo to Cairo via Copenhagen and Paris on 30 January 1947 . Afterwards , the company was chartered for several trips from Paris and Marseille , France , to Lydda , Palestine , and Tunis , Tunisia . From Lydda , the aircraft were used to evacuate French and British personnel prior to the creation of Israel . The company 's route to Hong Kong was the longest air route in the world . At the time , the only scheduled service to the Far East was operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation using Sandringham flying boats . This route took a fortnight , while KLM had a land @-@ plane route from Amsterdam to Batavia ( Djarkarta ) . The first Braathens SAFE flight was made on 24 February from Oslo , landing at Amsterdam , Marseille , Cairo , Basra , Karachi , Culcutta and Bangkok before Hong Kong , where Norske Skyfarer landed on 8 March . Total flight time was 46 hours . Along the route , Braathens SAFE established contracts with agents , or stationed their own employees .
The regular services could be done with a round trip time of nine to ten days , including overnighting in Cairo , Karachi and Bangkok , and with technical revision of the plane in Hong Kong . At first there were semiweekly services , but by the end of 1947 , these had increased to weekly . In June , Braathens SAFE bought a Douglas DC @-@ 3 , LN @-@ PAS Norse Carrier , and in August another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ PAW Norse Commander , both from KLM . In 1947 , Braathens SAFE flew twenty @-@ five trips to Hong Kong , five to New York and one to Johannesburg , South Africa , making a profit of NOK 750 @,@ 000 . The following year , Braathens SAFE started the first trial flights to South America . The first flight was made on 23 August from Stavanger via Reykjavík , Gander and Bermuda to Caracas , where the plane landed on 26 August . In October , the airline flew to Panama , but neither route gave sufficient contracts to commence regular services . In 1948 , the airline made fifty trips to Hong Kong , eight to Johannesburg , two to the United States , three to Venezuela and two to Panama .
= = Concession = =
During World War II , the civil aviation planning was conducted by the Aviation Council . In 1945 , they started a limited number of flights that were operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force . On 2 July 1946 , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , several large shipping companies and other private investors reestablished Det Norske Luftfartselskap ( DNL ) , with the state owning 20 % and the shipping companies 49 % . This airline was granted a 20 @-@ year monopoly on domestic and international flights . According to the concession , only routes that DNL were not willing to fly themselves , could be granted to other airlines .
By 1948 , Braathens SAFE 's routes were so regular that several countries stated that a bilateral agreement would have to be negotiated for them to continue . However , the concession that had been granted to DNL did not allow Braathens to fly any scheduled flights . Braathens SAFE applied for fifteen @-@ year concession on 5 February 1948 ; Minister of Transport Nils Langhelle from the Labor Party knew that he would be violating DNL 's concession by granting Braathens SAFE a concession , but at the same time he was worried that Braathens SAFE could easily flag out to another country , from which DNL would receive no protection . The exception in DNL 's concession could not be used , since DNL declared that they , through the Scandinavian cooperation Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , were planning to start a route to the far east . The Directorate for Civil Aviation stated that it was unlikely that DNL / SAS would start such a route within a few years , and recommended Langhelle that Braathens SAFE be granted the route . Concession was granted by the Norwegian Parliament on 3 February 1949 , with a duration of five years . The airline had to follow the route Oslo or Stavanger – Amsterdam – Geneva – Rome – Cairo – Basra – Karachi – Bombay – Calcutta – Bangkok – Hong Kong . The concession was made conditional that Braathens SAFE built a technical base at Stavanger Airport , Sola .
The Hong Kong @-@ route was officially opened on 5 August 1949 . Braathens SAFE had then moved its operative base from Gardermoen to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The company stationed technical employees in Rome , Karachi , Bangkok and Hong Kong , as well as having an agreement with KLM . The planes would stop each night and crew and passengers would stay at a hotel . Cabin crew had no training , and learned the job as they worked . Chicken was the most common lunch meal , and the cabin crew had to purchase this fresh each day , usually observing the slaughter to ensure its freshness . In 1949 , sixty @-@ seven flights were made to Hong Kong , as well as two to Tokyo , to Venezuela and one to Johannesburg .
In 1950 , it became increasingly clear that the SAS @-@ cooperation was weak , and that either a full merger or a discontinuation of the cooperation would be necessary . Braathen suggested to the government that DNL , Fred . Olsen Airtransport and Braathens SAFE should merge to create a new domestic airline , but this proposal was rejected by both DNL and Fred . Olsen . In 1949 , the Swedish branch of SAS , Aerotransport ( ABA ) , and the Danish branch , Det Danske Luftfartselskab ( DDL ) started a joint route to the Far East . For a merger to be completed , Danish and Swedish authorities required that SAS be granted all international routes from Norway , meaning that Braathens SAFE would lose its concession from 1 March 1954 . The SAS merger was completed on 8 August 1951 .
Braathens SAFE applied for a concession on a route from Norway to New York on 27 March 1950 . This would allow the airline to connect the route to the Hong Kong @-@ flights , giving one continual service . The proposal would involve the purchase of Douglas DC @-@ 6B or Lockheed L @-@ 1049 Super Constellation aircraft . The proposal was rejected by the government on 19 April . The following year , Braathens SAFE applied to extend the route to Tokyo , but this was also rejected by the government . In 1951 , the company applied to purchase two Super Constellations to replace two sold DC @-@ 4s , which was granted , and on 14 January 1953 for an extension of the concession for another ten years . On 13 November 1953 , the government rejected the concession application , stating that Norway was bound to grant the concession to SAS on the basis of the merger agreement .
= = = Icelandic cooperation = = =
In 1952 , the Icelandic airline Loftleidir was granted the concession to fly from Keflavík Airport outside Reykjavík to New York and Chicago in the United States , and to Oslo , Copenhagen and London . The company established a hub at Keflavík . Braathens SAFE and Loftleidir made an agreement where Braathens SAFE would lease personnel and mechanical services to Loftleidir , and the two would split profits from the joint venture evenly . This allowed the two airlines to have a continual route between Hong Kong and New York as long as Braathens SAFE 's concession lasted . In 1954 , another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ HHK , was bought . This aircraft was sold to Loftleidir the following year . In 1956 , another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ SUP , was bought , and used for charter and by Loftleidir . In 1959 and 1960 , Loftleidir received two new Douglas DC @-@ 6B aircraft , with a five @-@ year mechanical agreement with Braathens SAFE . In 1960 , the two companies agreed to terminate the cooperation from 1 January 1961 .
= = Domestic with Herons = =
From 1950 , Braathens SAFE started flying charter services to Europe with Douglas DC @-@ 6 , mainly to Copenhagen and Paris . DNL protested because Braathens SAFE was charging too low ticket prices , while DDL protested against the flights to Copenhagen . In September 1951 , Braathens SAFE offered Danish authorities to fly all domestic routes without subsidies , but this was rejected because such a permit could only be issued to Danish airlines . After World War II , only Fornebu , Stavanger Airport , Sola and Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik were in use as land airport . A plan for construction was passed by parliament in 1952 , that based the financing of airports as joint civilian and military airports , with funding from NATO .
In 1951 , Braathens SAFE applied for concession for a route from Oslo to Bodø via Trondheim without subsidies . They also stated that they were willing to fly all domestic routes without subsidies , granted that they were awarded all routes . This was based on the acquisition of de Havilland Heron aircraft , which could use shorter runways and has a capacity of 15 people . SAS was granted the concession to Bodø and Trondheim , but the Ministry of Transport issued a concession to Braathens SAFE on the route from Oslo via Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg to Stavanger . The plane started in Stavanger in the morning , and operated the opposite direction of SAS ' route from Oslo to Stavanger , which continued onwards to London . The first flight was made on 3 May 1952 , with the Heron LN @-@ PSG Per . From 7 to 14 May , the plane went on a tour of the country , visiting several airports . Regular services started on 18 August and a one @-@ way ticket cost NOK 95 .
On 30 January 1953 , Braathens SAFE applied to start a route from Oslo to Trondheim Airport , Lade . A trial permit was granted , and the first flight was made on 18 August . Because Lade had a grass runway , Trondheim Airport , Værnes was used during bad weather . SAS flew a morning flight from Oslo , while Braathens flew the morning route from Trondheim . In 1953 , Braathens SAFE stated that to keep their 210 employees and fleet of one DC @-@ 4 , one DC @-@ 3 and two Herons , they would have to receive future domestic services , to compensate for more than 90 % of their revenue disappearing with the loss of the Far East route . In 1953 , Braathens SAFE applied to fly five routes : Bardufoss – Alta – Kirkenes ; Stavanger – Bergen – Trondheim ( both with Herons ) ; Tromsø – Alta – Hammerfest ; Bodø – Harstad ; and Bodø – Harstad – Tromsø ( all with de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 3 Otters ) . The five routes would require NOK 725 @,@ 000 in annual subsidies . The concessions were granted to DNL , who allowed their partially owned subsidiary Widerøe to fly the sea routes .
Braathens bought six Herons , in addition to one that was leased during 1954 . They had been given the common Norwegian names Per , Ola , Pål and Lars . Because of replacements , the airline never operated more than four at a time . In June 1955 , Braathens SAFE started landing some of the Oslo – Stavanger planes at Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik and Farsund Airport , Lista . The route , nicknamed the " Milk Route " , operated Stavanger – Farsund – Kristiansand – Tønsberg – Oslo in the morning , with a return in the evening . The same year , SAS and Braathens SAFE started negotiating splitting up the domestic routes . Nils Langhelle , then regional director in SAS , suggested creating a merged subsidiary that could fly all domestic routes . On 16 May 1956 , Braathens SAFE started landing at Hamar Airport , Stafsberg on the Oslo – Trondheim route , and at Notodden Airport , Tuven on the Oslo – Stavanger route . Both airports had 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) runways that could only be served by small aircraft such as the Heron . From 1959 , services to both airports were terminated . Røros Airport was opened on 19 July 1957 , and Braathens SAFE landed some of the Oslo – Trondheim services there . After 1958 , services were terminated , but after the runway was extended from 1 @,@ 360 to 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 4 @,@ 460 to 5 @,@ 250 ft ) , it was taken into use again in 1963 .
The route Stavanger – Bergen – Trondheim was awarded to Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap in 1956 , but this company filed for bankruptcy the following year . Ålesund Airport , Vigra was scheduled to open in 1958 , and both Braathens SAFE and SAS applied for the concession , along with the route along the West Coast . At first the ministry wanted to issue the concession on the route Stavanger – Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim to Braathens SAFE and the route Ålesund – Oslo to SAS . But after negotiations , Braathens SAFE stated they were willing to fly the coastal route without subsidies if they were granted the Oslo @-@ route , since that would allow them to cross @-@ subsidize ; this was granted by the ministry . An agreement was then made between the ministry , SAS and Braathens SAFE , where both airlines would fly the routes Oslo – Trondheim , Oslo – Stavanger , Oslo – Kristiansand and Kristiansand – Stavanger – Bergen ; Braathens SAFE had a monopoly on the routes Oslo – Ålesund and Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim , while SAS was granted a monopoly on the routes Oslo – Bergen and ( Oslo ) – Trondheim – Bodø – Bardufoss . In 1958 , Braathens SAFE had 77 @,@ 591 passengers .
= = = Hummelfjell Accident = = =
On 7 November 1956 , the Heron LN @-@ SUR Lars crashed at Hummelfjell after the aircraft had experienced icing problems . The Hummelfjell Accident killed the pilot and one passenger , but the remaining ten people on board survived . Among them was the famous television actor Rolf Kirkvaag , who , despite injury , succeeded at walking to civilization to inform about the accident .
= = Friendship = =
During the late 1950s , Braathens SAFE started looking for a replacement for the aging DC @-@ 3s and Herons . An order was placed with Fokker for the delivery of their new Fokker F @-@ 27 Friendship , a two @-@ engine turboprop with cabin pressurization . Braathens SAFE was the second airline to receive the plane , after Aer Lingus . The first craft , LN @-@ SUN , was delivered in December 1958 , with the second , LN @-@ SUO , delivered the following year . They were put into service on the main routes : once daily Oslo – Trondheim , once daily Oslo – Ålesund , twice daily Oslo – Stavanger , including one stopping at Kristiansand , and one trip daily Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim . The delivery of the Friendships made the Herons unnecessary , and these were sold . The two DC @-@ 3s were kept as a reserve , and were used for the first part of the summer schedules because of late delivery of LN @-@ SUO . They were also used for charter . The airports at Hamar , Farsund and Tønsberg had too short runways for the Friendship , and these destinations were terminated .
The first flight to the winter @-@ only airport at Longyearbyen on Svalbard was made on 2 April 1959 , when Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani chartered a DC @-@ 4 from Bardufoss Airport . Store Norske cleared a 1 @,@ 800 by 40 metres ( 5 @,@ 910 by 130 ft ) runway on snow for the aircraft . More flights were chartered during the 1960s , and Longyearbyen became a regular charter destination for Braathens SAFE .
From 3 June to 30 September 1960 , Braathens SAFE was granted concession on the route from Oslo via Sandefjord Airport , Torp to Aalborg Airport in Denmark . This became possible because SAS had abandoned the route the previous year . It was flown with a DC @-@ 3 , giving an 80 % load factor . On 22 July , the Braathens SAFE applied for a three @-@ year concession , but this was rejected because SAS stated that they would restart the route . In 1961 , SAS started the route Stavanger – Kristiansand – Ålborg , and in 1963 on the route Oslo – Kristiansand – Ålborg . The concession allowed SAS to also take passengers on the domestic legs , giving Braathens SAFE competition on the routes to Kristiansand .
Passengers traveling from Western to Northern Norway had to transfer from Braathens SAFE to SAS in Trondheim . Both airlines saw this as a strategic opportunity to get routes in each other 's territories . On 31 August 1960 , Braathens SAFE applied for an extension of its Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim route onwards to Bodø Airport and Bardufoss Airport . The two airports had been served by SAS from Oslo via Trondheim . SAS presented estimates that between 2 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 1 passengers transferred at Trondheim each day . Braathens SAFE later proposed that they could fly directly from Bergen and Ålesund to Bodø and Bardufoss , but Braathens SAFE 's application was rejected by the ministry . All concessions ended on 31 March 1961 , and the ministry extended them all one year . Three new airports , Alta Airport , Lakselv Airport , Banak and Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , were about to open and the ministry wanted to award new concessions that included these airports . Braathens SAFE applied to operate to all the airports in Northern Norway , but the contract was awarded to SAS . The latter also applied to operate a route from Northern Norway via Trondheim , Ålesund and Bergen to Stavanger , while Braathens SAFE in 1964 again applied for an extension of the West Coast route to Northern Norway . This was moderated to a direct route from Tromsø Airport to Bergen , which SAS received permission for on 4 March 1965 .
An additional F @-@ 27s was delivered in 1961 , and two more in 1962 . By then , the Oslo – Stavanger route was expanded to four daily round trips , of which two went via Kristiansand . Ålesund had two round trips , while Trondheim had one . The coastal route had two services , and was branded as the " Airbus " . In all , 175 @,@ 202 passengers were transported , up 40 % since the previous year . By 1965 , the Trondheim , Ålesund and coast routes had three round trips , while there were four to Kristiansand and five to Stavanger . That year , the right @-@ winged Borten 's Cabinet was appointed ; Braathens SAFE therefore again applied for an extension of the West Coast route to Tromsø and Bodø . When the government signaled that it would support the application , it caused a major debate , particularly in Denmark and Sweden , and the Danish and Swedish governments threatened to terminate the SAS agreement . On 25 November 1966 , with 82 against 62 votes , the Norwegian Parliament voted to allow Braathens SAFE to fly to Bodø and Tromsø as an extension of the West Coast route from 1 April 1967 .
On 3 March 1967 , parliament decided to build four short take @-@ off and landing airports along the Helgeland coast between Trondheim and Bodø . Braathens placed an order for a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter and planned to start the company Braathens STOL . It applied to operate the route without subsidies , but the concession was rejected and granted with subsidies to Widerøe , which had been operating the routes using seaplanes .
= = Charter = =
During the 1950s , the main customers for charter flights had been Norwegian shipping companies , who flew their crew home from ports in Central Europe . In 1959 , Saga Tours was created as the first travel agency for Mediterranean charter trips , and the company started a cooperation with Braathens SAFE . The first DC @-@ 4 flew to Mallorca that year . In 1961 , the company 's first Douglas DC @-@ 6B was bought . It had a capacity of 96 passengers , and cooperation was also started with Metro and Paddan in Gothenburg . Other charter destinations were London , Alicante and Málaga , both in Spain . That year , Braathens SAFE bought 50 % of Saga Tours in a private placement . Braathens SAFE established an office in Gothenburg in 1965 . After Vingresor had been bought by SAS and moved to Stockholm three years later , three employees started Atlas Resor in Gothenburg , and started using Braathens SAFE as their airline . By 1966 , Braathens SAFE was operating seven DC @-@ 6s .
The agreements with Spanish authorities allowed only airlines from the country of origin or from Spain to fly charter flights . But because of the SAS @-@ cooperation , an agreement was made where any Scandinavian airline could fly to Spain from any of the three Scandinavian countries . Domestically , Braathens SAFE received strong competition from Sterling Airways , but on the other hand this allowed Braathens SAFE to fly charter flights from Sweden . In 1968 , the large Swedish – Danish charter airline Internord went bankrupt , giving Braathens SAFE increased charter traffic . The company also started purchasing a larger share of Altas Resor , until it took over all the whole company in 1978 . In Sweden , Braathens SAFE used its partners to sell charter flights to Norway , and then continue their flights using scheduled flights . Braathens SAFE was hindered by the charter regulations from making intercontinental flights , as well as flights between the Scandinavian capitals . The rules also forced business travelers to use scheduled flights .
= = Into the Jet Age = =
In 1965 , Braathens SAFE placed an order for three Boeing 737 @-@ 200s , costing a total ofNOK 100 million . They were intended to do the main haul of the charter market . There had been an internal struggle as to whether the company should purchase the Fokker F @-@ 28 Fellowship or the Boeing 737 @-@ 100 , a shorter version of the 737 @-@ 200 . Having a single plane type would give a single pool of pilot and mechanic certifications , and would have saved the company NOK millions in costs . Following the decision to purchase the F @-@ 28 , Bjørn G. Braathen , son of Ludvig G. and later CEO , left the company .
By 1966 , Braathens SAFE had sold all its DC @-@ 4s , and had purchased eight F @-@ 27s . The DC @-@ 6s were used exclusively for charter , with all domestic flights being flown with the F @-@ 27s . The same year , the booking system was centralized and moved to offices in Oslo . The company established sales offices in Bodø and Tromsø on 1 March 1967 . A new cargo department was opened at Oslo Airport on 29 September . Braathens SAFE applied in a joint venture with the Norwegian America Line to start a cargo flight to the United States and the Far East , but this was declined by the ministry . From 1967 , also DC @-@ 6s were used on domestic routes . In August , it was announced that Braathens SAFE would replace the F @-@ 27s with six new Fokker F @-@ 28 , and that the F @-@ 27s would be sold to the manufacturer . Later , the number of orders of 737s was reduced to two , and of F @-@ 28s to five . The Fellowships cost NOK 40 million each .
The first 737 , LN @-@ SUS , landed in Oslo on 8 January 1969 , followed by LN @-@ SUP on 31 January . Braathens SAFE was the launch customer of the F @-@ 28 , and the first plane landed in Oslo on 3 March . Five F @-@ 28s were delivered in the course of a year , in addition to one aircraft that was leased periodically until 1971 . There were several technical problems due to having the earliest models of the F @-@ 28 , causing some operational difficulties . Two DC @-@ 6s were sold , and all but three of the F @-@ 27s were sold to Fokker between October 1968 and May 1969 . Along with the aircraft came a new simulator , and the simulator division was moved from Sola to Fornebu . On 27 February 1970 , the company took into use an IT @-@ system , based at Sola .
With the delivery of the Boeing 737 @-@ 200s , Braathens SAFE started using these aircraft on the long @-@ haul charter flights . By 1977 , there were nine international charter airlines competing with Braathens SAFE : Aviaco , Britannia Airways , Dan @-@ Air , Linjeflyg , Maersk Air , Scanair ( owned by SAS ) , Spantax , Sterling and Transair . In 1976 , good exchange rates gave a peak of flights to London , with eleven weekly flights across the North Sea . Braathens SAFE also started flying for Vingresor . In 1976 , 44 % of the company 's revenue was from charter , but by 1979 it had dropped to 36 % . During this period , about half of the planes ' flying time was related to charter .
= = More airports = =
Prior to the opening of Kristiansund Airport , Kvernberget , Braathens SAFE applied for a concession to fly to it along the West Coast , as well as the direct route from Oslo . SAS applied to fly the Oslo @-@ service . The ministry wanted Braathens SAFE to fly the route with a concession granted to SAS , but Braathens SAFE rejected this . Instead , they were granted both the routes on temporary basis . The new airport received three daily flights to Oslo , of which two went via Ålesund , and four services on the West Coast route . At the same time , there was a discussion about who was to operate the new STOL @-@ airports on the West Coast . Braathens SAFE stated that they wanted a local airline to do the flying , and chose not to apply . The concession was granted to Widerøe , and Braathens SAFE subsequently bought part of the airline .
On 5 April 1972 , Molde Airport , Årø opened . Unlike other primary airports , it had been built and financed by the municipality , and did not become state @-@ owned until 1978 . Braathens SAFE started flying both to Oslo and along the West Coast from Molde . The same year , the airline for the first time exceeded one million domestic passengers . It also started with five weekly cargo flights with flowers from Genova , Italy . The following year , the last DC @-@ 6 was sold , after the type had been phased out since 1969 .
The same year , the government appointed a commission , led by Bue Fjermeros , to look into the organization of the domestic air routes . Since the last compromise in splitting routes , the traffic had increased more in Braathens SAFE 's domain that SAS ' . The commission also looked a to whom the two next airports that would be opened , Haugesund Airport , Karmøy and Harstad / Narvik Airport , Evenes , would be given . Neither company wanted to cooperate beyond the existing arrangement of coordinating their routes time @-@ wise , along with those of Widerøe . In addition , Braathens SAFE bought handling services from SAS at Gardermoen , Bergen , Bodø and Tromsø , while SAS bought handling services from Braathens SAFE at Stavanger . The commission granted SAS the rights to fly from Oslo to Haugesund , Harstad / Narvik and the new airport Svalbard Airport , Longyear . Braathens SAFE was allowed to fly from Bergen to Northern Norway via Ålesund , Molde and Kristiansund . SAS lost the right to fly directly from Bergen to Northern Norway . When the matter was passed by parliament , they also granted SAS the right to fly from Oslo to Stavanger , even if their planes did not continue abroad .
= = = Flight 239 = = =
On 23 December 1972 at 16 : 30 , the company 's most fatal accident occurred . F @-@ 28 LN @-@ SUY Sverre Sigurdson on Flight 239 from Ålesund to Oslo crashed at Asker , killing 40 of the 45 people on board , including the crew of three . The cause of the accident was never discovered , although a possibility could have been faults with the instrument landing system .
= = Times of change = =
Following the steep increase of oil prices in 1973 , Braathens SAFE increased the ticket prices with about 30 % , giving for the first year a reduction in the number of travelers . The IT @-@ system Bracar was introduced on 4 February 1974 , connecting all locations with 53 terminals , rationalizing 20 man @-@ years . In 1974 , Annæus Schjødt jr. became chair , and the following year , the employees were represented with two board members . The remaining three F @-@ 27s were sold to the Braathens Rederi @-@ owned Busy Bee between 1975 and 1977 . From 1 January 1976 , Braathens SAFE introduced " Green Routes " , where passengers were granted 35 % discount if they traveled on Saturdays or Sunday morning , booked a round trip and were away for at least a full week or over a weekend . From 1972 to 1976 , the company 's revenue doubled , to NOK 500 million , while production increased 18 % . The main contributing factor was the increase of labor costs , that had almost doubled in the four years , although also higher fuel prices and taxes contributed . In 1976 , the airline transported 1 @,@ 154 @,@ 000 scheduled and 485 @,@ 000 chartered passengers . Braathens SAFE had a 37 % scheduled market share and 31 % share of the charter flights . The largest traffic increases were in Stavanger , Bergen and Trondheim . During the late 1970s , Braathens SAFE increased the number of direct flights between these cities , without increasing the number of landings in Ålesund and Kristiansand . From 1 April 1977 , the airline lost its dispensation to operate with reduced cabin crew , and was forced to increase the number on the F @-@ 28 from one to two , and on the 737 from two to three . At the same time , the airline introduced in @-@ flight meals .
Ludvig G. Braathen died on 27 December 1976 while he was still CEO . He was succeeded by his son Bjørn G. Braathen , who had returned to the company a few years earlier . In 1977 , Braathens SAFE made NOK 10 million in profit on the Trondheim route and NOK 4 million on the routes from Oslo to Kristiansand and Stavanger . At the same time , the airline lost NOK 6 million on the routes to from Oslo to Ålesund , Molde and Kristiansund , and NOK 18 million on the coastal routes between Stavanger and Tromsø . From 1 October 1978 , the company also introduced 50 % youth discount for people under 26 years . From 1 May 1978 , there was introduced a NOK 100 tax on international charter flights . The same year , Braathens SAFE bought 15 % of Bergenske Dampskibsselskab , that owned 51 % of the travel agency Bennett Reisebureau . This was to try to secure influence over the chain , that was also owned 31 % by SAS . A new , neutral ticketing system , SMART , was introduced in 1980 for all travel agents in Norway and Sweden . Following this , Braathens SAFE sold its stake in Bergenske with a profit .
Starting with the delivery of the F @-@ 28s and 737s , all planes were named after Norwegian kings . The last three F @-@ 27s were also given such names . During the 1970s , Braathens SAFE took delivery of eleven 737s , supplementing the four F @-@ 28s . The third delivered , LN @-@ SUA , had a cargo door on the side , making it ideal for cargo flights . The three planes delivered in 1979 had extended range tanks making direct flights to the Canary Islands possible . In 1979 , the company started looking into possible replacements for their fleet , considering larger aircraft .
The late 1970s and early 1980s was a time of economic problems for airlines worldwide . Passenger numbers stabilized , and Braathens SAFE introduced a 15 % discount to purchasers of 100 tickets at one time . The company hit NOK 1 billion in revenue in 1981 . Discounted tickets were not sufficient to cover the increasing costs , particularly related to fuel , and the company introduced the internal campaign Bra @-@ 82 . This involved a more market @-@ oriented management and a focus on service increase , including better regularity and free coffee . During the summer , the reduced demand made the airline introduce discounted " summer tickets " for NOK 280 on any route in Southern Norway . This gave a 75 % load factor , the highest for the whole year .
In 1982 , Braathens SAFE bought 15 % of DNL . It also applied , though the sister company Braathens Helikopter , for concessions for helicopter services from Stavanger to offshore oil platforms . As a reaction , the incumbent , Helikopter Service , applied for Braathens SAFEs West Coast routes . At this point , SAS bought 15 % of Helikopter Service . In 1984 , Braathens SAFE introduced services to Farsund Airport , using wet leased F @-@ 27s from Busy Bee . The same arrangement was used to connect Haugesund to Bergen and Stavanger . In Haugesund , this was in competition with Norving . Busy Bee @-@ operated planes were also used on routes from Sandefjord in competition with Norsk Flytjeneste . The same year , the cabin crew had a 14 @-@ day strike , halting all flights . It was caused by the company paying lower wages than SAS and Busy Bee . In 1985 , a new booking system was introduced , that allowed overbooking . This gave increased revenue , but the company had to start compensating rejected passengers with a full refund and a free seat on the next flight . On 16 December 1985 , the airline 's administration moved into the a new building , the Diamond , located at Fornebu . The frequent flyer program Bracard was launched in September 1985 . It was a cooperation with Inter Nor Hotels , and gave special privileges to travelers that made 25 full @-@ price trips per year with Braathens .
= = New Boeings = =
In 1980 , the management of Braathens SAFE decided that it needed larger aircraft if the company was to stay competitive on charter flights . Larger aircraft could be put into service on the main services from Oslo , Gothenburg and Stockholm , while the 737s could be used to smaller destination and from other cities . On 25 February 1980 , the company announced that it had ordered two Boeing 767 @-@ 200 planes , with an option for two addition craft . The cost of the two firm orders was about NOK 500 million . This would allow the aircraft to be used for both domestic scheduled flights and for charter , and was configured with 242 seats . This was less than charter @-@ only airlines , for instance Britannia had their planes configured with 273 seats . Braathens SAFE 's planes were delivered on 23 March and in November 1984 . The following year showed increasing charter traffic , although it only made up 25 % of the company 's revenue . The company had considered the smaller Boeing 757 , but did not have sufficient range . Also the Airbus A310 was close to being chosen .
The 767s were launched as " First Business Class " to charter travelers , but the business model was not successful . The new consumer groups entering the market had low willingness to pay , and the demand for premium charter services was low . The company was faced with not being able to charter out the plane because of the low seat numbers , but could not put in the extra seats because of the aircraft also being used on the scheduled market . Using so large aircraft on the short @-@ haul flights in Southern Norway gave little economy @-@ of @-@ scale , and the airline seldom needed the increased capacity . Braathens SAFE also had problems , because from order to delivery , the exchange rates had increased from 5 to 9 NOK per USD , almost doubling the price in NOK . In 1986 , the two 767s where sold . Two years later , Altas Resor was sold , and the following year Saga . Braathens SAFE closed its bases in Gothenburg and Stockholm , but remained a charter operator with 737s from Norway .
Following the decision to sell the two 767s , management also decided to sell the four remaining F @-@ 28s . This would allow Braathens to operate a fleet of pure 737 @-@ 200 , giving lower operating costs . One 737 was taken out of service in 1984 , and the four F @-@ 28s sold in 1986 . The same year , seven more 737 @-@ 200s were delivered , along with two more in 1987 and 1988 . By then , Braathens SAFEs entire fleet consisted of nineteen 737 @-@ 200s . At the same time , Boeing had launched the 737 @-@ 300 , a slightly larger aircraft with new CFM @-@ 56 engines . Braathens SAFE considered the new aircraft , but where concerned that it used a traditional mechanical cockpit . The airline also needed larger aircraft for the charter traffic , and smaller aircraft for the domestic routes . The airline also considered the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 and the Airbus A320 , but settled on the 737 following the announcement of the stretched 737 @-@ 400 , with 156 seats , and the shortened 737 @-@ 500 , with 124 seats . These had glass cockpits , and Braathens SAFE would be among the first airlines to receive both models . To finance the purchase , the airline sold all but two of the 737 @-@ 200s and leased them back . For some of the aircraft , they received more money than they had paid .
= = = Hijacking = = =
On 21 June 1985 , the 737 @-@ 200 LN @-@ SUG Harald Gille , with 121 passengers en route from Trondheim to Oslo , was hijacked by the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Stein Arvid Huseby . He had threatened a flight attendant with an air gun . He demanded to talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke and a press conference to make a political statement . His demands were not met , and he surrendered while the plane was parked in Oslo . This was the first hijacking in Norway .
= = Competition and new planes = =
The F @-@ 28s had the largest regularity problems , mostly due to the number of landings , which could count up to 16 per day . For instance , LN @-@ SUO flew 36 @,@ 000 hours with 76 @,@ 000 landings . The last flight was made on 16 December 1986 , and the aircraft sold for NOK 45 million each . Although the F @-@ 28 was taken out of service , some of the routes on the West Coast needed to be operated with smaller aircraft than the 737 . The company made an agreement to wet lease Busy Bee F @-@ 27s one some of the routes , while the most trafficked ones would be taken over by 737s .
A 1985 government committee , led by State Secretary Per Arne Watle , recommended that more route be flown by both Braathens SAFE and SAS , and that additional airlines be allowed to start other routes . On 5 September 1985 , Braathens SAFE applied for the route Trondheim – Bodø – Harstad / Narvik – Tromsø and Tromsø – Longyearbyen . SAS had stated that it was fine with them if other airlines started flying international routes they did not , and on 17 October Braathens SAFE also applied for the routes Bergen – Stavanger – Paris , Bergen – Stavanger – Manchester , Oslo – Stavanger – Brussels and Trondheim – Bergen – Newcastle . The applications were rejected and it was agreed upon that SAS would retain all rights to fly internationally between Oslo , Bergen , Stavanger , Gothenburg , Stockholm , Copenhagen and Århus .
A new round of concession applications were filed in 1987 : Trondheim to Northern Norway , Tromsø – Longyearbyen , Oslo – Billund and Oslo – Alicante . The right @-@ winged Willoch 's Second Cabinet decided to use three principles in issuing new concessions : keeping the array of local routes , granting concessions on the terms that the airlines would continue to cross @-@ subsidize routes , and to introduce competition on the largest routes . Braathens SAFE was given permission to fly Oslo – Bergen and Western Norway – Trondheim – Bodø – Tromsø , plus once daily Oslo – Trondheim – Bodø , as well as Tromsø – Longyearbyen . At the same time , SAS was allowed to fly freely on the routes Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stavanger . In 1988 , Braathens SAFE introduced automatic check @-@ in machines in Oslo , Stavanger , Bergen , Ålesund and Trondheim .
The first 737 @-@ 400 , LN @-@ BRA , was delivered to the airline on 9 July 1989 . The 19 737 @-@ 200s were gradually handed to their owners , while seven 737 @-@ 400s and seventeen 737 @-@ 500s were delivered until 1994 . The investment cost NOK 4 @.@ 5 billion . By the end of 1993 , the company had NOK 3 @.@ 4 billion in debt . On 1 June 1989 , Erik G. Braathen , son of Bjørn G. , took over as CEO at the age of 34 . In 1992 , Busy Bee filed for bankruptcy ; the company 's fleet of three Fokker 50s were transferred to the newly established Norwegian Air Shuttle , which started wet @-@ leased operations along the West Coast for Braathens SAFE . As demand increased through the 1990s , the fleet was extended to six aircraft .
= = International routes = =
Braathens SAFE was also given the right to fly its first international scheduled flights for the first time in several decades . On 19 August 1988 , the airline was granted concession to fly to Billund in Denmark . At the same time , Air @-@ X was granted concession to fly the route via Sandefjord and Skien . The route started on 2 May 1989 . Previously the rules stated that if SAS flew to a non @-@ Scandinavian destination from any capital , no other Scandinavian airlines could fly to that city . Braathens SAFE lost many contracts in the charter market in 1990 , following Scanair 's purchase of larger Douglas DC @-@ 10 aircraft . On 18 May 1990 , Braathens SAFE was awarded the concession a route from Oslo , Bergen and Stavanger to Newcastle , which opened on 3 April 1991 . The airline was also awarded the route from Tromsø to Murmansk , Russia , once per week from 28 January 1993 .
On 19 June 1990 , SAS announced that all its services to London Gatwick Airport would be moved to London Heathrow Airport , where most of its services had landed . The same day , the Ministry of Transport announced that any Scandinavian airline could apply for and receive concessions to fly to Gatwick . On 25 June , Braathens SAFE applied to fly to London , but instead wanted to fly to London Stansted Airport , to have better landing slots . The concession was granted on 18 January 1991 , but the airline chose to not start the route . The company had been granted a concession to Malmø in Sweden , and the route opened on 2 May 1991 with two daily departures . This was later reduced to one . In October 1992 , the two airlines that flew from Oslo to Gatwick , Norway Airlines and Dan @-@ Air , filed for bankcruptcy . Braathens SAFE immediately decided to start the route , with a departure at about 10 : 30 that would allow connections to the rest of the domestic network . Six days later , the first schedules were published in the newspaper , slots and British permission was granted three days after that . Another two days after that , the service started .
At the time , Denmark was a member of the European Union ( EU ) , while Sweden and Norway had applied and were awaiting referenda to determine membership . EU was working to deregulate the airline market from 1995 , which could cause problems for the Scandinavian agreements . In preparation for this , Braathens SAFE started negotiations with Linjeflyg of Sweden and Maersk Air of Denmark to crate an alliance to compete with SAS . In particular , the three airlines wanted to capture the two million passengers that travelled between the three Scandinavian capitals : Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm . Instead , SAS was given permission to purchase Linjeflyg in exchange for the Swedish airline market being deregulated from 1 July 1992 . From 23 October 1992 , the Norwegian Armed Forces stopped chartering aircraft and started using scheduled flights to fly 240 @,@ 000 personnel annually . Since most of the transport was between Northern and Southern Norway , this gave reduced revenue for Braathens SAFE .
= = Helicopters = =
On 1 September 1989 , Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi founded Braathens Helikopter . The shipping company had signed an agreement with the oil companies Norsk Hydro , Phillips Petroleum and Statoil to provide helicopter transport for their crews to their offshore oil installations Ekofisk , Oseberg , Gullfaks , Veslefrikk . This was the first time the incumbent Helikopter Service had received competition on their offshore helicopter services . The initial agreement secured Braathens Helikopter a revenue of NOK 800 million in the course of five years , and gave the company a 20 % market share . Four 19 @-@ seet Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters were ordered , each costing NOK 60 million . Total investment costs were NOK 300 million . Two helicopters were stationed at Stavanger Airport , Sola and two at Bergen Airport , Flesland . The initial contract involved flying 10 @,@ 000 passengers per year .
Twenty @-@ two pilots were hired along with a total staff of 70 , and services started on 1 September 1990 . In June 1991 , Braathens Helikopter signed a three @-@ year agreement with Amoco for flights from Stavanger to Valhall . The contract had an option for a two @-@ year extension . The revenue was between NOK 100 and 200 million , depending on the length of the contract and the capacity needed . Operations started in February 1992 , and involved the company purchasing another two Super Pumas . On 10 September , Braathens Helikopter was awarded the contract with British Petroleum for flights from Stavanger to Ula and Gyda . The contract gave a revenue of up to NOK 300 million in the course five years . Operations started on 1 November 1992 , and involved about 2 @,@ 000 hours of flying per year . With this contract , Braathens Helikopter had about a 30 % market share . Braathens purchased one more Super Puma as a consequence of the contract . After operations started , the company had grown to 120 employees and was the second @-@ largest helicopter operator in the country .
Braathens Helikopter and Helikopter Service announced on 1 October 1993 that the two companies would merge from 1 January 1994 . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi would be paid with NOK 225 million in Helikopter Service shares . The Norwegian Competition Authority stated they would have to look at the merger , since the new company would have an almost @-@ monopoly on offshore flights . However , the ministry stated that the authority could not hinder the merger , because by the time new contracts were awarded in 1995 , helicopter operators from foreign countries would also be allowed to bid . The ownership of Braathens Helikopter was transferred to Helikopter Service on 14 December . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi received 14 % of the shares in the merged company . They were immediately sold , giving Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi a NOK 170 million profit on the five @-@ year venture .
= Gerard ( archbishop of York ) =
Gerard ( died 21 May 1108 ) was Archbishop of York between 1100 and 1108 and Lord Chancellor of England from 1085 until 1092 . A Norman , he was a member of the cathedral clergy at Rouen before becoming a royal clerk under King William I of England and subsequently his son King William II Rufus . Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor by William I , and he continued in that office under Rufus , who rewarded him with the Bishopric of Hereford in 1096 . Gerard may have been with the king 's hunting party when William II was killed , as he is known to have witnessed the first charter issued by the new king , Henry I of England , within days of William 's death .
Soon after Henry 's coronation Gerard was appointed to the recently vacant see of York , and became embroiled in the long @-@ running dispute between York and the see of Canterbury concerning which archbishopric had primacy over England . Gerard managed to secure papal recognition of York 's claim to jurisdiction over the church in Scotland , but he was forced to agree to a compromise with his counterpart at Canterbury , Anselm , over Canterbury 's claims to authority over York , although it was not binding on his successors . In the Investiture Controversy between the king and the papacy over the right to appoint bishops , Gerard worked on reconciling the claims of the two parties ; the controversy was finally resolved in 1107 .
Gerard was a patron of learning , to the extent that he urged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew , a language not commonly studied at that time . He himself was a student of astrology , which led to suggestions that he was a magician and a sorcerer . Partly because of such rumours , and his unpopular attempts to reform his cathedral clergy , Gerard was denied a burial inside York Minster after his sudden death in 1108 . His successor as archbishop subsequently had Gerard 's remains moved into the cathedral church from their initial resting place beside the cathedral porch .
= = Early life and career = =
Gerard was the nephew of Walkelin , Bishop of Winchester , and Simon , Abbot of Ely . His parents were Osbert and Anna , and his brother Peter was also a royal clerk . Where he was born and raised is unknown ; he is documented as cantor of Rouen Cathedral , and precentor of the same cathedral , although the date of his appointment to either office is unrecorded . By 1091 he had become archdeacon of Rouen . He served in the royal chancery under successive kings of England , William I and William II .
= = Bishop of Hereford = =
Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor of England in 1085 , and was present at William I 's deathbed in 1087 . He continued as Chancellor to William Rufus until 1092 ; what precipitated his loss of office is unclear . He retained the king 's trust , for Rufus employed him in 1095 along with William Warelwast on a diplomatic mission to Pope Urban II regarding Archbishop Anselm receiving the pallium , the sign of an archbishop 's authority . Rufus offered to recognise Urban as pope rather than the Antipope Clement III in return for Anselm 's deposition and the delivery of Anselm 's pallium into Rufus ' custody , to dispose of as he saw fit . The mission departed for Rome in February 1095 and returned by Whitsun with a papal legate , Walter the Cardinal Bishop of Albano , who had Anselm 's pallium . The legate secured Rufus ' recognition of Urban , but subsequently refused to consider Anselm 's deposition . Rufus resigned himself to Anselm 's position as archbishop , and at the king 's court at Windsor he consented to Anselm being given the pallium .
Although not yet ordained , Gerard was rewarded with the Bishopric of Hereford , and he was consecrated by Archbishop Anselm on 8 June 1096 ; his ordination as a deacon and priest had taken place the previous day . He assisted at the consecration of St Paul 's Cathedral in London on 9 June 1096 . He may have been a member of the hunting party in the New Forest on 2 August 1100 when Rufus was killed , as he witnessed King Henry I 's coronation charter – now known as the Charter of Liberties – three days later at Winchester , close by the New Forest . Gerard was present at Henry 's coronation that same day , along with Maurice , Bishop of London . Henry was probably crowned by Maurice , but the medieval chronicler Walter Map states that Gerard crowned Henry in return for a promise of the first vacant archbishopric . Gerard may have assisted Maurice in the coronation ceremony .
= = Archbishop = =
Gerard became Archbishop of York in December 1100 . No source mentions him being invested by the king , but as Anselm urged Pope Paschal II to give Gerard his pallium , which he would have been unlikely to do if Gerard had been invested by Henry , that possibility seems remote . At Whitsun in 1101 King Henry I , with Anselm 's support , deprived Ranulf Flambard , Bishop of Durham , of the lands of the see of Durham , because Ranulf had defected to Henry 's elder brother Robert Curthose , who also claimed the English throne . Gerard then deposed Ranulf from his bishopric . Soon after his translation to York , Gerard began a long dispute with Anselm , claiming equal primacy with the Archbishop of Canterbury and refusing to make a profession of canonical obedience to Anselm , part of the long Canterbury – York dispute . At the 1102 Council of Westminster , Gerard reportedly kicked over the smaller chair provided for him as Archbishop of York , and refused to be seated until he was provided with one as large as Anselm 's . He travelled to Rome in 1102 to receive his pallium from the pope , to whom he presented the king 's side against Anselm in the controversy surrounding investitures . The pope decided against the king , but Gerard and two other bishops reported that the pope had assured them that the various papal decrees against the lay investiture of bishops would not be enforced . Their claim was denied by Anselm 's representatives and the pope , who excommunicated Gerard until he recanted .
Gerard secured papal recognition of York 's metropolitan see for the Scots . He subsequently consecrated Roger as Bishop of Orkney , but refused to consecrate Thurgot to the see of St Andrews because Thurgot would not recognise the primacy of York . Gerard gave generously to the monasteries of his diocese ; the medieval chronicler Hugh the Chantor stated that Thomas II , Gerard 's successor , accused Gerard of having dissipated the diocese 's endowment . King Olaf I of Man and the Isles wrote to " G " , Archbishop of York , asking for the consecration of " our bishop " by York , but it does not appear to have taken place under Gerard or his successor .
During the first four years of Henry 's reign Gerard was one of the king 's chief advisors , along with Robert of Meulan , Count of Meulan in Normandy and later Earl of Leicester . Gerard was one of Henry 's greatest supporters among the bishops during the Investiture Crisis . In 1101 Gerard witnessed a treaty between Henry and Robert , the Count of Flanders , which sought as far as possible to distance Robert from any future conflict between Henry and his elder brother Robert Curthose , or between Henry and King Philip I of France . After Gerard 's return from Rome he restored Ranulf Flambard to the see of Durham . In 1102 Anselm refused to consecrate three bishops , two of whom had received investiture from the king ; Gerard offered to consecrate them instead , but all except one refused . From 1105 onwards Gerard slowly began to embrace the papal position on investiture of bishops , which opposed laymen investing bishops with the symbols of episcopal authority . As part of his change of position , Gerard withdrew | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
religious services . Andros ' high @-@ handed rule was also unpopular in the other colonies of the dominion .
The idea of revolt against Andros arose as early as January 1689 , before news of the December 1688 Glorious Revolution reached Boston . After William and Mary took the throne , Increase Mather and Sir William Phips , Massachusetts agents in London , petitioned them and the Lords of Trade for restoration of the Massachusetts charter . Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution . He had already dispatched to Bradstreet a letter containing news that a report ( prepared before the revolution ) stating that the charter had been illegally annulled , and that the magistrates should " prepare the minds of the people for a change . " News of the revolution apparently reached some individuals as early as late March , and Bradstreet is one of several possible organizers of the mob that formed in Boston in April 18 , 1689 . He , along with other pre @-@ Dominion magistrates and some members of Andros ' council , addressed an open letter to Andros on that day calling for his surrender in order to quiet the mob . Andros , who had fled to the safety of Castle Island , surrendered , and was eventually returned to England after several months in confinement .
In the wake of Andros ' arrest , a council of safety was formed , with Bradstreet as its president . The council drafted a letter to William and Mary , justifying the colony 's acts in language similar to that used by William in his proclamations when he invaded England . The council fairly quickly decided to revert to the government as it had been under the old charter . In this form Bradstreet resumed the governorship , and was annually re @-@ elected governor until 1692 . He had to defend the colony against those who were opposed to the reintroduction of the old rule , who he characterized in reports to London as malcontents and strangers stirring up trouble . The colony 's northern frontier was also engulfed in King William 's War , where there was frequent Indian raiding . Bradstreet approved the expeditions of Sir William Phips in 1690 against Acadia and Quebec .
In 1691 William and Mary issued a charter establishing the Province of Massachusetts Bay , and appointed Phips its first governor . Bradstreet was offered a position on Phips ' council when the new governor arrived in 1692 , but declined . Bradstreet died at his home in Salem on 27 March 1697 at the age of 93 ; due to his advanced age he was called the " Nestor of New England " by Cotton Mather .
= = Family and legacy = =
Bradstreet was buried in the Charter Street Burying Ground in Salem . Poetry by his first wife Anne was published in England in 1650 , including verses containing expressions of enduring love for her husband . Anne Bradstreet died in 1672 ; the couple had eight children , of whom seven survived infancy . In 1676 Bradstreet married Ann Gardner , the widow of Captain Joseph Gardner , son of Thomas Gardner of Salem . His many descendants include jurists Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. and David Souter , U.S. President Herbert Hoover , and actor Humphrey Bogart .
= Etymology of Wicca =
In Modern English , the term Wicca ( / ˈwɪkə / ) refers to Wicca , the religion of contemporary Pagan Witchcraft . It is used within the Pagan community under competing definitions . One refers to the entirety of the Pagan Witchcraft movement , while the other refers explicitly to traditions included in what is now called British Traditional Wicca .
Although pronounced differently , Wicca is related to the Old English word wicca , which referred to sorcerers in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . In the early 1950s , English Wiccan Gerald Gardner , founder of the Gardnerian tradition , referred to the Pagan Witchcraft community as the Wica . He claimed to have learned the term during his initiation into the New Forest coven in 1939 . By the late 1950s , Gardner 's rival Charles Cardell , founder of his own tradition , had begun referring to the religion 's followers as Wiccens , and possibly used Wicca in reference to the religion itself .
The inclusive use of the term Wicca — referring to the entirety of Pagan Witchcraft religion — has been traced to Britain in the early 1960s , when it was used by various groups and publicised through use in adverts , magazines , and other literary sources . It was later adopted by figures like Alex Sanders and Gavin and Yvonne Frost , who took it to the United States . There , practitioners of British Traditional Wicca adopted it exclusively for themselves as a means to differentiate their practices from those of other Pagan Witches . This exclusive meaning was countered by its popularisation as a generic term by prolific authors such as Raymond Buckland , Scott Cunningham and Silver RavenWolf . As it entered popular culture , it gained an increasingly eclectic character in its usage . During the 1990s , some attempted to distance themselves from it by utilising the term Traditional Witchcraft .
= = Definitions = =
There are two separate definitions of the term Wicca that have been used in Paganism and Pagan studies since circa 1980 . The first developed in England during the 1960s . Broad and inclusive , it covers most , if not all , forms of modern Pagan Witchcraft , especially if they share sufficient theological beliefs and ritual practices to be considered denominations within a common religious movement . In contrast , the second developed in the United States during the late 1970s . It refers specifically to the Gardnerian tradition of Witchcraft and those descended from it with little variation , namely Alexandrian and Algard Witchcraft , which are together known as British Traditional Wicca .
= = = Usage within Pagan studies = = =
The development and use of the term Wicca within contemporary Paganism has been a recurring topic of discussion in the field of Pagan studies . The majority of academics and independent scholars use the first , more inclusive definition . Given its historical status and prevalent usage within Paganism , Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White thought it the logical and easier choice for academia , although there is still some disagreement and confusion among researchers as to what defines Wicca . Among those who have used the former definition are American sociologist Margot Adler , literary scholar Chas S. Clifton , and religious studies scholar Aidan A. Kelly , while others such as the Britons Graham Harvey and Ronald Hutton failed to make their usage clear . To deal with this problem in future , Doyle White urged scholars to specify which definition they used in their work .
= = Origins = =
= = = Old English wicca and wicce = = =
In the Early Medieval language of Old English , the term wicca ( / ˈwɪttʃɑː / ) was a masculine noun for sorcerer ; wicce was its feminine counterpart . They are ancestral to Modern English witch . The Modern English term Wicca took the Old English wicca as its basis , although the two are fundamentally two distinct words with differing meanings , pronunciation , and grammatical usage , with nearly a millennium between their respective floruits .
In 1932 Lewis Spence writes in The Weekly Scotsman , in response to the popularisation of Margaret Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypothesis in Scotland , that " the Saxon word ' wicca ' , a witch " was " of immemorial usage " in the Scottish Lowlands .
Doyle White suggests that the early Wiccans adopted the term wicca as the basis for the name of their burgeoning faith because theirs was a new religious movement that took " iconography and inspiration " from the polytheistic cults of pre @-@ Christian Britain .
= = = Gerald Gardner 's Wica : 1939 – 1966 = = =
Gerald Gardner ( 1884 – 1964 ) , the man largely responsible for propagating the Wiccan religion in Britain during the 1950s and 1960s and the founder of the Gardnerian tradition , never used the term Wicca in either sense that it is used today . He referred to the religion as the " cult of witchcraft " or " the witch @-@ cult " , the latter likely being a term borrowed from Margaret Murray , who wrote a book entitled The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe ( 1921 ) . Gardner did use the term Wica , which he always spelled with only one c in his writings , but this did not refer to the religion itself , instead referring to the religion 's practitioners in a plural sense .
What are [ the witches ] then ? They are the people who call themselves the Wica , the " wise people " , who practise the age ‑ old rites and who have , along with much superstition and herbal knowledge , preserved an occult teaching and working processes which they themselves think to be magic or witchcraft .
In contrast with this plural use of the word , in a 1954 article written by Arnold Field , a reporter for the Daily Dispatch , Gardner had apparently explained to him that " there are man and woman witches . Each is called a wica . " This quote offers the only piece of evidence that Gardner also referred to Pagan Witches individually as a wica . It is possible that Field misunderstood what Gardner was saying by not capitalising Wica , and that therefore Gardner might have never used Wica in a singular sense .
In his book The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) Gardner states that he first heard the term Wica while being initiated into the New Forest coven in September 1939 , stating that " I realised I had stumbled on something interesting ; but I was half @-@ initiated before the word Wica which they used hit me like a thunderbolt , and I knew where I was , and that the Old Religion still existed . " This account was repeated in his biography , Gerald Gardner : Witch ( 1960 ) , written by Idries Shah but attributed to Jack L. Bracelin , in which he is quoted as saying that " it was halfway through when the word Wica was first mentioned ; and I knew that that which I had thought burnt out hundreds of years ago still survived . " If Gardner 's account was accurate and the New Forest coven had really existed , then the fact that Gardner spelled the word as Wica would not necessarily indicate that the coven members had spelled it the same way . As he relates , from Gardner 's account , " it seems that he had heard rather than read the word in the midst of his initiatory rite " and that , " suffering from a poor grasp of spelling , punctuation , and grammar , something caused by the fact that he was self @-@ educated and possibly also influenced by dyslexia " , he would have therefore spelled the word phonetically as Wica .
In The Meaning of Witchcraft , Gardner also notes the term Wica 's resemblance to the Old English word wicca , stating that " It is a curious fact that when the witches became English @-@ speaking they adopted their Saxon name ' Wica ' . " In his published writings , Gardner propounds the idea that his Pagan Witchcraft religion dated back at least to the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , when Old English was the dominant language .
Wica soon became an accepted term among the early Gardnerians , as Gardner 's followers and initiates became known . Patricia and Arnold Crowther , a Gardnerian High Priestess and High Priest who operated a coven in Sheffield , use the term in their book The Witches Speak ( 1959 ) , writing that " [ T ] he Red Queen told Alice that she made words mean what [ she ] wanted them to mean . She might very well have been talking about witchcraft , for today it is used to describe anything that one wishes to use it for . From the simple meaning ' the craft of the Wica ' , it is used in connection with Black Magic , Satanism , Black Masses ... "
= = = Charles Cardell 's Wiccen : 1958 – 1960 = = =
Charles Cardell ( 1892 – 1977 ) was the founder of a Pagan Witchcraft tradition that rivalled that of Gerald Gardner 's in southern England during the 1950s . A psychologist and stage conjurer , Cardell ran a company named Dumblecott Magick Productions from his home in Charlwood , Surrey , from where he also controlled a local coven that was spied on by the press , leading to a well @-@ publicised court case . Having been involved with Spiritualism as well as Pagan Witchcraft , Cardell initially befriended Gardner , but in 1958 they had an argument , and in 1964 Cardell tried to discredit him by publishing much of the then @-@ secret Gardnerian Book of Shadows .
Cardell used the term Wiccen to refer not just to members of his own tradition , but to all followers of the Pagan Witchcraft religion , placing an advert in Light magazine , the journal of the College of Psychic Science , entitled " The Craft of the Wiccens " in 1958 . The advert asked fellow Wiccens to get in contact with him . This advert shows that Cardell was responsible for the propagation and possibly invention of the term Wiccen .
It is possible Cardell had also used the term Wicca , evidenced by the fact that Margaret Bruce , the owner of a mail @-@ order business selling occult titles , wrote a letter to her friend Gerald Gardner on 23 February 1960 , in which she consoled him on the attacks made against him by Cardell and included a poem in which she referred to " the ' Wicca ' " . In Melissa Seims ' opinion , this use of Wicca was explicitly in reference to the Cardellian Craft , and therefore meant " that this spelling , along with ' Wiccan ' , was used by Cardell . " However , it is also possible that Bruce was referring to " the Wicca " as " a community of Pagan Witches " , in which case it would be a misspelling of Gardner 's " the Wica " .
= = = The emergence of Wicca : 1962 – 1970 = = =
The term Wicca appears to have developed within the Pagan Witchcraft community during the early 1960s , as increasing numbers of Pagan Witches learned of the Old English term wicca , the etymological origin of the Modern term witch . This etymological fact had been referred to five times in Gerald Gardner 's book The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) , as well as in other early texts propagating Pagan Witchcraft , such as Doreen Valiente 's Where Witchcraft Lives ( 1962 ) and Justine Glass ' Witchcraft , The Sixth Sense – and Us ( 1965 ) . None of these specifically referred to the Pagan Witchcraft religion as Wicca .
The earliest known published reference for the word Wicca is within an advertisement published in a 1962 issue of Fate magazine ; in this , a Cardiff @-@ based group of Pagan Witches advertised a tradition as " Wicca – Dianic and Aradian " . The advert may have been linked to Charles and Mary Cardell because Mary was allegedly born in Wales and Cardellian Witchcraft had apparently venerated a goddess under the name of Diana . However , many Pagan Witchcraft groups would have adopted the deity name Diana and Aradia , these being the goddesses featured in the American folklorist Charles Leland 's supposed account of a Tuscan witch tradition , Aradia , or the Gospel of the Witches ( 1899 ) . Another early use could be found from December 1965 , in the penultimate issue of Pentagram , the newsletter of the Witchcraft Research Association . Here , a small column on Halloween made reference to " the Craft of the Wiccan " , apparently referring to the entire Pagan Witchcraft community . The author 's name was not printed , although it had probably been produced by one of the figures involved in editing Pentagram , such as Gerard Noel or Doreen Valiente . In July 1968 , a group of British Gardnerians began publishing a magazine titled The Wiccan , while Welshman Gavin Frost founded the Church of Wicca in the United States that same year .
In the 1960s , the Gardnerian initiate Alex Sanders founded his own tradition , which became known as Alexandrian Wicca ; he used the terms Wicca and the Wicca in reference to the entire Pagan Witchcraft religion . One of Sanders ' initiates , Stewart Farrar , describes Wicca as " the witches ' name for their Craft " in his book What Witches Do ( 1971 ) . The widespread adoption of Wicca in reference to Pagan Witchcraft would have brought benefits to its practitioners , who were widely maligned and faced persecution for their practice of witchcraft ; an emotive term often associated with Satanism that had negative connotations in the Western imagination . Doyle White argued that the practitioners ' presentation of themselves as Wiccans rather than witches removed some of the social stigma that they faced .
= = Popularisation = =
= = = Developments in North America : 1970 – 1990 = = =
From 1970 onward , increasing numbers of books teaching readers how to become Pagan Witches were published ; the earliest was Paul Huson 's Mastering Witchcraft ( 1970 ) , which made no reference to Wicca . This was followed by Raymond Buckland 's The Tree : The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft , in which he propagated his newly developed tradition of Seax @-@ Wica ; utilising Wica as the name of the tradition , he also referenced the Wicca as the name of the religion as a whole . Contrastingly , during the 1970s the term Wicca was rejected by feminist Pagan Witchcraft groups in the United States , in particular the Dianic tradition ; the term does not appear in the early works of Zsuzsanna Budapest and Starhawk , although the latter would adopt it by the 21st century .
This was part of a phenomenon that took place during the 1970s and 1980s , as the term Wicca became increasingly associated purely with Gardnerianism and Alexandrianism ( together known as British Traditional Wicca in North America ) , rather than with other variants of Pagan Witchcraft . This was encouraged by elements within the Gardnerian and Alexandrian communities who wished to emphasise what they perceived as their special position within the Pagan community . The word Wicca first appeared in a book title in 1981 as Wicca : The Ancient Way ; written by Janus @-@ Mithras , Nuit @-@ Hilaria and Mer @-@ Amun and published in Canada . It discussed a Gardnerian @-@ based tradition .
= = = Increasing popularisation and reaction : 1990 – 2010 = = =
In ensuing years , many other authors would publish books containing Wicca in their titles which advocated solitary practice of Pagan Witchcraft ; best known were Scott Cunningham 's Wicca : A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner ( 1988 ) and Silver RavenWolf 's Teen Witch : Wicca for a New Generation ( 1998 ) , but other examples included Gerina Dunwich 's The Wicca Garden ( 1996 ) , D. J. Conway 's Wicca : The Complete Craft ( 2001 ) , Raymond Buckland 's Wicca for Life ( 2004 ) and Wicca for One ( 2004 ) , Arin Murphy @-@ Hiscock 's Solitary Wicca for Life ( 2005 ) and Ann @-@ Marie Gallagher 's The Wicca Bible ( 2005 ) . It was also adopted by American novelist Cate Tiernan as the title of her series of young adult novels .
The term Wicca was employed in an increasingly eclectic manner by authors like RavenWolf , who considered it to be a synonym for witchcraft . In turn it began to be adopted on a wider scale , being popularised in India by Ipsita Roy Chakraverti and being adopted by a French Luciferian group , Le Wicca Française . Becoming widely known in western popular culture , it was utilised by the script writers of two popular American television shows , Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Charmed ; the first episode of the latter was titled " Something Wicca This Way Comes " while the tenth was titled " Wicca Envy " .
Reacting against the increasingly inclusive use of the term were Pagan Witches who instead characterised their practices as forms of Traditional Witchcraft . Many Pagan Witches who considered themselves to be Traditional Witches exhibited an us @-@ and @-@ them mentality against Gardnerianism and allied traditions , for whom they reserved the term Wicca . Doyle White suggests that they had done so in order to distance themselves from the increasing influence of the New Age movement over the Wiccan mainstream with its " iconographical emphasis on white light " , instead embracing the traditional European view that associated witchcraft with darkness . Historian Ronald Hutton states that he knew of three Wiccan covens founded in the 1980s who began to describe themselves as Traditional Witches in the 1990s .
= = = Etymologies = = =
= Bob Dylan =
Bob Dylan ( / ˈdɪlən / ; born Robert Allen Zimmerman , May 24 , 1941 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter , artist and writer . He has been influential in popular music and culture for more than five decades . Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when his songs chronicled social unrest , although Dylan repudiated suggestions from journalists that he was a spokesman for his generation . Nevertheless , early songs such as " Blowin ' in the Wind " and " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " became anthems for the American civil rights and anti @-@ war movements . After he left his initial base in the American folk music revival , his six @-@ minute single " Like a Rolling Stone " altered the range of popular music in 1965 . His mid @-@ 1960s recordings , backed by rock musicians , reached the top end of the United States music charts while also attracting denunciation and criticism from others in the folk movement .
Dylan 's lyrics have incorporated various political , social , philosophical , and literary influences . They defied existing pop music conventions and appealed to the burgeoning counterculture . Initially inspired by the performances of Little Richard and the songwriting of Woody Guthrie , Robert Johnson , and Hank Williams , Dylan has amplified and personalized musical genres . His recording career , spanning more than 50 years , has explored the traditions in American song — from folk , blues , and country to gospel , rock and roll , and rockabilly to English , Scottish , and Irish folk music , embracing even jazz and the Great American Songbook . Dylan performs with guitar , keyboards , and harmonica . Backed by a changing lineup of musicians , he has toured steadily since the late 1980s on what has been dubbed the Never Ending Tour . His accomplishments as a recording artist and performer have been central to his career , but songwriting is considered his greatest contribution .
Since 1994 , Dylan has published six books of drawings and paintings , and his work has been exhibited in major art galleries . As a musician , Dylan has sold more than 100 million records , making him one of the best @-@ selling artists of all time . He has also received numerous awards including eleven Grammy Awards , a Golden Globe Award , and an Academy Award . Dylan has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Minnesota Music Hall of Fame , Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame , and Songwriters Hall of Fame . The Pulitzer Prize jury in 2008 awarded him a special citation for " his profound impact on popular music and American culture , marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power . " In May 2012 , Dylan received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Origins and musical beginnings = = =
Bob Dylan was born Robert Allen Zimmerman ( Hebrew name שבתאי זיסל בן אברהם [ Shabtai Zisl ben Avraham ] ) in St Mary 's Hospital on May 24 , 1941 , in Duluth , Minnesota , and raised in Hibbing , Minnesota , on the Mesabi Range west of Lake Superior . He has a younger brother , David . Dylan 's paternal grandparents , Zigman and Anna Zimmerman , emigrated from Odessa , in the Russian Empire ( now Ukraine ) , to the United States following the anti @-@ Semitic pogroms of 1905 . His maternal grandparents , Ben and Florence Stone , were Lithuanian Jews who arrived in the United States in 1902 . In his autobiography , Chronicles : Volume One , Dylan wrote that his paternal grandmother 's maiden name was Kirghiz and her family originated from Kağızman district of Kars Province in northeastern Turkey .
Dylan 's parents , Abram Zimmerman and Beatrice " Beatty " Stone , were part of a small but close @-@ knit Jewish community . They lived in Duluth until Robert was six , when his father had polio and the family returned to his mother 's hometown , Hibbing , where they lived for the rest of Robert 's childhood . In his early years he listened to the radio — first to blues and country stations from Shreveport , Louisiana and later , when he was a teenager , to rock and roll . He formed several bands while attending Hibbing High School . In the Golden Chords , he performed covers of songs by Little Richard and Elvis Presley . Their performance of Danny & the Juniors ' " Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay " at their high school talent show was so loud that the principal cut the microphone . In 1959 , his high school yearbook carried the caption " Robert Zimmerman : to join ' Little Richard ' . " The same year , as Elston Gunnn [ sic ] , he performed two dates with Bobby Vee , playing piano and clapping .
Zimmerman moved to Minneapolis in September 1959 and enrolled at the University of Minnesota . His focus on rock and roll gave way to American folk music . In 1985 , he said :
The thing about rock 'n'roll is that for me anyway it wasn 't enough ... There were great catch @-@ phrases and driving pulse rhythms ... but the songs weren 't serious or didn 't reflect life in a realistic way . I knew that when I got into folk music , it was more of a serious type of thing . The songs are filled with more despair , more sadness , more triumph , more faith in the supernatural , much deeper feelings .
He began to perform at the Ten O 'Clock Scholar , a coffeehouse a few blocks from campus , and became involved in the Dinkytown folk music circuit .
During his Dinkytown days , Zimmerman began introducing himself as " Bob Dylan " . In his memoir , Dylan acknowledged that he had been influenced by the poetry of Dylan Thomas . Explaining his change of name in a 2004 interview , Dylan remarked , " You 're born , you know , the wrong names , wrong parents . I mean , that happens . You call yourself what you want to call yourself . This is the land of the free . "
= = = 1960s = = =
= = = = Relocation to New York and record deal = = = =
In May 1960 , Dylan dropped out of college at the end of his first year . In January 1961 , he traveled to New York City , to perform there and visit his musical idol Woody Guthrie , who was seriously ill with Huntington 's disease in Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital . Guthrie had been a revelation to Dylan and influenced his early performances . Describing Guthrie 's impact , he wrote : " The songs themselves had the infinite sweep of humanity in them ... [ He ] was the true voice of the American spirit . I said to myself I was going to be Guthrie 's greatest disciple . " As well as visiting Guthrie in hospital , Dylan befriended Guthrie 's acolyte Ramblin ' Jack Elliott . Much of Guthrie 's repertoire was channeled through Elliott , and Dylan paid tribute to Elliott in Chronicles : Volume One .
From February 1961 , Dylan played at clubs around Greenwich Village . He befriended and picked up material from folk singers there , including Dave Van Ronk , Fred Neil , Odetta , the New Lost City Ramblers , and Irish musicians the Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem . In September , Dylan gained public recognition when Robert Shelton wrote a review in The New York Times of a show at Gerde 's Folk City . The same month Dylan played harmonica on folk singer Carolyn Hester 's third album , which brought his talents to the attention of the album 's producer , John Hammond . Hammond signed Dylan to Columbia Records in October . The performances on his first Columbia album — Bob Dylan — in March 1962 , consisted of familiar folk , blues and gospel with two original compositions . The album sold only 5 @,@ 000 in its first year , just enough to break even . Within Columbia Records , some referred to the singer as " Hammond 's Folly " and suggested dropping his contract , but Hammond defended Dylan and was supported by Johnny Cash . In March 1962 , Dylan contributed harmonica and back @-@ up vocals to the album Three Kings and the Queen , accompanying Victoria Spivey and Big Joe Williams on a recording for Spivey Records . While working for Columbia , Dylan recorded under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt , for Broadside , a folk magazine and record label . Dylan used the pseudonym Bob Landy to record as a piano player on The Blues Project , a 1964 anthology album by Elektra Records . As Tedham Porterhouse , Dylan played harmonica on Ramblin ' Jack Elliott 's 1964 album , Jack Elliott .
Dylan made two important career moves in August 1962 : he legally changed his name to Robert Dylan , and he signed a management contract with Albert Grossman . ( In June 1961 , Dylan had signed an agreement with Roy Silver . In 1962 , Grossman paid Silver $ 10 @,@ 000 to become sole manager . ) Grossman remained Dylan 's manager until 1970 , and was notable for his sometimes confrontational personality and for protective loyalty . Dylan said , " He was kind of like a Colonel Tom Parker figure ... you could smell him coming . " Tensions between Grossman and John Hammond led to Hammond 's being replaced as producer of Dylan 's second album by the young African @-@ American jazz producer , Tom Wilson .
Dylan made his first trip to the United Kingdom from December 1962 to January 1963 . He had been invited by TV director Philip Saville to appear in a drama , Madhouse on Castle Street , which Saville was directing for BBC Television . At the end of the play , Dylan performed " Blowin ' in the Wind " , one of its first public performances . The film recording of Madhouse on Castle Street was destroyed by the BBC in 1968 . While in London , Dylan performed at London folk clubs , including the Troubadour , Les Cousins , and Bunjies . He also learned material from UK performers , including Martin Carthy .
By the time of Dylan 's second album , The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan , in May 1963 , he had begun to make his name as a singer and a songwriter . Many songs on this album were labeled protest songs , inspired partly by Guthrie and influenced by Pete Seeger 's passion for topical songs . " Oxford Town " , for example , was an account of James Meredith 's ordeal as the first black student to risk enrollment at the University of Mississippi .
The first song on the Freewheelin ' album , " Blowin ' in the Wind " , partly derived its melody from the traditional slave song , " No More Auction Block " , while its lyrics questioned the social and political status quo . The song was widely recorded by other artists and became a hit for Peter , Paul and Mary . Another Freewheelin ' song , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " was based on the folk ballad " Lord Randall " . With veiled references to an impending apocalypse , the song gained more resonance when the Cuban Missile Crisis developed a few weeks after Dylan began performing it . Like " Blowin ' in the Wind " , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " marked a new direction in songwriting , blending a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness , imagist lyrical attack with traditional folk form .
Dylan 's topical songs enhanced his early reputation , and he came to be seen as more than just a songwriter . Janet Maslin wrote of Freewheelin ' : " These were the songs that established [ Dylan ] as the voice of his generation — someone who implicitly understood how concerned young Americans felt about nuclear disarmament and the growing movement for civil rights : his mixture of moral authority and nonconformity was perhaps the most timely of his attributes . " Freewheelin ' also included love songs and surreal talking blues . Humor was an important part of Dylan 's persona , and the range of material on the album impressed listeners , including The Beatles . George Harrison said of the album , " We just played it , just wore it out . The content of the song lyrics and just the attitude — it was incredibly original and wonderful . "
The rough edge of Dylan 's singing was unsettling to some but an attraction to others . Joyce Carol Oates wrote : " When we first heard this raw , very young , and seemingly untrained voice , frankly nasal , as if sandpaper could sing , the effect was dramatic and electrifying . " Many early songs reached the public through more palatable versions by other performers , such as Joan Baez , who became Dylan 's advocate as well as his lover . Baez was influential in bringing Dylan to prominence by recording several of his early songs and inviting him on stage during her concerts .
Others who had hits with Dylan 's songs in the early 1960s included the Byrds , Sonny & Cher , the Hollies , Peter , Paul and Mary , the Association , Manfred Mann and the Turtles . Most attempted a pop feel and rhythm , while Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk songs . The covers became so ubiquitous that CBS promoted him with the slogan " Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan . "
" Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " , recorded during the Freewheelin ' sessions with a backing band , was released as a single and then quickly withdrawn . In contrast to the mostly solo acoustic performances on the album , the single showed a willingness to experiment with a rockabilly sound . Cameron Crowe described it as " a fascinating look at a folk artist with his mind wandering towards Elvis Presley and Sun Records . "
= = = = Protest and Another Side = = = =
In May 1963 , Dylan 's political profile rose when he walked out of The Ed Sullivan Show . During rehearsals , Dylan had been told by CBS television 's head of program practices that " Talkin ' John Birch Paranoid Blues " was potentially libelous to the John Birch Society . Rather than comply with censorship , Dylan refused to appear .
By this time , Dylan and Baez were prominent in the civil rights movement , singing together at the March on Washington on August 28 , 1963 . Dylan 's third album , The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' , reflected a more politicized and cynical Dylan . The songs often took as their subject matter contemporary stories , with " Only A Pawn In Their Game " addressing the murder of civil rights worker Medgar Evers ; and the Brechtian " The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll " the death of black hotel barmaid Hattie Carroll , at the hands of young white socialite William Zantzinger . On a more general theme , " Ballad of Hollis Brown " and " North Country Blues " addressed despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities . This political material was accompanied by two personal love songs , " Boots of Spanish Leather " and " One Too Many Mornings " .
By the end of 1963 , Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk and protest movements . Accepting the " Tom Paine Award " from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee shortly after the assassination of John F. Kennedy , an intoxicated Dylan questioned the role of the committee , characterized the members as old and balding , and claimed to see something of himself and of every man in Kennedy 's assassin , Lee Harvey Oswald .
Another Side of Bob Dylan , recorded on a single evening in June 1964 , had a lighter mood . The humorous Dylan reemerged on " I Shall Be Free No. 10 " and " Motorpsycho Nightmare " . " Spanish Harlem Incident " and " To Ramona " are passionate love songs , while " Black Crow Blues " and " I Don 't Believe You ( She Acts Like We Never Have Met ) " suggest the rock and roll soon to dominate Dylan 's music . " It Ain 't Me Babe " , on the surface a song about spurned love , has been described as a rejection of the role of political spokesman thrust upon him . His newest direction was signaled by two lengthy songs : the impressionistic " Chimes of Freedom " , which sets social commentary against a metaphorical landscape in a style characterized by Allen Ginsberg as " chains of flashing images , " and " My Back Pages " , which attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs and seems to predict the backlash he was about to encounter from his former champions as he took a new direction .
In the latter half of 1964 and 1965 , Dylan moved from folk songwriter to folk @-@ rock pop @-@ music star . His jeans and work shirts were replaced by a Carnaby Street wardrobe , sunglasses day or night , and pointed " Beatle boots " . A London reporter wrote : " Hair that would set the teeth of a comb on edge . A loud shirt that would dim the neon lights of Leicester Square . He looks like an undernourished cockatoo . " Dylan began to spar with interviewers . Appearing on the Les Crane television show and asked about a movie he planned , he told Crane it would be a cowboy horror movie . Asked if he played the cowboy , Dylan replied , " No , I play my mother . "
= = = = Going electric = = = =
Dylan 's late March 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home was another leap , featuring his first recordings with electric instruments . The first single , " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , owed much to Chuck Berry 's " Too Much Monkey Business " ; its free association lyrics described as harkening back to the energy of beat poetry and as a forerunner of rap and hip @-@ hop . The song was provided with an early video , which opened D. A. Pennebaker 's cinéma vérité presentation of Dylan 's 1965 tour of Great Britain , Dont Look Back . Instead of miming , Dylan illustrated the lyrics by throwing cue cards containing key words from the song on the ground . Pennebaker said the sequence was Dylan 's idea , and it has been imitated in music videos and advertisements .
The second side of Bringing It All Back Home contained four long songs on which Dylan accompanied himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica . " Mr. Tambourine Man " became one of his best known songs when The Byrds recorded an electric version that reached number one in the US and UK . " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " and " It 's Alright Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) " were two of Dylan 's most important compositions .
In 1965 , heading the Newport Folk Festival , Dylan performed his first electric set since high school with a pickup group mostly from the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , featuring Mike Bloomfield ( guitar ) , Sam Lay ( drums ) and Jerome Arnold ( bass ) , plus Al Kooper ( organ ) and Barry Goldberg ( piano ) . Dylan had appeared at Newport in 1963 and 1964 , but in 1965 met with cheering and booing and left the stage after three songs . One version has it that the boos were from folk fans whom Dylan had alienated by appearing , unexpectedly , with an electric guitar . Murray Lerner , who filmed the performance , said : " I absolutely think that they were booing Dylan going electric . " An alternative account claims audience members were upset by poor sound and a short set . This account is supported by Kooper and one of the directors of the festival , who reports his recording proves the only boos were in reaction to the MC 's announcement that there was only enough time for a short set .
Nevertheless , Dylan 's performance provoked a hostile response from the folk music establishment . In the September issue of Sing Out ! , Ewan MacColl wrote : " Our traditional songs and ballads are the creations of extraordinarily talented artists working inside disciplines formulated over time ... ' But what of Bobby Dylan ? ' scream the outraged teenagers ... Only a completely non @-@ critical audience , nourished on the watery pap of pop music , could have fallen for such tenth @-@ rate drivel . " On July 29 , four days after Newport , Dylan was back in the studio in New York , recording " Positively 4th Street " . The lyrics contained images of vengeance and paranoia , and it has been interpreted as Dylan 's put @-@ down of former friends from the folk community — friends he had known in clubs along West 4th Street .
= = = = Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde = = = =
In July 1965 , the single " Like a Rolling Stone " peaked at two in the U.S. and at four in the UK charts . At over six minutes , the song altered what a pop single could convey . Bruce Springsteen , in his speech for Dylan 's inauguration into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , said that on first hearing the single , " that snare shot sounded like somebody 'd kicked open the door to your mind " . In 2004 and in 2011 , Rolling Stone listed it as number one of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song opened Dylan 's next album , Highway 61 Revisited , named after the road that led from Dylan 's Minnesota to the musical hotbed of New Orleans . The songs were in the same vein as the hit single , flavored by Mike Bloomfield 's blues guitar and Al Kooper 's organ riffs . " Desolation Row " , backed by acoustic guitar and understated bass , offers the sole exception , with Dylan alluding to figures in Western culture in a song described by Andy Gill as " an 11 @-@ minute epic of entropy , which takes the form of a Fellini @-@ esque parade of grotesques and oddities featuring a huge cast of celebrated characters , some historical ( Einstein , Nero ) , some biblical ( Noah , Cain and Abel ) , some fictional ( Ophelia , Romeo , Cinderella ) , some literary ( T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound ) , and some who fit into none of the above categories , notably Dr. Filth and his dubious nurse . "
In support of the album , Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts with Al Kooper and Harvey Brooks from his studio crew and Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm , former members of Ronnie Hawkins 's backing band the Hawks . On August 28 at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium , the group was heckled by an audience still annoyed by Dylan 's electric sound . The band 's reception on September 3 at the Hollywood Bowl was more favorable .
From September 24 , 1965 , in Austin , Texas , Dylan toured the U.S. and Canada for six months , backed by the five musicians from the Hawks who became known as the Band . While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences , their studio efforts floundered . Producer Bob Johnston persuaded Dylan to record in Nashville in February 1966 , and surrounded him with top @-@ notch session men . At Dylan 's insistence , Robertson and Kooper came from New York City to play on the sessions . The Nashville sessions produced the double album Blonde on Blonde ( 1966 ) , featuring what Dylan called " that thin wild mercury sound " . Kooper described it as " taking two cultures and smashing them together with a huge explosion " : the musical world of Nashville and the world of the " quintessential New York hipster " Bob Dylan .
On November 22 , 1965 , Dylan secretly married 25 @-@ year @-@ old former model Sara Lownds . Some of Dylan 's friends , including Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , say that , immediately after the event , Dylan denied he was married . Journalist Nora Ephron made the news public in the New York Post in February 1966 with the headline " Hush ! Bob Dylan is wed . "
Dylan toured Australia and Europe in April and May 1966 . Each show was split in two . Dylan performed solo during the first half , accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica . In the second , backed by the Hawks , he played electrically amplified music . This contrast provoked many fans , who jeered and slow handclapped . The tour culminated in a raucous confrontation between Dylan and his audience at the Manchester Free Trade Hall in England on May 17 , 1966 . A recording of this concert was released in 1998 : The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 . At the climax of the evening , a member of the audience , angered by Dylan 's electric backing , shouted : " Judas ! " to which Dylan responded , " I don 't believe you ... You 're a liar ! " Dylan turned to his band and said , " Play it fucking loud ! " as they launched into the final song of the night — " Like a Rolling Stone " .
During his 1966 tour , Dylan was described as exhausted and acting " as if on a death trip " . D. A. Pennebaker , the film maker accompanying the tour , described Dylan as " taking a lot of amphetamine and who @-@ knows @-@ what @-@ else . " In a 1969 interview with Jann Wenner , Dylan said , " I was on the road for almost five years . It wore me down . I was on drugs , a lot of things ... just to keep going , you know ? " In 2011 , BBC Radio 4 reported that , in an interview that Robert Shelton taped in 1966 , Dylan said he had kicked heroin in New York City : " I got very , very strung out for a while ... I had about a $ 25 @-@ a @-@ day habit and I kicked it . " Some journalists questioned the validity of this confession , pointing out that Dylan had " been telling journalists wild lies about his past since the earliest days of his career . "
= = = = Motorcycle accident and reclusion = = = =
After his tour , Dylan returned to New York , but the pressures increased . ABC Television had paid an advance for a TV show . His publisher , Macmillan , was demanding a manuscript of the poem / novel Tarantula . Manager Albert Grossman had scheduled a concert tour for the latter part of the year .
On July 29 , 1966 , Dylan crashed his 500cc Triumph Tiger 100 motorcycle near his home in Woodstock , New York and was thrown to the ground . Though the extent of his injuries was never disclosed , Dylan said that he broke several vertebrae in his neck . Mystery still surrounds the circumstances of the accident since no ambulance was called to the scene and Dylan was not hospitalized . Dylan 's biographers have written that the crash offered Dylan the chance to escape the pressures around him . Dylan confirmed this interpretation in his autobiography : " I had been in a motorcycle accident and I 'd been hurt , but I recovered . Truth was that I wanted to get out of the rat race . " Dylan withdrew from public and , apart from a few appearances , did not tour again for almost eight years .
Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work , he began to edit D. A. Pennebaker 's film of his 1966 tour . A rough cut was shown to ABC Television and rejected as incomprehensible to a mainstream audience . The film was subsequently titled Eat the Document on bootleg copies , and it has been screened at a handful of film festivals . In 1967 he began recording with the Hawks at his home and in the basement of the Hawks ' nearby house , " Big Pink " . These songs , initially demos for other artists to record , provided hits for Julie Driscoll and the Brian Auger Trinity ( " This Wheel 's on Fire " ) , The Byrds ( " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , " Nothing Was Delivered " ) , and Manfred Mann ( " Mighty Quinn " ) . Columbia released selections in 1975 as The Basement Tapes . Over the years , more songs recorded by Dylan and his band in 1967 appeared on bootleg recordings , culminating in a five @-@ CD set titled The Genuine Basement Tapes , containing 107 songs and alternative takes . In the coming months , the Hawks recorded the album Music from Big Pink using songs they worked on in their basement in Woodstock , and renamed themselves the Band , beginning a long recording and performing career of their own .
In October and November 1967 , Dylan returned to Nashville . Back in the studio after 19 months , he was accompanied by Charlie McCoy on bass , Kenny Buttrey on drums , and Pete Drake on steel guitar . The result was John Wesley Harding , a contemplative record of shorter songs , set in a landscape that drew on the American West and the Bible . The sparse structure and instrumentation , with lyrics that took the Judeo @-@ Christian tradition seriously , departed from Dylan 's own work and from the psychedelic fervor of the 1960s . It included " All Along the Watchtower " , with lyrics derived from the Book of Isaiah ( 21 : 5 – 9 ) . The song was later recorded by Jimi Hendrix , whose version Dylan acknowledged as definitive . Woody Guthrie died on October 3 , 1967 , and Dylan made his first live appearance in twenty months at a Guthrie memorial concert held at Carnegie Hall on January 20 , 1968 , where he was backed by the Band .
Dylan 's next release , Nashville Skyline ( 1969 ) , was mainstream country featuring Nashville musicians , a mellow @-@ voiced Dylan , a duet with Johnny Cash , and the hit single " Lay Lady Lay " . Variety wrote , " Dylan is definitely doing something that can be called singing . Somehow he has managed to add an octave to his range . " Dylan and Cash also recorded a series of duets , but only their recording of Dylan 's " Girl from the North Country " was used on the album .
In May 1969 , Dylan appeared on the first episode of Johnny Cash 's television show , duetting with Cash on " Girl from the North Country " , " I Threw It All Away " , and " Living the Blues " . Dylan next traveled to England to top the bill at the Isle of Wight festival on August 31 , 1969 , after rejecting overtures to appear at the Woodstock Festival closer to his home .
= = = 1970s = = =
In the early 1970s , critics charged that Dylan 's output was varied and unpredictable . Rolling Stone writer Greil Marcus asked " What is this shit ? " on first listening to Self Portrait , released in June 1970 . Self Portrait , a double LP including few original songs , was poorly received . In October 1970 , Dylan released New Morning , considered a return to form . This album included " Day of the Locusts " , a song in which Dylan gave an account of receiving an honorary degree from Princeton University on June 9 , 1970 . In November 1968 , Dylan had co @-@ written " I 'd Have You Anytime " with George Harrison ; Harrison recorded " I 'd Have You Anytime " and Dylan 's " If Not for You " for his 1970 solo triple album All Things Must Pass . Dylan 's surprise appearance at Harrison 's 1971 Concert for Bangladesh attracted media coverage , reflecting that Dylan 's live appearances had become rare .
Between March 16 and 19 , 1971 , Dylan reserved three days at Blue Rock , a small studio in Greenwich Village to record with Leon Russell . These sessions resulted in " Watching the River Flow " and a new recording of " When I Paint My Masterpiece " . On November 4 , 1971 , Dylan recorded " George Jackson " , which he released a week later . For many , the single was a surprising return to protest material , mourning the killing of Black Panther George Jackson in San Quentin State Prison that year . Dylan contributed piano and harmony to Steve Goodman 's album , Somebody Else 's Troubles , under the pseudonym Robert Milkwood Thomas in September 1972 .
In 1972 , Dylan signed to Sam Peckinpah 's film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid , providing songs and backing music for the movie , and playing " Alias " , a member of Billy 's gang with some historical basis . Despite the film 's failure at the box office , the song " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " became one of Dylan 's most covered songs .
= = = = Return to touring = = = =
Dylan began 1973 by signing with a new label , David Geffen 's Asylum Records , when his contract with Columbia Records expired . On his next album , Planet Waves , he used the Band as backing group , while rehearsing for a tour . The album included two versions of " Forever Young " , which became one of his most popular songs . As one critic described it , the song projected " something hymnal and heartfelt that spoke of the father in Dylan " , and Dylan himself commented : " I wrote it thinking about one of my boys and not wanting to be too sentimental . "
Columbia Records simultaneously released Dylan , a collection of studio outtakes ( almost exclusively covers ) , widely interpreted as a churlish response to Dylan 's signing with a rival record label . In January 1974 , Dylan returned to touring after seven years ; backed by the Band , he embarked on a North American tour of 40 concerts . A live double album , Before the Flood , was on Asylum Records . Soon , according to Clive Davis , Columbia Records sent word they " will spare nothing to bring Dylan back into the fold " . Dylan had second thoughts about Asylum , miffed that while there had been millions of unfulfilled ticket requests for the 1974 tour , Geffen had sold only 700 @,@ 000 copies of Planet Waves . Dylan returned to Columbia Records , which reissued his two Asylum albums .
After the tour , Dylan and his wife became estranged . He filled a small red notebook with songs about relationships and ruptures , and recorded an album entitled Blood on the Tracks in September 1974 . Dylan delayed the release and re @-@ recorded half the songs at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis with production assistance from his brother , David Zimmerman .
Released in early 1975 , Blood on the Tracks received mixed reviews . In the NME , Nick Kent described " the accompaniments [ as ] often so trashy they sound like mere practice takes . " In Rolling Stone , Jon Landau wrote that " the record has been made with typical shoddiness . " Over the years critics came to see it as one of Dylan 's greatest achievements . In Salon.com , Bill Wyman wrote : " Blood on the Tracks is his only flawless album and his best produced ; the songs , each of them , are constructed in disciplined fashion . It is his kindest album and most dismayed , and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea @-@ plagued excesses of his mid @-@ 1960s output and the self @-@ consciously simple compositions of his post @-@ accident years . " Novelist Rick Moody called it " the truest , most honest account of a love affair from tip to stern ever put down on magnetic tape . "
In the middle of that year , Dylan wrote a ballad championing boxer Rubin " Hurricane " Carter , imprisoned for a triple murder in Paterson , New Jersey , in 1966 . After visiting Carter in jail , Dylan wrote " Hurricane " , presenting the case for Carter 's innocence . Despite its length — over eight minutes — the song was released as a single , peaking at 33 on the U.S. Billboard chart , and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan 's next tour , the Rolling Thunder Revue . The tour featured about one hundred performers and supporters from the Greenwich Village folk scene , including T @-@ Bone Burnett , Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , Joni Mitchell , David Mansfield , Roger McGuinn , Mick Ronson , Joan Baez , and Scarlet Rivera , whom Dylan discovered walking down the street , her violin case on her back . Allen Ginsberg accompanied the troupe , staging scenes for the film Dylan was shooting . Sam Shepard was hired to write the screenplay , but ended up accompanying the tour as informal chronicler .
Running through late 1975 and again through early 1976 , the tour encompassed the release of the album Desire , with many of Dylan 's new songs featuring a travelogue @-@ like narrative style , showing the influence of his new collaborator , playwright Jacques Levy . The 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special , Hard Rain , and the LP Hard Rain ; no concert album from the better @-@ received and better @-@ known opening half of the tour was released until 2002 's Live 1975 .
The 1975 tour with the Revue provided the backdrop to Dylan 's nearly four @-@ hour film Renaldo and Clara , a sprawling narrative mixed with concert footage and reminiscences . Released in 1978 , the movie received poor , sometimes scathing , reviews . Later in that year , a two @-@ hour edit , dominated by the concert performances , was more widely released .
In November 1976 , Dylan appeared at the Band 's " farewell " concert , with Eric Clapton , Joni Mitchell , Muddy Waters , Van Morrison and Neil Young . Martin Scorsese 's cinematic chronicle , The Last Waltz , in 1978 included about half of Dylan 's set . In 1976 , Dylan wrote and duetted on " Sign Language " for Eric Clapton 's No Reason To Cry .
In 1978 , Dylan embarked on a year @-@ long world tour , performing 114 shows in Japan , the Far East , Europe and the US , to a total audience of two million . Dylan assembled an eight piece band and three backing singers . Concerts in Tokyo in February and March were released as the live double album , Bob Dylan At Budokan . Reviews were mixed . Robert Christgau awarded the album a C + rating , giving the album a derisory review , while Janet Maslin defended it in Rolling Stone , writing : " These latest live versions of his old songs have the effect of liberating Bob Dylan from the originals . " When Dylan brought the tour to the U.S. in September 1978 , the press described the look and sound as a ' Las Vegas Tour ' . The 1978 tour grossed more than $ 20 million , and Dylan told the Los Angeles Times that he had debts because " I had a couple of bad years . I put a lot of money into the movie , built a big house ... and it costs a lot to get divorced in California . "
In April and May 1978 , Dylan took the same band and vocalists into Rundown Studios in Santa Monica , California , to record an album of new material : Street @-@ Legal . It was described by Michael Gray as , " after Blood On The Tracks , arguably Dylan 's best record of the 1970s : a crucial album documenting a crucial period in Dylan 's own life " . However , it had poor sound and mixing ( attributed to Dylan 's studio practices ) , muddying the instrumental detail until a remastered CD release in 1999 restored some of the songs ' strengths .
= = = = Christian period = = = =
In the late 1970s , Dylan became a born again Christian and released two albums of contemporary gospel music . Slow Train Coming ( 1979 ) featured the guitar accompaniment of Mark Knopfler ( of Dire Straits ) and was produced by veteran R & B producer Jerry Wexler . Wexler said that Dylan had tried to evangelize him during the recording . He replied : " Bob , you 're dealing with a 62 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish atheist . Let 's just make an album . " Dylan won the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for the song " Gotta Serve Somebody " . His second Christian @-@ themed album , Saved ( 1980 ) , received mixed reviews , described by Michael Gray as " the nearest thing to a follow @-@ up album Dylan has ever made , Slow Train Coming II and inferior " When touring in late 1979 and early 1980 , Dylan would not play his older , secular works , and he delivered declarations of his faith from the stage , such as :
Years ago they ... said I was a prophet . I used to say , " No I 'm not a prophet " they say " Yes you are , you 're a prophet . " I said , " No it 's not me . " They used to say " You sure are a prophet . " They used to convince me I was a prophet . Now I come out and say Jesus Christ is the answer . They say , " Bob Dylan 's no prophet . " They just can 't handle it .
Dylan 's Christianity was unpopular with some fans and musicians . Shortly before his murder , John Lennon recorded " Serve Yourself " in response to Dylan 's " Gotta Serve Somebody " . By 1981 , Stephen Holden wrote in the New York Times that " neither age ( he 's now 40 ) nor his much @-@ publicized conversion to born @-@ again Christianity has altered his essentially iconoclastic temperament . "
= = = 1980s = = =
In late 1980 , Dylan briefly played concerts billed as " A Musical Retrospective " , restoring popular 1960s songs to the repertoire . Shot of Love , recorded early the next year , featured his first secular compositions in more than two years , mixed with Christian songs . " Every Grain of Sand " reminded some of William Blake 's verses .
In the 1980s , reception of Dylan 's recordings varied , from the well @-@ regarded Infidels in 1983 to the panned Down in the Groove in 1988 . Michael Gray condemned Dylan 's 1980s albums for carelessness in the studio and for failing to release his best songs . As an example of the latter , the Infidels recording sessions , which again employed Knopfler on lead guitar and also as the album 's producer , resulted in several notable songs that Dylan left off the album . Best regarded of these were " Blind Willie McTell " , a tribute to the dead blues musician and an evocation of African American history , " Foot of Pride " and " Lord Protect My Child " . These three songs were released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 .
Between July 1984 and March 1985 , Dylan recorded Empire Burlesque . Arthur Baker , who had remixed hits for Bruce Springsteen and Cyndi Lauper , was asked to engineer and mix the album . Baker said he felt he was hired to make Dylan 's album sound " a little bit more contemporary " .
Dylan sang on USA for Africa 's famine relief single " We Are the World " . On July 13 , 1985 , he appeared at the climax at the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium , Philadelphia . Backed by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood , he performed a ragged version of " Hollis Brown " , his ballad of rural poverty , and then said to the worldwide audience exceeding one billion people : " I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it , maybe ... one or two million , maybe ... and use it to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and , the farmers here , owe to the banks . " His remarks were widely criticized as inappropriate , but they did inspire Willie Nelson to organize a series of events , Farm Aid , to benefit debt @-@ ridden American farmers .
In April 1986 , Dylan made a foray into rap music when he added vocals to the opening verse of " Street Rock " , featured on Kurtis Blow 's album Kingdom Blow . Dylan 's next studio album , Knocked Out Loaded , in July 1986 contained three covers ( by Little Junior Parker , Kris Kristofferson and the gospel hymn " Precious Memories " ) , plus three collaborations with ( Tom Petty , Sam Shepard and Carole Bayer Sager ) , and two solo compositions by Dylan . One reviewer commented that " the record follows too many detours to be consistently compelling , and some of those detours wind down roads that are indisputably dead ends . By 1986 , such uneven records weren 't entirely unexpected by Dylan , but that didn 't make them any less frustrating . " It was the first Dylan album since Freewheelin ' ( 1963 ) to fail to make the Top 50 . Since then , some critics have called the 11 @-@ minute epic that Dylan co @-@ wrote with Sam Shepard , " Brownsville Girl " , a work of genius .
In 1986 and 1987 , Dylan toured with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , sharing vocals with Petty on several songs each night . Dylan also toured with the Grateful Dead in 1987 , resulting in a live album Dylan & The Dead . This received negative reviews : Allmusic said , " Quite possibly the worst album by either Bob Dylan or the Grateful Dead . " Dylan then initiated what came to be called the Never Ending Tour on June 7 , 1988 , performing with a back @-@ up band featuring guitarist G. E. Smith . Dylan continued to tour with a small , evolving band for the next 20 years .
In 1987 , Dylan starred in Richard Marquand 's movie Hearts of Fire , in which he played Billy Parker , a washed @-@ up rock star turned chicken farmer whose teenage lover , ( Fiona ) , leaves him for a jaded English synth @-@ pop sensation played by Rupert Everett . Dylan also contributed two original songs to the soundtrack — " Night After Night " , and " I Had a Dream About You , Baby " , as well as a cover of John Hiatt 's " The Usual " . The film was a critical and commercial flop . Dylan was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1988 , with Bruce Springsteen 's introduction declaring , " Bob freed your mind the way Elvis freed your body . He showed us that just because music was innately physical did not mean that it was anti @-@ intellectual .
The album Down in the Groove in May 1988 sold even more unsuccessfully than his previous studio album . Michael Gray wrote : " The very title undercuts any idea that inspired work may lie within . Here was a further devaluing of the notion of a new Bob Dylan album as something significant . " The critical and commercial disappointment of that album was swiftly followed by the success of the Traveling Wilburys . Dylan co @-@ founded the band with George Harrison , Jeff Lynne , Roy Orbison , and Tom Petty , and in late 1988 their multi @-@ platinum Traveling Wilburys Vol . 1 reached three on the US album chart , featuring songs that were described as Dylan 's most accessible compositions in years . Despite Orbison 's death in December 1988 , the remaining four recorded a second album in May 1990 with the title Traveling Wilburys Vol . 3 .
Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with Oh Mercy produced by Daniel Lanois . Michael Gray wrote that the album was : " Attentively written , vocally distinctive , musically warm , and uncompromisingly professional , this cohesive whole is the nearest thing to a great Bob Dylan album in the 1980s . " The track " Most of the Time " , a lost love composition , was later prominently featured in the film High Fidelity , while " What Was It You Wanted ? " has been interpreted both as a catechism and a wry comment on the expectations of critics and fans . The religious imagery of " Ring Them Bells " struck some critics as a re @-@ affirmation of faith .
= = = 1990s = = =
Dylan 's 1990s began with Under the Red Sky ( 1990 ) , an about @-@ face from the serious Oh Mercy . The album contained several apparently simple songs , including " Under the Red Sky " and " Wiggle Wiggle " . The album was dedicated to " Gabby Goo Goo " , a nickname for the daughter of Dylan and Carolyn Dennis , Desiree Gabrielle Dennis @-@ Dylan , who was four . Sidemen on the album included George Harrison , Slash from Guns N ' Roses , David Crosby , Bruce Hornsby , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and Elton John . Despite the line @-@ up , the record received bad reviews and sold poorly .
In 1991 , Dylan received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award from American actor Jack Nicholson . The event coincided with the start of the Gulf War against Saddam Hussein , and Dylan performed " Masters of War " . Dylan then made a short speech , saying " My daddy once said to me , he said , ' Son , it is possible for you to become so defiled in this world that your own mother and father will abandon you . If that happens , God will believe in your ability to mend your own ways . ' " This sentiment was subsequently revealed to be a quote from 19th @-@ century German Jewish intellectual , Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch .
The next few years saw Dylan returning to his roots with two albums covering folk and blues numbers : Good as I Been to You ( 1992 ) and World Gone Wrong ( 1993 ) , featuring interpretations and acoustic guitar work . Many critics and fans commented on the quiet beauty of the song " Lone Pilgrim " , written by a 19th @-@ century teacher . In November 1994 Dylan recorded two live shows for MTV Unplugged . He said his wish to perform traditional songs was overruled by Sony executives who insisted on hits . The album from it , MTV Unplugged , included " John Brown " , an unreleased 1962 song of how enthusiasm for war ends in mutilation and disillusionment .
Dylan 's longtime road manager Victor Maymudes has claimed that the singer quit drinking alcohol in 1994 . Maymudes felt that Dylan sobering up made him " more introverted and a little less social . "
With a collection of songs reportedly written while snowed @-@ in on his Minnesota ranch , Dylan booked recording time with Daniel Lanois at Miami 's Criteria Studios in January 1997 . The subsequent recording sessions were , by some accounts , fraught with musical tension . Before the album 's release Dylan was hospitalized with a life @-@ threatening heart infection , pericarditis , brought on by histoplasmosis . His scheduled European tour was cancelled , but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying , " I really thought I 'd be seeing Elvis soon . " He was back on the road by mid @-@ year , and performed before Pope John Paul II at the World Eucharistic Conference in Bologna , Italy . The Pope treated the audience of 200 @,@ 000 people to a homily based on Dylan 's lyric " Blowin ' in the Wind " .
September saw the release of the new Lanois @-@ produced album , Time Out of Mind . With its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations , Dylan 's first collection of original songs in seven years was highly acclaimed . One critic wrote : " the songs themselves are uniformly powerful , adding up to Dylan 's best overall collection in years . " This collection of complex songs won him his first solo " Album of the Year " Grammy Award .
In December 1997 , U.S. President Bill Clinton presented Dylan with a Kennedy Center Honor in the East Room of the White House , paying this tribute : " He probably had more impact on people of my generation than any other creative artist . His voice and lyrics haven 't always been easy on the ear , but throughout his career Bob Dylan has never aimed to please . He 's disturbed the peace and discomforted the powerful . "
In 1999 , Dylan embarked on a North American tour with Paul Simon , where each alternated as headline act with a " middle " section where they performed together , starting on the first of June and ending September 18 . The collaboration was generally well @-@ received , with just one critic , Seth Rogovoy , from the Berkshire Eagle , questioning the collaboration .
= = = 2000s = = =
Dylan commenced the new millennium by winning the Polar Music Prize in May 2000 and his first Oscar ; his song " Things Have Changed " , written for the film Wonder Boys , won an Academy Award in March 2001 . The Oscar , by some reports a facsimile , tours with him , presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier .
" Love and Theft " was released on September 11 , 2001 . Recorded with his touring band , Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost . The album was critically well received and earned nominations for several Grammy awards . Critics noted that Dylan was widening his musical palette to include rockabilly , Western swing , jazz , and even lounge ballads . " Love and Theft " generated controversy when The Wall Street Journal pointed out similarities between the album 's lyrics and Japanese author Junichi Saga 's book Confessions of a Yakuza .
In 2003 , Dylan revisited the evangelical songs from his " born again " period and participated in the CD project Gotta Serve Somebody : The Gospel Songs of Bob Dylan . That year also saw the release of the film Masked & Anonymous , which Dylan co @-@ wrote with director Larry Charles under the alias Sergei Petrov . Dylan played the central character in the film , Jack Fate , alongside a cast that included Jeff Bridges , Penélope Cruz and John Goodman . The film polarised critics : many dismissed it as an " incoherent mess " ; a few treated it as a serious work of art .
In October 2004 , Dylan published the first part of his autobiography , Chronicles : Volume One . Confounding expectations , Dylan devoted three chapters to his first year in New York City in 1961 – 1962 , virtually ignoring the mid @-@ 1960s when his fame was at its height . He also devoted chapters to the albums New Morning ( 1970 ) and Oh Mercy ( 1989 ) . The book reached number two on The New York Times ' Hardcover Non @-@ Fiction best seller list in December 2004 and was nominated for a National Book Award .
No Direction Home , Martin Scorsese 's acclaimed film biography of Dylan , was first broadcast on September 26 – 27 , 2005 , on BBC Two in the UK and PBS in the US . The documentary focuses on the period from Dylan 's arrival in New York in 1961 to his motorcycle crash in 1966 , featuring interviews with Suze Rotolo , Liam Clancy , Joan Baez , Allen Ginsberg , Pete Seeger , Mavis Staples , and Dylan himself . The film received a Peabody Award in April 2006 and a Columbia @-@ duPont Award in January 2007 . The accompanying soundtrack featured unreleased songs from Dylan 's early career .
Dylan earned yet another distinction in a 2007 study of US legal opinions and briefs that found his lyrics were quoted by judges and lawyers more than those of any other songwriter , 186 times versus 74 by the Beatles , who were second . Among those quoting Dylan were US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Antonin Scalia , both conservatives . The most widely cited lines included " you don 't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows " from " Subterranean Homesick Blues " and " when you ain 't got nothing , you got nothing to lose " from " Like a Rolling Stone " .
= = = = Modern Times = = = =
May 3 , 2006 , was the premiere of Dylan 's radio presenting career , hosting a weekly radio program , Theme Time Radio Hour , for XM Satellite Radio , with song selections revolving around a chosen theme . Dylan played classic and obscure records from the 1930s to the present day , including contemporary artists as diverse as Blur , Prince , L.L. Cool J and the Streets . The show was praised by fans and critics as " great radio , " as Dylan told stories and made eclectic references with his sardonic humor , while achieving a thematic beauty with his musical choices . In April 2009 , Dylan broadcast the 100th show in his radio series ; the theme was " Goodbye " and the final record played was Woody Guthrie 's " So Long , It 's Been Good to Know Yuh " . This has led to speculation that Dylan 's radio series may have ended .
On August 29 , 2006 , Dylan released his Modern Times album . Despite some coarsening of Dylan 's voice ( a critic for The Guardian characterised his singing on the album as " a catarrhal death rattle " ) most reviewers praised the album , and many described it as the final installment of a successful trilogy , embracing Time Out of Mind and " Love and Theft " . Modern Times entered the U.S. charts at number one , making it Dylan 's first album to reach that position since 1976 's Desire . The New York Times published an article exploring similarities between some of Dylan 's lyrics in Modern Times and the work of the Civil War poet Henry Timrod .
Nominated for three Grammy Awards , Modern Times won Best Contemporary Folk / Americana Album and Bob Dylan also won Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for " Someday Baby " . Modern Times was named Album of the Year , 2006 , by Rolling Stone magazine , and by Uncut in the UK . On the same day that Modern Times was released the iTunes Music Store released Bob Dylan : The Collection , a digital box set containing all of his albums ( 773 tracks in total ) , along with 42 rare and unreleased tracks .
In August 2007 , the award @-@ winning film biography of Dylan I 'm Not There , written and directed by Todd Haynes , was released — bearing the tagline " inspired by the music and many lives of Bob Dylan " . The movie used six different actors to represent different aspects of Dylan 's life : Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Marcus Carl Franklin , Richard Gere , Heath Ledger and Ben Whishaw . Dylan 's previously unreleased 1967 recording from which the film takes its name was released for the first time on the film 's original soundtrack ; all other tracks are covers of Dylan songs , specially recorded for the movie by a diverse range of artists , including Sonic Youth , Eddie Vedder , Mason Jennings , Stephen Malkmus , Jeff Tweedy , Karen O , Willie Nelson , Cat Power , Richie Havens , and Tom Verlaine .
On October 1 , 2007 , Columbia Records released the triple CD retrospective album Dylan , anthologising his entire career under the Dylan 07 logo . As part of this campaign , Mark Ronson produced a re @-@ mix of Dylan 's 1966 tune " Most Likely You Go Your Way and I 'll Go Mine " , which was released as a maxi @-@ single . This was the first time Dylan had sanctioned a re @-@ mix of one of his classic recordings .
The sophistication of the Dylan 07 marketing campaign was a reminder that Dylan 's commercial profile had risen considerably since the 1990s . This first became evident in 2004 , when Dylan appeared in a TV advertisement for Victoria 's Secret lingerie . Three years later , in October 2007 , he participated in a multi @-@ media campaign for the 2008 Cadillac Escalade . Then , in 2009 , he gave the highest profile endorsement of his career , appearing with rapper will.i.am in a Pepsi ad that debuted during the telecast of Super Bowl XLIII . The ad , broadcast to a record audience of 98 million viewers , opened with Dylan singing the first verse of " Forever Young " followed by will.i.am doing a hip hop version of the song 's third and final verse .
In October 2008 , Columbia released The Bootleg Series Vol . 8 – Tell Tale Signs as both a two @-@ CD set and a three @-@ CD version with a 150 @-@ page hardcover book . The set contains live performances and outtakes from selected studio albums from Oh Mercy to Modern Times , as well as soundtrack contributions and collaborations with David Bromberg and Ralph Stanley . The pricing of the album — the two @-@ CD set went on sale for $ 18 @.@ 99 and the three @-@ CD version for $ 129 @.@ 99 — led to complaints about " rip @-@ off packaging " from some fans and commentators . The release was widely acclaimed by critics . The abundance of alternative takes and unreleased material suggested to one reviewer that this volume of old outtakes " feels like a new Bob Dylan record , not only for the astonishing freshness of the material , but also for the incredible sound quality and organic feeling of everything here . "
= = = = Together Through Life and Christmas in the Heart = = = =
Bob Dylan released his album Together Through Life on April 28 , 2009 . In a conversation with music journalist Bill Flanagan , published on Dylan 's website , Dylan explained that the genesis of the record was when French film director Olivier Dahan asked him to supply a song for his new road movie , My Own Love Song ; initially only intending to record a single track , " Life Is Hard , " " the record sort of took its own direction " . Nine of the ten songs on the album are credited as co @-@ written by Bob Dylan and Robert Hunter .
The album received largely favorable reviews , although several critics described it as a minor addition to Dylan 's canon of work . Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that the record " features Dylan in fairly relaxed , spontaneous mood , content to grab such grooves and sentiments as flit momentarily across his radar . So while it may not contain too many landmark tracks , it 's one of the most naturally enjoyable albums you 'll hear all year . "
In its first week of release , the album reached number one in the Billboard 200 chart in the U.S. , making Bob Dylan ( 67 years of age ) the oldest artist to ever debut at number one on that chart . It also reached number one on the UK album chart , 39 years after Dylan 's previous UK album chart topper New Morning . This meant that Dylan currently holds the record for the longest gap between solo number one albums in the UK chart .
On October 13 , 2009 , Dylan released a Christmas album , Christmas in the Heart , comprising such Christmas standards as " Little Drummer Boy " , " Winter Wonderland " and " Here Comes Santa Claus " . Dylan 's royalties from the sale of this album will benefit the charities Feeding America in the USA , Crisis in the UK , and the World Food Programme .
The album received generally favorable reviews . The New Yorker commented that Dylan had welded a pre @-@ rock musical sound to " some of his croakiest vocals in a while " , and speculated that Dylan 's intentions might be ironic : " Dylan has a long and highly publicized history with Christianity ; to claim there 's not a wink in the childish optimism of ' Here Comes Santa Claus ' or ' Winter Wonderland ' is to ignore a half @-@ century of biting satire . " In USA Today , Edna Gundersen pointed out that Dylan was " revisiting yuletide styles popularized by Nat King Cole , Mel Tormé , and the Ray Conniff Singers . " Gundersen concluded that Dylan " couldn 't sound more sentimental or sincere " .
In an interview published in The Big Issue , journalist Bill Flanagan asked Dylan why he had performed the songs in a straightforward style , and Dylan responded : " There wasn 't any other way to play it . These songs are part of my life , just like folk songs . You have to play them straight too . "
= = = 2010s = = =
= = = = Tempest = = = =
On October 18 , 2010 , Dylan released Volume 9 of his Bootleg Series , The Witmark Demos . This comprised 47 demo recordings of songs taped between 1962 and 1964 for Dylan 's earliest music publishers : Leeds Music in 1962 , and Witmark Music from 1962 to 1964 . One reviewer described the set as " a hearty glimpse of young Bob Dylan changing the music business , and the world , one note at a time . " The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a Metascore of 86 , indicating " universal acclaim " . In the same week , Sony Legacy released Bob Dylan : The Original Mono Recordings , a box set that for the first time presented Dylan 's eight earliest albums , from Bob Dylan ( 1962 ) to John Wesley Harding ( 1967 ) , in their original mono mix in the CD format . The CDs were housed in miniature facsimiles of the original album covers , replete with original liner notes . The set was accompanied by a booklet featuring an essay by music critic Greil Marcus .
On April 12 , 2011 , Legacy Recordings released Bob Dylan in Concert – Brandeis University 1963 , taped at Brandeis University on May 10 , 1963 , two weeks prior to the release of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan . The tape was discovered in the archive of music writer Ralph J. Gleason , and the recording carries liner notes by Michael Gray , who writes the recording captures Dylan " from way back when Kennedy was President and the Beatles hadn 't yet reached America . It reveals him not at any Big Moment but giving a performance like his folk club sets of the period ... This is the last live performance we have of Bob Dylan before he becomes a star . "
The extent to which his work was studied at an academic level was demonstrated on Dylan 's 70th birthday on May 24 , 2011 , when three universities organized symposia on his work . The University of Mainz , the University of Vienna , and the University of Bristol invited literary critics and cultural historians to give papers on aspects of Dylan 's work . Other events , including tribute bands , discussions and simple singalongs , took place around the world , as reported in The Guardian : " From Moscow to Madrid , Norway to Northampton and Malaysia to his home state of Minnesota , self @-@ confessed ' Bobcats ' will gather today to celebrate the 70th birthday of a giant of popular music . "
On October 4 , 2011 , Dylan 's label , Egyptian Records , released an album of previously unheard Hank Williams songs , The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams . Dylan had helped to curate this project , in which songs unfinished when Williams died in 1953 were completed and recorded by a variety of artists , including Dylan himself , his son Jakob Dylan , Levon Helm , Norah Jones , Jack White , and others .
On May 29 , 2012 , U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Dylan a Presidential Medal of Freedom in the White House . At the ceremony , Obama praised Dylan 's voice for its " unique gravelly power that redefined not just what music sounded like but the message it carried and how it made people feel " .
On September 11 , 2012 , Dylan released his 35th studio album , Tempest . The album features a tribute to John Lennon , " Roll On John " , and the title track is a 14 minute song about the sinking of the Titanic . Reviewing Tempest for Rolling Stone , Will Hermes gave the album five out of five stars , writing : " Lyrically , Dylan is at the top of his game , joking around , dropping wordplay and allegories that evade pat readings and quoting other folks ' words like a freestyle rapper on fire . " Hermes called Tempest " one of [ Dylan 's ] weirdest albums ever " , and opined , " It may also be the single darkest record in Dylan 's catalog . " The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a score of 83 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " .
On August 27 , 2013 , Columbia Records released Volume 10 of Dylan 's Bootleg Series , Another Self Portrait ( 1969 – 1971 ) . The album contained 35 previously unreleased tracks , including alternate takes and demos from Dylan 's 1969 – 1971 recording sessions during the making of the Self Portrait and New Morning albums . The box set also included a live recording of Dylan 's performance with the Band at the Isle of Wight Festival in 1969 . Another Self Portrait received favorable reviews , earning a score of 81 on the critical aggregator , Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " . AllMusic critic Thom Jurek wrote , " For fans , this is more than a curiosity , it 's an indispensable addition to the catalog . "
On November 4 , 2013 , Columbia Records released Bob Dylan : Complete Album Collection : Vol . One , a boxed set containing all 35 of Dylan 's studio albums , six albums of live recordings , and a collection , entitled Sidetracks , of singles , songs from films and non @-@ album material . The box includes new album @-@ by @-@ album liner notes written by Clinton Heylin with an introduction by Bill Flanagan . On the same date , Columbia released a compilation , The Very Best of Bob Dylan , which is available in both single CD and double CD formats . To publicize the 35 album box set , an innovative video of the song " Like a Rolling Stone " was released on Dylan 's website . The interactive video , created by director Vania Heymann , allowed viewers to switch between 16 simulated TV channels , all featuring characters who are lip @-@ synching the lyrics of the 48 @-@ year @-@ old song .
On February 2 , 2014 , Dylan appeared in a commercial for the Chrysler 200 car which was screened during the 2014 Super Bowl American football game . At the end of the commercial , Dylan says : " So let Germany brew your beer , let Switzerland make your watch , let Asia assemble your phone . We will build your car . " Dylan 's Super Bowl commercial generated controversy and op @-@ ed pieces discussing the protectionist implications of his words , and whether the singer had " sold out " to corporate interests .
In 2013 and 2014 , auction house sales demonstrated the high cultural value attached to Dylan 's mid @-@ 1960s work , and the record prices that collectors were willing to pay for artefacts from this period . In December 2013 , the Fender Stratocaster which Dylan had played at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival fetched $ 965 @,@ 000 , the second highest price paid for a guitar . In June 2014 , Dylan 's hand @-@ written lyrics of " Like a Rolling Stone " , his 1965 hit single , fetched $ 2 million dollars at auction , a record for a popular music manuscript .
On October 28 , 2014 , Simon & Schuster published a massive 960 page , thirteen and a half pound edition of Dylan 's lyrics , Lyrics : Since 1962 . The book was edited by literary critic Christopher Ricks , Julie Nemrow and Lisa Nemrow , to offer variant versions of Dylan 's songs , sourced from out @-@ takes and live performances . A limited edition of 50 books , signed by Dylan , was priced at $ 5 @,@ 000 . " It ’ s the biggest , most expensive book we ’ ve ever published , as far as I know , " said Jonathan Karp , Simon & Schuster ’ s president and publisher .
On November 4 , 2014 , Columbia Records / Legacy Recordings released The Basement Tapes Complete by Bob Dylan and The Band . These 138 tracks in a six @-@ CD box form Volume 11 of Dylan 's Bootleg Series . The 1975 album , The Basement Tapes , contained some of the songs which Dylan and the Band recorded in their homes in Woodstock , New York , in 1967 . Subsequently , over 100 recordings and alternate takes have circulated on bootleg records . The sleeve notes for the new box set are by Sid Griffin , American musician and author of Million Dollar Bash : Bob Dylan , The Band , and The Basement Tapes .
= = = = Shadows in the Night and Fallen Angels = = = =
On February 3 , 2015 , Dylan released Shadows in the Night , featuring ten songs written between 1923 and 1963 , which have been described as part of the Great American Songbook . All the songs on the album were recorded by Frank Sinatra but both critics and Dylan himself cautioned against seeing the record as a collection of " Sinatra covers " . Dylan explained , " I don 't see myself as covering these songs in any way . They 've been covered enough . Buried , as a matter a fact . What me and my band are basically doing is uncovering them . Lifting them out of the grave and bringing them into the light of day . " In an interview , Dylan said he had been thinking about making this record since hearing Willie Nelson 's 1978 album Stardust .
Shadows In the Night received favorable reviews , scoring 82 on the critical aggregator Metacritic , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Critics praised the restrained instrumental backings and Dylan 's singing , saying that the material had elicited his best vocal performances in recent years . Bill Prince in GQ commented : " A performer who 's had to hear his influence in virtually every white pop recording made since he debuted his own self @-@ titled album back in 1962 imagines himself into the songs of his pre @-@ rock 'n'roll early youth . " In The Independent , Andy Gill wrote that the recordings " have a lingering , languid charm , which ... help to liberate the material from the rusting manacles of big @-@ band and cabaret mannerisms . " The album debuted at number one in the UK albums chart in its first week of release .
On October 5 , 2015 , IBM launched a marketing campaign for its Watson computer system which featured Dylan . Dylan is seen conversing with the computer which says it has read all his lyrics and reports : " My analysis shows that your major themes are that time passes and love fades . " Dylan replies : " That sounds about right . "
On November 6 , 2015 , Sony Music released The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 . This work consists of previously unreleased material from the three albums Dylan recorded Between January 1965 and March 1966 : Bringing It All Back Home , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . The records have been released in three formats : a 2 @-@ CD " Best Of " version , a 6 @-@ CD " Deluxe edition " , and an 18 @-@ CD " Collector 's Edition " in a limited edition of 5 @,@ 000 units . On Dylan 's website the " Collector 's Edition " was described as containing " every single note recorded by Bob Dylan in the studio in 1965 / 1966 " . The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded Cutting Edge a score of 99 , indicating universal acclaim . The Best of the Cutting Edge entered the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart at number one on November 18 , based on its first @-@ week sales .
On March 2 , 2016 , it was announced that Dylan had sold an extensive archive of about 6 @,@ 000 items to the George Kaiser Family Foundation and the University of Tulsa . It was reported that the sale price was " an estimated $ 15 million to $ 20 million " , and the archive comprises notebooks , drafts of Dylan lyrics , recordings , and correspondence . Filmed material in the collection includes 30 hours of outtakes from the 1965 tour documentary Dont Look Back , 30 hours of footage shot on Dylan 's legendary 1966 electric tour , and 50 hours shot on the 1975 Rolling Thunder Revue . The archive will be housed at Helmerich Center for American Research , a facility at the Gilcrease Museum .
On May 20 , 2016 , Dylan released his 37th studio album , Fallen Angels , which was described as " a direct continuation of the work of ' uncovering ' the Great Songbook that he began on last year ’ s Shadows In the Night . " The album contained twelve songs by classic songwriters such as Harold Arlen , Sammy Cahn and Johnny Mercer , eleven of which had been recorded by Sinatra . Jim Farber wrote in Entertainment Weekly : " Tellingly , [ Dylan ] delivers these songs of love lost and cherished not with a burning passion but with the wistfulness of experience . They ’ re memory songs now , intoned with a present sense of commitment . Released just four days ahead of his 75th birthday , they couldn ’ t be more age @-@ appropriate . " The album received a score of 79 on critical aggregator website Metacritic , denoting " generally favorable reviews " .
= = Never Ending Tour = =
The Never Ending Tour commenced on June 7 , 1988 , and Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and 2000s — a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s . By May 2013 , Dylan and his band had played more than 2 @,@ 500 shows , anchored by long @-@ time bassist Tony Garnier , drummer George Recile , multi @-@ instrumentalist Donnie Herron , and guitarist Charlie Sexton . To the dismay of some of his audience , Dylan 's performances remain unpredictable as he alters his arrangements and changes his vocal approach night after night . Critical opinion about Dylan 's shows remains divided . Critics such as Richard Williams and Andy Gill have argued that Dylan has found a successful way to present his rich legacy of material . Others have criticized his live performances for mangling and spitting out " the greatest lyrics ever written so that they are effectively unrecognisable " , and giving so little to the audience that " it is difficult to understand what he is doing on stage at all . "
Dylan 's performances in China in April 2011 generated controversy . Some criticised him for not making any explicit comment on the political situation in China , and for , allegedly , allowing the Chinese authorities to censor his set list . Others defended Dylan 's performances , arguing that such criticism represented a misunderstanding of Dylan 's art , and that no evidence for the censorship of Dylan 's set list existed . In response to these allegations , Dylan posted a statement on his website : " As far as censorship goes , the Chinese government had asked for the names of the songs that I would be playing . There 's no logical answer to that , so we sent them the set lists from the previous 3 months . If there were any songs , verses or lines censored , nobody ever told me about it and we played all the songs that we intended to play . "
Dylan commenced a tour of Japan in Tokyo on April 4 , 2016 , which concluded in Yokohama on April 28 . Dylan announced a tour of the US starting in Woodinville WA on June 4 , 2016 , and finishing in Gilford NH on July 17 . Dylan has also announced his participation in a so @-@ called " Mega @-@ Fest " titled Desert Trip , in California on October 7 , when he will perform at the same event as the Rolling Stones , Neil Young , Paul McCartney , the Who and Roger Waters .
= = Visual artist = =
The cover of Dylan 's album Self Portrait ( 1970 ) is a reproduction of a painting of a face by Dylan . Another of his paintings is reproduced on the cover of the 1974 album Planet Waves . In 1994 Random House published Drawn Blank , a book of Dylan 's drawings . In 2007 , the first public exhibition of Dylan 's paintings , The Drawn Blank Series , opened at the Kunstsammlungen in Chemnitz , Germany ; it showcased more than 200 watercolors and gouaches made from the original drawings . The exhibition coincided with the publication of Bob Dylan : The Drawn Blank Series , which includes 170 reproductions from the series . From September 2010 until April 2011 , the National Gallery of Denmark exhibited 40 large @-@ scale acrylic paintings by Dylan , The Brazil Series .
In July 2011 , a leading contemporary art gallery , Gagosian Gallery , announced their representation of Dylan 's paintings . An exhibition of Dylan 's art , The Asia Series , opened at the Gagosian Madison Avenue Gallery on September 20 , displaying Dylan 's paintings of scenes in China and the Far East . The New York Times reported that " some fans and Dylanologists have raised questions about whether some of these paintings are based on the singer 's own experiences and observations , or on photographs that are widely available and were not taken by Mr. Dylan . " The Times pointed to close resemblances between Dylan 's paintings and historic photos of Japan and China , and photos taken by Dmitri Kessel and Henri Cartier @-@ Bresson . The Magnum photo agency confirmed that Dylan had licensed the reproduction rights of these photographs .
Dylan 's second show at the Gagosian Gallery , Revisionist Art , opened in November 2012 . The show consisted of thirty paintings , transforming and satirizing popular magazines , including Playboy and Babytalk . In February 2013 , Dylan exhibited the New Orleans Series of paintings at the Palazzo Reale in Milan . In August 2013 , Britain 's National Portrait Gallery in London hosted Dylan 's first major UK exhibition , Face Value , featuring twelve pastel portraits .
In November 2013 , the Halcyon Gallery , in London , exhibited seven wrought iron gates created by Dylan ( the exhibition was entitled Mood Swings ) . In a statement released by the gallery , Dylan said , " I 've been around iron all my life ever since I was a kid . I was born and raised in iron ore country , where you could breathe it and smell it every day . Gates appeal to me because of the negative space they allow . They can be closed but at the same time they allow the seasons and breezes to enter and flow . They can shut you out or shut you in . And in some ways there is no difference . "
Since 1994 , Dylan has published six books of paintings and drawings .
= = Discography = =
= = Accolades = =
Dylan has won many awards throughout his career including eleven Grammy Awards , one Academy Award and one Golden Globe Award . He has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame , and Songwriters Hall of Fame . In May 2000 , Dylan was awarded the Polar Music Prize . He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in May 2012 . In February 2015 , Dylan accepted the MusiCares Person of the Year award from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences , in recognition of his philanthropic and artistic contributions to society .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Dylan married Sara Lownds on November 22 , 1965 . Their first child , Jesse Byron Dylan , was born on January 6 , 1966 , and they had three more children : Anna Lea ( born July 11 , 1967 ) , Samuel Isaac Abram ( born July 30 , 1968 ) , and Jakob Luke ( born December 9 , 1969 ) . Dylan also adopted Sara 's daughter from a prior marriage , Maria Lownds ( later Dylan , born October 21 , 1961 ) . Bob and Sara Dylan were divorced on June 29 , 1977 . Maria married musician Peter Himmelman in 1988 . In the 1990s , Dylan 's son Jakob became well known as the lead singer of the band The Wallflowers . Jesse Dylan is a film director and a successful businessman .
Desiree Gabrielle Dennis @-@ Dylan , Dylan 's daughter with his backup singer Carolyn Dennis ( often professionally known as Carol Dennis ) , was born on January 31 , 1986 , and Dylan married Carolyn Dennis on June 4 , 1986 . The couple divorced in October 1992 . Their marriage and child remained a closely guarded secret until the publication of Howard Sounes ' Dylan biography , Down the Highway : The Life Of Bob Dylan in 2001 .
When not touring , Dylan is believed to live primarily in Point Dume , a promontory on the coast of Malibu , California , though he also owns property around the world .
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
Growing up in Hibbing , Minnesota , Dylan and his family were part of the area 's small but close @-@ knit Jewish community , and in May 1954 Dylan had his Bar Mitzvah . Around the time of his 30th birthday , in 1971 , Dylan visited Israel , and also met Rabbi Meir Kahane , founder of the New York @-@ based Jewish Defense League . Time magazine quoted him saying about Kahane , " He 's a really sincere guy . He 's really put it all together . " Subsequently , Dylan downplayed the extent of his contact with Kahane .
During the late 1970s and early 1980s , Dylan converted to Christianity . From January to April 1979 , he participated in Bible study classes at the Vineyard School of Discipleship in Reseda , California . Pastor Kenn Gulliksen has recalled : " Larry Myers and Paul Emond went over to Bob 's house and ministered to him . He responded by saying , ' Yes he did in fact want Christ in his life . ' And he prayed that day and received the Lord . "
By 1984 , Dylan was distancing himself from the " born again " label . He told Kurt Loder of Rolling Stone magazine : " I 've never said I 'm born again . That 's just a media term . I don 't think I 've been an agnostic . I 've always thought there 's a superior power , that this is not the real world and that there 's a world to come . " In response to Loder 's asking whether he belonged to any church or synagogue , Dylan laughingly replied , " Not really . Uh , the Church of the Poison Mind . " In 1997 he told David Gates of Newsweek :
Here 's the thing with me and the religious thing . This is the flat @-@ out truth : I find the religiosity and philosophy in the music . I don 't find it anywhere else . Songs like " Let Me Rest on a Peaceful Mountain " or " I Saw the Light " — that 's my religion . I don 't adhere to rabbis , preachers , evangelists , all of that . I 've learned more from the songs than I 've learned from any of this kind of entity . The songs are my lexicon . I believe the songs .
In an interview published in The New York Times on September 28 , 1997 , journalist Jon Pareles reported that " Dylan says he now subscribes to no organized religion . "
Dylan has been a supporter of the Chabad Lubavitch movement in the last 20 years , and has privately participated in Jewish religious events , including the Bar Mitzvahs of his sons and attending Hadar Hatorah , a Chabad Lubavitch yeshiva . In September 1989 and September 1991 , he appeared on the Chabad telethon . Dylan reportedly visits Chabad synagogues ; on Yom Kippur in 2007 he attended Congregation Beth Tefillah , in Atlanta , Georgia , where he was called to the Torah for the sixth aliyah .
Dylan has continued to perform songs from his gospel albums in concert , occasionally covering traditional religious songs . He has also made passing references to his religious faith — such as in a 2004 interview with 60 Minutes , when he told Ed Bradley that " the only person you have to think twice about lying to is either yourself or to God . " He also explained his constant touring schedule as part of a bargain he made a long time ago with the " chief commander — in this earth and in the world we can 't see . "
In a 2009 interview with Bill Flanagan promoting Dylan 's Christmas LP , Christmas in the Heart , Flanagan commented on the " heroic performance " Dylan gave of " O Little Town of Bethlehem " and that he " delivered the song like a true believer " . Dylan replied : " Well , I am a true believer . "
= = Legacy = =
Dylan has been described as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century , musically and culturally . He was included in the Time 100 : The Most Important People of the Century where he was called " master poet , caustic social critic and intrepid , guiding spirit of the counterculture generation " . In 2008 , The Pulitzer Prize jury awarded him a special citation for " his profound impact on popular music and American culture , marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power . " President Barack Obama said of Dylan in 2012 , " There is not a bigger giant in the history of American music . " In their 2008 assessment of the " 100 Greatest Singers " , Rolling Stone magazine ranked him at number seven . Rolling Stone then ranked Dylan at number two in its 2011 list of " 100 Greatest Artists " of all time , while " Like A Rolling Stone " was listed as the " Greatest Song of all Time . " In 2008 , it was estimated that Dylan had sold about 120 million albums worldwide .
Initially modeling his writing style on the songs of Woody Guthrie , the blues of Robert Johnson , and what he termed the " architectural forms " of Hank Williams songs , Dylan added increasingly sophisticated lyrical techniques to the folk music of the early 1960s , infusing it " with the intellectualism of classic literature and poetry " . Paul Simon suggested that Dylan 's early compositions virtually took over the folk genre : " [ Dylan 's ] early songs were very rich ... with strong melodies . ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' has a really strong melody . He so enlarged himself through the folk background that he incorporated it for a while . He defined the genre for a while . "
When Dylan made his move from acoustic folk and blues music to a rock backing , the mix became more complex . For many critics , his greatest achievement was the cultural synthesis exemplified by his mid @-@ 1960s trilogy of albums — Bringing It All Back Home , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . In Mike Marqusee 's words :
Between late 1964 and the middle of 1966 , Dylan created a body of work that remains unique . Drawing on folk , blues , country , R & B , rock 'n'roll , gospel , British beat , symbolist , modernist and Beat poetry , surrealism and Dada , advertising jargon and social commentary , Fellini and Mad magazine , he forged a coherent and original artistic voice and vision . The beauty of these albums retains the power to shock and console . "
Dylan 's lyrics began to receive detailed scrutiny from academics and poets . Literary critic Christopher Ricks published a 500 @-@ page analysis of Dylan 's work , placing him in the context of Eliot , Keats and Tennyson , claiming that Dylan was a poet worthy of the same close analysis . Former British poet laureate Sir Andrew Motion argued that his lyrics should be studied in schools . Since 1996 , academics have lobbied the Swedish Academy to award Dylan the Nobel Prize in Literature .
Dylan 's voice also received critical attention . New York Times critic Robert Shelton described his early vocal style as " a rusty voice suggesting Guthrie 's old performances , etched in gravel like Dave Van Ronk 's . " David Bowie , in his tribute , " Song for Bob Dylan " , described Dylan 's singing as " a voice like sand and glue " . His voice continued to develop as he began to work with rock 'n'roll backing bands ; critic Michael Gray described the sound of Dylan 's vocal work on " Like a Rolling Stone " as " at once young and jeeringly cynical " . As Dylan 's voice aged during the 1980s , for some critics , it became more expressive . Christophe Lebold writes in the journal Oral Tradition , " Dylan 's more recent broken voice enables him to present a world view at the sonic surface of the songs — this voice carries us across the landscape of a broken , fallen world . The anatomy of a broken world in " Everything is Broken " ( on the album Oh Mercy ) is but an example of how the thematic concern with all things broken is grounded in a concrete sonic reality . "
Dylan is considered a seminal influence on several musical genres , especially folk rock , country rock and Christian rock . As Edna Gundersen stated in USA Today : " Dylan 's musical DNA has informed nearly every simple twist of pop since 1962 . " Punk musician Joe Strummer praised Dylan for having " laid down the template for lyric , tune , seriousness , spirituality , depth of rock music . " Other major musicians who acknowledged Dylan 's importance include Johnny Cash , Jerry Garcia , John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Pete Townshend , Neil Young , Bruce Springsteen , David Bowie , Bryan Ferry , Nick Cave , Patti Smith , Syd Barrett Joni Mitchell , and Tom Waits . Dylan significantly contributed to the initial success of both the Byrds and the Band : the Byrds achieved chart success with their version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " and the subsequent album , while the Band were Dylan 's backing band on his 1966 tour , recorded The Basement Tapes with him in 1967 , and featured three previously unreleased Dylan songs on their debut album .
Some critics have dissented from the view of Dylan as a visionary figure in popular music . In his book Awopbopaloobop Alopbamboom , Nik Cohn objected : " I can 't take the vision of Dylan as seer , as teenage messiah , as everything else he 's been worshipped as . The way I see him , he 's a minor talent with a major gift for self @-@ hype . " Australian critic Jack Marx credited Dylan with changing the persona of the rock star : " What cannot be disputed is that Dylan invented the arrogant , faux @-@ cerebral posturing that has been the dominant style in rock since , with everyone from Mick Jagger to Eminem educating themselves from the Dylan handbook . "
Fellow musicians also presented dissenting views . Joni Mitchell described Dylan as a " plagiarist " and his voice as " fake " in a 2010 interview in the Los Angeles Times , in response to a suggestion that she and Dylan were similar since they had both created personas . Mitchell 's comment led to discussions of Dylan 's use of other people 's material , both supporting and criticizing him . In 2013 Mitchell told the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) in an interview that her remarks in the Los Angeles Times had been taken " completely out of context " , and that the interviewer was a " moron " . Mitchell added : " I like a lot of Bob 's songs . Musically he 's not very gifted . He 's borrowed his voice from old hillbillies . He 's got a lot of borrowed things . He 's not a great guitar player . He 's invented a character to deliver his songs . "
Talking to Mikal Gilmore in Rolling Stone in 2012 , Dylan responded to the allegation of plagiarism , including his use of Henry Timrod 's verse in his album Modern Times , by saying that it was " part of the tradition " .
If Dylan 's work in the 1960s was seen as bringing intellectual ambition to popular music , critics in the 21st century described him as a figure who had greatly expanded the folk culture from which he initially emerged . Following the release of Todd Haynes ' Dylan biopic I 'm Not There , J. Hoberman wrote in his 2007 Village Voice review :
Elvis might never have been born , but someone else would surely have brought the world rock ' n ' roll . No such logic accounts for Bob Dylan . No iron law of history demanded that a would @-@ be Elvis from Hibbing , Minnesota , would swerve through the Greenwich Village folk revival to become the world 's first and greatest rock ' n ' roll beatnik bard and then — having achieved fame and adoration beyond reckoning — vanish into a folk tradition of his own making .
Prior to the June 2014 sale of the original lyrics of " Like a Rolling Stone " , written on four sheets of hotel stationery by Dylan in 1965 , Richard Austin , of Sotheby 's , New York , said : " Before the release of Like a Rolling Stone , music charts were overrun with short and sweet love songs , many clocking in at three minutes or less . By defying convention with six and a half minutes of dark , brooding poetry , Dylan rewrote the rules for pop music . "
= Stephanolepis cirrhifer =
Stephanolepis cirrhifer , commonly known as the thread @-@ sail filefish , is a species of marine fish in the family Monacanthidae . It is found in the western Pacific , in an area that ranges from northern Japan to the East China Sea , to Korea . Other common names for the fish include " Kawahagi " ( Japanese ) and " Jwi @-@ chi " ( Korean ) . The fish grows to a maximum length of about 12 inches ( 30 centimetres ) , and consumes both plant material and small marine organisms like skeleton shrimp . S. cirrhifer is host of the parasite Peniculus minuticaudae . Some minor genetic differentiation between S. cirrhifer born in the wild and those bred in a hatchery for consumer use has been shown . The fish is edible and sold commercially for culinary purposes in many Asian countries .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fish was first described in 1850 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck and Hermann Schlegel , when it was observed along with other fauna off the coasts of Japan . They initially placed it in the genus Monacanthus , as Monacanthus cirrhifer ; however , it was transferred to the genus Stephanolepis by David Starr Jordan and Henry Weed Fowler in 1903 . The species name derives from the Latin word cirrhifer , which means " bearing fringes of hair " .
Other common names :
Japanese - Kawahagi
Korean - Jwi @-@ chi
English - File fish , Fool fish , Porky
Russian - Small striped triggerfish ( Спинорог малый полосатый )
= = Description and habitat = =
Thread @-@ sail filefish grow to a maximum adult length of about 30 centimetres ( 12 inches ) . The first dorsal fin is a strong retractable ( folding backwards ) spine . The second dorsal fin and anal fin are soft . They have comparatively small pectoral fins and truncated , fan @-@ shaped tail fins . The dorsal and anal fins are colorless . Their second dorsal , anal and caudal fins rounded . In males , 1 @-@ 3 soft dorsal fin rays extended as filaments ; the first ray has a particularly long thread . The fish have a small abdominal spike . The fish are colored from light brown , to grayish- to light greenish @-@ beige , and are slightly patterned with irregular , broken stripes that range from medium brown to blackish .
Juveniles of the species usually seek shelter and safety from predators within clusters of drifting seaweed . The adult thread @-@ sail filefish usually reside near the seabed , where the depth is around 10 metres ( 33 feet ) . The fish migrate wholly in ocean waters ( " oceanodromous " ) between their feeding and spawning grounds , which can cover a range of over 100 kilometres ( 62 miles ) . The spawning season lasts from May to August . Juveniles under 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 inches ) inhabit shallow water and feed on small crustaceans , mollusks and algae . Adult fish are mostly solitary and live among the coral and seaweeds .
= = Ecology = =
The thread @-@ sail filefish is an omnivore , and can feed on plant or animal matter . Its diet includes kelp , but consists mainly of amphipods such as gammarids and skeleton shrimp , as well as the seagrass species Zostera marina . The fish also feeds upon smaller organisms , including bryozoans and some species of serpulid tube worms .
Thread @-@ sail filefish feed on fish , amphipods , isopods , cirripeds , polychaetes , pelecypods , seaweeds such as those of the genus Sargassum ; and gelatinous plankton , such as the moon jellyfish Aurelia sp. and the giant jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai .
S. cirrhifer is host of the pennellid copepod parasite Peniculus minuticaudae , which mostly infects the fins of the female fish .
= = Uses = =
The thread @-@ sail filefish is cultured and sold commercially as food in Asian countries , including Korea and Japan . The demand for the fish in Korea is very high , and fisheries often employ the services of fish hatcheries for breeding more of the fish to supplement and enhance the supply of stock . This has been done to such a degree that some . As many as 95 alleles have been found to be unique to one of the populations , resulting from minor variations in certain genes that occur exclusively within either population ; genetic differentiation between S. cirrhifer born in the wild and those bred in a hatchery has apparently occurred .
= Mogadishu =
Mogadishu ( / ˌmɔːɡəˈdiːʃuː / ; Somali : Muqdisho ; Arabic : مقديشو Maqadīshū ) , known locally as Hamar , is the capital and most populous city of Somalia . Located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean , the city has served as an important port for millennia . As of 2015 , it had a population of 2 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 residents .
Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia , including the Mogadishu area , was historically inhabited by hunter @-@ gatherers . These were later joined by Cushitic agro @-@ pastoralists , who would go on to establish local aristocracies . During its medieval Golden Age , Mogadishu was ruled by the Muzaffar dynasty , a vassal of the Ajuran Sultanate . It subsequently fell under the control of an assortment of local Sultanates and polities , most notably the Geledi Sultanate . The city later became the capital of Italian Somaliland ( 1889 @-@ 1936 ) in the colonial period . After the Somali Republic became independent in 1960 , Mogadishu became known and promoted as the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean . After the ousting of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 and the ensuing civil war , various militias fought for control of the city , later to be replaced by the Islamic Courts Union in the mid @-@ 2000s . The ICU thereafter splintered into more radical groups , notably Al @-@ Shabaab , which fought the Transitional Federal Government ( 2004 @-@ 2012 ) and its AMISOM allies . With a change in administration in late 2010 , government troops and their military partners had succeeded in forcing out Al @-@ Shabaab by August 2011 . Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction .
As Somalia 's capital city , many important national institutions are based in Mogadishu . It is the seat of the Federal Government of Somalia established in August 2012 , with the Somalia Federal Parliament serving as the government 's legislative branch . Yusuf Hussein Jimaale has been the Mayor of Mogadishu since October 2015 . Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia , Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , which organized Mogadishu 's first ever Technology , Entertainment , Design ( TEDx ) conference . The establishment of a local construction yard has also galvanized the city 's real @-@ estate sector . Arba 'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital , built circa 667 ( 1268 / 9 AD ) . The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu is the largest masjid in the Horn region . Mogadishu Cathedral was built in 1928 by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland in a Norman Gothic style , and served as the traditional seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio . The National Museum of Somalia is based in Mogadishu and holds many culturally important artefacts . The National Library of Somalia is undergoing a $ 1 million Somali federal government funded renovation , including a new library complex .
Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic and media institutions . As part of the municipality 's urban renewal program , 100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened . The Somali National University ( SNU ) was established in the 1950s , and professors from the university later founded the non @-@ governmental Mogadishu University ( MU ) . Benadir University ( BU ) was established in 2002 with the intention of training doctors . Various national sporting bodies have their headquarters in Mogadishu , including the Somali Football Federation and the Somali Olympic Committee . Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Siad Barre administration , with the assistance of Chinese engineers . It hosts football matches with teams from the Somalia League and the Somalia Cup . Additionally , the Port of Mogadishu serves as a major national seaport and is the largest harbour in Somalia . Mogadishu International Airport , the capital 's main airport , is the hub of the relaunched national carrier Somali Airlines .
= = Etymology = =
The origins of the name Mogadishu ( Muqdisho ) has many theories but it is most likely derived from a morphology of the Persian words Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah For a long time , it was thought to be derived from the Persian Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah ( مقعد شاه ) , which means " the seat of the Shah " ( a reflection of the city 's early Persian influence ) . It is known locally as Xamar ( English : Hamar ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia , including the Mogadishu area , was inhabited very early by hunter @-@ gatherers of Khoisan descent . Although most of these early inhabitants are believed to have been either overwhelmed , driven away or , in some cases , assimilated by later migrants to the area , physical traces of their occupation survive in certain ethnic minority groups inhabiting modern @-@ day Jubaland and other parts of the south . The latter descendants include relict populations such as the Eile , Aweer , the Wa @-@ Ribi , and especially the Wa @-@ Boni . By the time of the arrival of peoples from the Cushitic Rahanweyn ( Digil and Mirifle ) clan confederacy , who would go on to establish a local aristocracy , other Cushitic groups affiliated with the Oromo ( Wardai ) and Ajuuraan ( Ma 'adanle ) had already formed settlements of their own in the sub @-@ region .
The ancient city of Sarapion is believed to have been the predecessor state of Mogadishu . It is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a Greek travel document dating from the first century AD , as one of a series of commercial ports on the Somali littoral . According to the Periplus , maritime trade already connected peoples in the Mogadishu area with other communities along the Indian Ocean coast .
The Sultanate of Mogadishu later developed with the immigration of Emozeidi Arabs , a community whose earliest presence dates back to the 9th or 10th century . This evolved into the Muzaffar dynasty , a joint Somali @-@ Arab federation of rulers , and Mogadishu became closely linked with the powerful Somali Ajuran Sultanate . Following his visit to the city , the 12th century Syrian historian Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi wrote that it was inhabited by dark @-@ skinned Berbers , the ancestors of the modern Somalis .
For many years , Mogadishu stood as the pre @-@ eminent city in the Bilad @-@ ul @-@ Barbar ( بلاد البربر ) , meaning " Land of the Berbers , " which was the medieval Arabic term for the Somali coast . By the time of the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta 's appearance on the Somali coast in 1331 , the city was at the zenith of its prosperity . He described Mogadishu as " an exceedingly large city " with many rich merchants , which was famous for the high quality fabric that it exported to destinations including Egypt . Batutta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan , Abu Bakr ibn Sayx ' Umar , who was originally from Barbara in northern Somalia and spoke both Somali ( referred to by Battuta as Mogadishan , the Benadir dialect of Somali ) and Arabic with equal fluency . The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs ( ministers ) , legal experts , commanders , royal eunuchs , and other officials at his service .
Additionally , there appears to have been a strong Persian presence in both Mogadishu and Zeila for a time . A Shi 'a influence can still be seen in some areas , as in the southern Somalia veneration of Fatimah , the Prophet Muhammad 's daughter . This fact is also reflected in the etymology of the city 's name , which derives from the Persian Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah ( مقعد شاه ) and means " the seat of the Shah . "
The Portuguese would subsequently attempt to occupy the city , but never managed to take it . In his journal of an expedition to the region in 1497 @-@ 1499 , the explorer João de Sá , who accompanied Vasco da Gama on the voyage , wrote that Magadoxo ( Mogadishu ) was controlled by Moors . A big town surrounded by four towers , it had houses several storeys high and large palaces in its center . De Sá and his men bombarded the city before continuing southwards along the seaboard . The Hawiye Somali , however , were later successful in defeating the Ajuran State and bringing about the end of Muzaffar rule .
= = = Sultanates ( 1800s – 1900s ) = = =
By 1892 , Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Sultanate of the Geledi and the Omani Sultanate of Zanzibar . The Geledi Sultans | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= = = Places of worship = = =
Arba 'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital . It was built circa 667 ( 1268 / 9 AD ) , concurrently with the Fakr ad @-@ Din Mosque . Arba 'a Rukun 's mihrab contains an inscription dated from the same year , which commemorates the masjid 's late founder , Khusra ibn Mubarak al @-@ Shirazi ( Khusrau ibn Muhammed ) .
The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity was constructed in 1987 with financial support from the Saudi Fahd bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud Foundation . It is the main mosque in the city , and an iconic building in Somali society . With a capacity of up to 10 @,@ 000 worshippers , it is the single largest masjid in the Horn region . In 2015 , the federal authorities completed formal refurbishments on the mosque 's infrastructure . The upgrades are part of a larger governmental renovation campaign aimed at all of the masjids in Mogadishu . To this end , the municipal authority is refurbishing the historic Central Mosque , situated downtown .
The Mogadishu Cathedral was built in 1928 by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland . Known as the " Cattedrale di Mogadiscio " , it was constructed in a Norman Gothic style , based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù , Sicily . The church served as the traditional seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio . It later incurred significant damage during the civil war . In April 2013 , after a visit to the site to inspect its condition , the Diocese of Mogadiscio announced plans to refurbish the building .
= = = Palaces = = =
Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia , Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean , with access to both the harbour and airport . The Governor 's Palace of Mogadishu was the seat of the governor of Italian Somaliland , and then the administrator of the Trust Territory of Somalia .
= = = Museums , libraries and theatres = = =
The National Museum of Somalia was established after independence in 1960 , when the old Garesa Museum was turned into a National Museum . The National Museum was later moved in 1985 , renamed to the Garesa Museum , and converted to a regional museum . After shutting down , the National Museum later reopened . As of January 2014 , it holds many culturally important artefacts , including old coins , bartering tools , traditional artwork , ancient weaponry and pottery items .
The National Library of Somalia was established in 1975 , and came under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education , Culture and Higher Education . In 1983 , it held approximately 7 @,@ 000 books , little in the way of historical and cultural archival material , and was open to the general public . The National Library later closed down in the 1990s . In June 2013 , the Heritage Institute for Policy Studies organized a shipment of 22 @,@ 000 books from the United States to Somalia as part of an initiative to restock the library . In December of the year , the Somali authorities officially launched a major project to rebuild the National Library . With Zainab Hassan serving as Director , the $ 1 million federal government funded initiative will see a new library complex built in the capital within six months . In preparation for the relaunch , 60 @,@ 000 additional books from other Arab League states are expected to arrive .
The National Theatre of Somalia opened in 1967 as an important cultural landmark in the national capital . It closed down after the start of the civil war in the early 1990s , but reopened in March 2012 after reconstruction . In September 2013 , the Somali federal government and its Chinese counterpart signed an official cooperation agreement in Mogadishu as part of a five @-@ year national recovery plan in Somalia . The pact will see the Chinese authorities reconstruct the National Theatre of Somalia in addition to several other major infrastructural landmarks .
= = = Markets = = =
Bakaara Market was created in late 1972 by the Barre administration . It served as an open market for the sale of goods and services , including produce and clothing . After the start of the civil war , the market was controlled by various militant groups , who used it as a base for their operations . Following Mogadishu 's pacification in 2011 , renovations resumed at the market . Shops were rehabilitated , selling everything from fruit and garments to building materials . As in the rest of the city , Barkaara Market 's real estate values have also risen considerably . As of 2013 , the local Tabaarak firm was renting out a newly constructed warehouse at the market for $ 2 @,@ 000 per month .
In February 2014 , the Benadir administration began renovations at the Ansaloti Market in the Hamar Jajab district . It was one of the largest markets in the city before closing down operations in the early 1990s . In September 2014 , the municipal authorities officially reopened the Ansaloti to the public , with officials supervising all parts of the market . According to the Benadir Political Affairs Vice Chairman Mohamed Adan " Anagel " , the facility is now open for business and will compete with other regional markets .
= = = Institutes = = =
The Regional Somali Language Academy is an intergovernmental regulating body for the Somali language in the Horn region . In January 2015 , President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud announced that the institute was slated to be finalized in conjunction with the governments of Djibouti and Ethiopia . Among the scheduled projects was the construction of a new headquarters for the Academy in Mogadishu , in recognition of Somalia 's traditional position as the center for the development and promotion of the Somali language . In February 2015 , the foundation stone for the new Regional Somali Language Academy was officially laid at an inauguration ceremony in the city .
= = = Hotels = = =
Mogadishu has a number of hotels , most of which were recently constructed . The city 's many returning expatriates , investors and international community workers are among these establishments ' main customers . To meet the growing demand , hotel representatives have also begun participating in international industry conferences , such as the Africa Hotel Investment Forum .
Among the new hotels is the six floor Jazeera Palace Hotel . It was built in 2010 and officially opened in 2012 . Situated within a 300m radius of the Aden Adde International Airport , it has a 70 @-@ room capacity with a 70 % occupancy rate . The hotel expects to host over 1 @,@ 000 visitors by 2015 , for which it plans to construct a larger overall building and conference facilities . A new landslide hotel within the airport itself is also slated to be completed by the end of the year .
Other hotels in the city include the Lafweyn Palace Hotel , Amira Castle Hotel , Sahafi Hotel , Hotel Nasa @-@ Hablod , Oriental Hotel , Hotel Guuleed , Hotel Shamo , Peace Hotel , Aran Guest House , Muna Hotel , Hotel Taleex , Hotel Towfiq , Benadir Hotel , Ambassador Hotel , Kuwait Plaza Hotel , Safari Hotel Diplomat , Dayax Hotel , Safari Guesthouse and Bin Ali Hotel .
= = Education = =
Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic institutions . As part of the government 's urban renewal program , 100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened .
The Somali National University ( SNU ) was established in the 1950s , during the trusteeship period . In 1973 , its programmes and facilities were expanded . The SNU developed over the next 20 years into an expansive institution of higher learning , with 13 departments , 700 staff and over 15 @,@ 000 students . On 14 November 2013 , the Cabinet unanimously approved a federal government plan to reopen the Somali National University , which had been closed down in the early 1990s . The refurbishing initiative cost US $ 3 @.@ 6 million , and was completed in August 2014 .
Mogadishu University ( MU ) is a non @-@ governmental university that is governed by a Board of Trustees and a University Council . It is the brainchild of a number of professors from the Somali National University as well as other Somali intellectuals . Financed by the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , as well as other donor institutions , the university counts hundreds of graduates from its seven faculties , some of whom continue on to pursue Master 's degrees abroad thanks to a scholarship programme . Mogadishu University has established partnerships with several other academic institutions , including the University of Aalborg in Denmark , three universities in Egypt , seven universities in Sudan , the University of Djibouti , and two universities in Yemen . As of 2012 , MU also has accreditation with the Board of the Intergovernmental Organization EDU .
In 1999 , the Somali Institute of Management and Administration ( SIMAD ) was co @-@ established in Mogadishu by incumbent President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . The institution subsequently grew into the SIMAD University , with Mohamud acting as dean until 2010 . It offers a range of undergraduate courses in various fields , including economics , statistics , business , accountancy , technology , computer science , health sciences , education , law and public administration .
Benadir University ( BU ) was established in 2002 with the intention of training doctors . It has since expanded into other fields . Another tertiary institution in the city is the Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology . The Turkish Boarding School was also established , with the Mogadishu Polytechnic Institute and Shabelle University campus likewise undergoing renovations . Additionally , a New Islamic University campus is being built . In April 2014 , Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed also laid the foundation stone for the reconstruction of the former meteorological school in Mogadishu . A new national Aviation Training Academy is likewise being built at the Aden Adde International Airport .
Other tertiary institutions in the capital include City University . It was established in 2012 with the aim of providing quality instruction and research . The college is staffed by an accredited and experienced master 's @-@ level faculty , and governed by a Board of Trustees consisting of academics and prominent entrepreneurs . City University 's syllabus features an advanced curriculum and foundation programs in English . Its campus includes physical and digital libraries , as well as IT and scientific laboratories . The university is a member of the Somali Research and Educational Network , and is authorized as a degree granting institution by the national Ministry of Education Directorate of Higher Education and Culture .
= = Sport = =
Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Barre administration , with the assistance of Chinese engineers . The facility was mainly used for hosting sporting activities , such as the Somalia Cup and for football matches with teams from the Somalia League . Presidential addresses and political rallies , among other events , were also held there . In September 2013 , the Somali federal government and its Chinese counterpart signed an official cooperation agreement in Mogadishu as part of a five @-@ year national recovery plan in Somalia . The pact will see the Chinese authorities reconstruct several major infrastructural landmarks , including the Mogadishu Stadium .
The Banadir Stadium and Konis Stadium are two other major sporting facilities in the capital . In 2013 , the Somali Football Federation launched a renovation project at the Konis facility , during which artificial football turf contributed by FIFA was installed at the stadium . The Ex @-@ Lujino basketball stadium in the Abdulaziz District also underwent a $ 10 @,@ 000 rehabilitation , with funding provided by the local Hormuud Telecom firm . Additionally , the municipal authority oversaw the reconstruction of the Banadir Stadium .
Various national sporting bodies also have their headquarters in Mogadishu . Among these are the Somali Football Federation , Somali Olympic Committee and Somali Basketball Federation . The Somali Karate and Taekwondo Federation is likewise centered in the city , and manages the national Taekwondo team .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Road = = =
Roads leading out of Mogadishu connect the city to other localities in Somalia as well as to neighbouring countries . The capital itself is cut into several grid layouts by an extensive road network , with streets supporting the flow of both vehicular and pedestrian traffic . In October 2013 , major construction began on the 23 kilometer road leading to the airport . Overseen by Somali and Turkish engineers , the upgrade was completed in November and included lane demarcation . The road construction initiative was part of a larger agreement signed by the Somali and Turkish governments to establish Mogadishu and Istanbul as sister cities , and in the process bring all of Mogadishu 's roads up to modern standards . Following the treaty , the Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency ( TIKA ) launched a citywide cleaning project in conjunction with the municipal cleaning department . The initiative saw around 100 rubbish collection vehicles and other equipment operated by TIKA clean the city 's roads , with the Benadir municipality taking over operation of the cleaning project in March 2015 .
In 2012 – 2013 , Mogadishu 's municipal authority in conjunction with the British and Norwegian governments began a project to install solar @-@ powered street lights on all of the capital 's major roads . With equipment imported from Norway , the initiative cost around $ 140 @,@ 000 and lasted several months . The solar panels have helped to improve night @-@ time visibility and enhance the city 's overall aesthetic appeal .
Minibuses are the most common type of public transportation in Mogadishu . The next most frequently used public vehicles in the city are auto rickshaws ( bajaj ) . They number around 3 @,@ 000 units and come in various designs . The auto rickshaws represent a lower cost alternative to taxis and minibuses , typically charging half the price for the same distance , with flexible rates . Due to their affordability , capacity to negotiate narrow lanes and low fuel consumption , the three @-@ wheeled vehicles are often appealing investment opportunities for small @-@ scale entrepreneurs . They are generally preferred for shorter commutes . In June 2013 , two new taxi companies also started offering road transportation to residents . Part of a fleet of over 100 vehicles , Mogadishu Taxi 's trademark yellow cabs offer rides throughout the city at flat rates of $ 5 . City Taxi , the firm 's nearest competitor , charges the same flat rate , with plans to add new cabs to its fleet .
In January 2014 , the Benadir administration launched a city @-@ wide street naming , house numbering and postal codes project . Officially called the House Numbering and Post Code System , it is a joint initiative of the municipal authorities and Somali business community representatives . The project is part of the ongoing modernization and development of the capital . According to former Mayor Mohamed Ahmed Nur , the initiative also aims to help the authorities firm up on security and resolve housing ownership disputes . In March 2015 , the Benadir administration likewise launched a renovation project on the Hawo Asir @-@ Fagah major road in Mogadishu . The government @-@ public partnership aims to facilitate vehicle access in the area . According to Karaan district commissioner Ahmed Hassan Yalah 'ow , the reconstruction initiative will also make the road all @-@ weather resistant and is slated to be completed shortly .
= = = Air = = =
During the post @-@ independence period , Mogadishu International Airport offered flights to numerous global destinations . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the airport was enlarged to accommodate more international carriers , with the state @-@ owned Somali Airlines providing regular trips to all major cities . By 1969 , the airport 's many landing grounds could also host small jets and DC 6B @-@ type aircraft .
The facility grew considerably in size in the post @-@ independence period after successive renovation projects . With the outbreak of the civil war in the early 1990s , Mogadishu International Airport 's flight services experienced routine disruptions and its grounds and equipment were largely destroyed . In the late 2000s , the K50 Airport , situated 50 kilometers to the south , served as the capital 's main airport while Mogadishu International Airport , now renamed Aden Adde International Airport , briefly shut down . However , in late 2010 , the security situation in Mogadishu had significantly improved , with the federal government eventually managing to assume full control of the city by August 2011 .
In May 2011 , the Ministry of Transport announced that SKA @-@ Somalia had been contracted to manage operations at the re @-@ opened Aden Adde International Airport over a period of ten years . Among its first initiatives , worth an estimated $ 6 million , SKA invested in new airport equipment and expanded support services by hiring , training and equipping 200 local workers to meet international airport standards . The company also assisted in comprehensive infrastructure renovations , restored a dependable supply of electricity , revamped the baggage handling facilities as well as the arrival and departure lounges , put into place electronic check @-@ in systems , and firmed up on security and work @-@ flow . Additionally , SKA connected the grounds ' Somali Civil Aviation and Meteorological Agency ( SCAMA ) and immigration , customs , commercial airlines and Somali Police Force officials to the internet . By January 2013 , the firm had introduced shuttle buses to ferry travelers to and from the passenger terminal .
In December 2011 , the Turkish government unveiled plans to further modernize the airport as part of Turkey 's broader engagement in the local post @-@ conflict reconstruction process . Among the scheduled renovations were new systems and infrastructure , including a modern control tower to monitor the airspace . In September 2013 , the Turkish company Favori LLC began operations at the airport . The firm announced plans to renovate the aviation building and construct a new one , as well as upgrade other modern service structures . A $ 10 million project , it will increase the airport 's existing 15 aircraft capacity to 60 . In January 2015 , a new , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art terminal was opened at the airport . Featuring modern passenger facilities and a glass façade , it will enable the airport to double its number of daily commercial flights to 60 , with a throughput of around 1 @,@ 000 passengers per hour .
As of January 2015 , the largest airline services using Aden Adde International Airport include the Somali @-@ owned private carriers Jubba Airways , Daallo Airlines , and African Express Airways , in addition to UN charter planes , Turkish Airlines , and Felix Airways ( Al Saeeda Airlines ) . The airport also offers flights to other cities in Somalia , such as Galkayo , Berbera and Hargeisa , as well as to international destinations like Djibouti , Jeddah , and Istanbul .
In July 2012 , Mohammed Osman Ali ( Dhagah @-@ tur ) , the General Director of the Ministry of Aviation and Transport , also announced that the Somali government had begun preparations to revive the Mogadishu @-@ based national carrier , Somali Airlines . The first new aircraft were scheduled for delivery in December 2013 .
= = = Sea = = =
The Port of Mogadishu , also known as the Mogadishu International Port , is the official seaport of Mogadishu . Classified as a major class port , it is the largest harbour in the country .
After incurring some damage during the civil war , the federal government launched the Mogadishu Port Rehabilitation Project , an initiative to rebuild , develop and modernize the port . The renovations included the installation of Alpha Logistics technology . A joint international delegation consisting of the Director of the Port of Djibouti and Chinese officials specializing in infrastructure reconstruction concurrently visited the facility in June 2013 . According to Mogadishu Port manager Abdullahi Ali Nur , the delegates along with local Somali officials received reports on the port 's functions as part of the rebuilding project 's planning stages .
In 2013 , the Port of Mogadishu 's management reportedly reached an agreement with representatives of the Iranian company Simatech Shipping LLC to handle vital operations at the seaport . Under the name Mogadishu Port Container Terminal , the firm is slated to handle all of the port 's technical and operational functions .
In October 2013 , the federal Cabinet endorsed an agreement with the Turkish firm Al @-@ Bayrak to manage the Port of Mogadishu for a 20 @-@ year period . The deal was secured by the Ministry of Ports and Public Works , and also assigns Al @-@ Bayrak responsibility for rebuilding and modernizing the seaport . In September 2014 , the federal government officially delegated management of the Mogadishu Port to Al @-@ Bayrak . The firm 's modernization project will cost $ 80 million .
= = = Railway = = =
There were projects during the 1980s to reactivate the 114 km ( 71 mi ) railway between Mogadishu and Jowhar , built by the Italians in 1926 but dismantled in World War II by British troops . It was originally intended that this railway would reach Addis Ababa . Only a few remaining tracks inside Mogadishu 's harbour area are still used .
= = Media = =
Mogadishu has historically served as a media hub . In 1975 , the Somali Film Agency ( SFA ) , the nation 's film regulatory body , was established in Mogadishu . The SFA also organized the annual Mogadishu Pan @-@ African and Arab Film Symposium ( Mogpaafis ) , which brought together an array of prominent filmmakers and movie experts from across the globe , including other parts of Northeast Africa and the Arab world , as well as Asia and Europe .
In addition , there are a number of radio news agencies based in Mogadishu . Radio Mogadishu is the federal government @-@ run public broadcaster . Established in 1951 in Italian Somaliland , it initially aired news items in both Somali and Italian . The station was modernized with Russian assistance following independence in 1960 , and began offering home service in Somali , Amharic and Oromo . After closing down operations in the early 1990s due to the civil war , the broadcaster was officially re @-@ opened in the early 2000s by the Transitional National Government . Other radio stations headquartered in the city include Mustaqbal Radio , Radio Shabelle , Radio Bar @-@ Kulan , Radio Kulmiye , Radio Dannan , Radio Dalsan , Radio Banadir , Radio Maanta , Gool FM , Radio Xurmo , and Radio Xamar , also known as Voice of Democracy .
The Mogadishu @-@ based Somali National Television ( SNTV ) is the central government @-@ owned broadcaster . On 4 April 2011 , the Ministry of Information of the Transitional Federal Government officially re @-@ launched the station as part of an initiative to develop the national telecommunications sector . SNTV broadcasts 24 hours a day , and can be viewed both within Somalia and abroad via terrestrial and satellite platforms .
Somali popular music enjoys a large audience in Mogadishu , and was widely sold prior to the civil war . With the government managing to secure the city in mid @-@ 2011 , radios once again play music . On 19 March 2012 , an open concert was held in the city , which was broadcast live on local television . In April 2013 , the Waayaha Cusub ensemble also organized the Reconciliation Music Festival , the first international music festival to be held in Mogadishu in two decades .
= = Notable Mogadishans = =
= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =
Mogadishu is twinned with :
= The Moth ( Lost ) =
" The Moth " is the seventh episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini . It first aired on November 3 , 2004 , on ABC . The character of Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks .
Charlie begins experiencing the effects of heroin withdrawal , while Jack becomes trapped in a cave . Meanwhile , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) attempt to triangulate the signal of the French woman 's broadcast . Charlie 's involvement in his band Drive Shaft is featured in the episode 's flashbacks .
" The Moth " was watched by 18 @.@ 73 million people live , almost two million more than the previous episode . This episode marks the first time " You All Everybody " by Drive Shaft was sung in its entirety , as it had not been written yet in previous episodes . The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews , with some reviewers commenting that the episode was not of the same caliber as previous episodes .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Charlie ( Dominic Monaghan ) tells a priest that he is going to quit his band because it has a bad influence on him . Soon after , his brother , Liam Pace ( Neil Hopkins ) , tells Charlie that Drive Shaft has gotten a recording contract . Charlie doesn 't want to sign the contract because he has qualms about the sex and drugs the band engages in . Liam talks him into signing , promising that Charlie can quit any time he 's had enough . One evening at a show , Liam , to Charlie 's frustration , starts singing the chorus to " You All Everybody " , which is supposed to be sung by Charlie . Liam assures Charlie it won 't happen again .
Later , Charlie finds Liam high on heroin with groupies . Charlie kicks the groupies out , and tells Liam that he 's done with the band . Liam says to Charlie that he , Liam , is Drive Shaft , and that nobody knows who the bass player ( Charlie ) is . He goes on to tell Charlie that without the band , Charlie is nothing , which spurs Charlie to use heroin for the first time . Years later , Charlie visits Liam 's house in Australia and wants Liam to rejoin Drive Shaft for a comeback tour . Liam declines , but the band can 't do the tour without him . He criticizes Charlie for still using drugs , and Charlie blames Liam for getting him started with drugs . Liam asks Charlie to stay with him for a few weeks , saying that Sydney has some good rehab programs and that he can get Charlie help . Charlie angrily leaves , saying he has a plane to catch .
= = = On the Island = = =
It is Day 8 , September 29 , 2004 , and Charlie is suffering from heroin withdrawal since he voluntarily gave his heroin to John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) in the previous episode . After finding him , Charlie asks Locke for the heroin back , and Locke says that he 'll give Charlie the drugs the third time he asks , because he wants Charlie to have the choice to quit .
Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) attempt to find where the French transmission is coming from , so they make a plan to turn on antennas at different points on the island in an attempt to triangulate the signal . At the caves , Charlie searches through Jack Shephard 's ( Matthew Fox ) medicine supply for something to ease his heroin withdrawal . When Jack catches him , Charlie says he has a headache and wants aspirin .
When Jack upsets Charlie by telling him to move his guitar , Charlie angrily shouts at him , causing the entrance of the cave they are in to collapse . Charlie manages to escape , but Jack is trapped inside . Using his construction experience , Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) leads the rescue attempt with Steve Jenkins ( Christian Bowman ) and Scott Jackson ( Dustin Watchman ) . In the jungle , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) goes to tell Kate ( who is traveling to set up her antenna for the triangulation attempt ) about Jack 's predicament , but decides against it because he doesn 't like Kate 's hostile attitude . Charlie tells Locke about Jack 's situation , but reveals the real reason for his going to Locke is to ask for his drugs a second time . Locke shows Charlie a moth cocoon , and explains that he could help the moth by slitting the cocoon and letting the moth free , but it would not survive because it would be too weak . Instead , the moth needs to struggle to break free . Nature and struggle make people stronger , Locke says , indicating to Charlie that he needs to fight through his suffering .
Kate and Sawyer stay at the second triangulation point , while Sayid goes to the third . After learning of Jack 's situation from Sawyer , Kate goes to help , leaving the job of turning on the signal to Sawyer . Charlie squeezes through an opening at the cave and finds Jack , but while doing so , the opening collapses and traps Charlie and Jack inside . Charlie hesitantly pops Jack 's shoulder back into place at Jack 's request . Jack correctly guesses that Charlie is suffering from withdrawal , and Charlie assures Jack he 's okay . Kate desperately tries to dig them out along with the other castaways , while the two worry about losing oxygen . Charlie sees a moth which leads him to an opening and the pair dig out of the cave .
Sayid sets off his bottle rocket to signal the antenna power up process . Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) sets off Boone 's rocket from the beach , as Boone had gone to help rescue Jack , as does Sawyer from his location . Sayid turns on the transceiver , but before he is able to triangulate the signal , an unseen person knocks Sayid unconscious with a stick .
Later Hurley brings Jack and Charlie water , he notes Charlie doesn 't look well but Jack covers for him saying that he has the flu . Hurley tells him to get better and Charlie looks thankful to Jack . He sees Locke and asks him for his heroin and Locke gives it back . Charlie looks at it for a moment before tossing it into the fire , smiling . Locke tells Charlie he 's proud of him and that he always knew he could do it . Charlie and Locke see a moth flying away .
= = Production = =
" The Moth " aired on November 3 , 2004 . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini . The church scene with Charlie and Liam at the church in Manchester was actually filmed on Honolulu , where the scenes on the Island are filmed . Monaghan says that he feels Charlie 's black hoodie is a sort of " security blanket " that he hides underneath and uses it when he feels " lost . " The " heroin " that Charlie is supposedly snorting is actually brown sugar . Monaghan revealed this in an interview with Stuff magazine in October 2005 , saying , " [ The heroin is ] brown sugar . You get some really sweet boogers . You have to be careful not to snort too much of it , but it 's happened a few times . You just find dessert up your nose couple of hours later . "
According to Monaghan , Drive Shaft is similar to Oasis , in that " [ Charlie 's ] first album was kind of like Oasis 's first album : critically acclaimed , didn 't sell big numbers , but in the industry , people gave it respect . " J.J Abrams and Damon Linelof told Monaghan that if he wanted to write the song that would be Charlie 's " one hit wonder " , they would consider using it in the show . Monaghan wrote a song called " Photos and Plans " with a friend ; Abrams and Lindelof liked the song , but it did not make it into Lost . The lyrics were inspired by an incident on The Phil Donahue Show , where Matt Reeves , who was close friends with producers Bryan Burk and Damon Lindelof , saw a female audience member yell out , " You all everybody , acting like it 's the stupid people wearing expensive clothes . " The producers had an inside joke where they would say this quotation to each other . According to Burk , " At one point , in a delirious stupor , we realized we had said it so many times that that had to be the song . "
In the Pilot , Monaghan 's voice when he sang " You All Everybody " was based on " when Prince puts on his female voice " , since the song had not been composed yet . For " The Moth " the producers contacted Los Angeles @-@ based singer Jude to write a full version . The song is sung by Chris Seefried , former lead singer of Gods Child and Joe 90 .
= = Reception = =
" The Moth " first aired in the United States on November 3 , 2004 . 18 @.@ 73 million people in America watched the episode live .
The episode received generally mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews . Ryan McGee of Zap2it wrote that " this episode wasn 't a stinker by any measure , but after the run of early episodes , this is the first that really didn 't hold its own when compared to the others " , adding that " The moth imagery / metaphor just beats you down by episode 's end , making you long for the more subtle writing the show has produced up until this point . " The TV Critic gave the episode a 68 / 100 , writing that it falls between being " obvious and cheesy " and " beautifully paced and structured " . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B , and shared his opinion that it is " one of the more intensely metaphorical — and thus writerly — episodes of the series . The eponymous metaphor — delivered by Locke — is one of the series ’ most blatant , and the moth ’ s consistent reappearance in the episode calls a lot of attention to the construction of the narrative . "
IGN staff rated " The Moth " as the 36th best episode in all of Lost , explaining , " The moth of the episode 's title appears both as a metaphorical and physical symbol of the struggle to find strength within yourself , as Locke explains to Charlie , and to take charge of your own life without relying on anyone else to do it for you . " In a review focusing solely on " The Moth " , Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 9 / 10 , writing that the episode " does a great job of utilizing screen time for most the major characters on the show " , and that " Locke 's analogy of ' The Moth ' in comparison to Charlie 's situation perfectly encapsulates what many of the characters are going through on the island . " In a ranking of all of Lost 's episodes , Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times placed " The Moth " at number 102 , complimenting Monaghan and O 'Quinn 's acting , but criticizing the storyline for containing " nonsensical drug abuse storytelling . " " The Moth " , along with " Pilot " and " House of the Rising Sun " , won a PRISM Award for Charlie 's drug storyline .
= Charmbracelet =
Charmbracelet is the ninth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on December 3 , 2002 through MonarC Entertainment and Island Records . The album was her first release since her breakdown following the release of her film Glitter ( 2001 ) and its accompanying soundtrack album , both of which were critical and commercial failures from the previous year . Critics described Charmbracelet as one of her most personal records , following 1997 's Butterfly , Throughout the project , Carey collaborated with several songwriters and producers , including Jermaine Dupri , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , 7 Aurelius and Dre & Vidal .
According to Carey , love is the album 's main theme , and the songs combine introspective and personal themes with celebration and fun . The album contains a mixture of pop ballads and R & B beats , and the songs incorporate elements of other genres , such as gospel and soul . Compared to Glitter , which featured a variety of sampled melodies from the 1980s , Charmbracelet has a softer hip hop and R & B sound to it . Cam 'ron , Jay @-@ Z and Freeway also appear on the album .
Charmbracelet debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , and sold 241 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album peaked within the top 40 in seven countries , and attained top ten positions in Japan and Switzerland .
Three singles were released to promote the album . The lead single , " Through the Rain " reached the top ten in Canada , Switzerland , Sweden and Italy and the United Kingdom . In the US , it topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , but stalled at number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Carey embarked on the Charmbracelet World Tour , and performed 69 shows in over eight months . She also performed on televised shows and promotional tours like the 30th annual American Music Awards , Today and The Oprah Winfrey Show .
= = Background = =
Before the release of Charmbracelet , Carey experienced a year of critical , commercial , personal and professional struggles , following the poor reception of her debut film Glitter ( 2001 ) , and her subsequent hospitalization . After divorcing her husband , Tommy Mottola , Carey released Butterfly ( 1997 ) . With her next release , Rainbow ( 1999 ) , Carey incorporated elements of R & B and hip @-@ hop into her music , particularly on the lead single " Heartbreaker " . According to The Sacramento Bee , she attempted to sound more " ghetto " . She stopped working with longtime pop producers such as Babyface and Walter Afanasieff , in order to pursue a new sound and audience , and worked with writers Sean Combs and Jermaine Dupri . Following the worldwide success of Rainbow , Carey left Columbia Records . Controversially , Mottola and executive Benny Medina in 1999 used several songs Carey had written and co @-@ written for Jennifer Lopez . Carey 's 2001 film debut Glitter was panned by movie critics , and earned less than eight million dollars at the box office .
Carey 's $ 100 million recording contract was bought out by Virgin Records , who paid her $ 28 million to leave the label . Carey checked into a hospital in Connecticut , following a controversial appearance on Total Request Live , in which she gave ice cream to fans , left troubling messages on her website and demonstrated what was considered by the media as " erratic behavior " . Carey said she had had an " emotional and physical breakdown . " After a fortnight 's hospitalization , Carey flew to Capri , Italy , where she stayed for five months and began writing and producing material for a new studio album about her recent troubles . She was signed by Island Records , and started her own imprint , MonarC Entertainment , for her intended " comeback " release , Charmbracelet .
= = Development and recording = =
Carey started writing songs for the album in early 2002 , before she signed the record deal . She decided to rest , traveled to Capri and moved into a recording studio where she could focus on writing and recording without distractions . Most of the album was recorded in Capri , although she traveled to Atlanta , New York and Philadelphia to record some tracks . That year , Carey claimed Charmbracelet to be the " most personal album " she had ever made . She worked with longtime collaborators Jermaine Dupri , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and Randy Jackson and other songwriters and producers 7 Aurelius , Just Blaze , Damizza and Dre & Vidal . The opening track and the first track to be written for the album , " Through the Rain " , was written by Carey and Lionel Cole , was inspired Carey 's recent experiences , and was co @-@ produced by Jam and Lewis . It was released as the lead single from the album .
Jam , Lewis and Carey also worked " Yours " , which Jam said contains " probably one of the best hooks [ ever ] " , and likened it to one of trio 's previous collaborations , " Thank God I Found You " ( 2000 ) . Initially , the song was recorded as duet with pop singer Justin Timberlake . However , due to contractual complications , it was never released and the a solo version was featured on the album . Jam and Lewis produced two more songs , " Wedding Song " and " Satisfy " — the latter featuring background vocals from Michael Jackson — which were not released on the album .
Carey decided to work with Just Blaze after she heard the song " Oh Boy " , which he produced for Cam 'ron . Just Blaze and Carey produced " Boy ( I Need You ) " , a remake of " Oh Boy " , and " You Got Me " . Carey said " Boy ( I Need You ) " was one of her favorites on the album . " You Got Me " features rap verses from Jay @-@ Z and Freeway , was noted by Carey as a " signature Just Blaze track " . Jay @-@ Z was in Capri on vacation , and went to the studio to hear the song and said that he wanted to contribute to it and added rap verses of his own . Dupri produced " The One " and " You Had Your Chance " . He said that they wanted to stick to the " same familiar sound " from his previous collaborations with Carey . Carey said " The One " was a personal song , which was about being hurt in past relationships and the uncertainty about forming new ones . Carey decided to experiment with a live band for the album . In April 2002 , she met 7 Aurelius and asked him to produce songs for the album . They flew to Nassau , Bahamas and recorded a mixture of mid @-@ tempo and up @-@ tempo tracks and ballads with a live band . 7 Aurelius said that Carey was " an amazing writer " and described the process of recording :
We did three or four songs in three or four days . The way we was doing it , I had [ a horn section ] down there along with me . We had the whole room set up with candles , some nice wine — [ it was ] a very good vibe . It was completely stripped down , like ' Mariah Carey Unplugged ' . She stripped herself down to her talent . She was really trusting of me and my vision , and I was trusting of who she was .
Randy Jackson contributed to four tracks on the album , and said it was " the most real and honest record she 's made . She didn 't care what anyone thought of the lyrics . They were only important to her . " Carey included a cover of Def Leppard 's song " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " . During the photo shoot for Charmbracelet at Capri , Carey happened to listen to Def Leppard 's album Vault ( 1995 ) , which contains the song , and decided to cover it . In an interview with Billboard , Carey said that the song is " an example of her musical diversity " . Jackson also worked on " My Saving Grace " , which Carey said describes her thoughts about the writing , recording and mastering process . While working in Capri , Carey 's father became ill with cancer and she returned to New York to spend some time with him ; he died soon after . In his memory , Carey wrote and produced the song " Sunflowers for Alfred Roy " . Carey said that the song represents " his side of the family and is kind of hard to talk about . " The song proved to be " very emotional " for Carey , and she sang it only once in the studio . DJ Quik also produced songs for the album , but none of them were included .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Carey attempted to make a musical comeback with Charmbracelet , which focused on bringing Carey back to her R & B and soul roots in an attempt to recapture her audience . Critics both praised and criticized the condition of Carey 's voice on the album ; many called the songs average , and felt that most lacked sufficient hooks . The album 's lead single , and Carey 's boldest attempt at recreating the ballads from the early years of her career , was " Through the Rain " , which was produced by Carey , and was described by one critic as " the sort of self @-@ help ballad Ms. Carey was singing a decade ago " . The songs on the album are a mixture of several genres .
Carey 's cover of " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " , was recorded using live instrumentation , and was the album 's third single . It begins as a " piano @-@ driven slow jam " , which is followed by a " dramatic chord progression " after the second chorus , and Carey 's " precise and fluttery voice reaches incredible heights " as it " turns the power ballad into something more delicate . " Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times called " Yours " " a delectable combination of breathy vocals and playful rhythms . " Barry Walters from Rolling Stone wrote that on " Yours " , " Carey 's lead vocals blend into choruses of overdubbed Mariah 's cooing overlapping phrases . Circling these are choirs of more Mariahs singing harmonies and countermelodies . Topping it off are generous sprinklings of the singer 's patented birdcalls , wails , sighs and whispers . "
Critics considered " Subtle Invitation " to be one of the album 's strongest songs because of its " well executed " jazz influence . The song begins with the sounds of people dining , then introduces the strong bassline and drums . Towards the end of the song , Carey belts out the climax . Sarah Rodman from The Boston Herald described it as fascinating and wrote , " it sounds as though Carey is singing in falsetto while still in her chest voice . " " Clown " drew strong media attention , and its lyrical content led critics to speculate that Carey aimed it at rapper Eminem , who had publicly announced that he had had a relationship with Carey . Rodman said " Clown " was " languidly sinister " , with lyrics such as , " I should 've left it at ' I like your music too ' ... You should never have intimated we were lovers / when you know very well we never even touched each other . " Critics compared " I Only Wanted " with " My All " ' s instrumentation and structure of verse , chorus and guitar solo . According to Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine , Carey makes vague allusions to her ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola with the line , " Wish I 'd stayed beneath my veil " . The song uses Latin @-@ inspired guitar instrumentation and wind sounds as an additional backbone to the melody , and dripping water as its percussion .
" Sunflowers for Alfred Roy " , one of the album 's most personal songs , is named after Carey 's father ; she makes direct reference to him and a moment they shared at his death bed . The song is backed with a simple piano accompaniment , and Carey recounts a visit with her father in his hospital room : " Strange to feel that proud , strong man / Grip tightly to my hand . "
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from the album . The lead single , " Through the Rain " was released on September 24 , 2002 . It received mixed reviews from critics , some of whom said it was too similar to her earlier ballads , such as " Hero " and " Outside " , while others praised Carey 's vocals in the song . It was one of Carey 's poorest @-@ selling US singles , reaching number 81 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . However , it topped the Hot Dance Club Play charts and reached the top twenty of the Adult Contemporary chart . Outside the US , the single performed moderately , peaking within the top ten in Canada , Switzerland , Sweden , Italy and the UK , and within the top 20 in Ireland , Australia , Norway and Denmark . The music video of " Through the Rain " , directed by Daver Meyers , is based on the courtship and eloping of Carey 's parents . Scenes of Carey singing in a street when rain starts to fall are juxtaposed with the story of a mixed @-@ race couple who run away from their families , who oppose their relationship .
" Boy ( I Need You ) " , which was released as the second single on November 26 , 2002 , received mixed reviews from critics . The single failed to make much impact on charts worldwide ; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart . Elsewhere , the song reached number 17 in the UK , and peaked within the top 40 in Australia , the Netherlands , Ireland and New Zealand . The music video for " Boy ( I Need You ) " was directed by Joseph Kahn and was filmed at Shibuya and Los Angeles . Initially , " The One " was scheduled to be released as the second single and the music video was shot for that song . However , halfway through the filming , the single was changed to " Boy ( I Need You ) " . Described as " Speed Racer meets Hello Kitty meets me and Cam 'ron " by Carey , the video incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey 's alter @-@ ego Bianca .
The third single from the album was Carey 's cover version of " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " , released on November 25 , 2003 . Though it gained mostly positive reviews , it failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number five on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . Outside the US , the song saw its highest peak in Switzerland , reaching number 28 and staying on the charts for eight weeks . It also charted in Austria and the Wallonia region of Belgium . The music video for the song was directed by Sanaa Hamri . Another cut from the album , " Irresistible ( Westside Connection ) " charted at number 81 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs .
= = Critical reception = =
Aggregator website Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score , gave Charmbracelet a score of 43 / 100 , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic rated the album two out of five stars , and criticized its production and the condition of Carey 's voice . He wrote , " Whenever she sings , there 's a raspy whistle behind her thin voice and she strains to make notes throughout the record ... Her voice is damaged , and there 's not a moment where it sounds strong or inviting . " Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly said she was " in fine voice " , He wrote that " Through the Rain " sinks in its own sodden sentimentality , as do by @-@ the @-@ numbers efforts like ' Yours ' and ' I Only Wanted ' " , and added that " ' Clown ' is a moody number graced with mournful acoustic guitar and a gorgeously nuanced vocal , while ' Sunflowers for Alfred Roy ' is a short , sweet song sung to a lovely piano accompaniment " . He finished by saying that " too much of Charmbracelet is mired in middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road muck . "
Billboard editor Michael Paoletta praised Carey 's return to her core audience . He said that although Carey might have alienated her hip @-@ hop followers from her previous three albums , her older fans from the 1990s would be more receptive to the material and her new image . Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times wrote that the album " is generally pleasant , although it 's not always exciting , and a few of the collaborations go awry " . He called Carey 's voice " invariably astonishing " , and said that " she can hit high notes that barely sound human " , praised her versatility , and wrote that she " also knows how to make a hip @-@ hop hit by holding back and letting the beat shine . " Ethan Browne of New York slated the album 's whimsical chimes and tinkling keyboards , and wrote , " Was Charmbracelet recorded in a Casio shop ? This instrument needs to be stopped . "
Rating Charmbracelet two out of five stars , Barry Walters from Rolling Stone wrote that none of the songs were bold , that the lack of hooks made the album weak , and said , " Carey needs bold songs that help her use the power and range for which she is famous . Charmbracelet is like a stream of watercolors that bleed into a puddle of brown . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine complimented Carey 's mixture of pop and hip @-@ hop melodies , and wrote , " Though there 's nothing as immediate as ' Fantasy ' or ' My All ' here , Charmbracelet is significantly less contrived than 1999 's Rainbow and almost as creatively liberating as Butterfly . British columnist Angus Batey , writing for Yahoo ! Music UK called the songs on Charmbracelet forgettable , and wrote , " She used to take risks , but ' Charmbracelet ' is conservative , unadventurous and uninspiring ; and , while it 's understandable that simply to make another record marks a triumph of sorts , it 's impossible to admire Mariah to the degree that her talent ought to merit . " John Mulvey from NME criticized its content , writing , " Nominally , ' Charmbracelet ' is R & B , much like Tony Blair is nominally a socialist ... Tragedies , all told , have been worse "
At the 17th Japan Gold Disc Award in 2003 , the album was nominated in the category of Rock and Pop Album of the Year ( International ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
Charmbracelet was initially slated for release in the US on December 10 , 2002 . However , the date was revised to December 3 , 2002 . It was released through Island Records and Carey 's label MonarC Entertainment . A highly anticipated release , it debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 241 @,@ 000 , more than the first @-@ week sales of the critically panned Glitter soundtrack , but fewer than 1999 's Rainbow , which sold 323 @,@ 000 units in its first week . It stayed on the chart for 22 weeks , Charmbracelet was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million units in the US . As of April 2013 , the estimated sales of the album in the US ( compiled by Nielsen Soundscan ) were 1 @,@ 166 @,@ 000 copies .
In Canada , the album debuted on the Canadian Albums Chart at number thirty , in contrast to Glitter , which debuted at number four on the chart . It was certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 copies . On the week dated December 15 , 2002 , Chamrbracelet entered the Australian Albums Chart at its peak position of number 42 . It exited the chart the next week , becoming one of Carey 's lowest charting albums in the country . In Japan , Charmbracelet debuted at number four on the Oricon Albums Chart , its second @-@ highest peak worldwide , and sold 63 @,@ 365 units in its first week . The album spent another week at number four , and sold 71 @,@ 206 units . It stayed on the charts for a total of 15 weeks and according to Oricon , has sold 240 @,@ 440 copies . The Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) certified Charmbracelet platinum for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies .
In Austria , the album peaked at number 34 and stayed on the charts for seven weeks . In the Flemish region of Belgium it charted and peaked at number 48 and reached number 28 in the Walloon region of that country . Charmbracelet entered the French Albums Chart at number 20 in the week dated December 7 , 2002 , spent 30 weeks on the chart and was certified Gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . Charmbracelet charted and peaked at number 32 in Germany It reached number 50 in Sweden . In Switzerland , the album peaked at number nine on the Swiss Albums Chart and stayed on the charts for ten weeks ; it was certified Gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In the United Kingdom , the album peaked at number 52 , selling 19 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It has sold a total of 122 @,@ 010 copies as of April 2008 . In February 2003 , it was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . In the Netherlands , the album debuted at number 48 , the issue dated December 14 , 2002 . The following week , it peaked at number 30 . It stayed on the charts for 19 weeks , and made two re @-@ entries , one in June 2003 and other in August 2003 .
Charmbracelet was certified Gold in both Brazil and Hong Kong by Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) and IFPI Hong Kong respectively .
= = Promotion = =
Following the release of " Through the Rain " , Carey embarked on several US and international promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet and its accompanying singles . Promotion for " Through the Rain " began at the 2002 NRJ Awards , where Carey performed wearing a long black skirt and denim blazer . Three days before the album 's US release , a one @-@ hour program titled Mariah Carey : Shining Through the Rain , in which Carey was interviewed and sang several songs from Charmbracelet and her back catalog , aired on MTV . Carey addressed rumors of her breakdown and its cause , and spoke about the album and its inspiration , and conducted a question and answer session with fans . During the first month after the album 's release , Carey appeared on several television talk shows . She launched her promotional tour on Today , where she performed four songs at Mall of America for a crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 . On December 2 , Carey traveled to Brazil for South American promotion of Charmbracelet , appearing on the popular television program Fantástico . She sang " My All " , and performed " Through the Rain " and " I Only Wanted " wearing a long pink gown . On December 3 , 2002 , Carey appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , where she performed " Through the Rain " and " My Saving Grace " , and gave a highly publicized interview about her hospitalization . Before her breakdown , Carey had been booked for a private interview with ABC 's Barbara Walters , executive producer of The View , following Glitter 's release . Instead of giving Walters the full @-@ coverage interview following Carey 's return to the public eye , Island decided Oprah was more appropriate , and changed the appearance . Carey 's interview with Matt Lauer on Dateline NBC aired the same evening .
On December 17 , Carey performed " I Only Wanted " on The View after guest co @-@ hosting the program . One month later , Carey was one of the headlining performers at the 30th annual American Music Awards , held on January 13 , 2003 . She performed " Through the Rain " alongside a live gospel choir , and wore a long black evening gown . During the performance , images of newspaper headlines reporting Carey 's breakdown were projected on a large curtain behind her , with one reading , " When you fall down , you get back up . " Carey received a standing ovation . In mid @-@ February , Carey was the headline performer at the NBA all @-@ star game , which was Michael Jordan 's last game . She wore a long , purple , skin @-@ tight Washington Wizard 's dress , and performed " Boy ( I Need You ) " , " My Saving Grace " and " Hero " , which received a standing ovation and brought Jordan to tears . On March 1 , 2003 , Carey performed at the Soul Train Music Awards , sporting a retro @-@ curled hairstyle and wearing a burgundy evening gown . She performed " My Saving Grace " , and as at the American Music Awards , images of newspaper headlines and inspirational photographs were projected onto a large screen . Following the performance , Carey was awarded a lifetime achievement award for her contribution to music . Towards the end of March , Charmbracelet was released in Europe and Carey appeared on several television programs to promotion the album . She performed the album 's leading two singles on the British music chart show , Top of the Pops , and a similar set on The Graham Norton Show and Fame Academy . On the latter program , Carey was joined on stage by the show 's finalists , who sang the climax on " Through the Rain " alongside her .
= = = Tour = = =
To promote the album , Carey announced a world tour in April 2003 . As of 2003 , " Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey " was her most extensive tour , lasting over eight months and performing sixty @-@ nine shows in venues worldwide . Before tickets went on sale in the US , venues were switched from large arenas to smaller , more intimate theater shows . According to Carey , the change was made in order to give fans a more intimate show , and something more Broadway @-@ influenced . She said , " It 's much more intimate so you 'll feel like you had an experience . You experience a night with me . " However , while smaller productions were booked for the US leg of the tour , Carey performed at stadia and arenas in Asia and Europe , and performed for a crowd of over 35 @,@ 000 in Manila , 50 @,@ 000 in Malaysia , and to over 70 @,@ 000 people in China . In the UK , it was Carey 's first tour to feature shows outside London ; she performed in Glasgow , Birmingham and Manchester .
" Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics and audiences , many of whom complimented the quality of Carey 's live vocals and the production of the shows . Fans were given the opportunity to request songs from Carey 's catalog , which added to its positive reception . At her concert in Manila , Rito P. Asilo from Philippine Daily Inquirer wrote , " I didn 't expect her voice to be that crystal clear ! " He added , " After 15 songs , we couldn 't seem to get enough of Mariah — and we became a believer ! " .
= = Re @-@ release = =
While preparing for the Asian leg of the Charmbracelet World Tour , Carey announced that Charmbraclet would be re @-@ released with four additional tracks on July 26 , 2003 , the first day of the North American leg of the tour . Carey included her duet with Busta Rhymes , " I Know What You Want " , which was released as a single from his album , It Ain 't Safe No More ( 2002 ) , and became Carey 's highest charting song internationally since 2001 , reaching top five peaks in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , Ireland , Italy , Switzerland , the US and the UK . In an interview with Carson Daly , Carey said , " The Busta Rhymes duet ... has become so successful and we always said I would put it on my album as well . " The re @-@ release also included " There Goes My Heart " , " Got a Thing 4 You " featuring Da Brat and Elephant Man , and " The One ( So So Def Remix ) " featuring Bone Crusher . The re @-@ released version of the album charted for three weeks on the Oricon album chart in Japan , where it peaked at number 96 on the issue dated July 14 , 2003 .
= = Track listing = =
" Boy ( I Need You ) " contains samples of " Oh Boy " by Cam 'ron & " Call Me " by Tweet .
" You Had Your Chance " contains a sample of " I Want 'a Do Something Freaky To You " by Leon Haywood .
" Irresistible ( Westside Connection ) " contains a sample of " You Know How We Do It " by Ice Cube
" Bringin ' on the Heartbreak " is a cover of " Bringin ' on the Heartbreak " by Def Leppard .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Charmbracelet taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Recording locations = = =
Recording locations are adapted from Charmbracelet liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Thomas Quiney =
Thomas Quiney ( baptised 26 February 1589 - c . 1662 or 1663 ) was the husband of William Shakespeare 's daughter Judith Shakespeare , and a vintner and tobacconist in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Quiney held several municipal offices in the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , the highest being chamberlain in 1621 and 1622 , but was also fined for various minor offences .
In 1616 , Quiney married Judith Shakespeare . The marriage took place during a season when a special licence was required by the church , and the couple had failed to obtain one , leading to Quiney 's brief excommunication . Quiney was also summoned before the Bawdy Court fewer than two months after the wedding to answer charges of “ carnal copulation ” with a Margaret Wheeler , who died in childbirth . Scholars believe that as a result of these events William Shakespeare altered his will to favour his other daughter , Susanna Hall , and excluded Quiney from his inheritance .
Judith and Thomas had three children : Shakespeare , Richard , and Thomas . Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age , and neither Richard nor Thomas lived past 21 . The death of Judith 's last child led to legal wrangling over William Shakespeare 's will that lasted until 1652 . Scholars speculate that Thomas Quiney may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the burial records are incomplete .
= = Birth and early life = =
Thomas Quiney was born in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and baptised on 26 February 1589 in Holy Trinity Church . He was the son of Richard and Elizabeth Quiney . He had 10 siblings , among them a Richard Quiney who was a grocer in London , Mary Quiney who later married Richard Watts , the vicar of Harbury , and Elizabeth Quiney who married William Chandler . There is no record of Thomas Quiney 's attendance at the local school , but he had sufficient education to write short passages in French , run a business , and hold several municipal offices in his life .
= = Business and municipal offices = =
Quiney was a vintner and dealt in tobacco . He held the lease to a house known as “ Atwood 's ” for the purpose of running a tavern , and later traded houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , for the larger house known as “ The Cage ” where he set up his vintner 's shop in the upper half . He is recorded as selling wine to the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon as late as 1650 .
He was a man of some education , with knowledge of French and calligraphy . In signing his accounts for 1621 and 1622 as chamberlain he decorated them with a couplet in French from a romance by Mellin de Saint @-@ Gelais . Quiney writes “ Bien heureux est celui qui pour devenir sage , Qui pour le mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” but the original is “ Heureux celui qui pour devenir sage , Du mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” . The original translates into English as “ Happy is he who to become wise , serves his apprenticeship from other men 's troubles ” but Quiney 's version “ … is ungrammatical and without sense ” .
He was a well @-@ respected man in the borough , and was elected a burgess and constable in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in 1617 . In 1621 and 1662 he was acting Chamberlain . In signing his accounts for 1622 – 3 , he did so " with flourishes ” , but the records show that the council voted them “ imperfect ” . Quiney did not attend this meeting , but he did attend the later meeting where the accounts were passed , so they appear to have needed further explanation .
Quiney 's reputation was slightly spotted ; he was fined for swearing and for “ suffering townsmen to tipple in his house ” , and was at one point in danger of prosecution for “ dispensing unwholesome and adulterated wine ” .
= = Marriage = =
On 10 February 1616 , Thomas Quiney married Judith Shakespeare , William Shakespeare 's daughter , in Holy Trinity Church . The assistant vicar , Richard Watts , who later married Quiney 's sister Mary , probably officiated . The wedding took place during the Lenten season , which was prohibited . In 1616 Lent started on 23 January , Septuagesima Sunday , and ended on 7 April , the Sunday after Easter . The marriage therefore required a special licence , issued by the Bishop of Worcester , which the couple had failed to obtain . A Walter Wright of Stratford was cited for marrying without either banns or licence , so since Quiney was only cited for marrying without the required licence it is presumed that they had posted banns in church . The infraction was a minor one , apparently caused by the minister , as three other couples were also wed that February . Quiney was nevertheless summoned by Walter Nixon to appear before the Consistory court in Worcester . ( This same Walter Nixon was later involved in a Star Chamber case and was found guilty of forging signatures and taking bribes ) . Quiney failed to appear by the required date . The register recorded the judgement , which was excommunication , on or about 12 March 1616 . It is unknown if Judith was also excommunicated , but in any case the punishment did not last long . In November of the same year they were back in church for the baptism of their firstborn child .
The marriage did not begin well : Quiney had recently impregnated another woman , Margaret Wheeler , who was to die in childbirth along with the child and was buried on 15 March 1616 . On 26 March 1616 , Quiney appeared before the Bawdy Court , which dealt , among other things , with " whoredom and uncleanliness " . Confessing in open court to " carnal copulation " with Margaret Wheeler , he submitted himself for correction . He was sentenced to open penance " in a white sheet ( according to custom ) " before the congregation on three Sundays . He also had to admit to his crime , this time wearing ordinary clothes , before the Minister of Bishopton in Warwickshire . The first part of the sentence was remitted , essentially letting him off with a five @-@ shilling fine to be given to the parish 's poor . Since Bishopton only had a chapel , he was spared any public humiliation .
= = Chapel Lane , Atwood 's and The Cage = =
Where the Quineys lived after being married is unknown . Judith owned her father 's cottage on Chapel Lane , Stratford , while Thomas had held , since 1611 , the lease on a tavern called " Atwood 's " on High Street . The cottage later passed from Judith to her sister as part of the settlement in their father 's will . In July 1616 Thomas swapped houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , moving his vintner 's shop to the upper half of a house at the corner of High Street and Bridge Street . Known as " The Cage " , it is the house traditionally associated with Judith Quiney . In the 20th century The Cage was for a time a Wimpy restaurant before being turned into the Stratford Information Office .
The Cage provides further insight into why Shakespeare would not have trusted Judith 's husband . Around 1630 Quiney tried to sell the lease on the house but was prevented by his kinsmen . In 1633 , to protect the interests of Judith and the children , the lease was signed over to the trust of : John Hall , Susanna 's husband ; Thomas Nash , the husband of Judith 's niece ; and Richard Watts , vicar of nearby Harbury , who was Quiney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and who had officiated at Thomas and Judith 's wedding . Eventually , in November 1652 , the lease to The Cage ended up in the hands of Thomas ' eldest brother , Richard Quiney , a grocer in London .
= = William Shakespeare 's last will and testament = =
The inauspicious beginnings of Judith 's marriage , in spite of her husband and his family being otherwise unexceptionable , has led to speculation that this was the cause for William Shakespeare 's hastily altered last will and testament . He first summoned his lawyer , Francis Collins , in January 1616 . On 25 March he made further alterations , probably because he was dying and because of his concerns about Quiney . In the first bequest of the will there had been a provision " vnto my sonne in L [ aw ] " ; but " sonne in L [ aw ] " was then struck out , with Judith 's name inserted in its stead . To this daughter he bequeathed £ 100 " in discharge of her marriage porcion " ; another £ 50 if she were to relinquish the Chapel Lane cottage ; and , if she or any of her children were still alive at the end of three years following the date of the will , a further £ 150 , of which she was to receive the interest but not the principal . This money was explicitly denied to Thomas Quiney unless he were to bestow on Judith lands of equal value . In a separate bequest , Judith was given " my broad silver gilt bole " .
Finally , for the bulk of his estate , which included his main house , " New Place " , his two houses on Henley Street and various lands in and around Stratford , Shakespeare had set up an entail . His estate was bequeathed , in descending order of choice , to the following : 1 ) his daughter , Susanna Hall ; 2 ) upon Susanna 's death , " to the first sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing & to the heires Males of the bodie of the saied first Sonne lawfullie yssueing " ; 3 ) to Susanna 's second son and his male heirs ; 4 ) to Susanna 's third son and his male heirs ; 5 ) to Susanna 's " ffourth ... ffyfth sixte & Seaventh sonnes " and their male heirs ; 6 ) to Elizabeth , Susanna and John Hall 's firstborn , and her male heirs ; 7 ) to Judith and her male heirs ; or 8 ) to whatever heirs the law would normally recognise . This elaborate entail is usually taken to indicate that Thomas Quiney was not to be entrusted with Shakespeare 's inheritance , although some have speculated that it may simply indicate that Susanna was the favoured child .
= = Children = =
Judith and Thomas Quiney had three children : Shakespeare ( baptised 23 November 1616 — buried 8 May 1617 ) ; Richard ( baptised 9 February 1618 — buried 6 February 1639 ) ; and Thomas ( baptised 23 January 1620 — buried 28 January 1639 ) . Shakespeare was named for his mother 's father . Richard 's name was common among the Quineys : his other grandfather and an uncle were both named Richard .
Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age . Richard and Thomas Quiney were buried within a month of each other ; they were 19 and 21 years old , respectively . The deaths of all of Judith 's children brought on new legal consequences . The entail on her father 's inheritance led Susanna , along with her daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , to make a settlement , by use of a rather elaborate legal device , for the inheritance of her own branch of the family . Legal wrangling continued for another thirteen years , until 1652 .
= = Death = =
Of Thomas Quiney 's fate the records show little . It is speculated that he may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the parish burial records are incomplete . He certainly had a nephew in London , who by this time held the lease to The Cage .
= Transit of Venus =
A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet , becoming visible against ( and hence obscuring a small portion of ) the solar disk . During a transit , Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black disk moving across the face of the Sun . The duration of such transits is usually measured in hours ( the transit of 2012 lasted 6 hours and 40 minutes ) . A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon . While the diameter of Venus is more than 3 times that of the Moon , Venus appears smaller , and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun , because it is much farther away from Earth .
Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena . They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years , with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121 @.@ 5 years and 105 @.@ 5 years . The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8 : 13 and 243 : 395 commensurabilities .
The last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was the last Venus transit of the 21st century ; the prior transit took place on 8 June 2004 . The previous pair of transits were in December 1874 and December 1882 . The next transits of Venus will be on 10 – 11 December 2117 , and 8 December 2125 .
Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the Solar System . Observations of the 1639 transit , combined with the principle of parallax , provided an estimate of the distance between the Sun and the Earth that was more accurate than any other up to that time . The 2012 transit provided scientists with a number of other research opportunities , particularly in the refinement of techniques to be used in the search for exoplanets .
= = Conjunctions = =
Venus , with an orbit inclined by 3 @.@ 4 ° relative to the Earth 's , usually appears to pass under ( or over ) the Sun at inferior conjunction . A transit occurs when Venus reaches conjunction with the Sun at or near one of its nodes — the longitude where Venus passes through the Earth 's orbital plane ( the ecliptic ) — and appears to pass directly across the Sun . Although the inclination between these two orbital planes is only 3 @.@ 4 ° , Venus can be as far as 9 @.@ 6 ° from the Sun when viewed from the Earth at inferior conjunction . Since the angular diameter of the Sun is about half a degree , Venus may appear to pass above or below the Sun by more than 18 solar diameters during an ordinary conjunction .
Sequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years . After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits . During the Earth 's 243 sidereal orbital periods , which total 88757 @.@ 3 days , Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224 @.@ 701 days each , equal to 88756 @.@ 9 Earth days . This period of time corresponds to 152 synodic periods of Venus .
The pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 8 , 121 @.@ 5 and 8 years is not the only pattern that is possible within the 243 @-@ year cycle , because of the slight mismatch between the times when the Earth and Venus arrive at the point of conjunction . Prior to 1518 , the pattern of transits was 8 , 113 @.@ 5 and 121 @.@ 5 years , and the eight inter @-@ transit gaps before the AD 546 transit were 121 @.@ 5 years apart . The current pattern will continue until 2846 , when it will be replaced by a pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 129 @.@ 5 and 8 years . Thus , the 243 @-@ year cycle is relatively stable , but the number of transits and their timing within the cycle will vary over time . Since the 243 : 395 Earth : Venus commensurability is only approximate , there are different sequences of transits occurring 243 years apart , each extending for several thousand years , which are eventually replaced by other sequences . For instance , there is a series which ended in 541 BC , and the series which includes 2117 only started in AD 1631 .
= = History of observation = =
= = = Ancient history = = =
Ancient Indian , Greek , Egyptian , Babylonian and Chinese observers knew of Venus and recorded the planet 's motions . The early Greek astronomers called Venus by two names — Hesperus the evening star and Phosphorus the morning star . Pythagoras is credited with realizing they were the same planet . There is no evidence that any of these cultures knew of the transits . Venus was important to ancient American civilizations , in particular for the Maya , who called it Noh Ek , " the Great Star " or Xux Ek , " the Wasp Star " ; they embodied Venus in the form of the god Kukulkán ( also known as or related to Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico ) . In the Dresden Codex , the Maya charted Venus ' full cycle , but despite their precise knowledge of its course , there is no mention of a transit . However , it has been proposed that frescoes found at Mayapan may contain a pictorial representation of the 12th or 13th century transits .
= = = 1639 – first scientific observation = = =
In 1627 , Johannes Kepler became the first person to predict a transit of Venus , by predicting the 1631 event . His methods were not sufficiently accurate to predict that the transit would not be visible in most of Europe , and as a consequence , nobody was able to use his prediction to observe the phenomenon .
The first recorded observation of a transit of Venus was made by Jeremiah Horrocks from his home at Carr House in Much Hoole , near Preston in England , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar then in use in England ) . His friend , William Crabtree , also observed this transit from Broughton , near Manchester . Kepler had predicted transits in 1631 and 1761 and a near miss in 1639 . Horrocks corrected Kepler 's calculation for the orbit of Venus , realized that transits of Venus would occur in pairs 8 years apart , and so predicted the transit of 1639 . Although he was uncertain of the exact time , he calculated that the transit was to begin at approximately 15 : 00 . Horrocks focused the image of the Sun through a simple telescope onto a piece of paper , where the image could be safely observed . After observing for most of the day , he was lucky to see the transit as clouds obscuring the Sun cleared at about 15 : 15 , just half an hour before sunset . Horrocks ' observations allowed him to make a well @-@ informed guess as to the size of Venus , as well as to make an estimate of the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun — the astronomical unit . He estimated that distance to be 59 @.@ 4 million miles ( 95 @.@ 6 Gm , 0 @.@ 639 AU ) – about two thirds of the actual distance of 93 million miles ( 149 @.@ 6 million km ) , but a more accurate figure than any suggested up to that time . The observations were not published until 1661 , well after Horrocks 's death .
= = = 1761 and 1769 = = =
In 1663 Scottish mathematician James Gregory had suggested in his Optica Promota that observations of a transit of the planet Mercury , at widely spaced points on the surface of the Earth , could be used to calculate the solar parallax and hence the astronomical unit using triangulation . Aware of this , a young Edmond Halley made observations of such a transit on 28 October O.S. 1677 from Saint Helena but was disappointed to find that only Richard Towneley in Burnley , Lancashire had made another accurate observation of the event whilst Gallet , at Avignon , simply recorded that it had occurred . Halley was not satisfied that the resulting calculation of the solar parallax at 45 " was accurate .
In a paper published in 1691 , and a more refined one in 1716 , he proposed that more accurate calculations could be made using measurements of a transit of Venus , although the next such event was not due until 1761 . Halley died in 1742 , but in 1761 numerous expeditions were made to various parts of the world so that precise observations of the transit could be made in order to make the calculations as described by Halley — an early example of international scientific collaboration . This collaboration was , however , underpinned by competition , the British , for example , being spurred to action only after they heard of French plans from Joseph @-@ Nicolas Delisle . In an attempt to observe the first transit of the pair , astronomers from Britain , Austria and France traveled to destinations around the world , including Siberia , Norway , Newfoundland and Madagascar . Most managed to observe at least part of the transit , but successful observations were made in particular by Jeremiah Dixon and Charles Mason at the Cape of Good Hope . Less successful , at Saint Helena , were Nevil Maskelyne and Robert Waddington , although they put the voyage to good use by trialling the lunar @-@ distance method of finding longitude .
The existence of an atmosphere on Venus was concluded by Mikhail Lomonosov on the basis of his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 from the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg . He used a two @-@ lens achromat refractor and a weak solar filter ( smoked glass ) and reported seeing a bump or bulge of light ( " Lomonosov 's arc " ) off the solar disc as Venus began to exit the Sun . Lomonosov attributed that effect to refraction of solar rays through an atmosphere ; he also reported the appearance of a sliver around the part of Venus that had just entered the Sun 's disk during the initial phase of transit . In 2012 , Pasachoff and Sheehan reported , based on knowing what Venus 's atmosphere would look like because of Pasachoff and Schneider 's observations of the 2004 transit of Venus , that what Lomonosov reported was not Venus 's atmosphere . To make a decisive test , a group of researchers carried out experimental reconstruction of Lomonosov 's discovery of Venusian atmosphere with antique refractors during the transit of Venus on 5 – 6 June 2012 . They observed the " Lomonosov 's arc " and other aureole effects due to Venus 's atmosphere and concluded that Lomonosov 's telescope was fully adequate to the task of detecting the arc of light around Venus off the Sun 's disc during ingress or egress if proper experimental techniques as described by Lomonosov in his 1761 paper are employed .
For the 1769 transit , scientists traveled to Tahiti , Norway , and locations in North America including Canada , New England , and San José del Cabo ( Baja California , then under Spanish control ) ; . The Czech astronomer Christian Mayer was invited by Catherine the Great to observe the transit in Saint Petersburg with Anders Johan Lexell , while other members of Russian Academy of Sciences went to eight other locations in the Russian Empire , under the general coordination of Stepan Rumovsky . The Hungarian astronomer Maximilian Hell and his assistant János Sajnovics traveled to Vardø , Norway , delegated by Christian VII of Denmark . William Wales and Joseph Dymond made their observation in Hudson Bay , Canada , for the Royal Society . Observations were made by a number of groups in the British colonies in America . In Philadelphia , the American Philosophical Society erected three temporary observatories and appointed a committee , of which David Rittenhouse was the head . Observations were made by a group led by Dr. Benjamin West in Providence , Rhode Island. and published in 1769 . The results of the various observations in the American colonies were printed in the first volume of the American Philosophical Society 's Transactions , published in 1771 . Comparing the North American observations , William Smith published in 1771 a best value of the solar parallax of 8 @.@ 48 to 8 @.@ 49 arc @-@ seconds , which corresponds to an Earth @-@ sun distance of 24000 times the Earth 's radius , about 3 % different from the correct value .
Observations were also made from Tahiti by James Cook and Charles Green at a location still known as " Point Venus " . This occurred on the first voyage of James Cook , after which Cook explored New Zealand and Australia . This was one of five expeditions organised by the Royal Society and the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne .
Jean @-@ Baptiste Chappe d 'Auteroche went to San José del Cabo in what was then New Spain to observe the transit with two Spanish astronomers ( Vicente de Doz and Salvador de Medina ) . For his trouble he died in an epidemic of yellow fever there shortly after completing his observations . Only 9 of 28 in the entire party returned home alive .
The unfortunate Guillaume Le Gentil spent eight years travelling in an attempt to observe either of the transits . His unsuccessful journey led to him losing his wife and possessions and being declared dead ( his efforts became the basis of the play Transit of Venus by Maureen Hunter ) . Under the influence of the Royal Society Ruđer Bošković travelled to Istanbul , but arrived too late .
Unfortunately , it was impossible to time the exact moment of the start and end of the transit because of the phenomenon known as the " black drop effect " . This effect was long thought to be due to Venus ' thick atmosphere , and initially it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere . However , recent studies demonstrate that it is an optical effect caused by the smearing of the image of Venus by turbulence in the Earth 's atmosphere or imperfections in the viewing apparatus .
In 1771 , using the combined 1761 and 1769 transit data , the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande calculated the astronomical unit to have a value of 153 million kilometers ( ± 1 million km ) . The precision was less than had been hoped for because of the black drop effect , but still a considerable improvement on Horrocks ' calculations .
Maximilian Hell published the results of his expedition in 1770 , in Copenhagen . Based on the results of his own expedition , and of Wales and Cook , in 1772 he presented another calculation of the astronomical unit : 151 @.@ 7 million kilometers . Lalande queried the accuracy and authenticity of the Hell expedition , but later he retreated in an article of Journal des sçavans , in 1778 .
= = = 1874 and 1882 = = =
Transit observations in 1874 and 1882 allowed this value to be refined further . Three expeditions — from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States — were sent to the Kerguelen Archipelago for the 1874 observations . The American astronomer Simon Newcomb combined the data from the last four transits , and he arrived at a value of about 149 @.@ 59 million kilometers ( ± 0 @.@ 31 million kilometers ) . Modern techniques , such as the use of radio telemetry from space probes , and of radar measurements of the distances to planets and asteroids in the Solar System , have allowed a reasonably accurate value for the astronomical unit ( AU ) to be calculated to a precision of about ± 30 meters . As a result , the need for parallax calculations has been superseded .
= = = 2004 and 2012 = = =
A number of scientific organizations headed by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) organized a network of amateur astronomers and students to measure Earth 's distance from the Sun during the transit . The participants ' observations allowed a calculation of the astronomical unit ( AU ) of 149 608 708 km ± 11 835 km which had only a 0 @.@ 007 % difference to the accepted value .
There was a good deal of interest in the 2004 transit as scientists attempted to measure the pattern of light dimming as Venus blocked out some of the Sun 's light , in order to refine techniques that they hope to use in searching for extrasolar planets . Current methods of looking for planets orbiting other stars only work for a few cases : planets that are very large ( Jupiter @-@ like , not Earth @-@ like ) , whose gravity is strong enough to wobble the star sufficiently for us to detect changes in proper motion or Doppler shift changes in radial velocity ; Jupiter or Neptune sized planets very close to their parent star whose transit causes changes in the luminosity of the star ; or planets which pass in front of background stars with the planet @-@ parent star separation comparable to the Einstein ring and cause gravitational microlensing . Measuring light intensity during the course of a transit , as the planet blocks out some of the light , is potentially much more sensitive , and might be used to find smaller planets . However , extremely precise measurement is needed : for example , the transit of Venus causes the Sun 's light to drop by a mere 0 @.@ 001 magnitude , and the dimming produced by small extrasolar planets will be similarly tiny .
The 2012 transit provided scientists numerous research opportunities as well , in particular in regard to the study of exoplanets . Research of the 2012 Venus transit includes :
Measuring dips in a star 's brightness caused by a known planet transiting the Sun will help astronomers find exoplanets . Unlike the 2004 Venus transit , the 2012 transit occurred during an active phase of the 11 @-@ year activity cycle of the Sun , and it is likely to give astronomers practice in picking up a planet 's signal around a " spotty " variable star .
Measurements made of the apparent diameter of Venus during the transit , and comparison with its known diameter , will give scientists an idea of how to estimate exoplanet sizes .
Observation made of the atmosphere of Venus simultaneously from Earth @-@ based telescopes and from the Venus Express gives scientists a better opportunity to understand the intermediate level of Venus ' atmosphere than is possible from either viewpoint alone . This will provide new information about the climate of the planet .
Spectrographic data taken of the well @-@ known atmosphere of Venus will be compared to studies of exoplanets whose atmospheres are thus far unknown .
The Hubble Space Telescope , which cannot be pointed directly at the Sun , used the Moon as a mirror to study the light that had passed through the atmosphere of Venus in order to determine its composition . This will help to show whether a similar technique could be used to study exoplanets .
= = Past and future transits = =
NASA maintains a catalog of Venus Transits covering the period 2000 BCE to 4000 CE . Currently , transits occur only in June or December ( see table ) and the occurrence of these events slowly drifts , becoming later in the year by about two days every 243 @-@ year cycle . Transits usually occur in pairs , on nearly the same date eight years apart . This is because the length of eight Earth years is almost the same as 13 years on Venus , so every eight years the planets are in roughly the same relative positions . This approximate conjunction usually results in a pair of transits , but it is not precise enough to produce a triplet , since Venus arrives 22 hours earlier each time . The last transit not to be part of a pair was in 1396 . The next will be in 3089 ; in 2854 ( the second of the 2846 / 2854 pair ) , although Venus will just miss the Sun as seen from the Earth 's equator , a partial transit will be visible from some parts of the southern hemisphere .
Thus after 243 years the transits of Venus returns . The 1874 transit is a member of the 243 @-@ years cycle # 1 . The 1882 transit is a member of # 2 . The 2004 transit is a member of # 3 and the 2012 transit is a member of # 4 . The 2117 transit is a member of # 1 and so on . However , the ascending node ( December transits ) of the orbit of Venus moves backwards after each 243 years so the transit of 2854 is the last member of series # 3 instead of series # 1 . The descending node ( June transits ) moves forwards , so the transit of 3705 is the last member of # 2 . From -125,000 till + 125 @,@ 000 only about ten series at both nodes each are needed for all the transits of Venus in this very long timespan , because both nodes of the orbit of Venus moves back and forward in time .
Over longer periods of time , new series of transits will start and old series will end . Unlike the saros series for lunar eclipses , it is possible for a transit series to restart after a hiatus . The transit series also vary much more in length than the saros series .
= = Grazing and simultaneous transits = =
Sometimes Venus only grazes the Sun during a transit . In this case it is possible that in some areas of the Earth a full transit can be seen while in other regions there is only a partial transit ( no second or third contact ) . The last transit of this type was on 6 December 1631 , and the next such transit will occur on 13 December 2611 . It is also possible that a transit of Venus can be seen in some parts of the world as a partial transit , while in others Venus misses the Sun . Such a transit last occurred on 19 November 541 BC , and the next transit of this type will occur on 14 December 2854 . These effects occur due to parallax , since the size of the Earth affords different points of view with slightly different lines of sight to Venus and the Sun . It can be demonstrated by closing an eye and holding a finger in front of a smaller more distant object ; when you open the other eye and close the first , the finger will no longer be in front of the object .
The simultaneous occurrence of a transit of Mercury and a transit of Venus does occur , but extremely infrequently . Such an event last occurred on 22 September 373 @,@ 173 BC and will next occur on 26 July 69 @,@ 163 , and again on 29 March 224 @,@ 508 . The simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is currently possible , but very rare . The next solar eclipse occurring during a transit of Venus will be on 5 April 15 @,@ 232 . The last time a solar eclipse occurred during a transit of Venus was on 1 November 15 @,@ 607 BC . It could be noticed that the day after the Venerean transit of 3 June 1769 there was a total solar eclipse , which was visible in Northern America , Europe and Northern Asia .
= Ímar mac Arailt =
Ímar mac Arailt ( died 1054 ) was an eleventh @-@ century ruler of the Kingdom of Dublin and perhaps the Kingdom of the Isles . He was the son of a man named Aralt , and appears to have been a grandson of Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin . Such a relationship would have meant that Ímar was a member of the Uí Ímair , and that he was a nephew of Amlaíb Cuarán 's son , Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin , a man driven from Dublin by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill in 1036 .
Ímar 's reign in Dublin spanned at least eight years , from 1038 to 1046 . Although he began by seizing the kingship from Echmarcach in 1038 , he eventually lost it to him in 1046 . As king , Ímar is recorded to have overseen military operations throughout Ireland , and seems to have actively assisted the family of Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd overseas in Wales . After Echmarcach 's final expulsion from Dublin 1052 , Ímar may well have been reinstalled as King of Dublin by Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster . Whatever the case , Ímar died in 1054 . He may have been an ancestor or close kinsman of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles , the progenitor of a family that ruled in the Isles until the mid thirteenth century .
= = Familial background = =
Ímar was probably the son of Aralt mac Amlaíb ( died 999 ) , a man whose death at the Battle of Glenn Máma is recorded by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of the Four Masters , the Annals of Ulster , and Chronicon Scotorum . If this identification is correct , Ímar 's paternal grandfather would have been Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin ( died 980 / 981 ) , and a paternal uncle of Ímar would have been Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin ( died 1042 ) .
= = Struggle for Dublin = =
Ímar 's probable uncle , Sitriuc , ruled Dublin for almost fifty years between 989 and 1036 . There is reason to suspect that the latter 's realm included Mann by the second or third decade of the eleventh century . His reign in Dublin was finally put to an end by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , who drove Sitriuc from the coastal town and claimed the kingship for himself . Previously , Sitriuc seems to have been closely aligned with Knútr Sveinnsson ( died 1035 ) , ruler of the kingdoms of England , Denmark , and Norway . Knútr 's apparent authority in the Irish Sea region , coupled with Sitriuc 's seemingly close connections with him , could account for the remarkable security enjoyed by Sitriuc during Knútr 's reign . It is possible that Echmarcach had been bound from taking action against Sitriuc whilst Knútr held power , and that the confusion caused by the latter 's death in 1035 enabled Echmarcach to exploit the situation and seize control of the Irish Sea region . Although there is no direct evidence that Echmarcach controlled Mann by this date , Sitriuc does not appear to have taken refuge on the island after his expulsion from Dublin . This seems to suggest that the island was outside Sitriuc 's possession , and may indicate that Mann had fallen into the hands of Echmarcach sometime before . In fact , it is possible that Echmarcach used the island to launch his takeover of Dublin .
Echmarcach 's hold on Dublin was short @-@ lived as the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar replaced him as King of Dublin in 1038 . This annal @-@ entry has been interpreted to indicate that Ímar drove Echmarcach from the kingship . There is reason to suspect that Þórfinnr Sigurðarson , Earl of Orkney ( died c . 1065 ) extended his presence into the Isles and the Irish Sea region at about this period . The evidence of Þórfinnr 's power in the Isles could suggest that he possessed an active interest in the ongoing struggle over the Dublin kingship . In fact , Þórfinnr 's predatory operations in the Irish Sea region may have contributed to Echmarcach 's loss of Dublin in 1038 .
It is conceivable that Ímar received some form of support from Knútr 's son and successor in Britain , Haraldr Knútsson , King of England ( died 1040 ) . The latter was certainly in power when Ímar replaced Echmarcach , and an association between Ímar and Haraldr could explain why the Annals of Ulster reports the latter 's death two years later . Ímar 's reign lasted about eight years , and one of his first royal acts appears to have been the invasion of Rathlin Island within the year . The fact that he proceeded to campaign in the North Channel could indicate that Echmarcach had held power in this region before his acquisition of Mann and Dublin .
In 1044 , the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar penetrated into the domain of the Uí Fhíachrach Arda Sratha and killed their chief . The annal @-@ entry also indicates that Ímar stormed the church of Armagh , and burned Scrín Pátraic ( the " Shrine of Patrick " ) in the attack . The following year , he again invaded Rathlin Island , and his subsequent slaughter of three hundred noblemen of the Ulaid , including a certain heir apparent named Ragnall Ua Eochada , is documented by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of Tigernach , and the Annals of the Four Masters . This remarkable action may indicate that the Dubliners and Ulaid were battling for control of Rathlin Island . If so , it could be evidence that Ímar enjoyed the possession of Mann by this date . The domain of the Ulaid is certainly the closest Irish territory to Mann , and the control of the Manx fleet could account for the Dubliner 's ability to challenge the Ulaid . Whatever the case , within the year Niall mac Eochada , King of Ulaid ( died 1063 ) is recorded to have attacked Fine Gall — Dublin 's agriculturally @-@ rich northern hinterland — in what may have been a retaliatory raid .
The following year , the Annals of Tigernach states that Echmarcach succeeded Ímar . The Annals of the Four Masters specifies that Ímar was driven from the kingship by Echmarcach , who was then elected king by the Dubliners . After this point in Ímar 's life , all that is known for certain is that he died in 1054 , as recorded by the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Loch Cé . Nevertheless , since these sources style Ímar in Gaelic rí Gall ( " king of the foreigners " ) , there may be evidence to suggest that , when Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) drove Echmarcach from Dublin in 1052 , Diarmait reinstalled Ímar as king .
After Ímar 's death , Diarmait appears to have appointed his own son , Murchad ( died 1070 ) , control of Dublin later that decade , as the Annals of the Four Masters accords him the title tigherna Gall , meaning " lord of the foreigners " in 1059 . In 1061 , Murchad invaded Mann and seems to have overthrown Echmarcach . Both father and son were dead by 1072 , and the Annals of Tigernach describes Diarmait on his death that year as King of the Isles ( rí Innsi Gall , literally " king of the isles of the foreigners " ) , a declaration which seems to indicate that , by the eleventh century at least , the kingship of the Isles was contingent upon control of Mann .
= = Involvement in Wales = =
The principal Welsh monarch during Ímar 's reign was Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ( died 1063 / 1064 ) . One of the latter 's main rivals was Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd ( died 1039 ) , a man who had killed Gruffudd 's father in 1023 , and thenceforth ruled Gwynedd until his own demise in 1039 . Gruffudd himself may have been responsible for Iago 's slaying , and certainly succeeded to the kingship of Gwynedd after his death . It was likely in the context of Iago 's fall and this resulting regime change that the latter 's son , Cynan ( fl . 1064 ) , fled overseas and sought refuge in Dublin .
According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan , the mother of Cynan 's son was Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb , a paternal granddaughter of Sitriuc . Further revealed by this source is the fact that this woman 's father , Amlaíb mac Sitriuc , built and commanded a Welsh fortress called Castell Avloed . Although it is unknown how long the Dubliners possessed the fortress , in 1036 another son of Sitriuc was slain in Wales by an apparent kinsman , an event which could be evidence of a struggle for control of the site . Echmarcach 's aforesaid expulsion of Sitriuc from Dublin in the same year could in turn indicate that this exiled monarch sought refuge in Wales .
Despite the uncertainty of its specific location , Castell Avloed appears to have been situated in territory formerly controlled by Iago , and there is reason to suspect that — after Iago 's fall and Cynan 's flight — Ímar oversaw military actions against Gruffudd . Three years later , for example , Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " and " C " versions of Annales Cambriæ report that this Welsh king was captured by forces from Dublin . The episode is further elaborated upon by a sixteenth @-@ century text compiled by David Powell ( died 1598 ) and a seventeenth @-@ century text by compiled by James Ware . According to these admittedly late versions of events , Gruffudd was captured by the Dubliners in the context of them supporting the cause of Cynan . The accounts further state that Gruffudd managed to escape his captors when the Dubliners were counterattacked by Welsh forces before they could return to Ireland . The evidence of Cynan cooperating with the Dubliners against Gruffudd suggests that , not only was Ímar personally involved as king , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
but that the Welsh fortress of Castell Avloed was still controlled by the Dubliners .
Another conflict that could have involved Ímar and the military forces of Dublin was Gruffudd 's final defeat of Hywel ab Edwin , King of Deheubarth ( died 1044 ) . According to Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " version of Annales Cambriæ this last stand of Hywel took place at the mouth of the River Tywi — perhaps in the vicinity of Carmarthen — and included Vikings from Ireland who supported Hywel 's cause . It is apparent that Gruffudd 's adversaries generally utilised foreign military support from Ireland 's Viking enclaves . Certainly , the Book of Llandaff declares that Gruffudd struggled against English , Irish , and Vikings during his career .
= = Ancestral figure = =
Ímar may have been the father , uncle , or possibly even the brother of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1095 ) . In 1091 , the Annals of Tigernach reveals that Gofraid possessed the kingship of Dublin in an annal @-@ entry recording his patronym as " ... mac Maic Arailt " . The Chronicle of Mann , on the otherhand , gives Gofraid 's patronym as " ... filius Haraldi nigri de Ysland " . Whilst the former source identifies Gofraid as the son of a man named Aralt ( Old Norse Haraldr ) , the latter identifies Gofraid as the paternal grandson of a man so named .
In the aforesaid record of the military actions conducted in 1044 , Ímar is merely named as the son of Aralt , a fact which could indicate that this was how he was known to his contemporaries . If correct , the patronym preserved by the Chronicle of Mann could merely be a garbled form of this style .
The patronym given by the Chronicle of Mann states that Gofraid 's father was from " Ysland " , a place which could refer to either Iceland , Islay , or Ireland . Other than this passage , there is no evidence hinting of a connection between Gofraid and Iceland . The chronicle elsewhere states that Gofraid died on Islay , although the island 's name is rendered " Ile " in this case . If " Ysland " instead refers to Ireland , the spelling could be the result of influence from a source originating in England , or a source written in Mediaeval French .
= Tessa Noël =
Tessa Noël is a fictional character in the television series Highlander : The Series , portrayed by Alexandra Vandernoot . A mortal artist and sculptor , Tessa is the French lover of the protagonist Immortal , Duncan MacLeod , played by Adrian Paul . Tessa is introduced in the pilot episode " The Gathering " , first shown in 1992 , and appears in all subsequent episodes until " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , the fourth episode of season two , in which she is killed . Vandernoot returned to the program for a number of guest appearances in the season two finale , " Counterfeit " , broadcast in 1994 , and the two @-@ part series conclusion " To Be " / " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) .
Tessa is MacLeod 's mortal companion and bears the consequences of his immortality . These include her aging while he does not , the impossibility of having children together and the dangers of MacLeod 's involvement in the Game , an ongoing battle in which all Immortals must behead each other until a single victor remains . Fully aware of this situation , Tessa stays with MacLeod , demonstrating her courage , understanding , generosity and compassion .
The first series of Highlander was a multi @-@ national co @-@ production including the French entertainment conglomerate Gaumont , which resulted in a French @-@ speaking actor playing Tessa . Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American , fast @-@ paced method of series production and worked with a dialect coach . Her performance was generally praised by reviewers , who especially praised the strong on @-@ screen relationship that Vandernoot and Paul created between their characters . When Vandernoot decided to leave the show , her character was killed , leading to fierce protests among the show 's audience and subsequently prompted the producers to have Vandernoot play an evil lookalike of Tessa in the episode " Counterfeit " . Despite her return , Tessa 's death influenced the rest of the series , making it more pessimistic , and creating a significant precedent ; Tessa was the first main character of the series to die .
= = Story arc = =
Tessa Noël is a central character , who appeared in every episode of the first season of Highlander : The Series , and in the first four episodes of the second . After the character 's death , she later returned for cameo appearances in the episodes " Counterfeit Part Two " in the second season , and " To Be " and " Not To Be " , the sixth season 's final two episodes .
= = = Background = = =
Tessa was born on August 28 , 1958 in Lille , France . When she was seven years old , she fell in love for the first time with then @-@ nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alan Rothwood ( Anthony Head ) . Tessa recalls in " Nowhere To Run " that she was " heartbroken " when he completed his studies and left the country . She remembered that at her first Christmas party in the ballroom of Alan 's house , she " couldn 't believe anything could be so beautiful . " Tessa mentions in " See No Evil " that she was educated at the Sorbonne in Paris , France .
Tessa 's first encounter with MacLeod is shown in a flashback sequence in " For Evil 's Sake " . She had recently left the Sorbonne and was working as an artist and conducting tours of the River Seine in Paris . In May 1980 , to escape Immortal Christoph Kuyler ( Peter Howitt ) who was trying to behead him , MacLeod jumped on a Bateau Mouche on which Tessa was working , and charmed her so that he could stay on board . Another flashback scene in the episode " Counterfeit Part Two " shows how MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa . On April 1 , 1983 , MacLeod made Tessa shoot him in the chest with a pistol . After he revived , MacLeod revealed himself to be an Immortal who could not age or father children , but did not mention the Game . MacLeod expected Tessa to show disgust or fear , but instead Tessa expressed compassion and sadness for his loneliness . As Tessa remains unaware of the Game , MacLeod occasionally fights other Immortals without her knowledge .
= = = Season one = = =
When the series begins , Tessa and MacLeod have been in a relationship for twelve years and are the proprietors of an antiques store , " MacLeod and Noel 's Antiques " , in the fictional city of Seacouver , Washington , United States . Immortals Slan Quince ( Richard Moll ) and Connor MacLeod ( Christopher Lambert ) break into their store , making Tessa aware of the Game . When she learns of this ultimate battle of good and evil , in which Duncan MacLeod must behead or be beheaded , she sarcastically remarks ; " And you didn 't think it was important enough to mention . " When Quince threatens Tessa to distract MacLeod , she first wants to flee with MacLeod , who prepared for her departure and beheads Quince . Aware that other Immortals will challenge MacLeod , Tessa decides to stay with him . They also allow Richie Ryan ( Stan Kirsch ) , a quick @-@ talking petty thief and street punk , to live with them because he was aware of MacLeod 's immortality .
In " Eyewitness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa witnesses the brutal murder of former artist Anne Wheeler ( Diana Barrington ) , and reacts angrily when she realizes that the police will do nothing about it , saying : " I 'm not hysterical , I don 't see things , and I 'm not looking for attention . I just want something to be done . " She decides to find the murderer on her own . When MacLeod tells Tessa that she is stronger than Anne , and that if something happened to him she would be fine , Tessa retorts , " You only think so because it suits you . " The murderer is Chief Police Officer Andrew Ballin ( Tom Butler ) who is beheaded by MacLeod after Ballin failed to kill Tessa .
In " Band of Brothers " ( 1993 ) , Tessa is chosen as the curator of a traveling exhibition entitled " An historical retrospective on sculpture and form " , which is based in Paris , France . Meanwhile , Immortal Grayson ( James Horan ) is seeking Victor Paulus , a protegee of MacLeod 's friend Darius ( Werner Stocker ) . Tessa decides to leave to Paris before MacLeod fights Grayson and her parting words are : " Remember . Paris is our city . I 'll be waiting for you " . After MacLeod beheads Grayson , he , Tessa and Richie , live in a barge on the Seine near Notre Dame de Paris .
In " Avenging Angel " ( 1993 ) , MacLeod and Tessa search for information about newborn Immortal Alfred Cahill ( Martin Kemp ) . Becoming Immortal has made Cahill insane ; he believes he is an angel sent by God to free the world from sin . Cahill starts with the last prostitute he met , Tessa 's old friend , Elaine Trent ( Sandra Nelson ) . Tessa is angry to learn the fate of her intelligent , beautiful friend , but later realizes that she " [ sounds ] like her judge and jury . " MacLeod believes that the only way to stop Cahill is to behead him , despite Tessa 's opinion that " Enlightened societies don 't kill their insane . They treat them . " When Cahill comes to the barge looking for MacLeod and finds Tessa alone , Tessa diverts him by welcoming Cahill as a messenger of God . Later , she tells MacLeod with disgust , " I had to crawl inside his head ... I had to think like him ... I had to become like him . "
= = = Season two = = =
The first episode of the second season , " The Watchers " ( 1993 ) , shows Tessa , MacLeod and Richie settling back to their antiques store in Seacouver and meeting the Watchers , a secret society that observes Immortals without interfering . In " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa meets a fortune teller named Greta ( Traci Lords ) who urges her to flee the city . This reminds MacLeod of another fortune teller , who , back in 1848 , predicted that he would bury many women , but marries none . MacLeod impulsively asks Tessa to marry him , to which she agrees . The next day , Tessa is abducted by Pallin Wolf ( Andrew Jackson ) , a renegade Watcher who wants to behead MacLeod . In the meantime , MacLeod tells Richie that he is getting married because of the thought of losing Tessa . Tessa holds her ground in front of Wolf and tries to escape , but Wolf brings her back to her cell . MacLeod finally finds them and kills Wolf , then sends Tessa home with Richie . On their way to the car , Tessa and Richie are shot dead by Marc Roszca ( Travis MacDonald ) , a drug addict wanting their money . Richie 's previously unknown immortality is revealed when he returns to life on the spot , but Tessa dies . MacLeod , devastated , leaves their home and sells the antique store .
" Eye For An Eye " ( 1993 ) shows the aftermath of Tessa 's death . MacLeod tells Richie , " She was part of our lives , Richie . Never pretend she wasn 't . " MacLeod also advises Richie to get used to her loss , because it " won 't be the last time it happens to you . " Later , while MacLeod trains Richie roughly so that he can face Immortal Annie Devlin ( Sheena Easton ) , Richie angrily tells MacLeod , " You can 't get past it , Mac . I know . You 've seen a lot of people die . But you had to be the hero , you sent us out to the car that night , you could have been there ... You look me in the eyes and you tell me you don 't blame yourself for her death . " Some time later , MacLeod bitterly tells Devlin , " Nothing you do brings anyone back . Once they 're dead ... nothing . "
In the two @-@ part finale to series two , " Counterfeit " ( 1994 ) , James Horton ( Peter Hudson ) , a renegade Watcher who believes all Immortals must be eliminated , uses killer Lisa Halle ( Meilani Paul ) to try and kill MacLeod . Lisa undergoes plastic surgery to resemble Tessa and therefore is played by Vandernoot from that point on . MacLeod meets Lisa just after he admitted to himself how much he missed Tessa , and he is stunned by her resemblance with Tessa . Despite knowing that Tessa is dead and cannot return , he eagerly pursues a relationship with Lisa . He eventually admits the truth when he discovers a scar on Lisa 's jaw . Horton kills Lisa on Tessa 's grave before being himself killed by MacLeod .
" To Be " and " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) , the series finale , respectively depict MacLeod dreaming of a world in which he was never born . Vandernoot reprises her role as Tessa , this time never having met MacLeod . Tessa leads an unsatisfactory life in which she has a husband and children , but is forced to sacrifice her art and sculpture . In this storyline she has an affair with MacLeod but feels she has betrayed her husband .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Relationship with MacLeod = = =
Tessa , and Kirsch 's character Richie , were designed as MacLeod 's mortal companions and contacts . Tessa and MacLeod are lovers and share deep feelings for each other . Adrian Paul commented that MacLeod spent twelve years with Tessa without wanting another relationship and that " ... she was a very important part of his life " . Vandernoot thought that " ... the relationship between Tessa and MacLeod was very deep because very soon , he told her about himself ( ... ) because he trusted her , and I think trust is a very good definition of their relationship . She trusted him entirely and he trusted her . " Tessa is thus MacLeod 's only mortal lover who knows of his immortality .
However , executive producer Bill Panzer was intrigued by the idea that a mortal would want to spend their life with an Immortal , this choice having several drawbacks . MacLeod does not age , while Tessa is mortal and will age . Despite their mutual wish , they know growing old together is impossible and this uneasy thought " ... haunts them both , sometimes more than others . " As an Immortal , MacLeod is also sterile and Tessa resigns herself to having no children . " The Sea Witch " deals with Tessa 's choice and its impact upon her life . In this episode , Tessa becomes very fond of a four @-@ year @-@ old girl and muses ; " For a while there , just for a few hours ... I felt like she was mine . I liked how it felt . But , she 's not ... I have my own life and it 's more than enough . " Panzer commented that " The Sea Witch " " ... brings forth in a very powerful way what exactly [ Tessa ] ' s giving up to be with MacLeod . "
Tessa occasionally meets MacLeod 's previous Immortal lovers . In " The Lady and the Tiger " , she immediately dislikes Amanda ( played by Elizabeth Gracen ) and the script notes that " ... sparks fly between the two women " . Although she quickly earns Amanda 's respect , Tessa feels like she has to compete with Amanda , while Amanda comments that Tessa is " ... quite refreshing in a gauche sort of way . " Gracen played Amanda 's interaction with Tessa ambiguously and a little flirtatiously . Tessa is usually jealous of MacLeod 's past lovers , but acknowledges in " Saving Grace " that " ... it would take me several lifetimes to find out everything in Duncan 's past . I know there 've been others , but I never thought I would meet one of them . "
In addition , Tessa shares with MacLeod the consequences of his involvement in the Game . She dislikes the Game and would like to escape from it with him , since she fears for his life . According to Vandernoot , Tessa " ... always thought that she [ would ] die before [ MacLeod ] " , but when he told her about the Game during " The Gathering " , " she [ realised ] that he [ could ] be killed " , thus she avoided thinking about it . Another consequence of the Game is that Tessa is sometimes exposed to danger from Immortals who want to use her to pressure MacLeod . Despite being captured by Quince in " The Gathering " , by the time of " Band of Brothers " , she is able to face Grayson : " If you think [ MacLeod ] will stand by , ... you have misjudged him terribly . So you 'd better kill me , now , and be done with it . " Grayson releases her and calls her " ... a remarkable woman , well worth keeping alive . " Consequently , Tessa is fully aware of the risks of their relationship , but stays with MacLeod , explaining in " Eyewitness " that " I know the risks I choose to take ... I stay with you because I want to . I won 't run . I 'm not the little woman and I 'll never be barefoot and pregnant . We all have things to face . This is mine . " However , she finds difficult to deal with her fears when MacLeod leaves to fight another Immortal .
= = = Character traits = = =
Vandernoot found Tessa 's personality " ... very nice , " " very understanding , generous , supportive . " MacLeod appreciates that Tessa always has a way of reminding him of his humanity . In " For Evil 's Sake " , she tells a guilt @-@ ridden MacLeod that " You may be Immortal , but you 're not omnipotent ... The world is not your responsibility . " Tessa often jokes about MacLeod 's immortality , for example telling him in " For Tomorrow We Die " that the last time MacLeod " ... wore a tuxedo was on the deck of the Titanic . "
Tessa is able to empathise with others , feel as they do , think as they do and so become like them . When MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa in " Counterfeit Part Two " , she can show compassion instead of the fear or disgust he expects : " I was just thinking how lonely you must be . Your parents , your friends ... having them all die . " Tessa is a very empathic and understanding character , for example , in " Saving Grace " , she is jealous of MacLeod 's former lover Grace ; however , when MacLeod assures her that he no longer loves Grace , her response is simply that " ... that 's all that need to be said . She 's your friend and she 's been hurt . You 'll help her . I 'd expect you to do no less . "
Furthermore , Tessa demonstrates great courage , for example in " Mountain Men " , where she is abducted by three mountain men led by Immortal Caleb Cole , who wants to marry her . Tessa refuses to submit and spreads doubt among them , resulting in Cole finally killing one of his own men before MacLeod rescues her . Reviewer Rob Lineberger of DVDVerdict.com commented that " ... this episode shows the tough stuff Tessa is made of . " Tessa is a very selfless character , although it has , occasionally , been known to put her into rather sticky situations , for example , in the episode " See No Evil " , Tessa 's friend , Natalie , is attacked by serial killer Michael Tanovsky and Tessa uses herself as bait : " Nobody 's watching over his next victim , Duncan ... and she 's going to die if you and I don 't stop him . " Lineberger commented that " [ in " See No Evil " ] , Tessa gets a taste for how Duncan 's life must feel when she faces the killer . " She hits Tanovsky with her car , telling MacLeod " I thought ridding the world of evil would feel better than this . " Panzer comments that having Tessa stop the killer " ... was kind of an unusual idea [ in television in 1992 ] , and this was the subject of a lot of meetings with [ then @-@ supervising producer ] David Abramowitz , myself and the people from the various networks , domestic and foreign , who were involved . " Tessa has a reputation for speaking frankly and for refusing to tolerate any nonsense . In " Innocent Man " , when MacLeod refuses to take her where an evil Immortal is , she says , " I know why you don 't want me there . You 're afraid that what happened to Lucas [ MacLeod 's friend who has just been beheaded ] could happen to you . " Tessa has no self @-@ pity and " ... doesn 't like euphemisms " . For example , in " For Tomorrow We Die " , MacLeod calls her " contrary by nature " Tessa parks her car without regard to interdictions , can drive a speedboat , is a poor chess player and dislikes war .
= = = Employment and career = = =
Tessa is a prominent professional artist . She organises exhibitions of her works and sells a metallic sculpture to the City of Seacouver to adorn a park . Tessa is often seen making art works and welding large pieces of metal together , drawing or using modelling clay . She is also seen sketching people with whom she has problems . Tessa believes that " ... an artist should never grow complacent . Change is good , " and fears the Paris art critics because " ... they are the worst " .
= = Character concept and development = =
In the script of " The Gathering " , Tessa is described as " ... a beautiful , elegantly casual woman , artist , free spirit , and proprietor of the most unusual antique shop in the city . " The script of the episode " Saving Grace " says that she has grace and style . Tessa is portrayed as a tall , thin woman with blonde hair and blue eyes . Because Highlander : The Series was an international co @-@ production , the producers cast a French @-@ speaking actor to play Tessa . Producer Gary Goodman explained that they wanted someone " ... that would be appealing on a television screen ... in the sense that you were comfortable with her accent and her character " . They chose Belgian actress Alexandra Vandernoot because she " ... was able to be exotic , pretty and not so unfamiliar to an American audience that she was accepted . "
Vandernoot recalled , " I think I was quite close to Tessa , she was very well written , very easy to play and I wish I was like that . I 'm not sure I 'd like that but ... it 's very nice , you know , to play a character with nice feelings and nice emotions . " Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American way of filming series and learn to work fast . She said that filming the series was " ... exhausting but formative " , and that filming in English was " challenging " . Vandernoot , who is a native French speaker , had a dialect coach .
Vandernoot and Paul created a strong on @-@ screen relationship between their characters . David Abramowitz , creative consultant from the second season onwards , said , " When I saw her and Adrian together , I thought that if I died , and there was a Mount Olympus , that the two of them would be standing together with thunderbolts around them . They were god @-@ like . They were so beautiful and had such presence . " Paul said that he was " detached " from the fictional relationship between Tessa and MacLeod , but that " ... it was a good relationship " . Later , he said he " ... was sad to see it go . "
Producer Barry Rosen said , " We were very lucky that [ Vandernoot and Kirsch ] were so human @-@ grounded , so we could really play off of them and the way they looked at things that [ Paul ] went through . They were also able to get into real @-@ life situations , romances , getting in trouble , jealousies and so on . " Although Vandernoot and Kirsch are three years apart in age ( Vandernoot being the older of the two ) , on set Vandernoot treated Kirsch like a young boy , while Kirsch seemed to her like a younger brother because of his youthful appearance .
= = Death = =
In 1993 , Vandernoot wanted to leave the show because shooting Highlander was too demanding and required her to spend several months each year in Canada . Vandernoot also wanted to spend more time with her family . According to Abramowitz , a further , artistic , reason was that " ... a small part of [ Vandernoot ] being a really strong actress wanted to play a more aggressive part in the show and sadly , the nature of the beast was that it couldn 't happen and she made a decision . " Panzer said that creating interesting female characters in the Highlander franchise was often a challenge because the producers found it difficult to " ... have the women be something other than a victim , a hostage , other things when [ one is ] dealing with an immortal hero . " Consequently , the creative staff needed to write Tessa out of the show but were restricted because of the character 's strong relationship with MacLeod . Associate Creative Consultant Gillian Horvath said that , " There was no way ... to have a scene where she said , ' Okay , I 'm going to go to Paris without you . Nice knowing you , MacLeod . ' " The writers decided that the only solution was for Tessa to die , despite Abramowitz 's feeling that her death was " ... sad " and " ... heartbreaking " .
Tessa 's death occurs in the fourth episode of the second season ; " The Darkness " . The creative staff decided Tessa would die in a random carjacking incident . Tessa 's death played no role in the episode 's main storyline . It was not formulaic ; the writers wanted to shock the audience . Abramowitz said that " ... it would have been easier to kill her off in the episode , " but the writers " ... wanted it to be a surprise and show how shocking [ Tessa 's death ] was to [ them ] . " Horvath said that " ... losing a loved one to a random act of violence isn 't something that only happens to television action heroes or Immortals or people in another type of life , it happens in the real world too- totally unexpectedly , at a moment that makes no sense dramatically . " Tessa 's death scene shows MacLeod kneeling next to Tessa and cuddling her , then Richie reviving and speaking with MacLeod .
During the filming of the episode , however , no dialog was recorded . The final version of the episode shown in North America did not show Richie revive . The European version showed Richie reviving , but no dialog was present . This scene was later re @-@ recorded in Paris in 1994 during the filming of the season finale " Counterfeit Part Two " , this time including the dialog . However , this footage was not seen in the final version ; the footage was eventually used in the season four episode " Leader of the Pack " .
= = = Viewers ' reception = = =
" The Darkness " had the desired effect ; Lineberger wrote that " I was taken aback by the dark tone and emotional range generated by this episode . Highlander is a fantasy series , yet I cared about the characters as though I know them ... Vandernoot gave Tessa such vitality and charm that her death left me reeling . " Abramowitz said that Tessa 's death strongly angered many viewers , and that " ... people hated me for killing her . "
The audience became angrier still when in the following episode , " Eye For An Eye " , MacLeod made love to Immortal Annie Devlin . Abramowitz explained the creative decision of his staff by saying that " ... someone once told me that death was an aphrodisiac . It 's a thing that pushes you to life and the greatest thing in life , that 's ' seize life ' , is sex . " Lineberger wrote in his review of " Eye For An Eye " , " This one caused an uproar — one I feel is justified . [ Abramowitz ] gave a defense ( in my opinion a weak one ) ( ... ) I have a high tolerance for insensitive guy stuff , but this got to me . When Duncan rolled into Annie 's arms , part of me smirked in appreciation of Duncan 's magnetic charm . But the rest of me found his actions cruel to the viewers . " Abramowitz confirmed that " ... the fans hated it . And the women wanted to string me up . I was a ' cad ' and a ' card ' ... " Paul also reported an angry reaction from the audience after the seventh episode , " The Return of Amanda " , in which MacLeod sleeps with Amanda .
Tessa 's death was a turning point in Highlander : The Series . It marked the first time that a regular character died in the show ; it would be followed by the deaths of Charlie DeSalvo and Richie Ryan . Horvath recalled that " ... it changed the tone of the show . It made Highlander the show where you couldn 't be positive that the characters were safe because they were in the credits . " Tessa 's death also gave the show a pessimistic tone that influenced the remaining characters . Rosen explained that " ... in the years that followed without her and with [ Kirsch 's character ] becoming Immortal , ( ... ) you had to play the show differently . " Lineberger said that " Richie and Duncan relate to each other differently from now on , and Duncan is bereft of much of his joy [ and ] moodier as well . Tessa is no longer around to lighten him . "
= = = " Counterfeit " = = =
Tessa remained extremely popular with the audience after her death , prompting the producers to develop the season two finale episode " Counterfeit " to bring her back . According to Kirsch , Vandernoot did not realize her , or her character 's , popularity before attending conventions . Paul said that Vandernoot was surprised that her character had so much influence on the show and that her return was " ... fun for her to do , especially to play a different character which was similar to Tessa but also had an evil intent to her . "
The " Counterfeit " story features the character Lisa undergoing plastic surgery to become Tessa 's double . Lisa was played by Meilani Paul before the surgery and by Vandernoot after it . The producers wondered whether the story needed to explain the change in Lisa 's voice , as she would be played by a different actor . They considered suggesting that her voice changed because of the surgery , then decided that Lisa would have voice training . After her operation , Lisa speaks with Vandernoot 's voice when posing as Tessa , and with Meilani Paul 's voice when the character was not acting . This was achieved using automated dialogue replacement during post @-@ production .
Adrian Paul said that Vandernoot portrayed Lisa as a smoker to mark her out as a different character from Tessa . Paul also said that his lovemaking scene with Vandernoot had to reflect the different relationship between MacLeod and Lisa from that between MacLeod and Tessa . According to Paul , Lisa was more like a temptress to MacLeod than was Tessa . According to Panzer , the original script featured Horton sending Lisa to kill MacLeod on the latter 's barge . After reading the draft script , Adrian Paul thought the idea of Lisa trying to kill MacLeod on Tessa 's grave would have a more dramatic effect .
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Panzer said that Tessa became popular with the program 's audience . Rob Lineberger called Tessa " ... beautiful and spirited , " and said that " ... she is the perfect mortal foil for MacLeod 's heavy concerns . She lightens and strengthens him . " Reviewer Abbie Bernstein of the Audio Video Revolution website wrote that Tessa was " ... depicted not as a screechy , in @-@ the @-@ dark Lois Lane but rather as a woman who handles her lover ’ s supernatural aspects with remarkable pragmatism . " Berstein added that Tessa was " estimable " and " ... an unusually gutsy love interest ( not to mention a refreshing sexually active heroine , as opposed to the coy ' sexual tension ' -generating females who usually populate the genre ) . " Other reviewers had a more negative opinion . Reviewer Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD.com " ... found it odd that everyone liked Tessa because [ he ] found her rather annoying . " Reviewer Doug Anderson of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Tessa was " ... too arty and sympathetic to serve any purpose other than an emotional spur for the hero 's vengeance . "
Reviewer David M. Gutierrez , also of DVDVerdict.com , noted the " ... strong on @-@ screen chemistry between Tessa and MacLeod . " So did Lineberger : " One gets the feeling they have been together for years , though the series is fresh out of the box , " and he added , " Together , they are a model couple . They have healthy banter , intense arguments , plenty of romance , and an easy comfort with each other . " Bernstein wrote ; " Paul and Vandernoot are charming separately and together " . Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post wrote that " Paul and Vandernoot don 't look like typical American TV @-@ style bimbos and hunks , and for good reason . They were cast to appeal internationally . "
Discussing Vandernoot 's performance , Lineberger called her a " ... gifted actor " , saying that " ... she has the poise , restraint , and grace to be both sensual and frustrated , accomplished yet vulnerable , mortal but aware of greater concerns . " John Goff of Variety noted that Vandernoot was " attractive " and Anderson called her a " ... Michelle Pfeiffer look @-@ alike . "
Reviewing the episode " Counterfeit " , Gutierrez wrote that " ... despite the fact that the having an exact twin of Tessa 's pop up is flatly ludicrous , it plays out due to MacLeod 's desire to have Tessa back overriding his sense of reason . ( ... ) Vandernoot likes the Tessa character quite a bit and gave me the impression she was sad to see her go , " and that she " ... looks like she enjoys playing the good / bad Lisa . Her triple performance as Tessa shows Vandernoot 's range . " Kathie Huddleston of Scifi.com felt that " ... a visit from Tessa in " Counterfeit " , even an evil Tessa look @-@ alike , is a welcome nod to a significant character from the first season , and it gave our boy Duncan a moment or two to reflect on his recent lost love . "
= M @-@ 5 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 5 , commonly referred to as Grand River Avenue and the northern section as the Haggerty Connector , is a 20 @.@ 807 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 33 @.@ 486 km ) state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs through suburbs in Oakland and Wayne counties in addition to part of Detroit itself . It starts in Commerce Township as a north – south divided highway and freeway called the Haggerty Connector and connects with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) in Novi . The freeway then turns southeasterly to bypass the suburb of Farmington as an east – west highway . The freeway ends on the southeast side of Farmington , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River Avenue as boulevard into Detroit . The eastern terminus is at an interchange with I @-@ 96 in Detroit . The trunkline passes between suburban residential subdivisions and along urban commercial areas while serving 17 @,@ 200 – 68 @,@ 800 vehicles on average each day .
Grand River Avenue started as the path of an early wagon trail in the Michigan Territory , carrying settlers from Detroit inland along a route previously used by Native Americans . It was later a plank road that helped to connect Detroit with the state capital of Lansing and Grand Rapids . When the state highway system was signed in 1919 , the avenue was numbered as part of M @-@ 16 . Later it became US Highway 16 ( US 16 ) . Grand River Avenue was supposed to be the path for I @-@ 96 from Novi into downtown Detroit , and a section of freeway now used by M @-@ 5 was constructed as part of I @-@ 96 before the Interstate was rerouted to a different location . In the 1990s another section of freeway , which was originally proposed for a northern extension of I @-@ 275 , was opened . This freeway called the Haggerty Connector was added to M @-@ 5 . Additional projects have extended the highway farther north and added a roundabout to the northern terminus . A different highway was previously designated M @-@ 5 in another area of the state in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 5 starts at a roundabout intersection with Pontiac Trail in Commerce Township . It runs south @-@ southwesterly from here in Oakland County as a divided highway between suburban residential subdivisions in the township . South of Maple Road , the highway is bordered by commercial developments to the east and Long Park to the west as it angles southeasterly . Between 14 and 13 Mile roads , the highway is once again bounded by subdivisions . Along this part of the trunkline , access to the road is limited to major intersections only , making the highway an expressway . Immediately south of the 13 Mile Road intersection , M @-@ 5 's median widens out as the highway transitions to a full freeway called the Haggerty Connector . Traffic can only access the highway at grade @-@ separated interchanges instead of at @-@ grade intersections . A collector @-@ distributor lane setup parallels the main freeway lanes proving access to the ramps at the 12 Mile Road interchange as well as ramps from the massive interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 275 and I @-@ 696 . Through this interchange complex that straddles the Novi – Farmington Hills city line , M @-@ 5 turns to the southeast , and signage changes direction . The Haggerty Connector is signed north – south , while the rest of M @-@ 5 is signed east – west . M @-@ 5 has direct connections with ramps to I @-@ 696 and I @-@ 96 east / I @-@ 275 south as it crosses over into Farmington Hills .
The next interchange for the M @-@ 5 freeway connects to Grand River Avenue and 10 Mile Road . This section of the freeway bypasses residential areas of Farmington Hills . Further east , M @-@ 5 crosses into Farmington where it bypasses the downtown area of the suburb . Past 9 Mile Road , the freeway ends at the intersection with Grand River Avenue , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River southeasterly as a boulevard , a type of divided street . Traffic that wishes to make left turns must use a Michigan left maneuver along this section of the highway . Additionally , traffic that needs to change sides of the street must use crossovers in the median to perform a U @-@ turn . Once again running through suburban Farmington Hills , the trunkline passes Botsford Hospital before intersecting 8 Mile Road . This intersection marks the place where M @-@ 5 crosses into Wayne County , and the western terminus of the M @-@ 102 designation on 8 Mile Road . Grand River Avenue runs through the northern section of Redford Township in Wayne County and crosses into Detroit at the intersection with 7 Mile Road and 5 Points Street .
The northwest corner of Detroit is mostly residential as M @-@ 5 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . Past Telegraph , Grand River Avenue forms the northern boundary of the Grand Lawn Cemetery and later the southern boundary of the New Rogell Golf Course . The properties bordering M @-@ 5 transition to commercial use past these two green spaces , and the highway continues southeasterly through the city as an undivided street . Grand River Avenue intersects Outer Drive near several businesses . M @-@ 5 crosses over M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) near the intersection with Fenkell Street , which would be 5 Mile Road in the Detroit grid system . The residential areas off the adjacent side streets increase in density east of the Southfield Freeway . M @-@ 5 ends at the interchange with I @-@ 96 between Schoolcraft and Plymouth roads in the middle of another larger commercial zone ; Grand River Avenue continues from this location as an unsigned highway numbered internally as OLD BS I @-@ 96 all the way into downtown .
M @-@ 5 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 5 were the 68 @,@ 793 vehicles daily between 12 and 13 Mile roads ; the lowest counts were the 17 @,@ 176 vehicles per day southeast of Schoolcraft Road to I @-@ 96 . All of M @-@ 5 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The trunkline is six- or eight @-@ lanes wide along the freeway section to the north and west of the Grand River Avenue interchange ; south and east of there it is a four @-@ lane freeway or six @-@ lane highway all the way to I @-@ 96 .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
Starting in 1933 , M @-@ 5 was used as the designation along a section of highway that was previously part of US 2 in Mackinac and Chippewa counties in the Upper Peninsula . This designation was in use until 1939 when it was replaced by M @-@ 129 .
= = = Current designation = = =
= = = = Grand River Avenue = = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the Grand River Trail was one of these thirteen trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , Grand River Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . A ten @-@ year project to construct a plank road between Detroit and Howell was authorized in 1820 along the Grand River Trail . Grand River Avenue was included as one of Five Great Military Roads in 1825 , along with the River Road , Michigan Avenue , Woodward Avenue and Gratiot Avenue . The Grand River Road , precursor to the modern Grand River Avenue was named by Benjamin Williams , cofounder of Owosso ; it was named for La Grande Riviere , the French name for the river .
The opening of the Erie Canal in New York in 1826 brought new settlers to the Great Lakes region , and to the future state of Michigan . Many of these settlers began their inland journeys in Detroit . At first the Grand River Road was a " deep rutted , ditch bordered road " . The Grand River Road was a major route for settlers headed inland to Grand Rapids in 1836 , as the shortest route for travelers coming from Detroit .
In 1850 , the Michigan State Legislature established the Lansing and Howell Plank Road Company , which set about converting various Indian trails into the Lansing – Howell Plank Road , a task the company completed by 1853 . At Howell the road connected with the Detroit – Howell Plank Road , establishing the first improved connection direct from the state capital to Michigan 's largest metropolis . The Lansing – Detroit Plank Road was a toll road until the 1880s . It eventually evolved into the eastern part of the modern Grand River Avenue .
By 1900 , only a short stretch of the Detroit – Howell Plank Road was still make of planks ; most of the other plank roads had been converted to gravel by this time . When the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had numbered and signed highways in the state in 1919 , it applied the M @-@ 16 number to Grand River Avenue across the state between Grand Haven and Detroit .
The M @-@ 16 designation lasted for seven years . As the states were meeting with the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO , now AASHTO ) to plan the United States Numbered Highway System , the route of M @-@ 16 was originally planned to be included in US 18 . When the system was announced on November 11 , 1926 , Grand River Avenue and M @-@ 16 became part of US 16 . The first change to the US 16 routing in the Detroit area was made in 1933 when the highway was moved to bypass Farmington , with the old routing retained as a state highway .
= = = = Metro Detroit freeways = = = =
MSHD had plans to upgrade the US 16 corridor to freeway standards in the middle of the 20th century . The first planning map in 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System showed a highway in the corridor . The General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , or Yellow Book after the cover color , showed generalized plans for the locations of Interstate Highways as designated in 1955 . This also included a highway in the US 16 corridor . The 1957 approval for the Interstate Highway System replaced much of US 16 with a portion of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . MSHD submitted a recommended numbering plan for the Interstates in 1958 that showed I @-@ 96 following the US 16 corridor .
The segments of the road between Brighton and Farmington were upgraded in 1956 . The MSHD initially signed the various freeways as Interstates in 1959 , and US 16 through the Farmington area gained the additional I @-@ 96 numbering . Two years later , the business route through Farmington was redesignated as a business loop of I @-@ 96 instead of US 16 . The final connection for I @-@ 96 between Lansing and Brighton was completed in late 1962 , and the US 16 designation was decommissioned in the state . The sections of highway through the Detroit metro area were given Business Loop ( BL ) or Business Spur ( BS ) I @-@ 96 designations .
When I @-@ 96 was completed in 1977 , several highway designations were shifted in the Metro Detroit area . The BS I @-@ 96 designation was removed from Grand River Avenue . Rather than revert to its original number , M @-@ 16 , MDOT selected M @-@ 5 as the new highway designation . Grand River was signed as M @-@ 5 between 8 Mile Road and its present eastern terminus at I @-@ 96 while leaving Grand River Avenue southeast of I @-@ 96 an unsigned state trunkline , OLD BS I @-@ 96 . Both the portion of BS I @-@ 96 north of 8 Mile Road and the stub of I @-@ 96 that continued out to I @-@ 275 became part of M @-@ 102 .
= = = = Haggerty Connector = = = =
A freeway running north of Novi to the Davisburg area was included in the original Interstate Highway plans for Michigan . Originally included in the corridor for I @-@ 275 , the Michigan Highway Commission canceled the northern section of the highway on January 26 , 1977 , after it spent $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 65 million in 2016 ) the year before purchasing land for the roadway . This northern section was not planned as an Interstate Highway at that time , bearing the designation M @-@ 275 instead . Opposition to construction came from various citizen 's groups and different levels of local government . Additionally , both The Detroit News and Detroit Free Press opposed the project . The Detroit City Council , led by then @-@ Chairman Carl Levin opposed the plan . Levin said at the time , " At last I think people are waking up to the dangers of more and more expressways . At some point we 've got to say enough . And I think we 've reached it . " The US Department of the Interior reviewed the state 's environmental impact study of the project and stated the project , " will cause irreparable damages on recreation lands , wetlands , surface waters and wildlife habitat . " The total project to link Farmington Hills with Davisburg with the 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) freeway would have cost $ 69 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 271 million in 2016 ) and saved drivers an estimated eight minutes off travel time around the city of Detroit .
After many years of inactivity , further work began along this same route , but the resulting highway was designated as a northern extension to M @-@ 5 rather than I @-@ 275 or M @-@ 275 . The first section of this freeway extension was opened in October 1994 . This extended the route from M @-@ 5 's previous terminus at M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) over the latter highway 's alignment west and north to 12 Mile Road . A plan enacted by then Governor John Engler in 1995 angered road officials when funding was diverted from county road commissions to help complete state highway projects like the M @-@ 5 Haggerty Connector project . In 1999 , a second extension of M @-@ 5 was completed to 14 Mile Road , but only as an expressway . The final two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) between 14 Mile Road and Pontiac Trail opened to traffic on November 1 , 2002 . In 2011 , a roundabout was placed at the northern terminus of M @-@ 5 . This last project also included a northern extension of roadway into the Eldorado Golf Course in Commerce Township to better serve the community . This extension does not carry the M @-@ 5 designation .
= = Exit list = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= McAllister Tower Apartments =
McAllister Tower Apartments is a 28 @-@ story , 94 m ( 308 ft ) residential apartment skyscraper at 100 McAllister Street in San Francisco , California . The property is owned and operated by the University of California , Hastings College of the Law . The tower includes mixed @-@ use offices on various floors , and the Art Deco @-@ styled " Sky Room " with a panoramic view on the 24th floor .
Conceived as an unusual combination of a large church surmounted by a hotel , construction of the building brought architectural dispute . Initially designed by Timothy L. Pflueger in the style of Gothic Revival , the investors fired his firm and hired Lewis P. Hobart , who changed little of Pflueger 's design . In a resulting lawsuit , Pflueger won nearly half the damages he asked for . The building opened in 1930 as the William Taylor Hotel and Temple Methodist Episcopal Church . However , extra construction expenses had put the congregation at greater financial risk , and the church @-@ hotel concept did not prove popular . No profit was made in six years , and the church left , losing their investment . In the late 1930s the building housed the Empire Hotel , known for its Sky Room lounge , then from World War II to the 1970s , 100 McAllister served as U.S. government offices .
Reopening as university housing and offices in 1981 , McAllister Tower is home to some 300 law students and their families . " The Tower " is sited one block from the administrative and scholastic center of Hastings College of the Law , and is the most prominent building in the district .
= = History = =
= = = Church and hotel = = =
The skyscraper at 100 McAllister began in 1920 with a plan formulated by Reverend Walter John Sherman to merge four of the largest Methodist Episcopal congregations in San Francisco , sell their various churches and properties and combine their assets to build a " superchurch " with a hotel on top of it . From their initial $ 800 @,@ 000 they bought property at McAllister and Leavenworth streets and hired the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger to design the edifice . Timothy L. Pflueger was chosen as the designer . The new hotel , intended to be " dry " ( serving no alcoholic beverages ) in the " sinful " city , was to be named after William Taylor , a Methodist Episcopal street preacher and missionary who formed the first Methodist church in San Francisco . The large church was named Temple Methodist Episcopal Church , or simply " Temple Methodist " .
Beginning in 1925 , Pflueger designed a 308 ft ( 94 m ) , 28 @-@ story , step @-@ back skyscraper made of brick framed with steel , along the lines of his just @-@ completed Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company Building . Its main decorative theme was neo @-@ Gothic , expressed strongly in the three Gothic arches which formed the main street @-@ level entrance for the church . The Great Hall , the large worship area located within the second , third and fourth floors was to seat 1 @,@ 500 churchgoers and a smaller chapel was designed for 125 more . A grand pipe organ from Skinner Organ Company was installed with four manuals controlling 3 @,@ 881 pipes . A stained glass window was placed 80 feet above the sanctuary , representing Faith , Love and Hope in three tall , narrow panels . Two assembly halls could be combined to hold 1 @,@ 100 attendees for theatrical or athletic events . Some 500 guest rooms and 32 tower apartments were intended to bring a steady flow of visitors and a source of profit to the church . Though never the tallest building in San Francisco , it was to be the tallest hotel on the Pacific Coast for many decades .
In a dispute , the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger was fired from the project , and was replaced by Lewis P. Hobart . Miller and Pflueger sued for $ 81 @,@ 600 , alleging that Hobart 's design was little changed from Pflueger 's original . Three months after the hotel and church opened in January 1930 , Miller and Pflueger won $ 38 @,@ 000 in a favorable court decision .
Dedication of the church 's pipe organ took place August 31 , 1930 . The combined congregation was very satisfied with their new place of worship .
Eventually costing US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ( $ 40 million in current value ) , the building 's completion required several rounds of new financing from its investors in order to overcome unanticipated expenses . Unfortunately for the congregation , the idea of a hotel above a church didn 't attract the requisite number of guests and the venture failed to turn a profit .
From 1990 through 2001 , the church housed the theater of George Coates Performance Works – an experimental multi @-@ media theater troupe that utilized the 60 foot high vaulted ceiling for projections .
= = = Empire Hotel = = =
By November 1936 , enough debt had accumulated that a bondholder 's protective committee foreclosed on the property , buying it back for $ 750 @,@ 000 . The Temple Methodist congregation lost its investment and was asked to leave . The Skinner Opus pipe organ was removed to be sold to Occidental College in Los Angeles and rebuilt in their Thorne Hall . The three @-@ piece stained glass window was removed and exhibited , eventually making its way to Stockton , California where it was installed in the Morris Chapel at the University of the Pacific . The 100 McAllister building itself was refurbished : the church 's floor area was given over to parking , a coffee shop was built in part of the first floor lobby and the new enterprise opened again as the Empire Hotel , noted for completing , in 1938 , the first view lounge in the area , the Sky Room on the 24th floor . With plush carpeting , a large Art Deco @-@ style oval bar , and plate glass windows on all sides , the Sky Room provided a panoramic view of the city . Architect & Engineer wrote of the luxurious bar in April , 1938 , that it " has no prototype west of New York " , referring to Manhattan 's Rainbow Room which opened three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years earlier .
= = = Federal offices = = =
At the beginning of direct American involvement in World War II , the U.S. government bought the building and converted it to federal offices , officer billets , spaces used by the Army 's Ordnance Procurement department , a passport agency and an induction center run by the local draft board . The high vaulted ceiling of the Great Hall worship center was hidden by a dropped ceiling . After the war , the Internal Revenue Service moved offices into the building .
Many federal groups at 100 McAllister moved their offices in 1959 – 1960 to the newly built federal building at 450 Golden Gate Avenue , later named the Phillip Burton Federal Building . Occupancy at 100 McAllister was low , though the United States Army Corps of Engineers moved their San Francisco District offices there in the 1960s , and local draftees were still required to appear there through the late 1960s . The San Francisco Selective Service System offices were located in the lower floors of the building during the Vietnam War .
= = = UC Hastings = = =
In 1978 , the University of California , Hastings College of the Law bought the building , the most prominent in the Tenderloin district , and began two years of refurbishment and redesign . Calling it " McAllister Tower " , 248 units were modernized for residential use by law students , and the building opened in 1981 with a combination of compact studio units as well as larger one- and two @-@ bedroom apartments taking up a total of 17 floors . The building , home to about 300 law students and their families , is casually referred to as " the Tower " by Hastings residents and faculty , who have but a one @-@ block commute to the law school 's main building at 200 McAllister .
The old Sky Room with its spectacular 360 @-@ degree view reopened in 1999 as the James Edgar Hervey Skyroom , in honor of alumnus James Edgar Hervey , Class of 1950 , a prominent San Diego trial lawyer . It is used as a space for student study by day ( no alcohol allowed ) and is available for special events in the evenings . Other floors of the building hold offices , apartments and residential conveniences . The mezzanine level contains a compact fitness center , the third and fourth floors contain classrooms and offices for political action groups and legal assistance organizations , and the 22nd and 23rd floors hold publishing headquarters for a number of scholarly journals .
The Great Hall remains un @-@ refurbished and has been judged by UC Hastings to be in need of substantial repair and improvement , including major architectural engineering work . The college has plans to create a 400 @-@ seat performing arts venue within the Great Hall .
= Karamokho Alfa =
Karamokho Alfa ( born Ibrahima Musa Sambeghu and sometimes called Alfa Ibrahim ) ( died c . 1751 ) was a Fula religious leader who led a jihad that created the Imamate of Futa Jallon in what is now Guinea . This was one of the first of the Fulbe jihads that established Muslim states in West Africa .
Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 @-@ 1727 . After a crucial , concluding victory at Talansan , the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . Under his leadership , Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe . Despite this , Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama . Some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo ; for this reason the new state was always a tenuous confederation . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader . Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin .
= = Background = =
The Futa Jallon is the highland region where the Senegal and Gambia rivers rise . In the fifteenth century the valleys were occupied by Mandé peoples - Susu and Yalunka farmers . Around that time , Fulbe herders began moving into the region , grazing their livestock on the plateaux . At first they peacefully accepted a subordinate position to the Susu and Yalunka . The Fulbe and Mandé peoples intermixed to some extent , and the more sedentary of the Fulbe came to look down on their pastoral cousins .
Europeans began to establish trading posts on the upper Guinea coast in the seventeenth century , stimulating a growing trade in hides and slaves . The pastoral Fulbe expanded their herds to meet the demand for hides . They began to compete for land with the agriculturalists , and became interested in the profitable slave trade . They were increasingly influenced by their Muslim trading partners .
In the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Zawāyā reformer Nasir al @-@ Din launched a jihad to restore purity of religious observance in the Futa Toro region to the north . He gained support from the Torodbe clerical clan against the warriors , but by 1677 the movement had been defeated . Some of the Torodbe migrated south to Bundu and some continued on to the Futa Jallon . The Torodbe , the kinsmen of the Fulbe of the Futa Jallon , influenced them in embracing a more militant form of Islam .
= = Jihad = =
Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 or 1727 . The movement was primarily religious , and its leaders included both Mandé and Fulbe marabouts . The jihad also attracted some formerly non @-@ Muslim Fulbe , who associated it not just with Islam but with freedom of the Fulbe from subordination to the Mandé peoples . It was opposed by other non @-@ Muslim Fulbe and by non @-@ Muslim Yalunka leaders .
According to tradition , Ibrahim Sori symbolically launched the war in 1727 by destroying the great ceremonial drum of the Yalunka people with his sword . The jihadists then won a major victory at Talansan . A force of 99 Muslims defeated a non @-@ Muslim force ten times greater , killing many of their opponents . After this victory the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . He took the title almami , or " the Imam " . Under his leadership Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe .
Karamoko Alfa managed to enlist disadvantaged groups such as gangs of young men , outlaws and slaves . Karamokho Alfa 's maternal cousin was Maka Jiba , the ruler of Bundu , and both men studied in Fugumba under the famous scholar Tierno Samba . However , there are no records of Bundu participation in the Futa Jallon jihad , perhaps because of the internal troubles in Bundu at that time , or perhaps because Maka Jiba was not greatly interested in the cause . Although he was an inspired religious leader , Karamoko Alfa was not qualified as a military leader . Ibrahim Sori took this role . Some of the population resisted conversion for many years , particularly the nomadic Fulbe herders . They rightly feared that the marabouts would abuse their authority .
= = Ruler = =
Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama , each of whom ruled their own province , or diwal . The structure of the new Fulbe state had an almami at its head , Karamokho Alfa being the first , with his political capital at Timbo . However , some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo . The religious capital was at Fugumba , where the council of the alama sat . The council operated as a strong curb on the power of the almami , and the ulama retained much autonomy , so the new state was always a loose federation .
Karamokho Alfa was known for his Islamic scholarship and piety . He respected the rights of the old " masters of the soil " , saying " it was Allah who had established them . " Despite this ruling , the imams reserved the right to reassign land , since they held it in trust for the people . In effect the existing property owners were not displaced , but now had to pay Zakāt as a form of rent . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader .
= = Legacy = =
Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin . Ibrahim Sori Mawdo was chosen because Alfa Saadibu , son of Karamoko Alfa , was too young . Ibrahim Sori was an aggressive military commander who initiated a series of wars . After many years of conflict , Ibrahim Sori achieved a decisive victory in 1776 that consolidated the power of the Fulbe state . The jihad had achieved its goals and Ibrahim Sori assumed the title of almami .
Under Ibrahima Sori slaves were sold to obtain munitions needed for the wars . This was considered acceptable as long as the slaves were not Muslim . The jihad created a valuable supply of slaves from the defeated peoples that may have provided a motive for further conquests . The Fulbe ruling class became wealthy slave owners and slave traders . Slave villages were founded , whose inhabitants provided food for their Fulba masters to consume or sell . At one time more than half the population were slaves . As of 2013 the Fulbe were the largest ethnic group in Guinea at 40 % of the population , after the Malinke ( 30 % ) and Susu ( 20 % ) .
The jihad in Futa Jallon was followed by a jihad in Futa Toro between 1769 and 1776 led by Sileymaani Baal . The largest of the Fulani jihads was led by the scholar Usman dan Fodio and established the Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 , stretching across what is now the north of Nigeria . The Fulbe Muslim state of Masina was established to the south of Timbuktu in 1818 .
Karamokho Alfa came to be thought of as a saint . A story is told of a miracle that occurred more than a hundred years after his death . The chief of the Ouassoulounké , Kondé Buraima , opened Karamokho Alfa 's tomb and cut off the left hand of the body . Blood poured from the severed wrist , causing Kondé Buraima to flee in terror .
= Murder of Tom ap Rhys Pryce =
Thomas Mervyn " Tom " ap Rhys Pryce ( 13 October 1974 – 12 January 2006 ) was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old British lawyer who was robbed and murdered by two black teenagers as he made his way home in Kensal Green , northwest London , on 12 January 2006 . The two , Donnel Carty and Delano Brown , showed little or no remorse and were sentenced to life imprisonment .
The crime gained national notoriety for the particularly brutal way in which Pryce was murdered , only metres from his own home , and had only his Oyster card and mobile phone taken from him , but no money ( the case being widely reported as an example of steaming ) . The murderers were later tracked down when the police examined CCTV footage of where the Oyster card was used after the murder . The crime caused a political uproar and condemnation of railway station security . The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust was set up after the murder , and a school was built in his honour .
= = Life of Tom ap Rhys Pryce = =
Tom ap Rhys Pryce was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer who worked for Linklaters , a leading London corporate law firm . Pryce was born in Broxbourne , Hertfordshire , England . At the age of three , the Pryce family moved to Somalia after Pryce 's father , John , a civil engineer , was sent to work there as part of a project to build a sugar factory , there he " enjoyed an idyllic early childhood " . After 18 months they returned home to Hertfordshire before moving in 1980 to the family home in Weybridge where Tom grew up . His ancestry was one well known within the military and among his ancestors was his great @-@ grandfather , General Sir Henry Edward ap Rhys Pryce ( 1874 – 1950 ) . At 13 , Tom won an academic and music exhibition which was later upgraded to a full scholarship at 16 to attend Marlborough College , Wiltshire , England .
There he achieved passes at A @-@ levels in Greek , Latin and English Literature , with three grade As . From there Pryce went on to gain a First @-@ Class honours at Trinity College , Cambridge in June 1996 , where he read Classics staying on to study for a masters . Pryce was also known to be a talented musician and lived on Bathurst Gardens , Kensal Green in a flat which he shared with his fiancée Adele Eastman , 31 , a solicitor specialising in employment law with Farrer & Co , the Queen 's solicitors .
= = Events of 12 January 2006 = =
Childhood friends , Donnel Carty , 18 , and Delano Brown , 17 , had earlier that evening robbed chef Kurshid Ali , a middle @-@ aged man in Kensal Green station , 20 minutes before Pryce arrived at the station on his way home from work . Pryce was walking from Kensal Green Tube station at about 2300 to 2330 GMT , when he was attacked . According to witness reports , Pryce was running along Bathurst Gardens from two black youths . According to testimony from Delano Brown , Donnel Carty stabbed Pryce after they had chased him from Kensal Green Tube station where police found a trail of blood and belongings , including a pair of gloves and papers regarding Pryce 's wedding arrangements . As the youths chased Pryce , Carty " fly @-@ kicked " him in the back and he dropped to the floor . As Pryce attempted to stand up , Carty kicked him in the face . Trying to get away , Pryce began to fight Carty , as Carty stopped him . Some time during this Pryce was stabbed twice in the chest and once in the hip , the wounds penetrating vital organs including his heart . He also suffered cuts to his head , hands and torso . As Pryce 's belongings lay scattered around him , Carty and Brown took Pryce 's mobile phone and Oyster card , the only possessions of value Pryce was carrying . Carty then shouted ' What else have you got ? ' to which Pryce responded ' Nothing . You have got everything ' . Carty and Brown then ran off towards Clifford Gardens , heading to Carty 's home leaving Pryce dying on the ground . Pryce was later taken to Central Middlesex Hospital , where he was confirmed dead shortly after midnight .
The scene of the crime which took place along Bathurst Gardens showed the course of events of the violent confrontation . Pryce 's book and gloves were lying outside No 56 , a silver Audi car was smeared with blood outside No 82 and a list of wedding venues outside 84 . Pryce was found collapsed in the gutter between parked cars outside No 90 .
= = Donnel Carty and Delano Brown = =
Carty and Brown were , according to Brown , childhood friends who thought of each other as cousins . Carty lived with his grandparents in Burrows Road , Kensal Green , and Brown lived with his mother in Rosebank Avenue , Sudbury , northwest London . Carty had one conviction for assaulting a police officer when he was 16 years old , and a caution for possessing cannabis . Brown had no previous convictions . The pair were members of a violent gang calling itself the KG Tribe , taking part in the unlawful wounding of two commuters in December 2005 as well as other robberies . At the time of the murder of Pryce , Carty and Brown were 18 and 17 respectively .
When both men were arrested on 18 January , Carty said he was innocent of the allegations and claimed he had been in a pub in Kilburn with relatives and friends , and stayed the night at a relative 's house . When police searched his home , they found a pair of trainers that forensic tests showed had a drop of ap Rhys Pryce 's blood on one toe . DNA from several people , including Brown , were found on the trainers . Officers also found a top with traces of Brown 's DNA , and fibres found on Pryce 's overcoat were microscopically indistinguishable from the material of that top . Brown also said he had been in Kilburn the night of the murder and initially claimed that he had nothing to do with either the robbery of the other man or the robbery and murder of Pryce . When the mobile phone of the other victim ( Ali ) was discovered at his home , he claimed he had bought it from two men . Detectives also found that Brown had hoarded press cuttings of Pryce .
= = Trial of Carty and Brown = =
Police caught Carty through CCTV footage which showed him using Pryce 's Oyster Card ( which he claimed to have found ) at Kensal Green station , forensic evidence found at the homes of Carty and Brown , and Pryce 's mobile phone . Carty and Brown both denied murder but admitted that they had robbed Pryce and another man just before . Brown was 17 at the time of the offence so initially could not be named for legal reasons .
The trial of the two defendants opened on 30 October 2006 at the Central Criminal Court before Mr Justice Aikens and a jury . Throughout the trial Brown declared that it was Carty who had stabbed Pryce and that it had simply been a ' robbery gone bad ' . This led to an alleged attack on Brown by three youths at Feltham Young Offender Institution during the trial , in which his attackers reportedly said : " You are snitching on your co @-@ d ( co @-@ defendant ) . " Carty denied any involvement in the incident , claiming it had been the result of an argument Brown had with the youths earlier . On 27 November 2006 , Carty and Brown were convicted of murder . Carty and Brown reacted calmly to the guilty verdicts , turning to each other , shaking hands and embracing .
On 28 November 2006 , both men were sentenced to life imprisonment . The minimum termed for Carty was fixed at 21 years , and that for 18 @-@ year @-@ old Brown at 17 years . The trial judge said he could not tell who wielded the knife but considered both defendants equally guilty . Both sentences were referred to the Court of Appeal ( Criminal Division ) as " unduly lenient " by Her Majesty 's Attorney General , Lord Goldsmith QC . That court , constituted by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers , Mr Justice Henriques and Mr Justice Teare , increased Brown 's minimum term to 20 years , although it did not interfere with the sentence imposed upon Carty .
= = Reaction = =
The then Prime Minister Tony Blair 's immediate response to the murder was to pledge the investigation of public safety at the station close to where Pryce was murdered , Kensal Green Station , and this was later improved .
David Cameron criticised the Labour Government 's criminal justice system and the absence of father @-@ figures in ethnic minority cultures , which he claimed as causes in the murder of Pryce . Cameron stated that lack of strong deterrent sentences for knife crimes and the failure of police to stop prolific criminals had played a role in the killing of Pryce . He insisted that parental background had a key role in preventing crime and called for zero tolerance of knife crime , claiming that not enough criminals were being sent to jail .
In January 2006 the Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair created considerable controversy when he described the media as institutionally racist . This accusation had also been levelled at the police for the allegedly unbalanced coverage of black @-@ on @-@ white crimes , such as this murder , as compared to that given to crimes against ethnic minorities . The example Blair cited was that of Balbir Mathura , an Asian man murdered on the same day as Pryce . Mathura was run over and dragged almost 44 yards ( 40 m ) by a car driven by thieves he had disturbed as they broke | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
years . In Dubai , Federer successfully defended his title with a straight @-@ set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final , marking his seventh title at the tournament and , after Wimbledon and Halle , was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament . In addition , Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9 @,@ 000 career aces . In March , he reached the final of the Indian Wells , but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic .
Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay @-@ court tournament , ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open . Federer made it to the finals of the Italian Open in May. but was unable to win his first title there , losing to Djokovic in the final .
As the new expanded grass season began , Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times . Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed . He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic . Federer lost the match in four sets .
He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cinicinnati Masters for the seventh time . This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top 2 players in the world at the same tournament . At the US Open , he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set , including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals . In the final , he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets . At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel , Federer won his sixth singles title of the year , and his 88th ATP title , defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final . It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament .
In December , Federer announced that he headed into the 2016 ATP World Tour season with a new @-@ look coaching team , after announcing that Stefan Edberg would not be traveling with him next year . While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer ’ s head coach , joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world No. 3 player Ivan Ljubicic . The Swiss tennis player revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014 , but agreed to stay on in 2015 .
= = = 2016 : Knee surgery and back problems , long injury break = = =
Federer started his season by participating in the Brisbane International as the defending champion , despite having a flu when the tournament started . However , in a rematch of the previous year final , he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets . Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets . The day after his loss to Djokovic , Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February , he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam and Dubai in February and in Indian Wells in March . He was scheduled to return to action in Miami . Due to a stomach flu he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines . He did however , make his comeback at the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters with straight set wins over Guillermo García @-@ López and Roberto Bautista Agut before losing in the quarterfinals to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in three sets . Federer then announced that he would be entering the Madrid Open . However , he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving . Although the season had been plagued with injuries , Federer regained the # 2 ranking in the world for a brief moment following Madrid . He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d 'Italia where he defeated Alexander Zverev in straight sets , but lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem . He subsequently missed the Madrid Open , before withdrawing from the French Open , breaking a run of 65 consecutive participations in the main @-@ draw of Grand Slam tournaments , stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open . On 6 July , he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals , equalling Jimmy Connors ' all @-@ time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins . He suffered his first ever defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later , in five set loss to Raonic .
On 26 July , Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Federer vs. Nadal = = =
Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004 , and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers .
They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009 , when Nadal fell to world No. 3 ( Andy Murray became the new No. 2 ) . They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top . Federer was ranked No. 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004 . Nadal , who is five years younger , ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks , before surpassing Federer in August 2008 .
Nadal leads their head @-@ to @-@ head 23 – 11 . Of their 34 matches , 15 have been on clay , which is by far Nadal 's best surface . Federer has a winning record on grass ( 2 – 1 ) and indoor hard courts ( 5 – 1 ) , while Nadal leads the outdoor hard courts ( 8 – 2 ) and clay ( 13 – 2 ) . Because tournament seedings are based on rankings , 21 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all @-@ time record eight Grand Slam finals . From 2006 to 2008 , they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final . They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final and the 2011 French Open final . Nadal won six of the eight , losing the first two Wimbledon finals . Three of these finals were five set @-@ matches ( 2007 and 2008 Wimbledon , 2009 Australian Open ) , with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long @-@ time tennis analysts . Of their 34 meetings , 12 have reached a deciding set . They have also played in 10 Masters Series finals , including their lone five @-@ hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth @-@ set tie @-@ break , having saved two match points .
= = = Federer vs. Djokovic = = =
Federer and Djokovic have met 45 times with Djokovic leading 23 – 22 wins . They are tied 17 – 17 on hard @-@ courts and 4 – 4 on clay while Djokovic leads 2 – 1 on grass . The Federer – Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men 's Grand Slam tournament history with a record 15 matches played against each other with Djokovic leading 9 – 6 . Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments ( 2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open , also 2015 Wimbledon , US Open and 2016 Australian Open ) , and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double @-@ figure career wins over Federer . Djokovic is one of two players ( the other again being Nadal ) currently on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event ( 2008 Australian Open , 2011 Australian Open , 2012 French Open ) and the only player to do so three times . Of their 45 meetings , 15 have reached a deciding set .
Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three @-@ time reigning champion and world No. 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets . Federer ended Djokovic 's perfect 41 – 0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open , but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year . In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012 , Federer beat defending champion and world No. 1 Djokovic in four sets . The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after 5 sets . Federer also ended Djokovic 's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open . Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets . The pair met once more for the final major of the season , the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in 4 sets . Many experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era .
= = = Federer vs. Murray = = =
Federer and Andy Murray have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 – 11 . Federer leads 12 – 10 on hard courts , and 2 – 1 on grass . They have never met on clay . The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level , the first three times in the finals , Federer winning all three of these matches ; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open , both of which he won in straight sets , and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set , but went on to lose in four sets . However , Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open , defeating the Swiss for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets . At the 2014 Australian Open , Federer reversed that result , defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals . The most recent meeting between the two in a Major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships , where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets .
They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games , in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets , denying the Swiss a career Golden Slam . Murray also leads 6 – 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments , 2 – 0 in finals . They have also met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals , with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 , and Federer in London in 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , and 2014 . Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer ( the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic ) .
= = = Federer vs. Roddick = = =
One of Federer 's longstanding rivalries was with American Andy Roddick . Roddick lost his world No. 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004 . Federer and Roddick met on 24 occasions , including four Grand Slam event finals ( three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open – all won by Federer ) . Federer 's record is overall 21 – 3 . Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry , being so one @-@ sided .
In the 2009 Wimbledon final , Roddick lost to Federer in five sets . The match included a fifth set of 30 games ( a Grand Slam final record ) and was over four hours long . In the final game of the deciding set , Roddick 's serve was broken for the first time in the match . With that victory , Federer broke Pete Sampras ' record of 14 Grand Slam tournament titles , and Roddick apologized to Sampras ( who was there ) for not being able to hold Federer .
= = = Federer vs. Hewitt = = =
Lleyton Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions . Early in their careers , Hewitt dominated Federer , winning seven of their first nine meetings , including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland . However , from 2004 onward , Federer dominated the rivalry , winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18 – 9 overall head @-@ to @-@ head record . This is Hewitt 's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996 . They met in one Grand Slam tournament final , the 2004 US Open final , where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel either side of a second @-@ set tiebreak . Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy , including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005 . Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International , where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010 , when he also beat Federer to the Halle title .
Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men 's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999 . They got to the third round before losing to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter .
= = = Federer vs. Agassi = = =
Federer and Agassi played each other 11 times between 1998 and 2005 before Agassi 's retirement in 2006 . Federer led the rivalry 8 – 3 . This was Federer 's most significant rivalry with an all @-@ time great player of the previous generation . They first met in only the third tournament of Federer 's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer 's hometown , with Agassi prevailing over the 17 @-@ year @-@ old . Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002 . Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003 , when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final . They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over 2 days with Federer eventually prevailing in 5 sets . At the 2005 Dubai Championships , Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 700 feet above sea level at the world famous seven @-@ star luxury hotel the Burj al @-@ Arab . Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport , when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open . Federer was victorious in four sets , claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th .
= = = Federer vs. del Potro = = =
Juan Martin del Potro and Roger Federer have played 20 times with Federer leading 15 – 5 . They have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with Federer leading 5 – 1 . Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings both came in 2009 . The first was in the French Open semifinals , when Federer survived an epic five @-@ set clash when he was chasing the only French title of his career . The second was in the final of the US Open , where del Potro stunned Federer in five sets , ending his 20 @-@ match winning streak at majors . Another high @-@ profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics , where Federer prevailed 19 – 17 in a grueling final set to secure the Olympic silver medal . Most recently , they met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012 and 2013 , with del Potro prevailing on both occasions in tight three @-@ set matches .
= = = Federer vs. Safin = = =
Marat Safin and Federer played each other 12 times , with Federer leading 10 – 2 . Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other , with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998 . Federer leads 4 – 1 on hard courts , 3 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 0 on clay courts , while Safin leads 1 – 0 on carpet . Notable meetings include Federer 's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters 1000 title of his career , as well as Federer 's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup , after winning a tiebreak 20 – 18 on his eighth match point . Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title . However , Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals , having saved one match point in the fourth @-@ set tiebreak , to end a 26 @-@ match winning streak by Federer . They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 1 .
= = = Federer vs. Nalbandian = = =
David Nalbandian was Federer 's biggest rival in his early career . The two played each other 19 times , with Federer leading 11 – 8 . Nalbandian dominated early on , taking all of their first five matches from 2002 – 03 . Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup , where he recorded his first victory , and would go on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings . Federer led 6 – 5 on hard courts , 1 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 1 on clay courts , while Nalbandian led 2 – 1 on carpet . Notable meetings include Nalbandian 's win in a fifth @-@ set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup , and Federer 's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals . They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 2 .
= = = Federer vs. Berdych = = =
Tomáš Berdych and Federer have played each other 22 times with Federer leading 16 – 6 . Federer leads 9 – 5 on hard courts , 2 – 1 on grass courts , 4 – 0 on clay courts , and 1 – 0 on carpet . Berdych won their first professional match , notably upsetting then world No. 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics . Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings , before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010 . Between 2010 and 2013 , Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings . Federer then switched to a larger racquet in 2014 to prevent being overpowered by players like Berdych and leads 5 – 0 since . They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 5 – 2 , and Berdych is one of five players , along with Arnaud Clément , Álex Corretja , David Nalbandian , and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga , to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage . Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open , when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets , the 2010 Wimbledon Championships , the 2012 US Open , both of which Berdych won in four sets. and the 2016 Australian Open , which Federer won in straight sets .
= = Legacy = =
Federer has been regarded by many pundits , coaches , and past and present players as the greatest tennis player of all time . He dominated the game at his peak and has more Grand Slam tournament titles ( 17 ) than any other men 's singles player . He is also the first men 's singles player to have reached 10 consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 27 Grand Slam finals . He spent the most amount of time in the Open Era at the top of the ATP Rankings ( 302 weeks ) . He also holds the record for the most titles ( 6 ) at the year @-@ end tournament , where only the year @-@ end 8 highest @-@ ranked players participate . Federer has been ranked among the top 8 players in the world continuously since 14 October 2002
Federer has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans ' Favourite Award a record 13 times consecutively ( 2003 – 2015 ) and the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award ( voted for by the players ) a record 11 times ( 2004 – 2009 , 2011 – 2015 ) , both being awards indicative of respect and popularity . He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice in 2006 and 2013 . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) . Federer is at times referred to as the Federer Express , shortened to Fed Express or FedEx , and the Swiss Maestro , or just Maestro .
= = Playing style = =
Federer 's versatility has been summarised by Jimmy Connors : " In an era of specialists , you 're either a clay court specialist , a grass court specialist , or a hard court specialist ... or you 're Roger Federer . "
An elite athlete , Federer is an all @-@ court , all @-@ around player known for his speed , fluid style of play , and exceptional shot making . Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net , being one of the best volleyers in the game today . He has a powerful , accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements in today 's tennis , such as backhand smash and skyhook , half @-@ volley and jump smash ( slam dunk ) . David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer 's forehand motion with that of " a great liquid whip " , while John McEnroe has referred to Federer 's forehand as " the greatest shot in our sport . " Federer is also known for his efficient movement around the court and excellent footwork , which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand and instead hit a powerful inside @-@ out or inside @-@ in forehand , one of his best shots .
Federer plays with a single @-@ handed backhand , which gives him great variety . He employs the slice , occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot . Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a ' flick ' backhand with which he can generate pace with his wrist ; this is usually used to pass the opponent at the net . His serve is difficult to read because he always uses a similar ball toss , regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it , and turns his back to his opponents during his motion . He is often able to produce big serves on key points during a match . His first serve is typically around 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) ; however , he is capable of serving at 220 km / h ( 137 mph ) . Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying , and employed this tactic frequently in his early career .
Later in his career , Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well @-@ disguised one off both wings . He sometimes uses a between @-@ the @-@ legs shot , which is colloquially referred to as a " tweener " or " hotdog " . His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic , bringing him triple match point . Federer is one of the top players who employs successfully the " squash shot " , when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing . Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season , Federer has played a more offensive game , attacking the net more often , and improved his volley shots . In the lead @-@ up to the 2015 US Open , Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR ( Sneak Attack by Roger ) , in which he charges his opponent while receiving the serve and hits a return on the run .
= = Equipment and apparel = =
= = = Equipment = = =
Federer currently plays with the Wilson Prostaff RF97 Autograph , a 97 square inch tennis racquet with 21 @.@ 5 mm beam , 360 g weight , 331 swing weight and 16x19 string pattern ( all strung with overgrip ) . Since the 1998 Wimbledon Junior Championships Federer played with a Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX tennis racquet , which is characterised by its smaller hitting area of 90 square inches , heavy strung weight of 364 grams , and thin beam of 17 @.@ 5 millimeters . His grip size was 4 3 / 8 inches ( sometimes referred to as L3 ) . Federer strung his racquets at 21 @.@ 5 kg mains / 20 kg crosses pre @-@ stretched 20 percent , using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough 16L gauge ( polyester ) for his cross strings . When asked about string tensions , Federer stated " this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play . So you can see – it depends on several factors and not just the surface ; the feeling I have is most important . "
= = = Apparel = = =
Federer has a contract with Nike footwear and apparel . For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon , Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets , symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won , and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006 . In Wimbledon 2008 and again in 2009 , Nike continued this trend by making him a personalized cardigan which also has his own logo , an R and F joined together .
= = Endorsements = =
Federer is one of the highest @-@ earning athletes in the world . He is listed at number five on Forbes World 's Highest Paid Athletes list . As of 2013 , he remains the top earner in tennis with ten endorsement deals . He makes 40 to 50 million euros a year from prize money and endorsements from Nike and the Swiss companies Nationale Suisse , Credit Suisse , Rolex , Lindt , and Jura Elektroapparate . In 2010 , his endorsement by Mercedes @-@ Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal . His other sponsors include Gillette , Wilson , and Moët & Chandon . Previously , he was an ambassador for NetJets , Emmi AG , and Maurice Lacroix .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Grand Slam tournament performance timeline = = =
Note : Federer received fourth @-@ round walkovers at the US Open ( 2004 and 2012 ) and the Wimbledon Championships ( 2007 ) , and a second @-@ round walkover at the Australian Open ( 2012 ) ; these are not counted as wins
= = = = Finals : 27 ( 17 titles , 10 runners @-@ up ) = = = =
= = = Year @-@ End Championship performance timeline = = =
= = = = Year – End Championship finals : 10 ( 6 titles , 4 runners @-@ up ) = = = =
( i ) = Indoor
= = = Records = = =
= = = = All @-@ time tournament records = = = =
= = = = Open Era records = = = =
These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis .
Records in bold indicate peerless achievements .
Records in italics are currently active streaks .
= = = Video = = =
Wimbledon Classic Match : Federer vs Sampras . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 31 October 2006 , run time : 233 minutes , ASIN B000ICLR98 .
Wimbledon 2007 Final : Federer vs. Nadal ( 2007 ) . Kultur White Star , DVD release date : 30 October 2007 , run time : 180 minutes , ASIN B000V02CU0 .
Wimbledon — The 2008 Finals : Nadal vs. Federer . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 19 August 2008 , run time : 300 minutes , ASIN B001CWYUBU .
= = = Profiles = = =
Roger Federer at the Association of Tennis Professionals
Roger Federer at the International Tennis Federation
Roger Federer at the Davis Cup
Roger Federer at the Internet Movie Database
= Jane 's Attack Squadron =
Jane 's Attack Squadron is a 2002 combat flight simulator developed by Looking Glass Studios and Mad Doc Software and published by Xicat Interactive . Based on World War II , the game allows players to pilot fifteen reproductions of that era 's military aircraft and to carry out missions for the Axis or Allies . Although it contains dogfights , the game focuses largely on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat .
Jane 's Attack Squadron was first conceived by Looking Glass employee Seamus Blackley as Flight Combat , a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited . The company continued designing the game after Blackley was fired in 1995 , and it entered production under Electronic Arts in 1998 . The team experienced problems with deadlines and funding during development , with the game eventually being heavily redesigned and renamed Jane 's Attack Squadron at the request of the publisher . These issues contributed to Looking Glass 's bankruptcy and closure in 2000 . In 2001 and 2002 , the game was acquired and finished by Mad Doc Software , a company in part composed of former Looking Glass employees .
The game received mixed to poor reviews . Critics found its physics modelling unrealistic , and many believed that the game 's graphics and gameplay were outdated , particularly in light of contemporary simulators like IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . The limited number of missions and large number of glitches were widely panned . Certain critics enjoyed Jane 's Attack Squadron 's air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and several hoped that fans would improve the game with the included physics and mission editors .
= = Gameplay = =
As a combat flight simulator , Jane 's Attack Squadron allows players to pilot military aircraft in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The game is set in Western Europe during World War II ; and players may control fifteen German and Allied planes from the era , including the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 , Supermarine Spitfire , Junkers Ju 88 , Avro Lancaster and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . Although dogfights are possible , the game places a heavy focus on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . Objectives range from bombing and torpedo runs to defense and escort missions . The player may engage in tutorials , " quick missions " , " single missions " and a campaign . Quick missions allow the player to select variables such as the objective and the number of friendly and enemy aircraft , while single missions , of which there are five , are scripted , " pre @-@ made " levels . Two campaigns are available : one each for the Allies and Germans . Both campaigns feature ten missions that branch depending on the outcome achieved by the player . An online multiplayer component allows players to engage in dogfights .
Each plane in Jane 's Attack Squadron is composed of forty @-@ five parts that may be removed or otherwise damaged in combat . Damage to these parts affects performance ; for example , a broken fuel line will leak , quickly decreasing the fuel gauge . Various adjustments may be made to the game 's realism , including an " arcade physics " option that drastically reduces flight difficulty . The game is packaged with the mission and physics editors that were used to develop it .
= = Development = =
= = = At Looking Glass = = =
In September 1994 , Looking Glass Technologies employee Seamus Blackley told Computer Gaming World that he wanted to create a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited , whose development he was directing at the time . The magazine 's Johnny L. Wilson wrote , " If Flight Unlimited can pass the civilian tests , the military version should be right behind it . " In March of the next year , Blackley told PC Gamer US that the sequel " should feel so real that pilots will be afraid . They 'll feel the gun hits . " He dismissed the flight dynamics in other flight simulators , such as Falcon 3 @.@ 0 , in favor of the real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model he created for Flight Unlimited . When PC Gamer 's Bernie Yee asked why the team had waited to make a combat flight simulator , Blackley responded that they wanted to " retrain " players first . In September , Computer Gaming World reported that Blackley was designing a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited under the working title Flight Combat . Blackley told them that it would " make you into a fighter pilot " , and the magazine commented that it would teach the same material as the Air Force . The team planned to allow players to practice an element and then execute it on a mission , and Blackley said that the game would feature competitive online play . However , a new manager at Looking Glass Technologies , instated by venture capital investors , demanded that Blackley work on Flight Unlimited II instead of Flight Combat . Blackley refused and was fired , leaving the company in late 1995 .
In March 1996 , PC Gamer US reported that Flight Combat was " still taxiing across the design board " , and that the team planned to focus " on how the aerial manoeuvres are performed as you fight " . Looking Glass designer Constantine Hantzopoulos told the magazine that a modified version of the Flight Unlimited engine was being used to develop Flight Combat and Flight Unlimited II . Hantzopoulos commented that Flight Combat was " the project everybody at Looking Glass wants to work on " . The team expected to be finished with the game in roughly one year . By June 1997 , GameSpot reported that Flight Unlimited II was running on the new ZOAR engine , coded from scratch by programmer James Fleming . In addition , the real @-@ time CFDs model from Flight Unlimited had been discarded , as its programming was " all black box spaghetti code from Seamus " . GameSpot 's T. Liam MacDonald noted that the Flight Unlimited II team expected soon to use the same engine for a combat flight simulator set in World War II . Computer Gaming World similarly reported that the company was " definitely hot " to develop Flight Combat , and that it might be created after Flight Unlimited II . Following that game 's completion , the team could not decide between developing Flight Unlimited III or Flight Combat . As a result , they decided to develop them simultaneously , and Flight Combat began production in early 1998 . Unlike all of the studio 's other games , development of Flight Combat was funded through an insured bond , in an attempt to guarantee that the game would be finished . The company 's Tim Stellmach later said that this setup was " a real pain for [ the team ] in some ways " .
Looking Glass signed a multi @-@ game publishing deal with Electronic Arts in May 1998 , and that company became the publisher of Flight Combat . The team " undersold " the game to Electronic Arts , and James Sterrett of the fansite Through the Looking Glass believed that the team " gambled that it could get the game out the door faster than the budget actually called for " . In March 1999 , the game was announced as the World War II @-@ themed Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe , directed by Hantzopoulos and scheduled for release in fall of that year . That May , the game was shown at the Electronic Arts booth at E3 . Computer Games Magazine 's Steve Udell wrote that the game would feature a new iteration of the Flight Unlimited terrain renderer , and IGN reported that one million square miles of terrain based on European landscapes would be available . Weather conditions such as snow and rain were planned . Udell wrote that Flight Combat 's flight physics were an updated version of those from recent Flight Unlimited games , with new material taken from operations manuals and flight tests . Plane models and textures were based on photographs , and many of the moving parts and flight control surfaces were modeled individually . Players were given the option to customize planes . Udell described a physics @-@ based damage system that , according to the company , made it impossible to " see the exact same kind of damage twice " . Two campaigns — the Battle of Britain and the Defence of the Reich — were announced , with missions based on dogfights , air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and bombing runs . Looking Glass claimed that the game would feature " moving tanks and ships duk [ ing ] it out on a dynamic battlefield " as the player carried out missions . Aesthetically , IGN 's Tal Blevins noted that the game had " a very distinct 40s charm " , which was present " from the briefings to the options screens " .
= = = Bankruptcy and cancellation = = =
Electronic Arts rebranded Flight Combat as Jane 's Attack Squadron , to fit with the Jane 's Information Group license that the publisher had used for its Jane 's Combat Simulations line . According to Stellmach , the publisher demanded that the game be heavily redesigned " partway through " development , which exacerbated the team 's existing problems with meeting deadlines . Sterrett believed that the game 's schedule and funding did not receive the necessary adjustments to allow for this redesign . Together with Flight Unlimited III 's commercial failure , the expenses of Jane 's Attack Squadron 's long development used up revenue from Thief : The Dark Project , which had helped the company recover from the failure of Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri and British Open Championship Golf . Compounding these problems , business deals with Microsoft , Irrational Games and Eidos Interactive were unsuccessful . As a result , Looking Glass Studios went bankrupt in May 2000 . At the time , Jane 's Attack Squadron was roughly three months from completion . Thief II Gold and Thief III were cancelled as a result of the company 's closure , but Jane 's Attack Squadron , because it was near completion and funded through an insured bond , had a chance of being finished .
According to Gordon Berg of Computer Gaming World , the legal and logistical problems of keeping " a portion of Looking Glass [ ... ] intact " to finish the game had been " hurdled " . Further , because of the game 's type of funding , the continued development of Jane 's Attack Squadron would have been at little cost to Electronic Arts . Fans petitioned the publisher to let development continue , and Looking Glass employee Rich Carlson said that Hantzopoulos and others from the Flight series , roughly twenty in all , were prepared to work on the game again . The petition reached 2 @,@ 000 signatures by May 30 and 5 @,@ 000 by June 1 . However , Electronic Arts dropped the game . The publisher 's Jeff Brown said that the decision " was based on our deep uncertainty that the project could meet any schedule given the changes in senior management and a history of missing deadlines . " Brown told the website Combatsim that Electronic Arts had " worked diligently " with Looking Glass for more than two years , and that , although the game had missed its planned October 1999 release , they had been willing to delay the project into 2000 . He blamed the developer 's closure for the decision to cancel the game . Rumors circulated that the decision was part of the publisher 's larger plan to abandon the flight simulator genre , and Computer Gaming World 's Denny Atkin later summarized that the company " ran screaming from the simulation market " after Looking Glass 's bankruptcy . Electronic Arts soon dropped the Jane 's Information Group license .
= = = At Mad Doc = = =
After the closure of Looking Glass , certain employees of that company moved to developer Mad Doc Software , and they hoped to complete Jane 's Attack Squadron . The game 's original lead designer and lead programmer were among those hired by Mad Doc . Dotted Line Entertainment , Mad Doc 's agent company , secured the rights to the game 's code for the team in 2001 . Development commenced shortly afterward . In August of that year , it was reported that the Jane 's Information Group license had been obtained by Xicat Interactive , and that the company planned to publish Mad Doc 's revival of Jane 's Attack Squadron . The full details of the agreement were announced at that year 's European Computer Trade Show , where it was revealed that Jane 's Attack Squadron would focus heavily on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . According to Mad Doc 's Tim Farrar , " Our goal wasn 't to create a completely new game , it was to complete the game that was started at LG . " Farrar noted that , although the company " trimmed some of the more ambitious features " , Jane 's Attack Squadron was effectively " the same game " created by Looking Glass . As with Flight Combat , the game features one million square miles of terrain , planes with individually modelled moving parts and a physics @-@ based damage system .
In October 2001 , the game was officially announced in a press release by Mad Doc . Steve Nadeau , the lead designer of the game at both development studios , said that he looked forward to polishing Jane 's Attack Squadron and " giv [ ing ] it a new life " . He believed that the team was " very excited " to finish the game , a sentiment later echoed by the game 's producer , David Halpern . According to Nadeau , the presence of members of the Looking Glass team ensured that it would " closely reflect our original vision of the game : an action @-@ packed World War II air combat simulation accessible to users of all skill levels " . Farrar announced that the team 's mission and physics editors would be released alongside the game , which he hoped would generate interest among players . Farrar later commented that , because of the game 's physics @-@ based damage system and individually modelled components , wings could be shot off and fuel tanks detonated . He also explained that coolant tanks could be hit , giving the pilot a limited amount of time before the plane engine overheated . He wrote that losing a wing tip meant " a bumpy ride " , but the loss of the tail caused the plane to " spin into the ground " . Jane 's Attack Squadron went gold in March 2002 , and was released that month .
= = Reception = =
Denny Atkin of Computer Gaming World wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron " had the potential to be sim of the year in 2000 " , but that it had been rendered largely irrelevant by delays and " unrealized design goals . " He believed that its graphics would have been " state of the art in 2000 " , but he found them middling in 2002 ; and he noted the presence of numerous glitches . He considered the game 's most serious flaw to be its low number of missions . Although Atkin found the air @-@ to @-@ air combat " generally fun " , citing " good pilot AI " and " decent " flight physics , he believed that the game 's bombing runs were its most outstanding element . He hoped that fans would use the mission and physics editors to improve the game , and he concluded , " It 's buggy , but when it works it 's worth flying . " Andy Mahood of PC Gamer US wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron is " unquestionably an entertaining and unique WWII prop sim " , but he believed that it was clearly inferior to games such as IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . He found the game 's graphics to be outdated and its design to be " simplistic " , and he wrote that its " somewhat basic flight model " prevents advanced maneuvers . He praised the game 's sound effects and music , as well as its " intricate damage modeling " , as its best features . He finished by saying that , because the genre was " starving for fresh titles " , Jane 's Attack Squadron could be recommended despite its flaws .
IGN 's Tom Chick found it " unrealistic , erratic , and limited " , writing that it " looks bad , plays poorly , and is unstable . " He disliked its " canned and rigidly scripted missions " , although he found its bombing runs " interesting " and its air @-@ to @-@ air combat features acceptable . However , he believed that ease of shooting down aircraft made the damage system 's " powerful amount of flexibility " worthless . Chick believed that the multiplayer component was one of the game 's worst features , and he derided the game 's " suspiciously canned physics " , which offered " a grab bag of fidelity mixed in with heaps of silliness . " He summarized Jane 's Attack Squadron as " awful . " Josh Horowitz of The Adrenaline Vault noted the complex damage system , and he believed that the game " looks as good as most of today 's flight simulators " , although he experienced performance issues . He noted that the gameplay was hurt by " corner cutting or general incompletion " , such as the limited in @-@ game tutorials . Horowitz found the game " repetitive " because of its lack of missions and " low sense of involvement " , and , like Chick , he disliked its multiplayer and " linear " missions . Although he offered significant praise for its sound , Horowitz concluded that the game was " a buggy , incomplete offering " , and that those " looking for the next great Jane 's title will likely be disappointed . "
GameSpy 's Bernard Dy wrote that the game failed to live up to the Jane 's Combat Simulations pedigree , and he believed that those who enjoyed " the realism of Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik will be disappointed . " He disliked its " relaxed flight models " and lack of features , and he cited a large number of glitches . However , Dy found its damage system " robust " and he believed that the game was " not a total loss . " Like Atkin , he hoped that fans would improve the game with its detailed editors , although he believed that this was somewhat unlikely .
= 1955 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season was , at the time , the costliest season ever recorded . The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 , and ended on November 15 , 1955 . It was slightly above average , with 13 recorded tropical cyclones . The first storm , Alice , had persisted since December 30 , 1954 . Alice caused relatively minor impact as it tracked through the Lesser Antilles and eastern Caribbean Sea in early January . Tropical Storm Brenda caused two deaths and minor damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States in early August . The quick succession of Hurricanes Connie and Diane caused significant flooding in the Northeastern United States , with nearly $ 1 billion ( 1955 USD ) in losses and at least 232 fatalities . The next three storms – Hurricanes Edith and Flora and Tropical Storm Five – caused very minor or no impact . In early August , Hurricane Gladys caused severe localized flooding in Mexico , primarily in Mexico City . Additionally , an offshoot of Gladys inflicted minor impact in Texas .
Hurricane Hilda struck the Greater Antilles and then Mexico . It was attributed to at least 304 deaths and $ 120 million in losses . In mid @-@ September , Hurricane Ione struck eastern North Carolina and contributed the flooding from Connie and Diane , resulting in seven fatalities and $ 88 million in damage . Later that month , Hurricane Janet , which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane , lashed several countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , as well as Mexico and British Honduras . Janet resulted in $ 53 @.@ 8 million in damage and at least 716 deaths . An unnamed tropical storm in the month of October did not impact land . Hurricane Katie , the final storm , caused minor damage in a sparsely populated area of Hispaniola , totaling to at least $ 200 @,@ 000 ; 7 fatalities were also reported . Collectively , the storms caused 1518 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in losses , making it the costliest season at the time . A record number of names – four – were retired following the season , which was tied by 1995 and 2004 , and then surpassed in 2005 ( when five names were retired ) .
= = Season summary = =
On April 11 , 1955 , which was prior to the start of the season , Gordon Dunn was promoted to the chief meteorologist of the Miami Hurricane Warning Office . Dunn was replacing Grady Norton , who died from a stroke while forecasting Hurricane Hazel of the previous season . In early June , the Hurricane Hunters received new reconnaissance aircraft , which contained the latest radar and electronic equipment , at the time . Later that month , shortly before the start of the 1955 season , a bill was proposed in the United States Senate to provide funding for 55 new radar stations along the East Coast of the United States . After the United States House of Representatives passed a bill allotting $ 5 million , the Senate disputed about possibly increasing the funding two @-@ fold to $ 10 million . Eventually , the radars were installed , starting in July 1955 . After the devastating storms of the season , particularly Connie and Diane , a United States Government organization with the propose of monitoring tropical cyclones was established in 1956 with $ 500 @,@ 000 in funding ; it later became the modern @-@ day National Hurricane Center .
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed . In a typical season , about nine tropical storms develop , of which five strengthen to hurricane strength . All thirteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and eleven of these attained hurricane status . Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The season was above average most likely because of an strong , ongoing La Niña . Hurricane Alice developed in late December 1954 , but persisted into January 1955 , and was operationally analysed to have developed in the latter . Within the official hurricane season bounds , tropical cyclogenesis did not occur until July 31 , with the development of Tropical Storm Brenda . However , during the month of August , four tropical cyclones formed – including Connie , Diane , Edith , and an unnamed tropical storm . Five additional tropical cyclones – Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , and Janet – all developed in September . Tropical cyclogenesis briefly halted until an unnamed tropical storm formed on October 10 . The final storm of the season , Katie , dissipated on October 19 , almost a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 15 . Eight hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 1 @,@ 603 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damage .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 199 , which was above the 1950 @-@ 2000 average of 96 @.@ 1 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical cyclones with winds exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alice ( 1954 ) = = =
On January 1 , there was already a tropical cyclone located in the central Atlantic Ocean , having developed on December 30 of the previous year . Operationally it was first observed as a hurricane on January 1 , which resulted in it being named Alice . The hurricane passed through the Leeward Islands on January 2 . Alice reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before encountering cold air and turning to the southeast . It dissipated on January 6 over the southeastern Caribbean Sea . Alice produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds across several islands along its path . Saba and Anguilla were affected the most , with total damage amounting to $ 623 @,@ 500 . Operationally , lack of definitive data prevented the U.S. Weather Bureau from declaring the system a hurricane until January 2 . It received the name Alice in early 1955 , though re @-@ analysis of the data supported extending its track to the previous year , resulting in two tropical cyclones of the same name in one season . It was one of only two storms to span two calendar years , along with Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 and 2006 .
= = = Tropical Storm Brenda = = =
Tropical Storm Brenda developed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico at 0600 UTC on July 31 . During the next 24 hours , the storm strengthened rapidly and attained its maximum sustain wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) early on August 1 ( although it is possible it briefly reached hurricane intensity ) . Later that day , Brenda made landfall east of New Orleans , Louisiana at the same intensity . The storm steadily weakened inland and by August 2 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Early on August 3 , Brenda dissipated while located over eastern Texas .
Between Pensacola , Florida and Lake Charles , Louisiana , rainfall totals were generally about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) ; flooding , if any , was insignificant . Tropical storm force winds were reported , peaking at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Shell Beach , Louisiana on the south shore of Lake Borgne . At the same location , tides between 5 and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal were measured . Four people were rescued by the United States Coast Guard after their tugboat sank in Lake Pontchartrain , while three others swam to shore . Additionally , two fatalities occurred in the vicinity of Mobile , Alabama .
= = = Hurricane Connie = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression east of Cape Verde on August 3 . After six hours , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Connie . By August 4 , Connie began to rapidly strengthen , becoming the first major hurricane of the season later that day . Initially , it posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles , although it passed about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north . The outer rainbands produced hurricane force wind gusts and intense precipitation , reaching 8 @.@ 65 inches ( 220 mm ) in Puerto Rico . In the United States Virgin Islands , three people died due to the hurricane , and a few homes were destroyed . In Puerto Rico , Connie destroyed 60 homes and caused crop damage . After affecting Puerto Rico , Connie turned to the northwest , reaching peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened while slowing and turning to the north , and struck North Carolina on August 12 as a Category 2 hurricane .
Connie produced strong winds , high tides , and heavy rainfall as it moved ashore , causing heavy crop damage and 27 deaths in the state of North Carolina . Connie made a second landfall in Virginia , and it progressed inland until dissipating on August 15 near Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan . Four people were killed in Washington , D.C. due to a traffic accident . In the Chesapeake Bay , Connie capsized a boat , killing 14 people and prompting a change in Coast Guard regulation . There were six deaths each in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , and eleven deaths in New York , where record rainfall flooded homes and subways . At least 225 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm . Damage in the United States totaled around $ 86 million , although the rains from Connie was a prelude to flooding by Hurricane Diane . The remnants of Connie destroyed a few houses and boats in Ontario and killed three people in Ontario .
= = = Hurricane Diane = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde on August 7 . It slowly strengthened and became Tropical Storm Diane on August 9 . After a Fujiwhara interaction with Hurricane Connie , Diane curved northward or north @-@ northeastward and quickly deepened . By early on August 8 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . Only several hours later , Diane peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The storm resumed its west @-@ northwestward motion on August 13 . Colder air in the region caused Diane to weaken while approaching the East Coast of the United States . A recently installed radar in North Carolina noted an eye feature , albeit poorly defined . Early on August 17 , Diane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a strong tropical storm . The storm then moved in a parabolic motion across North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean on August 19 . Diane headed east @-@ northeastward until becoming extratropical on August 20 .
Despite landfall in North Carolina , impact in the state was minor , limited to moderate rainfall , abnormally high tides , and relatively strong winds . Further north , catastrophic flooding occurred in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , and New England . Of the 287 stream gauges in the region , 129 reported record levels after the flooding from Tropical Storm Diane . Many streams reported discharge rates that were more than twice of the previous record . Most of the flooding occurred along small river basins that rapidly rose within hours to flood stage , largely occurring in populated areas ; the region in which the floods occurred had about 30 million people , and 813 houses overall were destroyed . The floods severely damaged homes , highways , power lines , and railroads , and affected several summer camps . Overall utility damage was estimated at $ 79 million . Flooding in mountainous areas caused landslides and destroyed crop fields ; agriculture losses was estimated at $ 7 million . Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed , accounting for $ 82 million in damage . Overall , Diane caused $ 754 @.@ 7 million in damage , of which $ 600 million was in New England . Overall , there were at least 184 deaths .
= = = Hurricane Edith = = =
An easterly tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on August 21 in the tropical Atlantic . Moving towards the west @-@ northwest , the disturbance slowly intensified , reaching tropical storm strength at 1200 UTC on August 23 and as such was named Edith by the Weather Bureau . Afterwards , Edith began to curve towards the northwest as it gradually intensified , attaining hurricane strength on August 25 . The hurricane continued to intensify as it recurved and accelerated to the northeast , reaching its peak intensity on August 28 as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . At the same time , a reconnaissance aircraft reported a minimum barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) in the storm 's eye as Edith made its closest pass to Bermuda . The hurricane began to gradually weaken after it passed east of the island , before becoming extratropical on August 31 . The cyclone would later make a clockwise loop before dissipating completely late on September 3 . Although Edith remained at sea , it was suspected that the hurricane may have caused the loss of the pleasure yacht Connemara IV , after it separated from its moorings .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A weak disturbance was first observed near Grand Cayman on August 23 , gaining tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC that day . Moving towards the north @-@ northwest , the storm passed over western Cuba on August 24 , without much change in intensity . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the tropical storm marginally intensified , reaching peak intensity with maximum sustained wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) by 1200 UTC on August 26 . Nearing the Gulf Coast of the United States , the system curved towards the west . The storm maintained its intensity up until landfall in Louisiana near New Orleans on August 27 . Moving inland , it slowly weakened while crossing the Central United States , degenerating to tropical depression strength by August 29 and later dissipating over Missouri the following day .
Strong waves generated by the storm caused tides 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above average , slightly damaging coastal resorts . Weather offices advised small craft offshore to remain in port due to the strong waves . Rough seas battered the schooner Princess Friday , but the ship was able to ride out the storm . The storm produced squalls further inland , causing heavy rains . A weather station reported a minimum pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , the lowest in association with the tropical storm . Despite the strong waves and heavy rains , only minor damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Flora = = =
A tropical wave moved along the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) and passed through Cape Verde between August 30 and August 31 . Although the Panair do Brasil headquarters in Recife , Brazil reported a closed circulation on August 30 , Tropical Storm Flora did not develop until 0600 UTC on September 2 , while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) of Cape Verde . The storm strengthened at a steady pace for the following 48 hours and reached hurricane status late on September 3 . Flora headed on a parabolic track , initially moving west @-@ northwestward and then northwesterly by September 4 . It continued to intensify and by September 6 , the storm curved northward . Around time , a minimum barometric pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was reported . However , it may have been lower , as the storm did not attain its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) until September 7 . Flora maintained this intensity while curving to the northeast , but became extratropical at 0000 UTC on September 9 , while located about midway between Flores Island in the Azores and Sable Island , Nova Scotia .
= = = Hurricane Gladys = = =
A tropical depression developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC on September 4 . Six hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Gladys . The storm quickly intensified and reached hurricane status on September 5 , roughly 24 hours after developing . Around that time , Gladys peaked as a Category 1 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later on September 5 , an offshoot of Gladys with cyclonic turning formed in the northern Gulf of Mexico and struck Texas on September 6 ; it may have been a separate tropical cyclone . Initially , Gladys headed north @-@ northwestward , but then re @-@ curved south @-@ southwestward while approaching the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Early on September 6 , it made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas as a weakening tropical storm . The system rapidly dissipated inland .
Gladys dropped up to 25 inches ( 640 mm ) in Tampico , Tamaulipas . The worst of the flooding from Gladys occurred in Mexico City . Roughly 5 @,@ 000 residents were isolated and required rescue . Police estimated that 2 @,@ 300 homes were inundated with 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . About 30 @,@ 000 families were impacted by the storm . Two children drowned and five additional people were listed as missing . In Texas , the highest sustained wind speed was 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in the Corpus Christi – Port O 'Connor area , with gusts between 55 and 65 mph ( 89 and 105 km / h ) offshore . Precipitation peaked at 17 @.@ 02 inches ( 432 mm ) in Flour Bluff , a neighborhood of Corpus Christi . Flooding in the area forced " scores " of people to evacuate their homes . Damage estimates reached $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Hurricane Ione = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression early on September 10 , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . After six hours , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ione . Eventually , it turned to the northwest . At 0000 UTC on September 15 , Ione reached hurricane intensity , while situated north of the Leeward Islands . Ione continued to deep while moving northwest . The storm reached Category 4 intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on September 18 . Around midday on the following day , it made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly after moving inland over eastern North Carolina , Ione weakened to a tropical storm . Late on September 19 , Ione re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic near Norfolk , Virginia . The storm quickly re @-@ strengthened early on September 20 , but transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 21 .
Strong winds , heavy rainfall , and abnormally high tides lashed some areas along the East Coast of the United States , especially North Carolina . In Cherry Point , sustained winds reached 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , with gusts up to 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) . Overall , damage was slightly more than $ 88 million , mostly to crops and agriculture . Rainfall in the state peaked at 16 @.@ 63 inches ( 422 mm ) in Maysville . Storm surge in North Carolina peaked at 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) in Wrightsville Beach . As a result , several coastal roadways were flooded , including a portion of Highway 94 and Route 264 . Seven deaths were reported in North Carolina . The remnants of Ione brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada , which broken poles , uprooted trees , interrupted telephone service , damaged chimneys and caused power outages , especially in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador .
= = = Hurricane Hilda = = =
A tropical wave located near the Lesser Antilles spawned a tropical depression on September 12 . It is estimated that the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hilda early on the following day . Hilda quickly intensified while moving westward into a small hurricane by September 12 . Although the storm passed just north of Hispaniola on September 13 , damage is unknown , if any . Later that day , Hilda made landfall near the southeastern tip of Cuba on September 13 . There , it dropped heavy rainfall and produced gusty winds that destroyed 80 % of the coffee crop in Oriente Province . In the eastern Cuban city of Baracoa , Hilda severely damaged the oldest church in the country . Damage totaled $ 2 million in Cuba , and there were four deaths .
Later , the hurricane moved across the Caribbean Sea , causing light damage in the sparsely @-@ populated region of the eastern Yucatán Peninsula . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico , Hilda strengthened to reach peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) late on September 18 . Before the hurricane moved ashore , there was residual flooding in Tampico from earlier Hurricane Gladys . Hilda struck the city early on September 19 , with gusts estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall that flooded 90 % of Tampico , while its strong winds damaged half of the homes , leaving 15 @,@ 000 homeless . Throughout Mexico , 11 @,@ 432 people were directly affected by Hilda . Overall , the storm killed 300 people and caused over $ 120 million . Additionally , the outerbands of Hilda caused minor flooding in southern Texas , particularly in Raymondville .
= = = Hurricane Janet = = =
Hurricane Janet was the most powerful tropical cyclone of the season and one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record . The hurricane formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 . Moving toward the west across the Caribbean Sea , Janet fluctuated in intensity , but generally strengthened before reaching its peak intensity as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The intense hurricane made landfall at that intensity near Chetumal , Mexico on September 28 . Janet 's landfall as a Category 5 hurricane on the Yucatán Peninsula marked the first recorded instance that a storm of such intensity in the Atlantic basin made on a continental mainland , with all previous storms making landfall as Category 5 hurricanes on islands . After weakening over the Yucatán Peninsula , it moved into the Bay of Campeche , where it slightly strengthened before making its final landfall near Veracruz on September 29 . Janet quickly weakened over Mexico 's mountainous terrain before dissipating on September 30 .
In its developmental stages near the Lesser Antilles , Janet caused significant damage to the island chain , resulting in 189 deaths and $ 7 @.@ 8 million in damages in the Grenadines and Barbados . While Janet was in the central Caribbean Sea , a reconnaissance aircraft flew into the storm and was lost , with all eleven crew members believed perished . This was the only such loss which has occurred in association with an Atlantic hurricane . A Category 5 upon landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , Janet caused severe devastation in areas on Quintana Roo and British Honduras . Only five buildings in Chetumal , Mexico remained intact after the storm . An estimated 500 deaths occurred in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo . At Janet 's second landfall near Veracruz , significant river flooding ensued , worsening effects caused by Hurricanes Gladys and Hilda earlier in the month . The floods left thousands of people stranded and killed at least 326 people in the Tampico area . The flood damage would lead to the largest Mexican relief operation ever executed by the United States . At least 1 @,@ 023 deaths were attributed to Hurricane Janet , as well as $ 65 @.@ 8 million in damages .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 and continued west @-@ northwestward . It is possible that the system developed into a tropical depression the next day , although lack of data prevented such classification until September 23 , when a nearby ship reported winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . An approaching cold front turned the system to the north on September 24 . The structure gradually became better organized , and after turning to the northeast on September 26 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . This was based on a ship report of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds , which was also estimated as the system 's peak intensity . On September 27 , the system became extratropical and accelerated its forward motion , dissipating within a larger extratropical storm south of Iceland on the next day .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
A tropical wave was reported to have passed through Cape Verde on October 4 . The system slowly developed a vertex as it curved in a generally northward direction . By early on October 10 , two ships reported that a tropical depression formed almost halfway between the Azores and the Leeward Islands . After six hours , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm . While re @-@ curving to the northeast , the storm attained its maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; the lowest atmospheric pressure recorded in relation to the storm was 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) , but the time of measurement is unknown . Although no significant weakening occurred , it eventually merged with an extratropical cyclone on October 14 , while still well southwest of the Azores . During its extratropical stage , a ship in the area reported an atmospheric pressure as low as 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) .
= = = Hurricane Katie = = =
A disturbance in the ITCZ developed into a tropical depression north of Panama on October 14 . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Katie . The system moved generally northeast due to the presence of a strong low pressure area along the East Coast of the United States . Later that day , Hurricane Hunters observed a rapidly intensifying hurricane , encountering winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a pressure of 984 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) several hours before the peak intensity . Early on October 17 , Katie made landfall in extreme eastern Sud @-@ Est Department , Haiti as a strong Category 2 hurricane ( although it may have been stronger ) . About half of homes in the town of Anse @-@ à @-@ Pitres were destroyed . Across the border in Pedernales , Dominican Republic , 68 houses were damaged . Overall losses were at least $ 200 @,@ 000 and 7 fatalities were reported .
While crossing the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , Katie became very disorganized and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm early on October 17 , within a few hours after moving inland . Later that day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean just east of Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic . Katie began accelerating to the northeast on October 18 . During that time , the storm re @-@ intensified and briefly approached hurricane intensity , although it failed to strengthen further due to interaction with a cold front . After passing just east of Bermuda on October 19 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Katie were last observed the following day .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for tropical cyclones that reached at least tropical storm intensity in the North Atlantic in 1955 . However , two of such storms went unnamed . Connie , Diane , Ione , and Janet would later be retired . The 1955 season was tied with the 1995 and 2004 for the most storm names retired after a single season , until five names were retired in 2005 . Storms were named Brenda , Connie , Diane , Edith , Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , Janet and Katie for the first time . Names not assigned are marked in gray .
= NoitulovE =
noitulovE ( " Evolution " backwards ) is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Diageo in 2005 to promote Guinness Draught stout . The 60 @-@ second piece formed the cornerstone of a £ 15 million advertising campaign targeting men in their late twenties and early thirties . The commercial shows , in reverse , the adventures of three characters who evolve from mudskippers to present day humans before tasting Guinness in a London pub . The commercial was handled by the advertising agency Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO , with a budget of £ 1.3M. It was directed by Daniel Kleinman . Production was contracted to Kleinman Productions , with post @-@ production by Framestore CFC . It premiered on British television on 3 October 2005 .
noitulovE is the fifth television / cinema piece in the Good things come to those who wait series , and its premiere marked the end of a four @-@ year hiatus . The advert and its associated campaign were a critical and financial success . It received over 30 awards from professional organisations in the advertising and television industries , and was the most @-@ awarded commercial worldwide in 2006 . The impact of the campaign was such that during a period in which the UK beer market experienced a substantial decline in revenue , Guinness reported that its year @-@ on @-@ year earnings within the region had noticeably increased . At the same time , Guinness achieved its highest @-@ ever volume and value shares and became the market leader within the region . This was attributed in no small part to the positive reception of noitulovE .
= = Sequence = =
The piece begins with three patrons taking their first sip of Guinness in a London pub . To the accompaniment of Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s rendition of " The Rhythm of Life " from the 1969 film version of the 1966 Broadway musical Sweet Charity , a reverse @-@ motion sequence begins . The three men retreat from the bar and into the street , other patrons disappearing as they pass . As they move down the street , a reverse time @-@ lapse @-@ style sequence transforms their clothes to match a rapidly changing urban scene , which progresses through modern @-@ day London to the Edwardian period . Electric lights transform into gas lamps and buildings begin to disappear frame by frame . A short cutaway sequence shows the city regressing into the past , shrinking to a small Saxon settlement before disappearing entirely . Returning to the main sequence , the three men 's clothes and hairstyles are adjusted into Bronze Age equivalents as they pass through thickening woodland . A close @-@ up of one of the characters shows his features quickly transformed into those of a caveman . The trio are then frozen in an ice age glacier .
The three re @-@ emerge from the glacier as primitive hominids , their clothes ripped away to reveal loincloths . They continue to walk backwards with a more simian gait , and soon turn into chimpanzees . From there , they are transformed into a number of different species in quick succession , including flying squirrels , furry mammals , aquatic mammals , fish , flightless birds , small dinosaurs , and burrowing lizard @-@ like creatures . The environment around them changes rapidly as they travel , with cutaways showing millions of years of geological changes occurring in less than a few seconds . Finally , the three become mudskippers around a green @-@ brown puddle . The action briefly moves forward again to show the middle character registering his disgust at the taste of the water with a " Pweugh ! " sound . The commercial ends with a transition to a product shot of three pints of Guinness accompanied by the strapline " Good things come to those who wait " .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO won the account for Guinness in 1996 with a campaign built on their new strapline " Good things come to those who wait " . They produced several commercials using variations on the theme , including Swimblack , Bet on Black , and the critically acclaimed Surfer , voted the " Best Advert of All Time " by the British public in 2002 . After the 2001 Dreamer advertisements , Diageo , the corporate owners of Guinness , decided to pursue a more pan @-@ European marketing strategy . The strapline proved difficult to translate , and was abandoned . Several new straplines were tried out over the next three years , including " Believe " ( Free and Tom Crean ) and " A story of darkness and light " ( Moth and Mustang ) .
The new marketing strategy did not prove particularly successful , and in 2004 Diageo returned to regional advertising . AMV BBDO were presented with the choice of coming up with either a new theme to appeal to the 18 – 35 British male demographic or a new angle on the tried and tested Good things ... concept . A number of ideas were put forward , including " The Longest Wait " . From this concept , noitulovE was quickly plotted out : the advert would show three individuals waiting 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years before finally taking their first sip of Guinness , the timeline compressed into a 50 @-@ second clip . The decision to run the " Evolution sequence " in reverse was taken fairly early , as it was felt that it would better hold viewers ' interest during a 60 @-@ second television spot .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The project had not yet been greenlit when the agency approached Daniel Kleinman , known for his work on James Bond title sequences , with the intention of taking him on as a director . After looking over the concept pitch and a rough draft of the script , Kleinman 's immediate impressions were that the idea was " fresh " , " an opportunity to try out some new techniques " , and that it would " put Guinness back on track , doing a big ' wow ' idea " .
Kleinman contacted a pair of Canadian graphic novel artists to begin the storyboarding process . Storyboarding the commercial meant that the agency could determine how much of the £ 1.3M budget to allocate to each section , and provided them with visuals to use as part of the presentation to Diageo when pitching the various concepts for a decision on which to pursue . The effort paid off and approval was given to move ahead with production .
= = = Production = = =
Production of the commercial took place over two months , with principal photography shot in Iceland . Time @-@ lapse photographs were taken of the country 's mudpots , volcanic terrain and frozen lakes using 35 mm film cameras . The shooting was done in the early summer for the nearly continuous daylight that the season afforded them . The next pieces of the commercial to be assembled were the live @-@ action segments , shot in a greenscreen studio in London . Filming was done in three stages , with the three actors changing into different sets of prosthetic makeup at each stage . For the final section the actors spent a week practising the choreography behind walking backwards with an appropriately simian gait . Wires were attached to the back of each actor , allowing them to lean forwards to give the impression that they were being " sucked back in time " when the final cut was put together . While filming the actor sequences , VFX supervisor William Bartlett filmed the aerial view of London from Tower 42 's Vertigo bar .
With computer @-@ generated imagery looking to make up so much of the commercial , Kleinman attempted to use film of real elements wherever possible . To this end , 200 mudskippers were brought to the studio from South Africa for the final scene , arriving via Singapore . An entire afternoon was set aside for filming the mudskipper sequence . The footage obtained formed the major part of the final cut of the scene , with only one or two post @-@ production changes : the addition of tail fins and animation of the expression of disgust that closes the piece . Stop motion footage of other real elements was taken , including a stage @-@ by @-@ stage blowtorching of plants , used to show flora coming back to life in the reverse sequence , and shots of baking bread , used to model the geological changes to background rock formations . Additional real elements were to have been incorporated into the commercial , mostly from stock footage of several animal species , but only short segments of apes and lizards appeared in the final cut .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Post @-@ production work was handled mostly by Framestore CFC , who had worked on previous Guinness campaigns Surfer and Dreamer , and had worked with Daniel Kleinman on a number of outside projects , including several commercials and James Bond title sequences . The project was overseen by William Bartlett , known for his visual effects work on the BBC television documentary Walking with Dinosaurs . The original schedule allowed for three and a half months in post @-@ production , with airing of the commercial to follow almost immediately .
The 24 @-@ man animation team was split into two groups . Half were assigned to the creation of the 15 new CGI creatures populating noitulovE ( in Maya ) , while the other half created the backgrounds ( in Houdini ) . Compositing work – combining the greenscreen shots with stock footage and CGI elements – was performed in Flame and Inferno . As the final commercial was to be shown on cinema screens , the animators worked at a resolution higher than that afforded by the 576i definition used by British PAL @-@ encoded television sets , to improve the appearance of the advert when projected .
Near the end of post @-@ production , the creative team decided that the music chosen to accompany the advert , an electronic track by Groove Armada , was not working particularly well . Peter Raeburn , who had chosen the track used in Surfer ( Leftfield 's " Phat Planet " ) , was brought on as music director . Raeburn suggested three pieces , with " Rhythm of Life " ultimately presented to Guinness as an alternative and approved as a replacement .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Schedule = = =
noitulovE was originally to have begun its run in September 2005 , but the airdate was pushed back several weeks as post @-@ production took longer than anticipated . As had been the case with several earlier campaigns , the commercial was to air in several bursts , throughout 2005 and 2006 . Spots were purchased in the commercial breaks of sports broadcasts , high @-@ budget television dramas and shows whose primary audience overlapped with the campaign 's target demographic of British males in the 24 – 35 age range . The first burst was commissioned to run from 3 October to 13 November 2005 , during programming such as the UEFA Champions League , Lost , Vincent , Ant and Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway and terrestrial television screenings of Austin Powers : Goldmember .
The second burst lasted through December . The focus moved to multichannel television , with appearances in live televised football matches , films , and popular programming such as I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! . Two further bursts were commissioned for 2006 , to run from 15 May to 9 June and 22 August to 8 October . Programmes selected for the May – June burst included Celebrity X Factor , Big Brother and live football and cricket matches . The final series of spots ran during programming totalling 56 ratings points per week ( 56 % of British television viewers ) , with much of the budget assigned to multichannel television .
= = = Awards = = =
noitulovE was well received by critics within the advertising and television industries , and was predicted to win the 2006 Cannes Lions Film Grand Prix , one of the advertising industry 's highest awards . Advertising Age said of the piece : " A flawless DGI production to an irresistible piece of music propelling a brilliant , astonishingly witty new iteration of a longstanding , unique positioning . This isn 't just great advertising ; it is perfect advertising . " Gastón Bigio , Executive Creative Director for Del Campo Nazca Saatchi & Saatchi remarked on the campaign in the run @-@ up to the festival , saying " noitulovE is , in my opinion , the best . [ ... ] This execution is absolutely incredible , as is the production . " The main competition for the prize was thought to be the Australian Big Ad for Carlton draught beer , and the British Balls , for Sony 's BRAVIA line of high definition television sets . After the three received Gold Lions in the Film category , they were shortlisted by the judges as contenders for the Grand Prix . Ultimately , the honour went to noitulovE . After the decision , David Droga , president of the jury which determined the outcome , said " It 's a very very strong ad . A lot of the jurors felt that it was not only a stand @-@ alone , remarkable ad , but also a triumphant return for a fabulous campaign . " The victory placed director Daniel Kleinman at Number 29 in The Independent 's list of the Top 50 Newsmakers of 2006 .
The 2006 edition of the Gunn Report , an authoritative annual publication determining the advertising industry 's most critically successful campaigns , revealed that noitulovE had received more awards that year than any other campaign worldwide . Among the awards were three Clios , two Golden Sharks , and the Special Jury Prize at the Imagina Awards .
The ad was also a hit with the public . It has been credited by Guinness as being responsible for the substantial boost in sales experienced by the brand during the period in which it was broadcast . While revenues within the UK beer market declined by an average of − 0 @.@ 4 % ( − £ 19M ) , the year @-@ on @-@ year figures for Guinness showed an increase of 3 @.@ 6 % ( + £ 13.3M ) . Between October 2005 and October 2006 , Guinness achieved its highest ever volume ( 6 @.@ 8 % ) and value ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) shares , taking the position of market leader from Stella Artois . Diageo attributed the growth in no small part to the positive reception garnered by noitulovE .
= = = Legacy = = =
As one of the most recognisable British television advertisements of 2006 , noitulovE was one of two commercials ( the other being Sony 's Balls ) to feature in a £ 200M campaign launched by Digital UK to raise awareness of the imminent switchover within the UK from analogue to digital television . New versions of the two adverts were produced , showing the first few seconds of the original spot before being interrupted by " Digit Al " , an animated spokesman for the campaign .
In 2004 , Guinness launched a retrospective television advertising campaign promoting Guinness Extra Cold stout , featuring new ten @-@ second versions of commercials broadcast between 1984 and 2004 . These included Mars ( with Rutger Hauer reprising his role as the " Pure Genius " ) , Anticipation , Fish Bicycle , Surfer , and Bet on Black. noitulovE joined the campaign in 2006 , and was the only piece to receive more than one new version . In the first of these , the patrons are encased only seconds after taking their first sip of Guinness in a glacier identical to the one which appeared half @-@ way through the original spot . In the second , the sea through which the three fish bound backwards in the original spot is frozen while the trio are in mid @-@ leap , leaving the characters skidding across the surface . In the final version , the primeval pool at the end of the original spot freezes while the mudskippers are taking their drink , and the protagonists ' tongues are left stuck in the ice .
When noitulovE was first proposed , it was the only pitch revisiting the Good things come to those who wait campaign , as , according to copywriter Ian Heartfield , both AMV BBDO and Diageo " didn 't think [ they ] could do something good enough to warrant following on from Surfer and the like . " However , following the success of noitulovE , three additional commercials have been aired within the Good Things ... campaign : Fridge , Hands , and Tipping Point ( Guinness ' most expensive advertising campaign to date ) .
= Stuart McCall =
Andrew Stuart Murray McCall ( born 10 June 1964 ) , usually known as Stuart McCall , is a football manager and former player who is the current manager of Bradford City . He made a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career .
McCall started his professional career with Bradford City , where he made his senior debut in 1982 . He played six seasons at Valley Parade , during which time he won the Division Three championship , a title which was overshadowed by the Bradford City stadium fire when 56 people died and in which his father Andy was injured . After missing out on promotion in 1987 – 88 , McCall moved to Everton , for whom he scored twice but finished on the losing side in the 1989 FA Cup Final . In 1991 , he moved to Rangers , with whom he spent seven seasons and won six league titles , three Scottish Cups and two Scottish League Cups . McCall returned to Bradford City as captain to take them into the top division of English football for the first time in 77 years . After four seasons he moved to Sheffield United , where he retired as a player in 2005 .
Born and raised in England , McCall qualified to play for Scotland through his Scottish father . He won 40 international caps and scored one goal in the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy . He also played in two European Championships but his international career ended after he was left out of the 1998 World Cup squad .
McCall was part of the coaching staff during his second spell at Bradford City , briefly serving as caretaker @-@ player manager in 2000 . He continued his coaching at Sheffield United and was assistant manager to Neil Warnock until May 2007 , when he returned to Bradford City for a third time , this time as manager . He spent two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in charge of Bradford City , leaving in February 2010 . Just before the end of 2010 , he was appointed Motherwell manager . He stayed at Fir Park for four years , helping the club finish second in the league twice . After a poor start to the 2014 – 15 season , he resigned in November 2014 . McCall was appointed manager of Rangers in March 2015 , but left the club at the end of a short @-@ term contract .
= = Early and personal life = =
Stuart McCall was born on 10 June 1964 in Leeds , England , to Scottish parents Andy , a former professional footballer , and Jean McCall . He was the couple 's third child after Leslie and Janette , who were 20 and 15 respectively when Stuart was born . The family home was just round the corner from Leeds United 's Elland Road ground where McCall would spend many Saturday afternoons watching United , dreaming of following his father and playing for Leeds , even after the family moved to Wortley .
McCall played football for Upper Wortley Primary School and Thornhill Middle School , even scoring a winning goal for the latter in a cup final when he came on as a substitute with his arm in a sling . McCall also played table tennis as a schoolboy but excelled at football , captaining the Leeds under @-@ 11 boys team and playing for other Leeds representative sides . McCall 's parents split and he made up for his size when he moved to one of Leeds ' toughest estates and played for pub sides by the age of 14 . He moved schools to Harrington High and also played for local young sides Pudsey Juniors , Holbeck and later Farsley Celtic . McCall thought he had missed his chance of playing professionally after a string of other players were signed by professional clubs , until Farsley played Bradford City 's junior side in a friendly and he impressed coach Bryan Edwards enough to be asked for a trial .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Club career = = =
= = = = Bradford City = = = =
McCall came through City 's youth system after he was signed by George Mulhall in 1980 from Farsley Celtic at the age of 16 , before becoming an apprentice in June 1981 . Mulhall 's successor , Roy McFarland gave McCall his debut at Reading on 28 August 1982 – the opening day of the 1982 – 83 season – when he deputised for Ces Podd at right back . He had played just six league games by 29 January 1983 when he made the first of 134 consecutive league appearances , all in midfield under new manager Trevor Cherry . City finished 12th in Division Three that season . The following season City struggled to make up for the absence of Bobby Campbell , who had left to join Derby County , and won just one of their first fifteen games , until Cherry bought Campbell back from Derby , and City won a record ten consecutive games on their way to a seventh place finish .
During the summer of 1984 , Cherry made the two key signings of central defender Dave Evans and right winger John Hendrie to build on the previous season 's high finish . McCall was an integral part of the team as City won the Division Three championship in 1984 – 85 , during which he scored eight goals as one of two ever @-@ present players . The title was assured in the penultimate game when McCall scored the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers . The league title was paraded before the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 at home to Lincoln City . However , the club 's title was overshadowed when 56 people died in the Bradford City stadium fire when the Valley Parade ground 's main stand caught fire after 40 minutes of play , during which McCall 's father , who was with other family members , was badly injured . After the fire , McCall , still in his kit , spent several hours driving from the ground to his sister 's house , then to Bradford Royal Infirmary and Pinderfields Hospital trying to find his father . His father had suffered severe burns and needed skin grafts on his hands and head and was in hospital for several weeks .
For the following 19 months , the club played games away from Valley Parade . Cherry and the players became a close @-@ knit team , attending funerals of the victims and other engagements in the months that followed , and the club 's 13th place finish in Division Two in 1985 – 86 was hailed a major achievement . During Bradford 's time away from Valley Parade , McCall also turned his back on Leeds United , the team he had supported as a child , after their fans set fire to a chip van at Odsal Stadium . McCall became club captain in November 1986 , aged just 21 , after Peter Jackson moved to Newcastle United . Under Cherry 's replacement , Terry Dolan , the club held off any relegation threats to finish tenth in 1986 – 87 . Like Jackson , McCall and Hendrie were both keen to move to a Division One club , but they agreed in 1987 to stay for one final season .
Dolan brought in Paul Tomlinson , Brian Mitchell and Lee Sinnott in a bid to help McCall and Hendrie realise their dreams with City . They mounted a promotion challenge in 1987 – 88 and were top for much of the season until they faltered in the New Year . When promotion was missed initially by one point on the last day of the season after a 3 – 2 defeat against Ipswich Town and then through play @-@ off defeat to Middlesbrough , McCall left the club , signing for Everton for £ 850 @,@ 000 in June 1988 . He had played 238 league games for the club , scoring 37 goals , and in total played 285 games , scoring 46 goals . McCall was later outspoken in his autobiography , The Real McCall , about City 's failure to strengthen the side to secure promotion .
His departure was soured when he was forced to go to the Football League with a Professional Footballers ' Association representative to win £ 8 @,@ 327 @.@ 15 of an unpaid signing @-@ on fee .
= = = = Everton = = = =
McCall joined Everton at a time when its former triumphant side of the mid @-@ 1980s had broken up , following the ban on English sides competing in Europe , which marked the start of a period of underachievement at Goodison Park . His Everton debut came in a 4 – 0 victory over Newcastle United on 27 August 1988 against his former teammate Hendrie , who was making his debut for Newcastle . McCall also returned to Valley Parade for a League Cup tie , but his Everton side were knocked out by Bradford 3 – 1 on 14 December 1988 . He started 29 league games in 1988 – 89 as well as another four substitute appearances , but failed to score in the league . He was also a substitute in the 1989 FA Cup Final when he scored Everton 's equaliser in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool to take the game into extra @-@ time . He scored another equaliser during extra @-@ time , but Liverpool 's own substitute Ian Rush also scored two to secure a 3 – 2 victory for Liverpool .
McCall made a second appearance in an Everton shirt at Valley Parade , when he was invited by former teammate Mark Ellis to bring a side for his testimonial . In three seasons at Everton , McCall played 103 league games as well as earned his first caps with Scotland but he failed to lift any trophies as the club finished eighth , sixth and ninth in the league . Apart from the FA Cup final defeat in 1989 , the closest he came to winning a trophy at Everton was in the 1989 – 90 season , when Everton topped the league in late autumn and remained in contention for the title for the most the rest of the season until disappointing form in the run @-@ in saw them finish sixth .
= = = = Rangers = = = =
In the summer of 1991 , McCall signed for Scottish club Rangers for £ 1 @.@ 2 million . Rangers had just won their third successive Scottish Premier Division title . Under newly appointed manager Walter Smith , McCall ended up playing in the final six of the club 's nine successive Scottish league titles . In his first season at Ibrox , Rangers won the league and cup double , before they achieved greater success in 1992 – 93 , winning both cups 2 – 1 against Aberdeen and coming nine points ahead of Aberdeen in the league . McCall also enjoyed European success that season when the Glasgow club narrowly missed out on an appearance in the UEFA Champions League 1992 – 93 final , coming second in the semi @-@ final group stage to eventual winners Olympique de Marseille . Citing the reason for their success as the spirit which Smith instilled in the team , McCall later said : " It was an incredible season . We won the domestic Treble , we went 44 games unbeaten and we did not lose a single game in Europe . And , though we said we would do it again next year , we all knew it was unrepeatable . " In 1993 – 94 , Rangers added another Scottish League Cup title along with the league championship , but lost 1 – 0 in the final of the Scottish Cup to Dundee United , surprisingly being denied a second successive treble . The following season saw Rangers win the league by their greatest margin as they finished 15 points ahead of Motherwell , but they failed to reach the final of either of the domestic cups . Although their winning margin was reduced to four points , from city rivals Celtic , in 1995 – 96 , Rangers ' points tally of 87 was a record @-@ high total . McCall played in his fourth Scottish Cup final as Rangers defeated Hearts 5 – 1 . His Rangers side again pushed Celtic into second place in 1996 – 97 and defeated Hearts 4 – 3 in the Scottish League Cup . But with the club chasing an unprecedented 10th straight title in 1997 – 98 they had to settle for the runners @-@ up position , with Celtic winning the league by two points on the final day of the season | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
from pools and cisterns in the Wadi Mukhsheib and sealed the cisterns . This action effectively narrowed the area in which Ottoman offensives might be expected to the coastal or northern route across the Sinai Peninsula .
Ottoman aircraft attacked the Suez Canal twice during May , dropping bombs on Port Said . British aircraft bombed the town and aerodrome at El Arish on 18 May and 18 June , and bombed all the Ottoman camps on a front of 45 miles ( 72 km ) parallel to the canal on 22 May . By the middle of June , the No. 1 Australian Squadron , Australian Flying Corps , had begun active service , with " B " Flight at Suez performing reconnaissance . On 9 July , " A " Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt , with " C " Flight based at Kantara .
= = = German and Ottoman force = = =
At the beginning of July , it was estimated there were at least 28 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops in the Gaza – Beersheba area of southern Palestine , and that just before the battle began at Romani , there were 3 @,@ 000 troops at Oghratina , not far from Katia , another 6 @,@ 000 at the forward base of Bir el Abd , east of Oghratina , 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 at Bir Bayud to the south @-@ east , and another 2 @,@ 000 at Bir el Mazar , some 42 miles ( 68 km ) to the east , not far from El Arish .
Kress von Kressenstein 's Fourth Army was made up of the 3rd ( Anatolian ) Infantry Division 's three regiments , the 31st , 32nd and 39th Infantry Regiments , totalling 16 @,@ 000 men , of whom 11 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 873 were combatants , Arab ancillary forces ; and one regiment of the Camel Corps . Estimates of their arms range from 3 @,@ 293 to 12 @,@ 000 rifles , 38 to 56 machine guns , and two to five anti @-@ aircraft gun sections ; they also fielded four heavy artillery and mountain gun batteries ( 30 artillery pieces ) and the Pasha I formation . Nearly 5 @,@ 000 camels and 1 @,@ 750 horses accompanied the advance .
The Pasha I formation with a ration strength of about 16 @,@ 000 , consisted of personnel and materiel for a machine gun battalion of eight companies with four guns each with Ottoman drivers , five anti @-@ aircraft groups , the 60th Battalion Heavy Artillery consisting of one battery of two 100mm guns , one battery of four 150 mm howitzers and two batteries of 210 mm howitzers ( two guns in each battery ) . The officers , NCOs and " leading numbers " of this artillery battalion were German ; the remainder were Ottoman Army personnel . In addition Pasha I also included two trench mortar companies , the 300th Flight Detachment , Wireless detachment , three railway companies and two field hospitals . Austria provided two mountain howitzer batteries of six guns each . With the exception of the two 210 mm howitzers , the trench mortars and the railway personnel the remainder of Pasha I took part in the advance to Romani .
The 300th Flight Detachment provided a squadron for aerial reconnaissance , and increased the numbers of aircraft available to support the advance across Sinai . These Pasha I aircraft were faster and more effective than the " hopelessly outclassed " British aircraft and were able to maintain air superiority over the battleground .
It is also possible that the 81st Regiment of the 27th Division advanced to Bir el Abd and took part in the defence of that place .
The objectives of the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance were to capture Romani and to then establish a strongly entrenched position opposite Kantara , from which place their heavy artillery would be within range of the Suez Canal . The attacking force assembled in the southern Ottoman Empire at Shellal , north @-@ west of Beersheba , and departed for the Sinai on 9 July 1916 ; they reached Bir el Abd and Ogratina ten days later .
= = = British forces = = =
General Sir Archibald Murray , the commander of the British Empire forces in Egypt , formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) in March 1916 by merging the Force in Egypt , which had protected Egypt since the beginning of the war , with the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force which had fought at Gallipoli . The role of this new force was to both defend the British Protectorate of Egypt and provide reinforcements for the Western Front . Murray had his headquarters in Cairo to better deal with his multiple responsibilities , although he was at Ismailia during the battle for Romani .
With the occupation of Romani , the area became part the Northern or No. 3 Sector of the Suez Canal defences , which originally stretched along the canal from Ferdan to Port Said . Two further sectors grouped the defence forces along the central and southern sections of the Canal ; No. 2 , the Central Sector , stretched south from Ferdan to headquarters at Ismailia and on to Kabrit , where the No. 1 or Southern Sector extended from Kabrit to Suez .
Murray considered it very unlikely that an attack would occur anywhere other than in the northern sector and therefore was prepared to reduce the troops in Nos 1 and 2 Sectors to a minimum . He decided not to reinforce his four infantry brigades , but to increase the available fire @-@ power at Romani by moving up the 160th and 161st Machine Gun Companies of the 53rd ( Welsh ) and the 54th ( East Anglian ) Divisions . He also ordered the concentration of a small mobile column made up of the 11th Light Horse , the City of London Yeomanry ( less one squadron each ) with the 4th , 6th and 9th Companies of the Imperial Camel Brigade in No. 2 Sector . He calculated that the whole of the defensive force , including the camel transport necessary to enable infantry in the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division to advance into the desert , would be fully equipped and the camels assembled by 3 August . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels concentrated at Romani prior to the battle . British monitors in the Mediterranean Sea off Mahamdiyah got into position to shell the assembling Ottoman force , while an armoured train at Kantara was ready to assist the defence of the right flank , and all available aircraft were on standby at Ismailia , Kantara , Port Said and Romani .
Major General H. A. Lawrence commanded No. 3 Section Canal Defences , and as part of those defences , the Romani position was commanded by Lawrence , who had his headquarters at Kantara . Stationed at Kantara were infantry in the 42nd Division , an infantry brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division with 36 guns and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , detached from the Anzac Mounted Division . Lawrence moved two infantry battalions of the 42nd Division from No. 2 Section Canal defences to Kantara , and sent infantry in the 158th ( North Wales ) Brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division to Romani on 20 July .
The deployments on 3 August on and near the battlefield were as follows :
at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( less the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , but with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade 's 5th Light Horse Regiment , temporarily attached ) , commanded by Edward Chaytor , and the 5th Mounted Brigade , under the direct command of Lawrence , were joined on the railway by infantry in the 126th ( East Lancashire ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) . Together with the 5th Light Horse Regiment , attached to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade at Dueidar , to the east of Hill 70 , this force was to stop or delay von Kressenstein 's attack should he attempt to bypass Romani and advance directly towards the Suez Canal ,
at Hill 40 , infantry from the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade and the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) were also on the railway line at Gilban Station ,
the Mobile Column was based in the Sinai at the end of the El Ferdan railway , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was at Ballybunion , also in the Sinai at the end of the Ballah railway .
The force at Romani , responsible for its defence when the battle began , consisted of infantry from the British 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith , and the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Chauvel ( less the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) . The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , ( less the 5th Light Horse Regiment , but with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment attached ) were commanded by Lieutenant Colonels J. B. H Meredith and J. R. Royston respectively .
= = = Development of defensive positions = = =
Infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division joined the two mounted brigades at Romani between 11 May and 4 June , when the development of the railway made it possible to transport and supply such a large number of soldiers . The infantry occupied a defensive position known as Wellington Ridge , facing a tangle of sand dunes . The area favoured defence ; sand dunes , stretching about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland , covered an area of 30 square miles ( 78 km2 ) , including , to the south of Romani , the northern route from El Arish . On the southern and south eastern edges , a series of dunes of shifting sand with narrow sloping lanes led to a tableland of deep soft sand .
The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division developed a strong defensive position at Romani which had its left flank on the Mediterranean Sea , here a series of redoubts were built running southwards from Mahamdiyah along the line of high sand hills about 7 miles ( 11 km ) to a dune known as Katib Gannit 100 feet ( 30 m ) high . This line of sand hills , which were high enough to see Katia oasis from , marked the eastern edge of an area of very soft and shifting sand beyond which were lower dunes and harder sand where movement by both infantry and mounted forces was considerably easier . Between the shore at the western end of the Bardawil Lagoon and Katib Gannit ( the principal tactical point on the eastern slopes of the Romani heights ) , the infantry constructed a line of 12 redoubts about 750 yards ( 690 m ) apart , with a second series of redoubts covering the Romani railway station and the right of the defensive position which curved like a hook westward , then northward . A total of 18 redoubts were constructed , which when fully garrisoned held from 40 to 170 rifles each , with Lewis guns and an average of two Vickers machine guns allotted to each position ; they were well wired on the right side of each of the positions , although there was no wire between the redoubts . This defensive line was supported by artillery .
The threat of an Ottoman attack towards the Suez Canal had been considered by Lawrence in consultation with his divisional commanders , and a second defensive area was developed to address their concerns . Their plans took into account the possibility of an Ottoman army at Katia moving to attack Romani or following the old caravan route to assault Hill 70 and Dueidar on their way to the Suez Canal . Any attempt to bypass Romani on the right flank would be open to attack from the garrison , which could send out infantry and mounted troops on the hard ground in the plain to the south @-@ west . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was stationed at Hill 70 at the end of June and the 5th Light Horse Regiment at Dueidar to prevent such an Ottoman force from reaching the Suez Canal .
= = = Light Horse patrols before the battle = = =
Active patrolling by mounted troops continued throughout the period leading up to the battle , but by early July , there were no indications of any imminent resumption of hostilities . The nearest Ottoman garrison of 2 @,@ 000 men was at Bir el Mazar 42 miles ( 68 km ) east of Romani , and on 9 July , a patrol found Bir Salmana unoccupied . However , greatly increased aerial activity over the Romani area began about 17 July , when faster and better @-@ climbing German aircraft quickly established superiority over British aircraft . But they could not stop British aircraft from continuing to reconnoitre the country to the east , and on 19 July , a British aircraft , with Brigadier General E. W. C. Chaytor ( commander of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ) acting as observer , discovered an Ottoman force of about 2 @,@ 500 at Bir Bayud . A slightly smaller force was detected at Gameil and another similar sized force was found at Bir el Abd with about 6 @,@ 000 camels seen at the camps or moving between Bir el Abd and Bir Salmana . The next morning , 3 @,@ 000 men were found to be entrenched at Mageibra , with an advance depot for supplies and stores at Bir el Abd . A small force was spotted as far forward as the oasis of Oghratina , which by the next day , 21 July , had grown to 2 @,@ 000 men .
On 20 July , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade with two guns mounted on ped @-@ rails of the Ayrshire Battery demonstrated against Oghratina , capturing several prisoners , and beginning a series of patrols which , together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade , they continued until the eve of battle . Every day until 3 August , these two brigades alternated riding out from their base at Romani towards Katia at about 02 : 00 and bivouacking until dawn , at which time they advanced on a wide front until German or Ottoman fire was provoked . If the enemy position was weak , the light horse pushed forward , and if a counterattack began , the brigade retired slowly , thereafter to return to camp at Romani at nightfall . The following day , the other brigade carried out similar manoeuvres in the direction of Katia and the advancing Ottoman columns , picking up the officers patrols which had been left out during the night to monitor enemy movements . During this period , one of many clashes occurred on 28 July at Hod Um Ugba , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the British line . Two squadrons of the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel W. Meldrum , made a bayonet assault , supported by several machine guns and two 18 @-@ pounder guns . They drove the Ottomans from the Hod , leaving 16 dead and taking eight prisoners from the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment .
The tactic of continuous forward patrolling was so successful that the advancing force 's every move was known to the defenders , but the light horsemen were substantially outnumbered and could not stop the advance . By daylight on 3 August , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force had occupied Katia and were within striking distance of Romani , Dueidar , Hill 70 and the Suez Canal . Their line ran north @-@ east and south @-@ west from the Bardawil Lagoon to east of Katia , with their left flank thrown well forward .
= = = Plans = = =
The German and Ottoman objective was not to cross the canal , but to capture Romani and establish a strongly entrenched heavy artillery position opposite Kantara , from which to bombard shipping on the canal . Kress von Kressenstein 's plan for the attack on Romani was to bombard the line of defensive redoubts with heavy artillery and employ only weak infantry detachments against them , while his main force launched attacks against the right and rear of the Romani position .
The defenders expected the German and Ottoman attack to be one of containment against their prepared line of defence , and an all @-@ out attack on the right south of Katib Gannit . They also appreciated that such an attack would expose the German and Ottoman left flank . Murray 's plan was to firstly delay the attackers and make it very difficult for them to gain ground south of Katib Gannit , and secondly , only when the German and Ottoman force was totally committed , to then disorganise their flank attack with an attack by Section Troops at Hill 70 and Dueidar , with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column operating more widely against the flank and rear .
Chauvel had selected a position for the defence of Romani , which stretched for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) between Katib Gannit and Hod el Enna , with a second fall @-@ back position covering a series of parallel gullies running south @-@ east and north @-@ west giving access to the area of soft sand to the rear of the Romani defences . No visible works were constructed , but together with Chauvel , the commanders of the two light horse brigades , whose task it would be to hold the attackers on this ground until the flank attack could begin , studied the area closely .
= = Battle on 4 August = =
Just before midnight on 3 / 4 August , three columns of the German Pasha I and the 4th Ottoman Army , consisting of about 8 @,@ 000 men , began their attack on an outpost line held by the 1st Light Horse Brigade three and a half hours after the return of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade from their regular daytime patrol . In addition to the usual officers patrols left out overnight to monitor the enemy 's positions , Chauvel decided to leave out for the night the whole of the 1st Light Horse Brigade to hold an outpost line of about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , covering all entrances to the sandhill plateau which formed the Romani position and which were not protected by infantry posts . A shot or two fired out in the desert to the south @-@ east of their position put the long piquet line of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) on alert about midnight , when the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) was called up to the front line . The Austrian , German and Ottoman advance paused after finding the gullies held by the light horsemen , but at about 01 : 00 , a sudden heavy burst of fire along the whole front began the attack of the considerably superior Ottoman and German forces , and by 02 : 00 they had in many places advanced to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of the Australian line .
The Ottoman centre and left columns were skilfully led round the open flank of the infantry 's entrenchments and on towards the camp and railway . After the moon had set at around 02 : 30 , the Germans and Ottomans made a bayonet charge on Mount Meredith . Although vastly outnumbered , the light horsemen fought an effective delaying action at close quarters , but were forced to relinquish ground slowly and to ultimately evacuate the position by 03 : 00 . Without the benefit of moon light , the light horsemen had fired at the flashes of the enemy 's rifles until they were close enough to use bayonets . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was eventually forced back ; withdrawing slowly , troop covering troop with steady accurate fire , staving off a general attack with the bayonet to their fall @-@ back position ; a large east / west sand dune called Wellington Ridge at the southern edge of the Romani encampment . During the retirement to Wellington Ridge , the covering squadrons on the left near Katib Gannit were also attacked , as was the squadron on the right , which was taken in the flank and suffered considerable loss , but managed to hold its ground until the position in its rear was occupied . By 03 : 30 , all light horsemen south of Mount Meredith had been forced back to their led horses and had succeeded in disengaging and falling back to their second position . Soon after , an Ottoman machine gun was shooting down on the light horse from Mount Meredith .
Chauvel had relied on the steadiness of the 1st Light Horse Brigade , which he had commanded during the Gallipoli campaign , to hold the line against greatly superior numbers for four hours until dawn , when the general situation could be assessed . Daylight revealed the weakness of the light horse defenders in their second position on Wellington Ridge and that their right was outflanked by strong German and Ottoman forces . At 04 : 30 , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , commanded by Colonel J. R. Royston , was ordered up by Chauvel from Etmaler and went into action in front of Mount Royston to support and prolong the 1st Light Horse Brigade 's right flank by moving up the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments into the front line . German , Austrian or Ottoman artillery now opened fire on the infantry defences and camps in the rear ; shrapnel inflicted some losses , but the high explosive shells were smothered by the soft sand . The attackers succeeded in forcing the light horse off Wellington Ridge , which placed them within 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of the Romani camp . However , they were unable to press further , as they now became exposed to machine gun and rifle fire from the entrenched infantry of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , and shelling from the horse artillery supporting the light horsemen 's determined defence .
Having been held south of Romani , the German and Ottoman force attempted a further outflanking manoeuvre to the west , concentrating 2 @,@ 000 troops around Mount Royston another sand dune , south @-@ west of Romani . At 05 : 15 , the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment pushed forward ; then the 32nd and the 39th Infantry Regiments swung around the left and into the British rear . This outflanking movement was steadily progressing along the slopes of Mount Royston and turning the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , whose third regiment , the Wellington Mounted Rifles , was now also committed to the front line .
The two brigades of light horse continued to gradually withdraw , pivoting on the extreme right of the infantry position , which covered the left flank and rear of Romani . They were pushed back between Wellington Ridge and Mount Royston , about 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) west of the former ; the attackers continually forcing back their right flank . Between 05 : 00 and 06 : 00 , they were compelled to also retire slowly from this ridge , although the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) still held the western edge . At 06 : 15 , Meredith was ordered to withdraw the 1st Light Horse Brigade behind the line occupied by the 7th Light Horse Regiment north of Etmaler camp . At 07 : 00 , the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments retired , squadron by squadron , from the remainder of Wellington Ridge . By about 08 : 00 , German , Austrian and Ottoman fire from the ridge top was directed into the camp only a few hundred yards away , but the Ayrshire and Leicester Batteries quickly stopped this artillery attack .
It became apparent that the German and Ottoman right column , ( 31st Infantry Regiment ) was attempting a frontal attack on redoubts held by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . The defenders were able to hold on , but were subjected to severe artillery shelling during the day . Frontal attacks began with heavy German or Austrian fire by their artillery which attempted to breach the infantry defensive line . About 08 : 00 , attacks were being made on Numbers 4 and 5 redoubts which began with heavy artillery fire , but the attacks broke completely when the 31st Ottoman Infantry Regiment were within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of No. 4 redoubt ; subsequent attempts were less successful . At about 10 : 00 , Chauvel contacted Brigadier General E. S. Girdwood , commanding 156th Infantry Brigade , requesting his brigade temporarily relieve the light horse brigades until they had watered their horses in preparation for a mounted counterattack . Girdwood refused because his brigade was being held in reserve to support an intended attack eastward by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .
The light horse had gradually withdrawn back until , at about 11 : 00 , the main German and Ottoman attack was stopped by well directed fire from the Royal Horse Artillery batteries of the Anzac Mounted Division and by light horse rifle and machine gun fire , to which the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division contributed considerable firepower . The attackers appeared to have exhausted themselves , but they held their ground while Austrian and Ottoman artillery of various calibres , including 5 @.@ 9 " and 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , fired on the defenders and their camps , and German and Ottoman aircraft severely bombed the defenders . The three columns of the German , Austrian and Ottoman attacking force were brought to a standstill by the coordinated , concerted and determined defence of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .
The Ottoman advance was at a standstill everywhere . After a long night 's march , the German and Ottoman troops faced a difficult day under the desert sun without being able to replenish their water and exposed to artillery fire from Romani . At this time , the attacking forces held a line running from the Bardawil ( on the Mediterranean coast ) southward along the front of the 52nd Infantry Division 's entrenchments and then westward through and including the very large sand dunes of Mount Meredith and Mount Royston . But from their position on Mount Royston , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force dominated the camp area of Romani and threatened the railway line .
= = = Reinforcements = = =
Chaytor , commander of the New Zealander Mounted Rifles Brigade , had been advised of the Austrian , German and Ottoman advance against Romani at 02 : 00 . By 05 : 35 , Lawrence at his headquarters of the Northern No. 3 Canal Defences Sector at Kantara , had been informed of the developing attack . He recognised that the main blow was falling on Romani and ordered the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade at Hill 70 to move towards Mount Royston . They were led by a Composite Regiment , which moved off at once , the remainder of the brigade preparing to follow . At 07 : 25 , Lawrence ordered the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade consisting of brigade headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment ( less the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the attached 5th Light Horse Regiments , 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , to move towards Mount Royston via Dueidar and there , pick up the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment . The Yeomanry and New Zealand brigades had both been stationed at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , when their orders to move were received . The New Zealanders were to " operate vigorously so as to cut off the enemy , who appears to have got round the right of the Anzac Mounted Division . "
Meanwhile , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Ballybunion was directed to move forward to Hill 70 and send one regiment to Dueidar , while the Mobile Column was ordered by GHQ to march towards Mageibra .
= = = Mount Royston counterattack = = =
The German , Austrian and Ottoman attack on Mount Royston was checked to the north by the 3rd and 6th Light Horse Regiments ( 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades ) , and under constant bombardment from the horse artillery and the infantry 's heavy artillery of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . At 10 : 00 , the front held by the two light horse brigades faced south from a point 700 yards ( 640 m ) northwest of No. 22 Redoubt north of Wellington Ridge to the sand hills north of Mount Royston . As the line had fallen back , the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) had come in between the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) ; from right to left , the line was now held by the 6th , 3rd , 2nd and 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments , while 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north north @-@ west of Mount Royston , " D " Squadron of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ( a regiment in the 5th Mounted Brigade ) held its ground .
The plan called for the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , the 5th Mounted and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades to swing round the attackers ' left flank and envelop them . The first reinforcements to arrive were the Composite Regiment of the 5th Mounted Brigade ; they came up on the flank of their mounted regiment ; the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ' " D " Squadron 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) west of Mount Royston , which was being attacked by a strong body of Ottoman soldiers . The regiment attacked the Ottomans in enfilade and forced them back .
When the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiments were within 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Dueidar on the old caravan road , they were ordered to move directly to Canterbury Hill , the last defensible position in front of the railway , east of Pelusium Station , as the strong German and Ottoman attack was threatening to take the railway and Romani . The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment arrived with its brigade between 11 : 00 and 11 : 30 to find the Composite Yeomanry Regiment ( 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade ) in contact with the German and Ottoman forces on the south @-@ west side of Mount Royston .
The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades first made contact with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade by heliograph , after which Royston , commanding the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , galloped across to explain the situation . Chaytor then moved the Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments , supported by the Somerset Battery , onto high ground between the right of the light horse and the Yeomanry , which was shortly afterwards joined by the remainder of the 5th Mounted Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Wiggin . At the most critical period of the day 's fighting , when the German and Ottoman force of 2 @,@ 000 dominated the Romani area from Mount Royston , the five mounted brigades ( still less the 5th Light Horse Regiment ) began their counterattack at 14 : 00 from the west towards Mount Royston .
The New Zealand riflemen soon gained a footing on Mount Royston , aided by accurate and rapid shooting from the Somerset Royal Horse Artillery Battery . By 16 : 00 , the attack had proceeded to a point where Chaytor arranged with the 5th Mounted Brigade for a squadron of Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and two troops of the Worcestershire Yeomanry to gallop against the southern spur of Mount Royston . They easily took the spur , the defenders not waiting for the onslaught of the mounted charge . From the crest of the spur , the Gloucestershire squadron shot down the horse teams of an Austrian , German or Ottoman battery of pack guns concentrated in the hollow behind the spur , and the attacking force began to surrender . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades were supported by leading infantry battalions of the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( which had just arrived ) when Ottoman and German soldiers began to surrender en masse . At about 18 : 00 , 500 prisoners , two machine guns and the pack battery were captured , and the outer flank of the attacking force was completely routed .
Meanwhile , the inner flank of the German and Ottoman force on Wellington Ridge made a last effort to advance across the ridge , but was driven back by artillery fire . Fresh frontal attacks launched against the main British infantry system of redoubts broke down completely . At 17 : 05 , Major General Smith ordered infantry in the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade to attack the enemy force on Wellington Ridge on the left of the light horse and in coordination with the counterattack on Mount Royston . An artillery bombardment of Wellington Ridge began at 18 : 45 . Just before 19 : 00 , infantry in the 7th and 8th Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) moved south from behind No. 23 Redoubt ; the 8th Scottish Rifles advancing to within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the crest of Wellington Ridge , before being stopped by heavy rifle fire .
When darkness put an end to the fighting , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades established an outpost line and spent the night on the battlefield , while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 5th Mounted Brigades withdrew for water and rations at Pelusium Station , where the newly arrived infantry brigades of the 42nd Division were assembling . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade halted at Hill 70 , while the Mobile Force had reached the Hod el Bada , 14 miles ( 23 km ) south of Romani station . At 19 : 30 , when the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades moved from the positions they had won to water and rest at Pelusium , the area was consolidated by infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade , 42nd Division . Brigadier General Girdwood ordered infantry in the 7th and 8th Scottish Rifles Battalions to hold their ground on Wellington Ridge until daylight , but to keep close contact with the enemy during the night in the hope of capturing large numbers of tired and disorganised soldiers in the morning . Approximately 1 @,@ 200 unwounded prisoners were captured during the day and sent to the Pelusium railway station .
= = Battle on 5 August = =
Within 24 hours , British commanders were able to concentrate a force of 50 @,@ 000 men in the Romani area , a three to one advantage . This force included the two infantry divisions – the 52nd and the newly arrived 42nd – four mounted brigades , two of which had been on active duty since 20 July , and two heavily engaged on the front line the day before , and may have included the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , although it was still at Hill 70 , and the Mobile Column at Hod el Bada . At this time , command of the 5th Mounted Brigade passed from the Anzac Mounted Division to the infantry division ; the 42nd Division , it being suggested that orders required the Anzac Mounted Division to remain in position , and that the 3rd Light Horse Brigade alone was to make a flank attack .
However , Lawrence 's orders for a general advance on 5 August beginning at 04 : 00 included an advance by the Anzac Mounted Division . His orders read :
Anzac Mounted Division to press forward with its right on the Hod el Enna and its left in close touch with the infantry from the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , advancing on the line Katib Gannit to Mount Meredith .
3rd Light Horse Brigade to move towards Bir el Nuss and attack Hod el Enna from the south keeping in close touch with the Anzac Mounted Division .
5th Mounted Brigade , under orders of 42nd Infantry Division to assist the 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's link with the Anzac Mounted Division 's right .
42nd Division to move on the line Canterbury Hill – Mount Royston – Hod el Enna and drive back any opposition to the advance of the mounted troops in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's right flank .
52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's left flank towards Mount Meredith and to prepare for a general advance towards Abu Hamra which was not to be undertaken until further orders from Lawrence at No. 3 Section Headquarters .
Meanwhile , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force was now spread from Hill 110 almost to Bir en Nuss , but with their left flank unprotected . They could not have been in good shape after fighting all the previous day in intense midsummer heat and having to remain in position overnight , far from water and harassed by British infantry . Their situation was now precarious , as their main attacking force was well past the right of the main British infantry positions ; infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was closer to the nearest enemy @-@ controlled water source at Katia than most of the attacking force . Had the British infantry left their trenches promptly and attacked in a south easterly direction , von Kressenstein 's force would have had great difficulty escaping .
= = = British capture Wellington Ridge = = =
At daybreak , infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) advanced with the 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , covered by infantry in the 7th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division on the left , who had brought 16 machine guns and Lewis guns into a position from which they could sweep the crest and reverse slopes of Wellington Ridge . The Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , with the 7th Light Horse Regiment and supported on the left by Scottish Rifles ' infantry posts , fixed bayonets and stormed Wellington Ridge . They encountered heavy rifle and machine gun fire , but rushed up the sandy slope and quickly broke through the German and Ottoman front line . After clearing Wellington Ridge , the mounted riflemen , light horsemen and infantrymen pressed forward from ridge to ridge without pause . These troops swept down on a body of about 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 Ottoman soldiers , who became demoralised . As a result of this attack , a white flag was hoisted and by 05 : 00 the German and Ottoman soldiers who had stubbornly defended their positions on Wellington Ridge , dominating the camps at Romani , were captured . A total of 1 @,@ 500 became prisoners in the neighbourhood of Wellington Ridge ; 864 soldiers surrendered to infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles alone , while others were captured by the light horse and mounted rifles regiments . By 05 : 30 , the main German and Ottoman force was in a disorganised retreat towards Katia , with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the Ayrshire and Leicestershire batteries not far behind . At 06 : 00 , a further 119 men surrendered to the infantry in No. 3 Redoubt ; while these prisoners were being dealt with , it became apparent that they were part of a rearguard and that a full retreat was under way . At 06 : 30 , Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all troops and to initiate a vigorous general advance eastwards .
= = = British advance on Ottoman rearguard at Katia = = =
Infantry from the 42nd Division had arrived during the battle the day before by train from Hill 70 , Hill 40 and Gilban Station , and along with infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , was ordered to move out in support of the mounted Australian , New Zealand and British Yeomanry brigades . The 42nd Division was ordered to advance to Hod el Enna ; their 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade marched out at 07 : 30 and reached Hod el Enna between 09 : 30 and 10 : 00 , while their 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade arrived at 11 : 15 . They were supported by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps , which worked with the Army Service Corps to supply them with drinking water . In much distress in the scorching midsummer sands , infantry in the 42nd Division marched very slowly and far in the rear . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division also experienced difficulties ; although Lawrence ordered the division to move at 06 : 37 , the men did not leave their trenches until nearly midday , reaching their objective of Abu Hamra late in the evening . As a result , Kress von Kressenstein was able to extricate most of his troops and heavy guns from the immediate battle area during the day . Although it has been stated that " British reserves hammered " the Germans and Ottomans to a halt on 5 August , it appears one of the infantry divisions was reluctant to leave their defences ; neither infantry division were trained in desert warfare and found the sand dunes extremely difficult to negotiate . They could not match the pace and endurance of the well @-@ trained German and Ottoman force and were hampered by water supply problems .
At 06 : 30 , when Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all mounted troops ( excluding the Mobile Column ) , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles , the 5th Mounted and the 3rd Light Horse Brigades were somewhat scattered . By 08 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had reached Bir en Nuss ; there they found the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been ordered to move first on Hamisah and then left towards Katia to cooperate in a general attack . The advance guard moved to fulfill these orders at 09 : 00 . At 10 : 30 , the general mounted advance began and by midday , was on a line from west of Bir Nagid to south of Katib Gannit ; in the centre the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were approaching the south @-@ west edge of the Katia oasis ; on their left the 1st , the 2nd Light Horse , the 5th Mounted Brigades and infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division were attacking Abu Hamra , to the north of the old caravan road , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was away to the New Zealander 's right , south of the old caravan road , attacking German and Ottoman units at Bir el Hamisah .
Between 12 : 00 and 13 : 00 , the commanders of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle , 1st and 2nd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reconnoitred the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Katia . It was decided that the three light horse brigades would advance mounted with the Yeomanry to attack the German and Ottoman right flank . The rearguard force made a very determined stand on a well @-@ prepared line , stretching from Bir El Hamisah to Katia and on to Abu Hamra . Their artillery and machine guns were well placed in the palms fringing the eastern side of a great flat marsh , which stretched right across the front of their position , giving them an excellent field of fire .
A general mounted attack commenced at 14 : 30 . By 15 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were advancing at the gallop on Katia . When they had reached the edge of the white gypsum , the light horse and mounted rifle brigades formed a line , fixed bayonets , and charged over the exposed country . They galloped in a long line of charging horses , through shell fire and bullets , holding fixed bayonets . On the far left , the intensity of fire from the rearguard , made it necessary for the 5th Mounted Brigade of sword carrying Yeomanry , to send back their horses and advance dismounted . While all the brigades which charged , were eventually forced to attack dismounted also , when the ground became too swampy . They were met by well @-@ directed , heavy German , Austrian and Ottoman artillery fire , which completely outgunned the supporting Ayrshire and Somerset Batteries ; by sunset , the advance of the British Empire mounted brigades had been stopped . The 9th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) on the extreme right was held up by a determined German and Ottoman rearguard and was unable to work round the right flank of that position . But after galloping to within a few hundred yards of the rearguard 's line , they made a dismounted bayonet attack under cover of machine gun fire and the Inverness Battery . As a result , the German and Ottoman force abandoned their position , leaving 425 men and seven machine guns to be captured . But , instead of holding their ground , they drew off , and this withdrawal led to a strong German and Ottoman counterattack falling on the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment .
Darkness finally put an end to the battle . During the night , the Germans , Austrians and Ottomans withdrew back to Oghrantina , while the Anzac Mounted Division watered at Romani , leaving a troop of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment as a listening post on the battlefield .
The two @-@ day battle for Romani and the Suez Canal had been won by the British infantry and Australian , British and New Zealand mounted troops . They captured approximately 4 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman combatants and killed more than 1 @,@ 200 , but the main enemy force was able to escape with all their artillery , except for one captured battery , and retreat back to Oghratina after fighting a successful rearguard action at Katia .
Having borne the burden of the long days of patrolling , reconnaissance and minor engagements with the advancing Austrian , German and Ottoman columns prior to the battle , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades had alone withstood the attack from midnight on 3 / 4 August until dawn on 4 August , as well as continuing to fight during the long days of battle . By the end of 5 August , they were completely exhausted ; their depleted ranks stumbled back to their bivouac lines at Romani and Etmaler where they were ordered one day 's rest .
= = Pursuit begins = =
Von Kressenstein had prepared successive lines of defence during his advance towards Romani , and despite losing one artillery battery and more than one third of his soldiers , fought a series of effective rearguard actions which slowed the pursuit by British Empire mounted troops and enabled his force to retreat back to El Arish .
During the night of 5 / 6 August , infantry in the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade and 157th ( Highland Light Infantry ) Brigade were at Abu Hamra , the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) at Hod el Enna , the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) on its left in touch with the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , ( 52nd Division ) which had its left on Redoubt No. 21 . The next morning , infantry in the 42nd Division was ordered to advance eastwards at 04 : 00 and occupy a line from Bir el Mamluk to Bir Katia , while the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was to advance from Abu Hamra and prolong the infantry line of the 42nd Division to the north @-@ east . Although they carried out their orders during their two @-@ day march from Pelusium Station to Katia , infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade lost 800 men , victims to thirst and the sun ; other infantry brigades suffered similarly . It became clear that the infantry could not go on , and they ceased to be employed in the advance . Indeed , it was necessary for the Bikanir Camel Corps and Yeomanry detachments , as well as the medical services , to search the desert for those who had been left behind .
The Mobile Column in the south , consisting of the Imperial Camel Brigade , the 11th Light Horse , and the mounted City of London Yeomanry Regiments ( less two squadrons ) , advanced from Ferdan and the Ballah railhead to attack the German and Ottoman left flank , working through Bir El Mageibra , Bir El Aweidia and Hod El Bayud . They found Mageibra evacuated on 5 August . After camping there for the night , they fought strong hostile forces between Bayud and Mageibra the following day , but could make no impression . Some days later , on 8 August , the Mobile Column did succeed in getting round the Ottoman flank , but was too weak to have any effect and retired to Bir Bayud .
= = = Advance towards Oghratina – 6 August = = =
During the previous night , the German and Ottoman force evacuated Katia and was moving towards Oghratina when Chauvel ordered the Anzac Mounted Division to continue the attack . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades and the 5th Mounted Brigade were ordered to capture Oghratina . Despite attempts by these two brigades to turn the enemy flank , they were forced to make a frontal attack on strongly entrenched rearguards in positions which favoured the defenders and which were supported by carefully positioned artillery . Meanwhile , the two infantry divisions moved to garrison Katia and Abu Hamra and Lawrence moved his headquarters forward from Kantara to Romani . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the right advanced towards Badieh , but could only make small progress , against positions securely held by German and Ottoman forces .
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had moved out at dawn , followed by the 5th Mounted Brigade without ambulance support , as the New Zealand Field Ambulance had not returned from Romani and the 5th Mounted Field Ambulance had not yet arrived . Fortunately , casualties were light , and both ambulances arrived in the evening . The 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance , had formed a dressing station at Bir Nagid to the south of Romani , treating wounded from 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's engagement at Bir el Hamisah , a convoy brought in wounded Ottomans from a hod to the south of Romani , and 150 cases of heat exhaustion from infantry in the 42nd Division were treated during the day .
We are still pursuing but it has been perforce slow as the horses are done and the enemy , when advancing , entrenched himself at various points … which has enabled him to fight a most masterly rearguard action … As I am moving on , I must close
= = = Oghratina entered on 7 August = = =
The same three brigades – one mounted rifle , one light horse and one Yeomanry , with the 10th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) supporting the Yeomanry – moved to attack the German and Ottoman position at Oghratina , but the rearguard position was again found to be too strong . Lacking the support of infantry or heavy artillery , the mounted force was too small to capture this strong rearguard position , but the threat from the mounted advance was enough to force the hostile force to evacuate the position . During the night , the German and Ottoman forces retreated back to Bir el Abd , where they had been three weeks before , on 20 July , when they established a base with a depot for supplies and stores .
On 7 August the Greater Bairam ( a feast day celebrating the end of the Islamic year ) coincided with the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps at Romani being ordered to move out with supplies for the advancing troops , but 150 men , most of whom were past the end of their contracts and entitled to be discharged , refused orders to fill their water bottles , draw their rations and saddle up . One man was hit about the head with the butt of a pistol and the dissenters were dispersed into small groups and reassigned to various units in the infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .
= = = Debabis occupied on 8 August = = =
The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade reached Debabis on 8 August . As the 3rd Light Horse Brigade came up , they passed many dead Ottomans and Yeomanry ; one dead Ottoman sniper had a heap of hundreds of rounds of empty cartridge shells beside him . Meanwhile , the Bikanir Camel Corps and a squadron of aircraft continued searching the desert sands for missing men .
= = Action of Bir el Abd – 9 to 12 August = =
Chauvel planned , with Lawrence 's approval , to capture the Ottoman rearguard at their forward base of Bir El Abd , 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the east of Romani . The position was strongly held by greatly superior numbers of Germans , Austrians and Ottomans , supported by well @-@ placed artillery , but the garrison was seen burning stores and evacuating camps .
Chauvel deployed the Anzac Mounted Division for the advance , with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in the centre following the telegraph line . On their right , with a gap of 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , was the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which was in touch with a small flying column ; the Mobile Column of the City of London Yeomanry , 11th Light Horse Regiments and the Imperial Camel Brigade , which was to again attempt to get round the German and Ottoman left flank and cut off their retreat . The advance of the 3rd Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Brigades from Oghratina to Bir el Abd was to begin at daylight on 9 August , with the 5th Mounted Brigade forming the reserve . On the left of the New Zealanders , Royston 's Column ; a composite of the depleted 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , had gone to Katia to water and had then march through the night to the Hod Hamada 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Bir el Abd , where they arrived at 03 : 00 on 9 August . They were to bivouaced for one and a half hours before advancing to a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north @-@ east of Bir el Abd , to cooperate with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's attack on the rearguard position at 06 : 30 . Since the attack , supported by only four horse artillery batteries , was on a prepared position held in superior strength , strong in machine guns , and covered by double the number of guns , including heavy howitzers , it was something of a gamble . The attacking force 's only advantage was its mobility .
= = = Attack on 9 August = = =
The 3rd Light Horse Brigade set out to find and turn the German and Ottoman left , while at 04 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade headed directly towards Bir el Abd along the old caravan route . By 05 : 00 , they had driven in enemy outposts and reached high ground overlooking Bir el Abd . Royston 's Column moved off at 05 : 00 with the intention of enveloping the Ottoman right , while the New Zealanders attacked in the centre ; the four brigades covering a front of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) .
The forward troops of the German and Ottoman rearguard , which held a front of about 10 miles ( 16 km ) , were driven back to Bir el Abd by the New Zealanders . At this time , the attackers appeared likely to succeed , as they had firmly established themselves across the telegraph line and the old caravan road , supported by the Somerset and Leicester batteries . But the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard quickly realised how thin the attacking line was , and at 09 : 00 advanced out of their trenches to counterattack . This aggressive move was only checked by artillery fire from the Somerset Battery effectively combined with fire from machine guns . The subsequent fire fight made it extremely difficult for the mounted riflemen to maintain their position , and on the flanks the light horse were also held up . The German and Ottoman infantry renewed their attack towards a gap between the New Zealanders and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , but the 5th Light Horse Regiment covered the gap , and the German and Ottoman advance was halted .
Chauvel ordered the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been unable to turn the German and Ottoman flank , to move towards the New Zealanders who renewed their efforts , but they only succeeded in exposing their flanks , as the Australians were unable to conform to their forward movement . By 10 : 30 , all progress had stopped . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade continued to hold on in the centre , while both flanks were bent back by pressure from the strong German and Ottoman force . The result was that the New Zealanders ended up holding a very exposed salient line on the forward slopes of the hills overlooking the Hod . Fresh German or Ottoman reinforcements from El Arish , then launched a fierce counterattack on a front of about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , on the centre . This fell on the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and a squadron of Warwickshire Yeomanry of the 5th Mounted Brigade under Chaytor 's command . The New Zealanders were supported by machine guns ; one section , attached to the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment , fired all their guns directly on the advancing soldiers , stopping them when they were within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the New Zealand position .
By midday , the advance had been completely held up by determined counterattacks supported by fresh German or Ottoman troops from El Arish . Even more than at Katia on 5 August , these soldiers were more numerous , ready , full of fight and more strongly supported by well @-@ placed Austrian and Ottoman guns delivering both heavy and accurate fire . At this time , the rearguard launched another heavy counterattack with two columns of 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman soldiers against the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and the squadron of the Warwickshire Yeomanry . By 14 : 00 , the attack had extended to the mounted force 's left flank where the Ayrshire Battery with Royston 's Column was badly cut up by this fire , losing 39 horses killed and making it extremely difficulty to move the guns . They were forced to retire nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , after advancing well up on the right flank , was also forced to give ground by the accuracy of enemy shellfire .
A further withdrawal by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade made the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's position critical and at 17 : 30 , Chauvel gave orders for a general retirement . Disengagement proved to be a challenge ; it was only the tenacity of the New Zealanders and nightfall which saved them from certain capture . At the last , the Machine Gun Squadron had all its guns in line , some of them firing at a range of 100 yards ( 91 m ) ; they were supported by squadrons of the 5th Mounted Brigade , which together , successfully covered the New Zealanders ' withdrawal .
After this day of fierce fighting , which has been described as the hardest @-@ fought action of the whole Sinai campaign , the Anzac Mounted Division 's advance was effectively stopped . Chauvel ordered the division to return to water at Oghratina , despite Lawrence 's wish for them to bivouac close to Bir el Abd but Chauvel concluded that his force was in no condition to remain within reach of this strong and aggressive enemy force . Further , the Anzac Mounted Division had lost a significant proportion of their strength ; over 300 casualties , including eight officers and 65 other ranks killed .
= = = Planned attack for 12 August = = =
At daylight on 10 August , strong patrols went forward and remained in touch with the force at Bir el Abd throughout the day , but without fresh troops , an attack in force could not be made .
No serious fighting took place on 11 August , but von Kressenstein 's force at Bir el Abd was watched and harassed , and plans were made for an attack on 12 August . The advance of the Anzac Mounted Division began at daylight , but soon afterwards , forward patrols reported that the garrison at Bir el Abd was retiring . The mounted force followed the Austrians , Germans and Ottomans as far as Salmana , where another rearguard action delayed the mounted force , as the enemy withdrawal continued back to El Arish .
The Anzac Mounted Division 's lines of communication were now fully extended , and the difficulties of supplying the mounted troops from Romani made it impossible for the British Empire mounted force to consider any further advance at that time . Arrangements were made to hold and garrison the country decisively won by this series of indecisive engagements , from Katia eastwards to Bir El Abd .
Von Kressenstein succeeded in withdrawing his battered force from a potentially fatal situation ; both his advance to Romani and the withdrawal were remarkable achievements of planning , leadership , staff work and endurance .
= = = Casualties = = =
According to the Australian official medical history , the total British Empire casualties were :
Other sources put the total killed at 202 , with all casualties at 1 @,@ 130 , of whom 900 were from the Anzac Mounted Division .
Ottoman Army casualties have been estimated to have been 9 @,@ 000 ; 1 @,@ 250 were buried after the battle and 4 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner .
Casualties were cared for by medical officers , stretcher bearers , camel drivers and sand @-@ cart drivers who worked tirelessly , often in the firing line , covering enormous distances in difficult conditions and doing all they could to relieve the suffering of the wounded . The casualties were transported on cacolets on camels or in sand @-@ carts back to the field ambulances , as the heavy sand made it impossible to use motor- or horse @-@ drawn ambulances . Between 4 and 9 August , the Anzac Mounted Division 's five field ambulances brought in 1 @,@ 314 patients , including 180 enemy wounded .
The evacuation by train from Romani was carried out in a manner which caused much suffering and shock to the wounded . It was not effected till the night of August 6 – the transport of prisoners of war being given precedence over that of the wounded – and only open trucks without straw were available . The military exigencies necessitated shunting and much delay , so that five hours were occupied on the journey of twenty @-@ five miles . It seemed a cruel shame to shunt a train full of wounded in open trucks , but it had to be done . Every bump in our springless train was extremely painful .
In the absence of orders coordinating evacuation from the field ambulances , the Assistant Director of Medical Services ( ADMS ) made their own arrangements . The ADMS , Anzac Mounted Division arranged with his counterparts in the two infantry divisions to set up a clearing station at the railhead 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) beyond Romani . This station was formed from medical units of the Anzac Mounted , the 42nd and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Divisions . With no orders from No. 3 Section Headquarters as to the method of evacuation of casualties of the three divisions , prisoners of war were transported back to Kantara by train before the wounded , generating amongst all ranks a feeling of resentment and distrust towards the higher command which lasted for a long time .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Romani was the first large @-@ scale mounted and infantry victory by the British Empire in the First World War . It occurred at a time when the Allied nations had experienced nothing but defeat , in France , at Salonika and at the capitulation of Kut in Mesopotamia . The battle has been widely acknowledged as a strategic victory and a turning point in the campaign to restore Egypt 's territorial integrity and security , and marked the end of the land campaign against the Suez Canal .
Romani was the first decisive victory attained by British Land Forces and changed the whole face of the campaign in that theatre , wresting as it did from the enemy , the initiative which he never again obtained . It also made the clearing of his troops from Egyptian territory a feasible proposition .
This series of successful British infantry and mounted operations resulted in the complete defeat of the 16 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 strong German , Austrian and Ottoman force , about half of whom were killed or wounded , and nearly 4 @,@ 000 taken prisoner . Also captured were a mountain gun battery of four heavy guns , nine machine guns , a complete camel @-@ pack machine gun company , 2 @,@ 300 rifles and a million rounds of ammunition , two complete field hospitals with all instruments , fittings and drugs , while a great quantity of stores in the supply depot at Bir el Abd was destroyed . All the captured arms and equipment were made in Germany , and the camel @-@ pack machine gun company 's equipment had been especially designed for desert warfare . Many of the rifles were of the latest pattern and made of rustless steel . Murray estimated the total German and Ottoman casualties at about 9 @,@ 000 , while a German estimate put the loss at one third of the force ( 5 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 ) , which seems low considering the number of prisoners .
The tactics employed by the Anzac Mounted Division were to prove effective throughout the coming campaigns in the Sinai and in the Levant ( also known at the time as Palestine ) . The key to the mounted rifles and light horse 's approach was to quickly move onto tactical ground and then to effectively operate as infantry once dismounted . In defence , the artillery and machine guns wrought havoc on enemy attacks , and during the mounted advance , they covered and supported the British Empire mounted force .
This battle was fought under extreme conditions in the Sinai desert in midsummer heat over many days , causing much suffering to man and beast and demanding tenacity and endurance on the part of all who took part .
The battle of Romani marked the end of the German and Ottoman campaign against the Suez Canal ; the offensive had passed decisively into the hands of the British Empire force led by the Anzac Mounted Division . After the battle , von Kressenstein 's force was pushed back across the Sinai Peninsula , to be beaten at the Battle of Magdhaba in December 1916 and back to the border of Ottoman Empire @-@ controlled Palestine to be defeated at the Battle of Rafa in January 1917 , which effectively secured the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula . This successful , seven @-@ month @-@ long British Empire campaign , begun at Romani in August , ended at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917 .
= = = Some criticisms = = =
The Battle of Romani has , however , been surrounded with controversy and criticism . It has been suggested that , like the attack on the Suez Canal in 1915 , it was merely a raid to disrupt maritime traffic rather than a determined attempt to gain control of the canal . That the Ottoman Empire 's intention was to strongly occupy Romani and Kantara is supported by preparations in the southern territory of Palestine adjacent to , and extending into , the Sinai . These included extending the Palestine railway system to Wadi El Arish , with a good motor road beside the railway . Cisterns and other works were constructed along this route to store water and at Wadi El Arish , enormous rock cut reservoirs were under construction in December 1916 when the Anzac Mounted Division reached that place just before the Battle of Magdhaba .
Murray , Lawrence and Chauvel have all been criticised for letting von Kressenstein 's force escape . Further , it has been asserted that the tactics of the mounted troops actually helped the enemy withdrawal by concentrating on direct assaults rather than flank attacks . The official British historian acknowledges the disappointment caused by the successful retirement of the German , Austrian and Ottoman force but he also notes the quality of the successive rearguard positions constructed during the advance , and the strength , determination and endurance of the enemy . The strength of the rearguards was clearly demonstrated at Bir el Abd on 9 August , when the mounted force attempted to outflank the large entrenched force . They failed because they were greatly outnumbered . Indeed , if the Anzac Mounted Division had succeeded in getting round the flank without infantry support , they would have been faced with vastly superior forces and could have been annihilated .
It has been suggested that an opportunity was lost on 5 August to encircle and capture the invading Austrian , German and Ottoman force when it was allowed to withdraw to Katia . The infantry 's difficulties regarding the supply of water and camel transport combined with their lack of desert training , together with Lawrence 's confusing orders for infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move south and east , stopped them from promptly advancing to cut off the retreating force in the early hours of the second day 's battle . General Lawrence was criticised for taking a grave and unnecessary risk by relying on just one entrenched infantry division and two light horse brigades to defend Romani . That the strong enemy attack on the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades during the first night 's battle pushed them so far back that the planned flanking attack by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade became almost a frontal attack . Lawrence was also faulted for remaining at his headquarters at Kantara , which was considered to be too far from the battlefield , and that this contributed to his loss of control of the battle during the first day , when the telephone line was cut and he was out of contact with Romani . Lawrence was also criticised for not going forward to supervise the execution of his orders on 5 August , when there was a failure to coordinate the movements of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column .
Chauvel responded by pointing out that the criticisms of the battle were in danger of obscuring the significance of the victory .
= = = Awards = = =
Murray lavished praise on the Anzac Mounted Division in cables to the Governors General of Australia and New Zealand and in his official despatch and in letters to Robertson , writing :
Every day they show what an indispensable part of my forces they are ... I cannot speak too highly of the gallantry , steadfastness and untiring energy shown by this fine division throughout the operations ... These Anzac troops are the keystone of the defence of Egypt .
But he failed to ensure the fighting qualities of these soldiers earned them a proportionate share of recognition and honours . Further , despite claims that Chauvel alone had a clear view of the battle , that his coolness and skill were crucial in gaining the victory , his name was omitted from the long list of honours published on New Year 's Day 1917 . Murray did offer Chauvel a lesser award ( a Distinguished Service Order ) for Romani which he declined .
On reading Murray 's description in his official despatch covering the battle , and reprinted in a Paris edition of the ' Daily Mail ' , Chauvel wrote to his wife on 3 December 1916 @,@
I am afraid my men will be very angry when they see it . I cannot understand why the old man cannot do justice to those to whom he owed so much and the whole thing is so absolutely inconsistent with what he had already cabled .
It was not until after the victory at the Battle of Rafa that Chauvel was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George , but this particular order is awarded for important non @-@ military service in a foreign country . It was not just his military service at Romani which had not been recognised , but also the service of all those who fought in the Anzac Mounted Division at Romani , at El Arish , at Magdhaba and at Rafa . In September 1917 , not long after General Edmund Allenby became Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , Chauvel wrote to GHQ to point out the injustice done to his front @-@ line troops , acknowledging that it was " difficult to do anything now to right this , but consider the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief should know that there is a great deal of bitterness over it . "
= The Litigators =
The Litigators is a 2011 legal thriller novel by John Grisham , his 25th fiction novel overall . The Litigators is about a two @-@ partner Chicago law firm attempting to strike it rich in a class action lawsuit over a cholesterol reduction drug by a major pharmaceutical drug company . The protagonist is a Harvard Law School grad big law firm burnout who stumbles upon the boutique and joins it only to find himself litigating against his old law firm in this case . The book is regarded as more humorous than most of Grisham 's prior novels .
The theme of a young lawyer being fed up with a giant law firm and bolting away to less lucrative but more satisfying career is shared with " The Associate " . The theme of a lawsuit against a giant corporation appeared in " The Runaway Jury " - but in the present book , the corporation is vindicated and proven to have been unjustly maligned ( at least on the specific drug which is the subject of the lawsuit ) and the mass tort lawyers are seen as greedy and unscrupulous , ultimately bolting and leaving the protagonist 's tiny Chicago firm in the lurch .
Critical reviews were mixed for the book , with several opinions noting a lack of suspense . Nonetheless , the book has achieved both hardcover and ebook # 1 best seller status on various lists , including both The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal . However , since some services do not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction books , it did not debut as a # 1 bestseller on certain lists , such as the USA Today . Some reviewers noted that this story would lend itself to an adapted screenplay .
= = Background = =
Having sold 250 million copies of his previous 24 novels in 29 languages , Grisham had produced an international bestseller with each prior book . Including the release of The Litigators , Grisham has produced 23 adult fiction novels and 2 children 's fiction novels as well as a short story collection . In addition , he has produced one non @-@ fiction book . Thus , various sources claim this to be his 23rd , 25th , or 26th book .
In the first of a two @-@ part interview with The Wall Street Journal , Grisham claimed that although he usually attempts to include humor in his submitted drafts , it is usually removed during the editorial process . However , in this case much of the humor survived editing . In the second part of the interview the following week , Grisham noted that his inspirations for the book included television advertisements and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill .
= = Publication = =
Leading book retailers such as Amazon.com , Barnes & Noble , and Walmart released the book in hardcover format in the United States as a Doubleday publication on October 25 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , the book was published with different cover art by Hodder & Stoughton on the same date . Random House published the paperback version on June 26 , 2012 .
The book is also available as an audiobook , narrated by Scott Brick , and in ebook format . Other formats available on October 25 , included large @-@ print , compact disc and abridged compact disc . A limited edition will be available on November 22 , 2011 . An excerpt from the book was included in some editions including the iTunes Store edition of The Confession , which was his prior adult novel .
= = Plot = =
Oscar Finley and Wally Figg are the bickering partners of a small law firm in the South Side of Chicago . Oscar 's character holds the firm together despite the childish and unethical behavior of Wally , his junior partner . Their bickering is often mediated by Rochelle , the highly competent African American secretary , who had learned a lot of law in he eight years in the office . Meanwhile David Zinc , a graduate of the Harvard Law School , is completely fed up with the grinding and dehumanizing - though well @-@ paid - life of an Associate in the giant law firm of Rogan Rothberg , where in five years of work he had never seen the inside of a courtroom . He suddenly breaks away , goes on a drinking binge and by chance finds himself at the Finley & Figg office . Feeling an elevating sense of freedom and vowing never to go back , Zink willingly relegates himself to working for the two disreputable street lawyers and ambulance chasers .
While Wally goes to a funeral home to attend the wake of a former estate client , the client 's son claims that his father was killed by Krayoxx , a cholesterol @-@ lowering drug developed by the fictional pharmaceutical company Varrick Labs . Ecstatic at the possible monetary returns on the case , the firm finds several former clients who appear to have valid claims about Krayoxx . Oscar and Wally generate publicity in the Chicago Tribune with a picture of their filing ; this induces an avalanche of communications and leads them to several additional claimants .
Wally notices a blossoming class action lawsuit against Varrick Labs in Florida , and realizes that if he can find some patients to sign as clients , he can earn a big payday on another firm 's coattails . However , some complications make the story interesting . Although none of the three Finley & Figg lawyers had previously argued in United States federal court , that is where they find themselves pitted against Zinc 's old firm with this case . In fact , David 's expertise was in long @-@ term bonds .
Once the firm 's claims become prominent , mass tort operators approach them about being part of a mass settlement . Wally flies to Las Vegas to meet the other mass tort interests , most notably Jerry Alisandros . Varrick 's CEO flies to Chicago to meet Nadine Karros , a leading defense attorney , who works for Rogan Rothberg . Believing that they can get federal judge Harry Seawright to claim jurisdiction , Karros is chosen for her firms ' ties to him and her expertise . The case is soon expedited on Seawright 's docket with Finley & Figg 's claim singled out of the tort claimants and Karros takes action to have Finley & Figg 's eight death cases heard separately . Eventually , Alisandros learns that tests of Krayoxx yield benign results . Oscar and his wife , Paula , are often at odds , and as a large settlement looms , he attempts to divorce her and cash out . After settlement talks break down with Varrick , Alisandros withdraws as co @-@ counsel and Finley & Figg motions to withdraw their claims .
Once at Finley & Figg , Zinc stumbles upon a lead poisoning brain damage case involving Burmese immigrants . He expends his own time and resources on their case . He also succeeds in representing immigrants in a labor law case . During the labor case , the employer attempted to have Finley & Figg 's offices burned down and the would @-@ be arsonist stumbled upon Oscar at the office . Oscar shot him and added an unnecessary debilitating shot that shattered his leg . He was sued for using excessive force .
With Varrick having spent 18 million dollars defending itself and the mass tort bar having vociferously discredited Krayoxx in the mass media , Karros motioned for frivolous lawsuit sanctions pending a withdrawn motion . Additionally , actions were initiated for legal malpractice regarding Wally 's letters that promised 2 million dollar settlement followed by motions to dismiss without notifying his clients . After realizing that they could be sued for defense costs and malpractice for withdrawing the case , Finley & Figg withdraw their motions and agree to a jury trial that they believe to be futile . The trial opens as originally scheduled . During opening statements , Oscar suffered a myocardial infarction . Wally attempted to make light of the situation by proclaiming it an example of Krayoxx effects . Karros moved for mistrial and the motion was granted , leading to the need to pick a new jury . Wally stood in for Oscar as lead attorney while a new jury was seated and for the first day of testimony . The next day , the recovering alcoholic Figg was nowhere to be found although an empty pint bottle of Smirnoff Vodka was . After Wally was AWOL for a second day , David was pressed into service . Rueben Massey , Varrick 's CEO , instructed Karros not to move for likely @-@ successful summary judgment . Zinc declined to cross @-@ examine the first handful of expert witnesses that Varrick called , Eventually , Zinc discredited Varrick 's clinical trials during cross @-@ examination of the final expert witness . Nonetheless , the jury rendered a very quick not guilty verdict .
Zinc continued to pursue the lead poisoning product liability case . He settled the case for $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( including $ 1 @.@ 5 million in legal fees ) . David returns to the office and tells Oscar and Wally of his settlement . He tells them of his plan to split his earnings evenly with them . In return the three of them are to sign a 12 @-@ month contract to enter an equal partnership and will no longer be an ambulance @-@ chasing firm . Oscar and Wally agree to the new contract . Later that year the partnership fell apart . Finley began spending less time in the office and eventually retired a happy man , Figg packed up and moved to Alaska , and Zinc opened his own product liability practice , David E. Zinc , Attorney @-@ at @-@ Law and hired Rochelle as his new secretary .
= = = List of characters = = =
Oscar Finley , Finley & Figg Senior Partner - A lazy , unhappily married , nearing retirement " fender @-@ benders , slip @-@ and @-@ falls and quickie divorces veteran " and former police officer , who took the bar exam three times .
Wally Figg , Finley & Figg Junior Partner - A former DUI convictee and four @-@ time divorcé who trolls funeral parlors and sickrooms for clients . A University of Chicago Law School grad who took the bar exam three times .
David Zinc , Finley & Figg Associate attorney - Prototypical Grisham young hot shot Harvard graduate lawyer whose life is turned upside down .
Rochelle Gibson , Finley & Figg secretary - Former claimant against Finley & Figg who holds the firm together .
Nadine Karros , Defendant 's leading litigator recruited by Varrick .
Harry Seawright , federal judge .
DeeAnna Nuxhall , repeat Finley & Figg divorce customer and eventual love interest of Wally 's
Jerry Alisandros , mass tort operator who brings F & F into his firm 's fold .
Paula Finley , Oscar 's wife
Rueben Massey , CEO Varrick .
Helen , David 's wife
Anderson Zinc , David 's father ( Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Minnesota ) ( per Ch . 15 )
Caroline Zinc , David 's mother ( art and photography teacher ) ( per Ch . 15 )
Lana , David 's secretary
= = Critical review = =
The Litigators is said to be " an amusing and appalling look into the machinations of a nationwide class @-@ action suit , " according to Tobin Harshaw of Bloomberg L.P. The Wall Street Journal 's Christopher John Farley noted that the book is lighter than Grisham 's other works . Publishers Weekly called it a " bitingly farcical look at lawyers at the bottom of the food chain " . CNN described the book as an original perspective of " the best and worst the American system of justice has to offer " . Louis Bayard of The Washington Post , who described himself as someone who abandoned Grisham after his first three novels , noted that this book might be a good starting point for those who have tired of Grisham . Andrea Simakis of The Plain Dealer describes the book as a " heartier meal " than Grisham 's usual " potato @-@ chip fiction " . Publishers | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Weekly also notes that the fairy tale ending is not really in keeping with the introduction 's dark humor . Rick Arthur of The United Arab Emirates publication The National describes the book unfavorably as a cross between prior Grisham works The Street Lawyer and The King of Torts and similarly describes the protagonist unfavorably to those of The Firm and The Rainmaker . Geoffrey Wansell of the Daily Mail presented one of the more favorable reviews describing the book as " a spectacular return to form , displaying the clarity and passion that were there in his first thrillers but seemed to ebb away . " Wansell notes that Grisham returned to one of his seminal themes of the idealistic young lawyer fighting with the realization that corporations only care about maximizing profits .
The book has been derided for its lack of suspense . Carol Memmott of USA Today says that Grisham 's latest attempt to capture the spirit of the legal David and Goliath story is missing " the ratcheting @-@ up of suspense " that he has employed successfully in recent adult and youth novels . Harshaw claims that the book is lacking in the suspense that made The Firm so successful . Arthur finds elements of the plot implausible and the story unsuspenseful as well as unsatisfying . Although the book is somewhat predictable , Bayard notes that " Grisham swerves clear of the usual melodramatic devices . Corporations aren ’ t intrinsically venal ; plaintiffs aren ’ t lambent with goodness . And best of all , no one is murdered for stumbling Too Close to the Truth . "
Some sources noted that the book has potential to become an adapted screenplay . Irish Independent describes Grisham 's new book as " following his usual route to the bestsellers list " and projects it as a candidate to be his next Hollywood film . Although it is standard Grisham fare , Independent noted that it provides the usual thrills in Grisham 's comfortable legal world and should be a gripping read for his usual fans . The Sunday Express noted that the book could be readily converted to a screenplay , but its critic , Robin Callender Smith , viewed the " ambulance chasing " ethos as a foreign thing that Brits might have to worry about in the near future .
Simakis praised the book for having more depth of character than Grisham 's novels customarily do . She compares the protagonist to Mitch McDeere from The Firm and Rudy Baylor from The Rainmaker . Memmott says that most of the claimants that they find are unsympathetic , but a few are from somewhat sympathetic immigrant families . Simakis notes that Wally trades sex for legal services with one claimant . Harshaw says that the book is a bit sentimental and comparatively lacking in terms of secondary character development for Grisham . Larry Orenstein of Canada 's Globe and Mail notes that on the dramatic scale this book has instances of laugh out loud humor that make it more like Boston Legal than The Practice , which Boston Legal was spun off from .
= = Commercial success = =
According to The Huffington Post , this book is the ninth best @-@ selling fiction book of the year in 2011 , while according to the USA Today this was the 16th best selling book overall in 2011 . According to Amazon.com the book was the number eight overall best seller .
= = = Hardcover = = =
It immediately was listed as the Publishers Weekly # 1 best @-@ seller among fiction hardcover books according to Reuters . It was also listed as the # 1 best @-@ seller by The New York Times in the November 13 , 2011 book review section for the week ending October 29 , 2011 for Hardcover Fiction , E @-@ Book Fiction , Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction , and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction . It dropped from the # 1 position in its second week on the list . It remained on the Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction list until the February 19 , 2012 list ( 15 weeks ) for the week ending February 4 . It remained on both the Hardcover Fiction list and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction list until the February 26 list ( 16 weeks ) for the week ending February 11 . It remained on the E @-@ Book Fiction list until the March 11 list ( 18 weeks ) for the week ending February 25 .
The Wall Street Journal announced that on Saturday October 29 , it would begin incorporating digital book sales in its best seller lists . When the book debuted in The Wall Street Journal list on November 5 for the week ending October 30 , it was listed first in Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined . It retained the hardcover lead the following week , but lost the other leads . After two weeks it was surpassed on the hardcover list as well . It remained on The Wall Street Journal Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined best seller lists until the January 7 listing for the week ended on January 1 , 2012 .
The book was released the day after Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs , entitled Steve Jobs , was released by Simon & Schuster . Jobs had died on October 5 and the release date was moved forward . The Jobs book 's release had been moved forward twice ; It had been moved from spring 2012 to November 21 after Jobs stepped down and then to the October 24 date after his death . When The Litigators debuted on November 3 on the USA Today best @-@ seller list , which does not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction , it debuted at number 2 behind the Jobs book .
= = = Paperback = = =
It debuted at # 1 on the New York Times Paperback Mass @-@ Market Fiction Best Sellers list on July 15 , 2012 ( reflecting sales for the week ending June 30 , 2012 ) . The book remained at # 1 until the August 12 list ( reflecting sales of the week ending July 28 , 2012 ) , making a five @-@ week run . It continued to appear on the list until the January 13 , 2013 list ( reflecting sales for the week ending December 29 , 2012 ) . On the USA Today list , which include fiction and non @-@ fiction as well as hardcover and paperback , it debuted at # 10 in the week of July 5 , following its paperback release .
= Stanley Green =
Stanley Owen Green ( 22 February 1915 – 4 December 1993 ) , known as the Protein Man , was a human billboard who became a well @-@ known figure in central London in the latter half of the 20th century .
Green patrolled Oxford Street in the West End for 25 years , from 1968 until 1993 , with a placard recommending " protein wisdom " , a low @-@ protein diet that he said would dampen the libido and make people kinder . His 14 @-@ page pamphlet , Eight Passion Proteins with Care , sold 87 @,@ 000 copies over 20 years .
Green 's campaign to suppress desire , as one commentator called it , was not always popular , but he became one of London 's much @-@ loved eccentrics . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 , and his " less passion from less protein " slogan was used by the fashion house Red or Dead .
When he died at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times published his obituary , and the Museum of London added his pamphlets and placards to their collection . In 2006 his biography was included in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography .
= = Early life = =
Green was born in Harringay , north London , the youngest of four sons of Richard Green , a clerk for a bottle stopper manufacturer , and his wife , May . He attended Wood Green School before joining the Royal Navy in 1938 .
Philip Carter writes in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that Green 's time with the Navy affected him deeply . He was shocked by the obsession with sex . " I was astonished when things were said quite openly – what a husband would say to his wife when home on leave " , he told the Sunday Times " A Life in the Day " column in 1985 . " I 've always been a moral sort of person . "
After leaving the Navy in September 1945 , Green worked for the Fine Art Society . In March 1946 , Carter writes , he failed the entrance exam for the University of London , then worked for Selfridges and the civil service , and as a storeman for Ealing Borough Council . He said that he had lost jobs twice because he had refused to be dishonest . In 1962 he held a job with the post office , then worked as a self @-@ employed gardener until 1968 when he began his anti @-@ protein campaign . He lived with his parents until they died , his father in 1966 and his mother the following year , after which he was given a council flat in Haydock Green , Northolt , north London .
= = His mission = =
= = = On the streets = = =
Green began his mission in June 1968 , at the age of 53 , initially in Harrow on Saturdays , becoming a full @-@ time human billboard six months later on Oxford Street . He cycled there from Northolt with a sandwich board attached to the bicycle , a journey of 12 miles ( 19 km ) that could take up to two hours , until he was given a bus pass when he turned 65 .
He rose early , and after porridge for breakfast made bread that would rise while he was on patrol , ready for his evening meal . Otherwise his diet consisted of steamed vegetables and pulses , and a pound of apples a day . Lunch was prepared on a Bunsen burner and eaten at 2 : 30 in a " warm and secret place " near Oxford Street .
From Monday to Saturday he walked up and down the street until 6 : 30 pm , reduced to four days a week from 1985 . Saturday evenings were spent with the cinema crowds in Leicester Square . He would to go to bed at 12 : 30 am after saying a prayer . " Quite a good prayer , unselfish too " , he told the Sunday Times . " It is a sort of acknowledgment of God , just in case there happens to be one . "
Peter Ackroyd wrote in London : The Biography that Green was for the most part ignored , becoming " a poignant symbol of the city 's incuriosity and forgetfulness " . He was arrested for public obstruction twice , in 1980 and 1985 . " The injustice of it upsets me " , he said , " because I 'm doing such a good job " . He took to wearing overalls to protect himself from spit , several times finding it on his hat at the end of the day .
= = = Writing = = =
Sundays were spent at home producing Eight Passion Proteins on his printing press . Waldemar Januszczak described it as worthy of Heath Robinson , who was known for his cartoons of ancient contraptions . The racket caused trouble between Green and his neighbours .
Noted for its eccentric typography , Eight Passion Proteins went through 52 editions between 1973 and 1993 . Green sold 20 copies on weekdays and up to 50 on Saturdays ( for 10 pence in 1980 and 12 pence 13 years later ) , a total of 87 @,@ 000 copies by February 1993 , according to Carter . He sent copies to those in the public eye , including five British prime ministers , the Prince of Wales , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Pope Paul VI .
The booklet argued that " those who do not have to work hard with their limbs , and those who are inclined to sit about " will " store up their protein for passion " , making retirement , for example , a period of increased passion and marital discord . He left several unpublished manuscripts , including a novel , Behind the Veil : More than Just a Tale ; a 67 @-@ page text called Passion and Protein ; and a 392 @-@ page version of Eight Passion Proteins , which , Carter writes , was rejected by Oxford University Press in 1971 .
= = Posthumous recognition = =
Green enjoyed his local fame . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 for its " A Life in the Day " feature , and some of his slogans , including " less passion from less protein " were used on dresses and t @-@ shirts by the London fashion house Red or Dead .
When he died in 1993 at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times all published obituaries . His letters , diaries , pamphlets and placards were given to the Museum of London ; other artefacts went to the Gunnersbury Park Museum . His printing press was featured in Cornelia Parker 's exhibition " The Maybe " ( 1995 ) at the Serpentine Gallery , along with Robert Maxwell 's shoelaces , one of Winston Churchill 's cigars and Tilda Swinton in a glass box . In 2006 he was given an entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography .
Two decades after his death Green was still remembered by writers and bloggers , fondly for the most part , although not invariably so . Artist Alun Rowlands ' documentary fiction , 3 Communiqués ( 2007 ) , portrayed him as trawling the streets of London , " campaigning for the suppression of desire " . Musician Martin Gordon included a track about Green on his 2013 album , Include Me Out .
= Sclerodermatineae =
Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales . Circumscribed in 2002 by mycologists Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky , it contains nine genera and about 80 species . The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies , including boletes , gasteroid forms , earthstars ( genus Astraeus ) , and puffballs . Most species are ectomycorrhizal , although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty . The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) in Asia and North America , and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Sclerodermatineae was first legitimately used by Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky in 2002 based on molecular analyses of nuclear ribosomal large subunit ( 25S ) rRNA sequences from 60 species of Boletales . This research was an extension of Binder 's 1999 graduate work , in which he argued for the need to recognize the molecular differences of the sclerodermatoid fungi . Sclerodermatineae is one of six lineages of the Boletales recognized as a suborder ; the others are the Boletineae , Paxillineae , Suillineae , Tapinellineae , and Coniophorineae . Of the nine genera assigned to the Sclerodermatineae , three are hymenomycetes ( Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus ) , and six are gasteroid ( Astraeus , Calostoma , Diplocystis , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma ) . Since the suborder 's original description , there have been several phylogenetic studies investigating the Sclerodermatineae . Some studies have revealed the existence of numerous cryptic species and have contributed to taxonomic expansion of the group . The " core " Sclerodermatineae include the genera Astraeus , Calostoma , Scleroderma , Pisolithus , Diplocystis , Tremellogaster ( all gasteroid ) , and the boletoid genus Gyroporus ; Phlebopus and Boletinellus resolved as sister to this core group .
As of 2012 , there are an estimated 78 species in the Sclerodermatineae . The type of the suborder is the family Sclerodermataceae ; other families in the suborder are the Boletinellaceae , Diplocystaceae , and the Gyroporaceae .
Boletinellaceae
Boletinellus ( 2 species )
Phlebopus ( 12 species )
Diplocystaceae
Astraeus ( 5 species )
Diplocystis ( 1 species )
Endogonopsis ( 1 species )
Tremellogaster ( 1 species )
Gyroporaceae
Gyroporus ( 10 species )
Sclerodermataceae
Calostoma ( 15 species )
Chlorogaster ( 1 species )
Favillea ( 1 species )
Horakiella ( 1 species )
Pisolithus ( 5 species )
Scleroderma ( about 30 species )
Based on ancestral reconstruction studies , the earliest ( basal ) members of the Sclerodermatineae originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) . The major genera diversified near the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . Asia and North America are the most probable ancestral areas for all Sclerodermatineae , and Pinaceae and angiosperms ( primarily rosids ) are the most probable ancestral hosts .
= = Description = =
Members of the Sclerodermatineae have fruit body shapes ranging from boletoid ( with a cap , stipe , and tubes on the underside of the cap ) to gasteroid . Boletoid fruit bodies sometimes have hollow stipes with a surface that is smooth to somewhat furfuraceous ( covered with flaky particles ) , and lack the reticulation ( a net @-@ like pattern of interlacing lines ) characteristic of some members of the Boletaceae . The pores are merulioid ( wrinkled with low , uneven ridges ) , boletinoid , and either fine or coarse . The flesh is usually whitish to yellowish , and some species exhibit a blue staining reaction upon injury . In mass , spores are yellow ; microscopically , the spores are ellipsoid in shape and have a smooth surface .
Gasteroid fruit body types are either roughly spherical or tuberous , occasionally with stipes , and usually have a peridium that is either simple or multi @-@ layered . Mature gasteroid fruit bodies generally open irregularly at maturity to expose a powdery gleba with a color ranging from white to yellow or black @-@ brown to black . Capillitia are generally absent from the gleba . Spores are spherical or nearly so , and have a surface texture that ranges from smooth to wart @-@ like and spiny , or sometimes with reticulations . Hyphae have clamp connections .
= = Morphological diversity = =
A distinguishing feature of the Sclerodermatineae is the diversity of morphologies within the group . The hymenomycete genera Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus are typical boletes with a cap and stipe . However , each of the gasteroid Sclerodermatineae has a distinct morphology . Species of Astraeus have an " earthstar " morphology where the outer peridium peels back in sections . The gleba of Pisolithus is partitioned into hundreds of membranous chambers . Scleroderma is a simple puffball with a thin outer skin and a powdery gleba at maturity . Diplocystis and Tremellogaster are each distinct in their morphologies : the former comprises compound fruit bodies each with 3 – 60 spore sacs crowded together , while the latter forms a roughly spherical sporocarp with a thick multi @-@ layered peridium . Calostoma ( Greek for " pretty mouth " ) is morphologically distinct from other gasteroid members , having a fruit body that forms a globed , spore @-@ bearing head composed of a three @-@ layered peridium . About two @-@ thirds of Sclerodermatineae species have a gasteroid morphology , although this may be an underestimate due to the existence of cryptic species that have yet to be formally described . For example , studies of the gasteroid genera Astraeus and Pisolithus indicate the existence of numerous cryptic taxa .
= = Ecology = =
The mycorrhizal associations of several Sclerodermatineae genera have been established . Studies have demonstrated that Astraeus , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma form ectomycorrhizal associations with both angiosperms and gymnosperms . Previously thought to be saprophytic , the Calostomataceae were determined to be ectomycorrhizal with Fagaceae and Myrtaceae using isotopic and molecular analyses . Species from the genera Pisolithus and Scleroderma have been used in forestry as mycorrhizal inocula to help promote the growth and vigor of young seedlings .
As a group , the Sclerodermatineae have a broad distribution , and some genera ( Pisolithus and Scleroderma ) have been found on all continents except Antarctica .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Kirk PM , Cannon PF , Minter DW , Stalpers JA ( 2008 ) . Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th ed . ) . Wallingford , UK : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 826 @-@ 8 .
= SM U @-@ 3 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 3 or U @-@ III was the lead boat of the U @-@ 3 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was built by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany .
U @-@ 3 was authorized in 1906 , begun in March 1907 , launched in August 1908 , and towed from Kiel to Pola in January 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just under 139 feet ( 42 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 300 tonnes ( 260 and 330 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . The design of the submarine had poor diving qualities and several modifications to U @-@ 3 's diving planes and fins occurred in her first years in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Her armament , as built , consisted of two bow torpedo tubes with a supply of three torpedoes , but was supplemented with a deck gun in 1915 .
The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in September 1909 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 . At the start of that conflict , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy U @-@ boat fleet . Over the first year of the war , U @-@ 3 conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Cattaro . On 12 August 1915 , U @-@ 3 was damaged after an unsuccessful torpedo attack on an Italian armed merchant cruiser and , after she surfaced the next day , was sunk by a French destroyer . U @-@ 3 's commanding officer and 6 men died in the attack ; the 14 survivors were captured .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 3 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 3 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 4 ) in 1906 by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 3 was laid down on 12 March 1907 and launched on 20 August 1908 . After completion , she was towed via Gibraltar to Pola , where she arrived on 24 January 1909 .
U @-@ 3 's design was an improved version of Germaniawerft 's design for the Imperial German Navy 's first U @-@ boat , U @-@ 1 , and featured a double hull with internal saddle tanks . The Germaniawerft engineers refined the design 's hull shape through extensive model trials .
U @-@ 3 was 138 feet 9 inches ( 42 m ) long by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 81 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced and 300 tonnes ( 330 short tons ) submerged . She was armed with two bow 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , and was designed to carry up to three torpedoes .
= = Service career = =
After U @-@ 3 's arrival at Pola in January 1909 , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 12 September 1909 as SM U @-@ 3 . During the evaluation of the U @-@ 3 class conducted by the Navy , the class ' poor diving and handling characteristics were noted . To alleviate the diving problems , U @-@ 3 's fins were changed in size and shape several times , and eventually , the front diving planes were removed and a stationary stern flap was affixed to the hull . U @-@ 3 served as a training boat between 1910 and 1914 and made as many as ten cruises per month in that capacity .
At the beginning of World War I , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . On 22 August 1914 , U @-@ 3 began operating reconnaissance cruises out of the naval base at Brioni , but moved a month later to Cattaro . In April 1915 , a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick firing ( QF ) deck gun was added .
On 10 August , U @-@ 3 departed from Cattaro for what would be her final time for a patrol north of Brindisi . Two days later , while returning to Cattaro from the Straits of Otranto , U @-@ 3 launched a torpedo attack on the Italian armed merchant cruiser Citta di Catania . The torpedoes missed their mark and , in the ensuing action , U @-@ 3 was rammed by Citta di Catania , which destroyed the U @-@ boat 's periscope . When she attempted to surface , she was shelled by the escorting destroyers . She submerged to escape the artillery but was further damaged by a depth charge attack from the French destroyer Bisson while resting on the seabed . When U @-@ 3 surfaced the following day , she was shelled and sunk by Bisson . Fourteen of her crew were saved and captured , but seven died in the attack , including her commander , Linienschiffsleutnant Karl Strnad . U @-@ 3 had no successes during the war .
= The Son Also Draws =
" The Son Also Draws " is the sixth episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , originally aired on Fox on May 9 , 1999 . The episode follows Chris as he is ejected from the Youth Scouts , and Peter drives the family to Scout headquarters to get him readmitted . During a rest stop at a Native American casino , Lois gambles away the family car . Peter pretends to be a member of the tribe in an attempt to get it back , and is sent on a vision quest to prove his heritage , giving him and Chris an opportunity to bond .
" The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt and directed by Neil Affleck , both working on their first Family Guy episode . The episode guest starred actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow . Much of the episode 's humor is structured around cutaway sequences that parody popular culture , including references to Speed Racer , Happy Days , Nova , One Day at a Time , and The More You Know .
Critical reception for the episode was mixed ; certain critics believed the episode was not an " instant classic " in contrast to the other episodes of the season but called it " memorable " and " brilliant " nevertheless , while others regarded it as the black sheep of the season . The episode caused controversy in Canada for the episode 's final gag , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks . "
= = Plot = =
Chris hates being in the Youth Scouts and wants to quit , but is afraid to tell his father Peter . Chris is finally kicked out when he runs over the troop leader during a Soap Box Derby . Peter insists on driving Chris and the rest of the family ( Peter 's wife Lois , their daughter Meg and their infant Stewie ) to the Youth Scout headquarters , in Manhattan , to get Chris readmitted . While they are gone , their talking dog Brian is watching Nova just as the show is interrupted to show several episodes of the sitcom One Day at a Time . He tries to change the channel , but is unable to do so ( nor he can turn the TV off ) , losing his intelligence shortly after watching a few episodes .
The family stops at a Native American casino as Peter needs to use the bathroom , Lois quickly becomes addicted to gambling and loses the family car . After hearing that Lois has gambled the car away , Peter tries to get it back by claiming to be Native American . The doubtful Indian elders demand that he go on a vision quest to prove his heritage . Chris accompanies Peter into the wilderness , hoping to tell him that he only wants to draw instead of being in the Scouts . Delirious from hunger , Peter begins talking to anthropomorphic trees and sees a vision of his spiritual guide , Fonzie . After hearing Fonzie 's advice Peter finally listens to Chris 's complaints and realizes his son is a talented artist .
Peter and Chris return to the casino and reclaim the car . The episode ends with Lois , Stewie , and Meg counteracting stereotypes about Native Americans , Mexicans , and Swedes , respectively , before Peter comments that " Canada sucks . "
= = Production = =
" The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt , his first episode in the Family Guy series , and directed by former Simpsons director Neil Affleck , also in his first Family Guy episode . Peter Shin and Roy Allen Smith , who have since supervised other episodes of Family Guy , both acted as supervising directors on this episode . Alex Borstein , the voice of Lois , helped write this episode , making her the first female member in the Family Guy writing staff ; show creator Seth MacFarlane mentioned that her input on the character of Lois was particularly helpful . Andrew Gormley and voice actor Mike Henry acted as staff writers for this episode , while Ricky Blitt , Neil Goldman and Chris Sheridan worked as the story editors . The subplot of " The Son Also Draws " that involved Lois losing the car was based on the 1985 comedy film Lost in America . The part where Peter pretends to be an Indian to get the family car back was inspired by real @-@ life instances of people who were " 1 / 64th " Native American receiving money from wealthy casino tribes .
In addition to the regular cast , " The Son Also Draws " featured the voices of actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow .
= = Cultural references = =
The television show the family is watching near the beginning of the show is an episode from the 1974 ABC sitcom Happy Days .
When the rest of the family is gone on the trip to Manhattan , Brian watches an episode of Nova , which is interrupted by a PBS announcement that they will be showing various episodes of One Day at a Time .
Speed and Pops from Speed Racer make an appearance at the Soap Box Derby starting line and again when the Griffins prepare to leave for Manhattan .
When Peter has to search for his spiritual guide , it turns out to be Fonzie from Happy Days .
The end of the episode features a parody of the The More You Know series of public service announcements .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for " The Son Also Draws " were mixed to favorable . In his 2008 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode an 8 / 10 , stating that while the episode is not an " instant classic " , it is " still quite strong " and has " more than a few clever moments " . He also notes that the cutaways are " kept to a minimum " , and much of the humor comes from the storyline . He commented that the episode did not have as much laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments as other episodes , but stated that it had bolder humor than the show would later be known for . In his review of the first volume DVD collection of Family Guy , Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk listed " The Son Also Draws " as one of the series ' " most brilliant moments " , praising the spiritual vision sequence and naming the conversation between Peter and Brian among the best moments of the series , calling the conversation " rolling @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor funny . "
Robin Pierson of The TV Critic , however , was far more hostile towards the episode , giving it the lowest rating of the season , a 44 out of 100 . Pierson believed the episode was " very poor " and called the storyline " lame " and " unfocussed [ sic ] , " with " a bunch of jokes to match . " The gag at the end of the episode , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks " , inspired anger from Canadian viewers of the show , which led them to send letters to the show 's producers . Ricky Blitt , the writer of the episode and the person responsible for the controversial gag , is Canadian .
= = Home media = =
" The Son Also Draws " and the complete first and second seasons of the series were released under the title Family Guy Volume One ; this standard four @-@ disc DVD box set debuted in Region 1 on April 15 , 2003 , three months before the premiere of the third season . Distributed by 20th Century Fox Television , it included several DVD extras such as episode commentaries , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , and online promo spots . The same episodes , without the special features , were released in Region 2 on November 12 , 2001 and in Region 4 on October 20 , 2003 .
= Protomycena =
Protomycena is an extinct monotypic genus of gilled fungus in the family Mycenaceae , of order Agaricales . At present it contains the single species Protomycena electra , known from a single specimen collected in an amber mine in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the Dominican Republic . The fruit body of the fungus has a convex cap that is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , with distantly spaced gills on the underside . The curved stipe is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , and lacks a ring . It resembles extant ( currently living ) species of the genus Mycena . Protomycena is one of only five known agaric fungus species known in the fossil record and the second to be described from Dominican amber .
= = Discovery and classification = =
The genus is known only from the holotype specimen , a single fruit body ( mushroom ) currently residing in the private collection owned by Ettore Morone of Turin , Italy . The specimen was collected in one of the amber mines in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the island of Hispaniola , in the Dominican Republic . The amber is believed to date from the Miocene Burdigalian stage , about 20 to 16 million years before the present . It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of David Hibbett and Michael Donoghue from Harvard University , with David Grimaldi of the American Museum of Natural History . Hibbett and colleagues published their 1997 type description in the American Journal of Botany . The generic name Protomycena is derived from a combination of the Latin proto meaning " first " , and " Mycena " , a modern genus that it resembles . The specific epithet electra was coined by the authors from the Latin for " amber " , in reference to the mode of preservation .
When it was reported , Protomycena electra was the third species of fossil agaric fungus to be described . The two species Coprinites dominicana and Aureofungus yaniguaensis are also known from the amber mines of the Dominican Republic , while the fourth species Archaeomarasmius leggeti is from the older , Cretaceous age New Jersey Amber . With the 2007 publication of a fifth extinct agaric species , Palaeoagaracites antiquus , the minimum age for the Agaricales order was pushed back to the Albian ( approximately 100 Ma ) .
= = Description = =
The holotype of Protomycena is a single fruit body without any associated structures , preserved in a piece of clear light yellow polished amber approximately 4 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 77 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) wide . The pileus is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter and has a convex shape , sporting a raised central region ( an umbo ) . The pale flesh appears yellowish in the amber , and is smooth and glossy , changing to striate and slightly translucent towards the margin . The pileus margin is striated and slightly flared . The gills on the underside of the pileus are broadly attached ( adnate ) to the top of the stipe , and distantly spaced — between six and eight gills extend completely from the pileus margin to the stipe . These full @-@ length gills are anastomosed with lamellulae ( short gills which do not reach the edge of the stipe from the pileus margin ) of varying lengths . The pileus is centered on the curved stipe , which is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long . The stipe lacks a ring and rhizoids . The mushroom is preserved with a small liquid and gas @-@ filled bubble , possibly originating from the mushroom itself , which indicates the amber to be very solid and well @-@ sealed .
In Hibbett and colleagues ' 1997 publication , Protomycena was placed in the subfamily Myceneae , which at the time was considered part of the Tricholomataceae family ; Mycena is currently classified in the Mycenaceae family . The placement was based solely on the visible structures , or macromorphology of the fruit body . Many of the features which are typically used to classify species into fungal families and subfamilies are based on microscopic features not visible or preserved in the amber specimen . Consequently , the assignment to Mycena is provisional ( the authors also note certain similarities with extant members of Marasmius ) , and the describing authors leave open the option of treating the genus placement as incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) within the Agaricales . Protomycena is distinct from other amber @-@ preserved mushroom taxa such as Coprinites , in the grooved surface of its pileus and its anastomosing gills .
= Art in Medieval Scotland =
Art in Medieval Scotland includes all forms of artistic production within the modern borders of Scotland , between the fifth century and the adoption of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . In the early Middle Ages , there were distinct material cultures evident in the different federations and kingdoms within what is now Scotland . Pictish art was the only uniquely Scottish Medieval style ; it can be seen in the extensive survival of carved stones , particularly in the north and east of the country , which hold a variety of recurring images and patterns . It can also be seen in elaborate metal work that largely survives in buried hoards . Irish @-@ Scots art from the kingdom of Dál Riata suggests that it was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed .
Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland from the eighth century and which became highly influential in continental Europe and contributed to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate jewellery , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved high crosses found particularly in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created at the monastic centre of Iona .
Scotland adopted the Romanesque style relatively late and retained and revived elements of its style after the Gothic style had become dominant from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors . From the thirteenth century there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies . Native craftsmanship can be seen in a variety of items . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters and occasional survivals of church paintings . Surviving copies of individual portraits are relatively crude , but more impressive are the works or artists commissioned from the continent , particularly the Netherlands .
= = Early Middle Ages = =
= = = Pictish stones = = =
About 250 Pictish stones survive and have been assigned by scholars to three classes . Class I stones are those thought to date to the period up to the seventh century and are the most numerous group . The stones are largely unshaped and include incised symbols of animals such as fish and the Pictish beast , everyday objects such as mirrors , combs and tuning forks and abstract symbols defined by names including V @-@ rod , double disc and Z @-@ rod . They are found between from the Firth of Forth to Shetland . The greatest concentrations are in Sutherland , around modern Inverness and Aberdeen . Good examples include the Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) .
Class II stones are carefully shaped slabs dating after the arrival of Christianity in the eighth and ninth centuries , with a cross on one face and a wide range of symbols on the reverse . In smaller numbers than Class I stones , they predominate in southern Pictland , in Perth , Angus and Fife . Good examples include Glamis 2 , which contains a finely executed Celtic cross on the main face with two opposing male figures , a centaur , cauldron , deer head and a triple disc symbol and Cossans , Angus , which shows a high @-@ prowed Pictish boat with oarsmen and a figure facing forward in the prow . Class III stones are thought to overlap chronologically with Class II stones . Most are elaborately shaped and incised cross @-@ slabs , some with figurative scenes , but lacking idiomatic Pictish symbols . They are widely distributed but predominate in the southern Pictish areas .
= = = Pictish metalwork = = =
Items of metalwork have been found throughout Pictland . The earlier Picts appear to have had a considerable amount of silver available , probably from raiding further south , or the payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so . The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way . The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie 's Law in Fife , but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down . Over ten heavy silver chains , some over 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) long , have been found from this period ; the double @-@ linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular ring , with symbol decoration including enamel , which shows how these were probably used as " choker " necklaces . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure of 28 silver and silver @-@ gilt objects , contains perhaps the best collection of late Pictish forms , from the Christian period , when Pictish metalwork style , as with stone @-@ carving , gradually merged with Insular , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Viking styles .
= = = Irish @-@ Scots art = = =
Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards has suggested that the kingdom of Dál Riata was a cross @-@ roads between the artistic styles of the Picts and those of Ireland , with which the Scots settlers in what is now Argyll kept close contacts . This can be seen in representations found in excavations of the fortress of Dunadd , which combine Pictish and Irish elements . This included extensive evidence for the production of high status jewellery and moulds from the seventh century that indicate the production of pieces similar to the Hunterston brooch , found in Ayrshire , which may have been made in Dál Riata , but with elements that suggest Irish origins . These and other finds , including a trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc and a stamped animal decoration ( or pressblech ) , perhaps from a bucket or drinking horn , indicate the ways in which Dál Riata was one of the locations where the Insular style was developed . In the eighth and ninth centuries the Pictish elite adopted true penannular brooches with lobed terminals from Ireland . Some older Irish pseudo @-@ penannular brooches were adapted to the Pictish style , for example the Breadalbane Brooch ( British Museum ) . The eighth century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish style .
= = = Early Anglo @-@ Saxon art = = =
Early examples of Anglo @-@ Saxon art are largely metalwork , particularly bracelets , clasps and jewellery , that has survived in pagan burials and in exceptional items such as the intricately carved whalebone Franks Casket , thought to have been produced in Northumbria in the early eighth century , which combines pagan , classical and Christian motifs . There is only one known pagan burial in Scotland , at Dalmeny Midlothian , which contains a necklace of beads similar to those found in mid @-@ seventh @-@ century southern England . Other isolated finds include a gold object from Dalmeny , shaped like a truncated pyramid , with filigree and garnet , similar to sword harness mounts found at Sutton Hoo . There is also a bun @-@ shaped loom from Yetholm , Roxburghshire and a ring with an Anglian runic inscription . From eastern Scotland there is a seventh @-@ century sword pommel from Culbin Sands , Moray and the Burghead drinking horn mount . After Christianisation in the seventh century artistic styles in Northumbria , which then reached to the Firth of Forth , interacted with those in Ireland and what is now Scotland to become part of the common style historians have identified as Insular or Hiberno @-@ Saxon .
= = = Insular art = = =
Insular art , or Hiberno @-@ Saxon art , is the name given to the common style produced in Scotland , Britain and Anglo @-@ Saxon England from the seventh century , with the combining of Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon forms . Surviving examples of Insular art are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts . In manuscripts surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning , with no attempt to give an impression of depth , volume or recession . The best examples include the Book of Kells , which may have been wholly or partly created in Iona , and the Book of Durrow , which may be from Ireland or Northumbria . Carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts , although historiated initials ( an Insular invention ) , canon tables and figurative miniatures , especially Evangelist portraits , are also common . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late eighth century .
Christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so the majority of examples of insular metalwork that survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden , lost or abandoned . There are a few exceptions , notably portable shrines ( " cumdachs " ) for books or relics , several of which have been continuously owned , mostly by churches on the Continent — though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland . The highest quality survivals are either secular jewellery , the largest and most elaborate pieces probably for male wearers , tableware or altarware . The finest church pieces were probably made by secular workshops , often attached to a royal household , though other pieces were made by monastic workshops . There are a number of large brooches , each of their designs is wholly individual in detail , and the workmanship is varied . Many elements of the designs can be directly related to elements used in manuscripts . Surviving stones used in decoration are semi @-@ precious ones , with amber and rock crystal among the commonest , and some garnets . Coloured glass , enamel and millefiori glass , probably imported , are also used . None of the major insular manuscripts , like the Book of Kells , have preserved their elaborate jewelled metal covers , but documentary evidence indicates that these were as spectacular as the few remaining continental examples .
The most significant survivals in sculpture are in High crosses , large free @-@ standing stone crosses , usually carved in relief with patterns , biblical iconography and occasionally inscriptions . The tradition may have begun in Ireland or Anglo @-@ Saxon England and then spread to Scotland . They are found throughout the British Isles and often feature a stone ring around the intersection , forming a Celtic cross , apparently an innovation of Celtic Christianity , that may have begun at Iona . Distribution in Scotland is heaviest in the Highlands and Islands and they can be dated to the period c . 750 to 1150 . All the surviving crosses are of stone , but there are indications that large numbers of wooden crosses may also have existed . In Scotland biblical iconography is less common than in Ireland , but the subject of King David is relatively frequently depicted . In the east the influence of Pictish sculpture can be seen , in areas of Viking occupation and settlement , crosses for the tenth to the twelfth centuries have distinctive Scandinavian patterns , often mixed with native styles . Important examples dated to the eighth century include St Martin 's Cross on Iona , the Kildalton Cross from the Hebrides and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Ruthwell Cross . Through the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission to the continent , insular art was highly influential on subsequent European Medieval art , especially the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic styles .
= = = Viking age art = = =
Viking art avoided naturalism , favouring stylised animal motifs to create its ornamental patterns . Ribbon @-@ interlace was important and plant motifs became fashionable in the tenth and eleventh centuries . Most Scottish artefacts come from 130 " pagan " burials in the north and west from the mid @-@ ninth to the mid @-@ tenth centuries . These include jewellery , weapons and occasional elaborate high status items . Amongst the most impressive of these is the Scar boat burial , on Orkney , which contained an elaborate sword , quiver with arrows , a brooch , bone comb , gaming pieces and the Scar Dragon Plaque , made from whalebone , most of which were probably made in Scandinavia . From the west , another boat burial at Kiloron Bay in Colonsay revealed a sword , shield , iron cauldron and enamelled scales , which may be Celtic in origin . A combination of Viking and Celtic styles can be see in a penannular brooch from Pierowall in Orkney , which has a Pictish @-@ style looped pin . It is about two inches in diameter , with traces of gilding , and probably housed a piece of amber surrounded by interweaving ribbons . After the conversion to Christianity , from the tenth to the twelfth centuries , stone crosses and cross @-@ slabs in Viking occupied areas of the Highlands and Islands were carved with successive styles of Viking ornament . They were frequently mixed with native interlace and animal patterns . Examples include the eleventh @-@ century cross @-@ slab from Dóid Mhàiri on the island of Islay , where the plant motifs on either side of the cross @-@ shaft are based upon the Ringerike style of Viking art . The most famous artistic find from modern Scotland , the Lewis Chessmen , from Uig , were probably made in Trondheim in Norway , but contain some decoration that may have been influenced by Celtic patterns .
= = Late Middle Ages = =
= = = Architecture and sculpture = = =
Architectural evidence suggests that , while the Romanesque style peaked in much of Europe in the later eleventh and early twelfth century , it was still reaching Scotland in the second half of the twelfth century and was revived in the late fifteenth century , perhaps as a reaction to the English perpendicular style that had come to dominate . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , a small number of significant crafted items have also survived and , for the end of the period , there is evidence of painting , particularly the extensive commissioning of works in the Low Countries and France .
The interiors of churches were often more elaborate before the Reformation , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , created in the mid @-@ fifteenth century , elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Monumental effigies began to appear in churches from the thirteenth century and they were usually fully coloured and gilded . Many were founders and patrons of churches and chapels , including members of the clergy , knights and often their wives . In contrast to England , where the fashion for stone @-@ carved monuments gave way to brass etchings , they continued to be produced until the end of the Medieval period , with the largest group dating from the fifteenth century , including the very elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Sometimes the best continental artists were employed , as for Robert I 's elaborate tomb in Dunfermline Abbey , which was made in his lifetime by the Parisian sculptor Thomas of Chartres , but of which only fragments now survive . The greatest group of surviving sculpture from this period are from the West Highlands , beginning in the fourteenth century on Iona under the patronage of the Lordship of the Isles and continuing until the Reformation . Common motifs were ships , swords , harps and Romanesque vine leaf tracery with Celtic elements .
= = = Decorative arts = = =
Survivals from late Medieval church fittings and objects in Scotland are exceptionally rare even compared to those from comparable areas like England or Norway , probably because of the thoroughness of their destruction in the Scottish Reformation . The Scottish elite and church now participated in a culture stretching across Europe , and many objects that do survive are imported , such as Limoges enamels . It is often difficult to decide the country of creation of others , as work in international styles was produced in Scotland , along with pieces retaining more distinctive local styles .
Two secular small chests with carved whalebone panels and metal fittings illustrate some aspects of the Scottish arts . The Eglington and Fife Caskets are very similar and were probably made by the same workshop around 1500 , as boxes for valuables such as jewellery or documents . The overall form of the caskets follows French examples , and the locks and metal bands are decorated in Gothic style with " simple decorations of fleurons and debased egg and dart " while the whalebone panels are carved in relief with a late form of Insular interwoven strapwork characteristic of late Medieval West Scotland .
Key examples of native craftsmanship on items include the Bute mazer , the earliest surviving drinking cup of its type , made of maple @-@ wood and with elaborate silver @-@ gilt ornamentation , dated to around 1320 . The Savernake Horn was probably made for the earl of Moray in the fourteenth century and looted by the English in the mid @-@ sixteenth century . A few significant reliquaries survive from West Scotland , examples of the habit of the Celtic church of treating the possessions rather than the bones of saints as relics . As in Irish examples these were partly reworked and elaborated at intervals over a long period . These are St Fillan 's Crozier and its " Coigreach " or reliquary , between them with elements from each century from the eleventh to the fifteenth , the Guthrie Bell Shrine , Iona , twelfth to fifteenth century , and the Kilmichael Glassary Bell Shrine , Argyll , mid @-@ twelfth century . The Skye Chess piece is a single elaborate piece in carved walrus ivory , with two warriors carrying heraldic shields in a framework of openwork vegetation . It is thought to be Scottish , of the mid @-@ thirteenth century , with aspects similar to both English and Norwegian pieces .
One of the largest groups of surviving works of art are the seal matrices that appear to have entered Scottish usage with feudalism in the reign of David I , beginning at the royal court and among his Anglo @-@ Norman vassals and then by about 1250 they began to spread to the Gaelicised areas of the country . They would be made compulsory for barons of the king in a statute of 1401 and seal matrices show very high standards of skill and artistry . Examples of items that were probably the work of continental artists include the delicate hanging lamp in St. John 's Kirk in Perth , the vestments and hangings in Holyrood and the Medieval maces of the Universities of St Andrews and Glasgow .
= = = Illumination and painting = = =
Manuscript illumination continued into the late Middle Ages , moving from elaborate gospels to charters , like that confirming the rights of Kelso Abbey from 1159 . Very little painting from Scottish churches survives . There is only one surviving Doom painting in Scotland , at Guthrie near Arbroath , which may have been painted by the same artist as the elaborate crucifixion and other paintings at Foulis Easter , eighteen miles away . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone , Bishop of Aberdeen ( 1488 – 1514 ) ; the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III , and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons , including the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " .
= Humpty Dumpty =
Humpty Dumpty is a character in an English nursery rhyme , probably originally a riddle and one of the best known in the English @-@ speaking world . He is typically portrayed as an anthropomorphic egg , though he is not explicitly described so . The first recorded versions of the rhyme date from late eighteenth @-@ century England and the tune from 1870 in James William Elliott 's National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs . Its origins are obscure and several theories have been advanced to suggest original meanings .
The character of Humpty Dumpty was popularised in the United States by actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) . As a character and literary allusion , he has appeared or been referred to in a large number of works of literature and popular culture , particularly Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) . The rhyme is listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as No. 13026 .
= = Lyrics and melody = =
The rhyme is one of the best known and most popular in the English language . The most common modern text is :
It is a single quatrain with external rhymes that follow the pattern of AABB and with a trochaic metre , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( London , 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , and classifies this song as 13026 .
= = Origins = =
The earliest known version was published in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797 with the lyrics :
A manuscript addition to a copy of Mother Goose 's Melody published in 1803 has the modern version with a different last line : " Could not set Humpty Dumpty up again " . It was published in 1810 in a version of Gammer Gurton 's Garland as :
In 1842 , James Orchard Halliwell published a collected version as :
According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term " humpty dumpty " referred to a drink of brandy boiled with ale in the seventeenth century . The riddle probably exploited , for misdirection , the fact that " humpty dumpty " was also eighteenth @-@ century reduplicative slang for a short and clumsy person . The riddle may depend upon the assumption that a clumsy person falling off a wall might not be irreparably damaged , whereas an egg would be . The rhyme is no longer posed as a riddle , since the answer is now so well known . Similar riddles have been recorded by folklorists in other languages , such as " Boule Boule " in French , " Lille Trille " in Swedish and Norwegian , and " Runtzelken @-@ Puntzelken " or " Humpelken @-@ Pumpelken " in different parts of Germany — although none is as widely known as Humpty Dumpty is in English .
= = Meaning = =
The rhyme does not explicitly state that the subject is an egg , possibly because it may have been originally posed as a riddle . There are also various theories of an original " Humpty Dumpty " . One , advanced by Katherine Elwes Thomas in 1930 and adopted by Robert Ripley , posits that Humpty Dumpty is King Richard III of England , depicted as humpbacked in Tudor histories and particularly in Shakespeare 's play , and who was defeated , despite his armies , at Bosworth Field in 1485 .
Professor David Daube suggested in The Oxford Magazine of 16 February 1956 that Humpty Dumpty was a " tortoise " siege engine , an armoured frame , used unsuccessfully to approach the walls of the Parliamentary held city of Gloucester in 1643 during the Siege of Gloucester in the English Civil War . This was on the basis of a contemporary account of the attack , but without evidence that the rhyme was connected . The theory was part of an anonymous series of articles on the origin of nursery rhymes and was widely acclaimed in academia , but it was derided by others as " ingenuity for ingenuity 's sake " and declared to be a spoof . The link was nevertheless popularised by a children 's opera All the King 's Men by Richard Rodney Bennett , first performed in 1969 .
From 1996 , the website of the Colchester tourist board attributed the origin of the rhyme to a cannon recorded as used from the church of St Mary @-@ at @-@ the @-@ Wall by the Royalist defenders in the siege of 1648 . In 1648 , Colchester was a walled town with a castle and several churches and was protected by the city wall . The story given was that a large cannon , which the website claimed was colloquially called Humpty Dumpty , was strategically placed on the wall . A shot from a Parliamentary cannon succeeded in damaging the wall beneath Humpty Dumpty which caused the cannon to tumble to the ground . The Royalists ( or Cavaliers , " all the King 's men " ) attempted to raise Humpty Dumpty on to another part of the wall , but the cannon was so heavy that " All the King 's horses and all the King 's men couldn 't put Humpty together again " . Author Albert Jack claimed in his 2008 book Pop Goes the Weasel : The Secret Meanings of Nursery Rhymes that there were two other verses supporting this claim . Elsewhere , he claimed to have found them in an " old dusty library , [ in ] an even older book " , but did not state what the book was or where it was found . It has been pointed out that the two additional verses are not in the style of the seventeenth century or of the existing rhyme , and that they do not fit with the earliest printed versions of the rhyme , which do not mention horses and men .
= = In Through the Looking @-@ Glass = =
Humpty appears in Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) , where he discusses semantics and pragmatics with Alice .
" I don 't know what you mean by ' glory , ' " Alice said .
Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously . " Of course you don 't — till I tell you . I meant ' there 's a nice knock @-@ down argument for you ! ' "
" But ' glory ' doesn 't mean ' a nice knock @-@ down argument ' , " Alice objected .
" When I use a word , " Humpty Dumpty said , in rather a scornful tone , " it means just what I choose it to mean — neither more nor less . "
" The question is , " said Alice , " whether you can make words mean so many different things . "
" The question is , " said Humpty Dumpty , " which is to be master — that 's all . "
Alice was too much puzzled to say anything , so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again . " They 've a temper , some of them — particularly verbs , they 're the proudest — adjectives you can do anything with , but not verbs — however , I can manage the whole lot ! Impenetrability ! That 's what I say ! "
This passage was used in Britain by Lord Atkin in his dissenting judgement in the seminal case Liversidge v. Anderson ( 1942 ) , where he protested about the distortion of a statute by the majority of the House of Lords . It also became a popular citation in United States legal opinions , appearing in 250 judicial decisions in the Westlaw database as of 19 April 2008 , including two Supreme Court cases ( TVA v. Hill and Zschernig v. Miller ) .
It has been suggested by A. J. Larner that Carroll 's Humpty Dumpty had prosopagnosia on the basis of his description of his finding faces hard to recognise .
" The face is what one goes by , generally , " Alice remarked in a thoughtful tone .
" That 's just what I complain of , " said Humpty Dumpty . " Your face is the same as everybody has — the two eyes , — " ( marking their places in the air with his thumb ) " nose in the middle , mouth under . It 's always the same . Now if you had the two eyes on the same side of the nose , for instance — or the mouth at the top — that would be some help . "
= = In popular culture = =
Humpty Dumpty has become a highly popular nursery rhyme character . American actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) helped to popularise the character in nineteenth @-@ century stage productions of pantomime versions , music , and rhyme . The character is also a common literary allusion , particularly to refer to a person in an insecure position , something that would be difficult to reconstruct once broken , or a short and fat person . Humpty Dumpty has been used in a large range of literary works in addition to his appearance as a character in Through the Looking @-@ Glass , including L. Frank Baum 's Mother Goose in Prose ( 1901 ) , where the rhyming riddle is devised by the daughter of the king , having witnessed Humpty 's " death " and her father 's soldiers ' efforts to save him . In Neil Gaiman 's early short story The Case of the Four and Twenty Blackbirds , the Humpty Dumpty story is turned into a film noir @-@ style hardboiled crime story , involving also Cock Robin , the Queen of Hearts , Little Bo Peep , Old Mother Hubbard , and other characters from popular nursery rhymes . Robert Rankin used Humpty Dumpty as one victim of a serial fairy @-@ tale character murderer in The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse ( 2002 ) . Jasper Fforde included Humpty Dumpty in his novels The Well of Lost Plots ( 2003 ) and The Big Over Easy ( 2005 ) , which use him respectively as a ringleader of dissatisfied nursery rhyme characters threatening to strike and as the victim of a murder .
The rhyme has also been used as a reference in more serious literary works , including as a recurring motif of the Fall of Man in James Joyce 's 1939 novel Finnegans Wake . Robert Penn Warren 's 1946 American novel All the King 's Men is the story of populist politician Willie Stark 's rise to the position of governor and eventual fall , based on the career of the corrupt Louisiana Senator Huey Long . It won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize and was twice made into a film All the King 's Men in 1949 and 2006 , the former winning the Academy Award for best motion picture . This was echoed in Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward 's book All the President 's Men , about the Watergate scandal , referring to the failure of the President 's staff to repair the damage once the scandal had leaked out . It was filmed as All the President 's Men in 1976 , starring Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman . Similarly , Humpty Dumpty is referred to in Paul Auster 's 1985 novel City of Glass , when two characters discuss him as " the purest embodiment of the human condition " and quote extensively from Through the Looking Glass .
It has also been used as a common motif in popular music , including Hank Thompson 's " Humpty Dumpty Heart " ( 1948 ) , The Monkees ' " All the King 's Horses " ( 1966 ) , Aretha Franklin 's " All the King 's Horses " ( 1972 ) , Tori Amos 's " Humpty Dumpty " ( 1992 ) , and Travis 's " The Humpty Dumpty Love Song " ( 2001 ) . In jazz , Ornette Coleman and Chick Corea wrote different compositions , both titled Humpty Dumpty . ( In Corea 's case , however , it is a part of a concept album inspired by Lewis Carroll called " The Mad Hatter " , 1978 ) .
In the Dolly Parton song Starting Over Again , it 's all the king 's horses and all the king 's men who can 't put the divorced couple back together again . In an extra verse in one version of ABBA 's On and On and On , Humpty Dumpty is mentioned as being afraid of falling off the wall .
= = In science = =
Humpty Dumpty has been used to demonstrate the second law of thermodynamics . The law describes a process known as entropy , a measure of the number of specific ways in which a system may be arranged , often taken to be a measure of " disorder " . The higher the entropy , the higher the disorder . After his fall and subsequent shattering , the inability to put him together again is representative of this principle , as it would be highly unlikely ( though not impossible ) to return him to his earlier state of lower entropy , as the entropy of an isolated system never decreases .
A variation on the poem using near @-@ sounding French nonsense words is often used to illustrate the difficulty of speech recognition in different languages . A common version is as follows :
To a listener expecting a nursery rhyme , it will generally be heard as the English version , while someone expecting French will instead tend to hear nonsense words .
= Welsh National Opera =
Welsh National Opera ( WNO ) ( Welsh : Opera Cenedlaethol Cymru ) is an opera company based in Cardiff , Wales ; it gave its first performances in 1946 . It began as a mainly amateur body and transformed into an all @-@ professional ensemble by 1973 . In its early days the company gave a single week 's annual season in Cardiff , gradually extending its schedule to become an all @-@ year @-@ round operation , with its own salaried chorus and orchestra . It has been described by The New York Times as " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " .
For most of its existence the company lacked a permanent base in Cardiff , but in 2004 it moved into the new Wales Millennium Centre , Cardiff Bay . The company tours nationally and internationally , giving more than 120 performances annually , with a repertoire of eight operas each year , to a combined audience of more than 150 @,@ 000 people . Its most frequent venues other than Cardiff are Llandudno in Wales and Bristol , Birmingham , Liverpool , Milton Keynes , Oxford , Plymouth , and Southampton in England .
Singers who have been associated with the company include Geraint Evans , Thomas Allen , Anne Evans , and Bryn Terfel . Guest artists from other countries have included Joan Hammond , Tito Gobbi and Elisabeth Söderström . Among the conductors have been Sir Charles Mackerras , Reginald Goodall , James Levine and Pierre Boulez . The company has been led since 2011 by David Pountney as chief executive and artistic director .
= = Background = =
Choral singing became increasingly popular in 19th @-@ century Wales , principally owing to the rise of the eisteddfod as a symbol of its culture . The first Welsh National Opera Company was formed in 1890 . A local newspaper commented that it was remarkable that " a race of people to whom vocal music is a ruling passion should not generations ago have established a permanent national opera " . The company gave performances of operas by the Welsh composer Joseph Parry in Cardiff and on tour in Wales . The company , predominantly amateur with some professional guest singers from the London stage , gave numerous performances of Parry 's Blodwen and Arienwen , composed in 1878 and 1890 respectively . An American tour was planned , but the company folded , and Parry 's final opera , The Maid of Cefn Ydfa , was given at Cardiff by the Moody @-@ Manners Opera Company in 1902 .
A Cardiff Grand Opera Society ran from 1924 to 1934 . It presented week @-@ long annual seasons of popular operas including Faust , Carmen and Il trovatore , and like its predecessor was mainly an amateur body , with professional guest principals . Apart from the productions of these two enterprises , opera in Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was generally presented by visiting companies from England .
In the 1930s Idloes Owen , a singing teacher and conductor , ran an amateur choir , the Lyrian Singers , based in Cardiff . In November 1941 , together with John Morgan – a former Carl Rosa baritone – and Morgan 's fiancée Helena Hughes Brown , Owen agreed to found the Lyrian Grand Opera Company , with Brown as secretary and Owen as conductor and general manager . They publicised their plan and held a general meeting of potential supporters in December 1943 ; at that meeting the name of the proposed organisation was changed to " Welsh National Opera Company " . By January 1944 plans were far enough advanced for the company 's first rehearsals to be held . Owen recruited a local businessman , W. H. ( Bill ) Smith ( 1894 – 1968 ) , who agreed to serve as business manager . At first doubtful of the company 's prospects , Smith became its dominant influence , leading fund @-@ raiser , and chairman for twenty years from 1948 .
= = Early years = =
The new company made its debut at the Prince of Wales Theatre , Cardiff on 15 April 1946 with a double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci . The orchestra was professional , mostly drawn from members of the BBC Welsh Orchestra ; all the singers were amateurs , except for Tudor Davies , a tenor well known at Covent Garden and Sadler 's Wells , who sang Canio in Pagliacci . During the week @-@ long season the new company also staged Faust , with Davies in the title role . Although nearing the end of his career he was a considerable box @-@ office draw , and the company played to full houses . Nevertheless , the expense of a professional orchestra and the hire of costumes and scenery outweighed the box @-@ office receipts , and the season made a small loss . Finance remained a recurring problem over the succeeding decades .
Although Owen was the conductor for the performances of Cavalliera Rusticana , and remained as musical director of the company until 1952 , his health was fragile and he conducted none of the company 's other productions . His colleague , the chorus master , Ivor John , was in charge of the first season 's Pagliacci and Faust .
In 1948 the organisation was registered as a limited company , and the Cardiff season was extended from one week to two . The following year the company gave its first performances in Swansea . The chorus featured 120 performers by this time .
The company 's first few seasons attracted little attention from the British musical establishment , but by the early 1950s London papers began to take notice . Picture Post hailed the WNO 's chorus as the finest in Britain . The Times also praised the chorus : " It has body , lightness , rhythmic precision , and , most welcome of all , unflagging and spontaneous freshness . " By this time the company had expanded its repertoire to take in Carmen , La traviata , Madame Butterfly , The Tales of Hoffmann , The Bartered Bride and Die Fledermaus . The Times commented that Smith , Owen and their colleagues were " making history for Wales . The shackles of puritanism , which had kept this country from an art @-@ form perfectly suited to its national talents and predilections ( for histrionics and dressing @-@ up are as natural to the Welsh as singing ) had been broken for ever " .
= = Consolidating : 1950s and 60s = =
In 1952 the company moved its Cardiff venue to the Sophia Gardens Pavilion ( built for the Festival of Britain ) , with the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra as the company 's orchestra , replacing the previous ad hoc ensemble . The Pavilion was acoustically mediocre and lacked an orchestra pit ; two years later the company moved again , to the New Theatre where it played Cardiff seasons across the next fifty years . The 1952 season attracted particular interest because it included what was then a rarity : Verdi 's Nabucco . The company built a reputation for staging seldom @-@ seen Verdi works , including The Sicilian Vespers staged in the same year , I Lombardi in 1956 , and The Battle of Legnano , under the shortened title The Battle , in 1960 . The 1952 Nabucco was the WNO 's first production for which costumes and scenery were specially designed ( by Patrick Robertson ) rather than hired .
In 1953 the company staged its first work by a Welsh composer : Menna by Arwel Hughes . The composer conducted , and the leads were sung by two professional guest stars , Richard Lewis and Elsie Morison . The same year marked WNO 's first appearances outside Wales , playing a week at Bournemouth in April , and a week at Manchester in October , when The Manchester Guardian found the soloists first @-@ rate but the chorus disappointing , in both Nabucco and Il trovatore . A reviewer in The Musical Times commented on potential difficulties in assembling the wholly amateur chorus for performances beyond daily travelling range of their day jobs . By the time of the company 's first London season – a week at Sadler 's Wells in 1955 – the chorus was judged to be " lively and exciting " ( The Musical Times ) , " vibrant " and " moving " ( The Times ) and " joyous " ( The Manchester Guardian ) .
By the mid @-@ 1950s professional singers were cast in leading roles in most productions ; they included Walter Midgley in Tosca and La bohème ( 1955 ) , Raimund Herincx in Mefistofele ( 1957 ) , Heather Harper in La traviata ( 1957 ) , and Joan Hammond in Madame Butterfly ( 1958 ) . A possibility of strengthening the professional element of the company was mooted in 1958 , when a merger was proposed with the Carl Rosa Company , which was in financial difficulties . The proposal was not followed through and WNO continued independently while the Carl Rosa folded .
During the 1960s the company continued to widen its range . Its first Wagner production , Lohengrin , and its first Mozart , The Marriage of Figaro , were both performed in 1962 , conducted by Charles Groves . Another Welsh opera , Hughes 's Serch yw 'r Doctor ( " Love , the Doctor " ) was staged in 1960 . The popular Italian repertoire remained the core of the annual seasons , mostly directed by the head of production , John Moody . Leading roles were taken by rising stars such as John Shirley @-@ Quirk , Gwyneth Jones , Thomas Allen , Josephine Barstow and Margaret Price , the last of whom made her operatic debut with the company in 1962 . Established singers guesting with the company included Geraint Evans who played the title role in Don Pasquale in 1966 , and Ian Wallace in the same part the following year . Evans was also seen as Leporello in Don Giovanni in 1966 and as Falstaff in 1969 .
The gradual switch from amateur to professional continued in 1968 , when for the first time the chorus was supplemented by a smaller , professional group of singers ; the mix of amateur and professional choristers continued over the next five years . At the end of the 1960s the main WNO company , now a year @-@ round operation , consisted of 8 salaried principal singers , 57 guest soloists and a chorus of 90 amateurs and 32 professionals . As well as the Bournemouth players , the company engaged the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic , City of Birmingham Symphony and Ulster orchestras for different venues . In the last season of the decade 32 performances were given in Cardiff and 61 elsewhere in the UK . In addition to the main company , WNO maintained two smaller groups : one , with orchestra , toured Welsh towns , the other , consisting of 12 singers with piano , toured 79 , mostly small , towns in Wales and England . WNO instituted its own training scheme for young singers during the decade .
= = Fully professional : 1970s = =
In 1970 WNO stopped using the Bournemouth and other orchestras and established its own , known at first as the Welsh Philharmonia . Three years later the last amateur element of the company was removed when the chorus became fully professional . A further broadening of the repertoire took place in the 1970s : in 1971 WNO staged the first performances in Britain of Berg 's Lulu , directed by Michael Geliot , who had succeeded Moody in 1969 . In the view of Malcolm Boyd in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , Geliot , " unpredictable and often controversial " , largely shaped the company 's style in the 1970s . In collaboration with the company 's musical director James Lockhart , Geliot is credited by The Times with introducing new young singers and " directing a host of groundbreaking productions " before leaving in 1978 . The critic Rodney Milnes wrote in 1975 about WNO 's productions :
I have never seen , well , hardly ever , a pretentious , silly or seriously misguided production , and neither have I seen a dull one . … The company 's greatest virtue is that its work is dedicated above all to the service of composers and audiences , and not to some abstract notion of " prestige " nor to the vanity or ambition of individuals , and in this it is almost unique .
In 1973 Geliot 's WNO staging of Britten 's Billy Budd with Allen in the title role was presented on a Swiss tour , and two years later it was given in Barcelona . The company returned to London with its participation in the Amoco Festival of Opera at the Dominion Theatre in 1979 , presenting The Makropoulos Case , The Magic Flute , Ernani , Madame Butterfly , and Tristan and Isolde to capacity audiences .
The company 's traditional preference for the Italian repertoire was partly redressed during the decade : productions include WNO 's first staging of a Richard Strauss opera , Elektra , in 1978 . A new Welsh work , Alun Hoddinott 's The Beach of Falesá , was presented in 1974 . In 1975 , in co @-@ production with Scottish Opera , WNO began a cycle of Janáček operas , directed by David Pountney . Beginning with Jenůfa , the cycle continued with The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) , The Cunning Little Vixen ( 1980 ) , Kátya Kabanová ( 1982 ) and From the House of the Dead ( 1982 ) .
Among the guest artists who appeared with the company in the 1970s were the baritone Tito Gobbi , as Falstaff ( 1972 ) , the sopranos Elisabeth Söderström as Emilia in The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) and Anne Evans as Senta in The Flying Dutchman ( 1972 ) , and the conductors James Levine ( Aida , 1970 ) and Reginald Goodall ( Tristan and Isolde , 1979 ) .
In the late 1970s WNO combined with the Cardiff @-@ based Welsh Drama Company , becoming the Welsh National Opera and Drama Company . The work of the drama company came under continued criticism , the Welsh Arts Council cut its grant , and the partnership ended in 1979 with the formal closure of the Welsh Drama Company .
= = 1980s = =
During the 1980s WNO continued to expand in scope . Handel ( Rodelinda , 1981 ) and Martinů ( The Greek Passion , 1981 ) were added to the company 's repertoire , and in 1983 Das Rheingold was staged in the WNO 's first Ring cycle , followed by the other three operas of the cycle over the next two years . Das Rheingold , Siegfried and Götterdämmerung were conducted by the company 's musical director , Richard Armstrong ; Die Walküre ( 1984 ) was conducted by Goodall ; it was seen as a coup for the company to secure his services – he was described by The Guardian as the greatest living Wagnerian conductor – but the casting of the whole cycle was criticised for some serious weaknesses among the principal singers , and reviewers were generally unimpressed by Göran Järvefelt 's production .
The chief executive , Brian McMaster , did not appoint a replacement to Geliot as principal director during the 1980s , preferring to engage guest producers . Boyd mentions Andrei Șerban 's Eugene Onegin ( 1980 ) among the successes and Lucian Pintilie 's Carmen ( 1983 ) and Ruth Berghaus 's Don Giovanni ( 1984 ) as productions that received more mixed responses . Sir Charles Mackerras , the conductor for Don Giovanni , was open in his contempt for Berghaus 's production . Harry Kupfer 's Fidelio ( 1981 ) was condemned by The Daily Telegraph as " a piece of Marxist polemic " making " political sport " of Beethoven 's work . McMaster was thought by some too inclined to favour radical eastern European directors : Jonathan Miller , a leading English director , commented that he did not intend to take Bulgarian nationality , although it was " a must before Brian pays any attention " .
Armstrong stepped down in 1986 after thirteen years as musical director ; he was succeeded by Mackerras , whose association with the company dated back more than thirty years . Among the features of his six @-@ year tenure was an increasing use of surtitles for performances not given in English . In the company 's early days , all operas had been sung in English , but as more international stars began to appear as guest principals the language policy had to be reconsidered : few of the leading names in world opera were interested in relearning their roles in English . WNO steered a middle course between the practices of the two main London companies ; after the 1960s The Royal Opera had generally given operas in the original language , and English National Opera was committed to opera in English . WNO 's practice varied , after its early years . Examples from the 1980s include Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde sung in German , and the Ring in English ; and Verdi 's The Force of Destiny given in English and Otello in Italian . Mackerras was a strong advocate of performance in the original language , with surtitles : " I can 't imagine a greater advance for opera . … What a gift ! It 's like Siegfried understanding the woodbird . "
= = 1990s = =
McMaster resigned in 1991 , having led the company to international status , with performances at La Scala , Milan ; the Metropolitan Opera , New York ; and in Tokyo . One of the last legacies of his tenure was the 1992 production of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande , directed by Peter Stein and conducted by Pierre Boulez . The New York Times called WNO " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " and noted that the first night of the Debussy work , in Cardiff , " attracted 80 critics from all over the United Kingdom and the Continent ... the most prestigious , intensely awaited event of the British operatic season . " The production was given at the Théâtre du Châtelet , Paris , a few weeks afterwards .
McMaster was followed as chief executive by Matthew Epstein , whose three years in charge ( 1991 – 94 ) were described in a 2006 study by Paul Atkinson as " a less happy and less successful period " . Epstein was replaced by Anthony Freud , under whom , according to Atkinson , productions became " consistently strong , musically well prepared , intelligently staged and well cast . " Mackerras was succeeded in 1992 by Carlo Rizzi , who was music director at the time of WNO 's golden jubilee in 1996 . When the occasion was marked with a new production of the " Cav and Pag " double bill that had launched the company in 1946 , the BBC commented that WNO was " one of the most respected opera companies in the world " . In The Observer , Michael Ratcliffe called the company " the most popular , populist and consistently successful arts organisation ever to come out of Wales ... with the loyalty and affection of audiences in Cardiff and across England … ' The people 's opera ' is not a myth . It happened here . " The jubilee celebrations were overshadowed by the collapse of a plan for a purpose @-@ built home for the company , the Cardiff Bay Opera House .
During the 1990s WNO made its Proms debut , with a complete performance of Mozart 's Idomeneo , conducted by Mackerras in 1991 . The company played three short seasons at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden in the mid @-@ 1990s , featuring Tristan und Isolde and La favorita in 1993 , The Yeomen of the Guard in 1995 , and The Rake 's Progress and the jubilee double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci in 1996 .
= = 21st century = =
The company entered the new millennium in a state of some turmoil . A financial crisis had led to redundancies in the orchestra and the curtailment of the touring schedule ; the conservative works chosen for 2001 – 02 were condemned by the press as " the dullest programme in recent memory " ; and Rizzi was about to be replaced by a young and untried successor , Tugan Sokhiev . Rizzi had gained great respect and affection during his nine @-@ year term as musical director ; his successor 's reign was brief and unhappy . Having taken up post in 2003 , Sohkiev resigned precipitately the following year . Rizzi agreed to reorganise his schedule , and , to public and critical acclaim , returned to the musical directorship in time to prepare the company for its long @-@ awaited move into a permanent base in Cardiff .
After the collapse of the Cardiff Bay Opera House scheme , a new project , the Wales Millennium Centre , met with more success . The necessary consents and funding were obtained , and work began in 2002 on a new multipurpose arts centre on the Cardiff Bay site . The centre included a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ seat theatre , which , among other uses , became WNO 's home base from 2004 , with its own rehearsal space and offices in the complex .
In the first decade of the 21st century WNO gave more than 120 performances a year , with a repertoire , generally , of eight full @-@ scale operas . Its regular audience figures totalled over 150 @,@ 000 annually , in ten principal venues , three of them in Wales and seven in England . During this period the company was criticised for being insufficiently Welsh . A local politician , Adam Price , said that WNO ought to have a Welsh musical director ; Alun Hoddinott said in 2004 , " WNO has put on perhaps four or five Welsh operas over 20 years . ... They just seem to have an anti @-@ Welsh music bias . I am sad that they do not do something for Welsh composers , especially young ones . " A more positive view of WNO came from Scotland , where the two main newspapers , The Scotsman and The Herald , greeted a visit from the company in 2005 with enthusiastic praise , contrasting the flourishing of opera in Wales with its neglect by politicians in Scotland and the consequent decline of Scottish Opera . In 2010 WNO commissioned Gair ar Gnawd ( " Word on Flesh " ) , by Pwyll ap Siôn and Menna Elfyn , with words in Welsh , described as " a contemporary story about Wales today ... inspired by the translation of the Bible " .
From 2006 to 2011 the chief executive ( titled " artistic director " ) was John Fisher . His term overlapped with that of Lothar Koenigs who was musical director from 2009 to 2016 . A highlight of this period was the 2010 production of Die Meistersinger , produced by Richard Jones , starring Bryn Terfel as Hans Sachs . The production won superlatives from reviewers .
In 2011 David Pountney was appointed to succeed Fisher as chief executive . He had worked with the company since the 1970s , most recently on a 2006 The Flying Dutchman with Terfel which was set in space . In 2013 he programmed a trilogy of operas set in Tudor England : Donizetti 's Anna Bolena , Maria Stuarda and Roberto Devereux , with another trilogy the following year , on the theme of fallen women – Puccini 's Manon Lescaut , Henze 's Boulevard Solitude and Verdi 's La traviata . For 2016 Pountney scheduled another trilogy , this time on the theme of Figaro , consisting of Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro and Rossini 's The Barber of Seville and a new work , Figaro Gets a Divorce with music by Elena Langer and libretto by Pountney .
In September 2015 WNO announced the appointment of Tomáš Hanus as its next music director , taking office for the 2016 – 17 season . At the same time Carlo Rizzi was named the company 's conductor laureate , with immediate effect .
= = Recordings = =
Although the chorus and orchestra of Welsh National Opera have appeared on many commercial recordings , often featuring regular WNO soloists , there have been few sets , either audio or video , of the company 's own productions . Among those are Tristan und Isolde conducted by Goodall ( 1981 ) , Pelléas et Mélisande conducted by Boulez ( 1992 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard , conducted by Mackerras ( 1995 ) , The Doctor of Myddfai conducted by Armstrong ( 1998 ) , and Ariodante conducted by Ivor Bolton , directed by David Alden ( 1999 ) . The BBC made a studio video recording of a WNO cast in Katya Kabanova , conducted by Armstrong in 1982 .
The WNO chorus and orchestra have been engaged for studio opera recordings unconnected with the company 's productions , including Hamlet ( 1983 ) , Norma ( 1984 ) , Anna Bolena ( 1987 ) , Ernani ( 1987 ) and Adriana Lecouvreur ( 1988 ) conducted by Richard Bonynge , Faust ( 1993 ) and Katya Kabanova ( 1994 ) conducted by Rizzi ; and Gloriana ( 1993 ) , Eugene Onegin ( 1994 ) and Jenůfa ( 2004 ) conducted by Mackerras . For the WNO jubilee in 1996 , Decca drew on some of its studio recordings for a celebratory CD set with contributions from many soloists who had appeared onstage with the company and some who had not , the latter including Joan Sutherland , Luciano Pavarotti , Montserrat Caballe and Thomas Hampson . The orchestra of WNO has made studio recordings of non @-@ operatic music by Elgar , Delius , Coleridge @-@ Taylor and George Lloyd , and several sets of traditional Welsh songs and crossover music .
= = Music directors = =
= England national rugby union team =
The England national rugby union team represents England in rugby union . They compete in the annual Six Nations Championship with France , Ireland , Scotland , Italy , and Wales . They have won this championship on a total of 27 occasions , 13 times winning the Grand Slam , making them the most successful team in the tournament 's history . They are ranked second in the world by the International Rugby Board as of 20 June 2016 . England are the first , and to date the only , team from the northern hemisphere to win the Rugby World Cup , when they won the tournament back in 2003 . They were also runners @-@ up in 1991 and 2007 .
The history of the team extends back to 1871 when the English rugby team played their first official Test match , losing to Scotland by one goal . England dominated the early Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) which started in 1883 . Following the schism of rugby football in 1895 , England did not win the Championship again until 1910 . England first played against New Zealand in 1905 , South Africa in 1906 , and Australia in 1909 . England was one of the teams invited to take part in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 and went on to appear in the final in the second tournament in 1991 , losing 12 – 6 to Australia . Following their 2003 Six Nations Championship Grand Slam , they went on to win it again in 2016 . England also won the World Cup – beating Australia 20 – 17 in extra time . They also contested the final in 2007 , losing 15 – 6 to South Africa .
England players traditionally wear a white shirt with a Rose embroidered on the chest , white shorts , and navy blue socks with a white trim .
Their home ground is Twickenham Stadium where they first played in 1910 . The team is administered by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) . Four former players have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame ; one of these is also a member of the IRB Hall of Fame . Seven other former players are members of the IRB Hall — four solely for their accomplishments as players , two solely for their achievements in other roles in the sport , and one for achievements both as a player and administrator .
= = History = =
The expansion of rugby in the first half of the 19th century was driven by ex @-@ pupils from many of England 's Public Schools , especially Rugby , who , upon finishing school , took the game with them to universities , to London , and to the counties . England 's first international match was against Scotland on Monday 27 March 1871 . Not only was this match England 's first , but it also proved to be the first ever rugby union international . Scotland won the match by a goal and a try to a try , in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 people at Raeburn Place , Edinburgh . A subsequent international took place at the Oval in London on 5 February 1872 which saw England defeat Scotland by a goal , a drop goal and two tries to one drop goal . In those early days there was no points system , it was only after 1890 that a format allowing the introduction of a points system was provided . Up until 1875 international rugby matches were decided by the number of goals scored ( conversions and dropped goals ) , but from 1876 the number of tries scored could be used to decide a match if teams were level on goals .
In 1875 , England played their first game against the Irish at the Oval , winning by one goal , one drop goal and one try to nil ; the match was Ireland 's first ever Test . England defeated Scotland in 1880 to become the first winners of the Calcutta Cup . Their first match against Wales was played on 19 February 1881 at Richardson 's Field in Blackheath . England recorded their largest victory , defeating the Welsh by seven goals , six tries , and one drop goal to nil and scoring 13 tries in the process . The subsequent meeting the following year at St Helens in Swansea was a closer contest ; with England winning by two goals and four tries to nil Two years later , the first Home Nations championship was held and England emerged as the inaugural winners . In 1889 , England played their first match against a non @-@ home nations team when they defeated the New Zealand Natives by one goal and four tries to nil at Rectory Field in Blackheath . In 1890 England shared the Home Nations trophy with Scotland .
England first played New Zealand ( the All Blacks ) in 1905 . The All Blacks scored five tries , worth three points at this time , to win 15 – 0 . The following year , they played France for the first time , and later that year they first faced South Africa ( known as the Springboks ) ; James Peters was withdrawn from the England squad after the South Africans objected to playing against a black player . The match was drawn 3 – 3 . England first played France in 1905 , and Australia ( known as the Wallabies ) in 1909 when they were defeated 9 – 3 .
The year 1909 saw the opening of Twickenham as the RFU 's new home , which heralded a golden era for English rugby union . England 's first international at Twickenham brought them victory over Wales , and England went on to win the International Championship ( then known as the Five Nations ) for the first time since the great schism of 1895 . Although England did not retain the title in 1911 , they did share it in 1912 . A Five Nations Grand Slam was then achieved in 1913 and 1914 as well as in 1921 following the First World War . England subsequently won the Grand Slam in 1924 and as well as in 1925 . This was despite having started 1925 with a loss to the All Black Invincibles in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans at Twickenham .
After winning another Grand Slam in 1928 , England played the Springboks in front of 70 @,@ 000 spectators at Twickenham in 1931 . Following the ejection of France due to professionalism in 1930 , which thus reverted The Five Nations back to the Home Nations tournament , England went on to win the 1934 and 1937 Home Nations with a Triple Crown , and in 1935 achieved their first victory over the All Blacks .
When the Five Nations resumed with the re @-@ admission of France in 1947 after the Second World War , England shared the championship with Wales . The early Five Nations competitions of the 1950s were unsuccessful for England , winning one match in the 1950 and 1951 championships . England won the 1953 Five Nations , and followed this up with a Grand Slam in 1957 , and win in 1958 . England broke France 's four @-@ championship streak by winning the 1963 Championship . After this victory , England played three Tests in the Southern Hemisphere and lost all three : 21 – 11 and 9 – 6 against the All Blacks , and 18 – 9 against Australia . England did not win a single match in 1966 , and managed only a draw with Ireland . They did not win another Championship that decade ; a fact that prompted amateur historian F. W. P. Syms to declare this period ' the sorriest in English Rugby Union History ' .
Don White was appointed as England 's first @-@ ever coach in 1969 . According to former Northampton player Bob Taylor , " Don was chosen because he was the most forward @-@ thinking coach in England " . His first match in charge was an 11 – 8 victory over South Africa at Twickenham in 1969 . Of the eleven games England played with White in charge they won three , and drew one and lost seven . He resigned as England coach in 1971 .
England had wins against Southern Hemisphere teams in the 1970s ; with victories over South Africa in 1972 , New Zealand in 1973 and Australia in 1973 and 1976 . The 1972 Five Nations Championship was not completed due to the Troubles in Northern Ireland when Scotland and Wales refused to play their Five Nations away fixtures in Ireland . England played in Dublin in 1973 and were given a standing ovation lasting five minutes . After losing 18 – 9 at Lansdowne Road , the England captain , John Pullin famously stated , " We might not be very good but at least we turned up . "
England started the following decade with a Grand Slam victory in the 1980 Five Nations – their first for 23 years . However in the 1983 Five Nations Championship , England failed to win a game and picked up the wooden spoon . In the first Rugby World Cup in New Zealand and Australia , England were grouped in pool A alongside Australia , Japan and the United States . England lost their first game 19 – 6 against Australia . They went on to defeat Japan and the United States , and met Wales in their quarter @-@ final , losing the match 16 – 3 .
In 1989 , England won matches against Romania and Fiji , followed by victories in their first three Five Nations games of 1990 . They lost to Scotland in their last game however , giving Scotland a Grand Slam . England recovered in the following year by winning their first Grand Slam since 1980 . England hosted the 1991 World Cup and were in pool A , along with the All Blacks , Italy and the United States . Although they lost to the All Blacks in pool play , they qualified for a quarter @-@ final going on to defeat France 19 – 10 . England then defeated Scotland 9 – 6 to secure a place in the final against Australia which they lost 12 – 6 .
The next year , England completed another Grand Slam and did not lose that year , including a victory over the Springboks . In the lead up to the 1995 World Cup in South Africa , England completed another Grand Slam – their third in five years . In the World Cup , England defeated Argentina , Italy and Samoa in pool play and then defeated Australia 25 – 22 in their quarter @-@ final . England 's semi @-@ final was dominated by the All Blacks and featured four tries , now worth five points each , by Jonah Lomu ; England lost 45 – 29 . They then lost the third / fourth place play @-@ off match against France .
In 1997 , Clive Woodward became England 's coach . That year , England drew with New Zealand at Twickenham after being heavily defeated in Manchester the week before . England toured Australia , New Zealand and South Africa in 1998 . Many of the England team made themselves unavailable for the tour nicknamed the " tour from hell " where England were beaten 76 – 0 by the Wallabies . In 1999 during the last ever Five Nations match , Scott Gibbs sliced through six English tackles to score in the last minute , and the last ever Five Nations title went to Scotland .
England commenced the new decade by winning the inaugural Six Nations title . In 2001 , Ireland defeated England 20 – 14 in a postponed match at Lansdowne Road to deny them a Grand Slam . Although the 2002 Six Nations Championship title was won by France , England had the consolation of winning the Triple Crown . In 2002 , England defeated Argentina in Buenos Aires , and then a second string All Blacks , Australia , and South Africa at Twickenham . In 2003 , England won the Grand Slam for the first time since 1995 , followed by wins over Australia and the All Blacks on their Summer tour in June .
Going into the 2003 World Cup , England were one of the tournament favourites . They reached the final on 22 November 2003 against host Australia and became world champions after a match @-@ winning drop goal by star flyhalf Jonny Wilkinson deep into extra time that made the final score 20 – 17 . Not only was it their first Rugby World Cup victory , but it was the country 's first World Cup since winning the 1966 FIFA ( football ) World Cup as hosts . On 8 December , the English team greeted 750 @,@ 000 supporters on their victory parade through London before meeting Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace .
In the 2004 Six Nations Championship , England lost to both France and Ireland and finished third . Sir Clive Woodward resigned on 2 September and Andy Robinson was appointed England head coach . Robinson 's first Six Nations campaign in 2005 resulted in fourth place for England , and although they then defeated Australia 26 – 16 , the year was completed with a 23 – 19 loss to the All Blacks .
Following their loss to South Africa in the 2006 end of year Tests , England had lost eight of their last nine Tests – their worst ever losing streak . Coach Andy Robinson resigned after this run , and attack coach Brian Ashton was appointed head coach in December 2006 . England started the 2007 Six Nations Championship with a Calcutta Cup victory over Scotland . The championship also included a historic match at Croke Park against Ireland which England lost 43 – 13 , their heaviest ever defeat to Ireland .
In the 2007 World Cup England played in Pool A with Samoa , Tonga , South Africa and the United States . They qualified for the quarter finals after losing embarrassingly to South Africa 36 – 0 where they defeated Australia 12 – 10 , and then faced hosts France in their semi final . England won 14 – 9 to qualify for the final against South Africa , which they lost 15 – 6 . England followed up the World Cup with two consecutive 2nd place finishes in the Six Nations , behind Wales and Ireland respectively . The 2009 Six Nations also saw former England Captain Martin Johnson take up the job of head coach . However , Johnson could not replicate his on @-@ field success to management , and resigned in November 2011 following a miserable 2011 Rugby World Cup which ended in quarter @-@ final defeat by France and featured a series of on and off @-@ field controversies .
On 29 March 2012 , Stuart Lancaster , the former Elite Rugby Director at Leeds Carnegie was appointed England head coach by the Rugby Football Union . Previously Lancaster was appointed as the head coach on a short term basis assisted by existing forwards coach Graham Rowntree and Andy Farrell .
Lancaster was considered a success in his first campaign as England coach - during the 2012 Six Nations Championship , defending Champions England finished in second place after losing 19 – 12 to Wales at Twickenham Stadium , but successfully defended the Calcutta Cup beating Scotland 13 – 6 at Murrayfield . England finished the year on a high , after outplaying World Cup holders New Zealand in November , in which England dominated to win 38 – 21 . The All Blacks had been unbeaten in 20 matches but were completely outplayed by England .
During the 2013 Six Nations Championship again England finished in second place behind Wales after losing the opportunity of being Grand Slam winners for the first time since 2003 , by losing to Wales in Cardiff 30 – 3 . It was also the first time every team managed to win at least 3 competition points ( the equivalent of a win and a draw or three draws ) since 1974 . However , England did again defeat Scotland for the Calcutta Cup 38 – 18 at Twickenham .
During the 2013 summer tour to South America in which Lancaster took an experimental side , England beat a South American select XV before a 2 – 0 series victory over Argentina , a first away series win against The Pumas for 32 years . England hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup but were eliminated in the Pool stage , earning the unenviable reputation of being the first side in Rugby World Cup history to have hosted the tournament and yet to have failed to qualify for the knockout stages .
= = Twickenham = =
Up until 1910 , the English rugby team used various stadia in a number of venues around England before settling at Twickenham Stadium . It is the largest rugby @-@ dedicated stadium in the world . After sell @-@ out matches at Crystal Palace in 1905 and 1906 against New Zealand and South Africa respectively , the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) decided to invest in their own ground . In 1906 , the RFU arranged for William Williams to find a home ground for English Rugby . The land for the ground was purchased the following year for £ 5 @,@ 572 12s and 6d , and construction began the following year .
The first England match was held on 9 October 1910 between England and Wales . England ran out winners , 11 – 6 , beating Wales for the first time since 1898 . The stadium was expanded in 1927 and again in 1932 . Further upgrades did not happen until the 1990s when new North , East and West stands were built . A new South stand was built in 2005 and 2006 to make the stadium into a complete bowl . The first match to be played at the redeveloped Twickenham was on Sunday 5 November 2006 against the All Blacks . England lost the match 41 @-@ 20 in front of a record crowd of 82 @,@ 076 .
Although England have played home matches almost exclusively at Twickenham since 1910 , they have played at Huddersfield 's Galpharm Stadium twice in 1998 , at Old Trafford against New Zealand in 1997 and at Wembley Stadium against Canada in 1992 . They also played the first of a two @-@ test series against Argentina at Old Trafford in June 2009 , a match originally scheduled to be held in Argentina but moved by the country 's national federation for financial reasons .
The pitch at Twickenham was replaced by a hybrid ' Desso ' type , in June 2012 , which uses artificial fibres entwined with real grass . This makes it a lot harder wearing in wet conditions .
= = = Swing Low , Sweet Chariot = = =
" Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " is very commonly sung at England fixtures – especially at Twickenham . The song arrived in the rugby canon through the Welsh male voice choirs who sang many spirituals . It was a popular rugby song at clubs during the 1950s and 1960s and was sung every year at Twickenham during the end @-@ of @-@ season all @-@ day Middlesex Sevens tournament accompanied by risqué hand gestures that played on the double entendres of some of the words . During the 1970s the Twickenham crowd also sang it during England matches then coming into the last match of the 1988 season , against the Irish , England had lost 15 of their previous 23 matches in the Five Nations Championship . The Twickenham crowd had only seen one solitary England try in the previous two years and at half time against Ireland they were 3 – 0 down . During the second half a remarkable transformation took place and England started playing an expansive game many had doubted they were capable of producing . A 3 – 0 deficit was turned into a 35 – 3 win , with England scoring six tries .
In the 35 – 3 win , three of England 's tries were scored by Chris Oti , a player who had made a reputation for himself that season as a speedster on the left wing . A group of boys from the Benedictine school Douai following a tradition at their school games sang the song on his final try , and other spectators around the ground joined in . Since then " Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " became a song to sing at England home games , in the same way that " The Fields of Athenry " is sung in Dublin and " Cwm Rhondda " is sung at Cardiff . It has since become the anthem of the team as in 1991 the result of a plan of the then RFU marketing director Mike Coley for the team to launch a song leading up to that year 's Rugby World Cup . He had wanted to use Jerusalem but it was used in the Rugby League cup final that year so the song was changed at short notice to " Swing Low " . There were a number of versions recorded including a ' rap ' version with Jerry Guscott doing a solo . Needless to say that was never released but the version released did reach the top 40 in the UK singles chart during the competition and was then adopted as the England rugby song .
= = Strip = =
England have typically worn all @-@ white shirts , white shorts with navy and white socks . The emblem on the shirts is a red rose , rather than the Plantagenet Three Lions displayed on the shirts of the England football and cricket teams . The strip is manufactured by Canterbury and O2 is the shirt sponsor . Red was the change strip , although prior to the introduction of the red strip , navy blue was used . Purple was used as the change strip as of the 2009 autumn internationals , reflecting the traditional colour of the original England track @-@ suits from the 1960s , 70s and 80s . For the 2011 Rugby World Cup the change kit was black .
The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) had created the national side 's emblem prior to an English team being sent to Edinburgh to play a Scottish side . A red rose was chosen to be the side 's emblem . The white kit worn by the national team was taken from the kit used at Rugby School . Alfred Wright , an employee of the Rugby Football Union , is credited with the standardisation and new design of the rose , which up until 1920 had undergone many variations in its depiction . The Wright design is thought to have been used without minor alteration until the late 1990s . It was not until 1997 that the rose was modernised when Nike became the official strip supplier .
In 2003 England first used a skin @-@ tight strip . This was intended to make it more difficult for the opposition to grasp the shirt when tackling . The home and away strips for 2007 were unveiled on 15 May that year . The materials used are superior , offering improved performance to the 2003 kit . However , a sweeping red mark on the base @-@ white front which forms St George 's Cross on the top left , and a changed away @-@ strip ( dark blue to red ) , have received criticism because it is felt that emphasis has been placed on St George 's Cross at the expense of the traditional red rose . The new strip was introduced in England 's home game against Wales on 4 August , while the alternative strip was first used against France on 18 August .
The former England home strip was white with a strip of red around the neck , and the away strip was black ( causing much controversy due to the famous All @-@ Black kit of New Zealand ) , both kits had a ground breaking new technology in the form of a gripper print . A special strip was worn during the match versus Wales in the 2010 Six Nations Championship which replicated that worn in 1910 to celebrate the 100 year anniversary of Twickenham . The current , 2013 @-@ 14 , England strip is made by Canterbury . It features plain white shorts and a plain white shirt , but with an added black stripe on each sleeve . The current away kit has a red and white striped shirt , with blue shorts . In 2014 / 15 , the home shirt was white , with a " V @-@ Neck " around the collar . The kit also had little St George 's crosses on the main chest . It also had the O2 sponsorship marking on the chest . The shorts were plain white with the sponsorship marking on them . The socks were dark blue and had a white stripe at the top . The alternate shirt was exactly the same but was red instead of white . The shorts were navy blue and the socks were red with a white stripe on top . The 2015 / 16 strip was similar but didn 't have the small crosses on the shirt . The Canterbury logo was straight and not diagonal it had white lines going horizontally across the chest . For the 2015 Rugby World Cup , the kit remained the same just with the Rugby World Cup logo on the right and no O2 logo in the centre . For the home strip , the shorts and socks remained the same . The away 2015 / 16 strip and World Cup strip was red , with dark red and maroon sleeves . The shorts were maroon and the socks were red with a maroon stripe on top .
= = Record = =
= = = Six Nations = = =
England competes annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland , and Wales . The Six Nations started out as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 which England won with a Triple Crown . England have won the title outright 27 times ( a record for the tournament ) and shared victory ten times . Their longest wait between championships was 18 years ( 1892 – 1910 ) . During the Six Nations , England also contests the Calcutta Cup with Scotland ( which England first won in 1880 ) and the Millennium Trophy with Ireland ( which England first won in 1988 ) . The matches between England and France are traditionally known as " Le Crunch " .
= = = World Cup = = =
England have contested every Rugby World Cup since it began in 1987 , reaching the final three times and winning in 2003 .
In the inaugural tournament they finished second in their pool before losing to Wales in the quarter @-@ finals . They again finished pool runners @-@ up in 1991 but recovered to beat France in their quarter @-@ final , and then Scotland in their semi @-@ final , en route to a 12 – 6 final defeat to Australia .
In 1995 , England topped their pool and defeated Australia 25 – 22 at the quarter @-@ final stage before being beaten by the All Blacks in the semi @-@ final . Their third @-@ fourth place play @-@ off match against France was lost 19 – 9 .
The 1999 competition saw England again finish second in the pool stage . Though they proceeded to win a play @-@ off game against Fiji , they went out of the tournament in the quarter @-@ finals , losing 44 – 21 to South Africa .
In the 2003 tournament , England came top of their pool . They progressed to the final beating Wales and France in the quarter and semi finals . England won the final with a drop goal in the last minute of extra time .
The 2007 defence of the cup in France got off to a very poor start , with a below par victory over the United States and a heavy 36 – 0 defeat to South Africa leaving the holders on the brink of elimination at the group stage . Improved performances against Samoa and Tonga saw England again reach the knockout stages as pool runners @-@ up , before a surprise 12 – 10 defeat of Australia in Marseille and a narrow 14 – 9 victory over the host nation France carried England to a second successive final appearance . The final was played in Paris on 20 October against South Africa , who won by 15 points to 6 .
In 2011 , England reached the quarter final stage , losing 19 @-@ 12 to France .
In 2015 , England became the first sole host nation to fail to qualify for the knockout stage , exiting the pool stage after losses to Wales and Australia .
England 's Jonny Wilkinson is the highest points scorer in the rugby world cup , having scored 277 points between 1999 and 2011 . England have the fourth most points and fourth most tries scored in the World Cup .
= = = Overall = = =
When the World Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , England was ranked 1st . They briefly fell to 2nd in September that year before regaining 1st place . They fell to 2nd , and then to 3rd in June 2004 . After the 2005 Six Nations they fell to 6th where they remained until they moved into 5th in December that year . In 2006 , their ranking again fell and they finished the year ranked 7th . 2007 saw them bounce back to 3rd after their good run in that year 's World Cup , where they finished Runners Up . In 2008 , their rankings slipped so that during the 2009 Six Nations Championship they dropped to their lowest ranking of 8th . They again were 8th during the autumn internationals of the same year . After a resurgence which saw them rise to a ranking of 4th in the world , the team again slipped , following a poor showing at the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and was ranked 6th in February 2012 . England entered the 2015 Rugby World Cup ranked 4th . However , after failing to exit the pool stage , England were ranked 8th in the world as of 1 November 2015 .
England has won 381 of their 701 Test matches , a winning record of 54 @.@ 35 % . Below is a summary table of capped England matches up until 25 June 2016 . Only fixtures recognised as test matches by the RFU are included .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
On 22 May , head coach Eddie Jones named a 32 @-@ man squad for England 's tour of Australia . An additional 5 players ( denoted through * ) were also named ahead of the test match against Wales on 29 May , with the Aviva Premiership final taking place in the 28 May between Saracens and Exeter Chiefs . Ben Te 'o has been named in the squad by virtue of his English mother . Despite playing for Irish province Leinster , Te 'o will moving to Worcester Warriors in the 2016 / 17 season making him eligible for selection .
On 30 May , Luther Burrell replaced Manu Tuilagi in the touring squad , after Tuilagi withdrew from the squad due to injury .
Note : The number of caps was updated 25 June 2016 .
= = = Notable players = = =
Four former England representatives have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame : Bill Beaumont , Martin Johnson , Jason Leonard and Wavell Wakefield .
Seven former England internationals are also members of the IRB Hall of Fame . Four of them — Johnson , Alan Rotherham , Harry Vassall and Robert Seddon — were inducted for their accomplishments as players . Two other former England players , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall for non @-@ playing accomplishments in the sport . Another former England player , Alfred St. George Hamersley , was inducted for achievements as both a player and a rugby administrator .
Wavell Wakefield represented England in 31 Tests between 1920 and 1927 , including 13 Tests as captain . He was involved in three Five Nations Grand Slams in 1921 , 1923 and 1924 . Playing as flanker , Wakefield introduced new elements to back row tactics which beforehand concentrated on the set piece . He became a Member of Parliament in 1935 , and was knighted in 1944 . He became the RFU President in 1950 and following his retirement from politics was awarded the title the first Baron Wakefield of Kendal .
Between 1975 and 1982 , Bill Beaumont represented England in 34 Tests . Playing at lock , he was captain between 1978 and 1982 in 21 Tests including the 1980 Grand Slam – England 's first since 1957 . Later that year , he captained the British Lions to South Africa – the first time an Englishman had captained the Lions since 1930 . Furthermore , Beaumont represented the Barbarians FC on fifteen occasions .
The youngest ever England captain at 22 , Will Carling represented England in 72 Tests , and as captain 59 times between 1988 and 1996 . He was best known as a superlative leader , motivating England to a remarkable three Grand Slams in five years , including back to back slams in 1991 and 1992 . He also led England to the final of the 1991 World Cup , and captained the Barbarians FC . His playing talents were not as flamboyant as some of his colleagues , but his effectiveness cemented him as a first choice at centre . It is possible he would already be in the Hall of Fame were it not for outspoken tendencies with respect to the English RFU committee ( " Old | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, while Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted it as one of the album 's best tracks . Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald called the song " irritating " and noted it as " blatant copycat stuff " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner felt that " Bassline " was " a lazy attempt " from Brown . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times stated that the worst part of the song is the hook . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine was critical of the production and lyrics , labeling it as " bad " and " dodgy " . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman noted that Brown " clearly feels more emboldened than ever " on " Bassline " . Upon the release of Fortune , due to digital sales , " Bassline " debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 28 in the issue dated July 14 , 2012 . It also debuted at number 122 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= HMS Black Prince ( 1904 ) =
HMS Black Prince was a Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ship was sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India and to search for German merchant ships . After capturing two ships , Black Prince was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was sunk during the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , with all hands killed .
= = Design and description = =
Two armoured cruisers of a new design , Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince , the latter named for Edward , the Black Prince , were ordered for the Royal Navy as part of the 1902 – 03 Naval Estimates . They were the first ships to be designed for the Royal Navy under the supervision of the new Director of Naval Construction , Sir Philip Watts . The new design was significantly larger than the previous Monmouth and Devonshire @-@ class cruisers , mounting a heavier main armament of six 9 @.@ 2 in ( 234 mm ) guns in single turrets .
Black Prince displaced 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) as built and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 789 officers and enlisted men .
Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single turrets , two on the centreline and two on each beam , giving a broadside of four 9 @.@ 2 in guns . Her secondary armament of four BL 6 @-@ inch Mark XI guns was arranged in single casemates . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . Twenty Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure . The ship also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes .
= = Operational history = =
Black Prince was laid down on 3 June 1903 at the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company 's shipyard at Blackwall , London . She was launched on 8 November 1904 and completed on 17 March 1906 . When completed , Black Prince served with the 2nd Squadron until 1907 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron from 1907 – 1908 , the 5th Cruiser Squadron ( as part of the Atlantic Fleet ) from 1908 – 1912 and the Third from 1912 – 1913 .
At the beginning of the First World War , Black Prince was one of the four armoured cruisers serving in the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Charles Thomas Troubridge . She participated in the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau . Following the escape of the two German ships to neutral Turkey , Black Prince and Duke of Edinburgh were sent into the Red Sea to search for German merchant ships , with Black Prince capturing the German ocean liners Südmark and Istria . On 6 November , she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ships to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast . This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel . Black Prince joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot .
Black Prince was modified in March 1916 as a result of lessons learned at the Battle of Coronel , with the 6 @-@ inch guns removed from their casemates and replaced by six 6 @-@ inch guns mounted individually behind shields between the beam 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets .
= = = Loss = = =
The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland , where she was sunk with heavy loss of life . The circumstances under which she sank were mysterious for some years after . As the British had lost contact and did not see the ship destroyed , they were unsure as to whether a submarine or surface ship was responsible for sinking Black Prince . During the battle , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet , but Black Prince lost contact with the rest of the Squadron as it came into contact with German forces , at about 17 : 42 . Soon after , two other members of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Defence and Warrior were heavily engaged by German battleships and battlecruisers , with Defence blowing up and Warrior receiving heavy damage , which later caused her to sink .
There were no positive sightings of Black Prince by the British fleet after that , although a wireless signal from her was received at 20 : 45 , reporting a submarine sighting . During the night of 31 May – 1 June , the British destroyer Spitfire , badly damaged after colliding with the German battleship Nassau , sighted what appeared to be a German battlecruiser , with two widely spaced funnels , described as being " ... a mass of fire from foremast to mainmast , on deck and between decks . Flames were issuing out of her from every corner . " The mystery ship exploded at about midnight . It was later thought that the burning ship may have been Black Prince , with the two midships funnels having collapsed or been shot away .
Recent historians , however , hold to the German account of the ship 's sinking . Black Prince briefly engaged the German battleship Rheinland at about 23 : 35 GMT , scoring two hits with 6 @-@ inch shells . Separated from the rest of the British fleet , Black Prince approached the German lines at approximately midnight . She turned away from the German battleships , but it was too late . The German battleship Thüringen fixed Black Prince in her searchlights and opened fire . Up to five other German ships , including the battleships Nassau , Ostfriesland , and Friedrich der Grosse , joined in the bombardment , with return fire from Black Prince being ineffective . Most of the German ships were between 750 and 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 690 and 1 @,@ 370 m ) of Black Prince — effectively point @-@ blank range for contemporary naval gunnery . The ship was hit by at least twelve heavy shells and several smaller ones , sinking within 15 minutes . There were no survivors from her crew , all 857 being killed .
The wrecksite is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .
= = Popular culture = =
In the first episode of Series 4 of the SBS @-@ TV ( Australia ) series Who Do You Think You Are ? , Australian writer @-@ actor @-@ comedian Shaun Micallef discovered that his great @-@ grandfather Giovanni ( John ) Micallef , a steward on Black Prince , was among those killed .
= On the Pulse of Morning =
" On the Pulse of Morning " is a poem by African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou that she read at the first inauguration of President Bill Clinton on January 20 , 1993 . With her public recitation , Angelou became the second poet in history to read a poem at a presidential inauguration , and the first African American and woman . ( Robert Frost was the first inaugural poet , at the 1961 inauguration of John F. Kennedy . ) Angelou 's audio recording of the poem won the 1994 Grammy Award in the " Best Spoken Word " category , resulting in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadening her appeal .
The poem 's themes are change , inclusion , responsibility , and role of both the President and the citizenry in establishing economic security . Its symbols , references to contemporary issues , and personification of nature has inspired critics to compare " On the Pulse of Morning " with Frost 's inaugural poem and with Clinton 's inaugural address . It has been called Angelou 's " autobiographical poem " , and has received mixed reviews . The popular press praised Clinton 's choice of Angelou as inaugural poet , and her " representiveness " of the American people and its President . Critic Mary Jane Lupton said that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Poetry critics , despite praising Angelou 's recitation and performance , gave mostly negative reviews of the poem .
= = Background = =
When Angelou wrote and recited " On the Pulse of Morning " , she was already well known as a writer and poet . She had written five of the seven of her series of autobiographies , including the first and most highly acclaimed , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Although she was best known for her autobiographies , she was primarily known as a poet rather than an autobiographer . Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' Fore I Diiie , published in 1971 shortly after Caged Bird , became a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . As scholar Marcia Ann Gillespie writes , Angelou had " fallen in love with poetry " during her early childhood in Stamps , Arkansas . After her rape at the age of eight , which she depicted in Caged Bird , Angelou memorized and studied great works of literature , including poetry . According to Caged Bird , her friend Mrs. Flowers encouraged her to recite them , which helped bring her out her self @-@ imposed period of muteness caused by her trauma .
Angelou was the first poet to read an inaugural poem since Robert Frost read his poem " The Gift Outright " at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 , and the first Black and woman . When it was announced that Angelou would read one of her poems at Clinton 's inauguration , many in the popular press compared her role as inaugural poet with that of Frost 's , especially what critic Zofia Burr called their " representativeness " , or their ability to speak for and to the American people . The press also pointed to the nation 's social progress that a Black woman would " stand in the place of a white man " at his inauguration , and praised Angelou 's involvement as the Clinton administration 's " gesture of inclusion " .
Angelou told her friend Oprah Winfrey that the call requesting her to write and recite the poem came from television producer Harry Thomason , who organized the inauguration , shortly after Clinton 's election . Even though she suspected that Clinton made the request because " he understood that I am the kind of person who really does bring people together " , Angelou admitted feeling overwhelmed , and even requested that the audiences attending her speaking engagements pray for her .
She followed her same " writing ritual " that she had followed for years and used in writing all of her books and poetry : she rented a hotel room , closeted herself there from the early morning to the afternoon , and wrote on legal pads . After deciding upon the theme " America " , she wrote down everything she could think of about the country , which she then " pushed and squeezed into a poetic form " . Angelou recited the poem on January 20 , 1993 .
= = Themes = =
" On the Pulse of Morning " shared many of the themes in President Clinton 's inaugural address , which he gave immediately before Angelou read her poem , including change , responsibility , and the President 's and the citizenry 's role in establishing economic security . The symbols in Angelou 's poem ( the tree , the river , and the morning , for example ) paralleled many of the same symbols Clinton used in his speech , and helped to enhance and expand Clinton 's images . Clinton 's address and the poem , according to Hagen , both emphasized unity despite the diversity of American culture . " On the Pulse of Morning " attempted to convey many of the goals of Clinton 's new administration .
Burr compared Angelou 's poem with Frost 's , something she claimed the poetry critics who gave " On the Pulse of Morning " negative reviews did not do . Angelou " rewrote " Frost 's poem , from the perspective of personified nature that appeared in both poems . Frost praised American colonization , but Angelou attacked it . The cost of the creation of America was abstract and ambiguous in Frost 's poem , but the personified Tree in Angelou 's poem signified the cultures in America that paid a significant cost to create it . Both Frost and Angelou called for a " break with the past " , but Frost wanted to relive it and Angelou wanted to confront its mistakes . Burr also compared Angelou 's poem with Audre Lorde 's poem " For Each of You " , which has similar themes of looking towards the future , as well as with Walt Whitman 's " Song of Myself " and Langston Hughes ' " The Negro Speaks of Rivers " . According to Hagen , the poem contains a recurring theme in many of Angelou 's other poems and autobiographies , that " we are more alike than unalike " .
" On the Pulse of Morning " was full of contemporary references , including toxic waste and pollution . Angelou 's poem was influenced by the African @-@ American oral tradition of spirituals , by poets such as James Weldon Johnson and Langston Hughes , and by modern African poets and folk artists such as Kwesi Brew and Efua Sutherland , which also influenced her autobiographies .
= = Critical response and impact = =
According to Lupton , " On the Pulse of Morning " is Angelou 's most famous poem . Lupton has argued that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. British reporter Kate Kellaway compared Angelou 's appearance as she read the poem at Clinton 's inauguration with the eight @-@ year @-@ old child in Caged Bird , noting that the coats she wore in both occasions were similar : " She looked magnificent , sternly theatrical with an unsmiling bow mouth . She wore a coat with brass buttons , a strange reminder of the eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya Angelou who stood in a courtroom , terrified at the sight of the man who had raped her " . Gillespie stated regarding Kellaway 's observations : " But standing tall on the steps of the Capitol , she was light @-@ years removed from that terrible time , and America was no longer an ' unfriendly place . ' Her poem ' On the Pulse of Morning ' was a soaring call for peace , justice , and harmony . Capturing the hope embodied in the human spirit , it was a solemn and joyful reminder that all things are possible . She wished us ' Good morning ' in her poem , and one felt as if a new day was truly dawning . "
Angelou recognized that although " On the Pulse of Morning " was a better " public poem " than a great poem , her goal of conveying the message of unity was accomplished . Poet David Lehman agreed , stating that although it fulfilled its theatrical and political objectives , the poem was " not very memorable " . Poet Sterling D. Plumpp found Angelou 's performance " brilliant " , but was " not as enthusiastic about it as a text " . Burr stated that the negative reviews of Angelou 's poem , like the majority of the reviews about her other poetry , was due to their elitism and narrow views of poetry , which were limited to written forms rather than spoken ones like " On the Pulse of Morning " , which was written to recite aloud and perform . Burr compared the response of literary critics to Angelou 's poem with critics of Frost 's poem : " Frost 's powerful reading served to supplement the poem in the sense of enhancing it , while Angelou 's powerful reading of her poem supplemented it in the sense of making evident its inadequacy and lack . "
Angelou 's recitation of " On the Pulse of Morning " resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . The week after Angelou 's recitation , sales of the paperback version of her books and poetry rose by 300 – 600 percent . Bantam Books had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of all her books to keep up with the demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and published the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , accounting for a 1200 percent increase . The sixteen @-@ page publication of the poem became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award .
= God 's Choice =
God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin and published by the University of Chicago Press . It is the product of his late 1970s 18 @-@ month ethnographic study of a 350 @-@ person Christian fundamentalist Baptist school in Illinois . He describes the K – 12 day school 's function as a total institution that educates about a singular truth ( God 's will ) and subordination before God . The final chapter is a comparative analysis of the school and other schools , institutions , and social movements , wherein Peshkin concludes that the school is divisive in American society for promoting intolerance towards religious plurality , the very condition that permits the school 's existence .
Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair , and praised his decision to let the participants speak for themselves through quotations . They also noted that the book filled a literary lacuna in scholarly understanding of the rapidly expanding and understudied fundamentalist Christian school .
= = Summary = =
God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin . It is a profile of an Illinois Christian fundamentalist school — its policies , practices , and participants . Peshkin , then Professor of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , intended his account to be both impartial and " empathetic " . He presents the fundamentalists as disciplined , dedicated , and determined with " formulas for success " opposite " fragmented and defensive " detractors . They believe in " one Truth " — God 's plan — and reject philosophies of multiple truths . A teacher told Peshkin that their job is to prepare students for this " one pattern " of thought . In turn , the community 's constituents do not wish to leave , but appreciate conformity as an end in itself . Peshkin describes the school as a " total institution " : a place where many similar people live by their own formal rules apart from outside society , as based on Erving Goffman 's 1961 essay . Peshkin asserts that this was a natural conclusion from a school " based on absolute truth " . God 's Choice was the third book in his series of studies on school – community relationships . It was published by the University of Chicago Press .
In 1978 , Peshkin moved to an Illinois community of 50 @,@ 000 people that he pseudonymically called Hartney , where he stayed and observed for 18 months . He lived in an apartment within the home of a family associated with what he called the Bethany Baptist church . Peshkin studied their 350 @-@ student K – 12 Christian day school , Bethany Baptist Academy ( also a pseudonym ) . The school opened six years prior with 88 students and was one of over one thousand members of the American Association of Christian Schools . The study focuses on the 125 students in the junior – senior high school . After a semester , Peshkin began to interview the community members , and used their quotes to let them " speak for themselves " . The book includes eight portraits of students — four from faith and four " scorners " who " consciously deviate " — as well as student and teacher survey data , displayed in 16 tables . An appendix includes course offerings and a bibliography .
Peshkin 's findings show a " total world " where the lessons of religion and education are intertwined into an " interrelated , interdependent " philosophy . The academy 's intent is to make Christian professionals as what Peshkin describes as " a vocational school directed to work in the Lord 's service " . When compared to the work of public schools , the private school 's instructors said both kinds of institutions impose a lifestyle and set of values as a kind of " brainwashing " . Peshkin notes that while students " largely identify with " and uphold the fundamentalist teachings , they permit themselves the option of having " individual interpretations " and minor beliefs . Some students either dissent against the academy 's rules or are regarded as too pious , but most students are moderate .
Students take classes to be effective Christian leaders , including " Bible study and ' soul @-@ winning ' , English , speech , drama , and music " , which are seen as important to " read and proclaim the Word " . Academy teachers establish their authority through discipline and teach " the truth " as established by " facts " from the Bible . Bible passages are associated with the subject matter in a process called " integration " . The academy uses science books from Bob Jones University as an alternative to books that promote secular humanism , which is described as " the ' official religion ' of the public school system " . The Bob Jones science books associate the Bible with science , and often comment the relationship between God 's intelligence and the intricacies of nature . Classes like science , social studies , and math are viewed as less important for the goal of making Christian professionals apart from their training to do " everything a sinner can do , better " . Some classes are " memorization and recitation " -focused , reflecting an inelastic view of knowledge , which the academy believes to be fixed as based in biblical inerrancy . Their biggest external influence on curriculum is new books , which may affect how classes are taught , though the content ( " the truth " ) remains the same .
In a chapter on teacher selection and training , the task of socializing students with obedience and discipline takes precedence over the task of teaching content . Students are under constant supervision to uphold a pledge to avoid outside activities such as theater , fashion , dances , and certain television shows . They also avoid some activities altogether , such as sexualized contact , drugs , alcohol , and smoking . This pledge is to be upheld at home as well , and students are encouraged to report errancies . Teachers too pledge to prioritize " the pursuit of holiness " over all things in a " born again " activity where they " confess their sins and accept Jesus Christ as their personal savior " . The school is unapologetic in its insistence on " telling the kids what is right " and its according preference for lecture over discussion . Teachers are also afforded the option of corporal punishment , though it is rarely used .
The last two chapters feature Peshkin 's commentary on the school in society , its tradeoffs and comparison with other total institutions and larger social movements , like the New Religious Right . He also compares the academy to public and parochial schools , wherein he finds public school students more politically tolerant and acceptant of religious pluralism . Peshkin 's final reflections are written as a " cost @-@ benefit analysis " of these Christian schools in the larger American society . In the last chapter , Peshkin contemplates how his Jewish identity is insulated within a pluralistic and secular society , and how he is fearful of absolutist " imperious , implacable logic " and " zeal for conversion and exclusivism " . He recounted that while the school spoke derogatorily of non @-@ fundamentalists and non @-@ Christians , no one spoke of the American religious plurality that permitted this . In response to the encroaching state , fundamentalists feel that their political conviction should mirror that of their religion . Peshkin views the school as schismatic in a larger society for promoting intolerance towards fellow Americans . He also praised traits of the schools including its community , dedicated teachers , and attractive image . At the time of print , Christian schools like Bethany were outpacing the growth of other schools . In 1989 , Christian schools comprised about 20 % of private school enrollment — around 700 @,@ 000 students .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair in its presentation , and that his choice to let individuals " speak for themselves " through abundant quotations was a strength . They also noted how the book filled a gap in the field and that his final chapter was too moralistic .
R. Scott Appleby ( American Journal of Education ) wrote that Peshkin succeeded at his attempt to be impartial , and that his presentation of fundamentalist culture is made both " understandable " and , in part , " admirable " . He reflected that this Christian pedagogy was closer to indoctrination than education in that it did not develop " critical skills and ... human capacities " in " open @-@ ended " learning but professed a fixed chain of knowledge " from on high " where humans are errant and need authoritarian guidance . Appleby added that fundamentalism blames public schools and its associated state apparatus as both a manufacturer enemy needed to feed its " sense of crisis " and for creating " unsafe " areas unregulated by " Christian truth " . Sociologist Susan Rose " broadens the base " of God 's Choice in her 1988 Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan , and Appleby writes that the two books compliment each other 's lacunae . While God 's Choice has an " engaging , sometimes riveting narrative " with vivid characters but little outside information apart from statistics , Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan includes extra detail on how fundamentalist groups interact and share a larger societal milieu . For example , Rose explains the difference in " born @-@ again experiences " of evangelicals and fundamentalists , which Peshkin glosses over .
In her own review of Peshkin 's book , Rose ( Contemporary Sociology ) praised its " clear and detailed " contribution to the field but wished for more overview material on the Christian School Movement 's rise , proponents , philosophical consistency , and " sociohistorical context " . She wrote that few had studied Christian schools , the " fastest growing sector of private education in the United States " . In commending Peshkin 's even @-@ handedness , she wrote that his forthrightness about declaring his own biases and effort to present participant voices through direct quotation were strong elements , though he described more than he analyzed . Rose felt that the " interesting " final chapters of analysis and comparison with public schools " grounded " the overall ethnography , though she wished for more comparison of the adolescent student experience between the academy and other kinds of American schools . She considers Peshkin 's " discussion of the politics of pluralism " , that Christian schools both add to American religious pluralism while advocating against it , possibly his best contribution .
Jean Holm ( The Times Higher Education Supplement ) too noted the fast growth of conservative Christian schools but added that the book was also relevant in Britain , which was experiencing similar growth . She found the first few chapters somewhat repetitive as it expressed the uniformity of the school 's practices . Richard V. Pierard ( Christian Century ) felt that Peshkin wrote with " deeply respect " for the school and its community , but Pierard , himself an evangelical , was " disturbed " by the community 's " indoctrinated " values — " biblical absolutes " that are " part of a conservative program that has been read into Scripture " . Paul F. Parsons ( Christianity Today ) noted that Peshkin found the school successful by traditional terms , with standardized tests , orderly climate , and " fun @-@ loving " students , but lacking free exchange of ideas , as education is seen more as a transfer than a quest , and students do not learn " choice , doubt , suspended judgment , [ or ] dissent " . Parsons affirmed Peshkin 's findings as " remarkably representative " based on his own visits to " Christian schools in 60 cities " , though others are less absolutist . And while Julian McAllister Groves ( Journal of Contemporary Ethnography ) described the text as " beautifully written " and " poetic " , he doubted whether the school 's students were as converted as they said , and felt that Peshkin might have seen more " role distance " and examples of playing along simply for community acceptance had he stayed for lunch and other informal observations .
= Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 =
On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history . Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 . Incumbent mayor Kurt Schmoke , a Democrat , opted not to run for reelection . Martin O 'Malley , a member of the Baltimore City Council , won the election to succeed Schmoke .
Because Baltimore 's electorate is overwhelmingly Democratic , whoever won the Democratic primary election was seen as the favorite over the Republican nominee in the general election . Baltimore 's large African American population initially made it seem likely that the next mayor would also be African American . Kweisi Mfume was the preferred candidate of local politicians , but he opted not to run . Though Carl Stokes and Lawrence Bell , members of the City Council , declared for the race , local leaders were underwhelmed with the quality of declared candidates .
In 1999 , Baltimore experienced high rates of murder and unemployment , and had a failing city school system . O 'Malley declared his candidacy , focusing his campaign on a " zero tolerance " approach to crime . He received endorsements from many of the city 's African American leaders . After a close race , O 'Malley overtook both Stokes and Bell to win the Democratic nomination , which all but assured him of victory in the general election . He defeated Republican candidate David F. Tufaro in the general election by an overwhelming majority .
= = Background = =
Kurt Schmoke , the incumbent Mayor of Baltimore , was serving his third term . He announced in December 1998 that he would not run for reelection the following year , the first time an incumbent Baltimore mayor did not run for reelection since 1971 . Schmoke was the first African American mayor in Baltimore 's history .
Racial politics had long played a role in Baltimore . As the state of Maryland did not attempt to prevent African Americans from voting through Jim Crow laws , political coalitions often involved African American community leaders . Theodore McKeldin , who served as mayor from 1943 through 1947 and from 1963 through 1967 , was one of the first political leaders to work with African American community leaders . By 1999 , 63 % of Baltimore 's registered voters were African American , and 90 % were registered to the Democratic Party . Baltimore had not elected a Republican mayor since 1963 .
As of 1999 , Baltimore experienced 300 murders a year , which was the fourth most in the nation . Unemployment was 9 % , twice the national average . Between 1990 and 1998 , Baltimore saw its population decrease by 12 @.@ 3 % , the second @-@ biggest decrease during that time period in the United States . This decrease led to its work force decreasing by one @-@ sixth . The city saw decreases in heavy @-@ manufacturing by 40 percent , distribution jobs by 35 percent , retail positions by 34 percent , and banking jobs by 28 percent . Also , the state of Maryland had taken over the city 's failing school system in 1996 , which upset African American politicians . State Senator Clarence M. Mitchell , IV called the takeover racist . Baltimore City Council members , including President Lawrence Bell and Martin O 'Malley , had opposed the handling of Baltimore 's high crime rate by Schmoke and Baltimore Police Department ( BPD ) Commissioner Thomas C. Frazier .
= = Candidates = =
= = = Democrats = = =
Bell was considered in February 1999 to be the front @-@ runner in the mayoral race . Other potential candidates included State 's Attorney Patricia Jessamy , former City Councilman Carl Stokes , City Comptroller Joan Pratt , and Joan Carter Conway , a member of the Maryland State Senate .
City leaders , including Howard P. Rawlings , a member of the Maryland House of Delegates , and William Donald Schaefer , the Comptroller of Maryland and Schmoke 's predecessor as mayor , feared that none of the potential candidates had the vision to continue the urban renewal that took place under Schmoke and Schaefer . They hoped that Baltimore @-@ native Kweisi Mfume , the president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , would run . Mfume had previously served on the Baltimore City Council and in the United States House of Representatives . Schmoke called the race " his to lose " . However , Mfume lived in nearby Catonsville , Maryland , and did not move into Baltimore until March , which would leave him short of the one year residency requirement .
The state legislature passed a law shortening the residency requirement from one year to six months , which was signed into law by Democratic Governor Parris Glendening in April . Bell attempted to have the legislation overturned . The City Council , with Schmoke 's support considered raising the salary of the mayor in April , to make the position more enticing to Mfume . Also , 200 Baltimore citizens , including three former mayors , attempted to draft Mfume into the race . However , Mfume had signed a five @-@ year contract with the NAACP in 1996 . Mfume considered leaving the NAACP to run , but in May , decided to remain with the organization .
Stokes announced his candidacy in December 1998 . Bell announced his candidacy two days after Mfume passed on running , in May 1999 , promising to tackle crime and improve public safety . Community leaders who attempted to draft Mfume into the race began to back Stokes . Other declared candidates included Mary Conaway , the City Register of Wills , activists A. Robert Kaufman , Robert Marsili , and Phillip Brown . Jessamy stated that without Mfume in the race , she would consider running , but she opted against getting into the race .
A June 1999 poll conducted by Gonzales / Arscott Communications Inc . , a polling firm based in Annapolis , Maryland , showed Schaefer ahead of Bell . Schaefer stated that he had no interest in running , and threw his support behind Bishop Robinson , the former BPD Commissioner . Robinson chose not to run .
O 'Malley initially supported Bell 's candidacy . Bell urged O 'Malley to endorse him , and offered him the job of city solicitor in exchange for his support . However , O 'Malley began to distance himself from Bell , not appearing at Bell 's campaign announcement , due to disagreements on several bills debated at the City Council . Bell 's supporters attempted to convince O 'Malley to run for City Council President , but O 'Malley announced his decision to run for mayor in June , becoming the first major candidate in the race who was Caucasian . He began the campaign largely unknown outside of Northeast Baltimore .
= = = Republicans = = =
On July 1 , David F. Tufaro , a real estate developer and lawyer from Roland Park , Maryland , announced his intention to run for the Republican Party nomination , joining three neighborhood activists who had already declared their intentions to run . Carl Adair , a public school teacher who had run unsuccessfully for the City Council and the Maryland House of Delegates on numerous occasions , was also a candidate for the Republican nomination .
Republican Party officials quickly began to back Tufaro , who criticized the Democratic Party by pointing out that Democrats have led Baltimore in its decline .
= = Campaign = =
Fifteen candidates ended up running in the Democratic primary . The front @-@ runners were considered to be O 'Malley , Bell , and Stokes . Schmoke made no endorsement in the race .
O 'Malley and Bell called for " zero tolerance " to all crime , though Stokes felt this policy was biased against minorities . Stokes ran on the issue of education , as he was a former member of the Baltimore school board , in addition to the city council . Stokes vowed to reduce class sizes and reverse the trend of citizens of Baltimore leaving the city to live in nearby suburbs .
O 'Malley faced initial difficulties based on race , as a community leader stated that his entrance into the race " created some tension , " and that O 'Malley 's potential victory " would be the worst thing that could happen in this city " and could " tear this city apart . " Some saw his entrance in the race as an attempt to split the African American vote . However , O 'Malley received endorsements from prominent African American politicians in August , including Rawlings , fellow state Delegate Kenneth Montague , and Conway . Rawlings credited O 'Malley 's " track record of empowering black Americans . " He also received an endorsement from Schaefer . Some African Americans charged Rawlings with " stabbing us in the back " over the endorsement .
Bell attempted to portray himself as the heir apparent to Schmoke . However , disclosures from a lawsuit revealed Bell 's financial troubles , which included having his car repossessed . Bell lost support after he stated that voters should choose him because " I look like you . " Stokes began to lose support after he was charged with lying about having a college degree , when it was discovered that he did not graduate from Loyola University Maryland , as his campaign literature stated . It was also revealed that Stokes settled an income tax lien . Bell 's supporters rallied outside the offices of The Baltimore Sun , challenging that they were writing negative stories about African American candidates , and giving better treatment to O 'Malley during the campaign . Stokes was able to recover support when he received endorsements from The Baltimore Sun , the Baltimore Afro @-@ American , and the ministerial alliance .
Bell led Stokes in a poll conducted early in the race , 33 % to 17 % , before O 'Malley declared his candidacy . By late August , Bell slipped in the polls to third place , with O 'Malley and Stokes tied . Bell and O 'Malley began airing television commercials supporting their campaigns in early August , while Stokes did not begin to air commercials until September . O 'Malley also advertised on the radio .
Seven candidates , including Democrats Bell , Stokes , O 'Malley , and Conaway , and Republicans Adair , Tufaro , and Arthur Cuffie Jr . , met for a debate on September 8 . The debate focused on crime , with Bell , Stokes , and O 'Malley making their cases regarding " zero tolerance " , while Adair and Tufaro declared their support for Frazier .
= = Results = =
= = = Democratic primary = = =
The Democratic primary was held on September 14 . Turnout was high ; though the mayoral candidates expected about 100 @,@ 000 voters , about half of Baltimore 's 294 @,@ 000 registered voters voted in the primary elections .
O 'Malley won the primary election with more than 50 % of the vote , though he received only 30 % of the African American vote . Bell and Stokes split a significant portion of the city 's black majority , but their combined total was less than O 'Malley . At his victory rally , O 'Malley called the election " a victory for diversity and a victory for inclusiveness " .
= = = Republican primary = = =
In the September 14 Republican primary , Tufaro received over half of the votes cast . Adair finished in second place .
= = = General election = = =
Despite the odds he faced in the general election , Tufaro promised to campaign against O 'Malley , not taking defeat as an inevitability . He pointed to Bret Schundler , the mayor of Jersey City , New Jersey , as evidence that a Republican could be elected in a heavily Democratic city . Schundler came to Baltimore to campaign for Tufaro .
Regarding public housing , Tufaro called for renovations rather than demolishing vacant buildings , which drew criticism , as Housing Commissioner Daniel P. Henson III pointed out that renovating was more expensive than demolishing . O 'Malley promised to enforce provisions of the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 , which require banks to invest in poor neighborhoods . Tufaro further proposed a plan for school vouchers and to drug test students , which drew opposition from the Baltimore Teachers Union and from O 'Malley , who favored expanding pre @-@ kindergarten and after @-@ school programs , while making summer school mandatory . When discussing the problem of HIV / AIDS in Baltimore , which disproportionately affects African Americans , both O 'Malley and Tufaro promised to continue the city 's needle exchange program .
Tufaro criticized O 'Malley 's zero tolerance policy , suggesting it would lead to increased police brutality towards minorities . He instead proposed continuing Mayor Schmoke 's community policing strategy . Opponents of the zero tolerance policy tried to tie O 'Malley to the Baltimore Police shooting of an African American car theft suspect .
WMAR @-@ TV conducted the only poll of the general election with SurveyUSA , which showed O 'Malley leading with 87 % of the vote . On Election Day , O 'Malley easily defeated Tufaro in the general election , receiving over 90 % of the vote .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = O 'Malley 's political career = = =
Following his election , O 'Malley 's first personnel decision was to retain the director of the city 's economic development agency . O 'Malley had his transition team , and had them compile policy drafts by mid @-@ December , so they would be ready to compete for state funds when the Maryland State Legislature reconvened on January 12 , 2000 . He participated in the Newly Elected Mayors Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in mid @-@ November . By the beginning of December , he named five deputy mayors and filled most of his cabinet . He finalized his cabinet on December 7 , during his last session as a city councillor . He was sworn in as mayor later that day at the War Memorial Plaza , near Baltimore City Hall .
In his first year in office , O 'Malley adopted a statistics @-@ based crime tracking system called CitiStat , modeled after Compstat . The system logged every call for service into a database for analysis . The Washington Post wrote in 2006 that Baltimore 's " homicide rate remains stubbornly high and its public school test scores disappointingly low . But CitiStat has saved an estimated $ 350 million and helped generate the city 's first budget surplus in years . " In 2004 , CitiStat accountability tool won Harvard University 's " Innovations in American Government " award . The system garnered interest from Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty , as well as crime officials from the United Kingdom .
O 'Malley considered a run for Governor of Maryland in the 2002 election , but decided not to run . He was reelected as Mayor of Baltimore in 2003 , and announced his candidacy for Governor in the 2006 election . The Baltimore Sun endorsed O 'Malley , saying : " When he was first elected mayor in 1999 , the former two @-@ term city councilman inherited a city of rising crime , failing schools , and shrinking economic prospects . He was able to reverse course in all of these areas . " The Washington Post criticized O 'Malley for " not solv [ ing ] the problems of rampant crime and rough schools in Baltimore " , but further said that " he put a dent in them . " . O 'Malley defeated incumbent Governor Bob Ehrlich 53 % -46 % in the November 7 , 2006 , general election . O 'Malley defeated Ehrlich in the 2010 election 56 % -42 % , receiving just over one million votes .
O 'Malley was ineligible to run in the 2014 gubernatorial election due to term limits . O 'Malley publicly expressed interest in a presidential run in 2016 on multiple occasions . At a press conference at a National Governors Association meeting , O 'Malley stated he was laying " the framework " for a presidential run .
= = = Depiction on The Wire = = =
A fictionalized version of the events of this election were presented in third and fourth seasons of The Wire , a drama about crime and politics in Baltimore , which aired in 2004 and 2006 , respectively . Many saw the connection between O 'Malley and the character of Tommy Carcetti , a Caucasian Baltimore City Councillor who is elected mayor in an election against two African American opponents . Carlos Watson of MSNBC once introduced O 'Malley as " one of the real @-@ life inspirations for the mayor of the hit TV show The Wire " , to which O 'Malley responded that he was instead the show 's " antidote " .
Show creator David Simon denied that the character of Tommy Carcetti was supposed to be O 'Malley , though he did acknowledge that O 'Malley was " one of several inspirations " for Carcetti . He further stated that while Carcetti was " reflective " of O 'Malley , Carcetti was a composite drawing aspects from other local politicians that he had covered when he worked as a reporter for The Baltimore Sun .
= Arikamedu =
Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , inKakkayanthope , Ariyankuppam Commune , Puducherry . It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry .
Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie Casal conducted achaeological excavations there in 1947 – 1950 . The site was identified as the port of Podouke , known as an " emporium " in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy . Digs have found Amphorae , Arretine ware , Roman lamps , glassware , glass and stone beads , and gems at the site . Based on these excavations , Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading post that traded with Rome , starting during the reign of Augustus Caesar , and lasted about two hundred years — from the late first century BCE to the first and second centuries CE . Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment , and now place the period of occupation from the 2nd century BCE to the 8th century CE .
Significant findings at Arikamedu indlcude numerous Indo @-@ Pacific beads , which facilitated fixing the period of its origin . Red and black ceramics — known as megalithic stones or Pandukal in Tamil meaning " old stones " and used to mark graves — have existed at the site even prior to and during Roman occupation of the site , and also in later periods .
= = Location = =
Arikamedu is a coastal fishing village , under the Ariankuppam Panchayat , on the southeastern coast of India , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Pondicherry , on the Pondicherry @-@ Cuddalore road ; it was originally a French colonial town . It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River ( for most part of the year the river is considered a lagoon ) , also known as Virampattinam River , which forms the northern outlet of the Gingee River as it joins the Bay of Bengal . As the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea @-@ going vessels that dock there . The site has been subject to extensive archaeological excavations . The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34 @.@ 57 acres ( 13 @.@ 99 ha ) and has been under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982 .
= = Etymology = =
The name Arikamedu , an archaeological usage for the excavated site , originates in a Tamil word that means Mound of Arakan , based on the figurine of an avatar ( incarnation ) of the Jain Tirthankara Mahavira found at the site . It is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam , meaning Port of Virai , a village next to Arikamedu . Virai , according to Sangam literature , was well known as a port and also for its salt pans during the Velir dynasty . Arikamedu @-@ Virampatnam together find mention as Poduke , a major port in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the first century CE and as Poduke emporion in Ptolemy 's Geographia of mid first century CE . Poduke is a Roman name and is also said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai , meaning a " meeting place " , also known for the local Poduvar clan .
= = History = =
The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734 , in a communication from the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony of Pondicherry . It informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam . The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France , who the King of France had assigned to observe notable astronomical occurrences in the world . Gentil , after visiting Arikamedu , confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony .
In 1765 , when he visited the ruins at the site , he found the people of the village collecting large ancient bricks exposed at the river bank . The villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira @-@ Raguen . In 1937 , Jouveau Dubreuil , an Indologist , also from France , purchased gem stone antiquities from local children , and also gathered some exposed on the site 's surface . In particular , he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man . As a numismatist , he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar . He also found fine beads and gems . He concluded that these antiquities belonged to the Roman Empire . Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find , and called Arikamedu " a true Roman city . " He published a short note about his findings .
In the early 1940s , Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations . Father Fancheux and Raymand Surleau , who were not qualified archaeologists , carried out the excavations at Arikamedu and sent a few antiquities to Indian museums , and also to the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient in Hanoi .
Sir R.E.M.Wheeler , the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India , in the 1940s saw a few potsherds of Arikamedu site displayed in the Madras Museum , which he identified as Arrentine ware , an expensive ceramic made until 50 CE in Arizzo , Italy . Thereafter , when he visited the Pondicherry Museum and saw more of the findings from the Arikamedu site , he was impressed and thought that he had found the links between the Classical Mediterranean and Ancient India . Soon thereafter in 1945 , the penultimate year of World War II , he mounted excavations in a scientific manner . He was looking for an archaeological site in India that could establish its cultural link , a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco @-@ Roman period , and this quest led him to the Arikamedu site . These excavations also involved Indian archaeologists , who were trained on the site .
Wheeler published his findings in 1946 . He noted that , for the local fishermen of the village , the antiquities were strange — as they consisted of lamps , glass items , gemstones , cutlery and crockery , wine containers , etc . He also observed that traders traveled from west coast and from Ceylon , Kolchoi ( Colchi ) and the Ganges area to trade goods such as gems , pearls and spices , and silk . He carried out excavations carefully , so that none of the antiquities were damaged . This was followed by investigations after the war , from 1947 – 1950 by Jean @-@ Marie Casal . His report of excavations was not as fully published as Wheeler 's . His report was not well @-@ known in India , as it was not written in English . However , his important conclusion was that the site belonged to an early megalithic period , as he had located megalithic burials marked by stones , locally known in Tamil as Pandukal close to the site .
The excavations led to antiquities of Roman origin such as beads and gems , amphorae ( wine making vats ) with remnants of wine , a Roman stamp , big bricks recovered from an old wall , Arretine ware and so forth . From these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the site was related to a period of trading with Rome , and that it was first established by emperor Augustus . He also noted that this Indo @-@ Roman trade lasted for a period of about 200 years , till 200 CE . Wheeler also found the Chinese celadon , identified to belong to the Song @-@ Yuvan dynasty , and Chola coins from about the eleventh century , but these were rejected as despoiling items or remnants left by brick @-@ robbers . Items Chinese blue @-@ and @-@ white ware were also recovered from the site .
Wheeler noted that " rouletted Ware " found at the site ( designated as " Arikamedu Type 1 " in the scientific study under the " Arikamedu Type 10 Project : Mapping Early Historic Networks in South Asia and Beyond " ) was not of an Indian origin , but was from the Mediterranean region . A ceramic sherd , ( " Arikamedu Type 10 ) has also been investigated for its style and spatial distribution .
After a gap of several decades , in the early 1980s , Vimala Begley studied the ceramics find of the site and proposed a preliminary version of the chronology of the occupation of the site . At the same time she started researching on the beads , organized a proper sequential display of the artifacts of the site at the Pondicherry Museum , and brought out an information brochure .
Begley obtained approvals to carry out excavations at the site in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Madras ; she and K.V. Raman were the directors of operation from 1989 to 1992 . Steven Sidebothom of the University of Delaware , who had back ground knowledge of Roman Egypt , was in charge of the trenching at the site . Further excavations were done during six working seasons from 1989 to 1992 , which led to a contradictory view that the brick structures and the wells investigated by Wheeler were of poor quality as they were founded on poor sandy foundations . The wood work was also noted to be of poor quality and the houses had no waterproofing . The excavations also lead to a view that Arikamedu 's Roman trading link was more of an inference . The excavations have now established that the trading with Rome extended to a period beyond that assessed by Wheeler ; that trading continued from the second century BCE to the seventh or eighth century CE .
The extensive findings of glass and stone beads at the site provided Begley the link to Arikamedu 's history . She identified the beads as Indo @-@ Pacific beads crafted at Arikamedu . Based on the antiquities and structural features from the excavations , Begley and Raman established a revised sequence of six major periods of occupation of the site . Finds of new variety of Roman Amphorae ware also facilitated revision of the dates of occupancy . They have also inferred that the site has been in continuous occupation since at least 2nd or 3rd century BCE to much more recent times .
= = Excavations = =
The excavated area of the mound was demarcated into two zones on the basis of occupation and elevation . Northern sector of the mound is nearer to the sea coast while the southern sector is farther away from the coast . The ceramic find of crockery and cooking vessels found in the northern sector were indicative of mass feeding of sailors and traders who camped there . Wine stored in amphorae was the principal item imported from the western countries during the later part of the 2nd century BCE .
According to Wheeler the finds from the northern and southern part of the mound belong to the period from later part of 1st century BCE to 1st and 2nd centuries CE . Identified structures include :
A brick and lime mortar plaster structure of oblong shape 45 metres ( 148 ft ) in length , with a divide wall , used as a storehouse in the southern part
Two walled enclosures with ponds and drainage systems in the northern part of the mound that could indicate of dyeing operations that used vats to dye muslin for export
Pottery , both local and Mediterranean , such as amphorae and Arrentine ware that belonged to the Terra Sigillata ( stamped pottery ) of 1st century BCE , which went out of use by 50 CE
Pink amphorae jars used to store wine or oil with two handles and a yellow slip , found in all layers of excavations
Smaller objects include a wheel @-@ turned blackware ceramic , a few terracotta figurines , shell beads , gems , gold , terracotta , iron nails , copper percussion beater , red fragment of a Roman lamp shade , an engraved emblem of emperor Augustus , an ivory handle , and a wooden toy boat . Based on these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading station . However , recent excavations by Begley have altered this assessment .
The buildings in the northern part of the mound indicative urbanization , with people of different ethnic groups — Indian and non @-@ Indian — but it has not been possible to date them in view of the limited depth of excavations .
= = Conservation = =
An international conference that the Government of Pondicherry and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs held in October 2004 decided to investigate the Arikamedu site jointly for conservation , as its ancient commercial link with the Romans has been established . During this conference , the Government of Pondicherry also decided to propose the site for status as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO . The Archaeological Survey of India also proposed the site for UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site status , under the title Silk Road Sites in India .
= Hurricane Ingrid =
Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 . Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on September 12 in the Gulf of Mexico from a broad disturbance that also spawned Manuel in the eastern Pacific . After initially moving westward toward Veracruz , Ingrid turned northeastward away from the coast . Favorable conditions allowed it to attain hurricane status on September 14 , and the next day Ingrid attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear weakened the convection as the storm turned more to the northwest and west . On September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico as a strong tropical storm , and dissipated the next day .
The combined impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected two @-@ thirds of Mexico , killing 192 people and causing $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) in damage . Most of the effects were due to Manuel , though Ingrid was directly responsible for at least 32 deaths and $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in damage . The two storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in Mexico . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) in Tuxpan , Veracruz . The rains caused widespread flooding , damaging at least 14 @,@ 000 houses and hundreds of roads and bridges . In Tamaulipas , where the storm made landfall , the rainfall damaged crops and flooded rivers . The effects of the storm spread into southern Texas , causing high tides and some flooding . After the storm , the Mexican government declared several municipalities as states of emergency . Relief agencies distributed food and aid to the hardest hit areas , although in Tamaulipas , residents had to rely on assistance from the local Gulf Cartel . The names Ingrid and Manuel were both later retired due to their impacts .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 28 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , which moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 2 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed along the northern portion of the wave , but was eventually absorbed into Tropical Storm Gabrielle north of Puerto Rico . The wave continued westward through the Caribbean Sea into a large area of cyclonic flow at the surface , which extended across Central America into the eastern Pacific . Around September 9 , the broad system developed two areas of disturbed weather – one in the eastern Pacific would become Hurricane Manuel , and the other developing over the northwestern Caribbean . The latter system slowly organized , developing a low pressure area on September 11 . Subsequently , the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula . Although land interaction prevented immediate development , conditions favored further development in the Bay of Campeche . Early on September 12 , the low emerged into the bay , and at 1800 UTC the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assessed that Tropical Depression Ten developed about 280 km ( 170 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Veracruz . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight indicating the presence of a closed low @-@ level circulation .
On September 13 , convection and organization increased and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ingrid , while weak steering currents resulted in little movement of the cyclone . Partially due to the presence of nearby Hurricane Manuel in the eastern Pacific basin on the other side of Mexico , significant wind shear existed in the vicinity of Ingrid . Nonetheless , strong convection and intermittent development of an eye allowed for strengthening of the storm on September 14 . Ingrid strengthened into a hurricane – the second of the season – that afternoon . Around that time , the hurricane turned sharply northeastward due to a trough over eastern Mexico and a ridge over the southeastern United States . Additional strengthening took place thereafter , and Ingrid reached a peak intensity of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) early on September 15 while starting to move northward and begin a northwest turn towards the Mexican coastline .
Afterward Ingrid reached peak winds , shear increased and began to weaken the hurricane as it approached the Mexican coast . The center became displaced to the edge of the convection , and NHC forecaster Daniel Brown noted that Ingrid " [ did ] not resemble a classic hurricane in satellite pictures . " At around 1115 UTC on September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico , after having weakened into a strong tropical storm with 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds . Near landfall , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) which , after adjusting to surface winds , confirmed the weakening . The storm moved ashore less than 24 hours after Tropical Storm Manuel struck the Pacific coast of Mexico on Michoacán , making it the first time since 1958 that tropical cyclones struck both coasts of the country within one day . Ingrid rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land , and although convection temporarily reorganized , the circulation dissipated on September 17 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in anticipation of the storm . Upon the development of Ingrid into a tropical cyclone at 2100 UTC on September 12 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Coatzacoalcos to Nautla , Veracruz . At 1500 UTC on September 13 , the tropical storm warning was extended northward to Cabo Rojo , Veracruz , with a tropical storm watch northward to La Pesca , Tamaulipas . Later , a hurricane warning was issued between Cabo Rojo to La Pesca , with a tropical storm watch to Bahia Algodones , Tamaulipas . Pemex , the oil company operated by the Mexican government , evacuated workers from three platforms in the Gulf of Mexico due to the storm . In Tamaulipas , classes were canceled in 27 municipalities , and all classes were temporarily canceled throughout Veracruz . The threat of the storm caused events for Mexican Independence Day to be canceled . After a restriction on the news in 2010 due to the local drug war , members of a citizen alert system in Tamaulipas used Twitter to notify about flooding , missing people , and the need for assistance .
Early in its duration , Ingrid produced tropical storm force winds along the coast of Veracruz . While making landfall , it also brought tropical storm force winds along the northeastern Mexican coast . Sustained winds at La Pesca peaked at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with gusts to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The NHC remarked that Ingrid " likely caused above normal tides " in northeastern Mexico , but there was no data to back up the statement . Interacting with Hurricane Manual on the Pacific coast and the broad cyclonic flow , Ingrid dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mexico , primarily in Tabasco , Veracruz , and Tamaulipas states . In Tuxpan , Veracruz , rainfall totaled 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) over 10 days , while at the Presa Vicente Guerrero dam in Tamaulipas , precipitation reached 502 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . Surface runoff from the storm spread to the Pacific coast of Mexico , producing flooding in Guerrero in combination with Manuel . The impacts from both storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in the country .
The combined effects of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected about two @-@ thirds of Mexico . The rains from Ingrid caused flooding and landslides across Mexico , causing many rivers to rise , and isolating towns . In Veracruz alone , the rains flooded 68 rivers , which damaged 121 roads and 31 bridges , including two destroyed bridges . About 14 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to some degree . Heavy rainfall forced 23 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , 9 @,@ 000 of whom went to emergency shelters , some forced to leave by the Mexican army in high risk areas . Evacuees who did not reside in shelters generally went to the houses of friends and family . Also in Veracruz , flooding killed about 20 @,@ 000 livestock . Along the coast of Tamaulipas , damage occurred from Soto la Marina to La Pesca . The Pánuco River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks , flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads . Also in the state , the storm damaged local sorghum fields . Two people in the state required rescue after their truck was swept away by a river .
Throughout Mexico , Ingrid killed 32 people , mostly due to flooding and mudslides . The two storms collectively killed at least 192 people and caused $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) . Manuel was responsible for majority of the overall effects , although Ingrid still left an estimated $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in estimated economic losses , according to AON Benfield ; insured damages totaled $ 3 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 230 million USD ) . A total of six fatalities occurred in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla . Three of which were caused after a vehicle was swept off a road , while three other people died after their home was buried by a mudslide ; another death occurred in Hidalgo after a house collapsed on a woman in the town of Tepehuacán de Guerrero . Twelve people died after a landslide smashed a bus in Altotonga , Veracruz , and three people died in Tamaulipas .
The fringes of the storm extended into southern Texas , where winds gusted to tropical storm force , and rainfall was around 25 – 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 2 @.@ 95 in ) . Thunderstorms and high tides affected the coastline , with tides reaching 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) above normal , causing beaches to close due to flooding .
= = Aftermath and retirement = =
The twin impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel prompted officials in Mexico to declare a state of emergency in 155 municipalities in Veracruz , Tamaulipas , Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero , and Chihuahua . The nation 's Health Ministry sent medical crews across the country to affected areas in an effort to prevent the spread of disease ; the agency also suggested residents boil their water . Officials opened shelters in Tamaulipas for residents whose houses were damaged , housing about 2 @,@ 000 people in the weeks following the storm . The Mexican food bank sent about 800 tons of food to the hardest @-@ hit parts of the country in Guerrero , Veracruz , and Sinaloa . In addition , the Mexican Red Cross delivered 186 tons of food to Veracruz alone . Volunteers delivered about 600 blankets and various cleaning supplies to the town of Pánuco . Following the storms , the National Civil Protection Coordination received the authority to prevent housing construction in areas at risk for mudslides and flooding ; the law had passed in 2012 , but initially lacked the authority to enforce it . Some residents in Tamaulipas complained at the slow pace of receiving aid . In response , the Gulf Cartel brought relief items to Aldama , with one columnist for El Universal suggesting that this was to gain favor with local residents .
Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico , the name Ingrid was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization , and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Imelda for the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season . The name Manuel was also retired from the Pacific naming list and was replaced with Mario .
= Typhoon Imbudo =
Typhoon Imbudo , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot , was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003 . The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season , Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines . The storm moved generally west @-@ northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north . Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify , gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19 . After reaching typhoon status , Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on July 20 . The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22 , but quickly weakened over land . Once in the South China Sea , Imbudo re @-@ intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24 , dissipating the next day .
In the Philippines , Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years , causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks . Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck . Most of the banana crop was destroyed , and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage . Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon . Nationwide , the storm damaged or destroyed 62 @,@ 314 houses , causing P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) in damage , mostly in the Cagayan Valley . There were also 64 deaths in the country . In Hong Kong , strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . In China , damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck . Thousands of trees fell , and 595 @,@ 000 houses were wrecked . Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region . In Guangxi , high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . In Guangxi and Guangdong , collectively 20 people were killed , and damage reached about ¥ 4 @.@ 45 billion ( CNY , $ 297 million USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Imbudo were from a disorganized area of convection near Chuuk in the open western Pacific in mid @-@ July . With weak wind shear , the system slowly became better organized . On July 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed . The next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert ( TCFA ) , noting that outflow had increased due to an upper @-@ level low to the northeast . At 1800 UTC on July 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W about 665 km ( 415 mi ) east of Yap . A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west @-@ northwest for much of its duration . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , the depression quickly organized , and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17 .
After becoming a tropical storm , Imbudo passed about 35 km ( 20 mi ) north of Yap . The JMA upgraded Imbudo to a severe tropical storm late on July 18 , around the same time that the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon . An increase in outflow to the south and to the north from a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) caused a 36 ‑ hour period of rapid development beginning on July 19 . During that time , the JMA upgraded Imbudo to typhoon status , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the Philippines , and a 30 km ( 20 mi ) wide eye formed . At 1200 UTC on July 20 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . By late on July 20 , the typhoon had developed concentric eyewalls , and the TUTT was moving away , thus diminishing outflow . Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , before the innermost eye contracted to a diameter of 11 km ( 7 mi ) in the midst of an eyewall replacement cycle . At 0300 UTC on July 22 , Imbudo struck northern Luzon , with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) by the JTWC .
Rapidly weakening over land , Imbudo emerged into the South China Sea about six hours after landfall . The JTWC estimated winds had decreased to 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , although the agency estimated Imbudo quickly re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) in 1 minute winds . Dry air prevented convection from redeveloping significantly , and the eye had become large over open waters . At 0300 UTC on July 24 , Imbudo made its final landfall west of Macau , near Yangjiang , Guangdong . It was the strongest to hit the province since Typhoon Sally in 1996 , striking China with 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , as estimated by the JMA . The storm rapidly weakened over land while moving over southern China . Late on July 25 , Imbudo dissipated near the border of China and Vietnam .
= = Preparations = =
Before Imbudo struck , officials evacuated over 14 @,@ 000 people to at least 60 shelters . Government offices were closed along the typhoon 's path , and schools were closed in the capital , Manila . PAGASA issued a number 4 warning signal , the highest level , for three northern provinces , indicating the imminent threat of a powerful storm . Despite the warning , a post @-@ storm survey in Isabela province indicated that 34 % were unaware of the storm 's arrival , while others believed the typhoon would not be as strong . In Manila , four flights were canceled at Ninoy Aquino International Airport , and the Manila Light Rail Transit System was shut down for two hours . Travel by ship and bus were halted in some areas . On July 22 before the storm struck , the Philippine military was put on red alert , increasing security at the presidential palace . The military stated it was due to the typhoon , although newspapers suggested it was to prevent a coup attempt ; a failed coup ultimately did occur on July 27 in what would become known as the Oakwood mutiny .
The Hong Kong Observatory issued a number 8 warning signal , indicating the potential for gale force winds within the territory . At Hong Kong International Airport , at least 100 flights were canceled or delayed . Most ferry and some bus lines were temporarily suspended . The threat of the storm caused 16 flights to be canceled and another 54 delayed at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport . On Hainan island , 32 canceled flights stranded about 1 @,@ 500 travelers . The threat of the storm forced British Prime Minister Tony Blair to shorten a trip to the territory . The Hong Kong Stock Exchange opened 30 minutes late as a result of the typhoon . On the mainland at Yangjiang , more than 30 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Typhoon Imbudo was the strongest typhoon to strike Luzon since Typhoon Zeb five years prior , and was the fifth storm in eight weeks to affect the country . The typhoon left widespread areas flooded for several days . Cagayan Valley was largely isolated after a bridge was damaged in Ilocos Norte . Damage was heavy in the region , totaling P2.2 billion ( PHP , $ 40 million USD ) , and over 80 @,@ 000 people were displaced by the storm . Damage was heaviest in Isabela , where damage was estimated at P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) , mostly to crops and killed livestock . There , winds and rain knocked down trees and caused a province @-@ wide power outage . Most trees less than three years old fell during the high winds . In Isabela province , the banana crop was almost entirely destroyed , and most of the corn and rice crops were heavily damaged . The high damage caused the gross regional product , or overall economy of the Cagayan Valley , to decrease by 0 @.@ 3 % than what would have happened without the typhoon .
Power outages affected Metro Manila , and several billboards were damaged in the city , although there was minimal flooding in the capital . Adverse conditions caused the Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 to close for two hours , stranding hundreds . High winds knocked over a 12 m ( 40 ft ) tree that killed five on Romblon Island . The rains brought the Magat Dam on Luzon to capacity . Landslides blocked a national highway in Nueva Ecija with debris and fallen trees , which were quickly cleared within a few days . On Mindanao , flash flooding from the outer periphery of the storm affected 18 towns , killing 11 people . In Maguindanao in the southern Philippines , flooding washed away 50 houses , forcing over 2 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Damage extended as far south as the Western Visayas . Across the Philippines , Imbudo damaged 62 @,@ 314 houses , of which about 20 % were destroyed . Housing damage was estimated at P1.2 billion ( PHP , $ 22 million USD ) , most of which in the Cagayan Valley . Overall damage in the country was estimated at about P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) . Of the total , about P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) was in agriculture damage . Imbudo killed 64 people in the Philippines , mostly in Cagayan Valley , and injured another 154 .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Early in its developmental stages , Imbudo affected portions of Micronesia , particularly Ulithi . There , a weather station measured a peak wind gust of 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) ; winds of similar intensity were reported in Yap . Rainfall from Imbudo in Micronesia peaked at 226 mm ( 8 @.@ 89 in ) over a six @-@ hour period on Yap . The rainfall from the passing tropical cyclone caused $ 75 @,@ 000 in property damage and $ 25 @,@ 000 in agricultural and crop @-@ related damage .
Before Imbudo struck mainland China , it passed south of Taiwan , dropping heavy rainfall reaching 137 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) in Taitung County . The outer rainbands reached as far as Okinawa , where 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) was reported .
Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was 53 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 11 in ) at Kwai Chung , only a day after Tropical Storm Koni dropped rainfall in the territory , and the highest storm surge was 1 @.@ 13 m ( 3 @.@ 7 ft ) at Tsim Bei Tsui . As the storm passed to the south , Imbudo produced winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) on Cheung Chau , the highest in the Hong Kong territory , although a gust of 164 km / h ( 102 mph ) was observed at Tai Mo Shan . High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . The winds knocked down 83 trees , injuring 11 people . Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near Lantau Island . In the territory , ten boats were damaged or sank , and one fishing pier was damaged .
At its final landfall in Guangdong , Imbudo produced strong winds , with a peak gust of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) measured at Shangchuan Island . At Yangjiang , gusts reached 159 km / h ( 99 mph ) , causing eleven boats to sink . There , over 10 @,@ 000 trees fell due to the strong winds , more than half in the city , and 7 @,@ 649 homes were damaged or destroyed . In Zhanjiang , the storm damaged power lines and water pumps , leaving residents without access to water . Imbudo spawned tornadoes in Luoding and Zhanjiang , damaging dozens of houses and killing 6 @,@ 000 chickens . Throughout Guangdong , Imbudo destroyed 595 @,@ 000 houses and caused ¥ 1 @.@ 9 billion ( CNY , $ 230 million USD ) . There were at least eight deaths in the province .
In Hainan island to the south of the storm track , rainfall reached 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in Ding 'an County . Imbudo caused flooding in the capital Haikou , and several houses were wrecked . The typhoon affected most of the population , causing an estimated ¥ 55 @.@ 35 million ( CNY , $ 6 @.@ 7 million USD ) in damage . Heavy rainfall spread across southern China , peaking at 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) at Hepu County in Guangxi province , which increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . The Nanliu River in Bobai County rose to 50 @.@ 21 m ( 164 @.@ 7 ft ) , or 0 @.@ 71 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) above flood stage . In Guangxi , 12 people died from storm damage or drowning , and at least 130 livestock were killed . Imbudo destroyed 4 @,@ 950 houses , 3 @,@ 170 of which in the city of Yulin , causing ¥ 499 @.@ 6 million ( CNY , $ 60 @.@ 3 million USD ) in damage in the province . Across southern China , the typhoon damaged over 10 million hectares ( 25 million acres ) of crop fields .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after the storm , the Philippine Air Force were mobilized to help deliver supplies and aid in search and rescue missions . On July 24 , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo declared that the National Disaster Coordinating Council would provide assistance to citizens affected by the typhoon . The president requested P134 million ( PHP , $ 2 @.@ 5 million USD ) for farmers to buy new seeds , and P35 million ( PHP , $ 650 @,@ 000 USD ) to rebuild the hard @-@ hit Cagayan Valley , where Arroyo visited days after the storm struck . The government ultimately spent about P24 million ( PHP , $ 435 @,@ 000 USD ) in emergency aid for relocating storm victims , search and rescue operations , and assistance . In Mindanao , officials prepared 800 bags of rice and various other food supplies due to the storm . Power and water outages persisted across Luzon for up to three weeks , causing many factories otherwise undamaged to close . In Isabela province , 25 Tzu Chi volunteers provided supplies to 2 @,@ 873 houses . The Philippine government provided rice , sardines , and coffee to many affected houses . Damaged houses were supposed to receive 1 @,@ 000 pesos , although few received the monetary aid . In the town of San Mariano in Isabela province , most farmers incurred more debt and continued their same general farming practice , despite sustaining heavy losses from the storm .
In 2004 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Imbudo and replaced it with Molave . The PAGASA name Harurot was replaced with Hanna for the 2007 season .
= Hurricane Felicia ( 2009 ) =
Hurricane Felicia was the third strongest tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , as well as the strongest storm to exist in the eastern Pacific at the time since Hurricane Daniel in 2006 . Forming as a tropical depression on August 3 , the storm supported strong thunderstorm activity and quickly organized . It became a tropical storm over the following day , and subsequently underwent rapid deepening to attain hurricane status . Later that afternoon , Felicia featured a well @-@ defined eye as its winds sharply rose to major hurricane @-@ force on the Saffir – Simpson scale . Further strengthening ensued , and Felicia peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . After reaching this strength , unfavorable conditions , such as wind shear , began to impact the storm while it took on a northwestward path . Henceforth , Felicia slowly weakened for several days ; by August 8 it had been downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane , once again becoming a tropical storm the next day . It retraced westward towards Hawaii on August 10 , all the while decreasing in organization . On August 11 , Felicia weakened to tropical depression status , and soon degenerated into remnant low just prior to passing over the islands .
After weakening into a remnant low , Felicia continued to approach the Hawaiian Islands and on August 12 , the system produced copious amounts of rainfall across several islands . The highest total was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) , causing isolated mudslides and flooding . In Maui , the heavy rains helped to alleviate drought conditions and water shortages , significantly increasing the total water across the island 's reservoirs . In addition , river flooding resulted in the closure of one school and large swells produced by the storm resulted in several lifeguard rescues at island beaches . In all , only minor impacts were caused by the remnants of Felicia .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Felicia originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on July 23 , 2009 . A weak system , the wave was barely identifiable as it tracked westward . By July 26 , the wave entered the Caribbean Sea before crossing Central America and entering the eastern Pacific basin on July 29 . The system remained ill @-@ defined until August 1 , at which time convection began to increase and the wave showed signs of organization . The storm gradually became better organized as it tracked generally towards the west . By August 3 , the system became increasingly organized and around 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) designated the system as Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E. Convective banding features and poleward outflow were being enhanced by the nearby Tropical Storm Enrique . The main steering component of the depression was an upper @-@ level low located to the north , causing the depression to track generally west before turning northwest after the low weakened .
By the early morning hours of August 4 , the NHC upgraded Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E to Tropical Storm Felicia , the seventh named storm of the season . Located within an area of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , averaging between 28 and 29 ° C ( 82 and 84 ° F ) , the storm quickly developed , with deep convection persisting around the center of circulation . These conditions were anticipated to persist for at least three days ; however , there was an increased amount of uncertainty due to possible interaction with Tropical Storm Enrique . Several hours later , the storm began to undergo rapid intensification , following the formation of an eye . Around 2 : 00 pm PDT ( 2100 UTC ) , Felicia intensified into a hurricane .
Late on August 4 , the intensity of Felicia led to it taking a more northward turn in response to a mid- to upper @-@ level trough off the coast of the Western United States . Early the next morning , the storm continued to intensify and attained Category 3 status with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Maintaining a well @-@ defined eye , Felicia neared Category 4 status and hours later , the storm attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a pressure of 937 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 67 inHg ) during the evening hours , making it the strongest Pacific storm east of the International Date Line since Hurricane Ioke in 2006 and the strongest in the eastern Pacific basin since Hurricane Daniel of 2006 . Around 5 : 00 pm PDT ( 0000 UTC August 6 ) Felicia reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) .
After slightly weakening throughout the day on August 6 , Felicia leveled out with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a 23 mi ( 37 km ) wide eye as the storm developed characteristics of an annular hurricane , which would allow Felicia to maintain a high intensity over marginally warm waters . Early the next day , the structure of the hurricane quickly deteriorated as convection became asymmetric and cloud tops warmed significantly . This marked a quick drop in intensity of the storm to a minimal Category 3 hurricane . Several hours later , the mid @-@ level circulation began to separate from the low @-@ level circulation and the overall size of the storm decreased . By this time , the storm began to take a long @-@ anticipated westward turn towards Hawaii . After briefly re @-@ intensifying on August 7 , Felicia weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on August 8 . Around 11 : 00 am HST ( 2100 UTC ) , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) took over responsibility of issuing advisories as Felicia crossed longitude 140 ° W.
By August 9 , increasing wind shear further weakened the storm , with Felicia being downgraded to a tropical storm early that day . The storm rapidly weakened throughout the day as convection gradually dissipated around the center due to the shear . By the late morning hours , little convective activity remained around the low pressure center of Felicia . A weak cyclone , the storm continued to track towards Hawaii with the only deep convection associated with it being displaced to the northeast of the center . The system slowly weakened before being downgraded to a tropical depression on August 11 as no areas of tropical storm @-@ force winds were found by Hurricane Hunters . Several hours after being downgraded , the CPHC issued its final advisory on Felicia as it degenerated into a remnant low near the Hawaiian Islands . The system dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations = =
By August 5 , forecasters were discussing the possibility of the storm impacting Hawaii . Residents were advised to ensure that their disaster kits were fully stocked and ready . Governor Linda Lingle made a speech to the state of Hawaii the same day . She emphasized that the storm was not an imminent threat but that residents should be ready and should know where the nearest emergency shelter is . Since forecasters expected the storm to weaken before it reached the islands , only minor effects — mainly rainfall — were expected . Hawaii County mayor Billy Kenoi was also briefed on the approaching storm and he advised the county to be prepared . Stores reported an influx of shoppers and posted anniversary sales . Blue tarps for roofs were being sold at $ 1 apiece . The American Red Cross also reported that sales of the " water bob " , a water container that can be attached to a bathtub and hold roughly 100 gallons of water , increased significantly . On August 6 , the Red Cross stated that it was deploying a disaster recovery team , led by the director of the agency , to the islands of Hawaii .
On August 7 , five Hurricane Hunter planes were dispatched to Hickam Air Force Base to fly missions into the storm . Later that day , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watches for the island of Hawaii , Maui , Kahoolawe , Lanai , and Molokai . On August 9 , the watch was expanded to include Oahu . The watches for the Big Island were later cancelled as the forecast track appeared to drift further north toward Maui County and Oahu . The Red Cross opened shelters throughout the islands on August 10 . Twelve were on the Big Island , seven were on Maui , two on Molokai and one on Lanai . The Honolulu International Airport ensured that eight generators were ready for use in case Felicia caused a power outage at the airport . All tropical storm watches were cancelled at 11 a.m. August 11 as Felicia dissipated to a remnant low .
= = Impact = =
= = = Oahu = = =
In Oahu , areas on the windward side of the island received more than 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain on August 12 from the remnants of Felicia , causing many roads to become slick . A portion of Kamehameha Highway was shut down around 11 : 00 pm HST when the Waikane Stream overflowed its banks . Flooding near a bridge reached a depth of 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , stranding some residents in their homes . The highway remained closed until around 4 : 00 am HST on August 14 . The rain was also considered helpful in that it helped alleviate drought conditions that had been present for nearly two months . The heaviest rainfall was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) in the Forest National Wildlife Refuge . During a 12 @-@ hour span , a total of 6 @.@ 34 in ( 161 mm ) fell in Waiahole . Some areas recorded rainfall rates up to 1 in / h ( 25 mm / h ) , triggering isolated mudslides . At Sandy Beach , there were two lifeguard rescues and three others were on Makapuʻu as waves up to 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) affected the islands . There were also five assists at Makapuʻu and one at Kailua Beach . Lifeguards issued a total of 1 @,@ 410 verbal warnings about the rough seas to swimmers and surfers during the event . However , winds on the island reached only 15 mph ( 25 km / h ) and gusts peaked at 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) .
= = = Other islands = = =
On Kauai , the Hanalei River rose above its normal level , leading to the closure of the Hanalei School . Several tree limbs and small trees were blown down across the island . Rainfall on Kauai peaked at 5 @.@ 33 in ( 135 mm ) at Mount Wai 'ale 'ale and on Maui , up to 4 @.@ 05 in ( 103 mm ) fell in Kaupo Gap . On the leeward side of the mountains , rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 3 in ( 33 mm ) in Kihei , an area that rarely records rainfall in August . Throughout the island , the total amount of water in reservoirs increased to 104 @.@ 5 million gallons ( 395 @.@ 5 million liters ) from 77 @.@ 8 million gallons ( 294 @.@ 5 million liters ) prior to Felicia . Rainfall in some areas was heavy enough at times to reduce visibility to several feet . Streets in these areas were covered with muddy water . Localized heavy rainfall fell on the Big Island , peaking at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in Kealakekua . In Wailua Beach , there was one lifeguard rescue that resulted in the swimmer being sent to a local hospital . Three other people were swept away at the mouth of the Wailua River , all of whom were quickly rescued . In Honolulu , runoff from the storm resulted in large amounts of trash and debris along the local beaches . Private contractors were dispatched to the affected coastlines to trap and remove the trash . Officials were forced to close the beaches along Hanauma Bay after swells from Felicia pushed an estimated 2 @,@ 000 Portuguese Man o ' War siphonophorae into the region . The beaches were later re @-@ opened on August 14 .
= Santa @-@ Fe ( Bob Dylan song ) =
" Santa @-@ Fe " ( sometimes spelled " Santa Fe " or " Santa Fé " ) is a song that was recorded by Bob Dylan and the Band in the summer or fall of 1967 in the Woodstock area of New York State . It was recorded during the sessions that would in 1975 be released on The Basement Tapes but was not included on that album . These sessions took place in three phases throughout the year , at a trio of houses , and " Santa @-@ Fe " was likely put on tape in the second of these , at a home of some of the Band members , known as Big Pink . The composition , which has been characterized as a " nonsense " song , was copyrighted in 1973 with lyrics that differ noticeably from those on the recording itself .
In the decades following this collaboration , the over 100 tracks recorded at these sessions were at different stages obtained by collectors and released on bootlegs . The first batch of these leaked to the public beginning in the late 1960s ; the second in 1986 ; the third , which included " Santa @-@ Fe " , in the early 1990s ; and a fourth batch of Basement Tape tracks became public in 2014 . The song was released officially on the Columbia album The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 . It has been subject to mixed opinions by critics and biographers , with some praising it for its expressiveness , and others regarding it unmemorable , while criticizing its inclusion on The Bootleg Series at the expense of more worthy candidates .
= = Background = =
= = = Recording near Woodstock = = =
In 1965 and 1966 , Dylan was touring with the Hawks — Rick Danko , Garth Hudson , Richard Manuel , Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm , although Helm quit the group in late November or early December 1965 . In July 1966 , Dylan suffered a motorcycle accident and spent several months recuperating at his house in Byrdcliffe , near Woodstock , New York . By spring 1967 , all of the members of the Hawks , except Helm , had joined Dylan in the Woodstock area , with Danko , Manuel and Hudson living in nearby West Saugerties in a house nicknamed Big Pink . Dylan and the four Hawks began recording informal music sessions , first at Dylan 's house in what was known as " the Red Room " , followed by the basement of Big Pink . Earlier on they recorded mostly covers and traditional music , but later moved onto original material written largely by Dylan . In total , over 100 songs and alternate takes were put on tape . Helm returned to the group in October 1967 and performed on some final Woodstock @-@ area collaborations between Dylan and the Hawks , these ones at a different house that some group members had moved to . In the fall of that year , the Hawks , who soon renamed themselves the Band , continued writing and rehearsing songs for their debut album , Music From Big Pink .
Dylan biographer Sid Griffin has noted that , because no written records were kept of these 1967 recording sessions , " the world will have to live with the fact that it will never know exactly which Basement Tapes tune was recorded when and where " . Nonetheless , using clues such as the sound quality of different batches of songs , and where they appear on the original reels of tapes , attempts have been made to place the songs into a rough chronology and guess the locations at which they were likely recorded . Biographer Clinton Heylin places " Santa @-@ Fe " in the summer of 1967 at Big Pink . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 date it in the fall of that year . Griffin lists it among the probable Big Pink recordings , and in a group of songs from around July , but concedes it is also " unlikely [ but ] possible " it came from the Red Room .
= = = Circulation of Basement Tape songs = = =
In late 1967 , an acetate of fourteen of Dylan 's compositions was made , from which demos circulated among music groups who might be interested in recording some of the songs . Artists including Peter , Paul and Mary , Manfred Mann and the Byrds eventually did . Dylan 's demo tapes were soon heard by music journalists , including Rolling Stone 's Jann Wenner , who wrote a front @-@ page story in that magazine entitled " Dylan 's Basement Tape Should Be Released " . This made the general public hungry to hear the music , and in July 1969 a bootleg called Great White Wonder , which included some of the Big Pink songs , came out . Other Basement Tape bootlegs followed .
In 1975 , the Columbia album The Basement Tapes was compiled , mainly by Robertson and engineer Rob Fraboni . Robertson and Fraboni put thirty @-@ five of the songs onto composite reels of tape , and Heylin believes these represented a short list of candidates for the album . " Santa @-@ Fe " was included on these composite reels , but was not ultimately chosen for the album . The Basement Tapes included sixteen Dylan songs recorded at Big Pink in 1967 , as well as eight Band demos from various times and locations between 1967 and 1975 . One Dylan song on the album , " Goin ' to Acapulco " , had not appeared on his 1967 fourteen @-@ song acetate or on bootlegs , and this alerted the world to the possibility that there might be more Basement Tape songs in existence . In 1986 , at least twenty @-@ five previously unknown 1967 songs by Dylan and the Band passed into collectors ' hands by way of a former roadie of the Band 's . In the early 1990s , a third batch of songs , these ones from Garth Hudson 's archives , came to light around the time Columbia was preparing The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ; " Santa @-@ Fe " comes from this group . In his liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , John Bauldie commented on these second and third stages in which groups of Big Pink songs had come to light : " Despite the ... emergence [ in 1986 ] in collectors ' circles of a further couple of hours of Basement Tapes , it seems as though there 's a good deal left unheard . ' Santa @-@ Fe ' is just one example of a batch of previously unsuspected Basement tracks " . By 1992 , the " Santa @-@ Fe " batch of songs had been obtained by bootleggers , and almost all known Dylan Basement Tape songs were assembled onto the 5 @-@ CD bootleg The Genuine Basement Tapes . " Sante @-@ Fe " was also included on the 2014 compilations The Basement Tapes Raw and The Bootleg Series Vol . 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete ; the latter album officially released a fourth batch of previously uncirculating Basement Tape songs .
= = Personnel = =
The liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 list the song 's personnel as Dylan , guitar and vocals ; Robertson , guitar ; Hudson , organ ; Manuel , piano ; Danko , bass ; and Helm , drums . However , Griffin argues that Helm did not arrive in Woodstock until after the song is believed to have been recorded . Furthermore , the drumming sounds to Griffin more like Manuel 's style . Heylin and biographer Greil Marcus similarly do not include " Santa @-@ Fe " among the songs they believe were recorded after Helm 's arrival . Griffin also argues that no organ is audible on the track and proposes the following musician line @-@ up as being more likely : Dylan , acoustic guitar and vocals ; Robertson , electric guitar ; Hudson , piano ; Danko , bass ; Manuel , drums .
= = Copyright and lyrics = =
Different Basement Tape songs were copyrighted in stages between 1967 and 1975 , with " Santa @-@ Fe " being registered in September 1973 ; still other songs from the sessions were not copyrighted until the 1980s . Researcher Tim Dunn indicates that in the original 1973 copyright the song was registered as " Santa @-@ Fe " with a hyphen , but that some later documents relating to the renewal of the copyright omit the hyphen . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 print the title as " Santa @-@ Fe " , while Dylan 's official website , Bobdylan.com , spells it without the hyphen but with an accent on the e : " Santa Fé " .
Heylin has noted that , as is the case with a number of other of Basement Tape tracks , Dylan 's copyrighted , published " Santa @-@ Fe " lyrics differ from what can be heard on the song . Heylin speculates that the " dramatic reworking " in the later version arose from Dylan 's " 1973 musing in Malibu " , where Dylan had moved to , and that new lines like " build a geodesic dome and sail away " and " My shrimp boat 's in the bay " sound like the work of " someone sitting on the dock of the bay , not up on Meads Mountain [ in Woodstock ] " . Heylin also notes that the website maintained by Olof Björner , Words Fill My Head , contains a transcription of the song as Dylan performed it . The 1973 copyrighted lyrics are printed on Bobdylan.com.
In his notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , Bauldie describes the song as " a typical combination of nonsense and fun , just for the hell of it , really ... " ; author Oliver Trager likewise describes it as a " nonsense " song . Heylin writes that the lyrics " revolve around ' dear , dear , dear , dear , Santa Fe ' — intended to be both a woman 's name and the town in New Mexico . After five verses of rolling said words around , he moves on . "
= = Appraisal = =
Opinions about the song have been mixed . AllMusic critic Thomas Ward calls it " one of the great good @-@ time songs in Dylan 's canon " . Ward comments that " Dylan sings it as if he is having the time of his life " , adding that " rarely has he sung with such expressiveness " . Anthony Varesi , author of The Bob Dylan Albums , similarly praises the song 's " breadth of feeling " and " unparalleled expressiveness " , noting that " it appears Dylan simply improvised the song on the spot , and the passion within him allows the song to flow forth naturally " . Biographer John Nagowski has described the song as " delightful " , while a New York Times review rates it one of the highlights of Volume 2 of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , commenting that it is one of only a couple of mid @-@ 60s songs on the compilation that " live up to their vintage " . Griffin describes it as " catchy but slight " and " a slight if charming little ditty " , but criticizes the decision to include it on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 rather than the " masterpiece " composition " Sign on the Cross " . Heylin concurs , characterizing " Santa @-@ Fe " in 1995 as a " pleasant enough throwaway " but suggesting that " Sign on the Cross " or another 1967 composition , " I 'm Not There " , would have been much better choices ( " I 'm Not There " was eventually released in 2007 on the I 'm Not There soundtrack , and both it and " Sign on the Cross " were included on The Basement Tapes Raw and The Basement Tapes Complete in 2014 ) . By 2009 , Heylin 's opinion had changed little and he writes that " of all the ' missing ' basement @-@ tape originals that appear on that three @-@ CD set , ' Santa Fe ' hardly represented an A @-@ list candidate . Just another discarded ditty , it relies on the usual wordplay and slurred diction to obscure any pretense to a deeper meaning " . Marcus dismisses it as no more than " a riff " , while a review in Stereophile magazine calls it " the most lightweight tune on all three CDs , with indecipherable lyrics " . Author Peter James , referring to Dylan and the Band 's Woodstock output , writes that " many great songs were written and recorded in [ Big Pink 's ] basement in 1967 , unfortunately ' Sante @-@ Fe ' is not one of them . " He goes on to describe the song 's inclusion on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 as " little more than a joke " .
= = Cover versions = =
The song has been covered by Howard Fishman on his album Performs Bob Dylan & The Band 's The Basement Tapes Live at Joe 's Pub . Fishman played more than sixty songs from Dylan and the Band 's Basement Tape sessions over three nights , of which selected tracks were included on the CD and an accompanying DVD . " Santa @-@ Fe " has also been covered by Steve Gibbons . On November 7 , 2007 at the Beacon Theatre in New York City , J Mascis and the Million Dollar Bashers performed the song at a special concert featuring numerous music artists celebrating the release of Todd Haynes 's film I 'm Not There . Thomas Ward notes that Dylan himself has never played the song live .
= The Secret ( The Office ) =
" The Secret " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's nineteenth episode overall . It was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky and directed by Dennie Gordon . The episode first aired on January 19 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Tom W. Chick as Gil .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is forced into spending time with Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) so that Michael will not reveal Jim 's feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) . Meanwhile , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) takes a sick day and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) investigates whether he is actually sick .
" The Secret " was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series at the time . The title for the episode is purposely vague and refers to Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . " The Secret " received largely positive reviews from television critics and was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , ranking as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched television episode of the week .
= = Plot = =
Out of fear that Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) will tell the others he has feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) allows Michael to believe that they are best friends , which leads to an awkward lunch at Hooters paid for with a corporate credit card . Michael ultimately reveals Jim 's secret to everyone , forcing Jim to confess his crush to Pam himself , although he tells her that he got over it three years ago . However , Michael later tells her that he learned of the crush during the " booze cruise " which occurred recently , leading her to suspect that Jim is still infatuated .
Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) " investigates " Oscar Martinez 's ( Oscar Nunez ) claimed sick day from work , learning that the co @-@ worker is actually taking time off to ice @-@ skate . Dwight blackmails Oscar , threatening to reveal his unauthorized leave @-@ taking . He then cuts a deal for Oscar to owe him a favor , and watches a movie with Oscar and Oscar 's " roommate " Gil ( Tom W. Chick ) while completely failing to recognize evidence of Oscar 's homosexuality .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Secret " was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky . The episode was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series , at the time . The idea to make the entry the " spring cleaning episode " was " throw [ n ] in at the last minute " because the writers were " desperate " . The subplot was inspired by a friend of Eisenberg 's , who suggested the story after he was forced to undergo spring cleaning at his office .
The title for the episode is purposely vague . During the commentary , the cast revealed that there are actually three " secrets " in the episode : Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . Stupkitsky later joked that there are " actually nine secrets in the episode " . The cold opening – wherein Michael tries to tell a joke where the punch line is " What 's up dog ? " – was inspired by the same prank being pulled on Stupnitsky . The original cold opening for the episode featured Michael playing golf in his office , but it was cut .
Jenna Fischer felt that Krasinski 's performance in the episode was " really great " and called " The Secret " her " favorite John Krasinski episode " . Krasinski said that Creed Bratton 's line , " Which one is Pam ? " was his favorite moment " in the entire show , ever " . Fischer , in turn , said that her favorite moment was when Jim confesses that he does not have a crush on her , due to the emotion involved . Fischer later admitted that , after the shot was filmed , she cried because it " broke [ her ] heart " .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Secret " was directed by Dennie Gordon , who would go on to direct the season two episode " Boys and Girls " . Tom W. Chick portrayed Gil . The cast were particularly impressed with his acting ; Fischer called him a " great casting " choice . Lindsey Stoddart , who plays one of the Hooters waitresses , was | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
an improv acquaintance of Martin 's .
The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . In fact , Carell decided to play the penis game – in which two or more people shout the word " penis " at varying levels in an attempt to out do each other – which Krasinski called " the craziest thing I have experienced . " The scene where Pam and Kelly discuss wedding plans was particularly difficult to shoot all in one scene , due to the amount of activity going on . John Krasinski later noted that he was impressed that the director and cameramen were able to successfully get the shot . The sequence featuring Michael and Jim talking in the break room was made of two composition shots , because Krasinski was laughing " the entire " time . Michael buying Stanley a peach ice tea and telling him that he will " hate it " was entirely improvised .
= = = Deleted scenes = = =
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the cut cold opening of Michael playing with his new putting toy , Dwight expounding on his thoughts on dust bunnies , Michael surveying his " worker bees " , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) finding an unfinished People Magazine crossword puzzle from 1999 in Michael 's office , Michael describing his college fraternity experience , and Michael buying Jim a Hooters T @-@ shirt .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael attributes the 1981 song " Our Lips Are Sealed " to The Bangles , when it was really sung by The Go @-@ Go 's . Michael and Jim go to Hooters , a company whose waiting staff are primarily young , attractive waitresses usually referred to simply as " Hooter Girls " whose revealing outfits and sex appeal is played up and is a primary component of the company 's image . At the restaurant , Michael makes several breast jokes . Near the end of the episode , Michael makes reference to a nonexistent Cinemax movie called More Secrets of a Call Girl .
= = Reception = =
" The Secret " originally aired on NBC on the January 19 , 2006 . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . This marked a slight decrease in viewers from a lead @-@ in episode of " My Name is Earl " , but more than a follow @-@ up episode of " ER " . " The Secret " ranked as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January 22 .
M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded the entry a " B " . He wrote that while it was " " a solid episode " it " lacks any of the belly laughs the show frequently elicits . " Michael Sciannamea of AOLTV called the installment " a terrific episode " and wrote that the " Michael Scott [ … ] was at his obnoxious best [ … ] in this episode " . Furthermore , he highly praised the story , noting that " the Jim / Pam scenario has definitely taken a more interesting turn . " During the filming of " The Secret " , the cast of the show discovered that Carell had been nominated for a Golden Globe Award . Fischer later noted that it was " fun that [ ' The Secret ' is ] the episode that airs after his win . "
= Maggie Simpson =
Margaret " Maggie " Simpson is a fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She first appeared on television in the Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Maggie was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . She received her first name from Groening 's youngest sister . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family was given their own series on the Fox Broadcasting Company which debuted December 17 , 1989 .
Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . She is often seen sucking on her red pacifier and , when she walks , she trips over her clothing and falls on her face ( this running gag is used much more in earlier seasons ) . Being an infant , she cannot talk . She is a counterpart to Lisa Simpson . However , she did appear to talk in the first Tracy Ullman short . Therefore , she is the least seen and heard member of the Simpson family .
Maggie 's squeaking and occasional speaking parts are currently provided by Nancy Cartwright , but she has also been voiced by guest stars James Earl Jones , Elizabeth Taylor and Jodie Foster , and by series regulars Yeardley Smith and Harry Shearer . Maggie has appeared in various media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and has inspired an entire line of merchandise .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age , and as such the show is assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific times , though sometimes this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . When Marge became pregnant with Bart , she and Homer got married at a chapel in Las Vegas . To support his impending family , Homer all but demanded a job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , impressing its owner , Mr Burns , with his aggressive submissiveness . When Marge became pregnant with Lisa , two years later , she and Homer bought their first house . Another six years later , Homer felt financially secure enough to finally quit his job at the Power Plant and take his dream job at Barney 's Bowlarama . However , Marge became pregnant with Maggie , so Homer , once again unable to support his family , was forced to reapply for his old job . By the time Maggie was born , Homer had shown great signs of distress , but he managed to find motivation in the form of his newborn baby girl .
During the earlier seasons of the show , Maggie 's equivalent of a hallmark was to trip over her clothing and fall on her face while trying to walk , causing a loud thud on the floor , but this was toned down in the later seasons . She has penchant for her pacifier , on which she is always seen sucking .
Maggie has performed a number of feats that suggest she is a baby genius . She has spelled out E = MC ² with her baby blocks , driven Homer 's car , escaped from the Springfield daycare center , and written her name on an Etch A Sketch . Maggie is keenly aware of her surroundings , and can usually be seen imitating the flow of action around her . She shows a high degree of dexterity , and she once hit Homer on the head with a mallet and shot a dart at a photograph of him in imitation of Itchy and Scratchy . Despite her age , Maggie is a formidable marksman , as seen in " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " where she shoots Mr. Burns with a handgun that falls into her hands , and in a more intentional manner during " Poppa 's Got a Brand New Badge " where she is able to non @-@ fatally shoot a group of mobsters in rapid succession with a rifle that she apparently hides in her crib .
Maggie is usually frightened and exasperated by Homer 's attempts to bond with her , but has on several occasions stepped in to save Homer 's life : once from drowning , once from being shot by mobsters , once from being kidnapped by a tow truck driver , and once from being shot by Russ Cargill , head of the United States Environmental Protection Agency .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights for his life 's work , Groening decided to go in another direction , and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family . The baby of the family was named Maggie after Groening 's youngest sister . Maggie then made her debut with the rest of the Simpsons family on April 19 , 1987 in the short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series that would air on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Maggie and the rest of the family remained the main characters on this new show .
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Maggie 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no character other than Lisa shares her hairline . While designing Maggie and Lisa , Groening " couldn 't be bothered to even think about girls ' hair styles " . At the time , Groening was primarily drawing in black and white and when designing Lisa and Maggie , he " just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style , not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color " .
Groening thought that it would be funny to have a baby character that did not talk and never grew up , but was scripted to show any emotions that the scene required . Maggie 's comedic hallmarks include her tendency to stumble and land on her face while attempting to walk , and a penchant for sucking on her pacifier , the sound of which has become the equivalent of her catchphrase and was originally created by Groening during the Tracey Ullman period . In the early seasons of the show , Maggie would suck her pacifier over other characters ' dialogue , but this was discontinued because the producers found it too distracting .
= = = Voice = = =
With few exceptions , Maggie never speaks but participates in the events around her , emoting with subtle gestures and facial expressions . Maggie 's first lines were spoken in " Good Night " , the first short to air on The Tracey Ullman Show , after the family falls asleep . On this occasion , Liz Georges provided the voice of Maggie .
Although she had previously spoken in fantasies and dream sequences , Maggie 's first word spoken in the normal continuity of the series occurred in " Lisa 's First Word " , when she was voiced by Elizabeth Taylor . Although it was only one word ( " Daddy " ) , Taylor had to record the part numerous times before the producers were satisfied . James Earl Jones voiced Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " . Maggie would later have brief dialogue in " Treehouse of Horror IX " , voiced by Harry Shearer , who used his Kang voice . In earlier episodes , Yeardley Smith did many of Maggie 's squeaks , cries , laughs and occasional speaking parts , although in the later seasons her parts are done by Nancy Cartwright ( including a single word spoken during the end credits of The Simpsons Movie ) . Jodie Foster voiced a Howard Roark @-@ inspired Maggie in the season 20 episode " Four Great Women and a Manicure " .
In the occasional " Simpsons in the future " -themed episodes ( " Lisa 's Wedding " , " Bart to the Future " , " Future @-@ Drama " , " Holidays of Future Passed " , " Days of Future Future " ) , although an older Maggie is depicted , as a running gag within these episodes she is never shown speaking , so no voice actors have been utilized on these occasions .
= = Reception = =
Nancy Basile at About.com said her favorite Maggie scenes on The Simpsons are the ones that show her acting more like an adult than a one @-@ year @-@ old . Some of her favorite Maggie scenes include scenes from " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " and " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " where Maggie meets her unibrowed archenemy , Baby Gerald , and the one scene from " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " in which Bart is supposed to babysit Maggie , but she escapes and takes Homer 's car for a ride . Basile also added that " whether watching ' The Happy Elves ' or falling down , Maggie is the cutest baby in the Simpson family " . Comedian Ricky Gervais named " And Maggie Makes Three " his second favorite episode of the show and said that the scene in the end where Homer puts up pictures of Maggie over his desk gave him " a lump in the throat thinking about it " . Todd Everett at Variety called the scene in " Lisa 's First Word " where Maggie speaks her first word " quite a heart @-@ melter " .
In 2006 , Elizabeth Taylor was named thirteenth on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list for her performance as Maggie in " Lisa 's First Word " . James Earl Jones , voice of Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " , was named the seventh greatest guest star on the show in the same list . In 2000 , Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
= = Merchandising = =
Four children 's books , written by Maggie Groening ( after whom Maggie was named ) and illustrated by Matt Groening , entitled Maggie Simpson 's Book of Animals , Maggie Simpson 's Counting Book , Maggie Simpson 's Book of Colors and Shapes and Maggie Simpson 's Alphabet Book were released on September 12 , 1991 . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , jigsaw puzzles , and T @-@ shirts . Maggie was made into an action figure as part of the World of Springfield toy line , and was released in the wave one playset " Living Room " , featuring her and Marge in the living room of the Simpsons house . Maggie has appeared in commercials for Burger King , Butterfinger , C.C. Lemon , Domino 's Pizza , Ramada Inn and Subway .
Maggie has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . She is a character in every one of The Simpsons video games , including the most recent , The Simpsons Game . Alongside the television series , Maggie regularly appears in issues of the Simpsons comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 and are still issued monthly . Maggie also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood . Maggie starred in the 3D short @-@ film The Longest Daycare , which was shown in theaters before Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Maggie and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 . In a USPS poll , Maggie 's stamp was voted the most popular of the five .
= Chasing Vermeer =
Chasing Vermeer is a 2004 children 's art mystery novel written by Blue Balliett and illustrated by Brett Helquist . Set in Hyde Park , Chicago near the University of Chicago , the novel follows two children , Calder Pillay and Petra Andalee . After a famous Johannes Vermeer painting is stolen on route to the Art Institute of Chicago , Calder and Petra work together to try to recover it . The thief publishes many advertisements in the newspaper , explaining that he will give the painting back if the community can discover which paintings under Vermeer 's name were really painted by him . This causes Petra , Calder , and the rest of Hyde Park to examine art more closely . Themes of art , chance , coincidence , deception , and problem @-@ solving are apparent .
The novel was written for Balliett classroom intended to deal with real @-@ world issues . Balliett values children 's ideas and wrote the book specifically to highlight that . Chasing Vermeer has won several awards , including the Edgar and the Agatha . In 2006 , the sequel entitled The Wright 3 was published , followed by The Calder Game in 2008 , .
= = Inspiration and origins = =
Chasing Vermeer is Blue Balliett 's first published book . Its original purpose was a book to read to her class for fun . She realized that a mystery about " real " art issues had not been written since E.L. Konigsburg 's From the Mixed @-@ Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler and desired to write what she wished to read . Chasing Vermeer took about five years to complete , as Balliett was also a teacher and parent . She compared writing the book to weaving , as she first wrote mainly about art , but then incorporated the pentominoes and classroom scenes , creating many different levels to read on . She admits that it ended up more complex than she had thought it would be .
Balliett used art and blank plates as inspiration for the characters ' names . Calder Pillay is derived from the artist Alexander Calder and Petra Andalee was inspired by the architecture in Petra , Jordan . The names were meant to be different , which Balliett considered " fun for a child . " Balliett felt that she could capture the attention of reluctant readers if they related to characters who enjoyed writing and math . Calder and Petra 's teacher , Ms. Hussey , was inspired by an old name on Nantucket Island and the old @-@ fashioned word hussy . Balliett compares herself to Ms. Hussey , stating that " [ we ] think a lot alike . " Some of Ms. Hussey 's assignments and dialogue even came from Balliett 's classroom . She chose the setting of Hyde Park , Chicago , where she currently lives , because she considered it full of secrets that children could discover .
= = Plot summary = =
The book begins with a mysterious letter that is delivered to three unknown recipients , two women and one man . The letter tells them they are of great need to the sender , but begs them not to tell the police .
Sixth @-@ graders Calder Pillay , who enjoys puzzles and pentominoes , and Petra Andalee , who aspires to be a writer , are classmates at the Middle School in Hyde Park , Chicago . Their young teacher , Ms. Hussey , is very interested in art and teaches them in a creative way . Through her pressing questions , they discover the artist Johannes Vermeer and his paintings , especially A Lady Writing and The Geographer . Petra also finds a used book called Lo ! , written by Charles Fort , at the local Powell 's Books , owned by a man named Mr. Watch . They also meet an elderly neighbor , Mrs. Sharpe , who is also a fan of Vermeer and Fort . Calder receives letters from his best friend Tommy Segovia , who is currently living in New York City with a new stepfather .
The children learn that A Lady Writing was traveling from The National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. to Hyde Park . The next day there is a story in the paper of how the painting mysteriously disappeared . A letter from the thief appears in the newspaper , telling the public that he will not give back A Lady Writing until they prove which Vermeer paintings were truly painted by him . This sparks worldwide uproar . Calder and Petra investigate as their friendship grows . Mrs. Sharpe requests police protection and it is revealed that she and Ms. Hussey were two of the three recipients of the thief 's letter . Calder and Petra eventually conclude that the painting is hidden in the local Delia Dell Hall , and they sneak out and find it . They barely escape from the thief , who is later found dead from a massive heart attack on the train by the police . They learn that the man is Xavier Glitts , also knowned as Glitter Man , who was posing as Tommy 's stepfather under the name Fred Steadman . A known art thief , he was asked to steal the painting and sell it for sixty million dollars . The other recipient of the letter is revealed to be Mr. Watch .
= = = Code = = =
As stated in the preface , there is a code hidden in the paintings throughout the book . This was an idea of Brett Helquist and Balliett 's editor , Tracy Mack . The code involves images of pentominoes and frogs , which is a recurring theme in the book . To decode the code , one must count the number of frogs in every other illustration , as well as find the hidden pentomino . Once these facts are collected , you are to use the same code presented in the story that Calder and Tommy use in their letters in the book . For example , the first code in the book is V : 2 @.@ this means T when decoded with Calder and Tommy 's decoder . When the message is decoded , it spells out " The Lady Lives " .
= = Genre = =
Chasing Vermeer is classified in the mystery genre , although it was described by Liz Szabla of Scholastic as " a puzzle , wrapped in a mystery , disguised as an adventure , and delivered as a work of art . " Scholastic 's teaching website additionally added suspense due to the surprise ending .
= = Themes = =
Some of Balliett 's " real @-@ world ideas " in Chasing Vermeer were " Do coincidences mean anything ? " and " What is art and what makes it valuable ? " Balliett says her " central message " is " kids are powerful thinkers , and their ideas are valuable , and that adults don 't have all the answers . "
A book by Rita Soltan entitled Reading Raps : A Book Club Guide for Librarians , Kids , and Families analyzed Chasing Vermeer 's themes as follows :
Deception and problem solving are central themes in this novel as both the thief and the central adult players use a variety of ways to hide the truth while the children employ a series of mathematical and problem @-@ solving concepts to piece together the clues to the puzzle . In addition , Calder and Petra develop a special friendship and certain respect for the value of art .
As the thief gains publicity by challenging the community to figure out which paintings claimed to be Vermeer 's were indeed painted by him , everyone starts to look at the depth in art . Sondra Eklund , who writes a book review blog , noted that the reader was left with the impression to study Vermeer 's paintings and art more closely . In the book , Ms. Hussey challenges her class to the question , " What is art ? "
Other themes include chance and coincidence . During Chasing Vermeer , Charles Fort 's book , Lo ! , inspires the children to list and pay attention to coincidences as they realize that they are more than what they seem and explore the concept that they make up one unexplained pattern . Balliett stated that she wanted to convey how coincidences were noticeable and felt meaningful , and how they could matter even if they were unexplainable .
= = Audiobook = =
The audiobook for Chasing Vermeer , read by Ellen Reilly , was released on November 27 , 2007 from Listening Library . It runs about 4 hours and 47 minutes . AudioFile magazine praised Reilly 's voices and pace , but noted that , " Once the mystery is solved , however , the ending seems tacked on , falling flat . "
= = Critical reception = =
Chasing Vermeer received generally positive reviews . The New York Times praised the description and mystery . It was also listed as one of their " Notable Books of 2004 " . Kirkus Reviews awarded it a starred review with the consensus that " Art , intrigue , and plenty of twists and turns make this art mystery a great read . " Children 's Literature reviewer Claudia Mills gave generally positive comments , calling the novel " engrossing and engaging " . The website Kidsreads compared the book to classic mysteries such as The Westing Game and said , " Chasing Vermeer deserves a spot alongside many well @-@ loved children 's books . It 's that good . " A reviewer of The Trades website called it " an entertaining read that manages to serve several purposes in one concise novel " and found the characters " unusual yet likable " , but felt that " the disappointing bit of this novel is that the solutions always arrive through a series of disconnected events that just lead the kids to think in certain ways . " Kadon Enterprises , a game puzzle company , reviewed the book , praising the writing style and puzzles .
= = = Awards = = =
= = Film = =
Warner Brothers bought the rights to a film of Chasing Vermeer in June 2004 and Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment planned to produce it . P.J. Hogan was slated as director and the novel was adapted by Matt Nix . However , when asked about the film in August 2010 , Balliett answered ,
" It ’ s been fascinating , watching this whole process , because Plan B did a wonderful job . They went through two screenwriters , and they ’ ve gone through two directors . It ’ s sort of like a house of cards . I have rights again . If they get it all together again , they ’ ll jump on it . But they don ’ t have exclusive rights anymore . "
= Caught Up ( Usher song ) =
" Caught Up " is a song by American R & B singer Usher . It was written by Ryan Toby , Andre Harris , Vidal Davis and Jason Boyd , and produced by Dre & Vidal for Usher 's 2004 album Confessions . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album on November 30 , 2004 . The single peaked at number eight in the United States , the only single released from Confessions without topping the Billboard Hot 100 , and generally below top ten on most charts worldwide . It received positive reviews from contemporary critics .
= = Background and release = =
Although Usher " didn 't look too far " when starting working on his fourth studio album Confessions and decided to " continue building " with previous producers , he branched out with several musical collaborators . Usher enlisted Philadelphia producers Andre " Dre " Harris and Vidal Davis of Dre & Vidal , along with other musical collaborators . During the sessions , Usher asked them to create a " real up @-@ tempo beat " . When they worked on the track , they partied the whole time which Dre considered a " partly record " . He recalled , " We had some women , some drinks , some music . " After Dre created the beat , they decided to " make sure the mood was inspiring during recording . " They went to club to take a break , and played the song in Usher 's truck while on the way . Usher felt the collaboration was pleasing , seeing other people responded positively to the song .
" Caught Up " was the fifth and final single from Confessions . It was released in the United States on November 30 , 2004 as a 12 " single . It was also released in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom on February 21 , 2005 and on March 8 in Germany . The Germany release contains the album version of the song , three of its remixes and the single 's music video . The song impacted US contemporary hit radio on January 11 , 2005 , alongside a remix featuring rapper , Fabolous .
= = Reception = =
" Caught Up " received positive reviews from contemporary critics . Andrew McGregor of BBC called the song " meaty " and " hip @-@ grinding " . Jon Caramanica of Blender magazine referred to the song like a " Southern marching band performing late- ' 80s R & B " . He characterized Usher 's voice playing like a rhythm instruments . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine complimented Dre and Vidal for producing an old @-@ sounding music without sampling records , calling it " super @-@ tight " alongside " Follow Me " , another song from the album . Andy Kellman of Allmusic complimented the song as one of Usher 's best moments in the album , together with " Burn " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it a " thunderous song " from the album , adding that it gave Usher " a chance to do two of the things he does best : strut and pander " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Caught Up " did not live up to the chart @-@ topping performances of Confessions ' previous four releases . In the United States , the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ six . It peaked at number eight for two non @-@ consecutive weeks , fifteen weeks after its release . " Caught Up " was the only single to not top the Hot 100 compared to the album 's four previous releases . The single stayed on the Hot 100 for twenty @-@ seven weeks .
Outside the United States , responses from music markets were relatively similar . " Caught Up " debuted and peaked at number nine on the United Kingdom , remaining on the chart for also nine weeks . It reached number ten in the Netherlands , and under top ten on the rest of European countries ; much lesser in Finland where it only stayed for one week compared to other charts , remaining for several weeks . In Australia and New Zealand , the single reached number fifteen and twelve respectively .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Caught Up " was directed by Mr. X , who was behind the laser light treatment of Usher 's 2004 video " Yeah ! " . The video shows Usher and friends riding a car while heading to his live performance . On the way , they fist fight after Usher saves a woman from an antagonist . Usher realizes he is supposed to perform , and finally goes to the venue . The video ends with Usher performing the song in front of a large crowd . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live on January 10 , 2005 at number ten . The video remained on the countdown for thirty @-@ four days .
= = Track listing = =
Germany CD single
" Caught Up " ( Album version ) – 3 : 48
" Caught Up " ( Official Remix ) ( featuring Fabolous ) – 4 : 39
" Caught Up " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 33
" Caught Up " ( Delinquent " Whistle Crew " Re @-@ Fix ) – 7 : 55
" Caught Up " ( Music Video ) – 3 : 49
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= If I Never See Your Face Again =
" If I Never See Your Face Again " is a song by American pop rock band Maroon 5 from the June 2008 re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . It was also included on the June 2008 re @-@ release of Rihanna 's album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The song was originally included on the standard version of the album without the inclusion of Rihanna . It was written by band members Adam Levine and James Valentine , with production of the song helmed by Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Mike Elizondo , Mark Endert , Mark " Spike " Stent and Maroon 5 . It was released as an Extended Play ( EP ) in Australia on May 22 , 2007 , and as an official single on May 2 , 2008 , in the United States .
" If I Never See Your Face Again " was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , although label problems interfered . The collaboration with Rihanna later came to fruition when Levine asked her to add her vocal to the remix version , which she accepted . " If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song featuring instrumentation provided by synthesizers and a guitar . The song received a mixed response from music critics , who praised the song 's composition but criticized Levine and Rihanna 's vocal performance . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " .
= = Background = =
" If I Never See Your Face Again " was written by Adam Levine and James Valentine , two of the five band members from Maroon 5 . Production of the song was helmed by Mike Elizondo , Mike Endert , Mike " Spike " Stent , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Maroon 5 . It was recorded by " Spike " Stent at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA and Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA . The song was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , but due to label problems Rihanna later appeared on the song .
The song was included on the standard version of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long without the inclusion of Rihanna , however , Levine stated in an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the accompanying music video that he wanted to try something different for the album 's re @-@ release . The singer continued , saying that he asked Rihanna to do some " bits and pieces " in the recording studio and that it came together very quickly . Levine stated that if there is " magic " between two artists , then " you don 't even have to think about it . " During the interview , Rihanna confirmed that the song would be the only one to feature a collaboration on her re @-@ release of Good Girl Gone Bad , revealing that she had always wanted to work with the group and was honored when they contacted her . " If I Never See Your Face Again " was released as a single in the United States on May 2 , 2008 .
= = Composition = =
" If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song , which lasts for 3 : 18 ( 3 minutes , 18 seconds ) . The song was composed using common time in the key of A minor , with a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by synths , and a guitar . A reviewer for IGN noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " is complete with " slinky synth insinuations , " whilst Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that it is a " guitar drenched " and " synth @-@ crunching " song . Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy commented that the song incorporated a " jagged " use of synthesizers . For the most part of the song , Levine sings in his falsetto register , whilst Rihanna adopts " silky tone " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon the release of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long , music critics commented on the original version of the song , which does not include guest vocals by Rihanna . Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that " If I Never See Your Face Again " , along with another It Won 't Be Soon Before Long track " Makes Me Wonder " , were " monster weapons of mass @-@ marketing aimed at the feet and riding on swathes of string @-@ drenched , synth @-@ crunching disco . " A reviewer for IGN was complimentary of ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' , writing that it is hard to resist listening to the song . The reviewer also noted that Levine appeared to adopt a vocal style reminiscent of techniques employed by Justin Timberlake , writing " Like Justin Timberlake it 's all about the high pitched tenor falsetto and some sinewy grooves . "
Bill Lamb for About.com noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " and " Makes Me Wonder " appeared to be inspired by British jazz funk and acid jazz band Jamiroquai , writing " Any Jamiroquai fan may call foul if they listen to ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' or ' Makes Me Wonder ' . " Sal Cinquemani was critical of the song , labeling it as " nasty . " Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy disapproved of the collaboration between the band and Rihanna , with specific thoughts on Levine and Rihanna 's pairing . Fletcher was critical of their vocal performance , writing that their voices clashed with one another and that " the sexual chemistry radar for the pairing registers at zero . " Fletcher commented about the song further , writing that it should never have left the recording studio .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Chart performance = =
" If I Never See Your Face Again " achieved moderate chart success on singles charts around the world . It debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 28 June 1 , 2008 , and peaked at number 11 in its sixth week . The song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 37 on June 9 , 2008 , and peaked at number 21 the following week . In Europe , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the Italian Singles Chart on July 17 , 2008 . The song remained on the chart for one week . It debuted on the Dutch Singles Chart at number 35 on June 14 , 2008 , and peaked at number 20 the following week . The song fluctuated between positions in the twenties and seventies for 13 weeks . It debuted on the Danish Singles Chart at number 36 on July 27 , 2008 , and peaked at number 31 in its sixth week .
" If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 61 on June 29 , 2008 , and peaked at number 52 the following week , where it remained in its third week . It debuted on the Austrian Singles Chart at number 67 on September 5 , 2008 , and peaked at number 54 the following week . " If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 28 on June 14 , 2008 . Over the following two weeks , the song descend down the top @-@ forty , before falling out in its third week . The song made a re @-@ entry on the chart at number 36 on July 7 , 2008 . In the United States , the song peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on July 26 , 2008 . It peaked at number 10 on the Adult Pop Songs chart ; number 30 on the Pop Songs chart and 21 on the Hot Digital Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California on April 23 , 2008 . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " . In an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the music video , Levine provided a summary of what the video would entail , saying : " It 's this kind of ultra @-@ glamorous , photography @-@ based , late- ' 70s / early- ' 80s situation . It 's really stylish and really beautiful ... It 's the most choreographed thing I 've ever done , because usually I just get up there and screw around . But with Rihanna , it 's completely different and so cool . " In response , Rihanna continued to say that " I don 't do a lot of videos where I have so much chemistry with the other artist , and this is only my second duet in a video ... It 's really intense , because you have to work with each other so much . It 's new for me , but I 'm enjoying it . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with the sound of a ticking clock and Levine and Rihanna sitting opposite each other at a table , tapping their hands and staring at one and other . As the songs audio begins to play , band members of Maroon 5 start to play their instruments as Rihanna sits and watches them . The table and band scenes are intercut with each other for the first verse and chorus . For the second verse , Levine and Rihanna appear to argue and try to ignore the other 's advances . Rihanna lays suggestively on a bed while Levine sits on a chair with his head turned in the opposite direction for the bridge . For the final chorus , the pair appear to reconcile , ending with Levine finally giving in to his temptations and walk to the end of the table where Rihanna sits and he caresses her neck causing Rihanna to lean towards him seductively and the two nearly kiss as the video ends . The video was made available to download digitally via iTunes on May 12 , 2008 .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA ; Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA ; House of Blues Studios , Encino , CA and Henson Studios , Hollywood , CA .
Mixed at Scream Studios , Miami , FL .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , Def Jam Recordings .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Yoko Shimomura =
Yoko Shimomura ( 下村 陽子 , Shimomura Yōko , born October 19 , 1967 ) is a Japanese video game composer and pianist . Shimomura has worked in the video game industry ever since graduating from the Osaka College of Music in 1988 . From then until 1993 , she worked for Capcom , where she composed wholly or in part the scores for 16 games , including Final Fight and Street Fighter II : The World Warrior .
From 1993 until 2002 , Shimomura worked for Square , where she composed for a further eight games . While working for Square , she was best known for her work on the soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts , which was her last game for the company before leaving . Starting with Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga in 2003 , she began working as an active freelancer .
Her works have gained a great deal of popularity , and have been performed in multiple video game music concerts , including one , Sinfonia Drammatica , that was focused half on her " greatest hits " album , Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura , and half on the music of a previous concert . Music from several of her games have been published as arranged albums , or as piano scores .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Shimomura was born on October 19 , 1967 , in Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan . She developed an interest for music at a young age , and started taking piano lessons " at the age of four or five " . She began composing her own music by playing the piano randomly and pretending to compose , eventually coming up with her own pieces , the first of which she claims to still remember how to play . Shimomura attended Osaka College of Music , and graduated as a piano major in 1988 .
Upon graduation , Shimomura intended to become a piano instructor and was extended a job offer to become a piano teacher at a music store , but as she had been an avid gamer for many years she decided to send some samples of her work to various video game companies that were recruiting at the university . Capcom invited her in for an audition and interview , and she was offered a job there . Her family and instructors were dismayed with her change in focus , as video game music was not well respected , and " they had paid [ her ] tuition for an expensive music school and couldn 't understand why [ she ] would accept such a job " , but Shimomura accepted the job at Capcom anyway .
= = = Career = = =
While working for Capcom , Shimomura contributed to the soundtracks of over 16 games , including the successful Street Fighter II : The World Warrior , which she composed all but three pieces for . The first soundtrack she worked on at the company was for Samurai Sword in 1988 . Final Fight , in 1989 , was her first work to receive a separate soundtrack album release , on an album of music from several Capcom games . The first soundtrack album to exclusively feature her work came a year later for the soundtrack to Street Fighter II . While she began her tenure at Capcom working on games for video game consoles , by 1990 she had moved to the arcade game division . She was a member of the company 's in @-@ house band Alph Lyla , which played various Capcom game music , including pieces written by Shimomura . She performed live with the group on a few occasions , including playing piano during Alph Lyla 's appearance at the 1992 Game Music Festival .
In 1993 , Shimomura left Capcom to join another game company , Square ( now Square Enix ) . She stated that the move was done because she was interested in writing " classical @-@ style " music for fantasy role @-@ playing games . While working for Capcom , she was in the arcade department and was unable to transfer to the console department to work on their role @-@ playing video game series Breath of Fire , although she did contribute one track to the first game in the series . Her first project at the company was the score for the role @-@ playing video game Live A Live in 1994 . While she was working on the score to Super Mario RPG the following year , she was asked to join Noriko Matsueda on the music to the futuristic strategy RPG Front Mission . Although she was overworked doing both scores and it was not the genre that she was interested in , she found herself unable to refuse after her first attempt to do so unexpectedly happened in the presence of the president of Square , Tetsuo Mizuno . These games were followed by Tobal No. 1 , the last score she worked on with another composer for a decade .
Over the next few years , she composed the soundtrack to several games , including Parasite Eve and Legend of Mana . Of all her compositions , Shimomura considers the soundtrack to Legend of Mana the one that best expresses herself and the soundtrack remains Shimomura 's personal favourite . Parasite Eve on the PlayStation had the first soundtrack by Shimomura that included a vocal song , as it was the first game she had written for running on a console system that had the sound capability for one . In 2002 she wrote the score for Kingdom Hearts , which she has said is the most " special " soundtrack to her , as well as a turning point in her career ; she named the soundtracks to Street Fighter II and Super Mario RPG as the other two significant points in her life as a composer .
Kingdom Hearts was wildly successful , shipping more than four million copies worldwide ; Shimomura 's music was frequently cited as one of the highlights of the game , and the title track has been ranked as the fourth @-@ best role @-@ playing game title track of all time . The soundtrack has led to two albums of piano arrangements . Kingdom Hearts was the last soundtrack that she worked on at Square . After the release of Kingdom Hearts in 2002 , Shimomura left Square for maternity leave , and began work as a freelancer in 2003 . She has built on the work she did while at Square ; since leaving she has composed or is composing music for eleven Kingdom Hearts games and Nintendo 's Mario & Luigi series . She has also worked on many other projects , such as Heroes of Mana and various Premium Arrange albums . On February 10 and 11 , 2014 , Shimomura played piano at a retrospective 25th anniversary concert at Tokyo FM Hall . She performed songs from games such as Kingdom Hearts , Live a Live , and Street Fighter II . During the Beware the Forest 's Mushrooms performance from Super Mario RPG , Shimomura was joined onstage by fellow game composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who played the Irish bouzouki . She is currently working on the scores for Final Fantasy XV and Kingdom Hearts III .
= = Legacy = =
After composing soundtracks to over 45 different games , Shimomura has become one of the biggest names in video game music composition , and has been described as " the most famous female video game music composer in the world " . In March 2008 , Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura was released containing her compositions from Kingdom Hearts and other games in a full orchestrated score . It includes music from Final Fantasy XV , Live A Live , Kingdom Hearts , Front Mission , Legend of Mana , and Heroes of Mana ; Shimomura has stated that she chose music that was popular among fans and well @-@ suited for orchestration , but had never been performed by an orchestra . In a 2008 interview with Music4Games regarding the project , Shimomura commented that with the sheet music generated for the project , she would be interested in pursuing a live performance of Drammatica for fans if the opportunity arose . On March 19 , 2009 that wish was realized when it was announced that Arnie Roth would conduct the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra at the concert Sinfonia Drammatica in the Stockholm Concert Hall , which would combine music from the album with performances of Chris Hülsbeck 's Symphonic Shades concert . The concert took place on August 4 , 2009 . On March 27 , 2007 , Shimomura released her first non @-@ video game album , Murmur , an album of vocal songs sung by Chata .
Shimomura 's music for Kingdom Hearts made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 , which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . Legend of Mana 's title theme was also performed by the Australian Eminence Symphony Orchestra for its classical gaming music concert A Night in Fantasia 2007 .
Music from the original soundtrack of Legend of Mana was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Two compilation books of music from the series have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions , with the second including Shimomura 's tracks from Legend of Mana . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Additionally , piano sheet music from Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II has been published as music books by Yamaha Music Media .
Shimomura 's first dedicated concert performance outside Japan was held at the Salle Cortot in Paris on November 7 , 2015 . Later that month , on November 28 , she performed at the El Plaza Condesa in Mexico City .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Shimomura lists Ludwig van Beethoven , Frédéric Chopin , and Maurice Ravel as some of her influences on her personal website . She has also stated that she has enjoyed " lounge @-@ style jazz " for a long time . Despite these influences and her classical training , the diverse musical styles that she has used throughout her career and sometimes in the same soundtrack include " rock , electronica , oriental , ambient , industrial , pop , symphonic , operatic , chiptune , and more " . She draws inspiration for her songs from things in her life that move her emotionally , which she describes as " a beautiful picture , scenery , tasting something delicious , scents that bring back memories , happy and sad things ... Anything that moves my emotion gives me inspiration " . Shimomura has also stated that she comes up with most of her songs when she is doing something that is " not part of [ her ] daily routine , like traveling . " Although her influences are mostly classical , she has said that in her opinion her " style has changed dramatically over the years , though the passion for music stays the same . " Shimomura has said that she believes that an important part of " the creative process behind music " is to " convey a subtle message , something that comes from your imagination and sticks with the listener , without being overly specific about what it means " , rather than only writing simple themes with obvious messages . Her favorite track that she has ever composed is " Dearly Beloved " from Kingdom Hearts .
= = Works = =
= = = Video games = = =
Composition
Arrangement
F @-@ 1 Dream ( PC Engine ) ( 1989 ) – original music by Manami Matsumae
Buster Bros. ( PC Engine ) ( 1991 ) – original music by Tamayo Kawamoto
Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) – arranged " Tetris : Type A " , " Gritzy Desert " , and " King Dedede 's Theme "
Little King 's Story ( 2009 ) – arranged Maurice Ravel 's Boléro .
Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) – arranged " Magicant / Eight Melodies " , " Try , Try Again " , " Route 10 " , and " Ryu Stage "
= = = Other = = =
G.S.M. 1500 series ~ Sweet Home ( 1989 ) – arranged two tracks
Captain Commando -G.S.M. Capcom 5- ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla
Game Music Festival ~ Super Live ' 92 ~ ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla
Street Fighter II Collector 's Box ( 1993 ) – with Alph Lyla
Parasite Eve Remixes ( 1998 ) – with many others
Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others
Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others
Dan Doh ! ! ( 2004 )
Best Student Council ( 2005 )
Rogue Galaxy Premium Arrange ( 2006 ) – with many others
Murmur ( 2007 ) – original album with lyrics and vocals by Chata
Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2008 )
Mushihimesama Double Arrange Album ( 2009 )
GeOnDan Rare Tracks Ver . 2 @.@ 0 ( 2010 ) – with many others
GeOnDan Super Rare Trax : The LAND of RISING SUN ( 2011 ) – with many others
GO ! GO ! Buriki Daioh ! ! ( 2012 )
X 'mas Collections II ( 2013 ) – with many others
memória ! ~ The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2014 )
Game Music Prayer II ( 2014 ) – with many others
= Lisa the Simpson =
" Lisa the Simpson " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons 's ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . In the episode , Lisa fears that she may be genetically predisposed to lose her intelligence after Grandpa tells her of a family gene that can permanently take away intelligence .
" Lisa the Simpson " was written by Ned Goldreyer and directed by Susie Dietter . This episode was the final episode with Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein as show runners . It received generally positive reviews from critics , and is considered one of the best episodes of the ninth season .
= = Plot = =
At Springfield Elementary , Lisa is presented with a brain teaser , which she is unable to solve . Following this incident , Lisa finds herself unable to perform simple tasks . Later , Lisa tells Grampa about her recent cognitive problems . He seems to recognize this , and tells Lisa about the " Simpson Gene " , which apparently causes all members of the Simpson family to gradually lose their intelligence as they get older .
Meanwhile , Jasper visits the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart and attempts to empty the freezer containing ice cream in order to freeze himself , with the intention of being defrosted sometime in the distant future . Apu decides to take advantage of this unusual situation for financial gain . The convenience store becomes more profitable as a tourist trap , until the freezer 's cooling system fails , causing Jasper to defrost and walk away .
Lisa appears on the TV news program Smartline to tell the citizens of Springfield to treasure their brains . As she does this , Homer decides to prove her wrong , and contacts the entire extended Simpson family to visit . However , when they arrive , Homer realizes they 're also unsuccessful , unintelligent people , which only depresses Lisa further and causes Homer to send them home .
However , before they leave , Marge urges Homer to talk to the Simpson women . Reluctantly , he talks to them at her request and he discovers that the women are all successful . Lisa is relieved that she is fine and she will not suffer the " Simpson Gene " , because of her gender .
The episode ends with Lisa finally being able to solve the brain teaser she was unable to finish earlier in the episode .
= = Production = =
This episode was the final episode that was run by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , as it was a carry @-@ over episode from season eight . The episode was written by Ned Goldreyer , and is one of the two episodes he has written on The Simpsons . Susie Dietter , one of the directors of the show , also left the show after this episode , but returned for one episode in season 18 , " Yokel Chords " .
As it was the final episode they ran , Oakley and Weinstein wanted to end on a good note , with Weinstein stating that the episode " was meant to embody the humor , depth , and emotions of The Simpsons " . They also wished to have an episode they ran that was based on the background of every character they could do , and believed that this episode came out well . The name of the episode was the center of an argument that Oakley and Goldreyer had , as Oakley had originally wanted to have the episode named " Lisa the Simpson " , although Goldreyer wanted to name it " Suddenly Stupid " , a pun on a show that had been airing at the time called Suddenly Susan .
The Simpsons ' family members that showed up took some time to be made , but the staff enjoyed the results . All of the male Simpson family members that showed up were voiced by Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer . He had asked for the recording tape to be run for about 20 minutes , so he could do many different voice variations that would fit the different men , but still be close to Homer 's voice .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa the Simpson " finished 19th in ratings for the week of March 2 – 8 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
IGN 's Todd Gilchrist named the episode as one of his favorites of the ninth season in his review of the DVD boxset . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , saying , " A terrific episode , with a good mix of pathos ( Lisa 's farewell to the Springsonian and her favourite jazz club are inspired ) and fun ( her Homeresque ' woo @-@ hoo ' ) which comes together to make a refreshing and exciting look at Lisa 's life . "
Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein greatly enjoyed the episode and thought of it as a great final episode that they ran . On the DVD audio commentary , writer Ned Goldreyer stated , " I think this might have been the best episode ever produced . "
= Stay @-@ at @-@ home dad =
A stay @-@ at @-@ home dad ( alternatively , stay at home father , house dad , SAHD , househusband , or house @-@ spouse ) is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is the homemaker of the household . As families have evolved , the practice of being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad has become more common , and socially more acceptable .
Pre @-@ industrialisation , the family worked together as a unit and was self @-@ sufficient . Beginning with the Industrial Revolution , large @-@ scale production replaced home manufacturing ; this shift , coupled with prevailing norms governing sex or gender roles , dictated that the father become the breadwinner and the mother the caregiver . When affection @-@ based marriages emerged in the 1830s , parents began devoting more attention to children and family relationships became more open . Beginning during World War II , many women entered the workforce out of necessity ; women resumed the caregiver position after the war , but their new @-@ found sense of independence changed the traditional family structure together with cultural shifts leading to the feminist movement and advances in birth control . Some women opted to return to the care giver role . Others chose to pursue careers . When women chose to work outside of the home , alternative childcare became a necessity . If childcare options were too costly , unavailable , or undesirable , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad became a viable option .
The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads began gradually increasing in the late 20th century , especially in developed Western nations . The recent statistic that Pew Research released , showed a report in June 2014 that found 2 million men to be stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . However , in 2010 , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had reached its highest point of 2 @.@ 2 million .
Though the role is subject to many stereotypes , and men may have difficulties accessing parenting benefits , communities , and services targeted at mothers , it became more socially acceptable by the 2000s . The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s , especially in the United States . However , due to traditional family structures and stereotypic expectations , the stay at home father figure is culturally unacceptable in countries such as East Asia and India .
= = Evolution of family roles = =
= = = Pre @-@ industrialisation = = =
In the colonial United States the nuclear family was the most common family form . Typical families consisted of five or more children initially ; because of high infant mortality rates , only a few children survived adolescence . Colonial families existed to serve six main functions : self @-@ sufficient business , school , vocational institute , church , house of correction , and welfare institution .
The first African @-@ Americans to reach America were initially brought over as indentured servants , but instead became slaves . By the 19th century , slave trading was a thriving business . Typical slave families consisted of one or two children . Women were primarily the head of the families , either because the fathers had died or had been separated from the family . African @-@ American women experienced what came to be known as the " double day , " a full day of domestic chores plus a full day of work outside the home .
= = = Industrialization ( 1800 – 1900 ) = = =
The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization , resulting in a shift from home manufacturing to large @-@ scale factory production . As this rapid transition took place , families lost many of their production functions . Instead , family members had to work outside the home to support their families . As a result , husbands and wives began operating in separate spheres of activity . The husband became the " breadwinner " by going out and working , while the wife stayed home and took care of the family .
= = = Transition to modern family ( 1900 – present ) = = =
The modern family is commonly thought to have originated in the 1830s : courtship became more open , marriages were often based on affection , and parents devoted more attention to children . At the beginning of the 20th century , married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and compatibility in their relationships . This led to more intimate and open relationships along with more adolescent freedom . The transition of the family was influenced by the Great Depression , which forced many women into the workplace in order to compensate for lack of financial stability . In 1932 , a federal executive order stated that only one spouse could work for the federal government . This resulted in many women being forced to resign allowing their husbands to continue working .
World War II had a significant impact on changing family roles . Because of the draft , workers were scarce in many industries and employers began to fill jobs with women , mainly in nontraditional positions . This increase in working women became one of the few times in history where women were praised for work outside the home . Divorce rates also reached a new high during this period . Not only had many women found a new sense of independence , but cultural shifts were underway , including the rise of feminism and the development of reliable methods of birth control . Such changes caused some women to decide to end their unhappy marriages .
The 1950s saw a " baby boom " in America . This period was also called the " Golden ' 50s " . This was credited to families trying to make up lost time after the war . As a result , many families moved to the suburbs instead of residing in the city , the number of two @-@ income families began to increase , and grown children began to remain at home longer because of financial difficulties . Gradually , women began re @-@ entering the workforce . This progression away from the traditional view of the woman as the homemaker led to the creation of the role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad .
= = Increase in popularity in the 21st century = =
Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have been seen in increasing numbers in Western culture , especially in Canada , the UK and the United States since the late 20th century . In developed East Asian nations such as Japan and South Korea , this practice is less common .
There are several reasons why some families feel that it would be more beneficial for the father to be the primary caregiver while the mother works outside of the home . The decision to use a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is most commonly due to economic reasons . At the same time , women are progressing into higher @-@ paying jobs . There are now financial ramifications in deciding whether the mother or father should become the stay @-@ at @-@ home parent . In cases where the woman is the higher @-@ paid parent , it makes more economic sense for her to continue to work while the man takes on the caregiver role . It also makes sense at times the mother 's job offers health benefits for the family whereas the father 's does not . It has also been shown that if the " pregnancy was jointly planned , " the father is more likely to be involved .
With the growth of telecommuting , many men are also able to work from home . In this regard , he is contributing financially to the family while also acting as the primary caregiver of the family 's children . Differences in parent 's schedules can also account for some of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Sometimes the father works odd work shifts while the mother has a typical nine @-@ to @-@ five work schedule .
Fixed gender roles began to become less prominent in the Western world starting in the late 20th century , allowing men to make their own choice of career without regard to traditional gender @-@ based roles . Some men who choose this role may do so because they enjoy being an active part of their children 's lives , while in other families , the mother wants to pursue her career . For example , of the 187 participants at Fortune Magazine 's Most Powerful Women in the Business Summit , one third of the women 's husbands were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Families vary widely in terms of how household chores are divided . Some retired males who marry a younger woman decide to become stay @-@ at @-@ home dads while their wives work because they want a " second chance " to watch a child grow up in a second or third marriage . Additionally , more career and lifestyle options are accepted and prevalent in Western society . There are also fewer restrictions on what constitutes a family .
= = Disadvantages = =
Depending on the country or region , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might find more or less social support for his decision . In regions where traditional roles prevail , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might be shunned by stay @-@ at @-@ home mom 's peer group . In order to find support for their choice , these men have created and joined many support networks .
Still , many men struggle to find acceptance within the role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad despite the many gains that have been made . Many worry about losing business skills and their " professional place in line " . There is a common misconception that stay @-@ at @-@ home dads cannot get a job and therefore must rewrite the typical family roles , forcing the wife into the workforce . Carrying the financial burden and dealing with children 's attachment to the dad can be difficult on a working mother .
One 2002 study by the American Heart Association suggested stay @-@ at @-@ home dads may face a higher risk of heart disease . The reasons for the health risk are not specified .
The role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad may be difficult for men who feel as though they had no option . It is hard for these men to adapt from being a financial provider in the family to being a homemaker . Men who willingly choose to become a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad are much more satisfied with their role in the family .
= = = For the Father = = =
- No longer the “ Money Maker ” in the family , may become an issue due to not being the main support and rock for the family .
- Transitioning from the workplace to stay at home role can be challenging .
- Pay cut due to some male jobs paying higher than a female job .
= = = For the Mother = = =
- Missing their children .
- Adapting to the workforce role from the stay at home mother role .
- Becoming the main source of income for the family and working long hours away from home and family .
- Will lose less time with their children and will devote 70 % of their day to work force and 30 % to their children .
= = Advantages = =
= = = For the child = = =
There have been many studies done which suggest the importance of the paternal role in a child 's life and benefits of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad . Children respond differently to males and females at birth .
A study conducted by Dr. Kyle D. Pruett found that infants between 7 and 30 months respond more favorably to being picked up by their fathers . Pruett also found that a father 's parenting style is beneficial for a child 's physical , cognitive , emotional and behavioral development . Mothers reassure toddlers when they become frustrated while fathers encourage them to manage their frustration . This helps the children learn to deal with stress and frustration . A long @-@ term study Pruett conducted proved that a father 's active involvement with his children , from birth to adolescence , promotes greater emotional balance , stronger curiosity and a stronger sense of self @-@ assurance in the child .
Additional studies show that during the first five years of a child 's life , the father 's role is more influential than the mother 's in how the child learns to manage his or her body , navigate social circumstances , and play . Furthermore , a 1996 study by McGill University found that the " single most important childhood factor in developing empathy is paternal involvement in childcare " . Children that have a strong paternal influence have more nurturing abilities . It has been researched in The Role of the Father in Child Development , that in general , children with stay @-@ at @-@ home dads develop attachments at infancy . The study further concluded that fathers who spent time alone bonding with their children more than twice per week brought up the most compassionate adults .
Robert Frank , a professor of child development at Oakton Community College in Illinois , conducted a study comparing households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad and households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom . His study concluded that women were still able to form a strong bond with their children despite working full @-@ time outside of the home . Also , women working full @-@ time were often more engaged with their children on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis than their male counterparts . His study concluded that in a family with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement , the maternal and paternal influences are equally strong . This contrasts with the more traditional family structure where the father works outside of the home and the mother stays home with the children . In this type of arrangement , the mother 's influence is extremely strong , whereas the father 's is relatively insignificant . The study found that both parents play an equal role in a child 's development , but the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is the most beneficial for the child .
= = = For the mother = = =
The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement allows the mother to work without having to use a daycare or a nanny . This arrangement prevents the mother from having to deal with the stress of finding acceptable childcare , checking backgrounds , and paying for care . This arrangement also can help ensure that the family 's values are being upheld and instilled in the children . Free from the stress of childcare , the working mother is able to actively pursue their career . This allows for a more relaxed working environment for the mother and allows her to focus on her career . If the mother has a higher paying job , this extra income will allow for savings to be made for the children , these savings could help the mother later on pay for university for the child and / or children . Thus , she can advance her career and provide more money for the family . It puts a sound mind for the mother knowing that the child / children are at a safe place with the father having the same safety and values as the mother .
= = = For the father = = =
A survey conducted by Minnesota 's Department for Families and Children 's Services shows that men consider child care to be far more important than a paycheck . Of 600 dads surveyed , a majority said their most important role was to " show love and affection " to kids . " Safety and protection " came next , followed by " moral guidance , " " taking time to play , " and " teaching and encouraging . " " Financial care " finished last . Many men are now becoming more involved in their children 's lives , and because of that many men now have a better understanding of what life is like for their child growing up in modern society . Because fathers are immersed in their children 's lives , many of the stereotypically " manly " attitudes and activities historically prescribed for children may be circumscribed due to a more gender @-@ neutral parenting approach that focuses on promoting independence and emotional well being . This allows children , especially male children , to grow up with a greater capacity for empathy and less rigidity in attitudes pertaining to gender roles than would perhaps be the case in more traditionally @-@ structured households .
= = Prevalence = =
= = = Australia = = =
Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads make up a very small portion of the Australian population although this appears to be rapidly changing . In 2003 , 91 % of fathers with children aged under 15 years were employed with 85 % employed full @-@ time . Because of this , there are few role models or resources that can help Australian fathers with the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad role . The Australian Bureau of Statistics show that approximately 7 % of two parents families with children under the age of 14 have a father who is unemployed and a mother who works full time . Stay at home dads in Australia have almost doubled over the past decade from 57 @,@ 900 to 106 @,@ 000 , and expected to increase in the future . Recent sociological studies have shown that men are dedicating more time and support to their children in comparison to the 19th century . The idea of a stay at home dad were far from mainstream , however the rising demand for female work has influenced this statistic to rise .
= = = Canada = = =
Over a 20 @-@ year period during the late 20th century , there was an increase in the number of women in the workforce in Canada . This shift increased father participation in family tasks that used to primarily be the responsibility of the mother . Beginning in the late 20th century , parental roles began to become less traditional , and the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement began to become more common . The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads increased by three percent points between 1976 and 1998 , and the average age of a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad in Canada is forty @-@ two . A bill was passed in by the Canadian government in October 1990 which granted paid leave for fathers for the purpose of primary caregiving .
= = = East Asia = = =
Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads are not prevalent in East Asian countries , which generally have strict traditional gender roles . However , a survey conducted in 2008 in Japan suggested that nearly one third of married men would accept the role . The Japanese government passed a law in April 1992 allowing time off following the birth of a child for both male and female employees . In 1996 , 0 @.@ 16 % of Japanese fathers took time off of work to raise children . In South Korea , about 5 @,@ 000 men were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 . Even so , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads face discrimination from stay @-@ at @-@ home mothers , and are often ostracized .
= = = = China = = = =
Beginning in the 2000s , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad began to emerge as a role in China , though some remain uncomfortable with the way the role changes traditional family dynamics . Customs in China suggest that men must be the heads of their households . Stereotyping is an issue for stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , who sometimes prefer not to tell others about their family arrangement . Traditional ideas promote criticism of " woman @-@ like " men , and many feel that they would face humiliation and criticism for being stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Others suppose they would be looked at as having a wife that is " too strong " .
= = = = North Korea = = = =
Until around 1990 , the North Korean state required every able @-@ bodied male to be employed by some state enterprise . However , some 30 % of married women of working age were allowed to stay at home as full @-@ time housewives ( less than some countries in the same region like South Korean \ Japan and Taiwan , more than Soviet Union \ Mainland China or Nordic countries like Sweden , about the same as Today 's USA ) . ) In the early 1990s , an estimated 600 @,@ 000 @-@ 900 @,@ 000 people perished in the famine , which was largely a product of the North Korean government 's unwillingness to reform the economy , and the old system began to fall apart . In some cases women began by selling household items they could do without or homemade food . Today at least three @-@ quarters of North Korean market vendors are women . A joke making the rounds in Pyongyang goes : ' What do a husband and a pet dog have in common ? ' Answer : ' Neither works nor earns money , but both are cute , stay at home and can scare away burglars.'
= = = India = = =
The role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad is not traditional in India , but it is socially accepted in urban areas . According to one sociologist 's study in 2006 , as much as three percent of all urban working fathers in India are stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , and twelve percent of unmarried Indian men would consider being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad according to a survey conducted by Business Today . One sociologist Sushma Tulzhapurkar called this a shift in Indian society , saying that a decade ago , " it was an unheard concept and not to mention socially unacceptable for men to give up their jobs and remain at home . " However , only 22 @.@ 7 percent of Indian women are part of the labor force , compared to 51 @.@ 6 percent of men ; thus , women are more likely to be caregivers because most do not work outside the home .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
According to an article by the Daily Mail , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 had increased by 83 percent since 1993 . According to the same paper , in 2007 , recent figures from the Office for National Statistics showed more than 200 @,@ 000 fathers chose to stay at home and be the primary caregiver for their children .
In an interview published in the Radio Times in May 2013 Karren Brady made it plain she " could never be a housewife " . While she maintains a business career in London her husband Paul Peschisolido has the role of house @-@ husband though Brady collaborates in tasks at home to a certain extent .
= = = United States = = =
In 2008 , an estimated 140 @,@ 000 married fathers worked in the home as their children 's primary caregivers while their wives worked outside of the home to provide for the family . This number is less than the previous two years according to the US Census Bureau . In 2007 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads made up approximately 2 @.@ 7 % of the nation 's stay @-@ at @-@ home parents . This is triple the percentage from 1997 , and has been consistently higher each year since 2005 . In 2006 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads were caring for approximately 245 @,@ 000 children ; 63 % of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had two or more children . These statistics only account for married stay @-@ at @-@ home dads ; there are other children being cared for by single fathers or gay couples . Also , it is difficult to ascertain how many of these stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have accepted the role voluntarily , and how many have been forced into it by the economic crisis of the late 2000s and early 2010s during which a great number of mostly @-@ male blue @-@ collar industries suffered significant losses and many previously employed men entered periods of prolonged unemployment .
= = Notable current and former stay @-@ at @-@ home dads = =
Jim Abel , American singer @-@ songwriter
Billy Ashley , American baseball player
Eric Betzig , 2014 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry
Michael Stephen Clark , American columnist
Chip Cravaack , American politician
Mike Duncan , American podcaster
Dan Klass , American actor , comedian and podcaster
John Lennon , British musician
Rick Moranis , Actor and comedian
Alex Vincent , American drummer
Mo Willems , American writer , animator , and creator of children 's books
= Tristan ( horse ) =
Tristan ( 1878 – 1897 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from the April 1880 to October 1884 , he ran 51 times and won 27 races . A useful performer at two and three years old , he matured into an outstanding horse in his last three seasons , winning important races at distances ranging from six furlongs ( the July Cup ) to two and a half miles ( Ascot Gold Cup ) and defeating three winners of the Epsom Derby . Unusually for a 19th @-@ century racehorse , he was regularly campaigned internationally , winning three consecutive runnings of the Grand Prix de Deauville . Tristan 's success was achieved despite a dangerous and unpredictable temperament : at the height of his success , he was described as " a very vile @-@ tempered animal " .
= = Background = =
Tristan was a dark chestnut horse standing just under 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high , bred by Robert St Clair @-@ Erskine , 4th Earl of Rosslyn at the Easton Stud near Great Dunmow in Essex . As a yearling , Tristan was bought by the French owner C. J. Lefevre , who sent the colt to be trained by Tom Jennings at the Phantom House stable at Newmarket , Suffolk . Jennings would later say that Tristan had been mistreated as a yearling before his arrival at Newmarket and this explained his well @-@ known temperament problems . Tristan was ridden in most of his races by George Fordham and came to show a strong and sometimes violent dislike for other jockeys .
Tristan ’ s sire Hermit won the Epsom Derby in 1867 and became an outstandingly successful stallion , being Champion Sire for seven successive years . In addition to Tristan , he sired the Derby winners Shotover and St. Blaise , as well as St. Marguerite ( 1000 Guineas ) , Lonely ( Oaks ) , and Thebais ( 1000 Guineas & Oaks ) . Tristan 's dam Thrift was an influential broodmare whose direct descendants included the Australian champion Poseidon , the Kentucky Derby winner George Smith and the Epsom Derby winner Reference Point .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1880 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Tristan ran nine times in the first half of 1880 , winning four races worth about £ 1 @,@ 900 @.@ beginning his career with a second place in the Lincoln Cup at Lincoln Racecourse . At Epsom in April he won the Westminster Stakes and then finished second of fifteen runners to the filly Angelina in the Hyde Park Plate . On 11 May he won the Breeders ' Plate over five furlongs at York reversing the Epsom form by beating Angelina " cleverly " . At the end of the month Tristan returned to Epsom for the Derby meeting and won the Stanley Stakes , in which his three opponents included the future Grand National winner Voluptuary . At Royal Ascot he finished third to Sir Charles in the New Stakes , the race now known as the Norfolk Stakes . After running on unusually hard ground at Newmarket in July , when he finished unplaced behind Iroquois in the Chesterfield Stakes , he developed leg problems and missed the rest of the season .
= = = 1881 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
At the start of May Tristan finished unplaced behind Peregrine in the 2000 Guineas and two weeks later he ran third in the Payne Stakes . In the Derby he ran prominently for much of the way and turned into the straight in second place before weakening in the closing stages and finishing seventh behind Iroquois .
On 12 June he was again tested in the highest class when he was sent to run in the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp where he was ridden by Fred Archer . Tristan was beaten a head after a " superb race " with the American colt Foxhall , ridden by George Fordham . The French crowd treated the defeat of Tristan as a home victory and joined the sizable American contingent in the celebrations which were described as “ the wildest ever seen at Longchamp ” . It was only after the intervention of the local police force that Fordham and Archer were able to return to the weighing room . He won a race called the Prix de Deauville ( not to be confused with the Grand Prix de Deauville ) before returning to England . In July he won the six furlong Horseheath Stakes at Newmarket " in a canter " at odds of 2 / 5 and the Singleton Stakes at Goodwood . In August he traveled back to France for his first attempt at the Grand Prix de Deauville and finished third to Castillon . On his return to Britain he finished last of three runners in the Great Yorkshire Stakes over one and three quarter miles at York .
In September he was sent to Doncaster where he won a Queen 's Plate before finishing second to Petronel in the Doncaster Cup . At Newmarket in October , Tristan ran third to the two @-@ year @-@ old filly Nellie in the Great Challenge Stakes and was beaten twice more by Foxhall when finishing second to the American colt in the Select Stakes and third in the Cambridgeshire Handicap . In the latter event , Tristan was beaten a head and a neck after being badly hampered in the closing stages .
= = = 1882 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
As a four @-@ year @-@ old in 1882 , Tristan showed much improved form and established himself as one of the leading racehorses in Europe by winning ten times in fourteen starts . He began the year by winning a Queen 's Plate at Newmarket in April and followed up by winning His Majesty 's Plate at Chester in May . At Epsom Downs Racecourse he ran twice at the Derby meeting . In the Epsom Stakes , a handicap race over one and a half miles , Tristan carried top weight of 124 pounds and won by a length and a half from Retreat He then added the Epsom Gold Cup , the race which was the forerunner of the Coronation Cup , in which he successfully conceded twenty @-@ seven pounds to a filly named Isabel .
At Royal Ascot in June he ran three times and was unbeaten , showing versatility by winning over three different distances . He took the two mile Gold Vase , beating the previous year 's winner Chippendale by six lengths , the one mile New Biennial Stakes and the one and a half mile Hardwicke Stakes . His performances established him as " one of the best horses in training " . In July he moved down to sprint distances for the July Cup over six furlongs at Newmarket . Conceding at least twelve pounds to his opponents , Tristan won his eighth successive race by taking the lead at half way and winning easily from the two @-@ year @-@ old Royal Stag with Nellie third . In the Goodwood Cup on 27 July Tristan started at odds of 1 / 4 against two moderate opponents , but his winning streak came to an end after his jockey , George Fordham , misjudged the race tactics and allowed a horse named Friday to build up a huge lead which he was unable to make up in the straight . In August he was sent to France again and won the Grand Prix de Deauville from ten opponents .
On 12 October he contested the Champion Stakes over ten furlongs at Newmarket . He ran a dead heat with the filly Thebais , winner of the 1881 1000 Guineas and Oaks , with the St Leger winner Dutch Oven in third . Later in the meeting he finished second to the two @-@ year @-@ old Energy in the Great Challenge Stakes . At the end of October , Tristan ran twice at the Newmarket Houghton meeting without reproducing his best form . In the Cambridgeshire Handicap he carried top weight of 130 pounds and finished seventh of the thirty @-@ one runners behind Hackness . On his final start of the year he ran in the Jockey Club Stakes over two and a quarter miles . In a closely contested four way finish he dead @-@ heated for second place with City Arab , a short head behind Chippendale and a neck in front of the mare Corrie Roy .
= = = 1883 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
In April 1883 Tristan won a Queen 's Plate at Epsom and then collected a second Epsom Gold Cup at the Derby meeting on 25 May , winning by three lengths from a field which included the Derby winner Shotover . Between these races he was beaten when attempting to concede three pounds to the unbeaten Irish horse Barcaldine in the Westminster Cup at Kempton . On this occasion he reportedly showed " a good deal of temper " before the race and ran " unkindly " .
On 7 June at Royal Ascot he contested the Ascot Gold Cup , the year 's most important staying race . Fordham sent him into the lead a mile from the finish and he won easily by three lengths from Dutch Oven and Wallenstein . On the last day of the Royal meeting he took the lead on the turn into the straight and won by a length and a half from Iroquois and eight others under top weight of 138 pounds to take his second Hardwicke Stakes . His winning time of 2 : 37 was considered exceptionally fast for the date . By this time he was being described as " about the best horse | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of the day in England " , and " the present champion of the English turf " , although he was also called " a bad horse to ride " . An example of Tristan 's problematic behaviour came on Newmarket Heath that summer when he attacked a horse named Gratin , who was acting as his training companion . Gratin was left lame whilst his rider , whom Tristan also attempted to savage , escaped with a black eye . Another of Tristan 's " victims " was a stable boy , whom he reportedly " shook like a rat " . His poor behaviour was blamed for contributing to his two defeats at Newmarket in July .
He returned to Deauville in August to win the Grand Prix again , this time carrying 151 pounds . At Newmarket on 11 October he recorded a repeat victory in the Champion Stakes again , this time taking the race outright from the St Leger winners Ossian and Dutch Oven . For the third successive year he was beaten by a two @-@ year @-@ old in the Great Challenge Stakes , finishing third to the future 1000 Guineas winner Busybody .
Tristan 's winning prize money for the year totaled £ 7 @,@ 628 , a record for a five @-@ year @-@ old which enabled Lefevre win the owner 's championship . Tristan 's career earnings had reached £ 19 @,@ 614 by the end of 1883 .
= = = 1884 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Tristan remained in training in 1884 by which time his achievements had made his name a " household word " . At Newmarket in spring he ran a public trial against St. Simon a three @-@ year @-@ old colt who was prevented from running in the classics because the death of his owner had invalidated his entries . Tristan attempted to give the younger horse twenty @-@ three pounds and was easily beaten . The two horses met again at Royal Ascot on 10 June when Tristan attempted to defend his status as the country 's best stayer in the Ascot Gold Cup . His temperament came to the fore as he proved difficult to get to the start and when the race began he again proved no match for St. Simon who won by twenty lengths . In his other races at the meeting , Tristan took on St. Gatien and Harvester the colts who had dead @-@ heated in the Epsom Derby . In the two mile Gold Vase he finished third to St Gatien and Corrie Roy , but in the Hardwicke Stakes on the last day of the meeting he won easily from Waterford , with the favourite Harvester a distant third .
On 17 August Tristan carried 151 pounds to a third successive victory in the Grand Prix de Deauville . Once again he showed a good deal of temperament before the start but won the race by a short head from Fra Diavolo . In autumn he returned to England to end his racing career at Newmarket . Running in the Champion Stakes for the third time on 9 October he delayed the start for a quarter of an hour by his " display of temper " before dead @-@ heating with the four @-@ year @-@ old Lucerne . He was then retired to stud " covered with honours " and regarded as " one of the most wonderful horses of the time " .
= = Stud career = =
Lefevre retired Tristan to stand as a stallion in France at his stud near Chamant . In 1891 he was purchased by Caroline , Duchess of Montrose , who returned him to England as a replacement for the recently deceased Isonomy . Three years later he was sold again and exported to Austria @-@ Hungary . In 1897 he died as a result of injuries sustained after dashing his head against the wall of his stable in a fit of temper . Tristan was not a great success as a stallion , but he did sire Canterbury Pilgrim , who won the Epsom Oaks in 1896 and became a highly successful and influential broodmare . Other good winners included Le Nord ( Dewhurst Stakes ) and Le Nicham ( Champion Stakes ) .
= = Pedigree = =
= Plunketts Creek ( Loyalsock Creek ) =
Plunketts Creek is an approximately 6 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) tributary of Loyalsock Creek in Lycoming and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Two unincorporated villages and a hamlet are on the creek , and its watershed drains 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) in parts of five townships . The creek is a part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin via Loyalsock Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna and Susquehanna Rivers .
Plunketts Creek 's unique name comes from the first owner of the land including the creek 's mouth , and the creek has given its name to two townships ( although one has since changed its name ) . The creek flows southwest and then south through the dissected Allegheny Plateau , through rock from the Mississippian sub @-@ period and Devonian period . Much of the Plunketts Creek valley is composed of various glacial deposits , chiefly alluvium .
Although the Plunketts Creek watershed was clear @-@ cut and home to a tannery , sawmills , and a coal mine in the nineteenth century , today it is heavily wooded and known for its high water quality , fishing , and other recreational opportunities . The watershed now includes parts of the Loyalsock State Forest , Pennsylvania State Game Lands , and a State Game Farm for raising pheasant . Tourism , hunting , and fishing have long been important in the region , and its year @-@ round population is increasing much faster than that of either Lycoming or Sullivan County .
= = Name = =
Plunketts Creek is named for Colonel William Plunkett , a physician , who was the first president judge of Northumberland County after it was formed in 1772 . During conflicts with Native Americans , he treated wounded settlers and fought the natives . Plunkett led a Pennsylvania expedition in the Pennamite @-@ Yankee War to forcibly remove settlers from Connecticut , who had claimed and settled on lands also claimed by Pennsylvania . For his services , Plunkett was granted six tracts of land totaling 1 @,@ 978 acres ( 8 @.@ 00 km2 ) on November 14 , 1776 , although the land was not actually surveyed until September 1783 . Plunkett 's land included the creek 's mouth , so Plunketts Creek was given his name .
During the American Revolution , Plunkett did not actively support the revolution and thus was suspected of being sympathetic to the British Empire . He died in 1791 , aged about 100 , and was buried in Northumberland , without a grave marker or monument ( except for the creek that bears his name ) . Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County in 1795 . When Plunketts Creek Township was formed in Lycoming County in 1838 , the original name proposed was " Plunkett Township " but the lingering suspicions of his British sympathies led to that name being rejected . Naming the township for the creek was an acceptable compromise .
Plunketts Creek Township was originally much larger than it is now , and two other townships were formed from parts of it . When Sullivan County was formed from Lycoming County on March 15 , 1847 , Plunketts Creek Township was divided between the counties , with each having a township of the same name . This led to some confusion and in 1856 the citizens of Sullivan County petitioned the state legislature to change the name of their Plunketts Creek Township to Hillsgrove Township , for Hillsgrove , the main village and post office in the township . In 1866 , Cascade Township was formed from parts of Hepburn and Plunketts Creek Townships in Lycoming County .
According to Meginness ( 1892 ) , Colonel Plunkett actually spelled his last name " Plunket " , but the current spelling was established " by custom and the courts " . As of 2007 , it is the only stream officially named " Plunketts Creek " on USGS maps of the United States and in the USGS Geographic Names Information System . ( There is a " Plunkett Creek " in Tennessee which has " Plunketts Creek " as an official variant name ) . The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name of the creek , although records from the 19th century often spell it as " Plunkett 's Creek " . The Native American name for Plunketts Creek is unknown . Two streams in the watershed have given their names to roads in Plunketts Creek Township : Engle Run Drive and Mock Run Road .
= = Course = =
The source of Plunketts Creek is 1440 ft ( 439 m ) above sea level , northwest of the unincorporated village of Hillsgrove and just south of the Loyalsock State Forest in Hillsgrove Township , Sullivan County . The source is a pond just north of Pennsylvania Route 4010 ( the road between the villages of Proctor and Hillsgrove ) and Plunketts Creek crosses the road twice , then receives two unnamed tributaries on the right bank as it flows generally southwest about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Lycoming County line .
The creek continues southwest as it enters Plunketts Creek Township and receives Reibsan Run on the left bank , 4 @.@ 70 miles ( 7 @.@ 56 km2 ) upstream from the mouth . It next receives Mock Creek at the hamlet of Hoppestown ( 4 @.@ 24 miles ( 6 @.@ 82 km ) from the mouth ) , then Wolf Run ( 2 @.@ 72 miles ( 4 @.@ 38 km ) from the mouth ) , both on the right bank . At the village of Proctor , Plunketts Creek receives King Run ( 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 km ) ) on the right bank , then turns south towards Loyalsock Creek . It flows through the Pennsylvania Game Commission 's Northcentral Game Farm , then receives the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow on the right bank and Dry Run on the left bank ( 0 @.@ 82 miles ( 1 @.@ 32 km ) and 0 @.@ 17 miles ( 0 @.@ 27 km ) , respectively ) . It finally enters the village of Barbours , where its mouth is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek at 725 feet ( 221 m ) .
Lycoming County is about 130 miles ( 209 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 165 miles ( 266 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . Although Plunketts Creek is 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) long , the direct distance between the source and the mouth is only 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) . From the mouth of Plunketts Creek it is 19 @.@ 50 miles ( 31 @.@ 38 km2 ) along Loyalsock Creek to its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River at Montoursville . The elevation at the source is 1440 feet ( 439 m ) , while the mouth is at an elevation of 725 feet ( 221 m ) . The difference in elevation , 715 feet ( 218 m ) , divided by the length of the creek of 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 115 @.@ 3 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 8 m / km ) . For comparison , the relief ratio of Wallis Run ( the next watershed to the southwest ) is 110 @.@ 9 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 0 m / km ) , while Loyalsock Creek 's is only 28 @.@ 0 feet / mile ( 5 @.@ 33 m / km ) .
= = = Floods = = =
Plunketts Creek can vary greatly in depth , depending on the season and recent precipitation . Its water level is typically highest ( perhaps 3 feet ( 1 m ) deep ) in spring or for a few days after a heavy rain , and lowest in late summer , when it can shrink to a trickle . While there is no stream gauge on Plunketts Creek , a rough estimate of the creek 's water level may be found from the stream gauge on the Loyalsock Creek bridge in Barbours , just downstream of the mouth . Lycoming County operates this gauge as part of the county @-@ wide flood warning system . It only measures the water height ( not discharge ) , and measured a record gauge height of 34 @.@ 0 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) on September 7 , 2011 .
The September 2011 flood was caused by remnants of Tropical Storm Lee , which dumped 11 @.@ 36 inches ( 289 mm ) of rainfall in the nearby village of Shunk in Fox Township in Sullivan County ( just north of the creek 's source ) . The 2011 flooding caused widespread damage in Proctor and Barbours and destroyed a small stone bridge on Wallis Run Road in Proctor over King Run , a tributary of Plunketts Creek . The Barbours Fire Hall became an " emergency relief center offering food , shelter and supplies to victims of the flood " . Further downstream on the Loyalsock , the flooding badly damaged the historic Hillsgrove Covered Bridge , washed out sections of Pennsylvania Route 87 along the creek , and destroyed the Pennsylvania Route 973 and Lycoming Valley Railroad bridges over the creek near and in Montoursville .
The previous record flood reached 24 @.@ 9 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the Loyalsock flood gauge at Barbours on January 19 – 20 , 1996 . This major flood resulted from heavy rain , snow melt , and ice dams , which caused millions of dollars of damage throughout Lycoming County , and six deaths on Lycoming Creek in and near Williamsport . On Plunketts Creek , the flood heavily damaged and later caused the demolition of Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 , a mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The flood waters were 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in Barbours and it was called the village 's " worst flood in history " at the time .
= = Geology = =
Plunketts Creek is in the southern edge of the dissected Allegheny Plateau , near the Allegheny Front . The underlying bedrock is sandstone and shale , mostly from the Mississippian sub @-@ period , with rock from the Devonian period in the north of the watershed . The northern edge of the Plunketts Creek drainage basin is formed by Burnetts Ridge and Popple Ridge . Plunketts Creek flows along the north side of Camp Mountain and , on turning south at Proctor , forms a water gap between it and Cove Mountain ( to the west ) .
The watershed has no oil or conventional natural gas fields . However , a potentially large source of natural gas is the Marcellus shale , which lies 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the surface here and stretches from New York through Pennsylvania to Ohio and West Virginia . Estimates of the total natural gas in the black shale from the Devonian period range from 168 to 516 trillion cubic feet ( 4 @.@ 76 to 14 @.@ 6 trillion m3 ) , with at least 10 percent considered recoverable .
The Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey 's " Distribution of Pennsylvania Coals " map shows no major deposits of coal in the Plunketts Creek watershed , and only one deposit nearby in the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( in southern Plunketts Creek Township ) . However , Meginness ( 1892 ) refers to coal mines in Plunketts Creek Township , and there is an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek in " Coal Mine Hollow " on the right bank between Dry Run and King Run , so it seems a small coal mine operated there in the past .
Much of the Plunketts Creek valley ( and those of its tributaries ) is composed of various glacial deposits . Closer to the mouth , there are large deposits of alluvium , as well as alluvial fan and alluvial terraces . Many of the glacial deposits are associated with the Wisconsin glaciation , with stratified drift and till , as well as outwash present . The alluvium is " 10 feet ( 3 m ) or more thick in the lower reaches of the Plunketts Creek valley " , but only " 6 feet ( 2 m ) thick in headward tributary valleys " . The outwash is described as " stratified sand and gravel that form terrace remnants along the flanks of Loyalsock Creek and Plunketts Creek valleys " .
= = Watershed = =
The Plunketts Creek watershed drains parts of Cascade , McNett , and Plunketts Creek townships in Lycoming County , and Fox and Hillsgrove Townships in Sullivan County ( with most of the watershed in Plunketts Creek Township ) . The drainage basin area is 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) , accounting for 4 @.@ 78 % of the 494 square miles ( 1 @,@ 280 km2 ) Loyalsock Creek watershed . Bear Creek , whose mouth is also within the village of Barbours but on the opposite ( left ) bank , is the nearest major creek at 0 @.@ 52 miles ( 0 @.@ 84 km ) downstream , as measured along Loyalsock Creek . ( It is also known as " Big Bear Creek " as it is the watershed upstream of " Little Bear Creek " . ) The neighboring major watersheds on the same bank are Wallis Run ( 9 @.@ 56 miles ( 15 @.@ 39 km ) downstream ) and Mill Creek ( at the village of Hillsgrove , 9 @.@ 16 miles ( 14 @.@ 74 km ) upstream ) . Pleasant Stream , a tributary of Lycoming Creek , is the watershed to the north .
The named tributaries together account for 70 @.@ 6 % of the Plunketts Creek watershed . The largest tributary is Wolf Run , with an area of 7 @.@ 39 square miles ( 19 @.@ 1 km2 ) , accounting for 31 @.@ 3 % of the total . The Wolf Run drainage basin includes both the Noon Branch ( 4 @.@ 26 square miles ( 11 @.@ 03 km2 ) ) and the Brian Branch ( 1 @.@ 60 square miles ( 4 @.@ 14 km2 ) ) . The next largest tributary of Plunketts Creek is King Run with 5 @.@ 56 square miles ( 14 @.@ 4 km2 ) or 23 @.@ 6 % of the watershed . The King Run watershed includes Engle Run , with 2 @.@ 90 square miles ( 7 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The third largest tributary is Dry Run with 1 @.@ 79 square miles ( 4 @.@ 6 km2 ) or 7 @.@ 6 % , followed by the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow with 1 @.@ 08 square miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) or 4 @.@ 6 % . All other named tributaries are less than 1 @.@ 00 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) and account for less than 5 % of the drainage basin individually . Plunketts Creek does not have its own watershed association , but is part of the larger Loyalsock Creek Watershed Association .
= = = Water quality = = =
The clear @-@ cutting of forests in the 19th century adversely affected the ecology of the Plunketts Creek watershed and its water quality . Polluting industries on the creek and its tributaries then included a coal mine and tannery ( which are long since departed ) . In the autumn of 1897 , three men working with hides at the Proctor tannery were stricken with anthrax , two fatally . Another four deaths originally blamed on pneumonia were suspected of being due to pulmonary anthrax , and some cattle drinking from Plunketts Creek downstream from the tannery were also infected . As late as 1959 , the sludge pile from the tannery was still visible in Proctor , but was not disturbed for fear of anthrax spores . No acid mine drainage is reported in the watershed .
As of 1984 , the mean annual precipitation for the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( which Plunketts Creek is part of ) was 42 to 48 inches ( 1067 to 1219 mm ) . Pennsylvania receives the greatest amount of acid rain of any state in the United States . Because Plunketts Creek is in a sandstone and shale mountain region , it has a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes it especially vulnerable to increased acidification from acid rain , which poses a threat to the long term health of the plants and animals in the creek . The total alkalinity ( TA ) is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acid , with a larger TA corresponding to a greater capacity . In 2007 , the TA of two subtributaries was known : Engle Run , a 4 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 9 km ) tributary of King Run , had a TA of 5 , and the Noon Branch , a 1 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) tributary of Wolf Run , had a TA of 9 .
The 2002 Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) report on " State Forest Waters with Special Protection " rated Plunketts Creek ( from its source to mouth ) and two of it tributaries , Wolf Run and Mock Creek ( from the county line to the mouth ) , as " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fisheries " . Two subtributaries were rated as " Exceptional Value " streams for fishing : Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run .
= = = Recreation = = =
Meginness ( 1892 ) wrote that " Plunkett 's Creek township , on account of its dashing mountain streams of pure water , has always been a favorite place for trout fishing . " In 2007 , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission classified both Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run as Class A Wild Trout Waters , defined as " streams which support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery . " Barbours has been popular from early on with " anglers seeking trout in the ' Sock and its tributaries " , as well as with hunters after black bear , white @-@ tailed deer , and wild turkey in the surrounding forests .
Besides fishing , the Plunketts Creek watershed contains much of the 6 @,@ 722 acres ( 27 @.@ 20 km2 ) of Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 , in both Lycoming and Sullivan counties . Habitat is found there for deer , ruffed grouse , and wild turkey . Hunting , trapping , and fishing are possible with proper licenses on both the state forest and State Game Lands . Camping , hiking , mountain bike and horseback riding , snowmobiling , cross @-@ country skiing , and bird watching are all possible on state forest lands . The southern end of the 27 @.@ 1 mile ( 43 @.@ 6 km ) long Old Loggers Path , a loop hiking trail , runs through the watershed just north of Engle and Wolf Runs .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
The first recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannocks . Their name meant " people of the muddy river " in Algonquian . Decimated by diseases and warfare , they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century . The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) , and were under the nominal control of the Five ( later Six ) Nations of the Iroquois .
On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the " New Purchase " from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , opening what are now Lycoming and Sullivan counties to settlement . Initial settlements were on or near the West Branch Susquehanna River , and , as noted , Plunkett did not receive the land including the creek until 1776 , nor was it surveyed until 1783 . It is not clear if Plunkett ever lived on his land : he resided in Northumberland at the time of his death . A squatter named Paulhamus was the first recorded inhabitant of what became Plunketts Creek Township , living there " some time between 1770 and 1776 " . He was reputed to be a deserter from the British Army and left only when he was captured by British soldiers .
= = = Lumber and tannery = = =
Like all streams in Lycoming and Sullivan Counties , Plunketts Creek served as an area for settlers to establish homesteads , mills , and to a lesser extent , farms . Barbours , the first village on the creek , was founded in 1832 , when John S. Barbour , a Scottish immigrant , built a sawmill opposite the mouth of Plunketts Creek on Loyalsock Creek . Originally known as " Barbour 's Mills " , the village is in a rare area of flat land in the narrow Loyalsock valley and contains the mouths of both Plunketts and Bear Creeks . Barbours became a lumber center which owed " its existence to those forested mountains and the creeks that flow out of them " . John Scaife arrived in 1856 and became a prosperous lumberman and farmer . His family became prominent in Barbours , and in 1997 , his 86 @-@ year @-@ old granddaughter , Virdie Scaife Houser Landon , recalled that in her childhood " every family that had 15 cents to their name had a sawmill for cutting lumber . " By 1878 the village had several blacksmiths , a temperance hotel , its own post office , many sawmills , a school , and a wagon maker . Barbours flourished throughout the rest of the nineteenth century .
In 1868 , Proctor was built as a company town in the midst of the timber required for the tannery ( Barbours had initially been considered for the site ) . The second village on Plunketts Creek was originally named " Proctorville " for Thomas E. Proctor of Boston , who produced leather for the soles of shoes there . Proctor was brought to the area by William Stone of Standing Stone Township in Bradford County , who knew the area was " one vast tract of hemlock timber " . The Proctor tannery employed " several hundred " at wages between 50 cents and $ 1 @.@ 75 a day , the employees living in one hundred twenty company houses , each renting for $ 2 a month . Hemlock bark , used in the tanning process , was hauled to the tannery from up to 8 miles ( 13 km ) away in both summer and winter , using wagons and sleds . The hides which were tanned to make leather came from the United States , and as far away as Mexico , Argentina , and China . In 1892 , Proctor had a barber shop , two blacksmiths , cigar stand , I.O.O.F hall , leather shop , news stand , a post office ( established in 1885 ) , a two @-@ room school , two stores , and a wagon shop . Finished sole leather was hauled by horse @-@ drawn wagon south about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to Little Bear Creek , where it was exchanged for " green " hides and other supplies brought north from Montoursville .
Plunketts Creek was a source of power in the nineteenth century and " water @-@ powered sawmills , woolen mills , and grist ( grain ) mills lined the ' Sock and Plunketts and Big Bear Creeks " . Although hemlock logs were originally left to rot after their bark was peeled for tanning , with time their lumber was used , among other places in a sawmill on Engle Run north of Proctor . By 1892 there were two steam powered sawmills on Plunketts Creek : one 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) above the mouth , and the other 4 @.@ 0 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) up the creek , near Hoppestown . An extension of the Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad crossed an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek near its source in Sullivan County in 1906 , running from the village of Hillsgrove northwest to the lumber boomtown of Masten in Cascade and McNett Townships in Lycoming County . A logging railroad was built by the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company ( CPL ) in the far northern part of the watershed in the 1920s . It crossed Engle Run twice and ran parallel to Wolf Run , near both their sources . No other railroads crossed or ran along Plunketts Creek .
= = = Decline and renewal = = =
The lumber boom on Plunketts Creek ended when the virgin timber ran out . By 1898 , the old growth hemlock was exhausted and the Proctor tannery , then owned by the Elk Tanning Company , was closed and dismantled . Lumbering continued in the watershed , but the last logs were floated down Plunketts Creek to the Loyalsock in 1905 . The Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad was abandoned in sections between 1922 and 1930 , as the lumber it was built to transport was depleted . The CPL logging railroad and their Masten sawmills were abandoned in 1930 . Without timber , the populations of Proctor and Barbours declined . The Barbours post office closed in the 1930s and the Proctor post office closed on July 1 , 1953 . Both villages also lost their schools and almost all of their businesses . Proctor celebrated its centennial in 1968 , and a 1970 newspaper article on its thirty @-@ ninth annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunion called it a " near @-@ deserted old tannery town " . In the 1980s , the last store in Barbours closed , and the former hotel ( which had become a hunting club ) was torn down to make way for a new bridge across Loyalsock Creek .
Second growth forests have since covered most of the clear @-@ cut land . The beginnings of today 's protected areas were established in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries : Pennsylvania 's state legislature authorized the acquisition of abandoned clear @-@ cut land in 1897 , creating the state forest system . The Game Commission began acquiring property for State Game Lands in 1920 , and established the Northcentral State Game Farm on Plunketts Creek in 1945 to raise wild turkey . It was converted to ringneck pheasant production in 1981 , and , as of 2007 , it is one of four Pennsylvania state game farms producing about 200 @,@ 000 pheasants each year for release on land open to public hunting . The Northcentral State Game Farm is in the Plunketts Creek valley just south of Proctor , and a part of it is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek downstream of the confluence . The Loyalsock State Game Farm is 13 miles ( 21 km ) downstream on Loyalsock Creek , at the village of Loyalsockville . When a May 2007 fire destroyed a brooder house there just days before 18 @,@ 000 pheasant chicks were due to hatch , the eggs were transferred to the nearby Northcentral State Game Farm without reduction in the production goal .
As of 2007 , Proctor has two separate businesses : a general store ( which also sells gasoline ) and a bed and breakfast . The church which used to host the annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunions still stands , but is closed . Barbours has no store or gas station , but does have one church . Barbours is home to the Plunketts Creek Township Volunteer Fire Company and township municipal building ( which houses a small branch library ) . Since 1967 , Barbours has been home to Pneu @-@ Dart , which makes tranquilizer darts and guns for livestock and wildlife capture and control . In 1997 , Pneu @-@ Dart had eight employees . Today much of Plunketts Creek 's watershed is wooded and protected as part of Loyalsock State Forest or Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 . Pennsylvania 's state forests and game lands are managed , and small @-@ scale lumbering operations continue in the watershed today . Barbours has one sawmill , in 1997 it had thirty contract loggers and fifteen employees , with $ 1 @.@ 2 million in annual gross sales .
Plunketts Creek has been a place for lumber and tourism since its villages were founded . Before the advent of automobiles , the area was quite isolated and the 16 mile ( 26 km ) trip to Montoursville took at least three hours ( today it takes less than half an hour ) . Residents who used to work locally now commute to Williamsport . " Cabin people " have seasonally increased the population for years , but increasing numbers now live there year round . From 1950 to 2000 , the population of Plunketts Creek Township increased 80 @.@ 6 percent from 427 to 771 ( for comparison , in the same period Lycoming County 's population increased by only 18 @.@ 6 percent , while Sullivan County 's declined by 2 @.@ 9 percent ) . Tourists still come too : the opening weekend of the trout season brings more people into the village at the mouth of Plunketts Creek than any other time of the year .
= Richard Cresswell =
Richard Paul Wesley Cresswell ( born 20 September 1977 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion . He primarily plays as a striker but can also play as a winger .
Cresswell started his career with York City in their youth system , making his first team debut in a Second Division match in 1996 . Having scored 19 goals for York in the 1998 – 99 season he signed for Premier League team Sheffield Wednesday in 1999 . After their relegation the following year he joined Leicester City of the Premier League , but was loaned to First Division side Preston North End in 2001 and played for them in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final . He signed for Preston permanently in the summer . He had four full seasons with Preston , scoring a career best 21 goals in the 2004 – 05 season , which culminated in defeat in the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final .
He signed for Championship rivals Leeds United in 2005 . He had a number of knee injuries while with Leeds and following their relegation to League One in 2007 was signed by Stoke City . With Stoke he won promotion to the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up , with Cresswell scoring 12 goals in the 2007 – 08 season . He spent one full season in the Premier League with Stoke before signing for Championship side Sheffield United on loan in 2009 , before signing permanently in 2010 . United were relegated to League One in 2011 , and Cresswell played in their defeat in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final . He was made player @-@ coach at the club in 2012 before rejoining his first club York City in 2013 , initially on loan .
= = Club career = =
= = = York City = = =
Cresswell was born in Bridlington , East Riding of Yorkshire to George and Denise ( née Churm ) . He started playing for Bridlington Rangers at the age of eight before joining the York City youth system aged 14 in 1991 . Having been top scorer for the Northern Intermediate League team for three consecutive seasons , he signed a professional contract on 15 November 1995 . Cresswell made his first team debut away to Brentford in a 2 – 0 defeat in the Second Division on 20 January 1996 . He first scored for York with the second goal of a 2 – 2 draw away at Bradford City on 2 March 1996 . This proved to be his only goal in the 1995 – 96 season , in which he made 17 appearances .
Having failed to score in 22 appearances for York in the 1996 – 97 season , Cresswell joined Third Division side Mansfield Town on loan on 27 March 1997 , making his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Exeter City on 29 March . He scored his first and only goal for Mansfield in a 1 – 0 win away to Rochdale on 5 April 1997 , before finishing the loan with five appearances . He scored four goals in 30 games for York in 1997 – 98 , and during this season he was barracked by a small section of the York support .
Cresswell admitted he had not made the impact he had hoped to in the York first team , but ahead of the 1998 – 99 season said " I 've had some stick from a small number of fans , but hopefully I can prove them wrong . I will prove them wrong . This a big season for me . I want to do it for York City . I want to do it for myself . " After a positive start to the season , Cresswell attracted attention from other clubs , with a number of scouts attending matches to watch him play . Manager Alan Little claimed some clubs were making illegal approaches for the player , and that this was having a detrimental effect on his performances . Preston North End manager David Moyes claimed his club had a bid of more than £ 500 @,@ 000 for Cresswell rejected , while York chairman Douglas Craig rejected this , saying a formal offer had not been received from any club . He was York 's top scorer in the 1998 – 99 season with 19 goals from 42 appearances .
= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =
He made a move to Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday on a four @-@ year contract on 25 March 1999 , with the £ 950 @,@ 000 fee being the highest received for a York player . On his transfer , Cresswell said : " This move is no disrespect to York , it 's just that I have always wanted to play at a much bigger club and as high as possible " . Manager Danny Wilson described Cresswell as " one for the future " after admitting the player " is not the striker people may perceive as the big one we were chasing " . His debut came in Wednesday 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Coventry City on 3 April 1999 , before scoring his first goal with an 87th @-@ minute winner at home to Liverpool in a 1 – 0 win on 8 May . He finished the 1998 – 99 season with one goal in seven games for Wednesday . Cresswell completed the 1999 – 2000 season with two goals in 25 appearances , having been given few opportunities in the team , as Wednesday were relegated to the First Division .
= = = Leicester City = = =
Cresswell struggled to establish himself at Wednesday under manager Paul Jewell early in the 2000 – 01 season , before he resumed playing in the Premier League after signing for Leicester City on 1 September 2000 for a fee of £ 750 @,@ 000 . Leicester were managed by Peter Taylor , who previously worked with Cresswell previously in the England under @-@ 21 team . He made his debut in their 1 – 1 draw at home to Red Star Belgrade in the UEFA Cup on 14 September 2000 . He scored once in 13 appearances for Leicester , his goal coming against former club York in a 3 – 0 home win in the FA Cup third round on 6 January 2001 , having failed to establish himself in the team .
= = = Preston North End = = =
Cresswell joined First Division club Preston North End on loan for the remainder of the 2000 – 01 season on 10 March 2001 and scored five minutes into his debut , a 2 – 0 win at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 14 March . He came on as an 82nd minute substitute in their 3 – 0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2001 . After scoring two goals in 14 appearances he signed for Preston permanently on a four @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 500 @,@ 000 on 14 July 2001 .
Cresswell was Preston 's top scorer in his first two permanent seasons with Preston , scoring 15 goals in 44 appearances in 2001 – 02 and scoring 16 in 46 games in 2002 – 03 . He was also named Preston 's Player of the Year for the 2001 – 02 season . He received the first red card of his career in Preston 's 4 – 1 defeat away at Coventry City on 17 March 2004 after he was judged to have kicked out at opponent player Calum Davenport , although both managers later admitted David Healy was the culprit . He scored three goals in 47 appearances in the 2003 – 04 season .
Cresswell drew praise from manager Billy Davies during the 2004 – 05 season , " Richard is very capable of that and it is important that we keep creating chances for Cressy as we know that he will put the ball in the back of the net " , although he admitted the team were over reliant on Cresswell 's goals . He enjoyed his best goal return in the 2004 – 05 season , top scoring for Preston with 21 goals in 52 games . This helped Preston reach the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final , where they were beaten 1 – 0 by West Ham United at the Millennium Stadium . Cresswell played poorly in the first half , but had a number of chances on goal during the second half .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Cresswell was bought by Championship rivals Leeds United on a four @-@ year contract on 24 August 2005 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 15 million , after rivals Sheffield United had a £ 1 million bid accepted . After the signing was completed , manager Kevin Blackwell said " To get a player of Cresswell 's quality is amazing " , while Cresswell cited his desire to win automatic promotion with Leeds . He first found the net with two goals in Leeds ' League Cup 2 – 0 away victory against Rotherham United on 20 September 2005 . However , Cresswell suffered knee ligament damage in a match against Derby County eight days later . This injury kept Cresswell out of action for seven weeks , making his return in Leeds ' 1 – 0 defeat away to Wolves on 17 December 2005 , and scoring in his second match back against Coventry City in a 3 – 1 home win on 26 December . Another knee injury picked up during a training session in February 2006 kept him out of the team until he entered Leeds ' 1 – 1 draw with former club Preston in the Championship play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg as a 78th @-@ minute substitute on 5 May 2006 . However , he was sent off in the 2 – 0 win in the second leg , meaning he was suspended for the 2006 Championship play @-@ off Final , which Leeds lost 3 – 0 to Watford at the Millennium Stadium . He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 21 appearances and seven goals .
Having damaged his knee ligaments during the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , Cresswell missed the start of the 2006 – 07 season , making his first appearance in Leeds ' 4 – 0 home defeat to Stoke City on 14 October 2006 . However , he sustained a knee injury in November 2006 , after scoring his first goal of the campaign in Leeds ' 3 – 0 home win over Colchester United on 11 November . His return from injury came as a 68th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Crystal Palace on 10 February 2007 . Cresswell scored in successive games against Sheffield Wednesday and Luton Town in March 2007 , but Leeds were eventually relegated to League One . He finished the season with four goals in 23 games .
= = = Stoke City = = =
Leeds were resigned to losing their senior players after going into administration , with Championship side Stoke City signing Cresswell on a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 2 August 2007 , after Hull City had pulled out of a deal after expressing concerns following his medical . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 win at Cardiff City on 11 August 2007 , before scoring in his second appearance with an equaliser during stoppage time of extra time in a 2 – 2 draw away to Rochdale in the League Cup first round on 14 August , although Stoke lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . He scored the last ever goal at Colchester United 's Layer Road ground in a 1 – 0 win . Cresswell made 46 appearances for Stoke in the 2007 – 08 season , scoring 12 goals , as the club won promotion the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up . He was regularly used on the left wing by Stoke manager Tony Pulis , even though his natural position is as a striker . He was quoted as saying he enjoyed playing as a winger , saying " I do my best , and I am quite a fit lad so I get through quite a bit of mileage " . During the 2008 – 09 season Cresswell played on the wing and as a striker , featuring in 34 games and scoring one goal .
= = = Sheffield United = = =
Having struggled for appearances with Stoke since their promotion to the Premier League , Cresswell joined Championship outfit Sheffield United on a three @-@ month loan on 29 September 2009 and made his debut the same day as a 76th @-@ minute substitute against Ipswich Town in a 3 – 3 home draw . Starting the following game he scored a 65th @-@ minute equaliser against Doncaster Rovers in a 1 – 1 draw at home on 3 October 2009 . He joined United permanently on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 5 January 2010 , going on to finish the 2009 – 10 season as top scorer with 14 goals . He was rewarded with a new three @-@ year contract with the club in June 2010 . He scored five goals in 36 games in the 2010 – 11 season as United were relegated to League One .
With United now in League One , Cresswell formed a striking partnership with Ched Evans , making 51 appearances and scoring 10 goals in 2011 – 12 . The club failed to achieve promotion however , being beaten 8 – 7 in a penalty shoot @-@ out by Huddersfield Town in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 26 May 2012 , in which Cresswell was substituted for Chris Porter in the 85th minute . As a result of financial circumstances Cresswell and Nick Montgomery were made available for transfer during August 2012 , with manager Danny Wilson explaining that " They were both fit , they were left out for financial reasons " . Towards the end of the transfer window however United agreed a revised deal to change his role to that of player @-@ coach and as such he would be remaining at Bramall Lane for the foreseeable future . On his return to the side , Cresswell came on as a substitute and scored a header in United 's 5 – 3 victory over Bournemouth on 1 September 2012 .
= = = Return to York City = = =
Cresswell rejoined his first club York City , playing in League Two , on a one @-@ month loan on 19 March 2013 . He marked his second York debut by scoring a 73rd minute penalty kick on 23 March 2013 away at Torquay United in a 2 – 1 defeat . He played an important role as York fought against relegation , scoring twice in five appearances , before being recalled by new United caretaker manager Chris Morgan on 15 April 2013 . In July 2013 new United manager David Weir stated that Cresswell would be leaving the club , before he signed for York permanently on a one @-@ year contract on 16 July 2013 . His first appearance after signing permanently came in the first game of the 2013 – 14 season , a 1 – 0 home win over Northampton Town on 3 August 2013 . Cresswell retired from playing on 5 December 2013 , as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . He made eight appearances for York in the 2013 – 14 season .
= = International career = =
Cresswell was called up to the England national under @-@ 21 team while with York , making his debut in a 2 – 1 home victory over France in a friendly on 9 February 1999 . He continued to play for the under @-@ 21s after joining Wednesday , and scored his first goal for them in a 3 – 0 home win over Sweden in a 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification match on 4 June 1999 . Cresswell finished his under @-@ 21 career with four caps and one goal .
= = Coaching career = =
Cresswell returned to York as a commercial , academy and community development consultant in April 2014 , having previously intended to pursue a career in coaching . He took on the position of Head of Football Operations , before being appointed as first team coach to manager Russ Wilcox in March 2015 . In May 2015 , Cresswell resumed his role as Head of Football Operations , while continuing to coach the first team . He took over as caretaker manager on 26 October 2015 after Wilcox 's sacking , and would be assisted by youth team coach Jonathan Greening and goalkeeping coach Andy Leaning . He was in charge for the 1 – 0 away defeat to Crawley Town on 31 October 2015 , before ceasing his caretaker duties upon the appointment of Jackie McNamara as manager on 4 November . Cresswell left York by mutual consent on 16 December 2015 . He resumed his playing career aged 38 when signing for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion on 7 April 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Cresswell married Zoe Chapman at Christ Church , Bridlington on 7 June 2003 , with former York City teammate Jonathan Greening being his joint best man . He took part in a 170 mile bike ride during 2012 to raise money for a charity which helps children with Dravet 's syndrome , after his twin nieces were diagnosed with the disorder .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 14 April 2016 .
= = Managerial statistics = =
As of 4 November 2015 .
= = Honours = =
Stoke City
Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2007 – 08
Individual
Preston North End Player of the Year : 2001 – 02
= Berhtwald =
Berhtwald ( also Brihtwald , Beorhtweald , Bertwald , Berthwald , Beorhtwald , or Beretuald ; died 731 ) was the ninth Archbishop of Canterbury in England . Documentary evidence names Berhtwald as abbot at Reculver before his election as archbishop . Berhtwald begins the first continuous series of native @-@ born Archbishops of Canterbury , although there had been previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops , they had not succeeded each other until Berhtwald 's reign .
Berhtwald 's period as archbishop coincided with the end of Wilfrid 's long struggle to regain the Bishopric of York , and the two @-@ year delay between Theodore 's death and Berhtwald 's election may have been due to efforts to select Wilfrid for Canterbury . After his election , Berhtwald went to Gaul for consecration and then presided over two councils that attempted to settle the Wilfrid issue , finally succeeding at the second council in 705 . Berhtwald also was the recipient of the first surviving letter close in Western Europe .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of Berhtwald 's ancestry or his early life , but he was born around the middle of the seventh century . By 679 , he was made abbot of the monastery at Reculver in Kent , and a charter dated May 679 names Berhtwald as abbot . This charter , from Hlothere , King of Kent , is the earliest surviving original Anglo @-@ Saxon charter .
= = Election as archbishop = =
The see of Canterbury was vacant for two years after the death of Theodore before Berhtwald was elected to the office on 1 July 692 . The long vacancy resulted from the disturbed conditions in the kingdom of Kent at the time , as various kings fought for control . The succession to the kingdom was disputed between rival claimants Oswine and Wihtred , and various outside kings , including Caedwalla and Swaefheard raided and plundered Kent . Eventually , Wihtred secured the throne , around 691 or early 692 , as Bede names Wihtred as King of Kent , along with Swaefheard , at the time of Berhtwald 's election . Swaerfheard , however , is not named as king of Kent after this date .
The vacancy may also have occurred because Wilfrid , who was at that point having problems in Northumbria , desired to become Archbishop of Canterbury . A contemporary biographer of Wilfrid , Stephen of Ripon , says that Theodore had wished for Wilfrid to succeed Theodore at Canterbury . Æthelred of Mercia may have supported Wilfrid 's translation to Canterbury also , but despite these desires , the translation did not happen . Berhtwald was consecrated on 29 June 693 , having travelled to France for his consecration as archbishop of Canterbury by Godwin , Archbishop of Lyon . Berhtwald went to the continent for consecration probably because he feared that his election was not supported by all of the kings and bishops . After his consecration , Berhtwald travelled to Rome to obtain the support of Pope Sergius I , who wrote to a number of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and bishops in support of the archbishop . Two of these letters survive , and their authenticity has been doubted , mainly because they are only preserved as part of the post @-@ Norman Conquest Canterbury @-@ York dispute . Historians have since come to regard the two letters as genuine . Sergius also gave Berhtwald a pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority .
= = Archbishop = =
Berhtwald appears to have been involved in the governance of the church , establishing the bishopric of Sherborne in Wessex and it was during his tenure that Sussex , the last pagan kingdom in England , was converted to Christianity . He also consecrated the first Bishop of Selsey . During his time in office , King Wihtred of Kent in the Law of Wihtred exempted the church from taxation . Berhtwald was a proponent of his predecessor 's view of the archbishops of Canterbury as primates of the entire island of Britain . Berhtwald co @-@ operated closely with Wihtred in the kingdom , and secured the exemption of the church from taxation under Wihtred 's laws issued in 695 . The law code also dealt with other ecclesiastical matters , including marriage , Sunday observance , and pagan worship . This law code resulted from a royal council that was held at Bearsted . Further privileges for the church were issued in 699 , and may have been composed by Berhtwald before being promulgated . Another privilege , usually referred to as the " Privilege of Wihtred " , is claimed to be a grant from Wihtred to the monasteries of Kent of exemption from non @-@ clerical control . However , this is actually a ninth @-@ century forgery .
Much of Berhtwald 's time in office coincided with the efforts of Wilfrid to regain the see of York , and to reverse the division of York into smaller dioceses . Berhtwald was opposed to Wilfrid 's desire to restore some separated bishoprics to the bishopric of York as well as regaining his old see . Wilfrid 's problems had begun during the archbishopric of Berhtwald 's predecessor , Theodore of Tarsus , when Wilfrid had quarreled with the King of Northumbria , Ecgfrith , and was expelled from the north . Theodore had taken the opportunity to divide the large see of York into a number of smaller dioceses , and Wilfrid had appealed to the papacy in Rome . Berhtwald inherited the dispute and presided at the Council of Austerfield in 702 , at which Wilfrid 's biographer relates the story that King Aldfrith of Northumbria , Berhtwald , and the other enemies of Wilfrid conspired to deprive Wilfrid of all his offices and possessions . A more likely story is that Berhtwald managed to secure concessions from the Northumbrians , and tried to broker a compromise . The offer in the end was that Wilfrid would retire to Ripon and cease acting as a bishop . Wilfrid rejected this compromise and once more appealed to the pope . Three years later , at a further Council , it was arranged that Wilfrid should receive the Bishopric of Hexham in place of that of York . This was the Council of Nidd , usually dated to 706 , and it was held in Northumbria . Bede also mentions that Berhtwald consecrated a number of bishops , including Tobias as Bishop of Rochester .
One of Berhtwald 's letters has been preserved , sent to Forthhere , Bishop of Sherborne , and asking Forthhere to intercede with Beorwold , the Abbot of Glastonbury , to ransom a slave . Another letter , this one addressed to Berhtwald , from Waldhere , Bishop of London , also survives . The main interest in the second letter is that it is the oldest surviving letter close surviving in Western Europe . This second letter also relates that Waldhere and Berhtwald had attended a synod which can be dated to sometime between 703 and 705 , where the kingdom of Wessex was threatened with excommunication . A charter witnessed by Berhtwald which mentions a supposed 706 council , numbered 54 by Sawyer , is now known to be a fake , although the witness list may be based on a legitimate 8th century charter that no longer survives . Likewise , a charter with Berhtwald as a witness and relating to the 716 Council of Clofesho is also known to be a 9th @-@ century forgery , although again it may have been based on actual documents from the council .
= = Death and legacy = =
Berhtwald died on 13 January 731 . An epitaph to him in verse survives , and may have been placed over his tomb , which was at Canterbury . Subsequently he was canonised with a feast day of 9 January . Little evidence of extensive cult activity exists , however , and the main evidence for his sainthood is a late medieval entry in a St Augustine 's calendar . Berhtwald is the first of the continuous series of native @-@ born archbishops in England , although there had been two previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops at Canterbury — Deusdedit and Wighard .
= Xenon =
Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54 . It is a colorless , dense , odorless noble gas , that occurs in the Earth 's atmosphere in trace amounts . Although generally unreactive , xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate , the first noble gas compound to be synthesized .
Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps , and as a general anesthetic . The first excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule ( Xe2 ) as its lasing medium , and the earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps . Xenon is also being used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles and as the propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft .
Naturally occurring xenon consists of eight stable isotopes . There are also over 40 unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay . The isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System . Radioactive xenon @-@ 135 is produced by beta decay from iodine @-@ 135 ( which is a product of nuclear fission ) , and it acts as the most significant neutron absorber in nuclear reactors .
= = History = =
Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898 , shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon . They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air . Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [ xenon ] , neuter singular form of ξένος [ xenos ] , meaning ' foreign ( er ) ' , ' strange ( r ) ' , or ' guest ' . In 1902 , Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth 's atmosphere as one part in 20 million .
During the 1930s , American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography . This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp , in which light is generated by sending a brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas . In 1934 , Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method .
In 1939 , American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of " drunkenness " in deep @-@ sea divers . He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects , and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth . From his results , he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic . Although Russian toxicologist Nikolay V. Lazarev apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941 , the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by American medical researcher John H. Lawrence , who experimented on mice . Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen , who successfully operated on two patients .
Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form compounds . However , while teaching at the University of British Columbia , Neil Bartlett discovered that the gas platinum hexafluoride ( PtF6 ) was a powerful oxidizing agent that could oxidize oxygen gas ( O2 ) to form dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate ( O2 + [ PtF6 ] − ) . Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first ionization potential , Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to oxidize xenon . On March 23 , 1962 , he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas , xenon hexafluoroplatinate . Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe + [ PtF6 ] − , although later work has revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon @-@ containing salts . Since then , many other xenon compounds have been discovered , along with some compounds of the noble gases argon , krypton , and radon , including argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) , krypton difluoride ( KrF2 ) , and radon fluoride . By 1971 , more than 80 xenon compounds were known .
In November 1999 IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms . The program , called IBM in atoms , used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company acronym . It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface .
= = Characteristics = =
Xenon has atomic number 54 ; that is , its nucleus contains 54 protons . At standard temperature and pressure , pure xenon gas has a density of 5 @.@ 761 kg / m3 , about 4 @.@ 5 times the surface density of the Earth 's atmosphere , 1 @.@ 217 kg / m3 . As a liquid , xenon has a density of up to 3 @.@ 100 g / mL , with the density maximum occurring at the triple point . Notably , liquid xenon has a high polarizability due to its large atomic volume , and thus is an excellent solvent . It can dissolve hydrocarbons , biological molecules , and even water . Under the same conditions , the density of solid xenon , 3 @.@ 640 g / cm3 , is higher than the average density of granite , 2 @.@ 75 g / cm3 . Using gigapascals of pressure , xenon has been forced into a metallic phase .
Solid xenon changes from face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) to hexagonal close packed ( hcp ) crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa , with no noticeable volume change in the hcp phase . It is completely metallic at 155 GPa . When metallized , xenon looks sky blue because it absorbs red light and transmits other visible frequencies . Such behavior is unusual for a metal and is explained by the relatively small widths of the electron bands in metallic xenon .
Liquid or solid xenon nanoparticles can be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe + ions into a solid matrix . Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe . This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification .
Xenon is a member of the zero @-@ valence elements that are called noble or inert gases . It is inert to most common chemical reactions ( such as combustion , for example ) because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons . This produces a stable , minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound .
In a gas @-@ filled tube , xenon emits a blue or lavenderish glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge . Xenon emits a band of emission lines that span the visual spectrum , but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light , which produces the coloration .
= = Occurrence and production = =
Xenon is a trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere , occurring at 87 ± 1 parts per billion ( nL / L ) , or approximately 1 part per 11 @.@ 5 million , and is also found as a component in gases emitted from some mineral springs .
Xenon is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product of the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen . After this separation , generally performed by fractional distillation in a double @-@ column plant , the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton and xenon . By additional fractional distillation steps , the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % of a krypton / xenon mixture , which is extracted either via absorption onto silica gel or by distillation . Finally , the krypton / xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon via distillation . Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 m3 . Because of its low abundance , xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases — approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 € / L for xenon , 1 € / L for krypton , and 0 @.@ 20 € / L for neon ; the much more plentiful argon costs less than a cent per liter .
Within the Solar System , the nucleon fraction of xenon is 1 @.@ 56 × 10 − 8 , for an abundance of approximately one part in 630 thousand of the total mass . Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun 's atmosphere , on Earth , and in asteroids and comets . The planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in its atmosphere ; about 2 @.@ 6 times as much as the Sun . This high abundance remains unexplained and may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimals — small , subplanetary bodies — before the presolar disk began to heat up . ( Otherwise , xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices . ) The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may potentially be explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz , hence reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere .
Unlike the lower mass noble gases , the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon . Elements more massive than iron @-@ 56 have a net energy cost to produce through fusion , so there is no energy gain for a star when creating xenon . Instead , xenon is formed during supernova explosions , by the slow neutron capture process ( s @-@ process ) of red giant stars that have exhausted the hydrogen at their cores and entered the asymptotic giant branch , in classical nova explosions and from the radioactive decay of elements such as iodine , uranium and plutonium .
= = Isotopes and isotopic studies = =
Naturally occurring xenon is made of eight stable isotopes , the most of any element with the exception of tin , which has ten . Xenon and tin are the only elements to have more than seven stable isotopes . The isotopes 124Xe and 134Xe are predicted to undergo double beta decay , but this has never been observed so they are considered to be stable . Besides these stable forms , there are over 40 unstable isotopes that have been studied . The longest lived of these isotopes is 136Xe , which has been observed to undergo double beta decay with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 11 × 1021 yr . 129Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I , which has a half @-@ life of 16 million years , while 131mXe , 133Xe , 133mXe , and 135Xe are some of the fission products of both 235U and 239Pu , and therefore used as indicators of nuclear explosions .
Nuclei of two of the stable isotopes of xenon , 129Xe and 131Xe , have non @-@ zero intrinsic angular momenta ( nuclear spins , suitable for nuclear magnetic resonance ) . The nuclear spins can be aligned beyond ordinary polarization levels by means of circularly polarized light and rubidium vapor . The resulting spin polarization of xenon nuclei can surpass 50 % of its maximum possible value , greatly exceeding the thermal equilibrium value dictated by paramagnetic statistics ( typically 0 @.@ 001 % of the maximum value at room temperature , even in the strongest magnets ) . Such non @-@ equilibrium alignment of spins is a temporary condition , and is called hyperpolarization . The process of hyperpolarizing the xenon is called optical pumping ( although the process is different from pumping a laser ) .
Because a 129Xe nucleus has a spin of 1 / 2 , and therefore a zero electric quadrupole moment , the 129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during collisions with other atoms , and thus its hyperpolarization can be maintained for long periods of time even after the laser beam has been turned off and the alkali vapor removed by condensation on a room @-@ temperature surface . Spin polarization of 129Xe can persist from several seconds for xenon atoms dissolved in blood to several hours in the gas phase and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon . In contrast , 131Xe has a nuclear spin value of 3 ⁄ 2 and a nonzero quadrupole moment , and has t1 relaxation times in the millisecond and second ranges .
Some radioactive isotopes of xenon , for example , 133Xe and 135Xe , are produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors . 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission reactors . 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons , 2 @.@ 6 × 106 barns , so it acts as a neutron absorber or " poison " that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation . This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production . Fortunately the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor 's reactivity ( the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel ) . 135Xe reactor poisoning played a major role in the Chernobyl disaster . A shutdown or decrease of power of a reactor can result in buildup of 135Xe and getting the reactor into the iodine pit .
Under adverse conditions , relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may be found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of fission products from cracked fuel rods , or fissioning of uranium in cooling water .
Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes , xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system . The iodine @-@ xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula . In 1960 , physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon @-@ 129 . He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine @-@ 129 . This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission , but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions . As the half @-@ life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale , only 16 million years , this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I . These two events ( supernova and solidification of gas cloud ) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System , as the 129I isotope was likely generated before the Solar System was formed , but not long before , and seeded the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source . This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud .
In a similar way , xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe / 130Xe and 136Xe / 130Xe are also a powerful tool for understanding planetary differentiation and early outgassing . For example , The atmosphere of Mars shows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth : 0 @.@ 08 parts per million , however Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun . As this isotope is generated by radioactive decay , the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere , possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed . In another example , excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle @-@ derived gases soon after Earth 's formation .
= = Compounds = =
After Neil Bartlett 's discovery in 1962 that xenon can form chemical compounds , a large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described . Almost all known xenon compounds contain the electronegative atoms fluorine or oxygen .
= = = Halides = = =
Three fluorides are known : XeF
2 , XeF
4 , and XeF
6 . XeF is theorized to be unstable . The fluorides are the starting point for the synthesis of almost all xenon compounds .
The solid , crystalline difluoride XeF
2 is formed when a mixture of fluorine and xenon gases is exposed to ultraviolet light . Ordinary daylight is sufficient . Long @-@ term heating of XeF
2 at high temperatures under an NiF
2 catalyst yields XeF
6 . Pyrolysis of XeF
6 in the presence of NaF yields high @-@ purity XeF
4 .
The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors and fluoride donors , forming salts that contain such cations as XeF + and Xe
2F +
3 , and anions such as XeF −
5 , XeF −
7 , and XeF2 −
8 . The green , paramagnetic Xe +
2 is formed by the reduction of XeF
2 by xenon gas .
XeF
2 is also able to form coordination complexes with transition metal ions . Over 30 such complexes have been synthesized and characterized .
Whereas the xenon fluorides are well @-@ characterized , the other halides are not known , the only exception being the dichloride , XeCl2 . Xenon dichloride is reported to be an endothermic , colorless , crystalline compound that decomposes into the elements at 80 ° C , formed by the high @-@ frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon , fluorine , and silicon or carbon tetrachloride . However , doubt has been raised as to whether XeCl
2 is a real compound and not merely a van der Waals molecule consisting of weakly bound Xe atoms and Cl
2 molecules . Theoretical calculations indicate that the linear molecule XeCl
2 is less stable than the van der Waals complex .
= = = Oxides and oxohalides = = =
Three oxides of xenon are known : xenon trioxide ( XeO
3 ) and xenon tetroxide ( XeO
4 ) , both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidizing agents , and xenon dioxide ( XeO2 ) , which was reported in 2011 with a coordination number of four . XeO2 forms when xenon tetrafluoride is poured over ice . Its crystal structure may allow it to replace silicon in silicate minerals . The XeOO + cation has been identified by infrared spectroscopy in solid argon .
Xenon does not react with oxygen directly ; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis of XeF
6 :
XeF
6 + 3 H
2O → XeO
3 + 6 HF
XeO
3 is weakly acidic , dissolving in alkali to form unstable xenate salts containing the HXeO −
4 anion . These unstable salts easily disproportionate into xenon gas and perxenate salts , containing the XeO4 −
6 anion .
Barium perxenate , when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid , yields gaseous xenon tetroxide :
Ba
2XeO
6 + 2 H
2SO
4 → 2 BaSO
4 + 2 H
2O + XeO
4
To prevent decomposition , the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled to form a pale @-@ yellow solid . It explodes above − 35 @.@ 9 ° C into xenon and oxygen gas .
A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known , including XeOF
2 , XeOF
4 , XeO
2F
2 , and XeO
3F
2 . XeOF
2 is formed by the reaction of OF
2 with xenon gas at low temperatures . It may also be obtained by the partial hydrolysis of XeF
4 . It disproportionates at − 20 ° C into XeF
2 and XeO
2F
2 . XeOF
4 is formed by the partial hydrolysis of XeF
6 , or the reaction of XeF
6 with sodium perxenate , Na
4XeO
6 . The latter reaction also produces a small amount of XeO
3F
2 . XeOF
4 reacts with CsF to form the XeOF −
5 anion , while XeOF3 reacts with the alkali metal fluorides KF , RbF and CsF to form the XeOF −
4 anion .
= = = Other compounds = = =
Recently , there has been an interest in xenon compounds where xenon is directly bonded to a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen , particularly carbon . Electron @-@ withdrawing groups , such as groups with fluorine substitution , are necessary to stabilize these compounds . Numerous such compounds have been characterized , including :
C
6F
5 – Xe + – N ≡ C – CH
3 , where C6F5 is the pentafluorophenyl group .
[ C
6F
5 ]
2Xe
C
6F
5 – Xe – X , where X is CN , F , or Cl .
R – C ≡ C – Xe + , where R is C
2F −
5 or tert @-@ butyl .
C
6F
5 – XeF +
2
( C
6F
5Xe )
2Cl +
Other compounds containing xenon bonded to a less electronegative element include F – Xe – N ( SO
2F )
2 and F – Xe – BF
2 . The latter is synthesized from dioxygenyl tetrafluoroborate , O
2BF
4 , at − 100 ° C.
An unusual ion containing xenon is the tetraxenonogold ( II ) cation , AuXe2 +
4 , which contains Xe – Au bonds . This ion occurs in the compound AuXe
4 ( Sb
2F
11 )
2 , and is remarkable in having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms , xenon and gold , with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand .
The compound Xe
2Sb
2F
11 contains a Xe – Xe bond , the longest element @-@ element bond known ( 308 @.@ 71 pm = 3 @.@ 0871 Å ) .
In 1995 , M. Räsänen and co @-@ workers , scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland , announced the preparation of xenon dihydride ( HXeH ) , and later xenon hydride @-@ hydroxide ( HXeOH ) , hydroxenoacetylene ( HXeCCH ) , and other Xe @-@ containing molecules . In 2008 , Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within a cryogenic xenon matrix . Deuterated molecules , HXeOD and DXeOH , have also been produced .
= = = Clathrates and excimers = = =
In addition to compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond , xenon can form clathrates — substances where xenon atoms or pairs are trapped by the crystalline lattice of another compound . One example is xenon hydrate ( Xe • 5 @.@ 75 H2O ) , where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules . This clathrate has a melting point of 24 ° C. The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced . Another example is Xe hydride ( Xe ( H2 ) 8 ) , in which xenon pairs ( dimers ) are trapped inside solid hydrogen . Such clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure , such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet . Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon , argon and krypton .
Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds , where a xenon atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule . The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be monitored via 129Xe nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectroscopy . Using this technique , chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed , due to the sensitivity of the chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment . However , the xenon atom also has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene .
When xenon atoms are at their ground energy state , they repel each other and will not form a bond . When xenon atoms becomes energized , however , they can form an excimer ( excited dimer ) until the electrons return to the ground state . This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to fill its outermost electronic shell , and can briefly do this by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom . The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1 – 5 ns , and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm . Xenon can also form excimers with other elements , such as the halogens bromine , chlorine and fluorine .
= = Applications = =
Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth 's atmosphere , it has a number of applications .
= = = Illumination and optics = = =
= = = = Gas @-@ discharge lamps = = = =
Xenon is used in light @-@ emitting devices called xenon flash lamps , which are used in photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps ; to excite the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light ; and , occasionally , in bactericidal lamps . The first solid @-@ state laser , invented in 1960 , was pumped by a xenon flash lamp , and lasers used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps .
Continuous , short @-@ arc , high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators . That is , the chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a heated black body radiator that has a temperature close to that observed from the Sun . After they were first introduced during the 1940s , these lamps began replacing the shorter @-@ lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors . They are employed in typical 35mm , IMAX and the new digital projectors film projection systems , automotive HID headlights , high @-@ end " tactical " flashlights and other specialized uses . These arc lamps are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense emissions in the near infrared , which is used in some night vision systems .
The individual cells in a plasma display use a mixture of xenon and neon that is converted into a plasma using electrodes . The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates ultraviolet photons , which then excite the phosphor coating on the front of the display .
Xenon is used as a " starter gas " in high pressure sodium lamps . It has the lowest thermal conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the non @-@ radioactive noble gases . As a noble gas , it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp . The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state , and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state , which allows the lamp to be more easily started .
= = = = Lasers = = = =
In 1962 , a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon , and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding helium to the lasing medium . The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer ( Xe2 ) energized by a beam of electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm . Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer ( or , more accurately , exciplex ) lasers . The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed , for example , in certain dermatological uses .
= = = Medical = = =
= = = = Anesthesia = = = =
Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic . Although it is expensive , anesthesia machines that can deliver xenon are about to appear on the European market , because advances in recovery and recycling of xenon have made it economically viable .
Xenon interacts with many different receptors and ion channels and like many theoretically multi @-@ modal inhalation anesthetics these interactions are likely complementary . Xenon is a high @-@ affinity glycine @-@ site NMDA receptor antagonist . However , xenon distinguishes itself from other clinically used NMDA receptor antagonists in its lack of neurotoxicity and its ability to inhibit the neurotoxicity of ketamine and nitrous oxide . Unlike ketamine and nitrous oxide , xenon does not stimulate a dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens . Like nitrous oxide and cyclopropane , xenon activates the two @-@ pore domain potassium channel TREK @-@ 1 . A related channel TASK @-@ 3 also implicated in inhalational anesthetic actions is insensitive to xenon . Xenon inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine α4β2 receptors which contribute to spinally mediated analgesia . Xenon is an effective inhibitor of plasma membrane Ca2 + ATPase . Xenon inhibits Ca2 + ATPase by binding to a hydrophobic pore within the enzyme and preventing the enzyme from assuming active conformations .
Xenon is a competitive inhibitor of the serotonin 5 @-@ HT3 receptor . While neither anesthetic nor antinociceptive this activity reduces anesthesia @-@ emergent nausea and vomiting .
Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of 72 % at age 40 , making it 44 % more potent than N2O as an anesthetic . Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have a lower risk of hypoxia . Unlike nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , xenon is not a greenhouse gas and so it is also viewed as environmentally friendly . Xenon vented into the atmosphere is being returned to its original source , so no environmental impact is likely .
= = = = Neuroprotectant = = = =
Xenon induces robust cardioprotection and neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms of action . Through its influence on Ca2 + , K + , KATP \ HIF and NMDA antagonism xenon is neuroprotective when administered before , during and after ischemic insults . Xenon is a high affinity antagonist at the NMDA receptor glycine site . Xenon is cardioprotective in ischemia @-@ reperfusion conditions by inducing pharmacologic non @-@ ischemic preconditioning . Xenon is cardioprotective by activating PKC @-@ epsilon & downstream p38 @-@ MAPK . Xenon mimics neuronal ischemic preconditioning by activating ATP sensitive potassium channels . Xenon allosterically reduces ATP mediated channel activation inhibition independently of the sulfonylurea receptor1 subunit , increasing KATP open @-@ channel time and frequency . Xenon upregulates hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha ( HIF1a ) .
Xenon gas was added as an ingredient of the ventilation mix for a newborn baby at St. Michael 's Hospital , Bristol , England , whose life chances were otherwise very compromised , and was successful , leading to the authorisation of clinical trials for similar cases . The treatment is done simultaneously with cooling the body temperature to 33 @.@ 5 ° C.
= = = = Doping = = = =
Inhaling a xenon / oxygen mixture activates production of the transcription factor HIF @-@ 1 @-@ alpha , which leads to increased production of erythropoietin . The latter hormone is known to increase red blood cell production and athletes ' performance . Xenon inhalation has been used for this purpose in Russia since at least 2004 . On August 31 2014 the World Anti Doping Agency ( WADA ) added Xenon ( and Argon ) to the list of prohibited substances and methods , although at this time there is no reliable drug test .
= = = = Imaging = = = =
Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart , lungs , and brain , for example , by means of single photon emission computed tomography . 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow .
Xenon , particularly hyperpolarized 129Xe , is a useful contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . In the gas phase , it can be used to image empty space such as cavities in a porous sample or alveoli in lungs . Hyperpolarization renders 129Xe much more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the lungs and other tissues . It can be used , for example , to trace the flow of gases within the lungs . Because xenon is soluble in water and also in hydrophobic solvents , it can be used to image various soft living tissues .
= = = NMR spectroscopy = = =
Because of the xenon atom 's large , flexible outer electron shell , the NMR spectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions , and can therefore be used as a probe to measure the chemical circumstances around it . For instance xenon dissolved in water , xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent , and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR .
Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists . Normally , it is difficult to characterize surfaces using NMR , because signals from the surface of a sample will be overwhelmed by signals from the far @-@ more @-@ numerous atomic nuclei in the bulk . However , nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized , by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas . This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure , and distinguishes them from bulk signals .
= = = Other = = =
In nuclear energy applications , xenon is used in bubble chambers , probes , and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable . A by @-@ product of nuclear weapon testing is the release of radioactive xenon @-@ 133 and xenon @-@ 135 . The detection of these isotopes is used to monitor compliance with nuclear test ban treaties , as well as to confirm nuclear test explosions by states such as North Korea .
Liquid xenon is being used in calorimeters for measurements of gamma rays as well as a medium for detecting hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles , or WIMPs . When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus , it is predicted to impart enough energy to cause ionization and scintillation . Liquid xenon is useful for this type of experiment due to its high density which makes dark matter interaction more likely and permits a quiet detector due to self @-@ shielding .
Xenon is the preferred propellant for ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its low ionization potential per atomic weight , and its ability to be stored as a liquid at near room temperature ( under high pressure ) yet be easily converted back into a gas to feed the engine . The inert nature of xenon makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium . Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s . It was later employed as a propellant for JPL 's Deep Space 1 probe , Europe 's SMART @-@ 1 spacecraft and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA 's Dawn Spacecraft .
Chemically , the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry . Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon , particularly in the production of microelectromechanical systems ( MEMS ) . The anticancer drug 5 @-@ fluorouracil can be produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil . Xenon is also used in protein crystallography . Applied at pressures from 0 @.@ 5 to 5 MPa ( 5 to 50 atm ) to a protein crystal , xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities , often creating a high @-@ quality , isomorphous , heavy @-@ atom derivative , which can be used for solving the phase problem .
= = Precautions = =
Many oxygen @-@ containing xenon compounds are toxic due to their strong oxidative properties , and explosive due to their tendency to break down into elemental xenon plus diatomic oxygen ( O2 ) , which contains much stronger chemical bonds than the xenon compounds .
Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers at standard temperature and pressure . However , it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber , and will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials . Xenon is non @-@ toxic , although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that penetrate the blood – brain barrier , causing mild to full surgical anesthesia when inhaled in high concentrations with oxygen .
At 169 m / s , the speed of sound in xenon gas is lower than that in air due to the lower average speed of the heavy xenon atoms compared to nitrogen and oxygen molecules . Hence , xenon lowers the rate of vibration in the vocal tract when exhaled . This produces a characteristic lowered voice timbre , an effect opposite to the high @-@ timbred voice caused by inhalation of helium . Like helium , xenon does not satisfy the body 's need for oxygen . Xenon is both a simple asphyxiant and an anesthetic more powerful than nitrous oxide ; consequently , many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration . As xenon is expensive , the gas sulfur hexafluoride , which is similar to xenon in molecular weight ( 146 versus 131 ) , is generally used in this stunt , and is an asphyxiant without being anesthetic .
It is possible to safely breathe dense gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they are in a mixture of at least 20 % oxygen . Xenon at 80 % concentration along with 20 % oxygen rapidly produces the unconsciousness of general anesthesia ( and has been used for this , as discussed above ) . Breathing mixes gases of different densities very effectively and rapidly so that heavier gases are purged along with the oxygen , and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs . There is , however , a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities : it may sit invisibly in a container , and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless , colorless gas , they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly . Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern , though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space .
= Eva Perón =
María Eva Duarte de Perón ( 7 May 1919 – 26 July 1952 ) was the second wife of Argentine President Juan Perón ( 1895 – 1974 ) and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952 . She is usually referred to as Eva Perón ( Spanish : [ ˈeβa peˈɾon ] ) , or by the affectionate Spanish language diminutive Evita .
She was born in the rural village of Los Toldos , in the Pampas , as the youngest of five children . At 15 in 1934 , she moved to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires to pursue a career as a stage , radio , and film actress . She met Colonel Juan Perón there on 22 January 1944 during a charity event at the Luna Park Stadium to benefit the victims of an earthquake in San Juan , Argentina . The two were married the following year . Juan Perón was elected President of Argentina in 1946 ; during the next 6 years , Eva Perón became powerful within the pro @-@ Peronist trade unions , primarily for speaking on behalf of labor rights . She also ran the Ministries of Labor and Health , founded and ran the charitable Eva Perón Foundation , championed women 's suffrage in Argentina , and founded and ran the nation 's first large @-@ scale female political party , the Female Peronist Party .
In 1951 , Eva Perón announced her candidacy for the Peronist nomination for the office of Vice President of Argentina , receiving great support from the Peronist political base , low @-@ income and working @-@ class Argentines who were referred to as descamisados or " shirtless ones " . However , opposition from the nation 's military and bourgeoisie , coupled with her declining health , ultimately forced her to withdraw her candidacy . In 1952 , shortly before her death from cancer at 33 , Eva Perón was given the title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation " by the Argentine Congress . Eva Perón was given a state funeral upon her death , a prerogative generally reserved for heads of state .
Eva Perón has become a part of international popular culture , most famously as the subject of the musical Evita ( 1976 ) . Cristina Álvarez Rodríguez , Evita 's great @-@ niece , claims that Evita has never left the collective consciousness of Argentines . Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , the first elected female President of Argentina , claims that women of her generation owe a debt to Eva for " her example of passion and combativeness " .
= = Early life = =
= = = Early childhood = = =
Eva 's autobiography , La Razón de mi Vida , contains no dates or references to childhood occurrences , and does not list the location of her birth or her name at birth . According to Junín 's civil registry , a birth certificate shows that one María Eva Duarte was born on 7 May 1922 . Her baptismal certificate , however , lists the date of birth as 7 May 1919 under the name Eva María Ibarguren . It is thought that in 1945 the adult Eva Perón created a forgery of her birth certificate for her marriage .
Eva Perón spent her childhood in Junín , Buenos Aires province . Her father , Juan Duarte , was descended from French Basque immigrants , meanwhile her mother Juana Ibarguren , was descended from Spanish Basque immigrants . Juan Duarte , a wealthy rancher from nearby Chivilcoy , already had a wife and family there . At that time in rural Argentina , it was not uncommon for a wealthy man to have multiple families .
When Eva was a year old , Duarte returned permanently to his legal family , leaving Juana Ibarguren and her children in penury . Ibarguren and her children were forced to move to the poorest area of Junín . Los Toldos was a village in the dusty region of Las Pampas , with a reputation as a desolate place of abject poverty . To support herself and her children , Ibarguren sewed clothes for neighbors . The family was stigmatized by the abandonment of the father and by the illegitimate status of the children under Argentine law , and was consequently somewhat isolated . A desire to expunge this part of her life might have been a motivation for Eva to arrange the destruction of her original birth certificate in 1945 .
When Duarte suddenly died and his mistress and their children sought to attend his funeral , there was an unpleasant scene at the church gates . Although Juana and the children were permitted to enter and pay their respects to Duarte , they were promptly directed out of the church . Mrs. Juan Duarte did not want her husband 's mistress and children at the funeral and , as those of the legitimate wife , her orders were respected .
= = = Junín = = =
Prior to abandoning Juana Ibarguren , Juan Duarte had been her sole means of support . Biographer , John Barnes , writes that after this abandonment , all Duarte left to the family was a document declaring that the children were his , thus enabling them to use the Duarte surname . Soon after , Juana moved her children to a one @-@ room apartment in Junín . To pay the rent on their single @-@ roomed home , mother and daughters took up jobs as cooks in the houses of the local estancias .
Eventually , owing to Eva 's older brother 's financial help , the family moved into a bigger house , which they later transformed into a boarding house . During this time , young Eva often participated in school plays and concerts . One of her favorite pastimes was the cinema . Though Eva 's mother apparently had a few plans for Eva , wanting to marry her off to one of the local bachelors , Eva herself dreamed of becoming a famous actress . Eva 's love of acting was reinforced when , in October 1933 , she played a small role in a school play called Arriba estudiantes ( Students Arise ) , which Barnes describes as " an emotional , patriotic , flag @-@ waving melodrama . " After the play , Eva was determined to become an actress .
= = = Move to Buenos Aires = = =
In her autobiography , she explained that all the people from her own town who had been to the big cities described them as " marvelous places , where nothing was given but wealth " . In 1934 , at the age of 15 , Eva escaped her poverty @-@ stricken village when , according to popular myth , she ran off with a young musician to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires . The young couple 's relationship would end almost as quickly as it began , but Eva remained in Buenos Aires . She began to pursue jobs on the stage and the radio , and eventually became a film actress . Eva had a series of relationships , and via some of these men she did acquire a number of her modeling appointments . She bleached her natural black hair to blond , a look she would maintain for the duration of her life .
It is often reported that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires by train with tango singer Agustín Magaldi . However , biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser maintain that this is unlikely , as there is no record of the married Magaldi performing in Junín in 1934 ( and , even if he had , he usually traveled with his wife ) . Eva 's sisters maintain that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires with their mother . The sisters also claim that Doña Juana accompanied her daughter to an audition at a radio station and arranged for Eva to live with the Bustamante family , who were friends of the Duarte family . While the method of Eva 's escape from her bleak provincial surroundings is debated , she did begin a new life in Buenos Aires .
Buenos Aires in the 1930s was known as the " Paris of South America " . The center of the city had many cafés , restaurants , theaters , movie houses , shops and bustling crowds . In direct contrast , the 1930s were also years of great unemployment , poverty and hunger in the capital , and many new arrivals from the interior were forced to live in tenements , boardinghouses and in outlying shanties that became known as villas miserias .
Upon arrival in Buenos Aires , Eva Duarte was faced with the difficulties of surviving without formal education or connections . The city was especially overcrowded during this period because of the migrations caused by the Great Depression . On 28 March 1935 , she had her professional debut in the play Mrs. Perez ( la Señora de Pérez ) , at the Comedias Theater .
In 1936 , Eva toured nationally with a theater company , worked as a model , and was cast in a few B @-@ grade movie melodramas . In 1942 , Eva experienced some economic stability when a company called Candilejas ( sponsored by a soap manufacturer ) hired her for a daily role in one of their radio dramas called Muy bien , which aired on Radio El Mundo ( World Radio ) , the most important radio station in the country at that time . Later that year , she signed a five @-@ year contract with Radio Belgrano , which assured her a role in a popular historical @-@ drama program called Great Women of History , in which she played Elizabeth I of England , Sarah Bernhardt , and the last Tsarina of Russia . Eventually , Eva Duarte came to co @-@ own the radio company . By 1943 , Eva Duarte was earning five or six thousand pesos a month , making her one of the highest @-@ paid radio actresses in the nation . Pablo Raccioppi , who jointly ran Radio El Mundo with Eva Duarte , is said to have not liked her , but to have noted that she was " thoroughly dependable " . Eva also had a short @-@ lived film career , but none of the films in which she appeared were hugely successful . In one of her last films , La cabalgata del circo ( The Circus Cavalcade ) , Eva played a young country girl who rivaled an older woman , the movie 's star , Libertad Lamarque .
As a result of her success with radio dramas and the films , Eva achieved some financial stability . In 1942 , she was able to move into her own apartment in the exclusive neighborhood of Recoleta , on 1567 Calle Posadas . The next year Eva began her career in politics , as one of the founders of the Argentine Radio Syndicate ( ARA ) .
= = Early relationship with Juan Perón = =
On 15 January 1944 , an earthquake occurred in the town of San Juan , Argentina , killing some 10 @,@ 000 people . In response , Perón , who was then the Secretary of Labour , established a fund to raise money to aid the victims . He devised a plan to have an " artistic festival " as a fundraiser , and invited radio and film actors to participate . After a week of fundraising , all participants met at a gala held at Luna Park Stadium in Buenos Aires to benefit earthquake victims . It was at this gala , on 22 January 1944 , that Eva Duarte first met Colonel Juan Perón . Eva promptly became the colonel 's mistress . Eva referred to the day she met her future husband as her " marvelous day " . Fraser and Navarro write that Juan Perón and Eva left the gala together at around two in the morning .
Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva Duarte had no knowledge of or interest in politics prior to meeting Perón . Therefore , she never argued with Perón or any of his inner circle , but merely absorbed what she heard . Juan Perón later claimed in his memoir that he purposefully selected Eva as his pupil , and set out to create in her a " second I. " Fraser and Navarro , however , suggest that Juan Perón allowed Eva Duarte such intimate exposure and knowledge of his inner circle because of his age : he was 48 and she was 24 when they met . He had come to politics late in life , and was therefore free of preconceived ideas of how his political career should be conducted , and he was willing to accept whatever aid she offered him .
In May 1944 , it was announced that broadcast performers must organize themselves into a union , and that this union would be the only one permitted to operate in Argentina . Shortly after the union formed , Eva Duarte was elected its president . Fraser and Navarro speculate that Juan Perón made the suggestion that performers create a union , and the other performers likely felt it was good politics to elect his mistress . Shortly after her election as president of the union , Eva Duarte began a daily program called Toward a Better Future , which dramatized in soap opera form the accomplishments of Juan Perón . Often , Perón 's own speeches were played during the program . When she spoke , Eva Duarte spoke in ordinary language as a regular woman who wanted listeners to believe what she herself believed about Juan Perón .
= = Rise to power = =
= = = Juan Perón 's arrest = = =
By early 1945 , a group of Army officers called the GOU for " Grupo de Oficiales Unidos " ( United Officers Group ) , nicknamed " The Colonels " , had gained considerable influence within the Argentine government . President Pedro Pablo Ramírez became wary of Juan Perón 's growing power within the government , but was unable to curb that power . On 24 February 1944 , Ramírez signed his own resignation paper , which Fraser and Navarro claim was drafted by Juan Perón himself . Edelmiro Julián Farrell , a friend of Juan Perón , became President . Juan Perón returned to his job as Labor Minister . Fraser and Navarro claim that , by this point , Perón was the most powerful man in the Argentine government . On 9 October 1945 Juan Perón was arrested by his opponents within the government who feared that due to the strong support of the descamisados , the workers and the poor of the nation , Perón 's popularity might eclipse that of the sitting president .
Six days later , between 250 @,@ 000 and 350 @,@ 000 people gathered in front of the Casa Rosada , Argentina 's government house , to demand Juan Perón 's release , and their wish was granted . At 11 pm , Juan Perón stepped on to the balcony of the Casa Rosada and addressed the crowd . Biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that this moment was very powerful because it was very dramatic and recalled many important aspects of Argentine history . Crassweller writes that Juan Perón enacted the role of a caudillo addressing his people in the tradition of Argentine leaders Rosas and Yrigoyen . Crassweller also claims that the evening contained " mystic overtones " of a " quasi @-@ religious " nature . Eva Perón has often been credited with organizing the rally of thousands that freed Juan Perón from prison on 17 October 1945 . This version of events was popularized in the movie version of the Lloyd Webber musical . Most historians , however , agree that this version of events is unlikely . At the time of Perón 's imprisonment , Eva was still merely an actress . She had no political clout with the various labor unions , and it is claimed that she was not well @-@ liked within Perón 's inner circle , nor was she liked by many within the film and radio business at this point . When Juan Perón was imprisoned , Eva Duarte was suddenly disenfranchised . In reality , the massive rally that freed Perón from prison was organized by the various unions , such as General Labor Confederation , or CGT as they came to be known . To this day , the date of 17 October is something of a holiday for the Justicialist Party in Argentina ( celebrated as Día de la Lealtad , or " Loyalty Day " ) . What would follow was shocking and nearly unheard of . The well connected and politically rising star , Juan Peron , married Eva . Despite Eva 's childhood illegitimacy , and having an uncertain reputation , Peron was in love with Eva , and her loyal devotion to him even while he had been under arrest touched him deeply , and so he married her , providing a respectability she had never known . Eva and Juan were married discreetly in a civil ceremony in Junín on 18 October 1945 and in a church wedding on 9 December 1945 .
= = = 1946 Presidential election victory = = =
After his release from prison , Juan Perón decided to campaign for the presidency of the nation , which he won in a landslide . Eva campaigned heavily for her husband during his 1946 presidential bid . Using her weekly radio show , she delivered powerful speeches with heavy populist rhetoric urging the poor to align themselves with Perón 's movement . Though she had become wealthy from her radio and modeling success , she highlighted her own humble upbringing as a way of showing solidarity with the impoverished classes .
Along with her husband , Eva visited every corner of the country , becoming the first woman in Argentina 's history to appear in public on the campaign trail with her husband . Eva 's appearance alongside her husband often offended the establishment of the wealthy , the military , and those in political life . However , she was very popular with the general public who knew her from her radio and motion picture appearances . It was during this phase of her life that she first encouraged the Argentine population to refer to her not as " Eva Perón " but simply as " Evita " , which is a Spanish diminutive or affectionate nickname roughly equivalent to " Little Eva " or " Evie . "
= = European tour = =
In 1947 , Eva embarked on a much @-@ publicized " Rainbow Tour " of Europe , meeting with numerous dignitaries and heads of state , such as Francisco Franco and Pope Pius XII . Biographers Fraser and Navarro write that the tour had its genesis in an invitation the Spanish leader had extended to Juan Perón . For political reasons it was decided that Eva , rather than Juan Perón , should make the visit . Fraser and Navarro write that Argentina had only recently emerged from its " wartime quarantine " , thus taking its place in the United Nations and improving relations with the United States . Therefore , a visit to Franco , with António Salazar of Portugal the last remaining west European authoritarian leaders in power , would be diplomatically frowned upon internationally . Fraser and Navarro write that Eva decided that , if Juan Perón would not accept Franco 's invitation for a state visit to Spain , then she would . Advisors then decided that Eva should visit many European countries in addition to Spain . This would make it seem that Eva 's sympathies were not specifically with Franco 's fascist Spain but with all of Europe . The tour was billed not as a political tour but as a non @-@ political " goodwill " tour .
Eva was well received in Spain , where she visited the tombs of Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella in the Capilla Real de Granada . Francoist Spain had not recovered from the Spanish Civil War ( the autarkic economy and the UN embargo meant that the country could not feed its people ) . During her visit to Spain , Eva handed out 100 @-@ peseta notes to many poor children she met on her journey . She also received from Franco the highest award given by the Spanish government , the Order of Isabella the Catholic .
Eva then visited Rome , where the reception was not as warm as it had been in Spain . Though Pope Pius XII did not give her a Papal decoration , she was allowed the time usually allotted queens and was given a rosary .
Her next stop was France , where she was generally well received . She visited the Palace of Versailles , among other sites . She also met with Charles de Gaulle . She promised France two shipments of wheat .
While in France , Eva received word that George VI would not receive her when she planned to visit Britain , regardless of what his Foreign Office might advise , and that her visit would not be viewed as a state visit . Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva regarded the royal family 's refusal to meet her as a snub , and canceled the trip to the United Kingdom . Eva , however , gave " exhaustion " as the official reason for not going on to Britain .
Eva also visited Switzerland during her European tour , a visit that has been viewed as the worst part of the trip . According to the book Evita : A Biography by John Barnes , while she traveled down a street with many people crowding her car , someone threw two stones and smashed the windshield . She threw her hands up in shock , but was not injured . Later , while sitting with the Foreign Minister , protesters threw tomatoes at her . The tomatoes hit the Foreign Minister and splattered on Eva 's dress . After these two events , Eva had had enough , and after two months returned to Argentina .
Members of the Peronist opposition speculated that the true purpose of the European tour was to deposit funds in a Swiss bank account . " The opposition in Buenos Aires " , write Fraser and Navarro , " assumed that the genuine purpose of the whole European visit was for Eva and her husband to deposit money in Swiss bank accounts , and that the rest had been devised to conceal this . Many wealthy Argentines did this , but there are many more convenient and less conspicuous ways of depositing money in Swiss accounts than meeting the Swiss Foreign Minister and being shown around a watch factory . " Fraser and Navarro conclude , " Was there a Swiss bank account ? It seems unlikely . "
During her tour to Europe , Eva Perón was featured in a cover story for Time magazine . The cover 's caption – " Eva Perón : Between two worlds , an Argentine rainbow " – was a reference to the name given to Eva 's European tour , The Rainbow Tour . This was the only time in the periodical 's history that a South American first lady appeared alone on its cover . ( In 1951 , Eva appeared again with Juan Perón . ) However , the 1947 cover story was also the first publication to mention that Eva had been born out of wedlock . In retaliation , the periodical was banned from Argentina for several months .
After returning to Argentina from Europe , Evita never again appeared in public with the complicated hairdos of her movie star days . The brilliant gold color became more subdued in tone , and even the style changed , her hair being pulled back severely into a heavy braided chignon . Additionally , her extravagant clothing became more refined after the tour . No longer did she wear the elaborate hats and form @-@ fitting dresses of Argentine designers . Soon she adopted simpler and more fashionable Paris couture and became particularly attached to the fashions of Christian Dior and the jewels of Cartier . In an attempt to cultivate a more serious political persona , Eva began to appear in public wearing conservative though stylish tailleurs ( a business @-@ like combination of skirts and jackets ) , which also were made by Dior and other Paris couture houses .
= = Charitable and feminist activities = =
= = = Eva Foundation = = =
The Sociedad de Beneficencia ( Society of Beneficence ) , a charity group made up of 87 society ladies , was responsible for most charity works in Buenos Aires prior to the election of Juan Perón . Fraser and Navarro write that at one point the Sociedad had been an enlightened institution , caring for orphans and homeless women , but that those days had long since passed by the time of the first term of Juan Perón . In the 1800s , the Sociedad had been supported by private contributions , largely those of the husbands of the society ladies . But by the 1940s , the Sociedad was supported by the government .
It had been the tradition of the Sociedad to elect the First Lady of Argentina as president of the charity . But the ladies of the Sociedad did not approve of Eva Perón 's impoverished background , lack of formal education , and former career as an actress . Fraser and Navarro write that the ladies of the Sociedad were afraid that Evita would set a bad example for the orphans , therefore the society ladies did not extend to Evita the position of president of their organization . It has often been said that Evita had the government funding for the Sociedad cut off in retaliation . Fraser and Navarro suggest that this version of events is in dispute , but that the government funding that had previously supported the Sociedad now went to support Evita 's own foundation . The Fundación María Eva Duarte de Perón was created on 8 July 1948 . It was later renamed to , simply , the Eva Perón Foundation . Its funding began with 10 @,@ 000 pesos provided by Evita herself .
In The Woman with the Whip , the first English language biography of Eva Perón , author Mary Main writes that no account records were kept for the foundation because it was merely a means of funneling government money into private Swiss bank accounts controlled by the Peróns . Fraser and Navarro , however , counter these claims , writing that Ramón Cereijo , Minister of Finance , kept records , and that the foundation " began as the simplest response to the poverty ( Evita ) encountered each day in her office " and " the appalling backwardness of social services — or charity , as it was still called — in Argentina . " Crassweller writes that the foundation was supported by donations of cash and goods from the Peronist unions and private businesses , and that the Confederación General del Trabajo donated three man @-@ days ( later reduced to two ) of salary for every worker per year . Tax on lottery and movie tickets also helped to support the foundation , as did a levy on casino and revenue from horse races . Crassweller also notes that there were some cases of businesses being pressured to donate to the foundation , with negative repercussions resulting if requests for donations were not met .
Within a few years , the foundation had assets in cash and goods in excess of three billion pesos , or over $ 200 million at the exchange rate of the late 1940s . It employed 14 @,@ 000 workers , of whom 6 @,@ 000 were construction workers , and 26 priests . It purchased and distributed annually 400 @,@ 000 pairs of shoes , 500 @,@ 000 sewing machines , 200 @,@ 000 cooking pots . The foundation also gave scholarships , built homes , hospitals , and other charitable institutions . Every aspect of the foundation was under Evita 's supervision . The foundation also built entire communities , such as Evita City , which still exists today . Fraser and Navarro claim that due to the works and health services of the foundation , for the first time in history there was no inequality in Argentine health care .
Fraser and Navarro write that it was Evita 's work with the foundation that played a large role in her idealization , even leading some to consider her a saint . Though it was unnecessary from a practical standpoint , Evita set aside many hours per day to meet with the poor who requested help from her foundation . During these meetings with the poor , Evita often kissed the poor and allowed them to kiss her . Evita was even witnessed placing her hands in the suppurated wounds of the sick and poor , touching the leprous , and kissing the syphilitic . Fraser and Navarro write that though Argentina is secular in many respects , it is essentially a Catholic country . Therefore , when Evita kissed the syphilitic and touched the leprous she " ... ceased to be the President 's wife and acquired some of the characteristics of saints depicted in Catholicism . " Poet José María Castiñeira de Dios , a man from a wealthy background , reflected on the times he witnessed Evita meeting with the poor : " I had had a sort of literary perception of the people and the poor and she had given me a Christian one , thus allowing me to become a Christian in the profoundest sense .... "
Fraser and Navarro write that toward the end of her life , Evita was working as many as 20 to 22 hours per day in her foundation , often ignoring her husband 's request that she cut back on her workload and take the weekends off . The more she worked with the poor in her foundation , the more she adopted an outraged attitude toward the existence of poverty , saying , " Sometimes I have wished my insults were slaps or lashes . I 've wanted to hit people in the face to make them see , if only for a day , what I see each day I help the people . " Crassweller writes that Evita became fanatical about her work in the foundation and felt on a crusade against the very concept and existence of poverty and social ills . " It is not surprising " , writes Crassweller , " that as her public crusades and her private adorations took on a narrowing intensity after 1946 , they simultaneously veered toward the transcendental . " Crassweller compares Evita to Ignatius Loyola , saying she came to be akin to a one @-@ woman Jesuit Order .
= = = Female Peronist Party and women 's suffrage = = =
Biographers Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva Perón has often been credited with gaining the right to vote for Argentine women . While Eva did make radio addresses in support of women 's suffrage and also published articles in her Democracia newspaper asking male Peronists to support women 's right to vote , ultimately the ability to grant to women the right to vote was beyond Eva 's powers . Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva 's actions were limited to supporting a bill introduced by one of her supporters , Eduardo Colom , a bill that was eventually dropped .
A new women 's suffrage bill was introduced , which the Senate of Argentina sanctioned on 21 August 1946 . It was necessary to wait more than a year before the House of Representatives sanctioned it on 9 September 1947 . Law 13 @,@ 010 established the equality of political rights between men and women and universal suffrage in Argentina . Finally , Law 13 @,@ 010 was approved unanimously . In a public celebration and ceremony , however , Juan Perón signed the law granting women the right to vote , and then he handed the bill to Eva , symbolically making it hers .
Eva Perón then created the Female | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
012 there were 26 fires started by people and 109 started by lightning , which together burned a total of 152 @,@ 000 acres ( 620 km2 ) . The Trinity Ridge Fire alone burned 146 @,@ 800 acres ( 594 km2 ) over two months , although it was not confined to Boise National Forest lands .
The revised 2010 forest plan recognized the need to develop plans to manage wildfires at the wildland – urban interface , use prescribed fire as a tool to manage ecosystem health , and meet air quality requirements set by the Clean Air Act . The forest operates a fire management plan under federal fire policy that gives fire personnel direction for responding to unintended ignitions . Occasionally , area closures and restrictions on use , such as prohibition of campfires , are implemented to aid in wildfire prevention . Following severe fires , area closures may be put in place to protect the public from risks such as falling trees and landslides . Proactive fire management strategies include prescribed burns and mechanical reduction of fuel levels . For instance , in 2014 Boise National Forest planned to conduct 7 @,@ 919 acres ( 32 @.@ 05 km2 ) of prescribed burns and 155 acres ( 0 @.@ 63 km2 ) of mechanical treatment . The forest seasonally maintains staff at seven fire lookout towers , while six others remain unstaffed .
= = Recreation = =
There are over 70 campgrounds in Boise National Forest and groups of more developed recreation facilities at the Trinity Mountains , Warm Lake , and Deadwood and Sage Hen reservoirs . As in most national forests , the majority of the land in Boise National Forest is open to dispersed camping ( outside of developed campgrounds ) . One of the forest 's fire lookouts , Deadwood Lookout , is now available as a cabin for the public to rent , among other sites . Bicycles are allowed on forest roads and on more than 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of multiple @-@ use trails , whereas over 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of trails are open to motorized recreation . The Danskin Mountains Off @-@ Highway Vehicle Trail System contains 150 miles ( 240 km ) of motorcycle and ATV trails on 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 ha ) of land that is generally open from April through November . The forest 's Trinity Mountain Recreation Area includes the highest drivable ( 4 @-@ wheel drive recommended ) road in Idaho , which ascends to the Trinity Mountain Lookout at an elevation of over 9 @,@ 400 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) . In 2013 revenues from recreation and special use fees amounted to $ 454 @,@ 635 , while expenses totaled US $ 352 @,@ 550 ; the difference is allocated to the following season 's startup costs .
= = = Waterways = = =
Rivers in Boise National Forest offer the opportunity for rafting and kayaking through rapids up to class four , with the most difficult sections on the South Fork and main stems of the Payette River . Numerous developed boat launch sites provide access to rivers for whitewater enthusiasts , and Dagger Falls is the primary launching site for visitors to the Middle Fork of the Salmon River and Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness . Motorized boating is permitted on Anderson Ranch Reservoir , Deadwood Reservoir , and Warm Lake .
= = = Winter activities = = =
During winter , visitors to the forest can participate in activities including snowmobiling , snowshoeing , and downhill and cross @-@ country skiing . The Bogus Basin ski area is located within the forest north of Boise and has 7 chairlifts and 53 runs on 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of skiable terrain . There are 137 miles ( 220 km ) of groomed snowmobile trails in the Garden Valley system in the Emmett Ranger District and several Mongolian @-@ style yurts available for rental in winter .
= = = Scenic roads = = =
Boise National Forest is home to three of Idaho 's scenic byways , all of which are paved highways accessible to roadworthy vehicles . The Payette River Scenic Byway is an 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) route between Eagle and McCall on Idaho State Highway 55 . The route follows the Payette River between McCall and Horseshoe Bend , but the majority of the highway does not pass through Boise National Forest ; only a small portion north of Horseshoe Bend is in the Emmett Ranger District . Over half of the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) Wildlife Canyon Scenic Byway , which travels between highway 55 and Lowman , passes through the forest , parallels the South Fork of the Payette River , and is signed as the Banks @-@ Lowman Road . The Ponderosa Pine Scenic Byway is a 130 @-@ mile ( 210 km ) road between Stanley and Boise following Idaho State Highway 21 . This route passes over Arrowrock Reservoir and through Idaho City and Lowman , where it connects with the Wildlife Canyon Byway . North and east of Lowman the byway partially follows the South Fork of the Payette River before ascending to the 7 @,@ 037 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 145 m ) Banner Creek Summit at the forest 's boundary with Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest .
= Pokiri =
Pokiri ( English : Rogue ) is a 2006 Indian Telugu @-@ language action film , written and directed by Puri Jagannadh . The film was produced by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni by their respective production companies Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions . The film stars Mahesh Babu and Ileana D 'Cruz ; Prakash Raj , Nassar and Sayaji Shinde appear in prominent roles . The plot revolves around the life of an undercover police officer , Krishna Manohar , who infiltrates a mafia gang headed by a Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , under the pseudonym Pandu .
Made on a budget of around ₹ 100 — 120 million , the film 's principal photography commenced in November 2005 and lasted until April 2006 . Most of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad and Chennai , except for a song which was shot at the province of Phuket in Thailand and the city of Bangkok . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer , and it was edited by Marthand K. Venkatesh . The soundtrack and background score were composed by Mani Sharma .
Pokiri was released on 28 April 2006 , to positive critical feedback , and collected a distributor 's share of ₹ 420 million . The film grossed ₹ 660 million worldwide and remained the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film for three years , until it was surpassed by Magadheera in 2009 . The film was also one of the fourteen southern Indian films to be screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) Film festival in 2006 . The film won four Nandi Awards and two Filmfare Awards . The film 's success catapulted D 'Cruz into stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director .
The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri in 2007 by Prabhu Deva with Vijay and Asin portraying the lead roles . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 with Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia portraying the lead roles . In 2010 , the film was again remade in Kannada as Porki by M. V. Sridhar with Darshan and Pranitha Subhash portraying the lead roles .
= = Plot = =
In Hyderabad , two rival mafia gangs headed by Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , and Narayana resort to criminal activities such as extortion , murder , and coercion for various reasons . The new commissioner of police , Sayyad Mohammad Pasha Qadri , focuses on making the city a better place by working at arresting all of them . Pandu , a remorseless gangster living in Hyderabad along with his friends , is hired by Narayana and attacks Ali Bhai 's henchmen . He later joins Ali Bhai 's gang for monetary reasons . He falls in love with Shruti , an aerobics teacher , who rejects his advances .
Shruti lives with her widowed mother and brother and her neighbour Brahmi , a software engineer , who pesters her to marry him . A corrupt police officer named Pasupathy , who works for Ali Bhai , is attracted to Shruti . He is determined to make her his mistress , undeterred by Shruti 's multiple rejections . After Pandu kills a henchman of Narayana , he is confronted by Pasupathy and is able to prevent Shruti from being molested . She meets him the next day to thank him , and Pandu introduces himself as a self @-@ employed person who undertakes any activity for money . They develop unspoken romantic feelings for each other angering Pasupathy .
Shruti 's employer , Suryanarayana , suggests that she marry the man she loves . To repel Pasupathy 's advances , she meets Pandu and proposes to him . After an attack by Narayana 's henchmen , who are murdered by Pandu , he reveals that he is a gangster and suggests that she might want to rethink her proposal . After Shruti distances herself from Pandu , Pasupathy frames her with a mock sexual assault by a few gangsters unbeknownst to her family and the other villagers . He intends this act to ruin her life and subsequently force her to be his mistress . Learning this , Pandu confronts Pasupathy and warns him that he will face dire consequences if he is found guilty of being involved .
Ali Bhai visits Hyderabad and assassinates Narayana . He meets Pandu to discuss the murder of a minister by blowing up a balloon . Pandu rejects this as it would involve killing innocents . At the same time as they are arguing , Qadri arrests Ali Bhai and tortures him . Ali Bhai 's henchmen retaliate by filming Qadri 's daughter as she is enticed into sexual activity by the minister 's son , and release it to the media . They also kidnap her , forcing the police to release Ali Bhai . At the same time , Pandu manages to catch the gangsters who pretended to rape Shruti and she reconciles with him .
Qadri 's daughter is sedated and reveals that an undercover police officer , whose father 's name is Suryanarayana , had infiltrated the gang for some time . Ali Bhai kills Suryanarayana 's son Ajay , assuming he is the informant . However , Suryanarayana reveals that Ajay was his adopted son , and that Pandu is actually Krishna Manohar I. P. S. , his biological son , who had infiltrated his gang at Qadri 's direction . Suryanarayana is killed and Manohar forces Pasupathy to kill Ali Bhai before he initiates his plan to set off bombs across Hyderabad .
Manohar kills Ali Bhai 's henchmen one by one at Binny Mills . Ali Bhai offers Pasupathy a hefty sum to kill Manohar but his attempt fails . In a final confrontation , Manohar kills Ali Bhai by slitting his throat . Qadri 's daughter is saved and when Pasupathy tries to backstab Manohar , he is shot dead by the latter who then says , " Okkasari commit ayitte , naa maata nene vinanu " ( English : Once I commit myself , I 'll never back off ) .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Origin = = =
In 2004 , after Andhrawala ' s commercial failure , its director Puri Jagannadh planned a film titled Sri Krishnudu from Surabhi Company starring Chiranjeevi in the lead role . He later decided that explaining the story to Chiranjeevi , talking him into accepting the role , and filming the movie , would be a long , tiring process . He chose instead to revive the script of Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana which he had written during the production of Badri ( 2000 ) . He approached Pawan Kalyan to play the lead role , but he declined it . Later , he approached Ravi Teja who agreed to play the lead ; Nagendra Babu was to produce the film . However , Teja was approached by Cheran , an award winning director , to remake the 2004 Tamil film Autograph in Telugu . Teja was eager to be involved in the remake as he liked the original very much . As a result , the production Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana was temporarily shelved . Jagannadh meanwhile directed and produced 143 ( 2004 ) . Teja had backed out of participating in it citing scheduling conflicts with other existing commitments . Jagannadh wanted to experiment by casting Sonu Sood in the lead role but this too failed to materialise .
On 3 November 2004 , Jagannadh met Mahesh Babu at the Taj Hotel in Hyderbad to outline the film 's plot . It told the story of Uttam Singh , an undercover police officer , infiltrating a mafia gang as a criminal , with the intention of killing its kingpin . Mahesh liked the script but suggested Jagannadh tweak the script 's backdrop to suit the Telugu @-@ speaking peoples ' sensibilities . Jagannadh agreed and also replaced the existing title with Pokiri . Mahesh wanted the film 's production to begin in 2005 allowing him to complete his current commitments . While he waited for Mahesh , Jagannadh directed Akkineni Nagarjuna in Super ( 2005 ) . While reworking the script , Jagannadh took inspiration from Marana Mrudangam ( 1988 ) and State Rowdy ( 1989 ) . Pokiri was produced jointly by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni 's production companies , Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions respectively , on a budget of ₹ 100 — 120 million .
= = = Cast and crew = = =
For Pokiri , Mahesh sported a longer hair style than in his previous films and shed five kilograms of weight . He used a new wardrobe and the same pair of shoes throughout the film . Jagannadh wanted to cast Ayesha Takia as the female lead . Due to a last minute change , the makers opted to replace Takia and considered several actresses including Deepika Padukone . Jagannadh approached Parvati Melton to play the female lead . She declined the offer because , at that time , her parents were against her decision to become an actress . He also approached Kangana Ranaut who could not accept the role because of scheduling conflicts with the filming of her scenes in Gangster ( 2006 ) . After seeing stills of Ileana D 'Cruz in her Telugu debut Devadasu ( 2006 ) , Jagannadh signed her as the female lead since he needed a girl who looked like a teenager to play the role of the aerobics teacher .
Prakash Raj and Ashish Vidyarthi were cast as the film 's primary antagonists . Raj played a mafia kingpin and Vidyarthi played a corrupt police officer , a villain 's role he finds more fun to play than that of a hero . Sayaji Shinde and Nassar played the two other principal characters in the film . Jyothi Rana played the role of the mafia kingpin 's moll , marking her debut in Telugu cinema . Isai and Subbaraju portrayed negative roles as well , with the former also making his debut in Telugu cinema . Ali played the role of a beggar and shared screen @-@ space with Brahmanandam and Venu Madhav . Jagannadh added this trio to the film to provide situational humour . Master Bharath played the role of D 'Cruz 's brother . Mumaith Khan performed an item number in the film .
Jagannadh wrote the film 's story , screenplay and dialogue with Meher Ramesh assisting him as script associate . Though having worked with Chakri many times in the past , at Mahesh 's suggestion , Jagannadh instead chose Mani Sharma to compose the film 's music . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer and Marthand K. Venkatesh its editor . Chinna and Krishna were the film 's art director and executive producer respectively .
= = = Filming = = =
Pokiri was shot predominantly in and around Hyderabad , especially in the Annapurna Studios , the aluminium factory near Gachibowli , Gayathri Hills and the Golconda Fort in 100 working days , from November 2005 to April 2006 . Most of the scenes were shot in a single take though it took time for Mahesh to adjust to Jagannadh 's style of filmmaking . Chennai @-@ based stylist Chaitanya Rao designed the costume styling for Mahesh and D 'Cruz . By late February 2006 , eighty percent of the film shoot had been completed with the film 's climax and two songs remaining . This made it Mahesh 's fastest shot Telugu film with him in the lead role .
The song " Gala Gala " was shot in the province of Phuket in Thailand , and the city of Bangkok . Prior to the filming of the song " Jagadame " , Shyam K. Naidu was busy on the set of Munna ( 2007 ) and was unable to shoot it so cinematographer K. V. Guhan , who had worked on Mahesh 's Athadu ( 2005 ) , was recruited instead . The film 's climax sequences were shot in March 2006 at the defunct Binny Mills located in Chennai under the supervision of FEFSI Vijayan . He suggested that Jagannadh include a scene where Prakash Raj fails to hear anything for a while after he is hit by Mahesh during the climax sequence .
Mahesh stated in an interview that he had to shoot the film 's climax and two songs continuously for thirty @-@ eight days , adding that he had to visit a hospital to be treated for shoulder pain . During the shooting of an underwater sequence , a few electrical lights were used . The electricians changed the lines , creating a short circuit which resulted in the death of one of the unit members . Mahesh had gotten out of the pool two seconds before the accident happened which he termed a " miracle " .
= = Music = =
The official soundtrack of Pokiri was composed by Mani Sharma , with lyrics written by Bhakarabhatla , Kandikonda and Viswa . Jagannadh wanted Sharma to compose six songs , with two duets between the lead pair , three solo numbers by the male lead , and an item number . During the shoot of Sivamani ( 2003 ) , Jagannadh listened to the song " Listen to the Falling Rain " which sounded like the song " Gala Gala Parutunna Godarila " from the Telugu film Gowri ( 1974 ) . He later came to learn that the latter song was inspired by the former , and he decided to reuse the same tune with modernised instruments and different lyrics . Sharma was accused of copying the tune of the song " Jaleo " composed by Ricky Martin for the song " Devuda " sung by Naveen .
The film 's soundtrack , marketed by Aditya Music , was released on 4 April 2006 , at Hotel Viceroy in Hyderabad with Mahesh 's father Krishna attending the event as the guest of honour . Sify called the soundtrack a peppy one and chose " Gala Gala " as the pick of the album . IndiaGlitz called it a " run of the mill " album that lacks freshness . The reviewer chose " Devuda " , " Gala Gala " and " Ippatikinka " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Cinegoer rated the soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and stated : " The first time you hear Pokiri , the sound of it is good ; it doesn 't start to grow on you after a while , but a few of the numbers are hummable and ring in your ears " , calling it a " mixed bag for Mani Sharma " . The reviewer chose " Dole Dole " and " Gala Gala " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 .
= = Release and reception = =
Pokiri was scheduled for a worldwide release on 21 April 2006 . Due to delays in post @-@ production activities , the film 's release was postponed to 28 April 2006 , clashing with the release of Bangaram and Veerabhadra . The film received an ' A ' ( Adults only ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification for containing obscene sequences and excessive violence . Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations , Mallikharjuna films and Great India films acquired the theatrical distribution rights of Nizam , Ceded and overseas regions respectively . Pokiri was one of the fourteen southern Indian films that were screened at the IIFA film festival 2006 held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai , United Arab Emirates .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reviewing the film , The Hindu wrote : " An out and out action flick , one can see the director 's thirst to cash in on the audience craze for such films . Nevertheless it 's Mahesh Babu 's show all the way . " Regarding Mahesh 's performance in the film , Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu wrote : " Mahesh 's understated performance in Pokiri allows him to effortlessly reclaim the title of a star , overshadowing more questionable recent career choices " . Sify stated that Pokiri was designed as a : " mass masala extravaganza which satisfies the undemanding viewers " . The reviewer added that Mahesh 's screen presence works to the advantage of the film .
Rediff stated : " Sporting a new , rugged look , ' Prince ' Mahesh Babu has stolen the show . He carries the film on his shoulders , consolidating his winning streak after last year 's Athadu . Another highlight of the film is its well @-@ choreographed action sequences ( if you can digest the violence ) , which give it a slick look . " IndiaGlitz gave a positive review stating : " In Pokiri , the hero is introduced to us a ruthless baddie , part of the huge underbelly of mafia . By the time we come to the denouement , there is much twist and turn . If you like some racy action , fun , glamour and love , then Pokiri would be your kind of film . "
= = = Box office = = =
According to Sify , Pokiri took an " extraordinary " opening across the globe and was able to cash in on the four @-@ day weekend holiday . Pokiri was released in a single screen , the Jayaprada theatre in Chennai , where 98 @.@ 5 % of seats were sold putting it in second place in the city 's box office chart , which Sify called an " awesome " feat . The film completed a fifty @-@ day run on 17 June 2006 , in nearly 300 centres and had earned US $ 350 @,@ 000 to become the highest grossing Telugu film in the United States . By July 2006 , the film had earned approximately ₹ 350 — 400 million and become the highest grossing Telugu film of all time . The film earned ₹ 120 million in the Nizam region alone , breaking the previous record set in the region by Indra ( 2002 ) and earned approximately ₹ 25 million at the United States box office .
The film completed a 100 @-@ day run in 200 centres and a 175 @-@ day run in 63 centres . The film completed a 200 @-@ day run in 15 centres , and a 365 @-@ day run at a theatre in Kurnool , becoming the first Telugu film to do so in the last two and a half decades . The film was screened in Bhagiratha theatre , Kurnool for 500 days at the rate of four shows per day and collected a share of ₹ 6 million . In its lifetime , Pokiri grossed ₹ 660 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 420 million at the global box office . It held that position until 2009 when Magadheera pushed it to second place after its nine @-@ day run .
= = = Awards = = =
= = Remakes = =
The film has been remade in various languages across India . The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri by Prabhu Deva featuring Vijay and Asin in the lead roles , and marked Deva 's debut as a director of Tamil cinema . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 featuring Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia . Wanted became the second highest grossing Hindi film of all time at that point . Pokiri was remade into Kannada as Porki in 2010 by M. D. Sridhar featuring Darshan and Pranitha Subhash in the lead roles .
= = Legacy = =
Pokiri 's success elevated Mahesh to super @-@ stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director . The sequences featuring Brahmanandam as a software engineer , the comedy track of Ali and Brahmanandam , Mahesh asking D 'Cruz to give him upma at the railway station were acclaimed . The fashion trend of wearing doctor sleeves increased in Andhra Pradesh after Mahesh sported them and they continue to influence fashion even today . After the film 's release , many films were released subsequently that had titles bordering on cuss words including Jagannadh 's next film Desamuduru ( 2006 ) . Mahesh revealed that he became confused after the film 's success :
It was such a huge hit , that if someone came to me with a script , I would approach the result of the film before approaching the character . I only wanted to act in movies that were like Pokiri , I think that was a mistake . It all got to me and I felt that I needed a break from films itself . Initially , I wanted just a seven @-@ month break . I signed Khaleja after nine months , but it just kept getting delayed and the break ended up becoming a two @-@ year @-@ long holiday . But I didn 't freak out ... I relaxed for the first time in life .
Pokiri was D 'Cruz 's breakthrough film in Telugu . In June 2006 , Trade analyst Sridhar Pillai said that the Andhra Pradesh trade felt that her glamour , screen presence , and on @-@ screen chemistry with Mahesh worked to the film 's advantage . Pillai called her the " new pin @-@ up girl of Telugu cinema " . Talking about being typecast after her success in Ye Maaya Chesave ( 2010 ) as its female lead , Samantha Ruth Prabhu cited the example of D 'Cruz being typecast in similar roles after the success of Pokiri saying that it had become mandatory for her to wear a bikini in every film since .
Pokiri was parodied by several films . In Desamuduru , the character Gudumba Shankar , a saint played by Ali , is seen imitating Mahesh 's mannerism from the song " Dole Dole " . Brahmanandam 's introduction scene in the film Jalsa ( 2008 ) is a spoof of Mahesh 's introduction as a police in Pokiri . The same sequence was spoofed in the films Sudigadu ( 2012 ) where the protagonist is named Shiva Manohar I. P. S. , and also in Race Gurram ( 2014 ) . In Dookudu ( 2011 ) , Mahesh is briefly seen as a film director who makes Prithviraj and M. S. Narayana recite the dialogue " Evvadu Kodithe Dimma Thirigi mind block aipodhdho , vaade Pandugaadu " from Pokiri . The protagonist in Eega ( 2012 ) , a fly , imitates Mahesh 's mannerisms from the song " Jagadame " after injuring the antagonist played by Sudeep .
= 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix =
The 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix ( formally the V Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 6 April 2008 at the Bahrain International Circuit , in Sakhir , Bahrain . It was the third race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 57 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team . Kimi Räikkönen was second in the other Ferrari , and BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica was third .
The race began with Kubica in pole position alongside Massa ; Lewis Hamilton , the eventual Drivers ' Champion , started from third , alongside Räikkönen . Kubica was passed by Massa into the first corner , and then by Räikkönen on the third lap . The Ferraris dominated at the front of the race , leading to their one @-@ two finish . Hamilton had a slow start after almost stalling on the grid , and dropped back to ninth . The McLaren driver ran into the back of Fernando Alonso 's Renault a lap later , breaking off the McLaren 's front wing and dropping Hamilton to the back of the field .
Kubica 's strong finish promoted BMW Sauber to the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , after BMW driver Nick Heidfeld finished fourth . Ferrari and McLaren trailed , one and two points behind , respectively . Räikkönen took the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , three points ahead of Heidfeld and five ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , with 15 races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers , in 11 teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams , Toro Rosso and Super Aguri . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .
Prior to the race , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 14 points , and Ferrari driver Kimi Räikkönen was second with 11 points . Behind Hamilton and Räikkönen in the Drivers ' Championship , Nick Heidfeld was third , also with 11 points , in a BMW Sauber , and Hamilton 's McLaren teammate Heikki Kovalainen was fourth with 10 points . Heidfeld 's teammate Robert Kubica was fifth with eight points . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren – Mercedes were leading with 24 points , five points ahead of BMW Sauber . Ferrari were third with 11 points .
Ferrari dominated the previous round in Malaysia , where Felipe Massa had claimed pole position , and led his teammate Räikkönen in second place through the opening stages of the race , before spinning off and retiring midway through . Räikkönen went on to win the race , and expressed his optimism about Bahrain : " I have finished third in three successive Grands Prix in Bahrain . Time and again something has gone wrong . Sakhir is one of those circuits where I really want to win . Finally . "
In the opening two races , Massa came under fire from the press for two errors that left him without points : a collision with Red Bull driver David Coulthard in Australia and his spin at Malaysia . Massa promised that the first two races would not be indicative of the rest of the season : " It was not the start to the season that I wanted , but there are still 16 races to go and 160 points up for grabs . In the next few races I plan to get back all the points I have lost in the opening two rounds . "
Hamilton won the opening race in Australia , but managed to finish only fifth after a qualifying penalty and a botched pit stop in Malaysia . The season began well for Kubica , as he qualified second in Australia and finished second in Malaysia . Kubica predicted his team could maintain their momentum into the third race : " I 'm confident that we can be very competitive here as well . "
A week before the start of the Grand Prix weekend , the News of the World alleged that Max Mosley , the president of Formula One 's governing body , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , had engaged in sexual acts with five prostitutes . While Mosley denied the allegations , he cancelled his scheduled appearance at the Bahrain Grand Prix . Several teams condemned Mosley 's alleged actions and asked for his resignation , and while for a time the controversy threatened to overshadow the race , Mosley eventually retained his position and successfully sued the News of the World for the report .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The Ferraris outpaced the other teams in the first session on a dusty track surrounded by the sand dune desert of Sakhir . Massa 's time of 1 : 32 @.@ 233 was quicker than Räikkönen 's , who was slowed down by an early excursion across the sand , requiring a pit stop . Nico Rosberg of Williams , Hamilton , McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen , Williams driver Kazuki Nakajima and Kubica rounded out the top seven . In the second session , Hamilton lost control of his car and slid sideways into a wall . Hamilton emerged unharmed from the collision , but his McLaren suffered significant damage . Except for the crash , the second session ended like the first : once again , Massa led Räikkönen to Ferrari one @-@ two , ahead of Kovalainen , Hamilton and Kubica . The third session was again held on a dusty track , where Rosberg was quickest with a time of 1 : 32 @.@ 521 . Massa took second , ahead of Red Bull driver Mark Webber , Toyota driver Jarno Trulli , David Coulthard of Red Bull , Nakajima and Kubica . Räikkönen was ninth quickest , and Hamilton 18th .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 17th position or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of the qualifying session lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 16 . The final part of the qualifying session determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Kubica clinched the first pole position of his career with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 096 . Massa qualified less than 0 @.@ 03 seconds behind the BMW and joined Kubica on the front row of the grid . Hamilton took third place , using his team 's spare chassis ; Räikkönen was next quickest , and despite being critical of his car 's set @-@ up was confident in its racing ability . Kovalainen would line up fifth on the grid alongside Heidfeld , who had trouble maximising performance from his tyres . Trulli took seventh place , ahead of Rosberg and Honda driver Jenson Button . Renault driver Fernando Alonso was the last driver to make the third session ; Webber missed out on the top ten by 0 @.@ 009 seconds and would start the race in 11th position . Button 's teammate Rubens Barrichello took 12th place after a gearbox problem interrupted his second session laps , ahead of Timo Glock of Toyota , Nelson Piquet of Renault and Toro Rosso driver Sébastien Bourdais . Nakajima was the slowest of the second session drivers , and took 16th . Coulthard qualified 17th , ahead of Giancarlo Fisichella of Force India . Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel took 19th , and blamed his set @-@ up : " I felt it was more a case of the car driving me than me driving the car . " Fisichella 's teammate Adrian Sutil qualified 20th , ahead of Anthony Davidson of Super Aguri . Davidson 's teammate Takuma Sato spun out and crashed into the barriers . Sato 's accident damaged his rear wing and suspension and left him unable to continue in the session .
= = = Race = = =
The weather and conditions on the grid were before dry for the race . The air temperature was 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) with signs of a breeze which could blow sand onto the track and impede the cars ' grip . Massa got the best start of the frontrunners off the line , as he passed Kubica into the first corner to take the lead . Hamilton 's poor start caused his anti @-@ stall system to kick in , and he was passed by six drivers to fall back to ninth . Räikkönen benefited from Hamilton 's start by moving up to third , ahead of Kovalainen , Trulli and Heidfeld . As Massa extended his lead at the front of the race , Hamilton , who trailed Alonso , collided with the back of the Renault , knocking the McLaren 's front wing off the car . Suffering handling difficulties , Hamilton returned to the pit @-@ lane for a new nose section , and rejoined in 18th place . Räikkönen took second place when he passed Kubica on lap three ; Heidfeld took fourth when he passed Trulli and Kovalainen in separate manoeuvres . Further down the field , Vettel retired from the race on the first lap after twice colliding with other cars ; Button , Sutil and Coulthard pitted to repair early damage .
By lap 10 , Massa had opened his lead over Räikkönen to 4 @.@ 4 seconds , ahead of Kubica , Heidfeld , Kovalainen and Trulli . Kubica was the first of the frontrunners to pit , on lap 17 . Räikkönen and Trulli followed on lap 20 ; Massa pitted from the lead one lap later . Following the first round of pit stops , the gap between the Ferraris was 5 @.@ 4 seconds , however by lap 31 Räikkönen had closed to within four seconds of his teammate . Massa held a 3 @.@ 6 second lead over Räikkönen when the two Ferraris pitted for the final time on laps 39 and 38 , respectively , and Massa retained his lead into the final stint . Kubica pitted on lap 41 , Heidfeld on lap 45 , and Kovalainen on lap 47 .
Coulthard and Button collided on lap 18 when Button attempted to pass the Red Bull on the inside at turn eight ; the Honda lost its front wing and retired a lap later after two pit stops . Hamilton continued his climb back through the field ; he moved from 18th , passing Piquet , Davidson , Sutil and Bourdais in separate manoeuvres , to sit in 14th by the time he pitted on lap 31 . Piquet retired on lap 42 with transmission failure , requiring a gearbox change before the next race .
Massa took his first win of the season when he crossed the line at the end of the 57th lap , 3 @.@ 3 seconds ahead of the second @-@ placed Räikkönen . Kubica took third , ahead of his teammate Heidfeld , and Kovalainen , who set the fastest lap of the race on lap 49 , with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 193 , despite being slower than the frontrunners for much of the race . Trulli , Webber , Glock and Alonso rounded out the top ten , after Glock 's Toyota held off a quick Alonso late in the race . Barrichello and Fisichella finished strongly , ahead of Hamilton , who managed only 13th . Nakajima , Bourdais , Davidson and Sato took the next four places ; Coulthard and Sutil finished last on track after their respective crashes demoted them to the back of the field . Vettel , Button and Piquet were the three retirements from the race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference , where Massa appeared relieved : " For sure the race was pretty difficult because I didn 't want to make any mistakes . I didn 't push as much either , just tried to bring the car home and just controlling the pace as well . " Massa said that he struggled with grip early , owing to oil in the middle sector of the course . Räikkönen 's second place promoted him to the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , and he expressed his optimism about future races :
The whole weekend has been pretty difficult , one of those things when we cannot really get the car right ... We are leading the Championship which is the main thing and we know that we have the speed once we get everything right . The race was quite difficult but anyhow I am happy with second .
Kubica said that his poor start was due to wheelspin off the line , and the presence of oil on the track impeded the performance of his car , leading to Räikkönen 's pass : " But anyway I think it was a good result : third and fourth for the team and leading the Constructors ' Championship , so it was good weekend . "
Hamilton accepted responsibility for his near stall on the grid : " I hadn 't hit the switch early enough and therefore we were not in the launch map and went straight into anti @-@ stall , and when everyone else was in their launch mode , I wasn 't . " Renault dismissed suggestions that Alonso had brake tested Hamilton in the incident that led to the McLaren 's wing breaking off . Pat Symonds , Renault 's head of engineering , said his team 's telemetry indicated Alonso was on full throttle down the straight , and had not touched the brakes : " I think all I can say from our side is that there is no blame attributable to Fernando , which is what some of the speculation might be . " McLaren F1 CEO Martin Whitmarsh said that Hamilton 's front wing had broken seconds before the impact , and that the resulting downforce reduction had sucked Hamilton into Alonso 's slipstream faster than expected . However , photos indicate that the front wing on the McLaren could have broken even earlier when Hamilton nudged a car ( believed to be Alonso ) on the opening lap . The later incident left Alonso with damage to the back of the car , impairing his attempts to pass Glock late in the race .
Räikkönen 's second @-@ placed finish gave him a three @-@ point lead over Heidfeld in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , each with 14 points . BMW Sauber 's strong performance gave them the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , with 30 points , ahead of Ferrari with 29 points and McLaren with 28 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Kalyanasundara =
Kalyanasundara ( कल ् याणसुन ् दर , literally " beautiful marriage " ) , also spelt as Kalyansundar and Kalyana Sundara , and known as Kalyanasundara @-@ murti ( " icon of the beautiful marriage " ) , Vaivahika @-@ murti ( वैवाहिक @-@ मूर ् ति , " nuptial icon " ) and Panigrahana @-@ murti ( पाणिंग ् रहण @-@ मूर ् ति ) ( " icon related to panigrahana ritual " ) , is the iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati . The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his .
The couple , depicted in the centre , are accompanied by a host of divinities and other celestial beings . The god Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi are often pictured as giving away the bride to Shiva . The god Brahma is shown as the officiating priest .
The Kalyanasundara icon is not the object of popular worship and is usually used only in the celebrations of the divine marriage in annual temple festivals . However , Kalyanasundara scenes are found across India in caves , sculptures and on temple walls .
= = Legend = =
Various Hindu scriptures narrate the story of the union of Shiva and Parvati , with some variation . After the death of his first wife Sati , Shiva withdrew from society and engrossed himself in deep mediation . Taking advantage of the situation , the asura ( demon ) king Tarakasura secured from the god Brahma the boon that he could be killed only by the son of Shiva . Believing himself effectively immortal , Tarakasura terrorized the beings of the universe and defeated the gods . Meanwhile , Parvati , the reincarnation of Sati , was born to Himavan , the god of the Himalayas and his wife the apsara Mena . She underwent severe austerities to compel Shiva to marry her . The gods , desperate to hasten the birth of Shiva 's son , sent Kamadeva , the god of love , to disturb Shiva 's meditation . Though Shiva was awakened , Kamadeva was burnt up by Shiva 's fury . Implored by the other gods to marry , Shiva agreed , but decided to test Parvati 's devotion first . The Saptarishi ( the seven sages ) approached Parvati and mocked Shiva to dissuade her ; however Parvati remained resolute . Then Shiva himself , disguised as an old ascetic , visited Parvati and vilified himself in her presence . As an angry Parvati was about to leave , Shiva revealed his true form to her and promised to marry her , pleased with her love and devotion . The couple married and produced a son , Kartikeya , who subsequently slew Tarakasura .
= = Iconography = =
= = = Textual descriptions = = =
The Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama , the Uttara @-@ kamaikagama and the Purva @-@ Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon .
A young four @-@ armed Shiva and a beautiful two @-@ armed Parvati should be the central figures , performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his . Shiva stands in tribhanga posture , with one of his legs straight and firmly on the ground and the other one slightly bent . Shiva wears a jata @-@ mukuta ( a headdress formed of piled , matted hair ) on his head , adorned with a crescent moon . He wears serpents as earrings , as a waist band and as a necklace . Various gold ornaments adorn his body . His back hands carry a parashu ( axe ) and a mriga ( deer ) . His front left hand makes the varada mudra ( " blessing @-@ giving gesture " ) and his front right hand is stretched ahead to receive the hand of the bride . A dark @-@ complexioned Parvati , adorned in silk and gold finery , stands to the left of Shiva , blushing with her head bent slightly as she extends her right arm to hold Shiva 's right hand . She holds a nilotpala ( blue lotus ) in her left arm .
The god Vishnu and his consorts Lakshmi and Bhudevi should be represented as taking the place of Parvati 's parents in the ceremony . The four @-@ armed Vishnu should be shown in the background in between Shiva and Parvati ; in one of his front hands is a golden pot from which he pours water over the hands of the couple , symbolizing giving away the bride to the groom . He holds his usual attributes , the sudarshana chakra ( discus ) and a shankha ( conch ) , in his back arms . Vishnu 's wives , dressed in royal finery , stand behind Parvati and hold her waist , symbolizing the handing over .
The four @-@ headed god Brahma should be shown seated on the ground in the foreground officiating as the wedding priest and making offerings to the homa ( sacred fire ) in the kunda ( fire @-@ altar ) . The four @-@ armed god holds a sruka and sruva ( sacrificial ladle and spoon ) in his front arms and a kamandalu ( water @-@ pot ) and akshamala ( rosary ) in his back arms . The presence of the fire also indicates another important ritual of the Hindu wedding , saptapadi ( " seven steps " ) where the bride and groom go around the fire seven times .
The figure of Shiva should be tallest , followed by that of Vishnu , Parvati and Vishnu 's wives . Various deities like the eight guardians of the directions , the eight Vasus , the seven Matrika goddesses , celestial beings such as Yakshas and Gandharvas , sages and siddhas may be depicted standing with folded arms in the background .
= = = Depictions = = =
The complete scene of the wedding is not always depicted . Sometimes , only the principal participants are shown . Chola bronzes featuring only Shiva and Parvati as described in the wedding scene are found . South Indian sculptures , like those from Madurai , feature only the couple and Vishnu . In this configuration , Parvati is depicted in the centre with Vishnu on the left giving away her hand to Shiva on the right . Sometimes as in the Elephanta Caves , Parvati 's biological father Himavan , instead of Vishnu , is depicted giving away his daughter to Shiva .
Other deviations from the texts may appear in the attributes held by the divine couple . Parvati may hold a mirror , instead of the lotus . Shiva may be shown holding the trishula ( trident ) and damaru ( drum ) in his back hands . Regional variations in iconography may also occur . In Bengal , Shiva holds a karttari ( knife ) , the ceremonial weapon that a Hindu groom from Bengal is expected to carry in a wedding .
Various wedding guests are depicted in the scene . Shiva 's attendant ganas enjoy the festivities ; playing drums or dancing . The vahanas ( vehicles ) of the couple , Shiva 's bull Nandi and Parvati 's lion , are sometimes pictured in the scene . In vertical panel depictions , the celestial guests are often shown flying over Shiva and Parvati . While the gods are pictured flying on their respective vahanas ( e.g. Indra on his elephant , Agni on a ram ) and with their consorts ; semi @-@ divine beings like Vidyadharas fly without vehicles . An anachronism found in a few Kalyanasundara scenes is the presence of the yet @-@ unborn children of Shiva and Parvati , Ganesha and Kartikkeya . Examples of this anachronism are found at the Rameshvara Cave of Ellora , and in a 9th @-@ century sculpture from Uttar Pradesh now housed in Los Angeles County Museum of Art .
= = Worship = =
Though Kalyanasundara icons are found across India in caves , sculptures and temple walls , no sect is centred on their worship . The icon is a popular feature on temple gopurams ( temple towers ) .
In South Indian Shiva temples like those in Tiruvenkadu and Chidambaram , the bronze Kalyanasundara images of Shiva and Parvati are used in annual temple festivals to commemorate the divine union . Special halls are reserved for the annual ceremonial wedding of the deities . The Kalyanasundara bronzes are used only in this festival and kept unused the rest of the year .
At the Meenakshi Amman Temple , women worship the Kalyanasundara sculpture to find husbands .
Kalyanasundara is worshipped in Thirumanancheri as god of Marriages . The idols of Lord shiva in the form of Kalyanasundara and Parvathi is worshipped by the unmarried men and women for early marriage . There are also people who have completed the marriages come here to complete rituals .
= SS El Sol =
SS El Sol was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line , a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company . During World War I , she was known as USAT El Sol in service with the United States Army and as USS El Sol ( ID @-@ 4505 ) in service with the United States Navy . At the end of war , she reverted to her original name of SS El Sol .
SS El Sol was one of four sister ships that carried cargo and a limited number of passengers for the Morgan Line . She was acquired by the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , and converted to carry horses and mules to France . In August 1918 , the ship was transferred to the U.S. Navy and continued transporting animals through the end of the war .
El Sol returned to the Morgan Line in 1919 and sailed with them until March 1927 , when she sank in New York Harbor after colliding with Sac City of the American Diamond Line . A portion of the ship 's cargo was salvaged but the ship was scrapped later in the year .
= = Early career = =
SS El Sol was a cargo and passenger steamship launched on 11 May 1910 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 130 ) , and delivered to the Atlantic division of the Morgan Line on 20 August 1910 . She was the first of four sister ships ; the other three being El Mundo , El Oriente , and El Occidente . El Sol was 6 @,@ 008 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was 430 feet 1 inch ( 131 @.@ 09 m ) long by 53 feet 1 inch ( 16 @.@ 18 m ) abeam , and made 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) . The vessel sailed for the Morgan Line , the brand name of the Southern Pacific Steamship Company ( a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad ) , which employed her to carry cargo and a limited number of passengers between New York ; New Orleans , the eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific line ; and Galveston , Texas .
= = World War I = =
After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , El Sol was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) on behalf of the United States Army , who designated her as an animal transport ship . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of El Sol , for other ships this typically meant that any second- or third @-@ class passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .
Sources do not reveal all of El Sol 's movements , but it is known that she departed on her second trip to France from Newport News on 10 February 1918 . Carrying 650 animals , El Sol headed to New York to join in a convoy with fellow Army transport Pastores , and U.S. Navy troop transports Covington , DeKalb , Manchuria , George Washington , President Grant , and Susquehanna . The convoy was escorted by Huntington when it departed from New York on 18 February , and arrived at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 4 March . Ten animals on board El Sol died or were destroyed during the crossing .
The next recorded activity of El Sol was on 3 August , when she was transferred from the Army to the U.S. Navy and commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander G. Anderson , USNRF , in command . El Sol was assigned to the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and continued to carry animals and supplies for the U.S. Army .
By August , each animal transport ship had a transport veterinarian and a permanent veterinary detachment to care for the animals while on board the ship . El Sol had also been joined by two of her sister ships , El Oriente and El Occidente in animal transport duty . She next departed Newport News on 23 August 1918 with 520 horses and mules on board . Upon arrival at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 19 September , El Sol delivered her complete load of animals ; none had died during the passage . After returning to the U.S. , El Sol departed again on 30 October with another 620 animals on board . Docking in Bordeaux on 13 November — two days after the Armistice — she again delivered her full load of animals .
El Sol made two more roundtrips for the NOTS over the next five months . While returning to the United States from her last NOTS sailing in late March 1919 , El Sol responded to distress calls from Scranton , a Navy troop transport which had a damaged rudder and was disabled . El Sol came to the aid of the stricken ship , which was 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York , to attempt to take her under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , killing three men . Ultimately , El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow .
At the conclusion of her last NOTS voyage on 3 April , El Sol was converted to a troop transport and assigned to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force on 15 April . El Sol returned 2 @,@ 714 healthy and wounded American servicemen from France in two voyages . Decommissioned on 18 September , El Sol was returned to the Morgan Line soon after .
= = Postwar civilian service = =
El Sol resumed cargo service with the Morgan Line , where she had 8 years of uneventful operation . On 11 March 1927 , however , El Sol was inbound to New York with a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cargo of pig iron , copper , and bales of cotton . When a heavy fog settled over New York Harbor , Captain Charles H. Knowles ordered his ship to anchor until the fog cleared . As El Sol was being maneuvered into position at about 07 : 45 , the American Diamond Line ship Sac City hit a glancing blow to El Sol , bounced off and then struck El Sol a second time , ripping through El Sol 's plating . Sac City 's bow had some slight damage , but El Sol sank quickly in about 60 feet ( 18 m ) of water about a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) south of the Statue of Liberty . Out of El Sol 's crew of 45 men , 44 were rescued ; the ship 's carpenter , who could not swim , was last seen clutching the ship 's rail as it went below the surface .
El Sol settled on the bottom at a 45 ° angle with only the tops of her masts protruding above the surface ; the Morgan Line house flag — a blue house flag with a red M inside a white star — still fluttered in the breeze . Even though the sunken vessel was not considered a hazard to navigation , in another fog two days later a Staten Island Ferryboat nearly hit El Sol 's wreck .
In a hearings before the United States Steamboat Inspection Service , Captain Knowles of El Sol and the captain of Sac City were both cleared of wrongdoing in the collision , and the blame was laid on the heavy fog . On 31 July , The New York Times reported on the cargo salvage operations still underway on the wreck of El Sol . In three months of continuous operations , the salvage company reported that about 35 % of the sunken ship 's cargo had been recovered . The hulk of El Sol was scrapped later in 1927 .
= Hoover Dam =
Hoover Dam , once known as Boulder Dam , is a concrete arch @-@ gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River , on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona . It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30 , 1935 , by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers , and cost over one hundred lives . The dam was controversially named after President Herbert Hoover .
Since about 1900 , the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods , provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power . In 1928 , Congress authorized the project . The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies , Inc . , which began construction on the dam in early 1931 . Such a large concrete structure had never been built before , and some of the techniques were unproven . The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties . Nevertheless , Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1 , 1936 , more than two years ahead of schedule .
Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the United States by volume . The dam is located near Boulder City , Nevada , a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project , about 30 mi ( 48 km ) southeast of Las Vegas , Nevada . The dam 's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada , Arizona , and California . Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction ; nearly a million people tour the dam each year . The heavily travelled U.S. 93 ran along the dam 's crest until October 2010 , when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened .
= = Background = =
= = = Search for resources = = =
As the United States developed the Southwest , the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water . An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late 1890s , when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border ; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley . Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley , the canal proved expensive to maintain . After a catastrophic breach that caused the Colorado River to fill the Salton Sea , the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $ 3 million in 1906 – 07 to stabilize the waterway , an amount it hoped vainly would be reimbursed by the Federal Government . Even after the waterway was stabilized , it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border .
As the technology of electric power transmission improved , the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric @-@ power potential . In 1902 , the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) rock dam which could generate 10 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . However , at the time , the limit of transmission of electric power was 80 miles ( 130 km ) , and there were few customers ( mostly mines ) within that limit . Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse — including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam .
In the following years , the Bureau of Reclamation ( BOR ) , known as the Reclamation Service at the time , also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam . Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of the eventual dam site , into the river . The river would carry off the smaller pieces of debris , and a dam would be built incorporating the remaining rubble . In 1922 , after considering it for several years , the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal , citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would in fact save money .
= = = Planning and agreements = = =
In 1922 , the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation . The report was principally authored by Davis , and was called the Fall @-@ Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall . The Fall @-@ Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern , because the river 's basin covered several states , and the river eventually entered Mexico . Though the Fall @-@ Davis report called for a dam " at or near Boulder Canyon " , the Reclamation Service ( which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year ) found that canyon unsuitable . One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault ; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon or for a spillway . The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal ; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site . Despite the site change , the dam project was referred to as the " Boulder Canyon Project " .
With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court , proponents of the dam feared endless litigation . A Colorado attorney proposed that the seven states which fell within the river 's basin ( California , Nevada , Arizona , Utah , New Mexico , Colorado and Wyoming ) form an interstate compact , with the approval of Congress . Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states . In 1922 , representatives of seven states met with then @-@ Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover . Initial talks produced no result , but when the Supreme Court handed down the Wyoming v. Colorado decision undermining the claims of the upstream states , they became anxious to reach an agreement . The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24 , 1922 .
Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by Representative Phil Swing ( R @-@ Calif . ) and Senator Hiram Johnson ( R @-@ Calif . ) , but representatives from other parts of the country considered the project as hugely expensive and one that would mostly benefit California . The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project . On March 12 , 1928 , the failure of the St. Francis Dam , constructed by the city of Los Angeles , caused a disastrous flood that killed up to 600 people . As that dam was a curved @-@ gravity type , similar in design to the arch @-@ gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam , opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam 's safety could not be guaranteed . Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam . The Colorado River Board found the project feasible , but warned that should the dam fail , every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed , and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea . The Board cautioned : " To avoid such possibilities , the proposed dam should be constructed on conservative if not ultra @-@ conservative lines . "
On December 21 , 1928 President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam . The Boulder Canyon Project Act appropriated $ 165 million for the Hoover Dam along with the downstream Imperial Dam and All @-@ American Canal , a replacement for Beatty 's canal entirely on the U.S. side of the border . It also permitted the compact to go into effect when at least six of the seven states approved it . This occurred on March 6 , 1929 with Utah 's ratification ; Arizona did not approve it until 1944 .
= = = Design , preparation and contracting = = =
Even before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project , the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used . Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch @-@ gravity dam , the design of which was overseen by the Bureau 's chief design engineer John L. Savage . The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top , and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam . The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water 's force into the abutments , in this case the rock walls of the canyon . The wedge @-@ shaped dam would be 660 ft ( 200 m ) thick at the bottom , narrowing to 45 ft ( 14 m ) at the top , leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona .
On January 10 , 1931 , the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties , at five dollars a copy . The government was to provide the materials ; but the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam . The dam was described in minute detail , covering 100 pages of text and 76 drawings . A $ 2 million bid bond was to accompany each bid ; the winner would have to post a $ 5 million performance bond . The contractor had seven years to build the dam , or penalties would ensue .
The Wattis Brothers , heads of the Utah Construction Company , were interested in bidding on the project , but lacked the money for the performance bond . They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners , Morrison @-@ Knudsen , which employed the nation 's leading dam builder , Frank Crowe . They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland , Oregon ; Henry J. Kaiser & W. A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco ; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles ; and the J.F. Shea Company of Portland , Oregon . The joint venture was called Six Companies , Inc. as Bechtel and Kaiser were considered one company for purposes of 6 in the name . The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid , where " Six Companies " was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city . There were three valid bids , and Six Companies ' bid of $ 48 @,@ 890 @,@ 955 was the lowest , within $ 24 @,@ 000 of the confidential government estimate of what the dam would cost to build , and five million dollars less than the next @-@ lowest bid .
The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction , closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker , Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur came to town . Instead , Wilbur announced in early 1930 that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site . This town became known as Boulder City , Nevada . Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930 .
= = Construction = =
= = = Labor force = = =
Soon after the dam was authorized , increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada . Las Vegas , then a small city of some 5 @,@ 000 , saw between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 unemployed descend on it . A government camp was established for surveyors and other personnel near the dam site ; this soon became surrounded by a squatters ' camp . Known as McKeeversville , the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project , together with their families . Another camp , on the flats along the Colorado River , was officially called Williamsville , but was known to its inhabitants as " Ragtown " . When construction began , Six Companies hired large numbers of workers , with more than 3 @,@ 000 on the payroll by 1932 and with employment peaking at 5 @,@ 251 in July 1934 . " Mongolian " ( Chinese ) labor was prevented by the construction contract , while the number of blacks employed by Six Companies never exceeded thirty , mostly lowest @-@ pay @-@ scale laborers in a segregated crew , who were issued separate water buckets .
As part of the contract , Six Companies , Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers . The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began , but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October . The company built bunkhouses , attached to the canyon wall , to house 480 single men at what became known as River Camp . Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed , and many lived in Ragtown . The site of Hoover Dam endures extremely hot weather , and the summer of 1931 was especially torrid , with the daytime high averaging 119 @.@ 9 ° F ( 48 @.@ 8 ° C ) . Sixteen workers and other riverbank residents died of heat prostration between June 25 and July 26 , 1931 .
The Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW or " Wobblies " ) , though much @-@ reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century , hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent . They sent eleven organizers , several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police . On August 7 , 1931 , the company cut wages for all tunnel workers . Although the workers sent away the organizers , not wanting to be associated with the " Wobblies " , they formed a committee to represent them with the company . The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning . He was noncommittal . The workers hoped that Crowe , the general superintendent of the job , would be sympathetic ; instead he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper , describing the workers as " malcontents " .
On the morning of the 9th , Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands , was stopping all work , and was laying off the entire work force , except for a few office workers and carpenters . The workers were given until 5 p.m. to vacate the premises . Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent , most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments . Two days later , the remainder were talked into leaving by law enforcement . On August 13 , the company began hiring workers again , and two days later , the strike was called off . While the workers received none of their demands , the company guaranteed there would be no further reductions in wages . Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late 1931 .
A second labor action took place in July 1935 , as construction on the dam wound down . When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time , workers responded with a strike . Emboldened by Crowe 's reversal of the lunch decree , workers raised their demands to include a $ 1 @-@ per @-@ day raise . The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay , but no money was forthcoming from Washington . The strike ended .
= = = River diversion = = =
Before the dam could be built , the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site . To accomplish this , four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls , two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side . These tunnels were 56 ft ( 17 m ) in diameter . Their combined length was nearly 16 @,@ 000 ft , or more than 3 miles ( 5 km ) . The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1 , 1933 , with a $ 3 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ day fine to be assessed for any delay . To meet the deadline , Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933 , since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert .
Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931 . Shortly afterward , work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall . In March 1932 , work began on lining the tunnels with concrete . First the base , or invert , was poured . Gantry cranes , running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete . The sidewalls were poured next . Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls . Finally , using pneumatic guns , the overheads were filled in . The concrete lining is 3 feet ( 1 m ) thick , reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft ( 15 m ) . The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13 , 1932 ; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water . This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked .
Following the completion of the dam , the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs . The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels . The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one @-@ third of their length , beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works . The inner tunnels ' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance .
= = = Groundworks , rock clearance and grout curtain = = =
To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river 's diversion , two cofferdams were constructed . Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932 , even though the river had not yet been diverted . The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work , and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself . The upper cofferdam was 96 ft ( 29 m ) high , and 750 feet ( 230 m ) thick at its base , as thicker than the dam itself . It contained 650 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material .
When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water , excavation for the dam foundation began . For the dam to rest on solid rock , it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached . Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933 . During this excavation , approximately 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material was removed . Since the dam was an arch @-@ gravity type , the side @-@ walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake . Therefore , the side @-@ walls were excavated too , to reach virgin rock as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage .
The men who removed this rock were called " high scalers " . While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes , the high @-@ scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite . Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site ; the high scalers ' work thus helped ensure worker safety . One high scaler was able to save life in a more direct manner : when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death , a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air . The construction site had , even then , become a magnet for tourists ; the high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers . The high scalers received considerable media attention , with one worker dubbed the " Human Pendulum " for swinging co @-@ workers ( and , at other times , cases of dynamite ) across the canyon . To protect themselves against falling objects , some high scalers took cloth hats and dipped them in tar , allowing them to harden . When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws , they sustained no skull damage , Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called " hard boiled hats " ( later " hard hats " ) and strongly encouraged their use .
The cleared , underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout , called a grout curtain . Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon , as deep as 150 feet ( 46 m ) into the rock , and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout . This was done to stabilize the rock , to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock , and to limit " uplift " — upward pressure from water seeping under the dam . The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour , and when they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill , they moved on without resolving the problem . A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled . After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill , large numbers of significant leaks into the dam caused the Bureau of Reclamation to look into the situation . It found that the work had been incompletely done , and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon 's geology . New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock . It took nine years ( 1938 – 47 ) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain .
= = = Concrete = = =
The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6 , 1933 , 18 months ahead of schedule . Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures , the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem . Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour , the concrete would take 125 years to cool and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble . Instead , the ground where the dam was to rise was marked with rectangles , and concrete blocks in columns were poured , some as large as 50 ft square ( 15 m ) and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high . Each five @-@ foot form contained a series of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) steel pipes through which first cool river water , then later ice @-@ cold water from a refrigeration plant was run . When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting , the pipes were filled with grout . Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns , which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins .
The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) and almost 7 feet in diameter ; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design . These buckets , which weighed 20 short tons ( 18 t ) when full , were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side , and were delivered to the site in special railcars . The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways , which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column . As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam ( from pea @-@ sized gravel to 9 @-@ inch or 23 cm stones ) , it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column . When the bottom of the bucket opened up , disgorging 8 cu yd ( 6 @.@ 1 m3 ) of concrete , a team of men worked it throughout the form . Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day , each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch , and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body .
A total of 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29 , 1935 . In addition , 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 850 @,@ 000 m3 ) were used in the power plant and other works . More than 582 miles ( 937 km ) of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete . Overall , there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two @-@ lane highway from San Francisco to New York . Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995 ; they showed that " Hoover Dam 's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength " and the dam is composed of a " durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete " . Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali – silica reaction ( ASR ) as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate , unlike that at downstream Parker Dam , where ASR has caused measurable deterioration .
= = = Dedication and completion = = =
With most work finished on the dam itself ( the powerhouse remained uncompleted ) , a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30 , 1935 , to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The morning of the dedication , it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m. ; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time . Despite the change in the ceremony time , and temperatures of 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) , 10 @,@ 000 people were present for the President 's speech in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover , who was not invited to the ceremony . To mark the occasion , a three @-@ cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department — bearing the name " Boulder Dam " , the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947 . After the ceremony , Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas .
Most work had been completed by the dedication , and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government . The parties came to an agreement and on March 1 , 1936 , Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government . Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item , a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels , as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation .
= = = Construction deaths = = =
There were 112 deaths associated with the construction of the dam . The first was J. G. Tierney , a surveyor who drowned on December 20 , 1922 , while looking for an ideal spot for the dam . Ninety @-@ six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site . Of the 112 fatalities , 91 were Six Companies employees , three were BOR employees , and one was a visitor to the site , with the remainder employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies .
Not included in the official fatalities number were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia . Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning , brought on by the use of gasoline @-@ fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels , and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims . The site 's diversion tunnels frequently reached 140 ° F ( 60 ° C ) , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases . A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia ; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning . No deaths of non @-@ workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period .
= = = Architectural style = = =
The initial plans for the facade of the dam , the power plant , the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam . The Bureau of Reclamation , more concerned with the dam 's functionality , adorned it with a Gothic @-@ inspired balustrade and eagle statues . This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale , so Los Angeles @-@ based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann , then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation , was brought in to redesign the exteriors . Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design , and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project . He designed sculptured turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona — the two states are in different time zones , but as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time , the clocks display the same time for more than half the year .
At Kaufmann 's request , Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam . True 's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region . Although some initially were opposed to these designs , True was given the go @-@ ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist . With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology , True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings , textiles , baskets and ceramics . The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain , lightning , water , clouds , and local animals — lizards , serpents , birds — and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas . In these works , which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam , True also reflected on the machinery of the operation , making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern .
With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers , True also devised an innovative color @-@ coding for the pipes and machinery , which was implemented throughout all BOR projects . True 's consulting artist job lasted through 1942 ; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker , Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants . True 's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker , part of which read , " lose the spark , and justify the dream ; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme " .
Complementing Kaufmann and True 's work , the Norwegian @-@ born , naturalized American sculptor Oskar J.W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam . His works include the monument of dedication plaza , a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas @-@ reliefs on the elevator towers . In his words , Hansen wanted his work to express " the immutable calm of intellectual resolution , and the enormous power of trained physical strength , equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment " , because " [ t ] he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring . " Hansen 's dedication plaza , on the Nevada abutment , contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole .
Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a " star map " . The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt 's dedication of the dam . This is intended to help future astronomers , if necessary , calculate the exact date of dedication . The 30 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bronze figures , dubbed " Winged Figures of the Republic " , were each formed in a continuous pour . To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface , they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted . Hansen 's bas @-@ relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam : flood control , navigation , irrigation , water storage , and power . The bas @-@ relief on the Arizona elevator depicts , in his words , " the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant . "
= = Operation = =
= = = Power plant and water demands = = =
Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments . A U @-@ shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam , its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933 . Filling of Lake Mead began February 1 , 1935 , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May . The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30 , 1935 — a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures . To make the powerhouse roof bombproof , it was constructed of layers of concrete , rock , and steel with a total thickness of about 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) , topped with layers of sand and tar .
In the latter half of 1936 , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation , and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine @-@ generators , all on the Nevada side , began operating . In March 1937 , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August . By September 1939 , four more generators were operating , and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world . The final generator was not placed in service until 1961 , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1 @,@ 345 megawatts at the time . Original plans called for 16 large generators , eight on each side of the river , but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17 . The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality , before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable . The present contracts for the sale of electricity expire in 2017 .
Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines , it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse . The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head ( water pressure ) of 590 ft ( 180 m ) as the water reaches a speed of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines . The spillways and outlet works ( jet @-@ flow gates ) are rarely used . The jet @-@ flow gates , located in concrete structures 180 feet ( 55 m ) above the river , and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level , may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions , but have never done so , and in practice are only used to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance . Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993 , the total gross power rating for the plant , including two 2 @.@ 4 megawatt Pelton turbine @-@ generators that power Hoover Dam 's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts . The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies . The maximum net generation was 10 @.@ 348 TWh in 1984 , and the minimum since 1940 was 2 @.@ 648 TWh in 1956 . The average power generated was 4 @.@ 2 TWh / year for 1947 @-@ 2008 . In 2015 , the dam generated 3 @.@ 6 TWh . To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1 @,@ 050 to 950 feet ( 320 to 290 m ) , five wide @-@ head turbines , designed to work efficiently with less flow , will be online by 2017 . Due to lack of water , the dam mostly provides power only during periods of peak demand .
Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam . Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self @-@ sustaining : proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50 @-@ year construction loan , and those revenues also finance the multimillion @-@ dollar yearly maintenance budget . Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands .
Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses . Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals . The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All @-@ American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam . In total , water from the Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona , Nevada and California and supplies the irrigation of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) of land .
= = = = Power distribution = = = =
Electricity from the dam 's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty @-@ year contract , authorized by Congress in 1934 , which ran from 1937 to 1987 . In 1984 , Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from 1987 to 2017 . The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison ; in 1987 , the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control . In 2011 , Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067 , after setting aside 5 % of Hoover Dam 's power for sale to Native American tribes , electric cooperatives , and other entities . The new arrangement will begin in 2017 . The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated is allocated as follows :
= = = Spillways = = =
The dam is protected against over @-@ topping by two spillways . The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment , running roughly parallel to the canyon walls . The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side @-@ flow weir with each spillway containing four 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) and 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) steel @-@ drum gates . Each gate weighs 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) and can be operated manually or automatically . Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions . The gates are unable to entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but are able to maintain an extra 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of lake level . Water flowing over the spillways drops dramatically into 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) , 50 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 15 m ) spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels , and reentering the main river channel below the dam . This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges . Each spillway 's capacity of 200 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 700 m3 / s ) was empirically verified in post @-@ construction tests in 1941 .
The large spillway tunnels have been used only twice , for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983 . During both times , when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used , engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock . The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert ( or base ) , which caused cavitation , a phenomenon in fast @-@ flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force . In response to this finding , the tunnels were patched with special heavy @-@ duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror @-@ smooth . The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets , which both slow the water and decrease the spillway 's effective capacity , in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage . The 1983 damage , also due to cavitation , led to the installation of aerators in the spillways . Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked , in principle .
= = = Roadway and tourism = = =
There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam , which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93 . In the wake of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited . Pending the completion of the bypass , restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam . Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi @-@ trailer trucks , buses carrying luggage , and enclosed @-@ box trucks over 40 ft ( 12 m ) long were not allowed on the dam at all , and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163 / 68 . The four @-@ lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19 , 2010 . It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge , the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge , 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) downstream from the dam . With the opening of the bypass , through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam , dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side .
Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion , but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II , during which only authorized traffic , in convoys , was permitted . After the war , it reopened September 2 , 1945 , and by 1953 , annual attendance had risen to 448 @,@ 081 . The dam closed on November 25 , 1963 and March 31 , 1969 , days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower . In 1995 , a new visitors ' center was built , and the following year , visits exceeded one million for the first time . The dam closed again to the public on September 11 , 2001 ; modified tours were resumed in December and a new " Discovery Tour " was added the following year . Today , nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation . Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure being inaccessible to tourists . As a result , few of True 's decorations can now be seen by visitors .
= = Environmental impact = =
The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam 's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta . The construction of the dam has been credited as causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem . For six years after the construction of the dam , while Lake Mead filled , virtually no water reached the mouth of the river . The delta 's estuary , which once had a freshwater @-@ saltwater mixing zone stretching 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the river 's mouth , was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river 's mouth .
The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam . The dam eliminated the natural flooding , which threatened many species adapted to the flooding , including both plants and animals . The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam . Four species of fish native to the Colorado River , the Bonytail chub , Colorado pikeminnow , Humpback chub , and Razorback sucker , are listed as endangered .
= = Naming controversy = =
During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928 , the press generally referred to the dam as " Boulder Dam " or as " Boulder Canyon Dam " , even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon . The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 ( BCPA ) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam . The BCPA merely allows the government to " construct , operate , and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon " .
When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17 , 1930 , he named the dam " Hoover Dam " , citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents , though none had been so honored during their terms of office . Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was " the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make [ the dam ] possible " . One writer complained in response that " the Great Engineer had quickly drained , ditched , and dammed the country . "
After Hoover 's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration , Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13 , 1933 that the dam be referred to as " Boulder Dam " . Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president , that Congress had never ratified his choice , and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam . Unknown to the general public , Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name " Hoover Dam " in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam . The official status this conferred to the name " Hoover Dam " had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12 , 1930 , but was likewise ignored by Ickes .
When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30 , 1935 , he was determined , as he recorded in his diary , " to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam . " At one point in the speech , he spoke the words " Boulder Dam " five times within thirty seconds . Further , he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person , it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson , a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation . Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam , and the Republican @-@ leaning Los Angeles Times , which at the time of Ickes ' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign " HOOVER DAM , " reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes , but having no greater success .
In the following years , the name " Boulder Dam " failed to fully take hold , with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed . Memories of the Great Depression faded , and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II . In 1947 , a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name " Hoover Dam . " Ickes , who was by then a private citizen , opposed the change , stating , " I didn 't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with . "
= Tropical Storm Abby ( 1964 ) =
Tropical Storm Abby was an exceptionally small tropical cyclone that had minor effects across Southeast Texas in early August 1964 . Forming as a tropical depression out of a trough south of Louisiana on August 5 , the system moved generally westward . It was not until August 7 that the system began to organize . That day , an eye rapidly formed within the system and it became a tropical storm just 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Soon thereafter , a weather reconnaissance plane reported a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at the storm 's center . Around 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) , the newly named Abby attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It subsequently made landfall near Matagorda , Texas four hours later . Once onshore gradual weakening ensued , though a brief period of re @-@ organization delayed its dissipation . Abby degenerated into an area of showers on August 8 southwest of San Antonio , Texas .
Prior to Abby 's landfall in Texas , gale warnings were issued for the coast and residents on Matagorda Island were evacuated . Overall , the storm 's impacts were limited due to its small size . Only two structures sustained damage in Matagorda , one being destroyed by a possible tornado , and the remaining effects resulted from flooding in Jackson and Victoria Counties . Total damage from the storm was estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 with the majority stemming from crops .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 5 , 1964 , a weak trough emerged from Florida over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . According to the Atlantic hurricane database ( referred to as HURDAT ) , the system developed into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) that day , with its center located roughly 160 mi ( 260 km ) south @-@ southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving generally west , the system exhibited no signs of further development as it neared the Texas coastline . However , on August 7 , radar images from Brownsville , Galveston , Lake Charles , and Victoria showed an abrupt increase in organization . During the afternoon hours , banding features consolidated around a developing eye and weather reconnaissance planes were dispatched to the system . Forecasters initially mistook the eye as a hook echo @-@ type feature at the end of a squall line . It is estimated that the depression became a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) , roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Operationally , the system was not even monitored as a depression this time , with the classification and naming of Tropical Storm Abby occurring at 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 .
Abby was an unusually small storm , with its entire circulation being far less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) in diameter . Around 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 , reconnaissance measured a central barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) within Abby , the lowest in relation to the system . They also reported peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) in squalls , which would rank as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . These winds were seen to be an overestimate by forecasters and discarded , however . The system attained its maximum winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) and subsequently made landfall just northeast of Matagorda , Texas at 22 : 00 UTC ( 5 : 00 p.m. CDT ) . Irvin Velbrecht , a forecaster at the Weather Bureau ( now known as the National Weather Service ) in Galveston , described the storm as a " perfectly miniature hurricane . " Despite moving onshore , Abby 's core continued to organize and it developed a closed eyewall roughly three hours later . Thereafter the storm began to gradually weaken , passing over Edna around 02 : 00 UTC on August 8 ( 9 : | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
00 p.m. CDT on August 7 ) . Weakening to a depression hours later , Abby ultimately degenerated into an area of showers and dissipated southwest of San Antonio by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Owing to the abrupt nature of Abby 's development on August 7 , residents had little time to prepare for the storm . According to Irvin Velbrecht , " in the absence of aircraft reconnaissance and radar information , two reasonably new tools in storm detection , Abby could well have formed and approached the shore before knowledge of a tropical storm was gained . " Gale warnings were raised from Galveston to San Antonio immediately following the storm 's formation and were kept in place through the morning of August 8 . Evacuation orders were issued for Matagorda Island and most complied , with some deciding to remain at their homes . Personnel at Matagorda Island Air Force Base were evacuated to Victoria . Red Cross facilities were readied and public shelters were opened in the area . At the mouth of the Colorado River , seagoing vessels were tied down with extra rope . Within the Weather Bureau , members of the Galveston office were the first to notice the system and relayed to the other offices in the area to attune their radars to follow the system .
Abby 's small size resulted in its effects being limited to areas within the immediate track . Sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) with gusts to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were measured by the Army Corps of Engineers in Matagorda . Near the town , a possible tornado unroofed a barn and tossed the structure 225 ft ( 69 m ) ; this building previously had withstood the effects of Hurricane Carla in 1961 . Winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore part of the roof off a fishing warehouse in Matagorda itself . Along the coast , tides ranged from 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal from Matagorda to Freeport . Four men and five dogs required rescue after their vessel became stranded on the Colorado River .
Heavy rains accompanied the system across Texas . Most areas along the immediate track received at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of rain , with a peak value of 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) recorded at the Victoria International Airport . The hardest hit areas were in Jackson and Victoria counties where the heaviest rains fell . In these areas , flooding and strong winds damaged the cotton and rice crops ; however , effects of the rice crop were more limited due to losses from earlier storms as well as ongoing harvesting . Some flooding also took place across the Atascosa River watershed , but no damage resulted . Overall , property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 while agricultural losses reached $ 600 @,@ 000 .
= 7 Independent Company ( Rhodesia ) =
7 Independent Company ( 7 Indep Coy ; French : 7ème Compagnie indépendante ) was a short @-@ lived company of francophone volunteers in the Rhodesian Army during the Rhodesian Bush War . Numbering about 200 men at its peak , it was unique in the history of the Rhodesian Army as an exclusively expatriate unit . It existed between November 1977 and May 1978 as a company in the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesia Regiment , and served two counter @-@ insurgency tours on Operation Hurricane in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) .
During the Bush War , the Rhodesian Army augmented its ranks with foreign volunteers , who were accepted into regular regiments with the same pay and conditions of service as locals . Most foreign recruits enlisted in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , which launched an overseas recruitment programme in 1974 , but required successful applicants to speak good English . The Army attempted to alleviate the strain on its troops during late 1977 by recruiting French @-@ speakers as well , and formed a designated company in the Rhodesia Regiment for them . The regiment already had six independent companies , so the francophone unit became 7 Independent Company .
The company 's men , a mixture of former French paratroopers , ex @-@ Foreign Legionnaires and young adventurers , had trouble from the start integrating with the Rhodesian forces , and became unsettled by the respective ranks they were given in the Rhodesian Army . In an attempt to raise their morale and create a strong esprit de corps , the Army issued them beret insignias backed with the French tricolour and allowed them to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia each morning . Apparently under the impression that they had signed up as highly paid mercenaries , many of the French troopers returned home after their first bush trip , unhappy to have received no more money than a regular Rhodesian soldier .
On operations their performance was generally below par , but the Frenchmen were involved in some successful actions during February and early March 1978 . Their oppressive treatment of the black villagers they encountered made them very unpopular in the operational area . The Rhodesians quickly deemed the experiment a failure and following a series of disasters for the company during the latter part of its second tour , including two friendly fire incidents and several fatalities , it was disbanded in May 1978 . Forces led by one of its members , Bob Denard , later that month executed a coup d 'état in the Comoros with French , Rhodesian and South African governmental support .
= = Background = =
Following a dispute with the British government regarding terms for the granting of full independence , the predominantly white minority government of the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) , led by Ian Smith , unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this and each imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Meanwhile , the country 's two most prominent communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups , the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People 's Union , mobilised their respective guerrilla armies , the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , for what they called the " Second Chimurenga " , with the goal of overthrowing the government and introducing black majority rule .
The Rhodesian Bush War was the result , beginning in earnest on 21 December 1972 when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms near Centenary in the country 's north @-@ east . The Rhodesian Security Forces launched Operation Hurricane in response and fought back strongly , reducing the number of guerrillas active within the country to under 300 by December 1974 . In the period October – November 1974 , they killed more nationalist fighters than in the previous two years combined . However , a South African @-@ brokered ceasefire , which the security forces respected and the insurgents ignored , helped the nationalists to win back ground . By 1977 there were 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas operating in Rhodesia , with several times that number in training abroad .
The Rhodesian Army , though mostly made up of local men , also included some foreign volunteers , who were integrated into regular units under the same salary and conditions of service . Almost all of the foreigners served in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , a heliborne commando battalion with a glamorous international reputation . The RLI initiated a major overseas recruitment drive in 1974 , targeting potential volunteers from Europe , Oceania and the Americas , and requiring successful applicants to speak good English . This campaign was bearing considerable fruit by May 1976 , when the RLI 's largest ever intake included more foreign volunteers than any before , and the enlisting of men from overseas into the RLI would increase yet further . By 1977 – 78 there were around 1 @,@ 500 foreigners in the Rhodesian forces . However , the Rhodesian Army remained stretched and low on manpower .
= = Formation and training = =
The idea for a francophone unit came from a French national , François Cramer , who had business interests and connections in Rhodesia . He proposed it to Major @-@ General Sandy MacLean , then the Rhodesian Army 's second @-@ in @-@ command , while they were visiting France together . MacLean relayed the idea to the General Staff in Salisbury , which decided in late 1977 to form a " French battalion " to alleviate the strain on its regular units . A Rhodesian officer of French extraction , Cyril Bernard , warned his superiors strongly against the scheme , but was ultimately himself sent to France to start the project . On the way he stopped in Zurich , Switzerland , where MacLean gave him final approval for the operation and a budget of US $ 30 @,@ 000 . They resolved to recruit mainly in Paris and Lyon . Bernard then entered France and renewed old connections from the French military academy at Saint @-@ Cyr .
Recruitment was carried out by a former French paratrooper , Roger Bruni , operating from an apartment on Rue Bachaumont in central Paris . Advertisements , placed in newspapers such as France Soir , offered " a job with a future abroad ... minimum age 22 , former non @-@ commissioned officers preferred " . The body of men eventually assembled varied widely in terms of age , background and experience , but was based largely around ex @-@ paratroopers and former Foreign Legionnaires . The average age was about 25 . French @-@ speaking veterans of an assortment of African and Middle Eastern conflicts spanning the previous two decades successfully applied , but past service did not prove a necessity ; some of the men accepted had no military experience . Most of them spoke English only at a basic level if at all .
Once signed up , each man was instructed to travel to Switzerland , where appropriate visas were swiftly procured from the South African Embassy . In early November 1977 , the French recruits flew from Zurich to Johannesburg on a South African Airways liner , then to Salisbury by Air Rhodesia . Already in Rhodesia waiting for the men were their leaders : Major Roland de l 'Assomption , an ex @-@ officer of the French Army 's crack 11th Shock Parachute Regiment , and a former officer of the Gabonese President Omar Bongo 's guard ; and Major Mario La Viola , once a non @-@ commissioned officer in the Foreign Legion 's 2nd Parachute Regiment . Beneath them were the Antillean Captain Toumi , who became the first black officer in the regular Rhodesian Army as the unit 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and " Colonel " Bob Denard , an infamous French soldier of fortune nicknamed le chien de guerre — " the dog of war " .
According to an anonymous veteran of the unit , it mostly comprised recently discharged servicemen from the French forces who were having trouble adapting to civilian life . " They didn 't know how to do anything else , only how to jump with a parachute and obey orders , " he explained , " and they liked that kind of thing . " Others , he said , were members of the political far right who had joined up " to kill commies and blacks " , and some were criminals hoping to escape the attention of the French police . Each signed on for two years . The French @-@ speaking unit was placed in the Rhodesia Regiment ( RR ) as an " independent company " . The RR already had six of these ( made up of Rhodesians ) , so the Frenchmen became 7 Independent Company .
The Rhodesian Army sought to forge a strong esprit de corps among the new recruits , and to this end extended them several sentimental allowances : for example , morale amongst the Frenchmen rose when they were informed that the Rhodesian insignia on their berets would be backed with the French tricolour . In a similar vein , their request for permission to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia outside their headquarters each morning was approved . French @-@ speaking men already in the army were attached to the unit to act as interpreters and assist with coordination and tactical instruction . Some of these were Mauritians , who by virtue of their upbringing spoke both English and French at a native @-@ like level . The company itself , which numbered about 200 men , was assigned headquarters near Salisbury at Cranborne Barracks , the home of the Rhodesian Light Infantry . It was organised in the same manner as a standard Rhodesian independent company , the only exception being its exclusively francophone personnel .
Spirits were high during the unit 's brief training period as the men enjoyed playing sports , observing the country scenery and experiencing the night @-@ life of the nearby capital . They were not adequately trained , receiving only a basic medical examination , a few days ' fitness training and a cursory explanation of proper conduct in the bush . They expressed surprise when instructed to paint stripes of camouflage green on their weapons and combat boots in the Rhodesian fashion , having never before heard of such a practice .
The first dent to morale came after about a week when the volunteers were first issued ranks in the Rhodesian Army . In the eyes of some of the French @-@ speaking soldiers , the ranks assigned appeared to have been chosen almost at random by their superiors , and did not reflect their actual respective levels of training , ability and experience . Some men who considered themselves to have been overlooked began to have problems with discipline . The brazen attitude of most of the company 's soldiers jarred strongly with that of their Rhodesian commanders , who had high standards regarding presentation and dress which many of the Frenchmen had little inclination to meet .
= = Service = =
= = = First bush trip = = =
The francophone company was first deployed out of its barracks in late November 1977 , when it was sent to Bindura , about 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) north @-@ east from Salisbury , for a few days in the bush on Operation Hurricane , the Army 's operational area which covered Rhodesia 's north @-@ east against guerrilla activity . After this passed without major incident , the Frenchmen were despatched to Rusambo , a camp in the Chimanda Tribal Trust Lands , near Rushinga , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east from the capital and less than 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the border with Mozambique . Most insurgents in this area belonged to ZANLA .
A company of men from the Territorial Force was already stationed at Rusambo , advised by a team of intelligence officers . " Sticks " of four men ( three FN FAL riflemen and an MAG gunner ) would be sent out into the bush from Rusambo for periods of up to two weeks , equipped with a radio to communicate with the base . Their task while in action was to seek out guerrillas by means of patrolling , ambushing and operating observation and listening posts . Once a group of insurgents was spotted , the stick leader would report their positions ; Rusambo would then alert the Army and request a Fireforce . If Fireforce were available , it would arrive and engage the cadres ; if not , the stick in the field would have to handle the situation itself .
At first , men from 7 Independent Company were sent out in sticks mixed with the Territorials , but problems soon arose regarding proper regimen and the language barrier . When the Frenchmen were then sent out alone , their Land Rovers prominently flying the French flag , the issue of language was resolved , but that of indiscipline remained . Though discretion was paramount if they were to observe enemy movements covertly and effectively , the men of 7 Independent Company were found to have difficulty maintaining this and sometimes made careless mistakes which risked revealing their presence . Moreover , when investigations were made of local kraals , marked tension soon arose between the Frenchmen and the local black population ; the soldiers ' ignorance of English or Shona made it very difficult for discussions to take place and , according to other Rhodesian units who came into contact with them , the French soldiers took out their frustration on the villagers , often using excessive force in their attempted interrogations . Nyamahoboko Police Station received a report of a 7 Independent Company man raping a young tribeswoman in a dense thicket , but did not act on it . According to one history of the Rhodesia Regiment , " it was indicated that the Frenchmen had received instruction that all black people were to be regarded as terrorists " .
The Rhodesian Army quickly deemed the French experiment a failure . It reassigned 7 Independent Company in late November to Marymount Mission , a small settlement to the east of Rusambo where there was a minor police station . The number of patrols they would embark on was reduced . Two of the company 's vehicles were ambushed by cadres between Marymount and Rusambo on 6 January 1978 , resulting in two men being injured , one fatally so . A week later another truck was surprised on the same bush road , resulting in one death and three serious casualties . The company was brought back from the bush four days later for rest and recuperation ( R & R ) in Salisbury .
= = = Strike = = =
During their 15 @-@ day rest periods the company 's men congregated around the Belgian @-@ owned Elizabeth Hotel , in the centre of the city at the corner of Causeway and Manica Road . Many of them became seriously disaffected when they first received their salary from the Rhodesian Army . Having apparently been misled about wages of up to R $ 1 @,@ 000 per month ( ₣ 7 @,@ 000 ) by the French recruiters , they were surprised to find that their basic monthly pay was actually R $ 245 ( ₣ 1 @,@ 800 ) , the same as a regular Rhodesian soldier . Moreover , some were upset that they had been paid in Rhodesian dollars , which because of the country 's international isolation could not easily be exchanged for foreign currencies . Although it was not as much as they had been expecting , one disenchanted veteran of the unit afterwards admitted that the tax @-@ exempt R $ 245 wage , which came with a $ 10 special @-@ unit supplement , was still more than enough money for them to live comfortably in Salisbury during their time off .
The pay dispute split the unit . About two thirds went on strike , saying they would not return to action unless the Army upped their wages and paid them in foreign currency . Meanwhile , some of the more contented Frenchmen made steps to remain permanently , buying cars and having their wives join them in Salisbury . The Army detained the strike 's ringleaders for insubordination . With neither side willing to budge — the Army refused to give the strikers extra pay or special treatment , saying this would contravene Rhodesia 's policy not to engage mercenaries — the disaffected men were repatriated to France at their own request . The Rhodesian Army considered disbanding the unit altogether , but persevered when Major de l 'Assomption convinced his superiors that his remaining men were still loyal and eager to continue serving .
= = = Second bush trip ; dissolution = = =
Starting on 11 February 1978 , 7 Independent Company spent half a week at Mount Darwin , where there was a major Army base . The company acquitted themselves well during this time , but one of their number was badly injured in a motor accident . They returned to Rusambo , where the camp was now manned by the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , Criminal Investigation Department and Special Branch , guarded by a group of Coloured and Indian @-@ Rhodesian soldiers . On 26 February , the Frenchmen spotted a group of seven cadres indoctrinating tribespeople at a local kraal , and called up Fireforce . The RLI men who arrived killed four of the seven , including one carrying detailed documents . The next day 7 Independent Company observed 11 guerrillas entering another kraal , but this time the Fireforce took too long to arrive . The French company took part in a large contact on 1 March , fighting alongside an RLI Fireforce against 28 cadres ; 18 insurgents were killed in this contact without loss for the Rhodesian Army .
Soon after this , two sticks from 7 Independent Company were despatched to Marymount , led by a deputy intelligence officer who began sending them out on more regular night patrols . The following months were a disaster for the locally based Rhodesian forces ; first one stick fired on another , causing an injury , then a BSAP Land Rover hit a mine , killing two members of the French company . A further Frenchman died in an ambush by insurgents before another friendly fire incident on 19 April 1978 resulted in a fatality . On several occasions during this bush trip the area was " frozen " ; regular army units were confined to their camps while the Selous Scouts operated against the guerrillas . With morale amongst the Frenchmen plummeting , bringing their unit close to collapse , its officers at Rusambo frantically worked to keep it together . The company did not last much longer once back in Salisbury for R & R. Soon after three of its troopers were placed in detention at Llewellin Barracks , the unit was formally dissolved in May 1978 . The only personnel retained by the Army were the interpreters , who were returned to their former units .
= = Legacy = =
Supported by the French , Rhodesian and South African governments and with Rhodesian logistical assistance , forces led by Denard took part in a coup d 'état in the Comoros later in May , toppling Ali Soilih ( who Denard had himself put into power three years earlier ) . The Comoros subsequently became a key location for Rhodesian " sanction @-@ busting " operations , providing a convenient end @-@ user certificate for clandestine shipments of weapons and equipment bound for Rhodesia in spite of the UN embargo . South Africa , also under a UN arms boycott because of apartheid , received war materiel through the Comoros in a similar fashion .
Some 7 Independent Company men became civilians in Rhodesia , which was reconstituted as Zimbabwe in 1980 . Two of them , Gervais Henri Alfred Boutanquoi and Simon Marc Chemouil ( both former Foreign Legionnaires ) , were executed in April 1983 , despite a late plea from French authorities for clemency , having been found guilty of robbing and murdering Richard Kraft , a Karoi café owner . Witness Mangwende , the Zimbabwean Minister of Foreign Affairs , issued a statement clarifying that the execution was for the murder and unrelated to their earlier " service as mercenaries during the time of the Smith regime . "
= Jenova Chen =
Xinghan Chen ( simplified Chinese : 陈星汉 ; traditional Chinese : 陳星漢 ; pinyin : Chén Xīnghàn ; born October 8 , 1981 ) , known professionally as Jenova Chen , is a Chinese video game designer . He is the designer of the award @-@ winning games Cloud , Flow , Flower , and Journey , and is co @-@ founder of Thatgamecompany . Chen is from Shanghai , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in computer science with a minor in digital art and design . He then moved to the United States , where he earned a master 's degree from the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division . While there he created Cloud and Flow , and met fellow student Kellee Santiago . After a brief period at Maxis working on Spore , he founded Thatgamecompany with Santiago and became the company 's creative director . The company signed a three @-@ game deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , and has sold Flow , Flower , and Journey through the PlayStation Network .
As Chen was born in a culture other than the culture he now lives in , he tries to make games that appeal universally to all people . His goal with his games is to help video games mature as a medium by making games that inspire emotional responses in the player that other games are lacking . Although he and Thatgamecompany can and have made more traditional games , he does not plan on commercially developing any of them , as he does not think that it fits with their goals as an independent video game developer .
= = Biography = =
Chen was born in Shanghai on October 8 , 1981 , and lived there until 2003 . His parents were " a middle @-@ class family " , and his father worked in the software development industry , having previously worked on " one of the earliest giant computers in China " . Although Chen was interested in art and drawing as a young child , his father influenced him towards computers , entering him in programming contests from when he was 10 years old . He found himself interested in video games that he saw there , but was not as enthusiastic about programming . While a teenager , he had deep emotional experiences with games that he played , including The Legend of Sword and Fairy , which he ascribes to the fact that he was not as exposed to books , films , or life events that other people would have had those experiences with . These experiences drove him to try to create those types of feelings in games as an adult , when more emotional maturity had caused his " standards to rise " in what would move him in a game . It was during high school that he chose the English name Jenova after a character in Final Fantasy VII , wanting a name that would be unique anywhere he used it as there were " thousands of Jason Chens " .
He earned a degree in Computer Science & Engineering in Shanghai Jiao Tong University , which due to his background in computers he found " quite easy " , but describes himself as spending much of his time there teaching himself digital art and animation , and later did a minor in digital art and design at Donghua University . Still interested in video games , he was involved in making three video games as part of a student group while in school . Upon graduating , he had trouble finding a job in the Chinese video game industry that combined his interests of " engineering , art , and design " , and additionally felt that " very few games [ had ] actually achieved those qualities that would be interesting to an adult " . He also considered working in digital animation for films .
He then went to the United States to earn a master 's degree in the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . Chen studied in the Interactive Media Program , a new division of the School of Cinematic Arts . His intention at the time was to use the degree to get the kind of job he wanted back in China . At USC , he became inspired when he went to the Game Developers Conference , where he positively compared the games he had made in college with the student work present at the Independent Games Festival portion of the conference . While at USC he met Kellee Santiago , another student in the same program , and the two decided to work together on games that would be outside of the mainstream . Their first game , which won a grant of twenty thousand dollars from USC to produce , was Cloud , released in 2005 , which " focuses on a young hospital patient who soars in his mind despite being trapped indoors " . The idea was partially based on himself , as when he was a child he was often hospitalized for asthma . It was designed as an attempt to " expand the spectrum of emotions video games evoke " . At a student showcase at the Game Developers Conference , Chen and Santiago showed the game to a representative from Sony , John Hight , saying that it was the first game in the " Zen " genre . Hight was interested , though no deal was forthcoming . The game won the Best Student Philosophy award at the Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition and a Student Showcase award at the Independent Games Festival , and was showcased on Spike TV , G4TV , and CBS Sunday .
Chen felt that the reason that Cloud had been so warmly received was because the emotions it sparked in players were different than any other game available at the time , and believed that it was his " calling " to make more games that changed what people saw video games as . Chen went on to do his master 's thesis the following year in the concept of dynamic difficulty adjustment , where the game adjusts how it reacts to the player based on the past and present actions of that player . Chen illustrated his ideas with Flow , a Flash game made with Nicholas Clark . The game involves the player guiding an aquatic microorganism through various depths of the ocean , consuming other organisms and evolving in the process . It was released in March 2006 ; it received 100 @,@ 000 downloads in its first two weeks and by July had been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times . A PlayStation 3 version was announced in May 2006 as a downloadable game via the PlayStation Store , and was released in February 2007 . A version for the PlayStation Portable , developed by SuperVillain Studios , was released in March 2008 . Flow became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and won Best Downloadable Game at the Game Developers Choice Awards .
After graduating , Chen and Santiago formed their own game company , Thatgamecompany , in Los Angeles where he still lives and signed a deal with Sony for three PlayStation Store games . The PS3 version of Flow was the first , and while it was in development Chen worked for Maxis on the game Spore . Upon Flow 's release , Chen returned to Thatgamecompany and began working on their second game .
= = = Thatgamecompany = = =
The next game , Flower , was Chen and Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " . Chen was the creative director in charge of the game , while Santiago was the producer and Clark was the lead designer . The company ranged in size from six to nine people at varying stages of the game 's development . Flower was intended by Chen to primarily to provoke positive emotions in the player , and to act as " an emotional shelter " . Chen described the game as " an interactive poem exploring the tension between urban and nature " . He decided on a " nature " theme early in the development process , saying that he " had this concept that every PlayStation is like a portal in your living room , it leads you to somewhere else . I thought ; wouldn 't it be nice if it was a portal that would allow you to be embraced by nature . " Chen designed the game around the idea that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . To make Flower have the " emotional spectrum " that he wanted , Chen looked at the development process as creating a work of art , rather than a " fun " game , which would not provoke the desired emotions . In 2008 , during Flower 's development , Chen was named to the MIT Technology Review TR35 as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35 .
After Flower was released to critical praise and awards , Chen and Thatgamecompany moved on to their next game , Journey . Journey was intended by Chen to focus on the element of communication and social interaction in video games . Since in most games the communication between players is focused on specific goals , in Journey Chen intended for the player to be able to either play alone or to come across other players , but not be able to communicate with them directly . Instead , players have to build relationships with each other through their actions , helping each other or leaving as they choose . Journey was released on the PlayStation Network on March 13 , 2012 , and has received critical acclaim .
= = Influences and philosophy = =
Chen plays a wide variety of video games , but he names his greatest influences as Katamari Damacy , Ico and Shadow of the Colossus . He also names Final Fantasy VII as an influence , and the game that he took his adopted name from . He personally plays games " competitively " , including titles such as Street Fighter IV and StarCraft . He feels he has a competitive nature , which he has turned towards " winning " at being a game designer by creating games that are unlike what is in the market rather than towards creating competitive games . As he was raised in China and works in America , Chen feels that he cannot fully relate to either culture as a game designer . As such , instead of trying to make games that fit perfectly with one culture he tries to make games that tap into feelings that are universal and independent of culture .
When Chen quit Maxis to re @-@ join Thatgamecompany , he did so knowing that it would mean taking less pay and having a less stable career . He felt , though , that it was important to the industry and medium as a whole to create games that provoked different emotional responses in the player than just excitement or fear . While Chen is not opposed to making action games , and his company has made internal " exciting " games that were well received at Sony , he feels that there is no point to Thatgamecompany commercially producing games like that instead of working for existing game developers , as they would not be making anything new that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as the pressure on profits that that entails would stifle the innovation that he wants Thatgamecompany to focus on . Chen believes that for video games to become a mature medium like film , the industry as a whole needs to create a wide range of emotional responses to their games , similar to how film has thriller , romance , and comedy genres based on the emotions they provoke . He feels that there are only three ways for video games to impact adults in the same way they do children : " intellectually , whereby the work reveals a new perspective about the world that you have not seen before , " by " emotionally touching someone , " and " by creating a social environment where the intellectual or emotional stimulation could happen from other people . "
= E. W. Hornung =
Ernest William Hornung ( 7 June 1866 – 22 March 1921 ) was an English author and poet known for writing the A. J. Raffles series of stories about a gentleman thief in late 19th @-@ century London . Hornung was educated at Uppingham School ; as a result of poor health he left the school in December 1883 to travel to Sydney , where he stayed for two years . He drew on his Australian experiences as a background when he began writing , initially short stories and later novels .
In 1898 he wrote " In the Chains of Crime " , which introduced Raffles and his sidekick , Bunny Manders ; the characters were based partly on his friends Oscar Wilde and his lover , Lord Alfred Douglas , and also on Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson . The series of Raffles short stories were collected for sale in book form in 1899 , and two further books of Raffles short stories followed , as well as a poorly received novel . Aside from his Raffles stories , Hornung was a prodigious writer of fiction , publishing numerous books from 1890 , with A Bride from the Bush to his 1914 novel The Crime Doctor .
The First World War brought an end to Hornung 's fictional output . His son , Oscar , was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres in July 1915 . Hornung joined the YMCA , initially in England , then in France , where he helped run a canteen and library . He published two collections of poetry during the war , and then , afterwards , one further volume of verse and an account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front . Hornung 's fragile constitution was further weakened by the stress of his war work . To aid his recuperation , he and his wife visited the south of France in 1921 . He fell ill from influenza on the journey , and died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 .
Although much of Hornung 's work has fallen into obscurity , his Raffles stories continued to be popular , and have formed numerous film and television adaptations . Hornung 's stories dealt with a wider range of themes than crime : he examined scientific and medical developments , guilt , class and the unequal role played by women in society . Two threads that run through a sizeable proportion of his books are Australia and cricket ; the latter was also a lifelong passion .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1866 – 86 = = =
Hornung was born Ernest William Hornung on 7 June 1866 at Cleveland Villas , Marton , Middlesbrough ; he was nicknamed Willie from an early age . He was the third son , and youngest of eight children , of John Peter Hornung ( 1821 – 86 ) and his wife Harriet née Armstrong ( 1824 – 96 ) . John was christened Johan Petrus Hornung in the Transylvania region of Hungary and , after working in Hamburg for a shipping firm , had moved to Britain in the 1840s as a coal and iron merchant . John married Harriet in March 1848 , by which time he had anglicised his name . At the age of 13 Hornung joined St Ninian 's Preparatory School in Moffat , Dumfriesshire before enrolling at Uppingham School in 1880 . Hornung was well liked at school , and developed a lifelong love of cricket despite limited skills at the game , which were further worsened by bad eyesight , asthma and , according to his biographer Peter Rowland , a permanent state of generally poor health .
When Hornung was 17 his health worsened ; he left Uppingham and travelled to Australia , where it was hoped by his family that the climate would be beneficial . On his arrival he was employed as a tutor to the Parsons family in Mossgiel in the Riverina , south @-@ western New South Wales . In addition to teaching , he spent time working in remote sheep stations in the outback and contributing material to the weekly magazine The Bulletin ; he also began writing what was to become his first novel . Although he spent only two years in Australia , the experience was " the making of him and ... the making of his career as a writer " , according to Rowland . Another biographer , Mark Valentine , wrote that Hornung " seems to have regarded this period as one of the most satisfying of his life " .
= = = Return to England : 1886 – 98 = = =
Hornung returned to England in February 1886 , before the death of his father in November . From a position of relative prosperity , John 's coal and iron business had encountered difficulties and he was in financially straitened circumstances by the time of his death . Hornung found work in London as a journalist and story writer , often publishing his work under a pseudonym , although in 1887 he published his first story under his own name , " Stroke of Five " , which appeared in Belgravia magazine . His work as a journalist was during the period of Jack the Ripper and the series of five murders , which were undertaken against a background of rising urban crime in London ; it was around this time that Hornung developed an interest in criminal behaviour .
Hornung had worked on the novel manuscript he brought back from Australia and , between July and November 1890 , the story , " A Bride from the Bush " , was published in five parts in the Cornhill Magazine . It was also released that year as a book — his first . The story — described by Rowland as an " assured , graceful comedy of manners " — used Hornung 's knowledge of Australia as a backdrop , and the device of an Australian bride to examine British social behaviour ; the novel was well received by critics . In 1891 Hornung became a member of two cricket clubs : the Idlers , whose members included Arthur Conan Doyle , Robert Barr and Jerome K. Jerome , and the Strand club .
Hornung knew Doyle 's sister , Constance ( " Connie " ) Aimée Monica Doyle ( 1868 – 1924 ) , whom he had met when he visited Portugal . Connie was described by Doyle 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , as being attractive , " with pre @-@ Raphaelite looks ... the most sought @-@ after of the Doyle daughters " . By December 1892 , when Hornung , Doyle and Jerome visited the Black Museum at Scotland Yard , Hornung and Connie were engaged , and in 1893 Hornung dedicated his second novel , Tiny Luttrell , " to C.A.M.D. " They were married on 27 September 1893 , although Doyle was not at the wedding and relations between the two writers were sometimes strained . The Hornungs had a son , Arthur Oscar , in 1895 ; while his first name was from Doyle , who was also Arthur 's godfather , the boy 's middle name was probably after Doyle and Hornung 's mutual friend Oscar Wilde and it was by his second name that he was known . In 1894 Doyle and Hornung began work on a play for Henry Irving , on the subject of boxing during the Regency ; Doyle was initially eager and paid Hornung £ 50 as a down payment before he withdrew after the first act had been written : the work was never completed .
Like Hornung 's first novel , Tiny Luttrell had Australia as a backdrop and also used the plot device of an Australian woman in a culturally alien environment . The Australian theme was present in his next four novels : The Boss of Taroomba ( 1894 ) , The Unbidden Guest ( 1894 ) , Irralie 's Bushranger ( 1896 ) and The Rogue 's March ( 1896 ) . In the last of these Hornung wrote of the Australian convict transport system , and showed evidence of a " growing fascination with the motivation behind criminal behaviour and a deliberate sympathy for the criminal hero as a victim of events " , while Irralie 's Bushranger introduced the character Stingaree , an Oxford @-@ educated , Australian gentleman thief , in a novel that " casts doubt on conventional responses " to a positive criminal character , according to Hornung 's biographer , Stephen Knight .
= = = Introducing Raffles : 1898 – 1914 = = =
In 1898 Hornung 's mother died , aged 72 and he dedicated his next book , a series of short stories titled Some Persons Unknown , to her memory . Later that year Hornung and his wife visited Italy for six months , staying in Posillipo ; his account of the location appeared in an article of the May 1899 edition of Cornhill Magazine . The Hornungs returned to London in early 1899 , to a house in Pitt Street , West Kensington , where they lived for the next six years .
The fictional character Stingaree proved to be a prototype of a character Hornung used in a series of six short stories published in 1898 in Cassell 's Magazine , A. J. Raffles . The character was modelled on George Cecil Ives , a Cambridge @-@ educated criminologist and talented cricketer who , like Raffles , was a resident of the Albany , a gentlemen 's only residence in Mayfair . The first tale of the series " In the Chains of Crime " was published in June that year , titled " The Ides of March " . The stories were collected into one volume — with two additional tales — under the name The Amateur Cracksman , which was published the following year . Hornung used a narrative form similar to Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories , with Raffles and his partner @-@ in @-@ crime ( and former school fag ) Bunny Manders being the criminal counterparts to Holmes and Dr. Watson — although Rowland writes that Raffles and Manders " were also fictionalized versions of Wilde and Bosie " ( Wilde 's lover , Lord Alfred Douglas ) . — and he dedicated the stories to his brother @-@ in @-@ law : " To A.C.D. This form of flattery " . Doyle had warned against writing the stories , and reflected in his memoirs that " there are few finer examples of short @-@ story writing in our language than these , though I confess I think they are rather dangerous in their suggestion . I told him so before he put pen to paper , and the result has , I fear , borne me out . You must not make the criminal the hero " . The book was a popular and financial success , although some critics also echoed Doyle 's fears . The reviewer in The Spectator wrote that " stern moralists " would consider the book 's premise " as a new , ingenious , artistic , but most reprehensible application of the crude principles involved in the old @-@ fashioned hero @-@ worship of Jack Sheppard and Dick Turpin " . The book ends with Manders imprisoned and Raffles apparently dead , something that left The Spectator reviewer " expressing [ their ] satisfaction that this audaciously entertaining volume is not issued in a cheap form . It is emphatically a feat of virtuosity rather than a tribute to virtue . "
After publishing two novels , Dead Men Don 't Tell Tales in 1899 and Peccavi in 1900 , Hornung published a second collection of Raffles stories , The Black Mask , in 1901 . The nearly broke Manders is told to apply for the post of a nurse to an elderly invalid , who then reveals himself to be Raffles , who , as Manders describes , had " aged twenty years ; he looked fifty at the very least . His hair was white ; there was no trick about that ; and his face was another white . The lines about the corners of the eyes and mouth were both many and deep " . In the final story of the collection , " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles and Manders enlist in the army to fight in the Second Boer War ; the story closes with Manders wounded and Raffles killed . The critics again complained about the criminal aspect ; The Spectator declared " this sort of book presents crime in a form too entertaining and attractive to be moral " , while the reviewer for The Illustrated London News thought that Hornung 's " invention has obviously flagged ... It is laughable , in a sense which the author never intended , to hear these burglars rant about the honour of Old England . It is a pity that the man who wrote Peccavi should stoop to this " .
In 1903 Hornung collaborated with Eugène Presbrey to write a four @-@ act play , Raffles , The Amateur Cracksman , which was based on two previously published short stories , " Gentlemen and Players " and " The Return Match " . The play was first performed at the Princess Theatre , New York , on 27 October 1903 with Kyrle Bellew as Raffles , and ran for 168 performances .
In 1905 , after publishing four other books in the interim , Hornung brought back the character Stingaree , previously seen in Irralie 's Bushranger . Later that year he responded to public demand and produced a third series of short Raffles stories in A Thief in the Night , in which Manders relates some of his and Raffles 's earlier adventures . The reviewer for the Boston Herald thought that " the sentimental side of the story has never before been shown so dramatically and romantically " , and described the book as " thrilling and exciting " . Hornung 's next book was published in 1909 and was the final Raffles story , the full @-@ length novel Mr. Justice Raffles ; the book was poorly received , with the reviewer for The Observer asking if " Hornung is perhaps a little tired of Raffles " , and stating that " it has not the magic or the ' go ' of the first Raffles , and there is no good in pretending that it has " . During the course of the year he collaborated with Charles Sansom to write a play A Visit From Raffles , which was performed in November that year at the Brixton Empress Theatre , London .
Hornung turned away from Raffles thereafter , and in February 1911 published The Camera Fiend , a thriller whose narrator is an asthmatic cricket enthusiast with an ironmaster father , much as Hornung was himself . The story concerned the attempts of a scientist to photograph the soul as it left the body . Hornung followed this up with Fathers of Men ( 1912 ) and The Thousandth Woman ( 1913 ) before Witching Hill ( 1913 ) , a collection of eight short stories in which he introduced the characters Uvo Delavoye and the narrator Gillon , whom Rowland considers to be " reincarnations of Raffles and Bunny " . Hornung 's next work , The Crime Doctor ( 1914 ) marked the end of his fictional output .
= = = First World War and aftermath = = =
Oscar Hornung left Eton College in 1914 , intending to enter King 's College , Cambridge later that year . When Britain entered the war against Germany , he volunteered , and was commissioned into the Essex Regiment . He was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres on 6 July 1915 , aged 20 . Although heartbroken by the loss , Hornung was adamant that some good would come of it and he edited a privately issued collection of Oscar 's letters home under the title Trusty and Well Beloved , released in 1916 . Around this time he joined an anti @-@ aircraft unit . In either 1916 or 1917 he joined the YMCA and did volunteer work in England for soldiers on leave ; in March 1917 he visited France , writing a poem about his experience afterwards — something he had been doing more frequently since Oscar 's death — and a collection of his war poetry , Ballad of Ensign Joy , was published later that year .
In July 1917 Hornung 's poem , " Wooden Crosses " , was published in The Times , and in September , " Bond and Free " appeared . Towards the end of the year , he was accepted as a volunteer in a YMCA canteen and library " a short distance behind the Front Line " . During his service in Arras , in February 1918 he borrowed a staff car from a friend and visited his son 's grave near Ypres , before returning to the library in Arras . Hornung was concerned about support for pacifism among troops , and wrote to his wife about it . When she spoke to Doyle about the matter , rather than discussing it with Hornung he informed the military authorities . Hornung was angered by Doyle 's action , and " told him there was no need for him to ' butt in ' except for his own ' satisfaction ' . " Relations between the two men were strained as a result . Hornung continued to work at the library until the German Spring Offensive in March overran the British positions and he was forced to retreat , firstly to Amiens and then , in April , back to England . He stayed in England until November 1918 , when he again took up his YMCA duties , establishing a rest hut and library in Cologne . In 1919 Hornung 's account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front , was published . Doyle later wrote of the book that " there are parts of it which are brilliant in their vivid portrayal " , while Hornung 's biographer , Alison Cox , described the book as " one of the best records of the war as experienced on the front lines " . That year Hornung also published his third and final volume of poetry , The Young Guard .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Hornung finished his work with the YMCA and returned to England probably in early 1919 , according to Rowland . He worked on a new novel but was hampered by poor health . His wife 's health was of even greater concern , so in February 1921 they took a holiday in the south of France to recuperate . He fell ill on the train with a chill that turned into influenza and pneumonia from which he died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 . He was buried in Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz , in the south of France , in a grave adjacent to that of Gissing . Doyle , returning from a spiritualist lecture tour of Australia , received the news in Paris and travelled south in time for the funeral .
When Hornung had still been courting Doyle 's sister , Doyle wrote that " I like young Willie Hornung very much ... he is one of the sweetest @-@ natured and most delicate @-@ minded men I ever knew " . Honouring him after his death , Doyle wrote that he " was a Dr. [ Samuel ] Johnson without the learning but with a finer wit . No one could say a neater thing , and his writings , good as they are , never adequately represented the powers of the man , nor the quickness of his brain " . His obituarist in The Times described him as " a man of large and generous nature , a delightful companion and conversationalist " .
Much of Hornung 's work fell out of favour as time passed ; Rowland observed that " all of Hornung 's other works have been forgotten , with the possible exception of Stingaree , but the cricketing Cracksman continues to enthral " . The idea of a criminal as a positive character was one of Hornung 's legacies , and Twentieth @-@ Century Literary Criticism states that " critics have also interpreted Raffles as a prototype of the antihero in modern crime fiction " . The academic Frank Wadleigh Chandler , describing Raffles 's death , writes that " all his creator 's attempts to portray him as a hero , rather than an anti @-@ hero , deservedly fail . " Valentine highlights one aspect of the stories was the mix of " devilry and daring " demonstrated by Raffles ; in this respect he was a literary " forerunner of The Saint , James Bond and other insouciant types " . The writer Colin Watson agrees , and called Hornung " a precursor of [ Ian ] Fleming " .
The character continued in book form : the writer Philip Atkey , under the pseudonym Barry Perowne , obtained permission from the Hornung estate to continue the Raffles stories , and seven more novels followed between 1933 and 1940 , with Raffles transformed from a gentleman thief to a tough adventurer . Perowne continued the series in 1950 , and 14 of his stories were published in the 1974 volume Raffles Revisited . Hornung 's original stories have undergone a number of reprints , and when all the short stories were published in a single volume , Graham Greene considered it " a splendid idea " . In 1975 Greene had written a play based on the Raffles stories , The Return of A.J. Raffles , which premiered at the Royal Shakespeare Company , with Denholm Elliott as Raffles .
There were several Raffles films made during Hornung 's lifetime , Further films followed in the years after his death , including Raffles , the Amateur Cracksman ( 1925 ) , with House Peters , Sr. ; Raffles ( 1930 ) , featuring Ronald Colman ; The Return of Raffles ( 1933 ) , with George Barraud ; and Raffles ( 1939 ) , starring David Niven ; the last of these was a Samuel Goldwyn Productions remake of their own 1930 film , which the academic Victor E. Neuburg called the " most memorable portrayal " of the character .
The BBC has dramatised some of Hornung 's Raffles stories for radio , first in the 1940s and again in the 1990s , when Nigel Havers played Raffles . In 1977 Anthony Valentine played the thief , and Christopher Strauli his partner , in a Yorkshire Television series . A 2001 TV version , The Gentleman Thief , adapted the stories for a contemporary audience , with Havers playing the lead .
= = Writing = =
= = = Style and technique = = =
Hornung 's prose is widely admired for its lucid @-@ yet @-@ simple style . Oliver Edwards , writing in The Times , considered that " not the least attractive part of the Raffles books is the simple , plain , unaffected language in which each one of them is written " . The obituarist in the same newspaper agrees , and thinks Hornung had " a power of good and clear description and a talent for mystery and surprise " . Colin Watson also considers the point , and observes that in Hornung 's writing , " superfluous description has been avoided and account of action is to the point " , while Doyle admired his " sudden use of the right adjective and the right phrase " , something the writer and journalist Jeremy Lewis sees as a " flamboyant , Kiplingesque taste for the vivid " .
Critics have observed that Hornung 's stories and novels are well @-@ structured . George Orwell wrote that Hornung was " a very conscientious and on his level a very able writer . Anyone who cares for sheer efficiency must admire his work " . Watson states that Hornung 's " writing has pace . The stories , however ridiculous , carry the readers along briskly " . According to Cox , " Hornung 's work showed steady maturation " during his career , a point that Doyle also agreed with , although Edwards disagrees , and thinks The Crime Doctor to be one of Hornung 's weaker books .
Hornung 's approach to characters differed from other contemporary authors . Cox notes that Hornung " frequently chose to write from the perspective of the criminal " , and while many of Hornung 's novels contained criminal activity as a major element of the plot , the critic for Contemporary Authors states that the works do not " belong to the crime @-@ fiction genre " . Hornung 's works included elements from more general fiction , " such as false identities , disguises , and disowned heiresses " .
= = = Major themes = = =
The academic Nick Rance identifies three categories of Raffles stories : " the rise of the New Woman " , in which Raffles either escapes from romantic entanglements , or uses the infatuations of a woman in order to achieve his aims ; " the rise of the plutocracy " , in which Raffles steals from the nouveau riche as much as the upper classes ; and those stories that seek " to reaffirm or re @-@ establish a sense of middle @-@ class identity " . The last category is based on Raffles not being a member of " Society " , only being accepted because of his cricketing ability and associated fame . From this point , Raffles 's stealing from the rich is a " rearguard action on behalf of the puritan values " which was perceived as making up middle @-@ class values , although Rance also states that those values are obscured because of the changing boundaries between the classes . Gariepy makes the same point , and considers that " Raffles 's daring exploits and fantastic adventures symbolized the growing rebellion against Victorian sensibility at the turn of the century " .
Hornung kept abreast of scientific and medical developments , and was keen to incorporate them into his stories which , the critic for Contemporary Authors states , shows Hornung had " a streak of modernity and decided interest in new ideas " . The Camera Fiend uses the modern technology of the camera as an instrument central to the plot , while the protagonist of The Crime Doctor uses psychology to identify criminals .
Throughout the Raffles stories patriotism runs as an intermittent theme — to such an extent that the writer William Vivian Butler describes him as a " super @-@ patriot " . In the course of the short story " A Jubilee Present " Raffles , celebrating Queen Victoria 's diamond jubilee , steals a gold cup from the British Museum and sends it to the queen , telling Manders that " we have been ruled over for sixty years by infinitely the finest monarch in the world " . In " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles volunteers for service in the Second Boer War , changing his name and hair colour — he jokes to Manders that he is prepared to " dye for his country " — and he later confesses his true identity to his superiors in order to unmask a spy .
Some of Hornung 's novels , including The Shadow of the Rope , No Hero and The Thousandth Woman , are notable for " portraying women in a rather modern , favorable light " , according to the critic for Contemporary Authors , showing concern for their unequal position in society . Cox identifies a theme of guilt running through a number of works . Among these is Peccavi , in which a clergyman lives his life trying to atone for an earlier crime ; Shadow of the Rope , in which a woman is accused of her husband 's murder ; and The Thousandth Woman , in which a woman stands by her lover after he is accused of murder .
Although Hornung 's Australian experience was brief , it influenced most of his literary work from A Bride from the Bush published in 1899 , to Old Offenders and a Few Old Scores , which was published after his death . According to Chandler , " nearly two @-@ thirds of [ Hornung 's ] books refer in varying degrees to Australian incidents and experiences " , with " even Raffles " starting his criminal career in Australia . Some of Horning 's works — such as A Bride from the Bush — were praised for their accuracy of detail in depicting the Australian environment , although the detail could overwhelm the storyline , as in The Rogue 's March .
Cricket was one of Hornung 's lifelong passions , and he was delighted to become a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1907 . The sport also permeated his stories , with Raffles playing for the Gentlemen of England . Rance observes that Raffles compares law @-@ breaking and cricket : " crime is reckoned as another and better sport " .
Raffles does on occasion disparage his game , commenting to Manders in " Gentlemen and Players " , " where 's the satisfaction of taking a man 's wicket when you want his spoons ? " Valentine also considers the point , and sees Raffles 's cricket as a front for his criminal activities , citing Raffles 's praise for cricket for " the glorious protection it affords a person of my proclivities " .
Watson examines Raffles 's actions within the broader context of sportsmanship , with Raffles acting within his own moral code " of what is ' done ' and ' not done ' . " Orwell , in his essay " Raffles and Miss Blandish " , observes that when Raffles feels remorse , it " is almost purely social ; he has disgraced ' the old school ' , he has lost his right to enter ' decent society ' , he has forfeited his amateur status and become a cad " .
= Nina Simone =
Nina Simone ( / ˈniːnə sᵻˈmoʊn / ; born Eunice Kathleen Waymon ; February 21 , 1933 – April 21 , 2003 ) was an American singer , songwriter , pianist , arranger , and civil rights activist who worked in a broad range of musical styles including classical , jazz , blues , folk , R & B , gospel , and pop .
Born in North Carolina , the sixth child of a preacher , Simone aspired to be a concert pianist . With the help of the few supporters in her hometown of Tryon , North Carolina , she enrolled in the Juilliard School of Music in New York .
Waymon then applied for a scholarship to study at the prestigious Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia , where she was denied despite a well @-@ received audition . Simone became fully convinced this rejection had been entirely due to her race , a statement that has been a matter of controversy . Years later , two days before her death , the Curtis Institute of Music bestowed an honorary degree on Simone .
To make a living , Eunice Waymon changed her name to " Nina Simone " . The change related to her need to disguise herself from family members , having chosen to play " the devil 's music " or " cocktail piano " at a nightclub in Atlantic City . She was told in the nightclub that she would have to sing to her own accompaniment , and this effectively launched her career as a jazz vocalist .
Simone recorded more than forty albums , mostly between 1958 , when she made her debut with Little Girl Blue , and 1974 , and had a hit in the United States in 1958 with " I Loves You , Porgy " .
Simone 's musical style fused gospel and pop with classical music , in particular Johann Sebastian Bach , and accompanied expressive , jazz @-@ like singing in her contralto voice .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth ( 1933 – 54 ) = = =
Simone was born Eunice Kathleen Waymon in South Carolina but raised in Tryon , North Carolina . The sixth of eight children in a poor family , she began playing piano at age three ; the first song she learned was " God Be With You , Till We Meet Again " . Demonstrating a talent with the instrument , she performed at her local church . But her concert debut , a classical recital , was given when she was 12 . Simone later said that during this performance , her parents , who had taken seats in the front row , were forced to move to the back of the hall to make way for white people . She said that she refused to play until her parents were moved back to the front , and that the incident contributed to her later involvement in the civil rights movement .
Simone 's mother , Mary Kate Waymon ( 1902 - April 30 , 2001 ) , was a Methodist minister and a housemaid . Simone 's father , John Divine Waymon ( 1898 - October 24 , 1972 ) , was a handyman who at one time owned a dry cleaning business , but also suffered bouts of ill health . Simone 's music teacher helped establish a special fund to pay for her education . Subsequently , a local fund was set up to assist her continued education . With the help of this scholarship money she was able to attend Allen High School for Girls in Asheville , North Carolina .
After her graduation , Simone spent the summer of 1950 at the Juilliard School , preparing for an audition at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia . Her application , however , was denied . As her family had relocated to Philadelphia in the expectation of her entry to Curtis , the blow to her aspirations was particularly heavy , and she suspected that her application had been denied because of racial prejudice . Discouraged , she took private piano lessons with Vladimir Sokoloff , a professor at Curtis , but never re @-@ applied to the institution . For several years , she worked a number of menial jobs and taught piano in Philadelphia .
= = = Early success ( 1954 – 59 ) = = =
To fund her private lessons , Simone performed at the Midtown Bar & Grill on Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City , whose owner insisted that she sing as well as play the piano , which increased her weekly income to $ 90 a week . In 1954 , she adopted the stage name " Nina Simone " . " Nina " ( from niña , meaning " little girl " in Spanish ) , and " Simone " was taken from the French actress Simone Signoret , whom she had seen in the movie Casque d 'Or . Knowing her mother would not approve of playing the " Devil 's Music " , she used her new stage name to remain undetected . Simone 's mixture of jazz , blues , and classical music in her performances at the bar earned her a small but loyal fan base .
In 1958 , she befriended and married Don Ross , a beatnik who worked as a fairground barker , but quickly regretted their marriage . Playing in small clubs in the same year , she recorded George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( from Porgy and Bess ) , which she learned from a Billie Holiday album and performed as a favor to a friend . It became her only Billboard top 20 success in the United States , and her debut album Little Girl Blue soon followed on Bethlehem Records . Simone lost more than $ 1 million in royalties ( notably for the 1980s re @-@ release of My Baby Just Cares for Me ) and never benefited financially from the album 's sales because she had sold her rights outright for $ 3 @,@ 000 .
= = = Becoming popular ( 1959 – 64 ) = = =
After the success of Little Girl Blue , Simone signed a contract with Colpix Records and recorded a multitude of studio and live albums . Colpix relinquished all creative control to her , including the choice of material that would be recorded , in exchange for her signing the contract with them . After the release of her live album Nina Simone at Town Hall , Simone became a favorite performer in Greenwich Village . By this time , Simone performed pop music only to make money to continue her classical music studies and was indifferent about having a recording contract . She kept this attitude toward the record industry for most of her career .
Simone married a New York police detective , Andrew Stroud , in 1961 . He later became her manager and the father of her daughter Lisa , but he abused Simone psychologically and physically .
= = = Civil rights era ( 1964 – 74 ) = = =
In 1964 , Simone changed record distributors from the American Colpix to the Dutch Philips , which also meant a change in the contents of her recordings . She had always included songs in her repertoire that drew upon her African @-@ American origins ( such as " Brown Baby " by Oscar Brown and " Zungo " by Michael Olatunji in her album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962 ) . On her debut album for Philips , Nina Simone in Concert ( live recording , 1964 ) , for the first time she openly addressed the racial inequality that was prevalent in the United States with the song " Mississippi Goddam " , her response to the June 12 , 1963 , murder of Medgar Evers and the September 15 , 1963 , bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham , Alabama , that killed four young black girls and partially blinded a fifth girl who survived . She remarked that the title and the song itself was , " like throwing 10 bullets back at them " , becoming one of many other protest songs written by Simone . The song was released as a single , and it was boycotted in certain southern states . Specifically , promotional copies were smashed by a Carolina radio station and returned to Simone 's record label . " Old Jim Crow " , on the same album , addressed the Jim Crow laws .
From then on , a civil rights message was standard in Simone 's recording repertoire , becoming a part of her live performances . During the rise of her political activism , the release of her musical work grew more infrequent . Simone performed and spoke at many civil rights meetings , such as at the Selma to Montgomery marches . Simone advocated violent revolution during the civil rights period , rather than Martin Luther King 's non @-@ violent approach , and she hoped that African Americans could , by armed combat , form a separate state . Her message to the public signified the transition from the non @-@ violent approach to social change that was advocated by Martin Luther King into the more militant state that was implemented by Malcolm X and the associates of the Black Nationalist Movement . Nevertheless , she wrote in her autobiography that she and her family regarded all races as equal .
Simone moved from Philips to RCA Victor during 1967 . She sang " Backlash Blues " , written by her friend Langston Hughes on her first RCA album , Nina Simone Sings the Blues ( 1967 ) . On Silk & Soul ( 1967 ) , she recorded Billy Taylor 's " I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free " and " Turning Point " . The album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) contains live recordings from the Westbury Music Fair , April 7 , 1968 , three days after the murder of Martin Luther King , Jr . She dedicated the whole performance to him and sang " Why ? ( The King Of Love Is Dead ) " , a song written by her bass player , Gene Taylor , directly after the news of King 's death had reached them . In the summer of 1969 , she performed at the Harlem Cultural Festival in Harlem 's Mount Morris Park .
Together with Weldon Irvine , Simone turned the late Lorraine Hansberry 's unfinished play To Be Young , Gifted and Black into a civil rights song . Hansberry had been a personal friend whom Simone credited with cultivating her social and political consciousness . She performed the song live on the album Black Gold ( 197gdjfhfhx0 ) . A studio recording was released as a single , and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin ( on her 1972 album Young , Gifted and Black ) and by Donny Hathaway .
= = = Later life ( 1974 – 1993 ) = = =
Disappointed that she was not producing the mega @-@ hits that she had hoped for , Simone left the US in September 1970 , flying to Barbados and expecting Stroud to communicate with her when she had to perform again . However , Stroud interpreted Simone 's sudden disappearance , and the fact that she had left behind her wedding ring , as an indication of a desire for a divorce . As her manager , Stroud was in charge of Simone 's income .
Simone recorded her last album for RCA , It Is Finished , in 1974 , and did not make another record until 1978 , when she was persuaded to go into the recording studio by CTI Records owner Creed Taylor . The result was the album Baltimore , which , while not a commercial success , was fairly well received critically and marked a quiet artistic renaissance in Simone 's recording output . Her choice of material retained its eclecticism , ranging from spiritual songs to Hall & Oates ' " Rich Girl . " Four years later Simone recorded Fodder on My Wings on a French label .
During the 1980s , Simone performed regularly at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in London , where she recorded the album Live at Ronnie Scott 's in 1984 . Although her early on @-@ stage style could be somewhat haughty and aloof , in later years , Simone particularly seemed to enjoy engaging her audiences sometimes by recounting humorous anecdotes related to her career and music and by soliciting requests . In 1987 , the original 1958 recording of " My Baby Just Cares for Me " was used in a commercial for Chanel No. 5 perfume in Britain . This led to a re @-@ release of the recording , which stormed to number 4 on the UK 's NME singles chart , giving her a brief surge in popularity in the UK .
When Simone returned to the United States , she learned that a warrant had been issued for her arrest for unpaid taxes ( as a protest against her country 's involvement with the Vietnam War ) , and returned to Barbados to evade the authorities and prosecution . Simone stayed in Barbados for quite some time and she had a lengthy affair with the Prime Minister , Errol Barrow . A close friend , singer Miriam Makeba , then persuaded her to go to Liberia . Later , she lived in Switzerland and the Netherlands , before settling in France in 1993 . During a 1998 performance in Newark , she announced , " If you 're going to come see me again , you 've got to come to France , because I ain 't coming back . "
Simone published her autobiography , I Put a Spell on You , in 1992 . She recorded her last album , A Single Woman in 1993 , where she depicted herself as such " single woman . " This album reflected her solitude and pain . She continued to tour through the 1990s but rarely traveled without an entourage . During the last decade of her life , Simone had sold more than one million records making her a global catalog best @-@ seller . This was accompanied by the CD revolution , global exposure through media television and the novelty of the Internet .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Simone had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder in the late 1980s . In 1993 , Simone settled near Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence in Southern France . She had suffered from breast cancer for several years before she died in her sleep at her home in Carry @-@ le @-@ Rouet , Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône on April 21 , 2003 . Her funeral service was attended by singers Miriam Makeba and Patti LaBelle , poet Sonia Sanchez , actor Ossie Davis , actress Ruby Dee , and hundreds of others . Simone 's ashes were scattered in several African countries . She is survived by her daughter , Lisa Celeste Stroud , an actress and singer , who took the stage name Simone , and has appeared on Broadway in Aida .
= = = Reputation = = =
Simone was known for her temper and frequent outbursts . In 1985 , she fired a gun at a record company executive , whom she accused of stealing royalties . Simone said she " tried to kill him " but " missed " . In 1995 , she shot and wounded her neighbor 's son with an air gun after the boy 's laughter disturbed her concentration . According to a biographer , Simone took medication for a condition from the mid @-@ 1960s on . All this was only known to a small group of intimates , and kept out of public view for many years , until the biography Break Down and Let It All Out written by Sylvia Hampton and David Nathan revealed this in 2004 , after her death . Singer @-@ songwriter Janis Ian , a one @-@ time friend of Simone 's , related in her own autobiography , Society 's Child : My Autobiography , two incidents to illustrate Simone 's volatility : One incident in which she forced a shoe store cashier , at gunpoint , to take back a pair of sandals she 'd already worn ; and another in which Simone demanded a royalty payment from Ian herself as an exchange for having recorded one of Ian 's songs , and then ripped a pay telephone out of its wall when she was refused .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Simone standards = = =
Throughout her career , Simone assembled a collection of songs that would later become standards in her repertoire . Some were songs that she wrote herself , while others were new arrangements of other standards , and others had been written especially for the singer . Her first hit song in America was her rendition of George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( 1958 ) . It peaked at number 18 in the pop singles chart and number 2 on the black singles chart . During that same period Simone recorded " My Baby Just Cares for Me " , which would become her biggest success years later , in 1987 , after it was featured in a 1986 Chanel No. 5 perfume commercial . A music video was also created by Aardman Studios . Well known songs from her Philips albums include " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " on Broadway @-@ Blues @-@ Ballads ( 1964 ) , " I Put a Spell on You " , " Ne me quitte pas " ( a rendition of a Jacques Brel song ) and " Feeling Good " on I Put a Spell On You ( 1965 ) , " Lilac Wine " and " Wild Is the Wind " on Wild is the Wind ( 1966 ) .
" Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " , " Feeling Good " , and " Sinner Man " ( Pastel Blues , 1965 ) have remained popular in terms of cover versions ( most notably a version of the former song by The Animals ) , sample usage , and its use on soundtracks for various movies , TV @-@ series , and video games . " Sinner Man " has been featured in the TV series Scrubs , Person of Interest , The Blacklist , Sherlock , and Vinyl , as well as in movies such as The Thomas Crown Affair , Miami Vice , and Inland Empire , and sampled by artists such as Talib Kweli and Timbaland . The song " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " was sampled by Devo Springsteen on " Misunderstood " from Common 's 2007 album Finding Forever , and by little @-@ known producers Rodnae and Mousa for the song " Don 't Get It " on Lil Wayne 's 2008 album Tha Carter III . " See @-@ Line Woman " was sampled by Kanye West for " Bad News " on his album 808s & Heartbreak . The 1965 rendition of " Strange Fruit " originally by Billie Holiday was sampled by Kanye West for " Blood on the Leaves " on his album Yeezus .
Simone 's years at RCA @-@ Victor spawned a number of singles and album tracks that were popular , particularly in Europe . In 1968 , it was " Ain 't Got No , I Got Life " , a medley from the musical Hair from the album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) that became a surprise hit for Simone , reaching number 4 on the UK Singles Chart and introducing her to a younger audience . In 2006 , it returned to the UK Top 30 in a remixed version by Groovefinder .
The following single , a rendition of the Bee Gees 's " To Love Somebody " , also reached the UK Top 10 in 1969 . " The House of the Rising Sun " was featured on Nina Simone Sings the Blues in 1967 , but Simone had recorded the song in 1961 and it was featured on Nina at the Village Gate ( 1962 ) , predating the versions by Dave Van Ronk and Bob Dylan . It was later covered by The Animals , for whom it became a signature hit .
= = = Performing style = = =
Simone 's bearing and stage presence earned her the title " High Priestess of Soul " . She was a piano player , singer and performer , " separately , and simultaneously . " As a composer and arranger , Simone moved from gospel to blues , jazz , and folk , and to numbers with European classical styling . Besides using Bach @-@ style counterpoint , she called upon the particular virtuosity of the 19th @-@ century Romantic piano repertoire — Chopin , Liszt , Rachmaninoff , and others . Onstage , she incorporated monologues and dialogues with the audience into the program , and often used silence as a musical element . She compared it to " mass hypnosis . I use it all the time . " Throughout most of her life and recording career she was accompanied by percussionist Leopoldo Fleming and guitarist and musical director Al Schackman . She 's known to have lived 10 years with Emmanuel Macron from France
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = Music = = =
Musicians who have cited Simone as important for their own musical upbringing include Elton John ( who named one of his pianos after her ) , Aretha Franklin , Adele , David Bowie , Emeli Sandé , Antony and the Johnsons , Dianne Reeves , Sade , Beyoncé , Janis Joplin , Nick Cave , Van Morrison , Christina Aguilera , Elkie Brooks , Talib Kweli , Mos Def , Kanye West , Lena Horne , Bono , John Legend , Elizabeth Fraser , Cat Stevens , Anna Calvi , Lykke Li , Peter Gabriel , Maynard James Keenan , Cedric Bixler @-@ Zavala , Mary J. Blige , Fantasia Barrino , Michael Gira , Angela McCluskey , Lauryn Hill , Patrice Babatunde , Alicia Keys , Lana Del Rey , Hozier , Matt Bellamy , Ian MacKaye , Kerry Brothers , Jr . , Krucial , Amanda Palmer , Steve Adey and Jeff Buckley . John Lennon cited Simone 's version of " I Put a Spell on You " as a source of inspiration for the Beatles ' song " Michelle " .
Simone 's music has been featured in soundtracks of various motion pictures and video games , including but not limited to , La Femme Nikita ( 1990 ) , Point of No Return ( 1993 ) , The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , Notting Hill ( 1999 ) , Any Given Sunday ( 1999 ) , The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) , Disappearing Acts ( 2000 ) , Six Feet Under ( 2001 ) , The Dancer Upstairs ( 2002 ) , Before Sunset ( 2004 ) , Cellular ( 2004 ) , Inland Empire ( 2006 ) , Miami Vice ( 2006 ) , Sex and the City ( 2008 ) , The World Unseen ( 2008 ) , Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , Home ( 2008 ) , Watchmen ( 2009 ) , The Saboteur ( 2009 ) , Repo Men ( 2010 ) , and Beyond the Lights ( 2014 ) . Frequently her music is used in remixes , commercials , and TV series including " Feeling Good " , which featured prominently in the Season Four Promo of Six Feet Under ( 2004 ) . Simone 's " Take Care of Business " is the closing theme of " The Man From U.N.C.L.E. " ( 2015 )
= = = Film = = =
The documentary Nina Simone : La légende ( The Legend ) was made in the 1990s by French filmmakers , based on her autobiography I Put a Spell on You . It features live footage from different periods of her career , interviews with family , various interviews with Simone then living in the Netherlands , and while on a trip to her birthplace . A portion of footage from The Legend was taken from an earlier 26 @-@ minute biographical documentary by Peter Rodis , released in 1969 and entitled simply , Nina . Her filmed 1976 performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival is available on video courtesy of Eagle Rock Entertainment and is screened annually in New York City at an event called " The Rise and Fall of Nina Simone : Montreux , 1976 " which is curated by Tom Blunt .
Footage of Simone singing " Mississippi Goddamn " for 40 @,@ 000 marchers at the end of the Selma to Montgomery marches can be seen in the 1970 documentary King : A Filmed Record ... Montgomery to Memphis and the 2015 Liz Garbus documentary , What Happened , Miss Simone ?
Plans for a Simone biographical film were released at the end of 2005 , to be based on Simone 's autobiography I Put a Spell on You ( 1992 ) and to focus on her relationship in later life with her assistant , Clifton Henderson , who died in 2006 ; Simone 's daughter , Simone Kelly , has since refuted the existence of a romantic relationship between Simone and Henderson on account of his homosexuality . Cynthia Mort , screenwriter of Will & Grace and Roseanne , has written the screenplay and directed the film , Nina , which stars Zoe Saldana in the title role . In May 2014 , the film was shown to potential distributors at the Cannes Film Festival , but has , as of August 2014 , not been seen by reviewers .
In 2015 , two documentary features about Simone 's life and music were released . The first , directed by Liz Garbus , What Happened , Miss Simone ? was produced in cooperation with Simone 's estate and her daughter , who also served as the film 's executive producer . The film was produced as a counterpoint to the unauthorized Cynthia Mort film , and featured previously unreleased archival footage . It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015 and was distributed by Netflix on June 26 , 2015 . It was nominated on January 14 , 2016 for a 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . The Amazing Nina Simone is an independent film directed by Jeff L. Lieberman and is also scheduled for release in 2015 . The director initially consulted with Simone 's daughter before going the independent route and instead worked closely with her siblings , predominantly Sam Waymon .
= = = Honors = = =
Simone was the recipient of a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 2000 for her interpretation of " I Loves You , Porgy . " She has also received fifteen Grammy Award nominations . On Human Kindness Day 1974 in Washington , D.C. , more than 10 @,@ 000 people paid tribute to Simone . Simone received two honorary degrees in music and humanities , from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Malcolm X College . She preferred to be called " Dr. Nina Simone " after these honors were bestowed upon her .
Two days before her death , Simone was awarded an honorary degree by the Curtis Institute of Music , the music school that had refused to admit her as a student at the beginning of her career .
In 2002 , the city of Nijmegen , Netherlands , named a street after her , the Nina Simone straat ; she had lived in Nijmegen between 1988 and 1990 . On August 29 , 2005 , the city of Nijmegen , concert hall De Vereeniging , and more than fifty artists ( amongst whom were Frank Boeijen , Rood Adeo , and Fay Claassen ) honoured Simone with the tribute concert Greetings From Nijmegen .
Simone was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2009 .
In 2010 , a statue in her honor was erected in Trade Street in her native Tryon , North Carolina .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Chart singles = = =
= Vistara =
Tata SIA Airlines Limited , operating as Vistara , is an Indian domestic airline based in Gurgaon with its hub at Delhi @-@ Indira Gandhi International Airport . The carrier , a joint venture between Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines , commenced operations on 9 January 2015 with its inaugural flight between Delhi and Mumbai . The airline had carried more than two million passengers by June 2016 and as of April 2016 , has a 2 @.@ 3 % share of the domestic carrier market . The airline operates to seventeen destinations with a fleet of Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft . Vistara was the first airline to introduce premium economy seats on domestic routes in India .
= = History = =
The airline was founded in 2013 as a joint venture ( JV ) between India 's conglomerate Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) . The two companies had made a bid in the mid @-@ 1990s to launch a full service carrier in India that was unsuccessful , being denied regulatory approval by the Indian government . With India opening up its airline sector for 49 percent foreign direct investment ( FDI ) in 2012 , Tata and SIA once again decided to float a JV airline company in India . The JV , Tata SIA Airlines Limited ( TSAL ) , was envisaged as a premium full @-@ service carrier to cater to the demands of high @-@ end business travellers in India 's civil aviation market dominated by low @-@ cost carriers . India 's Foreign Investment Promotion Board approved the JV in October 2013 , allowing SIA to take a 49 percent stake in the airline . The two parent companies initially pledged to invest a combined US $ 100mn as start @-@ up capital , with Tata Sons owning 51 percent and Singapore Airlines owning the remaining 49 percent . This was part of Tata 's second major foray into the aviation sector along with a minority stake in AirAsia India . The company 's first venture , Tata Airlines , was established in the 1930s and later became the flag carrier Air India after nationalization .
The company unveiled its brand identity " Vistara " on 11 August 2014 . The name was taken from the Sanskrit word Vistaar , meaning " limitless expanse " . Vistara received its air operator 's certificate from the Directorate General of Civil Aviation on 15 December 2014 and started operations on 9 January 2015 . Vistara became the first carrier to operate domestic services out of the new Terminal 2 at Mumbai 's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport . On 24 August 2015 , Vistara inaugurated the Aviation Security Training Institute , an in @-@ house institute for training its cockpit and cabin crew , security staff and others related to aviation industry . The institute has secured the necessary approvals from the nodal body Bureau of Civil Aviation Security . From the first month of operation , Vistara consistently achieved very high on @-@ time performance ( OTP ) records of over 90 percent , the highest among India 's domestic carriers . On 20 August 2015 , Vistara declared it had carried half a million passengers in just over seven months of operations . As of February 2016 , Vistara has a share of 2 % in the domestic carrier market .
= = Corporate affairs = =
In March 2015 , Vistara shifted to its new office at the One Horizon Center tower in Sector 43 , Gurgaon , a satellite city of Delhi . Vistara chose Phee Teik Yeoh as the chief executive officer ( CEO ) and Giam Ming Toh as the chief commercial officer ( CCO ) , both with Singapore Airlines background . Initially it started out with a three @-@ member board comprising Swee Wah Mak ( SIA group ) , Mukund Rajan and Prasad Menon ( Tata group ) , with the latter as chairman . In August 2015 , the airline expanded the board by introducing two new members , Som Mittal and Sangeeta Pendurkar , along with an equity infusion of ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) , part of ₹ 5 billion ( US $ 74 million ) initially planned by Tata and SIA together . In January 2016 , Bhaskar Bhat , former Managing Director of Titan , joined as the new chairman following Prasad Menon 's retirement . In March 2016 , Vistara appointed Sanjiv Kapoor as its chief strategy and commercial officer as the successor to Giam Ming Toh who was scheduled to leave in mid April 2016 following completion of his deputation at Vistara .
= = Destinations = =
As of May 2016 , Vistara flies to the following destinations within India :
= = = Interline agreements = = =
Vistara has interline agreements with the following airlines :
Air France
British Airways
Jet Airways
SilkAir
Air India
Singapore Airlines
= = Fleet = =
As of 31 May 2016 , Vistara operates the following aircraft :
Vistara took delivery of its first aircraft at New Delhi on 25 September 2014 . The airline plans to take delivery of all thirteen of its original Airbus A320 aircraft by 2016 and seven Airbus A320neo aircraft of its initial order by 2018 . In March 2015 , Phee Teik Yeoh announced that the airline is planning to procure an unspecified number of both narrow @-@ body and wide @-@ body aircraft to enhance the domestic network and launch international flights within two years .
= = Services = =
= = = Cabin = = =
= = = = Business class = = = =
Being a full @-@ service carrier , Vistara offers 16 business class seats , four rows in 2 @-@ 2 configuration , in its 148 @-@ seater Airbus A320 @-@ 200 fleet . The business class seats are 20 @.@ 12 inches ( 511 mm ) wide with 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) seat pitch .
= = = = Premium Economy = = = =
Vistara was the first airline in India to introduce Premium Economy class in the domestic market . At present it offers 36 premium economy seats , six rows in 3 @-@ 3 configuration , out of total 148 seats in the single aisle Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft in its fleet . Each being 18 inches ( 460 mm ) wide and having a pitch of 33 – 36 inches ( 840 – 910 mm ) .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
As of April 2016 , Vistara 's Airbus A320 @-@ 200s do not have in @-@ flight entertainment screens installed and it provides pre @-@ loaded tablets for its business @-@ class fliers . In March 2016 , Vistara started beaming content directly to passengers ' personal electronic devices through one @-@ way Wi @-@ Fi connection through BAE Systems IntelliCabin in @-@ flight entertainment system .
= = = Catering = = =
The in @-@ flight food is catered by TajSATS Air Catering , another joint venture between Tata and a Singaporean company , headed by Chef Arun Batra , formerly the executive chef of the Taj Hotels group . Vistara offers four different meals for each cabin for different time of the day — breakfast , refreshment , lunch and dinner with options of one vegetarian and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in economy class ; two vegetarian dishes and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in premium economy ; and two vegetarian and two non @-@ vegetarian dishes for business @-@ class cabin . The menu is typically changed every seventh day and there are different menus for lunch and dinner . It also provides special meals upon request 24 hours before departure .
= = = Lounge = = =
On 29 March 2016 , Vistara inaugurated premium lounge service for its Business @-@ class passengers and Club Vistara Gold card holders at the departure level of Terminal 3 of Indira Gandhi International Airport at Delhi . The lounge is spread across 250 square metres on the air @-@ side and can seat 75 passengers at a time .
= = Frequent @-@ flyer program = =
Vistara uses Club Vistara as its frequent @-@ flyer program ; it operates as a value based program and awards points on the basis of money spent on tickets rather that miles travelled by passengers . On 29 January 2015 , Vistara announced a partnership agreement with Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) which would allow Club Vistara members to earn and redeem miles with the KrisFlyer program on SIA and Silk Air flights and vice versa .
= Portrait of Monsieur Bertin =
Portrait of Monsieur Bertin is an 1832 oil @-@ on @-@ canvas painting by Jean @-@ Auguste @-@ Dominique Ingres . It depicts Louis @-@ François Bertin ( 1766 – 1841 ) , the French writer , art collector and director of the pro @-@ royalist Journal des débats . Ingres completed the portrait during his first period of success ; having achieved acclaim as a history painter , he accepted portrait commissions with reluctance , regarding them as a distraction from more important work . Bertin was a friend and a politically active member of the French upper @-@ middle class . Ingres presents him as a personification of the commercially minded leaders of the liberal reign of Louis Philippe I. He is physically imposing and self @-@ assured , but his real @-@ life personality shines through – warm , wry and engaging to those who had earned his trust .
The painting had a prolonged genesis . Ingres agonised over the pose and made several preparatory sketches . The final work faithfully captures the sitter 's character , conveying both a restless energy and imposing bulk . It is an unflinchingly realistic depiction of ageing and emphasises the furrowed skin and thinning hair of an overweight man who yet maintains his resolve and determination . He sits in three @-@ quarter profile against a brown ground lit from the right , his fingers are pronounced and highly detailed , while the polish of his chair reflects light from an unseen window .
Ingres ' portrait of Bertin was a critical and popular success , but the sitter was a private person . Although his family worried about caricature and disapproved , it became widely known and sealed the artist 's reputation . It was praised at the Paris Salon of 1833 , and has been influential to both academic painters such as Léon Bonnat and later modernists including Pablo Picasso and Félix Vallotton . Today art critics regard it as Ingres ' finest male portrait . It has been on permanent display at the Musée du Louvre since 1897 .
= = Background = =
Louis @-@ François Bertin was 66 in 1832 , the year of the portrait . He befriended Ingres either through his son Édouard Bertin , a student of the painter , or via Étienne @-@ Jean Delécluze , Ingres ' friend and the Journal 's art critic . In either case the genesis of the commission is unknown . Bertin was a leader of the French upper class and a supporter of Louis Philippe and the Bourbon Restoration . He was a director of the Le Moniteur Universel until 1823 , when the Journal des débats became the recognised voice of the liberal @-@ constitutional opposition after he had come to criticize absolutism . He eventually gave his support to the July Monarchy . The Journal supported contemporary art , and Bertin was a patron , collector and cultivator of writers , painters and other artists . Ingres was sufficiently intrigued by Bertin 's personality to accept the commission .
It was completed within a month , during Ingres ' frequent visits to Bertin 's estate of retreat , Le Château des Roches , in Bièvres , Essonne . Ingres made daily visits , as Bertin entertained guests such as Victor Hugo , his mistress Juliette Drouet , Hector Berlioz , and later Franz Liszt and Charles Gounod . Ingres later made drawings of the Bertin family , including a depiction of his host 's wife and sketches of their son Armand and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Cécile . The portrait of Armand evidences his physical resemblance to his father .
Ingres ' early career coincided with the Romantic movement , which reacted against the prevailing neoclassical style . Neoclassicism in French art had developed as artists saw themselves as part of the cultural center of Europe , and France as the successor to Rome . Romantic painting was freer and more expressive , preoccupied more with colour than with line or form , and more focused on style than on subject matter . Paintings based on classical themes fell out of fashion , replaced by contemporary rather than historical subject matter , especially in portraiture . Ingres resisted this trend , and wrote , " The history painter shows the species in general ; while the portrait painter represents only the specific individual — a model often ordinary and full of shortcomings . " From his early career , Ingres ' main source of income was commissioned portraits , a genre he dismissed as lacking in grandeur . The success of his The Vow of Louis XIII at the 1824 Salon marked an abrupt change in his fortunes : he received a series of commissions for large history paintings , and for the next decade he painted few portraits . His financial difficulties behind him , Ingres could afford to concentrate on historical subjects , although he was highly sought @-@ after as a portraitist . He wrote in 1847 , " Damned portraits , they are so difficult to do that they prevent me getting on with greater things that I could do more quickly . "
Ingres was more successful with female than male portraits . His 1814 Portrait of Madame de Senonnes was described as " to the feminine what the Louvre 's Bertin is to the masculine " . The sitter for his 1848 Portrait of Baronne de Rothschild looks out at the viewer with the same directness as Bertin , but is softened by her attractive dress and relaxed pose ; she is engaging and sympathetic rather than tough and imposing .
= = The portrait = =
= = = Preparation and execution = = =
Ingres was self @-@ critical and consumed by self @-@ doubt . He often took months to complete a portrait , leaving large periods of inactivity between sittings . With Bertin , he agonised in finding a pose to best convey both the man 's restless energy and his age . At least seven studies survive , three are signed and dated . Ingres was a master draftsman and the sketches , if not fully realised , are highly regarded in their own right . The sketches are exemplary in their handling of line and form , and similar in size .
The earliest study has Bertin standing and leaning on a table in an almost Napoleonic pose . His hard , level stare is already established , but the focus seems to be on his groin rather than his face . It is obvious that Ingres struggled with the sketch ; the head is on a square of attached paper which must have replaced an earlier cut @-@ out version , and other areas have been rubbed over and heavily reworked . The next extant drawing shows Bertin seated , but the chair is missing . The last extant sketch is the closest to the eventual painting , with a chair , though his bulk has not yet been filled out .
Frustrated by his inability to capture his subject , Ingres broke down in tears in his studio , in company . Bertin recalled " consoling him : ' my dear Ingres , don 't bother about me ; and above all don 't torment yourself like that . You want to start my portrait over again ? Take your own time for it . You will never tire me , and just as long as you want me to come , I am at your orders . ' " After agreeing to a breathing spell Ingres finally settled on a design . Early biographers provide differing anecdotes regarding the inspiration for the distinctive seated pose . Henri Delaborde said Ingres observed Bertin in this posture while arguing politics after dinner with his sons . According to Eugène Emmanuel Amaury Duval ( he said was related to him by Bertin ) , Ingres noticed a pose Bertin took while seated outside with Ingres and a third man at a café .
Bertin said that Ingres , confident that he had finally established the pose for the portrait , " came close and speaking almost in my ear said : ' Come sit tomorrow , your portrait is [ as good as ] done . ' " Bertin 's final pose reverses the usual relationship between the two men . The artist becomes the cool , detached observer ; Bertin , usually calm and reasoned , is now restless and impatient , mirroring Ingres ' irritation at spending time on portraiture .
= = = Description = = =
Bertin is presented as strong , energetic and warm @-@ hearted . His hair is grey verging on white , his fingers spread across his knees . Bertin 's fingers were described in 1959 by artist Henry de Waroquier as " crab @-@ like claws ... emerging from the tenebrous caverns that are the sleeves of his coat . " The bulk of his body is compacted in a tight black jacket , black trousers and brown satin waistcoat , with a starched white shirt and cravat revealing his open neck . He wears a gold watch and a pair of glasses in his right pocket . In the view of art historian Robert Rosenblum , his " nearly ferocious presence " is accentuated by the tightly constrained space . The chair and clothes appear too small to contain him . His coiled , stubby fingers rest on his thighs , barely protruding from the sleeves of his jacket , while his neck cannot be seen above his narrow starched white collar .
The painting is composed in monochrome , muted colours ; predominately blacks , greys and browns . The exceptions are the whites of his collar and sleeves , the reds in the cushion and the light reflecting on the leather of the arm @-@ chair . In 19th @-@ century art , vivid colour was associated with femininity and emotion ; male portraiture tended towards muted shades and monochrome . Bertin leans slightly forward , boldly staring at the viewer in a manner that is both imposing and paternal . He seems engaged , and poised to speak , his body fully towards the viewer and his expression etched with certainty . Influenced by Nicolas Poussin 's 1650 Self @-@ Portrait with Allegory of Painting , Ingres minutely details the veins and wrinkles of his face . Bertin is in three @-@ quarter profile , against a gold – brown background lit from the right . He rests on a curved @-@ back mahogany chair , the arms of which reflect light falling from the upper left of the pictorial space .
Ingres seems to have adapted elements of the approach and technique of Hans Holbein 's 1527 Portrait of William Warham , now in the Louvre . Neither artist placed much emphasis on colour , preferring dark or cool tones . The Warham portrait seems to have informed the indicators of Bertin 's aging and the emphasis on his fingers . Jacques @-@ Louis David also explored hyper @-@ realism in his depictions of Cooper Penrose ( 1802 ) and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès ( 1817 ) . In the later painting , David shows tiny glints of light reflecting on the sitter 's chair and painstakingly details " every wayward curl of [ Sieyès ' ] closely cropped auburn hair . "
The Greek meander pattern at the foot of the wall is unusually close to the picture plane , confining the sitter . The wall is painted in gold , adding to the sense of a monumental portrait of a modern icon . The details of Bertin 's face are highly symmetrical . His eyes are heavily lidded , circled by oppositely positioned twists of his white collar , the winds of his hair , eyebrows and eyelids . His mouth turns downwards at the left and upwards to the right . This dual expression is intended to show his duality and complex personality : he is a hard @-@ nosed businessman , and a patron of the arts . The reflection of a window can be seen in the rim of Bertin 's chair . It is barely discernible , but adds spatial depth . The Portrait of Pope Leo X ( c . 1519 ) by Raphael , a source for the Bertin portrait , also features a window reflection of the pommel on the pope 's chair .
The painting is signed J.Ingres Pinxit 1832 in capitals at the top left , and L.F. Bertin , also in capitals , at the upper right . The frame is the original , and thought to have been designed by Ingres himself . It shows animals around a sinuous and richly carved grapevine . Art historians Paul Mitchell and Lynn Roberts note that the design follows an old French tradition of placing austere male portraits within " exuberantly carved " frames . The frame closely resembles that of Raphael 's c . 1514 – 15 Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione , a painting that influenced Ingres , especially in colour and tone .
= = Reception = =
Monsieur Bertin was exhibited at the 1833 Salon alongside his 1807 Portrait of Mme Devauçay . It met with near universal praise to become his most successful artwork to that point . It sealed his reputation as a portraitist , reaching far enough into public consciousness to become a standard for newspaper political satires . Today it is considered his greatest portrait . Ingres viewed all this as a mixed blessing , remarking that " since my portraits of Bertin and Molé , everybody wants portraits . There are six that I 've turned down , or am avoiding , because I can 't stand them . " Before the official exhibition , Ingres displayed the painting in his studio for friends and pupils . Most were lavish in their praise , although Louis Lacuria confided to a friend that he feared people might " find the colouring a bit dreary " . He proved correct ; at the Salon , critics praised the draftsmanship , but some felt the portrait exemplified Ingres ' weakness as a colourist . It was routinely faulted for its " purplish tone " — which the ageing of the oil medium has transformed over time to warm greys and browns . Bertin 's wife Louis @-@ Marie reportedly did not like the painting ; his daughter , Louise , thought it transformed her father from a " great lord " to a " fat farmer " .
Given the standings of the two men , the painting was received in both social and political terms . A number of writers mentioned Bertin 's eventful career , in tones | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
barn . The video then switches to its principal setting , which features Cyrus on a beach at sunset . Cyrus is seen in a black T @-@ shirt tossing rocks at the ocean and looking at a picture of a blond woman . The woman is portrayed by Melora Hardin , who plays Lorelai , Robby Ray 's love interest in Hannah Montana : The Movie . As the video progresses , Cyrus is also seen with the blue Ford Ranger , either driving it or leaning against it while playing an acoustic guitar . The video also includes clips of Lorelai , Robby Ray , Miley Stewart , and Miley Stewart 's love interest , Travis Body . The video ends with Cyrus , looking down , walking next to the seashore .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus performed " Back to Tennessee " as part of the AOL Sessions on April 13 , 2009 . He also performed the song and several others in a London Apple Store on April 24 , 2009 . The set , along with some songs by Miley , were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On August 1 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at the 2009 Hannity Freedom Concert , a concert supporting the Freedom Alliance Scholarship Fund .
= M @-@ 108 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 108 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway followed Nicolet Street , although some maps also labeled it as the Mackinaw Highway . The road was on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties .
The original M @-@ 108 designation dated back to 1928 . This version was transferred to local control in 1957 , but revived later under a different routing in 1960 . On April 29 , 2010 , the Petoskey News @-@ Review reported that the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) will rebuild the roadway in preparation to transfer it back to local control once again . MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding , completing the transfer of the roadway on December 9 , 2010 .
= = Route description = =
The 1 @.@ 069 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 720 km ) long route connected two interchanges off Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) on the south side of Mackinaw City with a tourist welcome center . The southern terminus was at a partial interchange with I @-@ 75 ( exit 337 ) just south of Mackinaw City on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties . This interchange is about two miles ( 3 km ) north of the northern terminus of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) . M @-@ 108 followed Nicolet Street north from I @-@ 75 into the Village of Mackinaw City past the Thunder Falls Water Park and some local motels to an intersection with US 23 . North of the US 23 intersection is the Michigan Welcome Center and other tourist amenities on the west side of the street . State maintenance ends at the intersection with the off @-@ ramp from northbound I @-@ 75 exit 338 .
= = History = =
In 1928 , the first M @-@ 108 designation was commissioned along a rare three @-@ legged route connecting the State Highway Ferry Docks with the Fort Michilimackinac State Historic Park and US 31 . At one point while traveling westbound on M @-@ 108 , motorists could turn right onto northbound M @-@ 108 or left onto southbound M @-@ 108 . In preparation for the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , the Michigan State Highway Department transferred all of M @-@ 108 to local control in late 1957 , decommissioning the designation at the same time . In 1960 , the current M @-@ 108 was commissioned along the current routing .
On April 29 , 2010 , MDOT announced plans to transfer M @-@ 108 in its entirety to the Village of Mackinaw City and Emmet County . In preparation for this transfer , MDOT repaved , widened and reconstructed the roadway . While rebuilding the section of the highway between US 23 and the northern terminus , the Welcome Center was closed . Plans had this section to be completed , and the center to bed reopened , for Memorial Day weekend , with the remainder of construction to be completed in August . Following the transfer to local control , M @-@ 108 ceased to be a state highway and the designation was decommissioned . Previous news reports stated that the roadway was too small to merit highway status under federal guidelines . The transfer was completed on December 9 , 2010 when MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding to affect the transfer . The section within the Village of Mackinaw City was transferred to the village , and the remainder to Emmet County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was on the Emmet – Cheboygan county line .
= Blackwyche =
Blackwyche is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game for the Commodore 64 in 1985 . The game is the third instalment of the Pendragon series and is a sequel to Entombed . In the game , aristocrat adventurer Sir Arthur Pendragon is trapped on board a haunted galleon and must free the soul of its captain . The game is presented in a 3D isometric format .
The Pendragon series was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas , with Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper otherwise being uninvolved in development . The game 's setting and graphics were heavily inspired by HMS Victory and the surrounding city of Portsmouth . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release . Critics were divided over the game 's graphics and re @-@ usage of sprites , but criticised the game for its vast similarities to its predecessors . It was followed by a final instalment to the series , Dragon Skulle , which was released later in 1985 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in a isometric format and is set on board a haunted galleon named the Blackwyche . Sir Arthur Pendragon 's main objective is to free the soul of its former captain , Richard Cavendish . Pendragon can utilise various weapons such as knives , daggers and a magic sword to defend himself from enemy skeletons . The player begins the game with full energy and it will slightly deplete every time the player is hit by an enemy . If Pendragon completely runs out of energy , a large skeletal hand will drag the player off @-@ screen , thus killing him .
Various segments of maps are scattered around the galleon , which will form a complete view of the game 's overworld once all the segments are picked up . Other scattered items in the game include keys for locked doors , gunpowder to fire cannons and pieces of jewellery , the latter having no additional use other than adding to the player 's score .
= = Development = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .
The Pendragon series was created by brothers Dave and Robert ( Bob ) Thomas , rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper . Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he started producing multiple games for the Atari 400 , including moderate @-@ sellers such as Warlok , which later won him GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in a competition from Calisto Software . Although he began working for the company in producing video games , he later quit due to the strain of his daily , 68 mi ( 109 km ) commute . Shortly after quitting Calisto Software , Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath , the first instalment of what would become the Pendragon series . Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy . According to Dave Thomas , the setting of Blackwyche was heavily inspired by the HMS Victory and the surrounding naval city of Portsmouth . The name of " Sir Arthur Pendragon " was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from Jack the Giant Killer .
The graphics of the game were designed by Bob Thomas , whereas the code was written by Dave Thomas . The Thomas brothers decided to show their progress of the game to Tim and Chris Stamper for evaluation , despite feeling embarrassed due to their workspace being inside their parents ' attic . Impressed by the game , the Stamper brothers commissioned an entire series to be released for the Commodore 64 . Dave Thomas recalled that every game they produced was met with little interference from Ultimate ; once a game was complete , it would be sent to quality assessment and subsequently published for release .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . A reviewer of CVG thought the graphics were identical to its predecessor , Entombed , and criticised the low detail of the player @-@ character , Sir Arthur Pendragon . Eugene Lacey of Commodore User praised the graphics , stating that they were smoother and slightly more detailed , despite acknowledging that they appeared similar to its predecessor . Stuart Cooke of Your Commodore thought the graphics were too " repetitive " and stated that he had trouble determining which section of the game he was on due to the similarities of all the colours . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the graphics , stating the sprites to be " awful " , and animation as " crummy " with little or no range of colouring . The sprite of Sir Arthur Pendragon was frequently criticised by reviewers of Zzap ! 64 , with one reviewer expressing frustration on why Ultimate continued to re @-@ use the same sprites in their games . Another reviewer condemned the 3D animation , stating that it appeared out of proportion and " frustrating " . Tony Hetherington of Computer Gamer similarly criticised the graphics , owing to the " duplicated landscapes " and identical usage of colours , concluding that it was a disappointing game .
Lacey heralded the gameplay to be " purely addicting " and considered Blackwyche to the best of the series . Harding opinionated the game to be " miles better " than its predecessor , whereas Cooke thought the gameplay was repetitive , owing to its number of locations . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the overall gameplay , stating that the puzzles were poor , unchallenging and often gave them the sense of " deja @-@ vu " with its similarities to its predecessors . One reviewer of the same magazine considered the game to be a poor attempt at an arcade @-@ adventure game , stating that the ideas were poorly implemented . Hetherington concluded that Blackwyche was a disappointment for an Ultimate game , considering their previous hit titles such as Atic Atac and Knight Lore .
= Hoyt Wilhelm =
James Hoyt Wilhelm ( July 26 , 1922 – August 23 , 2002 ) , nicknamed " Old Sarge " , was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher with the New York Giants , St. Louis Cardinals , Cleveland Indians , Baltimore Orioles , Chicago White Sox , California Angels , Atlanta Braves , Chicago Cubs , and Los Angeles Dodgers between 1952 and 1972 . He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame .
After growing up in North Carolina and fighting in World War II , Wilhelm spent several years in the minor leagues before starting his MLB career . He was best known for his knuckleball , which enabled him to have great longevity . He appeared occasionally as a starting pitcher , but he pitched mainly as a specialist relief man , a role in which he won 124 games , still the record for relief pitchers . He was the first pitcher to reach 200 saves and the first to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games .
Wilhelm , who did not enter the major leagues until his late twenties , pitched until he was nearly 50 years old . Wilhelm retired with one of the lowest career earned run averages in baseball history . After retiring as a player in the early 1970s , he held coaching roles with the New York Yankees and Atlanta Braves for many years . He was a longtime resident of Sarasota , Florida , where he died in a nursing home of heart failure in 2002 .
= = Early life = =
Wilhelm was one of eleven children born to poor tenant farmers John and Ethel ( née Stanley ) Wilhelm in Huntersville , North Carolina . He played baseball at Cornelius High School in Cornelius , North Carolina . There , he began experimenting with a knuckleball after reading about pitcher Dutch Leonard . He felt that , because he could not throw fast , honing a knuckleball offered him his best shot at success . He used a tennis ball to practice .
Wilhelm made his professional debut with the Mooresville Moors of the Class @-@ D North Carolina State League in 1942 . He served in the United States Army in the European Theater during World War II . Wilhelm participated in the Battle of the Bulge , where he was wounded , earning the Purple Heart for his actions . He played his entire career with a piece of shrapnel lodged in his back as a result of this injury . He rose to the rank of staff sergeant . Wilhem was nicknamed " Old Sarge " because of his service in the military .
He returned to the Moors in 1946 , following his military service . Over the 1946 and 1947 seasons , Wilhelm earned 41 wins with Mooresville . He later recalled being dropped from a Class D minor league team and having the manager tell him to forget about the knuckleball , but he persisted with it . The Boston Braves purchased Wilhelm from Mooresville in 1947 . On November 20 , 1947 , Wilhelm was drafted by the New York Giants from the Braves in the 1947 minor league draft .
Wilhelm 's first assignment in the Giants organization was in Class B with the 1948 Knoxville Smokies , for whom he registered 13 wins and 9 losses . He spent a few games that season with the Class A Jacksonville Tars of the South Atlantic League . Wilhelm returned to Jacksonville in 1949 , earning a 17 – 12 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) . With the Class AAA Minneapolis Millers in 1950 , Wilhelm was the starting pitcher in 25 of his 35 games pitched , registering a 15 – 11 record with a 4 @.@ 95 ERA . His ERA came down to 3 @.@ 94 in 1951 with Minneapolis , but his record finished at 11 – 14 . Wilhelm had been used in a similar role that season , mostly starting games but also making eleven relief appearances .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Though Wilhelm was primarily a starting pitcher in the minor leagues , he had been called up to a Giants team whose strong starting pitchers had led them to a National League ( NL ) pennant the year before . Giants manager Leo Durocher did not think that Wilhelm 's knuckleball approach would be effective for more than a few innings at a time . He assigned Wilhelm to the team 's bullpen .
Wilhelm made his MLB debut with the Giants on April 18 , 1952 at age 29 , giving up a hit and two walks while only recording one out . On April 23 , 1952 , in his second game with the New York Giants , Wilhelm batted for the first time in the majors . Facing rookie Dick Hoover of the Boston Braves , Wilhelm hit a home run over the short right @-@ field fence at the Polo Grounds . Although he went to bat a total of 432 times in his career , he never hit another home run .
Pitching exclusively in relief , Wilhelm led the NL with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA in his rookie year . He won 15 games and lost three . Wilhelm finished in the top ten in Most Valuable Player Award voting that season , becoming the first relief pitcher to finish that high . He finished second in the Rookie of the Year Award voting . Wilhelm made 69 relief appearances in 1953 , his win @-@ loss record decreased to 7 – 8 and he issued 77 walks against 71 strikeouts . Wilhelm was named to the NL All @-@ Star team that year , but he did not play in the game because team manager Charlie Dressen did not think that any of the catchers could handle his knuckleball . The Giants renewed Wilhelm 's contract in February 1954 .
In 1954 , Wilhelm was a key piece of the pitching staff that led the 1954 Giants to a world championship . He pitched 111 innings , finishing with a 12 – 4 record and a 2 @.@ 10 ERA . During one of Wilhelm 's appearances that season , catcher Ray Katt committed four passed balls in one inning to set the major league record ; the record has subsequently been tied twice . When Stan Musial set a record by hitting five home runs in a doubleheader that year , Wilhelm was pitching in the second game and gave up two of the home runs . The 1954 World Series represented Wilhelm 's only career postseason play . He pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings over two games , earning a save in the third game . The team won the World Series in a four @-@ game sweep .
Wilhelm 's ERA increased to 3 @.@ 93 over 59 games and 103 innings pitched in 1955 , but he managed a 4 – 1 record . He finished the 1956 season with a 4 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 83 ERA in 89 1 ⁄ 3 innings . Sportswriter Bob Driscoll later attributed Wilhelm 's difficulties in the mid @-@ 1950s to the decline in the career of Giants catcher Wes Westrum , writing that baseball was " a game of inches , and for Hoyt , Wes had been that inch in the right direction . "
= = = Middle career = = =
On February 26 , 1957 , Wilhelm was traded by the Giants to the St. Louis Cardinals for Whitey Lockman . At the time of the trade , St. Louis manager Fred Hutchinson described Wilhelm as the type of pitcher who " makes us a definite pennant threat ... He 'll help us where we need help the most . " In 40 games with the Cardinals that season , he earned 11 saves but finished with a 1 – 4 record and his highest ERA to that point in his career ( 4 @.@ 25 ) . The Cardinals placed him on waivers in September and he was claimed by the Cleveland Indians , who used him in two games that year .
In 1958 , Cleveland manager Bobby Bragan used Wilhelm occasionally as a starter . Although he had a 2 @.@ 49 ERA , none of the Indians ' catchers could handle Wilhelm 's knuckleball . General manager Frank Lane , alarmed at the large number of passed balls , allowed the Baltimore Orioles to select Wilhelm off waivers on August 23 , 1958 . In Baltimore , Wilhelm lived near the home of third baseman Brooks Robinson and their families became close friends . On September 20 of that year , Wilhelm no @-@ hit the eventual World Champion New York Yankees 1 @-@ 0 at Memorial Stadium , in only his ninth career start . He allowed two baserunners on walks and struck out eight . The no @-@ hitter had been threatened at one point in the ninth inning when Hank Bauer bunted along the baseline , but Robinson allowed the ball to roll and it veered foul . The no @-@ hitter was the first in the franchise 's Baltimore history ; the Orioles had moved from St. Louis after the 1953 season .
Orioles catchers had difficulty catching the Wilhelm knuckleball again in 1959 and they set an MLB record with 49 passed balls . During one April game , catcher Gus Triandos had four passed balls while catching for Wilhelm and he described the game as " the roughest day I ever put in during my life . " Author Bill James has written that Wilhelm and Triandos " established the principle that a knuckleball pitcher and a big , slow catcher make an awful combination . " Triandos once said , " Heaven is a place where no one throws a knuckleball . "
Despite the passed balls , Wilhelm won the American League ERA title with a 2 @.@ 19 ERA . During the 1960 season , Orioles manager Paul Richards devised a larger mitt so his catchers could handle the knuckleball . Richards was well equipped with starting pitchers during that year . By the middle of the season , he said that eight of his pitchers could serve as starters . Wilhelm started 11 of the 41 games in which he appeared . He earned an 11 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 31 ERA and seven saves . He only started one game the following year , but he was an All @-@ Star , registered 18 saves and had a 2 @.@ 30 ERA .
In 1962 , Wilhelm had his fourth All @-@ Star season , finishing with a 7 – 10 record , a 1 @.@ 94 ERA and 15 saves . On January 14 , 1963 , Wilhelm was traded by the Orioles with Ron Hansen , Dave Nicholson and Pete Ward to the Chicago White Sox for Luis Aparicio and Al Smith . Early in that season , White Sox manager Al López said that Wilhelm had improved his pitching staff by 40 percent . He said that Wilhelm was " worth more than a 20 @-@ game winner , and he works with so little effort that he probably can last as long as Satchel Paige . " He registered 21 saves and a 2 @.@ 64 ERA .
In 1964 , Wilhelm finished with career highs in both saves ( 27 ) and games pitched ( 73 ) . His ERA decreased to 1 @.@ 99 that season ; it remained less than 2 @.@ 00 through the 1968 season . In 1965 , Wilhelm contributed to another passed balls record when Chicago catcher J. C. Martin allowed 33 of them in one season . That total set a modern single @-@ season baseball record for the category . Wilhelm 's career @-@ low ERA ( 1 @.@ 31 ) came in 1967 , when he earned an 8 – 3 record for the White Sox with 12 saves .
In the 1968 season , Wilhelm was getting close to breaking the all @-@ time games pitched record belonging to Cy Young ( 906 games ) . Chicago manager Eddie Stanky began to think about using Wilhelm as a starting pitcher for game number 907 . However , the White Sox fired Stanky before the record came up . Wilhelm later broke the record as a relief pitcher . He also set MLB records for consecutive errorless games by a pitcher , career victories in relief , games finished and innings pitched in relief . Despite Wilhelm 's success , the White Sox , who had won at least 83 games per season in the 1960s , performed poorly . They finished 1968 with a 67 – 95 record .
Wilhelm was noted during this period for his mentoring of relief pitcher Wilbur Wood , who came to the 1967 White Sox in a trade . Wood sometimes threw a knuckleball upon his arrival in Chicago , but Wilhelm encouraged him to throw it full @-@ time . By 1968 , Wood won 13 games , saved 16 games and earned a 1 @.@ 87 ERA . He credited Wilhelm with helping him to master the knuckleball , as the White Sox coaches did not know much about how to throw it . Between 1968 and 1970 , Wood pitched in more games ( 241 ) than any other pitcher and more innings ( 400 1 ⁄ 3 ) than any other relief pitcher .
After the 1968 season , MLB expanded and an expansion draft was conducted in which the new teams could select certain players from the established teams . The White Sox left Wilhelm unprotected , possibly because they did not believe that teams would have interest in a much older pitcher . On October 15 , 1968 , Wilhelm was chosen in the expansion draft by the Kansas City Royals as the 49th pick . That offseason , he was traded by the Royals to the California Angels for Ed Kirkpatrick and Dennis Paepke .
= = = Later career = = =
In 44 games pitched for the 1969 California Angels , Wilhelm had a 2 @.@ 47 ERA , ten saves and a 5 – 7 record . On September 8 , 1969 , Wilhelm was traded by the Angels with Bob Priddy to the Atlanta Braves for Clint Compton and Mickey Rivers . He finished the 1969 season by pitching eight games for the Braves , earning four saves and recording a 0 @.@ 73 ERA over 12 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Wilhelm spent most of the 1970 season with the Braves , pitching in 50 games for the team and earning ten saves .
On September 21 , 1970 , Wilhelm was selected off waivers by the Chicago Cubs , for whom he appeared in three games . He was traded back by the Cubs to the Braves for Hal Breeden after the season . As the Cubs acquired Wilhelm late in the season to bolster their playoff contention , which was a source of controversy , Commissioner Bowie Kuhn investigated the transaction . In December , Kuhn ruled that he did not find evidence of impropriety associated with the transactions that sent Wilhelm to the Cubs and quickly back to the Braves .
Wilhelm was released by the Braves on June 29 , 1971 , having pitched in three games for that year 's Braves . He signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 10 , 1971 . He appeared in nine MLB games for the Dodgers , giving up two earned runs in 17 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He also pitched in eight games that season for the team 's Class AAA minor league affiliate , the Spokane Indians . He started six of those games and registered a 3 @.@ 89 ERA . He pitched in 16 games for the Dodgers in 1972 , registering a 4 @.@ 62 ERA over 25 innings . The Dodgers released him on July 21 , 1972 . He never appeared in another game .
At the time of his retirement , Wilhelm had pitched in a then @-@ MLB record 1 @,@ 070 games . He is recognized as the first pitcher to have saved 200 games in his career , and the first pitcher to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games . He is also one of the oldest players to have pitched in the major leagues ; his final appearance was 16 days short of his 50th birthday . Wilhelm retired with the lowest career earned run average of any major league hurler after 1927 ( Walter Johnson ) who pitched more than 2 @,@ 000 innings .
= = Later life = =
After his retirement as a player , Wilhelm managed two minor league teams in the Atlanta Braves system for single seasons . He led the 1973 Greenwood Braves of the Western Carolinas League to a 61 – 66 record , then had a 33 – 33 record with the 1975 Kingsport Braves of the Appalachian League . He also worked as a minor league pitching coach for the New York Yankees for 22 years . As a coach , Wilhelm said that he did not teach pitchers the knuckleball , believing that people had to be born with a knack for throwing it . He sometimes worked individually with major league players who wanted to improve their knuckleballs , including Joe Niekro . The Yankees gave Wilhelm permission to work with Mickey Lolich in 1979 even though Lolich pitched for the San Diego Padres .
Wilhelm was on the ballot for the Baseball Hall of Fame for eight years before he was elected . After Wilhelm failed to garner enough votes for induction in 1983 , sportswriter Jim Murray criticized the voters , saying that while Wilhelm never had the look of a baseball player , he was " the best player in history at what he does . " He fell short by 13 votes in 1984 . Wilhelm was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985 . At his induction ceremony , he said that he had achieved all three of his initial major league goals : appearing in a World Series , being named to an All @-@ Star team , and throwing a no @-@ hitter .
He and his wife Peggy lived in Sarasota , Florida . They raised three children together : Patti , Pam , and Jim . Wilhelm died of heart failure in a Sarasota nursing home in 2002 .
= = Legacy = =
Wilhelm was known as a " relief ace " and his teams used him in a new way that became a trend . Rather than bringing in a relief pitcher only when the starting pitcher had begun to struggle , teams increasingly called upon their relief pitchers toward the end of any close game . Wilhelm was the first relief pitcher elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame .
He is also remembered as one of the most successful and " probably the most famous ' old ' player in history . " Although , due largely to his military service , he did not debut in the major leagues until he was already 29 years old , Wilhelm nonetheless managed to appear in 21 major league seasons . He earned the nickname " Old Folks " while he still had more than a decade left in his playing career . He was the oldest player in Major League Baseball for each of his final seven seasons .
Former teammate Moose Skowron commented on Wilhelm 's key pitch , saying , " Hoyt was a good guy , and he threw the best knuckleball I ever saw . You never knew what Hoyt 's pitch would do . I don 't think he did either . " Baseball executive Roland Hemond agreed , saying , " Wilhelm 's knuckleball did more than anyone else 's ... There was so much action on it . " Before Wilhelm , the knuckleball was primarily mixed in to older pitchers ' repertoires at the end of their careers to offset their slowing fastballs and reduce stress on their arms , thereby extending their careers . Wilhelm broke with tradition when he began throwing the pitch as a teenager and on nearly every pitch . The New York Times linked his knuckleball with that of modern pitcher R.A. Dickey , as Wilhelm taught pitcher Charlie Hough the knuckleball in 1971 and Hough taught it to Dickey while coaching with the Texas Rangers .
= Politics of Croatia =
The politics of Croatia are defined by a parliamentary , representative democratic republic framework , where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi @-@ party system . Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia . Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament ( Croatian : Sabor ) . The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia . The declaration of independence came into effect on 8 October 1991 . The constitution has since been amended several times . The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century , and their agenda and appeal changed , reflecting major social changes , such as the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary , the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom , World War II , the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia .
The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian armed forces and is directly elected to serve a five @-@ year term . The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister , who has four deputy prime ministers , three of whom also serve as government ministers . Seventeen ministers are in charge of particular activities . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the foreign and internal policies . The parliament is a unicameral legislative body . The number of Sabor representatives ranges from 100 to 160 ; they are elected by popular vote to serve four @-@ year terms . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws ; adoption of the government budget , declarations of war and peace , defining national boundaries , calling referenda and elections , appointments and relief of officers , supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting of amnesties . The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections , and the election of county prefects and assemblies , and city and municipal mayors and councils .
Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia . There are other specialised courts in Croatia — commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts , the Superior Misdemeanour ( criminal ) Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal proceedings .
= = Legal framework = =
Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic . Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League , Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi @-@ party elections . While the 1990 constitution remains in force , it has been amended four times since its adoption — in 1997 , 2000 , 2001 and 2010 . Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991 , which led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . Croatia 's status as a country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992 . Under its 1990 constitution , Croatia operated a semi @-@ presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system . Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative , executive and judiciary powers . The legal system of Croatia is civil law and , along with the institutional framework , is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria @-@ Hungary . By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010 , Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis .
= = Executive = =
The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state ; he or she is directly elected and serves a five @-@ year term . The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces , has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ( Parliament ) through a simple majority vote , and has some influence on foreign policy . The most recent presidential election was held on 10 January 2010 and was won by Ivo Josipović . He took the oath of office on 18 February 2010 . The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party . Consequently , the president @-@ elect withdraws from party membership before inauguration . President Josipović did so on 15 February 2010 .
The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister who has four deputies , three of whom also serve as government ministers. there are seventeen other ministers who are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ; these are in charge of particular sectors of activity . As of 23 December 2011 , the Deputy Prime Ministers are Radimir Čačić , Neven Mimica , Branko Grčić , and Milanka Opačić . Government ministers are from the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , and the Croatian People 's Party - Liberal Democrats ( HNS ) and Istrian Democratic Assembly ( IDS ) . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the country 's foreign and domestic policies . The government 's official residence is at Banski dvori . As of 23 December 2011 , the prime minister is Zoran Milanović .
= = Legislature = =
The Parliament of Croatia ( Croatian : Sabor ) is a unicameral legislative body . A second chamber , the Chamber of Counties ( Croatian : Županijski dom ) , was set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution . The Chamber of Counties was originally composed of three deputies from each of the twenty counties and the city of Zagreb . However , as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives , it was abolished in 2001 and its powers were transferred to the county governments . The number of Sabor representatives can vary from 100 to 160 ; they are all elected by popular vote and serve four @-@ year terms . 140 members are elected in multi @-@ seat constituencies , up to six members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians living abroad and five members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities . The two largest political parties in Croatia are the SDP and the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) . The last parliamentary election was held on 4 December 2011 in Croatia and on 3 and 4 December 2011 abroad .
The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods ; the first from 15 January to 30 June , and the second from 15 September to 15 December . Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic , by the president of the parliament or by the government . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution , enactment of laws , adoption of the state budget , declarations of war and peace , alteration of the country 's boundaries , calling and conducting referenda and elections , appointments and relief of office , supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting amnesty . Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present , except in cases of constitutional issues .
= = Elections = =
The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Republic , parliamentary , county prefects , county assemblies , city and municipal mayors and city and municipal councils . The President of the Republic is elected to a five @-@ year term by a direct vote of all citizens of Croatia . A majority vote is required to win . A runoff election round is held in cases where no candidate secures the majority in the first round of voting . The presidential elections are regulated by the constitution and dedicated legislation ; the latter defines technical details , appeals and similar issues .
140 members of parliament are elected to a four @-@ year term in ten multi @-@ seat constituencies , which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders , with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5 % . Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency ; however , its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election . It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency . In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs . Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency . Additionally , eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty @-@ two recognised minorities in Croatia : the Serb minority elects three MPs , Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each , Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly , while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament . The Standard D 'Hondt formula is applied to the vote , with a 5 % election threshold . The last parliamentary election , held in 2011 , elected 151 MPs .
The county prefects and city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . A runoff election is held if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round of voting . Members of county , city , and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms through proportional representation ; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency . The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution . If the minorities are not represented , further members , who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system , are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council .
= = = Latest presidential election = = =
= = = Latest parliamentary election = = =
= = Judiciary = =
Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia ; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly , except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected . Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age . The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four @-@ year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic . As of 2011 , the president of the Supreme Court is Branko Hrvatin . The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments . The lower two levels of the three @-@ tiered judiciary consist of county courts and municipal courts . There are fifteen county courts and sixty @-@ seven municipal courts in the country .
There are other specialised courts in Croatia ; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations , the Superior Misdemeanour Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution , repeals unconstitutional legislation , reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament , declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country 's president becomes incapacitated , issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president , and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council . The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight @-@ year term . The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four @-@ year term . As of June 2012 , the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec . The National Judicial Council ( Croatian : Državno Sudbeno Vijeće ) consists of eleven members , specifically seven judges , two university professors of law and two parliament members , nominated and elected by the Parliament for four @-@ year terms , and may serve no more than two terms . It appoints all judges and court presidents , except in case of the Supreme Court . As of January 2015 , the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan , who is also a Supreme Court judge .
The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal procedures . As of August 2012 , Mladen Bajić is the General State Attorney , and there are twenty @-@ three deputies in the central office and lower @-@ ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty @-@ three municipal State Attorney 's Offices . The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament . A special State Attorney 's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime , USKOK , was set up in late 2001 .
= = Local government = =
Croatia was first subdivided into counties ( Croatian : županija ) in the Middle Ages . The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory , and changes to the political status of Dalmatia , Dubrovnik and Istria . The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively . After 1945 under Communist rule , Croatia , as a constituent part of Yugoslavia , abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities , subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities . Counties , significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre @-@ 1920s subdivisions , were reintroduced in 1992 legislation . In 1918 , the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Požega , Vukovar , Varaždin , Osijek and Zagreb ; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory . Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time . In some instances , the boundaries of the counties have been changed , with the latest revision taking place in 2006 . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities .
The county prefects , city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round , a runoff election is held . Members of county , city and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms , through proportional representation with the entire local government unit as a single constituency .
The number of members of the councils is defined by the councils themselves , based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national ethnic minorities are represented on the council as required by the constitution . Further members who belong to the minorities may be added to the council in no candidate of that minority has been elected through the proportional representation system . Election silence , as in all other types of elections in Croatia , when campaigning is forbidden , is enforced the day before the election and continues until 19 : 00 hours on the election day when the polling stations close and exit polls may be announced . Six nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990 , the most recent being the 2009 local elections to elect county prefects and councils , and city and municipal councils and mayors . In 2009 , the HDZ @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections . SDP @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils , including the city of Zagreb council , and the remaining county council election was won by IDS @-@ SDP coalition . The SDP won four county prefect elections and the city of Zagreb mayoral election , the HSS won three county prefect elections , and the HNS and the HDSSB won a single county prefect election each .
= = History = =
= = = Within Austria @-@ Hungary = = =
Events of 1848 in Europe and the Austrian Empire brought dramatic changes to Croatian society and politics , provoking the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia . At the time , the Sabor and Ban Josip Jelačić advocated the severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary , emphasising links to other South Slavic lands within the empire . Several prominent Croatian political figures emerged , such as Ante Starčević , Eugen Kvaternik , Franjo Rački and Josip Juraj Strossmayer . A period of neo @-@ absolutism was followed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement , which granted limited independence to Croatia . This was compounded by Croatian claims of uninterrupted statehood since the early Middle Ages as a basis for a modern state . Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to the sentiment were the Party of Rights , led by Starčević and Kvaternik , and the People 's Party , led by Janko Drašković , Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski , Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Ivan Mažuranić . They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party , which was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and the 1918 , and advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary .
Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People 's Independent Party , which later formed the Croat @-@ Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties . The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918 . The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević . The Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) , established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić , advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918 . In Dalmatia , the two major parties were the People 's Party – a branch of the People 's Party active in Croatia @-@ Slavonia – and the Autonomist Party , advocating maintaining autonomy of Dalmatia , opposite to the People 's Party demands for unification of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and Dalmatia . The Autonomist Party , most notably led by Antonio Bajamonti , was also linked to Italian irredentism . By 1900 , the Party of Rights had made considerable gains in Dalmatia . The Autonomists won the first three elections , but all elections since 1870 were won by the People 's Party . In the period 1861 – 1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia .
= = = First and Second Yugoslavia = = =
After the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , the HSS established itself as the most popular Croatian political party and was very popular despite efforts to ban it . The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions , which effectively ended Croatian autonomy ; the constitution was opposed by HSS . The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928 , leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929 . The HSS , now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia , resulting in the Cvetković – Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence , internal security , foreign affairs , trade , and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown @-@ appointed Ban . This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II , when the Independent State of Croatia , which banned all political opposition , was established . Since then , the HSS continues to operate abroad .
In the 1945 election , the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained . Once in power , the Communists introduced a single @-@ party political system , in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch . In 1971 , the Croatian national movement , which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy , culminated in the Croatian Spring , which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines ; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation .
= = = Modern Croatia = = =
In 1989 , the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party . The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party ( HSLS ) , established on 20 May 1989 , followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989 . In December 1989 , Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party . At the same time , the party cancelled political trials , released political prisoners and endorsed a multi @-@ party political system . The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990 , legalising the parties that were already founded .
By the time of the first round of the first multi @-@ party elections , held on 22 April 1990 , there were 33 registered parties . The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes ( the renamed Communist party ) , the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , and the Coalition of People 's Accord ( KNS ) , which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša , and the HSS , which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989 . The runoff election was held on 6 May 1990 . The HDZ , led by Franjo Tuđman , won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS . The KNS , led by Savka Dabčević @-@ Kučar and Miko Tripalo – who had led the Croatian Spring – soon splintered into individual parties . The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary election , when it was defeated by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , led by Račan . Franjo Gregurić , of the HDZ , was appointed prime minister to head a national unity government in July 1991 as the Croatian War of Independence escalated in intensity . His appointment lasted until August 1992 . During his term , Croatia 's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991 . The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 parliamentary election , while the SDP remained the largest opposition party .
Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997 . During his terms , the Constitution of Croatia , adopted in 1990 , provided for a semi @-@ presidential system . After Tuđman 's death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government . Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 and 2005 on a Croatian People 's Party ( HNS ) ticket . Ivo Josipović , an SDP candidate , won the presidential elections in December 2009 and January 2010 . Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović defeated Josipović in the January 2015 election run @-@ off , becoming the first female president of Croatia .
= Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal =
Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal ( born Wesley Cook April 24 , 1954 ) is a convicted murderer who was sentenced to death in 1982 for the 1981 murder of Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner . His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment without parole .
Abu @-@ Jamal became involved in black nationalism in his youth and was a member of the Black Panther Party until October 1970 , after which he became a radio journalist , eventually becoming president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists . On December 9 , 1981 , Faulkner was fatally shot while conducting a routine traffic stop of Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother , William Cook . Abu @-@ Jamal was found at the scene with a bullet wound from Faulkner 's gun and his own discharged revolver beside him . He was arrested and charged with Faulkner 's murder .
Prosecution witnesses identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter and two testified that he had confessed to shooting Faulkner . A jury convicted Abu @-@ Jamal on all counts and sentenced him to death . He spent the next 30 years on death row . After a succession of all possible appeals by Abu @-@ Jamal were exhausted , his conviction was upheld but his death sentence vacated . He was resentenced to life in prison without parole . District Attorney Seth Williams later stated that no further appeals would be filed in pursuit of the death penalty .
Activists , celebrities , and liberal groups have criticized the fairness of Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial , professed his innocence , and opposed his death sentence . The Faulkner family , public authorities , police organizations , and conservative groups have maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial was fair , his guilt undeniable , and his death sentence appropriate . Once described as " perhaps the world 's best known death @-@ row inmate " by The New York Times , during his imprisonment Abu @-@ Jamal has published books and commentaries on social and political issues , including Live from Death Row ( 1995 ) .
= = Early life and activism = =
Abu @-@ Jamal was given the name Mumia in 1968 by his high school teacher , a Kenyan instructing a class on African cultures in which students took African classroom names . According to Abu @-@ Jamal , ' Mumia ' means " Prince " and was the name of Kenyan anti @-@ colonial African nationalists who fought against the British before Kenyan independence . He adopted the surname Abu @-@ Jamal ( " father of Jamal " in Arabic ) after the birth of his son Jamal on July 18 , 1971 . His first marriage at age 19 , to Jamal 's mother , Biba , was short @-@ lived . Their daughter , Lateefa , was born shortly after the wedding . Abu @-@ Jamal married his second wife , Marilyn ( known as " Peachie " ) , in 1977 . Their son , Mazi , was born in early 1978 . By 1981 , Abu @-@ Jamal was living with his third and current wife , Wadiya .
= = = Involvement with the Black Panthers = = =
In his own writings , Abu @-@ Jamal describes his adolescent experience of being " kicked ... into the Black Panther Party " after suffering a beating from " white racists " and a policeman for his efforts to disrupt a George Wallace for President rally in 1968 . From the age of 14 , he helped form the Philadelphia branch of the Black Panther Party with Defense Captain Reggie Schell , and other Panthers , taking appointment , in his own words , as the chapter 's " Lieutenant of Information " , exercising a responsibility for writing information and news communications . In one of the interviews he gave at the time he quoted Mao Zedong , saying that " political power grows out of the barrel of a gun " . That same year , he dropped out of Benjamin Franklin High School and took up residence in the branch 's headquarters . He spent late 1969 in New York City and early 1970 in Oakland , living and working with BPP colleagues in those cities . He was a party member from May 1969 until October 1970 and was subject to Federal Bureau of Investigation COINTELPRO surveillance , with which the Philadelphia police cooperated , from then until about 1974 .
= = = Education and journalism career = = =
After returning to his old high school after his departure from the Panthers , Abu @-@ Jamal was suspended for distributing literature calling for " black revolutionary student power " . He also led unsuccessful protests to change the school name to Malcolm X High . After attaining his GED , he studied briefly at Goddard College in rural Vermont .
By 1975 he was pursuing a vocation in radio newscasting , first at Temple University 's WRTI and then at commercial enterprises . In 1975 , he was employed at radio station WHAT and he became host of a weekly feature program of WCAU @-@ FM in 1978 . He was also employed for brief periods at radio station WPEN , and became active in the local chapter of the Marijuana Users Association of America . From 1979 he worked at National Public Radio @-@ affiliate ( NPR ) WUHY until 1981 when he was asked to submit his resignation after a dispute about the requirements of objective focus in his presentation of news . As a radio journalist he earned the moniker " the voice of the voiceless " and was renowned for identifying with and giving exposure to the MOVE anarcho @-@ primitivist commune in Philadelphia 's Powelton Village neighborhood , including reportage of the 1979 – 80 trial of certain of its members ( the " MOVE Nine " ) convicted of the murder of police officer James Ramp . During his broadcasting career , his high @-@ profile interviews included Julius Erving , Bob Marley and Alex Haley , and he was elected president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists .
At the time of Daniel Faulkner 's murder , Abu @-@ Jamal was working as a taxicab driver in Philadelphia two nights a week to supplement his income . He had been working part @-@ time as a reporter for WDAS , then an African @-@ American @-@ oriented and minority @-@ owned radio station .
= = Arrest for murder and trial = =
At 3 : 55 am on December 9 , 1981 , in Philadelphia , close to the intersection at 13th and Locust Streets , Philadelphia Police Department officer Daniel Faulkner conducted a traffic stop on a vehicle belonging to William Cook , Abu @-@ Jamal 's younger brother . During the traffic stop , Abu @-@ Jamal 's taxi was parked across the street . He ran across the street towards Cook 's car , where Faulkner was shot from behind and then in the face . Abu @-@ Jamal was shot by Faulkner in the stomach . Faulkner died at the scene from the gunshot to his head . Police arrived and arrested Abu @-@ Jamal , who was found wearing a shoulder holster . His revolver , which had five spent cartridges , was beside him . Abu @-@ Jamal was taken directly from the scene of the shooting to Thomas Jefferson University Hospital , where he received treatment for his wound .
Abu @-@ Jamal was charged with the first @-@ degree murder of Officer Faulkner . The case went to trial in June 1982 in Philadelphia . Judge Albert F. Sabo initially agreed to Abu @-@ Jamal 's request to represent himself , with criminal defense attorney Anthony Jackson acting as his legal advisor . During the first day of the trial , Sabo warned Abu @-@ Jamal that he would forfeit his legal right to self @-@ representation if he kept being intentionally disruptive in a fashion that was unbecoming under the law . Due to Abu @-@ Jamal 's continued disruptive behavior , Sabo ruled that Abu @-@ Jamal forfeited his right to self @-@ representation .
= = = Prosecution case at trial = = =
The prosecution presented four witnesses to the court . Robert Chobert , a cab driver who testified he was parked behind Faulkner , identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter . Cynthia White , a prostitute , testified that Abu @-@ Jamal emerged from a nearby parking lot and shot Faulkner . Michael Scanlan , a motorist , testified that from two car lengths away , he saw a man , matching Abu @-@ Jamal 's description , run across the street from a parking lot and shoot Faulkner . Albert Magilton , a pedestrian who did not see the actual murder , testified to witnessing Faulkner pull over Cook 's car . At the point of seeing Abu @-@ Jamal start to cross the street toward them from the parking lot , Magilton turned away and lost sight of what happened next .
The prosecution also presented two witnesses who were at the hospital after the shootings . Hospital security guard Priscilla Durham and police officer Garry Bell testified that Abu @-@ Jamal confessed in the hospital by saying , " I shot the motherfucker , and I hope the motherfucker dies . "
A .38 caliber Charter Arms revolver , belonging to Abu @-@ Jamal , with five spent cartridges was retrieved beside him at the scene . He was wearing a shoulder holster , and Anthony Paul , the Supervisor of the Philadelphia Police Department 's firearms identification unit , testified at trial that the cartridge cases and rifling characteristics of the weapon were consistent with bullet fragments taken from Faulkner 's body . Tests to confirm that Abu @-@ Jamal had handled and fired the weapon were not performed , as contact with arresting police and other surfaces at the scene could have compromised the forensic value of such tests .
= = = Defense case at trial = = =
The defense maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal was innocent and that the prosecution witnesses were unreliable . The defense presented nine character witnesses , including poet Sonia Sanchez , who testified that Abu @-@ Jamal was " viewed by the black community as a creative , articulate , peaceful , genial man " . Another defense witness , Dessie Hightower , testified that he saw a man running along the street shortly after the shooting although he did not see the actual shooting itself . His testimony contributed to the development of a " running man theory " , based on the possibility that a " running man " may have been the actual shooter . Veronica Jones also testified for the defense , but she did not see anyone running . Other potential defense witnesses refused to appear in court . Abu @-@ Jamal did not testify in his own defense . Nor did his brother , William Cook , who told investigators at the crime scene : " I ain 't got nothing to do with this . "
= = = Verdict and sentence = = =
The jury delivered a unanimous guilty verdict after three hours of deliberations .
In the sentencing phase of the trial , Abu @-@ Jamal read to the jury from a prepared statement . He was then cross @-@ examined about issues relevant to the assessment of his character by Joseph McGill , the prosecuting attorney .
In his statement Abu @-@ Jamal criticized his attorney as a " legal trained lawyer " who was imposed on him against his will and who " knew he was inadequate to the task and chose to follow the directions of this black @-@ robed conspirator , Albert Sabo , even if it meant ignoring my directions " . He claimed that his rights had been " deceitfully stolen " from him by Sabo , particularly focusing on the denial of his request to receive defense assistance from non @-@ attorney John Africa and being prevented from proceeding pro se . He quoted remarks of John Africa , and said :
Does it matter whether a white man is charged with killing a black man or a black man is charged with killing a white man ? As for justice when the prosecutor represents the Commonwealth the Judge represents the Commonwealth and the court @-@ appointed lawyer is paid and supported by the Commonwealth , who follows the wishes of the defendant , the man charged with the crime ? If the court @-@ appointed lawyer ignores , or goes against the wishes of the man he is charged with representing , whose wishes does he follow ? Who does he truly represent or work for ? ... I am innocent of these charges that I have been charged of and convicted of and despite the connivance of Sabo , McGill and Jackson to deny me my so @-@ called rights to represent myself , to assistance of my choice , to personally select a jury who is totally of my peers , to cross @-@ examine witnesses , and to make both opening and closing arguments , I am still innocent of these charges .
Abu @-@ Jamal was subsequently sentenced to death by the unanimous decision of the jury .
= = Appeals and review = =
= = = State appeals = = =
Direct appeal of his conviction was considered and denied by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania on March 6 , 1989 , subsequently denying rehearing . The Supreme Court of the United States denied his petition for writ of certiorari on October 1 , 1990 , and denied his petition for rehearing twice up to June 10 , 1991 .
On June 1 , 1995 , his death warrant was signed by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge . Its execution was suspended while Abu @-@ Jamal pursued state post @-@ conviction review . At the post @-@ conviction review hearings , new witnesses were called . William " Dales " Singletary testified that he saw the shooting and that the gunman was the passenger in Cook 's car . Singletary 's account contained discrepancies which rendered it " not credible " in the opinion of the court . William Harmon , a convicted fraudster , testified that Faulkner 's murderer fled in a car which pulled up at the crime scene , and could not have been Abu @-@ Jamal . However , Robert Harkins testified that he had witnessed a man stand over Faulkner as the latter lay wounded on the ground , who shot him point @-@ blank in the face and then " walked and sat down on the curb " .
The six judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ruled unanimously that all issues raised by Abu @-@ Jamal , including the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel , were without merit . The Supreme Court of the United States denied a petition for certiorari against that decision on October 4 , 1999 , enabling Ridge to sign a second death warrant on October 13 , 1999 . Its execution in turn was stayed as Abu @-@ Jamal commenced his pursuit of federal habeas corpus review .
In 1999 , Arnold Beverly claimed that he and an unnamed assailant , not Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal , shot Daniel Faulkner as part of a contract killing because Faulkner was interfering with graft and payoff to corrupt police . The Beverly affidavit became an item of division for Mumia 's defense team , as some thought it usable and others rejected Beverly 's story as " not credible " .
Private investigator George Newman claimed in 2001 that Chobert had recanted his testimony . Commentators also noted that police and news photographs of the crime scene did not show Chobert 's taxi , and that Cynthia White , the only witness at the trial to testify to seeing the taxi , had previously provided crime scene descriptions that omitted it . Cynthia White was declared to be dead by the state of New Jersey in 1992 although Pamela Jenkins claimed that she saw White alive as late as 1997 . Mumia supporters often claim that White was a police informant and that she falsified her testimony against Abu @-@ Jamal . Priscilla Durham 's step @-@ brother , Kenneth Pate , who was imprisoned with Abu @-@ Jamal on other charges , has since claimed that Durham admitted to not hearing the hospital confession . The hospital doctors stated that Abu @-@ Jamal was " on the verge of fainting " when brought in and they did not overhear a confession . In 2008 , the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected a further request from Abu @-@ Jamal for a hearing into claims that the trial witnesses perjured themselves on the grounds that he had waited too long before filing the appeal .
On March 26 , 2012 the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected his most recent appeal for retrial asserted on the basis that a 2009 report by the National Academy of Science demonstrated that forensic evidence put by the prosecution and accepted into evidence in the original trial was unreliable . It was reported to be the former death row inmate 's last legal appeal .
= = = Federal ruling directing resentencing = = =
Abu @-@ Jamal did not make any public statements about Faulkner 's murder until May 2001 . In his version of events , he claimed that he was sitting in his cab across the street when he heard shouting , then saw a police vehicle , then heard the sound of gunshots . Upon seeing his brother appearing disoriented across the street , Abu @-@ Jamal ran to him from the parking lot and was shot by a police officer . The driver originally stopped by police officer Faulkner , Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother William Cook , did not testify or make any statement until April 29 , 2001 , when he claimed that he had not seen who had shot Faulkner .
Judge William H. Yohn Jr. of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania upheld the conviction but vacated the sentence of death on December 18 , 2001 , citing irregularities in the original process of sentencing . Particularly ,
... the jury instructions and verdict sheet in this case involved an unreasonable application of federal law . The charge and verdict form created a reasonable likelihood that the jury believed it was precluded from considering any mitigating circumstance that had not been found unanimously to exist .
He ordered the State of Pennsylvania to commence new sentencing proceedings within 180 days and ruled that it was unconstitutional to require that a jury 's finding of circumstances mitigating against determining a sentence of death be unanimous . Eliot Grossman and Marlene Kamish , attorneys for Abu @-@ Jamal , criticized the ruling on the grounds that it denied the possibility of a trial de novo at which they could introduce evidence that their client had been framed . Prosecutors also criticized the ruling ; Officer Faulkner 's widow Maureen described Abu @-@ Jamal as a " remorseless , hate @-@ filled killer " who would " be permitted to enjoy the pleasures that come from simply being alive " on the basis of the judgment . Both parties appealed .
= = = Federal appeal = = =
On December 6 , 2005 , the Third Circuit Court admitted four issues for appeal of the ruling of the District Court :
in relation to sentencing , whether the jury verdict form had been flawed and the judge 's instructions to the jury had been confusing ;
in relation to conviction and sentencing , whether racial bias in jury selection existed to an extent tending to produce an inherently biased jury and therefore an unfair trial ( the Batson claim ) ;
in relation to conviction , whether the prosecutor improperly attempted to reduce jurors ' sense of responsibility by telling them that a guilty verdict would be subsequently vetted and subject to appeal ; and
in relation to post @-@ conviction review hearings in 1995 – 6 , whether the presiding judge , who had also presided at the trial , demonstrated unacceptable bias in his conduct .
The Third Circuit Court heard oral arguments in the appeals on May 17 , 2007 , at the United States Courthouse in Philadelphia . The appeal panel consisted of Chief Judge Anthony Joseph Scirica , Judge Thomas Ambro , and Judge Robert Cowen . The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sought to reinstate the sentence of death , on the basis that Yohn 's ruling was flawed , as he should have deferred to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court which had already ruled on the issue of sentencing , and the Batson claim was invalid because Abu @-@ Jamal made no complaints during the original jury selection . Although Abu @-@ Jamal 's jury was racially mixed with 2 blacks and 10 whites at the time of his unanimous conviction , his counsel told the Third Circuit Court that Abu @-@ Jamal did not get a fair trial because the jury was racially biased , misinformed , the judge was a racist , and noted that the prosecution used eleven out of fourteen peremptory challenges to eliminate prospective black jurors . Terri Maurer @-@ Carter , a former Philadelphia court stenographer claimed in a 2001 affidavit nearly 20 years after the trial that she overheard Judge Sabo say " Yeah , and I 'm going to help them fry the nigger " in the course of a conversation with three people present regarding Abu @-@ Jamal 's case . Sabo denied having made any such comment .
On March 27 , 2008 , the three @-@ judge panel issued a majority 2 – 1 opinion upholding Yohn 's 2001 opinion but rejecting the bias and Batson claims , with Judge Ambro dissenting on the Batson issue . On July 22 , 2008 , Abu @-@ Jamal 's formal petition seeking reconsideration of the decision by the full Third Circuit panel of 12 judges was denied . On April 6 , 2009 , the United States Supreme Court also refused to hear Abu @-@ Jamal 's appeal , allowing his conviction to stand . On January 19 , 2010 , the Supreme Court ordered the appeals court to reconsider its decision to rescind the death penalty , with the same three @-@ judge panel convening in Philadelphia on November 9 , 2010 , to hear oral argument . On April 26 , 2011 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reaffirmed its prior decision to vacate the death sentence on the grounds that the jury instructions and verdict form were ambiguous and confusing . The Supreme Court declined to hear the case in October .
= = = Death penalty dropped = = =
On December 7 , 2011 , District Attorney of Philadelphia R. Seth Williams announced that prosecutors , with the support of the victim 's family , would no longer seek the death penalty for Abu @-@ Jamal . Faulkner had indicated she did not wish to relive the trauma of another trial , and that it would be extremely difficult to present the case against Abu @-@ Jamal again , after the passage of 30 years and the deaths of several key witnesses . Williams , the prosecutor , said that Abu @-@ Jamal will spend the rest of his life in prison without the possibility of parole , a sentence that was reaffirmed by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania on July 9 , 2013 . After the press conference , Maureen Faulkner made an emotional statement harshly condemning Abu @-@ Jamal :
I would like to say that I believe the lowest dimension of hell has been reserved for child molesters and unrepentant murderers , like Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal . After thirty years of waiting , the time remaining before Abu @-@ Jamal stands before his ultimate judge . It doesn 't seem so far off as it once did when I was younger . I look forward to that day so I can finally close the chapter of my life and live with the gratification and assurance that Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal will finally receive the punishment he deserves , for all eternity .
= = Life as a prisoner = =
In 1991 Abu @-@ Jamal published an essay in the Yale Law Journal , on the death penalty and his death row experience . In May 1994 , Abu @-@ Jamal was engaged by National Public Radio 's All Things Considered program to deliver a series of monthly three @-@ minute commentaries on crime and punishment . The broadcast plans and commercial arrangement were canceled following condemnations from , among others , the Fraternal Order of Police and US Senator Bob Dole ( Kansas Republican Party ) . Abu @-@ Jamal sued NPR for not airing his work , but a federal judge dismissed the suit . The commentaries later appeared in print in May 1995 as part of Live from Death Row .
In 1999 , he was invited to record a keynote address for the graduating class at The Evergreen State College . The event was protested by some . In 2000 , he recorded a commencement address for Antioch College . The now defunct New College of California School of Law presented him with an honorary degree " for his struggle to resist the death penalty " . On October 5 , 2014 , he gave the commencement speech at Goddard College , via playback of a recording . As before , the choice of Abu @-@ Jamal was controversial .
With occasional interruptions due to prison disciplinary actions , Abu @-@ Jamal has for many years been a regular commentator on an online broadcast , sponsored by Prison Radio , as well as a regular columnist for Junge Welt , a Marxist newspaper in Germany . In 1995 , he was punished with solitary confinement for engaging in entrepreneurship contrary to prison regulations . Subsequent to the airing of the 1996 HBO documentary Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal : A Case For Reasonable Doubt ? , which included footage from visitation interviews conducted with him , the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections acted to ban outsiders from using any recording equipment in state prisons . In litigation before the US Court of Appeals in 1998 he successfully established his right to write for financial gain in prison . The same litigation also established that the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections had illegally opened his mail in an attempt to establish whether he was writing for financial gain . When , for a brief time in August 1999 , he began delivering his radio commentaries live on the Pacifica Network 's Democracy Now ! weekday radio newsmagazine , prison staff severed the connecting wires of his telephone from their mounting in mid @-@ performance . He was later allowed to resume his broadcasts , and hundreds of his broadcasts have been aired on Pacifica Radio .
His publications include Death Blossoms : Reflections from a Prisoner of Conscience , in which he explores religious themes , All Things Censored , a political critique examining issues of crime and punishment , Live From Death Row , a diary of life on Pennsylvania 's death row , and We Want Freedom : A Life in the Black Panther Party , which is a history of the Black Panthers drawing on autobiographical material .
At the end of January 2012 he was released into general prison population at State Correctional Institution – Mahanoy . He went into diabetic shock on March 30 , 2015 and has been diagnosed with active Hepatitis C. In August 2015 his attorneys filed suit in the US District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania upon the allegation that he has not received appropriate medical care for his health conditions .
= = Popular support and opposition = =
Labor unions , politicians , advocates , educators , the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund , and human rights advocacy organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concern about the impartiality of the trial of Abu @-@ Jamal , though Amnesty International neither takes a position on the guilt or innocence of Abu @-@ Jamal nor classifies him as a political prisoner . They are opposed by the family of Daniel Faulkner , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , the City of Philadelphia , Republican politicians , and the Fraternal Order of Police . In August 1999 , the Fraternal Order of Police called for an economic boycott against all individuals and organizations that support Abu @-@ Jamal .
Abu @-@ Jamal has been made an honorary citizen of about 25 cities around the world , including Montreal , Palermo , and Paris .
In 2001 , he received the sixth biennial Erich Mühsam Prize , named after an anarcho @-@ communist essayist , which recognizes activism in line with that of its namesake . In October 2002 , he was made an honorary member of the German political organization Society of People Persecuted by the Nazi Regime – Federation of Anti @-@ Fascists ( VVN @-@ BdA ) which Germany 's Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution has considered to be influenced by left @-@ wing extremism .
On April 29 , 2006 , a newly paved road in the Parisian suburb of Saint @-@ Denis was named Rue Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal in his honor . In protest of the street @-@ naming , US Congressman Michael Fitzpatrick and Senator Rick Santorum , both members of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , introduced resolutions in both Houses of Congress condemning the decision . The House of Representatives voted 368 – 31 in favor of Fitzpatrick 's resolution . In December 2006 , the 25th anniversary of the murder , the executive committee of the Republican Party for the 59th Ward of the City of Philadelphia — covering approximately Germantown , Philadelphia — filed two criminal complaints in the French legal system against the city of Paris and the city of Saint @-@ Denis , accusing the municipalities of " glorifying " Abu @-@ Jamal and alleging the offense " apology or denial of crime " in respect of their actions .
In 2007 , the widow of Officer Faulkner coauthored a book with Philadelphia radio journalist Michael Smerconish entitled Murdered by Mumia : A Life Sentence of Pain , Loss , and Injustice . The book was part memoir of Faulkner 's widow , part discussion in which they chronicled Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial and discussed evidence for his conviction , and part discussion on supporting the death penalty . J. Patrick O 'Connor , editor and publisher of crimemagazine.com , argues in his book The Framing of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal that the preponderance of evidence establishes that it was not Abu @-@ Jamal but a passenger in Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother 's car , Kenneth Freeman , who killed Faulkner , and that the Philadelphia Police Department and District Attorney 's Office framed Abu @-@ Jamal . His book was criticized in the American Thinker as " replete with selective use of testimony , distortions , unsubstantiated charges , and a theory that has failed Abu @-@ Jamal in the past . "
In 2009 , Radio host Rush Limbaugh professed no doubt about Abu @-@ Jamal 's guilt , calling him a " notorious Philadelphia murderer " .
In early 2014 , President Barack Obama nominated Debo P. Adegbile , a former lawyer for the NAACP who worked on Abu @-@ Jamal 's case , to head the civil rights division of the Justice Department , but the nomination was rejected by the U.S. Senate on a bipartisan basis because of Adegbile 's prior public support of Abu @-@ Jamal .
In April 10 , 2015 Marylin Zuniga , a teacher at Forest Street Elementary School in Orange , New Jersey , was suspended without pay after asking her students to write letters to Abu @-@ Jamal , who fell ill in prison due to complications from diabetes , without approval from the school or parents . Some parents and police leaders denounced her actions . On the other hand , community members , parents , teachers , and professors expressed their support and condemned Zuniga 's suspension . Scholars and educators nationwide including Noam Chomsky , Chris Hedges and Cornel West among others signed a letter calling for her immediate reinstatement . On May 13 , 2015 The Orange Preparatory Academy board voted to dismiss Marylin Zuniga after hearing from her and several of her supporters .
= = Written works = =
Writing on the Wall : Selected Prison Writings of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal City Lights Publishers ( 2015 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872866751
The Classroom and the Cell : Conversations on Black Life in America Third World Press ( 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0883783375
Jailhouse Lawyers : Prisoners Defending Prisoners V. The U.S.A City Lights Publishers ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872864696
We Want Freedom : A Life In The Black Panther Party South End Press ( 2008 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0896087187
Faith Of Our Fathers : An Examination Of The Spiritual Life Of African And African @-@ American People Africa World Pr ( 2003 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1592210190
All Things Censored Seven Stories Press ( 2000 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1583220221
Death Blossoms : Reflections From A Prisoner Of Conscience Plough Publishing House ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0874860863
Live from Death Row Harper Perennial ( 1996 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0380727667
= Brandon Minor =
Brandon Ricardo Minor ( born July 24 , 1988 ) is a former American football running back . He was signed by the Bears as an undrafted free agent in 2010 , but after being released during the final cuts , he has been on the New Orleans Saints and Indianapolis Colts practice squads in 2010 . He played college football at Michigan .
At Michigan , he finished second on the team in rushing as a freshman and a sophomore and led the team in rushing as a junior and a senior . As a junior , he was an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by the coaches . He had previously been ranked as the number one high school football fullback in the nation , according to Rivals.com.
He spent his first two years at Michigan serving as one of the primary backups to Mike Hart . In his third year , he emerged from a field of five runners who were vying to replace Hart , including two true freshmen , as the leading rusher and scorer . He has shared starting responsibilities in his junior and senior seasons . He entered his senior season on the watch lists for the Doak Walker Award and the Maxwell Award . ESPN.com ranked him as the 22nd best player and third best running back in the Big Ten Conference before the season started .
Following two seasons spent on various inactive NFL rosters , he became a defendant in a drug possession case . He is scheduled to face his charges in court in January 2012 .
= = Youth career = =
Minor grew up as a Michigan Wolverines fan . His mother , Julie Gilliam , has pictures of him at age six wearing a Michigan uniform . At age nine , Minor wrote the university to inquire about becoming a Michigan football player . Every year he and his mother watched the Michigan - Ohio State game and rooted for Michigan .
= = = High school = = =
Minor inherited the Varina High School starting varsity team role as a sophomore in 2003 , and he gained 209 rushing yards in his first start . That season , he helped his team reach the Virginia Central Region , Division 6 championship ( the qualifying game for the Virginia High School League state semifinals ) . He concluded the regular season as an All @-@ District first @-@ team selection and after the playoffs was selected as a second @-@ team all @-@ region choice . During the season he rushed for 1 @,@ 750 yards and 22 touchdowns for the 10 – 2 ( 7 – 0 ) Varina Blue Devils . Minor also played varsity basketball as a sophomore . During the season , he once made seven three @-@ point field goals in a game .
As a junior , when Varina 's former Capital District offensive player of the year Army Spc . Clarence Adams III died serving the 91st Engineer Battalion , 1st Cavalry Division in Baghdad , Iraq , Minor gave up his number 3 to wear Adams ' # 33 as a tribute . In the District championship game , he rushed for 239 yards on 27 carries , including four touchdown runs . In the subsequent Central Region , Division 6 semifinals , he set a Central Region playoff record by rushing for 296 yards , but his undefeated top @-@ ranked team was upset . He concluded the season as both a first @-@ team all @-@ district and all @-@ Metro Region selection after compiling 2 @,@ 091 yards rushing and scoring 32 rushing touchdowns ( plus 2 receiving touchdowns ) . He was also selected to the Group AAA Virginia High School Football Coaches Association all @-@ state second @-@ team by the coaches .
Entering his senior season , he was ranked as the sixth best senior football player in Virginia by TechSideline.com. The Roanoke Times described him as " one of the top five recruits in the state " at the time of his August 2005 visit to see the first day of Virginia Tech Hokies football practice . At the time , he was considering Miami , Michigan , Florida , Virginia Tech , Tennessee , LSU and Ohio State . However , he started the season on crutches , due to a torn hip flexor . He returned to the lineup for the team 's final regular season game and rushed for 174 yards on 28 carries . Davon Morgan , his cousin , who now plays strong safety for Virginia Tech , was the team 's quarterback . Despite missing most of the season , he was still honored as an all @-@ district and all @-@ region selection . His three @-@ year career totals were 4 @,@ 259 yards and 64 touchdowns . As a graduating senior he was the number one ranked high school football fullback in the nation , according to rivals.com. Following his senior season , he scored the only touchdown in the East @-@ West Virginia High School Coaches Association All @-@ star game .
= = College career = =
= = = Lloyd Carr era = = =
In January 2006 , Minor selected the University of Michigan . Although he did not enroll in the 2006 Summer semester , he reported to Michigan on June 16 for strength and conditioning training . Minor and fellow freshman Carlos Brown were behind three returning running backs ( Mike Hart , Kevin Grady and senior Jerome Jackson ) on the depth chart entering the season . Minor was considered the less heralded than Brown , who was regarded as the fastest player on the team . On opening day , only Hart and Grady had more carries than Minor , in part because Jackson , who entered his senior season with 505 career rushing yards , did not dress . In his first carry as a Wolverine , he rushed for 24 yards against the Vanderbilt Commodores during the September 2 season opening game . Nonetheless , the depth chart was not very clear behind Hart . By late September , Minor was clearly third on the depth chart and it seemed that Brown might be redshirted . When Hart left the game due to injury against Michigan State on October 7 , Minor scored his first touchdown on a 40 @-@ yard run . He had his first 100 @-@ yard game on November 4 , when he rushed for 108 yards on 12 carries , including a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run in a 34 – 26 win against Ball State . As true freshman member of the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor rushed for a total of 238 yards on 42 carries , which was second on the team to Hart .
During April 2007 , Grady tore his anterior cruciate ligament and was lost for the season . In August , Brown broke his hand . It appeared Minor was seriously injured on October 13 when he was carted off the field and left the stadium wearing a protective boot on crutches . However , he recovered and for the next two weeks he and Brown combined to replace the injured Hart . He had his second 100 @-@ yard game and first 150 @-@ yard game on October 27 of that season during the 34 – 10 Little Brown Jug game victory against the Minnesota Golden Gophers when he rushed for 157 yards on 21 carries , including a 46 @-@ yard run and one touchdown . Although Hart returned to play in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on November 3 , he left the game early and Minor started the second half . Hart missed the next game on November 10 , but Brown and Minor had poor performances . In all three of Hart 's full game absences , Brown was the starter . As a sophomore on the 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor improved his rushing totals to 385 yards on 90 carries , which was again second on the team to Hart .
= = = Rich Rodriguez era = = =
In 2008 Rich Rodriguez replaced Lloyd Carr as head coach . In the spring , Brown broke his finger weightlifting and Grady was still trying to get healthy . In early August , it appeared that juniors Brown and Minor would vie for the starting job because fourth @-@ year junior Grady was under suspension related to driving while intoxicated charges . However , in camp it became apparent very quickly that true freshmen Sam McGuffie and Michael Shaw , would have a significant role in the newly installed spread option offense . With both Brown and Minor nursing injuries , McGuffie was tentatively penciled into the starting position on the depth chart .
As a junior member of the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor became the team leader in rushing . However , he only started four games , while McGuffie started 6 , Brown started 1 and Shaw started 1 . McGuffie was the starter until he lost the job to Minor . Minor gave way to Shaw ( November 8 ) and Brown ( November 15 ) as the starter due to his injuries . Minor totalled 533 yards on 103 carries . He had nine rushing touchdowns and added two as a receiver . Of these eleven touchdowns , seven came in a three @-@ week span that included a 117 @-@ yard two @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Penn State on October 18 and a 155 @-@ yard three @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Purdue on November 1 . Sandwiched between these efforts , Minor scored on a 19 @-@ yard reception to compliment his 55 yards and a rushing touchdown in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on October 25 . The Penn State game was Minor 's first career start . During Minor 's junior year , he played with a wrist injury that impaired his ability to hold the football with his right arm and his ability to stiffarm opponents . He was impaired by a variety of injuries throughout the season . At the conclusion of the 2008 Big Ten Conference football season , Minor was chosen as an honorable mention all @-@ conference selection by the coaches .
McGuffie transferred to the Rice Owls after the season . As a senior member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor was named to a pair of watch lists : ( Doak Walker Award and Maxwell Award ) . He was also selected by ESPN as the 22nd best player and 3rd best running back ( behind Evan Royster and John Clay ) in the Big Ten Conference before the season started . Minor missed the first game of the season due to a high ankle sprain . In the second game , which was the 2009 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game , he rushed for 106 yards and a touchdown on 16 carries during the 38 – 34 victory over Notre Dame . The ankle sprain hampered him much of the season and caused him to miss the October 17 game against Delaware State . He had a season @-@ high 154 @-@ yard , 3 @-@ touchdown effort against Purdue on November 7 . A shoulder injury kept him out of the last game of the season against Ohio State . Over the course of his collegiate career , he accumulated 20 rushing touchdowns and 1 @,@ 658 yards . The torn rotator cuff also kept him from participating in the January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2010 = = =
Minor signed as an undrafted free agent with the Chicago Bears on April 24 , 2010 , after going undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . He was released on September 1 . He then signed with the New Orleans Saints to their practice squad . However , Minor was back with the Bears before being released at the beginning of October and signed by the Indianapolis Colts . Minor was released by the Colts in October . In November , Minor tried out for the Green Bay Packers before ending the season as a member of the Denver Broncos ' practice squad .
= = = 2011 = = =
On September 4 , 2011 , the Broncos placed Minor on injured reserve . They waived him on October 10 . In November 2011 , he was " charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute " by the Virginia Commonwealth University police department following a traffic stop . He is scheduled for a traffic court appearance on January 18 .
= Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood =
" Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 18 , 1993 . In the episode , Bart , intoxicated from an all @-@ syrup squishee , mistakenly joins the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that 's not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America . After finding advantages to being a member , Bart gets taken in by the group and eventually goes rafting on a father @-@ son outing with Homer .
The episode was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . He recorded his lines at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . The episode makes cultural references to the films My Dinner with Andre , The Terminator , On the Town , Crocodile Dundee , Deliverance , Friday the 13th , and Boyz n the Hood ( in the title ) as well as the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After being forced to leave the amusement arcade for being out of money , Bart and Milhouse find $ 20 that Homer lost and order a Super Squishee made entirely out of syrup from Apu at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . With their senses reeling from the high sugar content of the drink , they spend the rest of the money on a night out in town . The next morning , Bart wakes up with a hangover and realizes that in the revelry of the night before he joined the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that is not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America .
Although Bart initially intends to drop out of the group as soon as possible , he decides to attend a meeting to avoid a pop quiz at school . Bart dislikes the first meeting , but when he finds out that he gets to have a pocket knife , he decides to keep attending . After a while , Bart starts to enjoy being a member of the Junior Campers , which Homer mocks him relentlessly for . Next , a father @-@ son rafting trip is to be held , so Bart has to bring Homer . Homer does not enjoy the experience , especially when he learns that he and Bart have to share a raft with Ned Flanders and his son , Rod . Due to Homer losing the map after making it into a makeshift hat , they accidentally take the wrong turn and find themselves lost at sea . They stay stranded with no food or water for several days , as no rescue is forthcoming ; the Springfield Police Department refuses to search for them because the Coast Guard boat they were using is out of refreshments . After several other failed attempts at being rescued or finding food , the raft springs a leak after Homer accidentally drops a pocket knife he was intending to gift to Bart. All seems lost , but then Homer smells his way to a Krusty Burger on an off @-@ shore oil rig . They are saved , and Bart is proud of his father .
Meanwhile , the other Junior Campers , led by Ernest Borgnine , take the correct route , ironically they end up in an even worse position : after finding themselves trapped in a dark , tangled swamp ( while being hunted by mountain men ) , they are attacked by a bear that Borgnine tries but fails to fight off ( due to Homer stealing his Swiss Army Knife ) , and they finally flee to an abandoned summer camp . At the camp , they start singing songs , but are soon attacked by an unseen figure lurking in the woods , and their fates are left unknown .
= = Production = =
" Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . The episode was recorded at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . The staff liked his work on the films Marty and From Here to Eternity , so they asked him to do a guest appearance on the show . Borgnine felt he could not say no to the offer because his grandchildren were fans of the show . In the final scene of the episode , Borgnine plays a guitar and sings campfire songs with the children . Borgnine was a guitar player in real life , so he brought his own guitar with him to the recording studio . Borgnine apologized because he felt that he was not being able to sing very well , but Nancy Cartwright , who provides the voice of Bart , thought his voice " added to the authenticity of his character " . The Simpsons 's creator Matt Groening thought the recording sessions with Borgnine were " so much fun " . Hank Azaria , who provides the voice of Apu , commented that Borgnine " had no idea what the hell he was doing . He 's a good actor , and he read his lines just fine , but he had no idea what the show was , no idea what we were doing . "
In her book My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Cartwright comments that she was a fan of Borgnine 's performance in Marty . She writes that the film had " changed [ her ] forever " , and that it made her " realize that actors have the power through their work to inspire and enlighten others . " She recalls that when Borgnine arrived for the recording session , she " lost all coolness " and ran up to him and exclaimed " ohmygod , Marty ! "
= = Cultural references = =
When Bart and Milhouse visit the local video arcade at the beginning of the episode , Martin Prince is seen playing an arcade game based on the 1981 film My Dinner with Andre . Other games at the arcade include a game based on the 1984 film The Terminator . The " Springfield , Springfield " number performed by Bart and Milhouse on their night out in town is a reference to the musical number " New York , New York " from the film On the Town , starring Gene Kelly and Frank Sinatra . During a scene in which Hans Moleman and Moe fight with knives , Hans tells Moe , " You call that a knife ? This is a knife ! " , a reference to a line from the 1986 film Crocodile Dundee . Ernest Borgnine introduces himself a la Troy McClure to the Junior Campers by recalling his role in From Here to Eternity , a film which modern children are unlikely to have seen . During a hallucination , Homer imagines himself singing the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies while dancing with lollipops and ice cream cones . While on the raft , Homer misquotes lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner when he says " Water , water everywhere / Let 's all have a drink . The scene in which Borgnine and the other rafters drift through a dark forest watched by mountain men is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film Deliverance , and the scene features the music from the film 's " Dueling Banjos " scene . The unseen person or creature that attacks Borgnine at the end of the episode is implied to be Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th film series .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 15 to November 21 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , translating to 12 @.@ 3 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A terrific episode , with Homer so stupid it isn 't true , yet still saving the day . Seeing Ned Flanders get it wrong is great , but the show @-@ stealer is a toss @-@ up between Borgnine 's great self @-@ deprecating role , the ironic seagull , and the dolphins . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called it a " brilliant episode from start to finish " . He commented that " We see what an amazing amount of goods and services one can purchase in Springfield with only $ 20 , and we get a fun spoof of scouting . Add to that terrific rivalry moments between Bart and Homer and the show excels . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict called the plot of the episode " typically inspired " , and gave it a grade of A. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5 . TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly wrote : " And just when you think the Simpsons ' creators have taken parody as far as it can go , they air an episode like this . The writers cram the 22 @-@ minute episode with allusions to movie genres including disaster movies , Broadway musicals , adventure @-@ suspense and classic teen horror . " Adam Suraf of Dunkirkma.net named it one of his ten favorite episodes of the show . He called the musical sequence a " classic " . Rick Porter of Zap 2 It wrote in that he was not a " fan " of the episode 's second half : " Despite the presence of Borgnine , Homer is a little too aggressively stupid for my taste " . He thought the first part was " absolutely brilliant " , though .
Kurt M. Koenigsberger analyzed a scene from the episode in his piece " Commodity Culture and Its Discontents " , published in the compilation work Leaving Springfield : The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture edited by John Alberti . He commented that The Simpsons ' literary and cultural awareness extends to the " conventions of its own medium " in this episode . Bart criticizes an Itchy & Scratchy episode because Itchy stakes down Scratchy 's appendages and props his belly to form a tent with faulty knots . With Homer looking on from the couch , Lisa reminds Bart that cartoons do not simply reproduce reality , a point hammered on as a second Homer meanders past the living @-@ room window . Koenigsberger said that " this moment and many others like it reveal a strong sense of self @-@ awareness within the show , an awareness especially characteristic of high modernism . "
In the United Kingdom , when the 300th episode was shown , Sky 1 held a Golden D 'ohnuts evening , in which viewers voted for their favourite episodes to win in each category . This episode won the category of : Best School Jinx .
= Last Exit on Brooklyn =
The Last Exit on Brooklyn was a Seattle University District coffeehouse established in 1967 by Irv Cisski . It is known for its part in the history of Seattle 's counterculture , for its pioneering role in establishing Seattle 's coffee culture , and as a former chess venue frequented by several master players .
= = History = =
The Last Exit on Brooklyn opened on June 30 , 1967 at 3930 Brooklyn Avenue NE near the University of Washington campus in a small light @-@ industrial building leased from the University . It was one of the pioneer espresso bars in Seattle , adding an espresso machine shortly after Café Allegro opened the first in 1975 . The Last Exit was known for its original espresso concoction named the Caffè Medici – " a doppio poured over chocolate syrup and orange peel with whipped cream on top " . Described in 1985 as " America 's second oldest , continuously running coffeehouse " , it was also known for its inexpensive food and as a venue for folk music and bohemian conversation .
The Last Exit was also notable as a popular destination for Seattle 's amateur and professional Go and chess players including Peter Biyiasas , Viktors Pupols , and Yasser Seirawan , who wrote of the venue , " Those first chess lessons soon led me to the legendary Last Exit on Brooklyn coffee house , a chess haven where an unlikely bunch of unusual people congregates to do battle . " Interviewed by Sports Illustrated in 1981 , Seirawan described the Last Exit as " Scrabble players , backgammon players , chess and game hustling ... This became my home . This was to become my family . "
When interviewed by Mary Lasher of Chess Life in 1985 , owner Irv Cisski said , " So what if games @-@ people turn away business . They add flavor . Chess and Go are assets to a coffeehouse . " The Last Exit was the subject of a 1987 retrospective in The Seattle Times in which Cisski described his intent to " create a haven where students and the benign crazies " were welcome and where " everyone felt equal and there were no sacred cows " . It was later described by Seattle writer and journalist Knute Berger as
one of Seattle 's great ' 60s landmarks , a gathering place for UW students , radicals , poets , nut jobs , chess masters , teens , intellectuals , workers , musicians , artists , beatniks , and hippies ... I remember the din , the open @-@ mike music , cigarette smoke , impromptu poetry readings , the arguments of lefties , libertarians , crackpots , and cultists . You could hear the rhythm and roar of the counterculture as it lived and breathed .
Cisski died on August 25 , 1992 . In 1993 the University repossessed the building occupied by the coffeehouse , and the Last Exit 's new owners moved it to upper University Way . The Last Exit on Brooklyn closed in 2000 . The space the original Last Exit once occupied now houses staff members from the University of Washington 's Human Resources Department .
= = In popular culture = =
The Last Exit was included in Clark Humphrey 's 2006 book of historical photographs , Vanishing Seattle .
Descriptions of the interior and atmosphere of the Last Exit appear in Kristin Hannah 's 2008 novel , Firefly Lane , in David Guterson 's 2008 novel , The Other , and in Marjorie Kowalski Cole 's 2012 The City Beneath the Snow : Stories .
= Laurence Olivier =
Laurence Kerr Olivier , Baron Olivier , OM ( / ˈlɒrəns kɜːr ɒˈlɪvieɪ / ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He also worked in films throughout his career , playing more than fifty cinema roles . Late in his career , he had considerable success in television roles .
His family had no theatrical connections , but Olivier 's father , a clergyman , decided that his son should become an actor . After attending a drama school in London , Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s . In 1930 he had his first important West End success in Noël Coward 's Private Lives , and he appeared in his first film . In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of Romeo and Juliet alongside Gielgud and Peggy Ashcroft , and by the end of the decade he was an established star . In the 1940s , together with Richardson and John Burrell , Olivier was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic , building it into a highly respected company . There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare 's Richard III and Sophocles 's Oedipus . In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor @-@ manager , but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the avant garde English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in The Entertainer , a part he later played on film . From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain 's National Theatre , running a resident company that fostered many future stars . His own parts there included the title role in Othello ( 1964 ) and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice ( 1970 ) .
Among Olivier 's films are Wuthering Heights ( 1939 ) , Rebecca ( 1940 ) , and a trilogy of Shakespeare films as actor @-@ director : Henry V ( 1944 ) , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and Richard III ( 1955 ) . His later films included Sleuth ( 1972 ) , Marathon Man ( 1976 ) , and The Boys from Brazil ( 1978 ) . His television appearances included an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence ( 1960 ) , Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) , Love Among the Ruins ( 1975 ) , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ( 1976 ) , Brideshead Revisited ( 1981 ) and King Lear ( 1983 ) .
Olivier 's honours included a knighthood ( 1947 ) , a life peerage ( 1970 ) and the Order of Merit ( 1981 ) . For his on @-@ screen work he received four Academy Awards , two British Academy Film Awards , five Emmy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards . The National Theatre 's largest auditorium is named in his honour , and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , given annually by the Society of London Theatre . He was married three times , to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940 , Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960 , and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Family background and early life ( 1907 – 24 ) = = =
Olivier was born in Dorking , Surrey , the youngest of the three children of the Revd Gerard Kerr Olivier ( 1869 – 1939 ) and his wife Agnes Louise , née Crookenden ( 1871 – 1920 ) . Their elder children were Sybille ( 1901 – 89 ) and Gerard Dacres " Dickie " ( 1904 – 58 ) . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was of French Huguenot descent , and Olivier came from a long line of Protestant clergymen . Gerard Olivier had begun a career as a schoolmaster , but in his thirties he discovered a strong religious vocation and was ordained as a priest of the Church of England . He practised extremely high church , Ritualist Christianity and liked to be addressed as " Father Olivier " . This made him unacceptable to most Anglican congregations , and the only church posts he was offered were temporary , usually deputising for regular incumbents in their absence . This meant a nomadic existence , and for Laurence 's first few years , he never lived in one place long enough to make friends .
In 1912 , when Olivier was five , his father secured a permanent appointment as assistant priest at St Saviour 's , Pimlico . He held the post for six years , and a stable family life was at last possible . Olivier was devoted to his mother , but not to his father , whom he found a cold and remote parent . Nevertheless , he learned a great deal of the art of performing from him . As a young man Gerard Olivier had considered a stage career and was a dramatic and effective preacher . Olivier wrote that his father knew " when to drop the voice , when to bellow about the perils of hellfire , when to slip in a gag , when suddenly to wax sentimental ... The quick changes of mood and manner absorbed me , and I have never forgotten them . "
In 1916 , after attending a series of preparatory schools , Olivier passed the singing examination for admission to the choir school of All Saints , Margaret Street , in central London . His elder brother was already a pupil , and Olivier gradually settled in , though he felt himself to be something of an outsider . The church 's style of worship was ( and remains ) Anglo @-@ Catholic , with emphasis on ritual , vestments and incense . The theatricality of the services appealed to Olivier , and the vicar encouraged the students to develop a taste for secular as well as religious drama . In a school production of Julius Caesar in 1917 , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Olivier 's performance as Brutus impressed an audience that included Lady Tree , the young Sybil Thorndike , and Ellen Terry , who wrote in her diary , " The small boy who played Brutus is already a great actor . " He later won praise in other schoolboy productions , as Maria in Twelfth Night ( 1918 ) and Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew ( 1922 ) .
From All Saints , Olivier went on to St Edward 's School , Oxford , from 1920 to 1924 . He made little mark until his final year , when he played Puck in the school 's production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream ; his performance was a tour de force that won him popularity among his fellow pupils . In January 1924 , his brother left England to work in India as a rubber planter . Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow . He recalled in his memoirs that his father replied , " Don 't be such a fool , you 're not going to India , you 're going on the stage . "
= = = Early acting career ( 1924 – 29 ) = = =
In 1924 Gerard Olivier , a habitually frugal man , told his son that not only must he gain admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art , but he must also gain a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses . Olivier 's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty , the founder and principal of the school . Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary .
One of Olivier 's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft , who observed he was " rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun " . By his own admission , he was not a very conscientious student , but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils . On leaving the school after a year , Olivier gained work with small touring companies before being taken on in 1925 by Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , as a bit @-@ part player , understudy and assistant stage manager for their London company . He modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier , of whom he said , " He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique . When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said . The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson . " His concern to speak naturally and avoid what he called " singing " Shakespeare 's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career , with critics regularly decrying his delivery .
In 1926 , on Thorndike 's recommendation , Olivier joined the Birmingham Repertory Company . His biographer Michael Billington describes the Birmingham company as " Olivier 's university " , where in his second year he was given the chance to play a wide range of important roles , including Tony Lumpkin in She Stoops to Conquer , the title role in Uncle Vanya , and Parolles in All 's Well That Ends Well . Billington adds that the engagement led to " a lifelong friendship with his fellow actor Ralph Richardson that was to have a decisive effect on the British theatre . "
While playing the juvenile lead in Bird in Hand at the Royalty Theatre in June 1928 , Olivier began a relationship with Jill Esmond , the daughter of the actors Henry V. Esmond and Eva Moore . Olivier later recounted that he thought " she would most certainly do excellent well for a wife ... I wasn 't likely to do any better at my age and with my undistinguished track @-@ record , so I promptly fell in love with her . "
In 1928 Olivier created the role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff 's Journey 's End , in which he scored a great success at its single Sunday night premiere . He was offered the part in the West End production the following year , but turned it down in favour of the more glamorous role of Beau Geste in a stage adaptation of P. C. Wren 's 1929 novel of the same name . Journey 's End became a long @-@ running success ; Beau Geste failed . The Manchester Guardian commented , " Mr. Laurence Olivier did his best as Beau , but he deserves and will get better parts . Mr. Olivier is going to make a big name for himself " . For the rest of 1929 Olivier appeared in seven plays , all of which were short @-@ lived . Billington ascribes this failure rate to poor choices by Olivier rather than mere bad luck .
= = = Rising star ( 1930 – 35 ) = = =
In 1930 , with his impending marriage in mind , Olivier earned some extra money with small roles in two films . In April he travelled to Berlin to film the English @-@ language version of The Temporary Widow , a crime comedy with Lilian Harvey , and in May he spent four nights working on another comedy , Too Many Crooks . During work on the latter film , for which he was paid £ 60 , he met Laurence Evans , who became his personal manager . Olivier did not enjoy working in film , which he dismissed as " this anaemic little medium which could not stand great acting " , but financially it was much more rewarding than his theatre work .
Olivier and Esmond married on 25 July 1930 at All Saints , Margaret Street , although within weeks both realised they had erred . Olivier later recorded that the marriage was " a pretty crass mistake . I insisted on getting married from a pathetic mixture of religious and animal promptings . ... She had admitted to me that she was in love elsewhere and could never love me as completely as I would wish " . Olivier later recounted that following the wedding he did not keep a diary for ten years and never followed religious practices again , although he considered those facts to be " mere coincidence " , unconnected to the nuptials .
In 1930 Noël Coward cast Olivier as Victor Prynne in his new play Private Lives , which opened at the new Phoenix Theatre in London in September . Coward and Gertrude Lawrence played the lead roles , Elyot Chase and Amanda Prynne . Victor is a secondary character , along with Sybil Chase ; the author called them " extra puppets , lightly wooden ninepins , only to be repeatedly knocked down and stood up again " . To make them credible spouses for Amanda and Elyot , Coward was determined that two outstandingly attractive performers should play the parts . Olivier played Victor in the West End and then on Broadway ; Adrianne Allen was Sybil in London , but could not go to New York , where the part was taken by Esmond . In addition to giving the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Olivier his first successful West End role , Coward became something of a mentor . In the late 1960s Olivier told Sheridan Morley :
He gave me a sense of balance , of right and wrong . He would make me read ; I never used to read anything at all . I remember he said , " Right , my boy , Wuthering Heights , Of Human Bondage and The Old Wives ' Tale by Arnold Bennett . That 'll do , those are three of the best . Read them " . I did . ... Noël also did a priceless thing , he taught me not to giggle on the stage . Once already I 'd been fired for doing it , and I was very nearly sacked from the Birmingham Rep. for the same reason . Noël cured me ; by trying to make me laugh outrageously , he taught me how not to give in to it . My great triumph came in New York when one night I managed to break Noël up on the stage without giggling myself . "
In 1931 RKO Pictures offered Olivier a two @-@ film contract at $ 1 @,@ 000 a week ; he discussed the possibility with Coward , who , irked , told Olivier " You 've no artistic integrity , that 's your trouble ; this is how you cheapen yourself . " He accepted and moved to Hollywood , despite some misgivings . His first film was the drama Friends and Lovers , in a supporting role , before RKO loaned him to Fox Studios for his first film lead , a British journalist in a Russia under martial law in The Yellow Passport , alongside Elissa Landi and Lionel Barrymore . The cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Olivier 's look as an attempt by Fox Studios to produce a likeness of Ronald Colman , and Colman 's moustache , voice and manner are " perfectly reproduced " . Olivier returned to RKO to complete his contract with the 1932 drama Westward Passage , which was a commercial failure . Olivier 's initial foray into American films had not provided the breakthrough he hoped for ; disillusioned with Hollywood , he returned to London , where he appeared in two British films , Perfect Understanding with Gloria Swanson and No Funny Business — in which Esmond also appeared . He was tempted back to Hollywood in 1933 to appear opposite Greta Garbo in Queen Christina , but was replaced after two weeks of filming because of a lack of chemistry between the two .
Olivier 's stage roles in 1934 included Bothwell in Gordon Daviot 's Queen of Scots , which was only a moderate success for him and for the play , but led to an important engagement for the same management ( Bronson Albery ) shortly afterwards . In the interim he had a great success playing a thinly disguised version of the American actor John Barrymore in Edna Furber 's Theatre Royal . His success was vitiated by his breaking an ankle two months into the run , in one of the athletic , acrobatic stunts with which he liked to enliven his performances .
In 1935 , under Albery 's management , John Gielgud staged Romeo and Juliet at the New Theatre , co @-@ starring with Peggy Ashcroft , Edith Evans and Olivier . Gielgud had seen Olivier in Queen of Scots , spotted his potential , and now gave him a major step up in his career . For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo , after which they exchanged roles . The production broke all box @-@ office records for the play , running for 189 performances . Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night , which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare 's verse , contrasting it with his co @-@ star 's mastery of the poetry . The friendship between the two men was prickly , on Olivier 's side , for the rest of his life .
= = = Old Vic and Vivien Leigh ( 1936 – 38 ) = = =
In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J. B. Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decay , did not attract the public and closed after four weeks . Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare , and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there . Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931 , and Richardson from 1930 to 1932 . Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans , Ruth Gordon , Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave . In January 1937 he took the title role in an uncut version of Hamlet , in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud , who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim . The Observer 's Ivor Brown praised Olivier 's " magnetism and muscularity " but missed " the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud " . The reviewer in The Times found the performance " full of vitality " , but at times " too light ... the character slips from Mr Olivier 's grasp " .
After Hamlet , the company presented Twelfth Night in what the director , Tyrone Guthrie , summed up as " a baddish , immature production of mine , with Olivier outrageously amusing as Sir Toby and a very young Alec Guinness outrageous and more amusing as Sir Andrew " . Henry V was the next play , presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI . A pacifist , as he then was , Olivier was as reluctant to play the warrior king as Guthrie was to direct the piece , but the production was a success , and Baylis had to extend the run from four to eight weeks .
Following Olivier 's success in Shakespearean stage productions , he made his first foray into Shakespeare on film in 1936 , as Orlando in As You Like It , directed by Paul Czinner , " a charming if lightweight production " , according to Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute 's ( BFI 's ) Screenonline . The following year Olivier appeared alongside Vivien Leigh in the historical drama Fire Over England . He had first met Leigh briefly at the Savoy Grill and then again when she visited him during the run of Romeo and Juliet , probably early in 1936 , and the two had begun an affair sometime that year . Of the relationship , Olivier later said that " I couldn 't help myself with Vivien . No man could . I hated myself for cheating on Jill , but then I had cheated before , but this was something different . This wasn 't just out of lust . This was love that I really didn 't ask for but was drawn into . " While his relationship with Leigh continued he conducted an affair with the actress Ann Todd , and possibly had a homosexual fling with the actor Henry Ainley , according to the biographer Michael Munn .
In June 1937 the Old Vic company took up an invitation to perform Hamlet in the courtyard of the castle at Elsinore , where Shakespeare located the play . Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia . Because of torrential rain the performance had to be moved from the castle courtyard to the ballroom of a local hotel , but the tradition of playing Hamlet at Elsinore was established , and Olivier was followed by , among others , Gielgud ( 1939 ) , Redgrave ( 1950 ) , Richard Burton ( 1954 ) , Derek Jacobi ( 1979 ) , Kenneth Branagh ( 1988 ) and Jude Law ( 2009 ) . Back in London , the company staged Macbeth , with Olivier in the title role . The stylised production by Michel Saint @-@ Denis was not well liked , but Olivier had some good notices among the bad . On returning from Denmark , Olivier and Leigh told their respective spouses about the affair and that their marriages were over ; Esmond moved out of the marital house and in with her mother . After Olivier and Leigh made a tour of Europe in mid 1937 they returned to separate film projects — A Yank at Oxford for her and The Divorce of Lady X for him — and moved into a property together in Iver , Buckinghamshire .
Olivier returned to the Old Vic for a second season in 1938 . For Othello he played Iago , with Richardson in the title role . Guthrie wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . After that comparative failure , the company had a success with Coriolanus starring Olivier in the title role . The notices were laudatory , mentioning him alongside great predecessors such as Edmund Kean , William Macready and Henry Irving . The actor Robert Speaight described it as " Olivier 's first incontestably great performance " . This was Olivier 's last appearance on a London stage for six years .
= = = Hollywood and the Second World War ( 1939 – 43 ) = = =
In 1938 Olivier joined Richardson to film the spy thriller Q Planes , released the following year . Frank Nugent , the critic for The New York Times , thought Olivier was " not quite so good " as Richardson , but was " quite acceptable " . In late 1938 , lured by a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 , the actor travelled to Hollywood to take the part of Heathcliff in the 1939 film Wuthering Heights , alongside Merle Oberon and David Niven . In less than a month Leigh had joined him , explaining that her trip was " partially because Larry 's there and partially because I intend to get the part of Scarlett O 'Hara " — the role in Gone with the Wind in which she was eventually cast . Olivier did not enjoy making Wuthering Heights , and his approach to film acting , combined with a dislike for Oberon , led to tensions on set . The director , William Wyler , was a hard taskmaster , and Olivier learned to remove what Billington described as " the carapace of theatricality " to which he was prone , replacing it with " a palpable reality " . The resulting film was a commercial and critical success that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor , and created his screen reputation . Caroline Lejeune , writing for The Observer , considered that " Olivier 's dark , moody face , abrupt style , and a certain fine arrogance towards the world in his playing are just right " in the role , while the reviewer for The Times wrote that Olivier " is a good embodiment of Heathcliff ... impressive enough on a more human plane , speaking his lines with real distinction , and always both romantic and alive . "
After returning to London briefly in mid @-@ 1939 , the couple returned to America , Leigh to film the final takes for Gone with the Wind , and Olivier to prepare for filming of Alfred Hitchcock 's Rebecca — although the couple had hoped to appear in it together . Instead , Joan Fontaine was selected for the role of Mrs de Winter , as the producer David O. Selznick thought that not only was she more suitable for the role , but that it was best to keep Olivier and Leigh apart until their divorces came through . Olivier followed Rebecca with Pride and Prejudice , in the role of Mr. Darcy . To his disappointment Elizabeth Bennet was played by Greer Garson rather than Leigh . He received good reviews for both films and showed a more confident screen presence than he had in his early work . In January 1940 Olivier and Esmond were granted their divorce . In February , following another request from Leigh , her husband also applied for their marriage to be terminated .
On stage , Olivier and Leigh starred in Romeo and Juliet on Broadway . It was an extravagant production , but a commercial failure . In The New York Times Brooks Atkinson praised the scenery but not the acting : " Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all . " The couple had invested almost all their savings in the project , and its failure was a grave financial blow . They were married in August 1940 , at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara .
The war in Europe had been under way for a year and was going badly for Britain . After his wedding Olivier wanted to help the war effort . He telephoned Duff Cooper , the Minister of Information under Winston Churchill , hoping to get a position in Cooper 's department . Cooper advised him to remain where he was and speak to the film director Alexander Korda , who was based in the US at Churchill 's behest , with connections to British Intelligence . Korda — with Churchill 's support and involvement — directed That Hamilton Woman , with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh in the title role . Korda saw that the relationship between the couple was strained . Olivier was tiring of Leigh 's suffocating adulation , and she was drinking to excess . The film , in which the threat of Napoleon paralleled that of Hitler , was seen by critics as " bad history but good British propaganda " , according to the BFI .
Olivier 's life was under threat from the Nazis and pro @-@ German sympathisers . The studio owners were concerned enough that Samuel Goldwyn and Cecil B. DeMille both provided support and security to ensure his safety . On the completion of filming , Olivier and Leigh returned to Britain . He had spent the previous year learning to fly and had completed nearly 250 hours by the time he left America . He intended to join the Royal Air Force but instead made another propaganda film , 49th Parallel , narrated short pieces for the Ministry of Information , and joined the Fleet Air Arm because Richardson was already in the service . Richardson had gained a reputation for crashing aircraft , which Olivier rapidly eclipsed . Olivier and Leigh settled in a cottage just outside RAF Worthy Down , where he was stationed with a training squadron ; Noël Coward visited the couple and thought Olivier looked unhappy . Olivier spent much of his time taking part in broadcasts and making speeches to build morale , and in 1942 he was invited to make another propaganda film , The Demi @-@ Paradise , in which he played a Soviet engineer who helps improve British @-@ Russian relationships .
In 1943 , at the behest of the Ministry of Information , Olivier began working on Henry V. Originally he had no intention of taking the directorial duties , but ended up directing and producing , in addition to taking the title role . He was assisted by an Italian internee , Filippo Del Giudice , who had been released to produce propaganda for the Allied cause . The decision was made to film the battle scenes in neutral Eire , where it was easier to find the 650 extras . John Betjeman , the press attaché at the British embassy in Dublin , played a key liaison role with the Irish government in making suitable arrangements . The film was released in November 1944 . Brooke , writing for the BFI , considers that it " came too late in the Second World War to be a call to arms as such , but formed a powerful reminder of what Britain was defending . " The music for the film was written by William Walton , " a score that ranks with the best in film music " , according to the music critic Michael Kennedy . Walton also provided the music for Olivier 's next two Shakespearean adaptations , Hamlet ( 1948 ) and | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Richard III ( 1955 ) . Henry V was warmly received by critics . The reviewer for The Manchester Guardian wrote that the film combined " new art hand @-@ in @-@ hand with old genius , and both superbly of one mind " , in a film that worked " triumphantly " . The critic for The Times considered that Olivier " plays Henry on a high , heroic note and never is there danger of a crack " , in a film described as " a triumph of film craft " . There were Oscar nominations for the film , including Best Picture and Best Actor , but it won none and Olivier was instead presented with a " Special Award " . He was unimpressed , and later commented that " this was my first absolute fob @-@ off , and I regarded it as such . "
= = = Co @-@ directing the Old Vic ( 1944 – 47 ) = = =
Throughout the war Tyrone Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made it a condition of accepting that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . "
The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Olivier 's roles were the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov ; Richardson played Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception , although The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . In Richard III , according to Billington , Olivier 's triumph was absolute : " so much so that it became his most frequently imitated performance and one whose supremacy went unchallenged until Antony Sher played the role forty years later " . In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . "
The second season , in 1945 , featured two double bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . In the two one @-@ act plays his switch from searing tragedy and horror in the first half to farcical comedy in the second impressed most critics and audience members , though a minority felt that the transformation from Sophocles 's bloodily blinded hero to Sheridan 's vain and ludicrous Mr Puff " smacked of a quick @-@ change turn in a music hall " . After the London season the company played both the double bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week run on Broadway .
The third , and final , London season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson took the title role in Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Olivier 's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews . In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role . The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling , a charge that the actor strongly rejected , but which was often made throughout his later career . During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame .
In January 1947 Olivier began working on his second film as a director , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , in which he also took the lead role . The original play was heavily cut to focus on the relationships , rather than the political intrigue . The film became a critical and commercial success in Britain and abroad , although Lejeune , in The Observer , considered it " less effective than [ Olivier 's ] stage work . ... He speaks the lines nobly , and with the caress of one who loves them , but he nullifies his own thesis by never , for a moment , leaving the impression of a man who cannot make up his own mind ; here , you feel rather , is an actor @-@ producer @-@ director who , in every circumstance , knows exactly what he wants , and gets it " . Campbell Dixon , the critic for The Daily Telegraph thought the film " brilliant ... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films . " Hamlet became the first non @-@ American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture , while Olivier won the Award for Best Actor .
In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six @-@ month tour of Australia and New Zealand . He played Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan 's The School for Scandal and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder 's The Skin of Our Teeth , appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays . While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood , Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors , who were said to have " resigned " . Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier , and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson , both comment that Esher 's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade . Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " .
= = = Post @-@ war ( 1948 – 51 ) = = =
By the end of Australian tour , both Leigh and Olivier were exhausted and ill , and he told a journalist , " You may not know it , but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses . " Later he would comment that he " lost Vivien " in Australia , a reference to Leigh 's affair with the Australian actor Peter Finch , whom the couple met during the tour . Shortly afterwards Finch moved to London , where Olivier auditioned him and put him under a long @-@ term contract with Laurence Olivier Productions . Finch and Leigh 's affair continued on and off for several years .
Although it was common knowledge that the Old Vic triumvirate had been dismissed , they refused to be drawn on the matter in public , and Olivier even arranged to play a final London season with the company in 1949 , as Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle , and Chorus in his own production of Anouilh 's Antigone with Leigh in the title role . After that , he was free to embark on a new career as an actor @-@ manager . In partnership with Binkie Beaumont he staged the English premiere of Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire , with Leigh in the central role of Blanche DuBois . The play was condemned by most critics , but the production was a considerable commercial success , and led to Leigh 's casting as Blanche in the 1951 film version . Gielgud , who was a devoted friend of Leigh 's , doubted whether Olivier was wise to let her play the demanding role of the mentally unstable heroine : " [ Blanche ] was so very like her , in a way . It must have been a most dreadful strain to do it night after night . She would be shaking and white and quite distraught at the end of it . "
The production company set up by Olivier took a lease on the St James 's Theatre . In January 1950 he produced , directed and starred in Christopher Fry 's verse play Venus Observed . The production was popular , despite poor reviews , but the expensive production did little to help the finances of Laurence Olivier Productions . After a series of box @-@ office failures , the company balanced its books in 1951 with productions of Shaw 's Caesar and Cleopatra and Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra which the Oliviers played in London and then took to Broadway . Olivier was thought by some critics to be under par in both his roles , and some suspected him of playing deliberately below his usual strength so that Leigh might appear his equal . Olivier dismissed the suggestion , regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor . In the view of the critic and biographer W. A. Darlington , he was simply miscast both as Caesar and Antony , finding the former boring and the latter weak . Darlington comments , " Olivier , in his middle forties when he should have been displaying his powers at their very peak , seemed to have lost interest in his own acting " . Over the next four years Olivier spent much of his time working as a producer , presenting plays rather than directing or acting in them . His presentations at the St James 's included seasons by Ruggero Ruggeri 's company giving two Pirandello plays in Italian , followed by a visit from the Comédie @-@ Française playing works by Molière , Racine , Marivaux and Musset in French . Darlington considers a 1951 production of Othello starring Orson Welles as the pick of Olivier 's productions at the theatre .
= = = Independent actor @-@ manager ( 1952 – 54 ) = = =
While Leigh made Streetcar in 1951 , Olivier joined her in Hollywood to film Carrie , based on the controversial novel Sister Carrie ; although the film was plagued by troubles , Olivier received warm reviews and a BAFTA nomination . Olivier began to notice a change in Leigh 's behaviour , and he later recounted that " I would find Vivien sitting on the corner of the bed , wringing her hands and sobbing , in a state of grave distress ; I would naturally try desperately to give her some comfort , but for some time she would be inconsolable . " After a holiday with Coward in Jamaica , she seemed to have recovered , but Olivier later recorded , " I am sure that ... [ the doctors ] must have taken some pains to tell me what was wrong with my wife ; that her disease was called manic depression and what that meant — a possibly permanent cyclical to @-@ and @-@ fro between the depths of depression and wild , uncontrollable mania . He also recounted the years of problems he had experienced because of Leigh 's illness , writing , " throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster , manic depression , with its deadly ever @-@ tightening spirals , she retained her own individual canniness — an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me , for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble . "
In January 1953 Leigh travelled to Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) to film Elephant Walk with Peter Finch . Shortly after filming started she suffered a breakdown , and returned to Britain where , between periods of incoherence , she told Olivier that she was in love with Finch , and had been having an affair with him ; she gradually recovered over a period of several months . As a result of the breakdown , many of the Oliviers ' friends learned of her problems . Niven said she had been " quite , quite mad " , and in his diary , Coward expressed the view that " things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts . "
For the Coronation season of 1953 , Olivier and Leigh starred in the West End in Terence Rattigan 's Ruritanian comedy , The Sleeping Prince . It ran for eight months but was widely regarded as a minor contribution to the season , in which other productions included Gielgud in Venice Preserv 'd , Coward in The Apple Cart and Ashcroft and Redgrave in Antony and Cleopatra .
Olivier directed his third Shakespeare film in September 1954 , Richard III ( 1955 ) , which he co @-@ produced with Korda . The presence of four theatrical knights in the one film — Olivier was joined by Cedric Hardwicke , Gielgud and Richardson — led an American reviewer to dub it " An @-@ All @-@ Sir @-@ Cast " . The critic for The Manchester Guardian described the film as a " bold and successful achievement " , but it was not a box @-@ office success , which accounted for Olivier 's subsequent failure to raise the funds for a planned film of Macbeth . He won a BAFTA award for the role and was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award , which Yul Brynner won .
= = = Last years with Leigh ( 1955 – 56 ) = = =
In 1955 Olivier and Leigh were invited to play leading roles in three plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre , Stratford . They began with Twelfth Night , directed by Gielgud , with Olivier as Malvolio and Leigh as Viola . Rehearsals were difficult , with Olivier determined to play his conception of the role despite the director 's view that it was vulgar . Gielgud later commented :
Somehow the production did not work . Olivier was set on playing Malvolio in his own particular rather extravagant way . He was extremely moving at the end , but he played the earlier scenes like a Jewish hairdresser , with a lisp and an extraordinary accent , and he insisted on falling backwards off a bench in the garden scene , though I begged him not to do it . ... But then Malvolio is a very difficult part .
The next production was Macbeth . Reviewers were lukewarm about the direction by Glen Byam Shaw and the designs by Roger Furse , but Olivier 's performance in the title role attracted superlatives . To J. C. Trewin , Olivier 's was " the finest Macbeth of our day " ; to Darlington it was " the best Macbeth of our time " . Leigh 's Lady Macbeth received mixed but generally polite notices , although to the end of his life Olivier believed it to have been the best Lady Macbeth he ever saw .
In their third production of the 1955 Stratford season , Olivier played the title role in Titus Andronicus , with Leigh as Lavinia . Her notices in the part were damning , but the production by Peter Brook and Olivier 's performance as Titus received the greatest ovation in Stratford history from the first @-@ night audience , and the critics hailed the production as a landmark in post @-@ war British theatre . Olivier and Brook revived the production for a continental tour in June 1957 ; its final performance , which closed the old Stoll Theatre in London , was the last time Leigh and Olivier acted together .
Leigh became pregnant in 1956 and withdrew from the production of Coward 's comedy South Sea Bubble . The day after her final performance in the play she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months . The same year Olivier decided to direct and produce a film version of The Sleeping Prince , retitled The Prince and the Showgirl . Instead of appearing with Leigh , he cast Marilyn Monroe as the showgirl . Although the filming was challenging because of Monroe 's behaviour , the film was appreciated by the critics .
= = = Royal Court and Chichester ( 1957 – 63 ) = = =
During the production of The Prince and the Showgirl , Olivier , Monroe and her husband , the American playwright Arthur Miller , went to see the English Stage Company 's production of John Osborne 's Look Back in Anger at the Royal Court . Olivier had seen the play earlier in the run and disliked it , but Miller was convinced that Osborne had talent , and Olivier reconsidered . He was ready for a change of direction ; in 1981 he wrote :
I had reached a stage in my life that I was getting profoundly sick of — not just tired — sick . Consequently the public were , likely enough , beginning to agree with me . My rhythm of work had become a bit deadly : a classical or semi @-@ classical film ; a play or two at Stratford , or a nine @-@ month run in the West End , etc etc . I was going mad , desperately searching for something suddenly fresh and thrillingly exciting . What I felt to be my image was boring me to death .
Osborne was already at work on a new play , The Entertainer , an allegory of Britain 's post @-@ colonial decline , centred on a seedy variety comedian , Archie Rice . Having read the first act — all that was completed by then — Olivier asked to be cast in the part . He had for years maintained that he might easily have been a third @-@ rate comedian called " Larry Oliver " , and would sometimes play the character at parties . Behind Archie 's brazen façade there is a deep desolation , and Olivier caught both aspects , switching , in the words of the biographer Anthony Holden , " from a gleefully tacky comic routine to moments of the most wrenching pathos " . Tony Richardson 's production for the English Stage Company transferred from the Royal Court to the Palace Theatre in September 1957 ; after that it toured and returned to the Palace . The role of Archie 's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs . The second of them was Joan Plowright , with whom Olivier began a relationship that endured for the rest of his life . Olivier said that playing Archie " made me feel like a modern actor again " . In finding an avant @-@ garde play that suited him , he was , as Osborne remarked , far ahead of Gielgud and Ralph Richardson , who did not successfully follow his lead for more than a decade . Their first substantial successes in works by any of Osborne 's generation were Alan Bennett 's Forty Years On ( Gielgud in 1968 ) and David Storey 's Home ( Richardson and Gielgud in 1970 ) .
Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959 's The Devil 's Disciple . The same year , after a gap of two decades , Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus , in a Stratford production directed by the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Peter Hall . Olivier 's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability . In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco 's absurdist play Rhinoceros . The production was chiefly remarkable for the star 's quarrels with the director , Orson Welles , who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the " appalling treatment " that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier . Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority . In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh 's Becket on Broadway , first in the title role , with Anthony Quinn as the king , and later exchanging roles with his co @-@ star .
Two films featuring Olivier were released in 1960 . The first — filmed in 1959 — was Spartacus , in which he portrayed the Roman general , Marcus Licinius Crassus . His second was The Entertainer , shot while he was appearing in Coriolanus ; the film was well received by the critics , but not as warmly as the stage show had been . The reviewer for The Guardian thought the performances were good , and wrote that Olivier " on the screen as on the stage , achieves the tour de force of bringing Archie Rice ... to life " . For his performance , Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor . He also made an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence in 1960 , winning an Emmy Award .
The Oliviers ' marriage was disintegrating during the late 1950s . While directing Charlton Heston in the 1960 play The Tumbler , Olivier divulged that " Vivien is several thousand miles away , trembling on the edge of a cliff , even when she 's sitting quietly in her own drawing room " , at a time when she was threatening suicide . In May 1960 divorce proceedings started ; Leigh reported the fact to the press and informed reporters of Olivier 's relationship with Plowright . The decree nisi was issued in December 1960 , which enabled him to marry Plowright in March 1961 . A son , Richard , was born in December 1961 ; two daughters followed , Tamsin Agnes Margaret — born in January 1963 — and Julie @-@ Kate , born in July 1966 .
In 1961 Olivier accepted the directorship of a new theatrical venture , the Chichester Festival . For the opening season in 1962 he directed two neglected 17th @-@ century English plays , John Fletcher 's 1638 comedy The Chances and John Ford 's 1633 tragedy The Broken Heart , followed by Uncle Vanya . The company he recruited was forty strong and included Thorndike , Casson , Redgrave , Athene Seyler , John Neville and Plowright . The first two plays were politely received ; the Chekhov production attracted rapturous notices . The Times commented , " It is doubtful if the Moscow Arts Theatre itself could improve on this production . " The second Chichester season the following year consisted of a revival of Uncle Vanya and two new productions — Shaw 's Saint Joan and John Arden 's The Workhouse Donkey . In 1963 Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his leading role as a schoolteacher accused of sexually molesting a student in the film Term of Trial .
= = = National Theatre = = =
= = = = 1963 – 68 = = = =
At around the time the Chichester Festival opened , plans for the creation of the National Theatre were coming to fruition . The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames . Lord Chandos was appointed chairman of the National Theatre Board in 1962 , and in August Olivier accepted its invitation to be the company 's first director . As his assistants , he recruited the directors John Dexter and William Gaskill , with Kenneth Tynan as literary adviser or " dramaturge " . Pending the construction of the new theatre , the company was based at the Old Vic . With the agreement of both organisations , Olivier remained in overall charge of the Chichester Festival during the first three seasons of the National ; he used the festivals of 1964 and 1965 to give preliminary runs to plays he hoped to stage at the Old Vic .
The opening production of the National Theatre was Hamlet in October 1963 , starring Peter O 'Toole and directed by Olivier . O 'Toole was a guest star , one of occasional exceptions to Olivier 's policy of casting productions from a regular company . Among those who made a mark during Olivier 's directorship were Michael Gambon , Maggie Smith , Alan Bates , Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins . It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company . Evans , Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly , and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier 's time . Robert Stephens , a member of the company , observed , " Olivier 's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival " .
In his decade in charge of the National , Olivier acted in thirteen plays and directed eight . Several of the roles he played were minor characters , including a crazed butler in Feydeau 's A Flea in Her Ear and a pompous solicitor in Maugham 's Home and Beauty ; the vulgar soldier Captain Brazen in Farquhar 's 1706 comedy The Recruiting Officer was a larger role but not the leading one . Apart from his Astrov in the Uncle Vanya , familiar from Chichester , his first leading role for the National was Othello , directed by Dexter in 1964 . The production was a box @-@ office success and was revived regularly over the next five seasons . His performance divided opinion . Most of the reviewers and theatrical colleagues praised it highly ; Franco Zeffirelli called it " an anthology of everything that has been discovered about acting in the past three centuries . " Dissenting voices included The Sunday Telegraph , which called it " the kind of bad acting of which only a great actor is capable ... near the frontiers of self @-@ parody " ; the director Jonathan Miller thought it " a condescending view of an Afro Caribbean person " . The burden of playing this demanding part at the same time as managing the new company and planning for the move to the new theatre took its toll on Olivier . To add to his load , he felt obliged to take over as Solness in The Master Builder when the ailing Redgrave withdrew from the role in November 1964 . For the first time Olivier began to suffer from stage fright , which plagued him for several years . The National Theatre production of Othello was released as a film in 1965 , which earned four Academy Award nominations , including another for Best Actor for Olivier .
During the following year Olivier concentrated on management , directing one production ( The Crucible ) , taking the comic role of the foppish Tattle in Congreve 's Love for Love , and making one film , Bunny Lake is Missing , in which he and Coward were on the same bill for the first time since Private Lives . In 1966 , his one play as director was Juno and the Paycock . The Times commented that the production " restores one 's faith in the work as a masterpiece " . In the same year Olivier portrayed the Mahdi , opposite Heston as General Gordon , in the film Khartoum .
In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter 's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth 's Soldiers . As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister Władysław Sikorski , Chandos regarded it as indefensible . At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production . Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management 's artistic freedom , but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place , and Tynan also remained . At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses . He was treated for prostate cancer and , during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov 's Three Sisters he was hospitalised with pneumonia . He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg 's The Dance of Death , the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare , in Gielgud 's view .
= = = = 1968 – 74 = = = =
Olivier had intended to step down from the directorship of the National Theatre at the end of his first five @-@ year contract , having , he hoped , led the company into its new building . By 1968 because of bureaucratic delays construction work had not even begun , and he agreed to serve for a second five @-@ year term . His next major role , and his last appearance in a Shakespeare play , was as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice , his first appearance in the work . He had intended Guinness or Scofield to play Shylock , but stepped in when neither was available . The production by Jonathan Miller , and Olivier 's performance , attracted a wide range of responses . Two different critics reviewed it for The Guardian : one wrote " this is not a role which stretches him , or for which he will be particularly remembered " ; the other commented that the performance " ranks as one of his greatest achievements , involving his whole range " .
In 1969 Olivier appeared in two war films , portraying military leaders . He played Field Marshal French in the First World War film Oh ! What a Lovely War , for which he won another BAFTA award , followed by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding in Battle of Britain . In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre . Although he initially declined the honour , Harold Wilson , the incumbent prime minister , wrote to him , then invited him and Plowright to dinner , and persuaded him to accept .
After this Olivier played three more stage roles : James Tyrone in Eugene O 'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1971 – 72 ) , Antonio in Eduardo de Filippo 's Saturday , Sunday , Monday and John Tagg in Trevor Griffiths 's The Party ( both 1973 – 74 ) . Among the roles he hoped to play , but could not because of ill @-@ health , was Nathan Detroit in the musical Guys and Dolls . In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's film of Anthony Shaffer 's Sleuth , which The Illustrated London News considered to be " Olivier at his twinkling , eye @-@ rolling best " ; both he and Caine were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor , losing to Marlon Brando in The Godfather .
The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux 's Amphitryon ( 1971 ) and Priestley 's Eden End ( 1974 ) . By the time of Eden End , he was no longer director of the National Theatre ; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973 . The succession was tactlessly handled by the board , and Olivier felt that he had been eased out — although he had declared his intention to go — and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor . The largest of the three theatres within the National 's new building was named in his honour , but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976 , when he made a speech of welcome , which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening .
= = = Later years ( 1975 – 89 ) = = =
Olivier spent the last fifteen years of his life in securing his finances and dealing with worsening health , which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis , a degenerative muscle disorder . Professionally , and to secure financial security , he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972 , although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain ; he also took a number of cameo film roles , which were in " often undistinguished films " , according to Billington . Olivier 's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts , with only short engagements in films available .
Olivier 's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital , and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength . When strong enough , he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger , who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film Marathon Man . Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes , in a role that the critic David Robinson , writing for The Times , thought was " strongly played " , adding that Olivier was " always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both " . Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role , and won the Golden Globe of the same category .
In the mid @-@ 1970s Olivier became increasingly involved in television work , a medium of which he was initially dismissive . In 1973 he provided the narration for a 26 @-@ episode documentary , The World at War , which chronicled the events of the Second World War , and won a second Emmy Award for Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) . In 1975 he won another Emmy for Love Among the Ruins . The following year he appeared in adaptations of Tennessee Williams 's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Harold Pinter 's The Collection . In 1978 he appeared in the film The Boys from Brazil , playing the role of Ezra Lieberman , an ageing Nazi hunter ; he received his eleventh Academy Award nomination . Although he did not win the Oscar , he was presented with an Honorary Award for his lifetime achievement .
Olivier continued working in film into the 1980s , with roles in The Jazz Singer ( 1980 ) , Inchon ( 1981 ) , The Bounty ( 1984 ) and Wild Geese II ( 1985 ) . He continued to work in television ; in 1981 he appeared as Lord Marchmain in Brideshead Revisited , winning another Emmy , and the following year he received his tenth and last BAFTA nomination in the television adaptation of John Mortimer 's stage play A Voyage Round My Father . In 1983 he played his last Shakespearean role as Lear in King Lear , for Granada Television , earning his fifth Emmy . He thought the role of Lear much less demanding than other tragic Shakespearean heroes : " No , Lear is easy . He 's like all of us , really : he 's just a stupid old fart . " When the production was first shown on American television , the critic Steve Vineberg wrote :
Olivier seems to have thrown away technique this time — his is a breathtakingly pure Lear . In his final speech , over Cordelia 's lifeless body , he brings us so close to Lear 's sorrow that we can hardly bear to watch , because we have seen the last Shakespearean hero Laurence Olivier will ever play . But what a finale ! In this most sublime of plays , our greatest actor has given an indelible performance . Perhaps it would be most appropriate to express simple gratitude .
The same year he also appeared in a cameo alongside Gielgud and Richardson in Wagner , with Burton in the title role ; his final screen appearance was as an old , wheelchair @-@ bound soldier in Derek Jarman 's 1989 film War Requiem .
After being ill for the last twenty @-@ two years of his life , Olivier died of renal failure on 11 July 1989 at his home near Steyning , West Sussex . His cremation was held three days later , before a funeral in Poets ' Corner of Westminster Abbey in October that year .
= = Awards , honours and memorials = =
In 1947 Olivier was appointed a Knight Bachelor , and in 1970 he was given a life peerage ; the Order of Merit was conferred on him in 1981 . He also received honours from foreign governments . In 1949 he was made Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog by the Danish government ; the French appointed him Officier , Legion of Honour , in 1953 ; the Italian government created him Grande Ufficiale , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic , in 1953 ; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath .
From academic and other institutions , Olivier received honorary doctorates from the university of Tufts , Massachusetts ( 1946 ) , Oxford ( 1957 ) and Edinburgh ( 1964 ) . He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966 , the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters , History and Antiquities in 1968 ; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976 .
For his work in films , Olivier received four Academy Awards : an honorary award for Henry V ( 1947 ) , a Best Actor award and one as producer for Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film . He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction . He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations , five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations , and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations . He was nominated once for a Tony Award ( for best actor , as Archie Rice ) but did not win .
In February 1960 , for his contribution to the film industry , Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame , with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard ; he is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame . In 1977 Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship .
In addition to the naming of the National Theatre 's largest auditorium in Olivier 's honour , he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre . In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets ' Corner at Westminster Abbey . In 2007 , the centenary of Olivier 's birth , a life @-@ sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank , outside the National Theatre ; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work .
= = Technique and reputation = =
Olivier 's acting technique was minutely crafted , and he was known for changing his appearance considerably from role to role . By his own admission , he was addicted to extravagant make @-@ up , and unlike Richardson and Gielgud , he excelled at different voices and accents . His own description of his technique was " working from the outside in " ; he said , " I can never act as myself , I have to have a pillow up my jumper , a false nose or a moustache or wig ... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else . " Rattigan described how at rehearsals Olivier " built his performance slowly and with immense application from a mass of tiny details " . This attention to detail had its critics : Agate remarked , " When I look at a watch it is to see the time and not to admire the mechanism . I want an actor to tell me Lear 's time of day and Olivier doesn 't . He bids me watch the wheels go round . "
Tynan remarked to Olivier , " you aren 't really a contemplative or philosophical actor " ; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles . He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks , Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films , and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet : " tremendously athletic . I admired that greatly , all of us did . ... One thought of oneself , idiotically , skinny as I was , as a sort of Tarzan . " According to Morley , Gielgud was widely considered " the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down . " Olivier described the contrast thus : " I 've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin ... the top half John , all spirituality , all beauty , all abstract things ; and myself as all earth , blood , humanity . "
Together with Richardson and Gielgud , Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the " great trinity of theatrical knights " who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century . In an obituary tribute in The Times , Bernard Levin wrote , " What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is glory . He reflected it in his greatest roles ; indeed he walked clad in it — you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus . ... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them ; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius . " Billington commented :
[ Olivier ] elevated the art of acting in the twentieth century ... principally by the overwhelming force of his example . Like Garrick , Kean , and Irving before him , he lent glamour and excitement to acting so that , in any theatre in the world , an Olivier night raised the level of expectation and sent spectators out into the darkness a little more aware of themselves and having experienced a transcendent touch of ecstasy . That , in the end , was the true measure of his greatness .
After Olivier 's death , Gielgud reflected , " He followed in the theatrical tradition of Kean and Irving . He respected tradition in the theatre , but he also took great delight in breaking tradition , which is what made him so unique . He was gifted , brilliant , and one of the great controversial figures of our time in theatre , which is a virtue and not a vice at all . "
Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor , but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed ; he commented that although Olivier 's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage , " Larry could have been a notable ambassador , a considerable minister , a redoubtable cleric . At his worst , he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived . " The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals . He observed , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " The American actor William Redfield had a similar view :
Ironically enough , Laurence Olivier is less gifted than Marlon Brando . He is even less gifted than Richard Burton , Paul Scofield , Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud . But he is still the definitive actor of the twentieth century . Why ? Because he wanted to be . His achievements are due to dedication , scholarship , practice , determination and courage . He is the bravest actor of our time .
In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation , Ustinov wrote , " It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor . There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor , or painter or composer " . Nonetheless , some colleagues , particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy , Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall , came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers . Peter Hall , though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession , thought Richardson the greater actor . Others , such as the critic Michael Coveney , awarded the palm to Gielgud . Olivier 's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting , but as , in Hall 's words , " the supreme man of the theatre of our time " , pioneering Britain 's National Theatre . As Bragg identified , " no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument " .
= = Stage roles and filmography = =
= Freakum Dress =
" Freakum Dress " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her second solo studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Rich Harrison , and Makeba Riddick . " Freakum Dress " is similar to songs that Destiny 's Child used to record in the 1990s . The song is complete with whistles , cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat , which is augmented by hi @-@ hats and plinking keyboard pulses . In the song , Beyoncé advises women who have partners with straying eyes to put on alluring dresses and grind on other guys in dance clubs , to regain their affections .
" Freakum Dress " was generally well received by music critics who complimented Beyoncé 's vocals as well as the assertiveness with which she delivers the lyrics . Many of them also noted that the beat of song melds very well with the vocal arrangement and the instruments used . The music video for the song was directed by Ray Kay , with co @-@ direction from Beyoncé , for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . It features Beyoncé dancing with women of different ages , races , and sizes . Thirty metallic dresses were designed by Tina Knowles and were used in the production . Beyoncé explained that the main reason behind shooting a video for the song was to show what a " freakum dress " looks like . The song was part of the set lists during Beyoncé 's worldwide tours The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . Later , in 2012 , the song was performed during her revue Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live .
= = Recording and conception = =
" Freakum Dress " was conceived at Sony Music Studios , in New York City , when Beyoncé enlisted Harris to co @-@ produce for her album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . She and Harrison had previously collaborated on her 2003 single " Crazy in Love " . She arranged for Harrison , Sean Garrett and Rodney Jerkins to be given individual rooms at the studio . In this way , Beyoncé fostered " healthy competition " between the producers by going into each of their rooms and commenting on the " great beats " the others were creating . Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel noted that " Freakum Dress " and " Suga Mama " ( 2006 ) , Harrison 's other contribution to B 'Day " fall short of originality but mimic the Chi Lites [ sic ] percussion section [ of " Crazy in Love " ] yet again " , adding , " Harrison is like the Indiana Jones of soul , constantly pulling out forgotten gems of the past for sampling [ ... ] You can 't help but think : Thank God someone wrote music in the past that can be repurposed now . " Harrison wrote " Freakum dress to demonstrate how a sassy sartorial item that can help recharge to a relationship " , with Beyoncé and Makeba Riddick also contributing In an interview with USA Today , Beyoncé talked about the content " Freakum Dress " , stating that an outfit which reminds of the best moments in a couple 's life , is a necessity for every woman 's wardrobe .
In June 2006 , Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard to a New York recording studio . There she premiered several songs from the album including " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and " Freakum Dress " , both were cited as possible second singles although in the end it was actually " Ring the Alarm " that became B 'Day 's second single . Beyoncé told Coniff that " Freakum Dress " was one of her favorite songs ever .
= = Music and theme = =
According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Freakum Dress " is a moderate R & B song pacing in common time , written in the key of F major . The verses alternate from the chords of F ♯ and C. The track also draws from the hip hop , funk , and dance @-@ pop genres . Mike Joseph of PopMatters observed that the song shows influences by 1970s funk music , and contains limited elements of 1980s go @-@ go . According to Phil Harrison of Timeout , " Freakum Dress " consists of a steady " long crescendo , welding galloping beats and a steamrolling two @-@ note riff " , accompanied by several genres of music , which he qualified as " multi @-@ tracked " . Spence D. of IGN Music noted that the song consists of frequent whistles as well as crashing cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat which fits the " powerful , loud , confident lines " in which Beyoncé asks for the attention of her man , and urges women to have a beautiful dress to spice up their sexual life . " Freakum Dress " opens with a spoken introduction . Throughout the song , Beyoncé sings her lines in an assertive manner on melding shattering hi @-@ hats " and plinking keyboard pulses .
According to Joseph , " Freakum Dress " is thematically similar to " Bills , Bills , Bills " ( 1999 ) and " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , from the Destiny 's Child era . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times noted that " Freakum Dress " celebrates showing off . Jon Pareles of The New York Times viewed the concept of the song as not merely having a nice wardrobe to entice men , but it also serves as " a means of self @-@ assertion . " In the song , the female protagonist pulls out her best dress to remind her potentially wandering mate of what he is leaving at home . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly added that Beyoncé also seemingly gives professional advice to women on how to hold a man 's attention in a long @-@ term relationship . She sings : " I think I 'm ready / Been locked up in the house way too long / It 's time to get it , [ be ] cause once again he 's out doing wrong [ ... ] Wear very skimpy clothes ... " . Joseph commented that in the song , Beyoncé is capable of wearing anything to keep her man by her side rather than dumping him . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe added that after having skirted her best dress , Beyoncé eyes other guys in dance clubs to make her own man jealous , in the hope of regaining his attention but she also makes sure that he really pays when he does her wrong . Beyoncé later refers to her " freakum dress " in " Jealous " , a track from her fifth studio album Beyoncé ( 2013 ) .
= = Reception = =
The song received mostly positive reviews . Phil Harrison of Timeout called " Freakum Dress " a magnificent production thanks to its vocal arrangements and commented that its beat can " drive the boys crazy . " Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that even though " Freakum Dress " is less harmonically and melodically produced than " Crazy In Love " ( 2003 ) and songs from the Destiny 's Child era , it remains a good track due to its highly energetic beat . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music called the track " discordant " and " menacing " while Jon Pareles of The New York Times called it " overwrought " . On a separate review , Jon Pareles said that the song will remain as one of Beyoncé most memorable tracks thanks to its streak of rage which is " perfectly groomed but unmistakable " . Bill Lamb of About.com chose " Freakum Dress " as one of the three best songs on the entire record , and called it a powerful , emotionally intensive and energetic track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian called the song a " lighthearted crunk spree " that reminds girls of the significance of having a nice dress in their wardrobe .
Mike Joseph of PopMatters complimented the overall concept of the song but noted that the lyrics do not " radiate " enough warmth . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine jokingly said that Beyoncé has added the term " Freakum Dress " " to the pop lexicon . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today said that " self @-@ assurance is evident on a tune on B 'Day called ' Freakum Dress ' " while another review by the staff members of the same magazine complimented the songs sexual imagery stating : " When Ms. Bootylicious [ Beyoncé ] sings of squeezing that jelly into a ' Freakum Dress ' , the imagination runs wilder than any video would . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , complimented the song 's " bashing beat and irresistible chorus " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic described " Freakum dress " as a " blaring and marching " track . Calling " Freakum Dress " one of the best dance track that Beyoncé has ever sung , Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine chose it as one of the standout songs of the album . While reviewing B 'Day , Chuck Arnold of People magazine wrote , " ' ladies ' anthem ' Freakum Dress ' finds Beyoncé working all her bootylicious powers over some slamming funk " . " Freakum Dress " reached number twenty @-@ five on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart issue dated September 9 , 2007 . The same day , it also charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles at number sixteen .
= = Music video = =
= = = Concept and filming = = =
The music video was co @-@ directed by Ray Kay and Beyoncé for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which was released the same month : it was one of eight videos shot in two weeks for the album . The choreography was done by Danielle Polanco and Jonte ' Moaning , who used a 1980 ’ s retro set . Beyoncé explained the concept of the video at MTV : " It 's probably the most flamboyant video , and the metallic dresses are so beautiful , they added so much color . I had to do a video for this song . Everyone wanted to know what a ' freakum dress ' was , and you can 't really explain it , you have to see it . Everyone has their own version , so we had so many women — of different races , sizes , shapes , ages — because we all have those dresses we pull out when we need to shut it down . "
After two weeks of shooting , Beyoncé decided to call her mother Tina . The latter designed thirty dresses for the video , with eight of them for her daughter . Due to limited time , certain dress were sewed on the spot in approximately ten minutes each by taking fabric from one dress , making a slit in it , draping it and putting a belt on it . The glasses that Beyoncé wears in the video were borrowed from her make @-@ up artist , Francesca Tolot . The video was finished in about eighteen hours of filming and it features Ebony Haith from America 's Next Top Model , Cycle 1 . Throughout the video , Beyoncé can be seen fixing her hair in a neon mirror and is surrounded by neon @-@ constructed doors , catwalks and podiums . It premiered on BET 's 106 & Park and on American Music Channel , among others , before the release of the video anthology .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video begins with Beyoncé dancing in front of a target before moving to her putting on blush and lipstick next to two other men in a room full of neon framed mirrors . The men then pull a dress onto her and as the chorus begins , she walks by several women dancing on neon boxes before beginning to do a dance routine with them . As the chorus ends , she is shown surrounded by several men in a dark room and dancing in front of barcode @-@ like walls . The video then moves to her walking down a neon catwalk . As the bridge starts , she begins doing a fierce dance routine , while constantly switching dresses . A scene is then shown with her dancers pretending to be paparazzi swarming her with microphones , before ending with Beyoncé whipping her hair in front of the target . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave a negative review for the video , describing it as " sloppily edited " . He further commented that it " plays out like a cheap fashion show for House of Deréon instead of the couture @-@ as @-@ weapons anthem it should be " .
= = Live performances = =
Although Beyoncé did not perform " Freakum Dress " in any televised appearances , the song was part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , where she directly started the song with the line : " Stop , I ain ’ t ready yet — wait , let me fix my hair ... " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . Tonya Turner of The Courier @-@ Mail reported that tracks like " Freakum Dress " , " moved fans to screams of endearment " . David Schmeichel of Jam ! wrote that Beyoncé performed a " ballsy " version of the song . Anthony Venutolo of New Jersey On @-@ Line wrote that Beyoncé " boiled over " during the performance of the song . It was included as the third track on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .
It was also part of the set list on the I Am ... World Tour . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind Beyoncé , her dancers and musicians . Beyoncé was accompanied by her two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three imposing backup vocalists called the Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . During the performance , she bent backwards at her guitarist 's feet . Jonathon Moran of The Sunday Telegraph praised Beyoncé 's dancing during the performance of the song on the I Am ... World Tour . " Freakum Dress " was included as the fourth track on the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . According to Andy Kellman of Allmusic , the performance has a " hard rock overhaul " .
In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Freakum Dress " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . While singing the song , Beyoncé was wearing a black dress and performed a " strut @-@ heavy footwork " . Dan DeLuca from The Philadelphia Inquirer noted that " her rock moves on songs like ' Freakum Dress , ' which find her facing off with a leather @-@ jacketed lead guitarist , tend to be of the screaming @-@ solo @-@ played @-@ on @-@ a @-@ Flying Vee variety . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " Freakum Dress " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Jim Farber of Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Freakum Dress " . Brad Wete , writing for Complex noted that Beyoncé was " wagging her bootyliciousness at the audience " while performing the song . The performance of " Freakum Dress " was included on the live album Live in Atlantic City ( 2013 ) which was filmed during the revue . In 2013 the song was a part of the set list during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
= = Usage in media = =
On June 24 , 2009 , American actress Cameron Diaz danced to " Freakum Dress " during the show It 's On with Alexa Chung .
Competitors lip synced along to " Freakum Dress " in the fifth episode of the first season of RuPaul 's Drag Race .
Jazmine Sullivan references the song in her song " Mascara " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .
Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles
Writing : Beyoncé Knowles , Rich Harrison , Makeba , Angela Beyincé
Producing : Rich Harrison , Beyoncé Knowles
Recording : Jim Caruana
Assisted by : Rob Kinelski and Jamie Rosenberg
Mixing : Jason Goldstein & Rich Harrison
Assisted by : Steve Tolle
= Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Derfflinger class was a class of three battlecruisers ( German : Schlachtkreuzer ) of the Imperial German Navy . The ships were ordered for the 1912 – 13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy 's three new Lion @-@ class battlecruisers that had been launched a few years earlier . The preceding Moltke class and the incrementally improved Seydlitz represented the end of the evolution of Germany 's first generation of battlecruisers . The Derfflinger class had considerable improvements , including a larger primary armament , all of which was mounted on the centerline , eliminating the restricted arc of the amidships turret . The ships were also larger than the preceding classes . The Derfflinger class used a similar propulsion system , and as a result of the increased displacement were slightly slower .
The class comprised three ships : Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . All three of the ships saw active service with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. Derfflinger was commissioned shortly after the outbreak of war , and was present at most of the naval actions in the North Sea , including the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland . Lützow was commissioned in August 1915 , and only participated in the raid on Yarmouth before being sunk at Jutland . Hindenburg was commissioned into the fleet in May 1917 , and saw no major action . Derfflinger and Hindenburg were interned at Scapa Flow following the armistice in November 1918 . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , who was in command of the interned High Seas Fleet , ordered the ships to be scuttled in an attempt to prevent their possible seizure by the Royal Navy .
= = Design = =
The Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers were a result of the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed in 1912 . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used public outcry over the British involvement in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 to pressure the Reichstag into appropriating additional funds to the Navy . The Fourth Naval Law secured funding for three new dreadnoughts , two light cruisers , and an extra 15 @,@ 000 officers and men in the Navy for 1912 . The three dreadnoughts secured in the bill became Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . Design work on the first two ships began in October 1910 and continued until June 1911 ; Hindenburg was built to a slightly modified design , which was created between May and October 1912 .
When design work began , the navy department was asked to submit new requirements to fix deficiencies found in the preceding battlecruiser classes , which primarily covered propulsion systems and the main armament . Previous battlecruisers used a four shaft arrangement for their engines ; reducing the number to three would allow the new ships to equip a diesel engine on the central shaft . This would substantially increase the cruising range , and would ease the transfer of fuel and reduce the number of crew needed to operate the ships ' machinery . The navy department also argued for an increase in the main battery guns , from 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) guns to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) weapons . This was because the latest British battleships had thicker main belt armor , up to 300 millimeters ( 12 in ) . Since the German battlecruisers were intended to fight in the line of battle , their armament needed to be sufficiently powerful to penetrate the armor of their British opponents . Weight increases were managed by reducing the number of guns , from 10 to 8 — the increase in gun caliber added only 36 tons to the ships ' displacement . Tirpitz argued against the increase in gun caliber , for he thought the 28 cm gun was powerful enough .
A new construction technique was employed to save weight . Previous battlecruisers were built with a combination of transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; the Derfflinger @-@ class ships dispensed with the transverse frames and used only the longitudinal ones . This enabled the ship to retain structural strength and a lower weight . As with all preceding capital ships , the outer hull spaces between the hull wall and the torpedo bulkhead were used for coal storage .
On 1 September 1910 , the design board chose the 30 @.@ 5 cm , to be mounted in four twin turrets on the centerline of the ship . The armor layout was kept the same as in Seydlitz . In the meantime , pressure from the British public and media had forced the British Parliament to step up ship building . Kaiser Wilhelm II requested that the build time for the new battlecruisers be reduced to two years each , as opposed to three years . This proved unfeasible , because neither the armor or armament firms could supply the necessary materials according to an expedited schedule .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Derfflinger and Lützow were 210 m ( 689 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline and 210 @.@ 40 m ( 690 ft 3 in ) long overall . Hindenburg was slightly longer , at 212 @.@ 50 m ( 697 ft 2 in ) at the waterline and 212 @.@ 80 m ( 698 ft 2 in ) overall . All three ships had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) , and a draft of between 9 @.@ 20 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) forward and 9 @.@ 57 m ( 31 ft 5 in ) aft . The first two ships were designed to displace 26 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 200 long tons ) with a standard load , and up to 31 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 30 @,@ 700 long tons ) at combat weight . Hindenburg displaced slightly more , at 26 @,@ 947 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 521 long tons ) standard and 31 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 31 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . The ships ' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . Derfflinger 's hull contained 16 watertight compartments , though Lützow and Hindenburg had an additional seventeenth compartment . All three ships had a double bottom that ran for 65 % of the length of the hull . This was a decrease from preceding German battlecruisers , which had a double bottom for at least 75 % of the hull .
The ships were regarded as excellent sea boats by the German navy . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were described as having had gentle motion , though they were " wet " at the casemate deck . The ships lost up to 65 % speed with the twin rudders hard over , and heeled up to 11 degrees . This was greater than any of the preceding battlecruiser designs , and as a result , anti @-@ roll tanks were fitted to Derfflinger . The three ships had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 60 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) . The standard crew for one of the vessels was 44 officers and 1 @,@ 068 men ; when serving as the flagship for the I Scouting Group , the ships carried an additional 14 officers and 62 men . The Derfflingers carried smaller craft , including one picket boat , three barges , two launches , two yawls , and two dinghies .
= = = Machinery = = =
By the time construction work on Derfflinger began , it was determined that the diesel engine was not ready for use . Instead , the plan to use a three @-@ shaft system was abandoned and the ships reverted to the standard four @-@ shaft arrangement . Each of the three ships were equipped with two sets of marine @-@ type turbines ; each set drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 90 m ( 12 ft 10 in ) in diameter on Derfflinger and Lützow and 4 m ( 13 ft 1 in ) in diameter on Hindenburg . Each set consisted of a high- and low @-@ pressure turbine — the high @-@ pressure machines drove the outer shafts while the low @-@ pressure turbines turned the inner pair . Steam was supplied to the turbines from 14 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type double boilers and eight oil @-@ fired marine @-@ type double @-@ ended boilers . Each ship was equipped with a pair of turbo @-@ electric generators and a pair of diesel @-@ electric generators that provided a total of 1 @,@ 660 kilowatts at 220 volts . Each ship was equipped with two rudders .
The engines for first two ships were designed to provide 62 @,@ 138 shaft horsepower ( 46 @,@ 336 kW ) , at 280 revolutions per minute . This would have given the two ships a top speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) . During trials , Derfflinger 's engines achieved 75 @,@ 586 shp ( 56 @,@ 364 kW ) , but a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . Lützow 's engines reached 79 @,@ 880 shp ( 59 @,@ 570 kW ) and a top speed of 26 @.@ 4 knots ( 48 @.@ 9 km / h ; 30 @.@ 4 mph ) . Hindenburg 's power plant was rated at 71 @,@ 015 shp ( 52 @,@ 956 kW ) at 290 rpm , for a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . On trials she reached 94 @,@ 467 shp ( 70 @,@ 444 kW ) and 26 @.@ 6 knots ( 49 @.@ 3 km / h ; 30 @.@ 6 mph ) . Derfflinger could carry 3 @,@ 500 t ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ) of oil ; at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , she had a range of 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) . Lützow carried 3 @,@ 700 t ( 3 @,@ 600 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 tons of oil , though she had no advantage in range over her sister Derfflinger . Hindenburg also stored 3 @,@ 700 tons of coal , as well as 1 @,@ 200 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of oil ; her range at 14 knots was rated at 6 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 300 km ; 7 @,@ 000 mi ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were armed with eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) SK L / 50 guns in four twin gun turrets , two forward of the main superstructure in a superfiring pair and two to the rear of the ship , in a similar arrangement . The guns were housed in Drh.L C / 1912 mounts on the first two ships , and in Drh.L C / 1913 mounts on Hindenburg . The turrets were trained with electric motors , while the guns were elevated hydraulically , up to 13 @.@ 5 degrees . The guns fired 405 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 894 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 855 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 805 ft / s ) . At 13 @.@ 5 degrees , the shells could hit targets out to 18 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) . The turrets were modified in 1916 to increase the elevation maximum to 16 degrees . This correspondingly increased the range to 20 @,@ 400 m ( 22 @,@ 300 yd ) . The ships carried 720 shells , or 90 per gun ; each gun was supplied with 65 armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells and 25 semi @-@ AP shells for use against targets with less armor protection . The 30 @.@ 5 cm gun had a rate of fire of between 2 – 3 shells per minute , and was expected to fire 200 shells before replacement was necessary . The guns were also capable of firing 405 @.@ 9 kg ( 894 @.@ 8 lb ) high explosive shells . The shells were loaded with two RP C / 12 propellant charges : a main charge in a brass cartridge that weighed 91 kg ( 201 lb ) and a fore charge in a silk bag that weighed 34 @.@ 5 kg ( 76 lb ) . The propellant magazines were located underneath the shell rooms for the two forward turrets as well as the rear superfiring turret ; the arrangement was reversed for the rearmost turret .
The ships were designed to carry fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns , mounted in casemates along the superstructure . Because Derfflinger had to be fitted with anti @-@ roll tanks , two of the casemated guns had to be removed , to allow enough room in the hull . Lützow and Hindenburg were equipped with the designed number of guns . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 18 @,@ 400 yd ) . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of five to seven rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .
The three ships carried a variety of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in several configurations . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were initially equipped with eight of these weapons , all in single mounts ; four were placed in the forward superstructure and four in the aft superstructure . The ships also carried four 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns , which were emplaced around the forward funnel , with the exception of Lützow , which carried the Flak guns around the rear funnel . After 1916 , the four 8 @.@ 8 cm guns in the forward superstructure were removed . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m ( 30 @,@ 019 ft 8 in ) at 70 degrees .
The ships were also armed with submerged torpedo tubes in their hulls . Derfflinger was equipped with four 50 cm tubes ; the later ships were armed with more powerful 60 cm weapons . The tubes were arranged with one in the bow , one in the stern , and two on the broadside . Derfflinger 's 50 cm torpedoes were the G7 type , 7 @.@ 02 m ( 276 in ) long and armed with a 195 kg ( 430 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedo had a range of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 370 yd ) when set at a speed of 37 knots , and up to 9 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 170 yd ) at 27 knots . The 60 cm torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 550 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 310 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .
The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . On Hindenburg , the thickness of the turret roofs was increased to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm @-@ worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .
= = Construction = =
Of the three ships in its class , only Derfflinger was ordered as an addition to the fleet , under the provisional name " K " . The other two ships were to intended to replace obsolete vessels ; Lützow was ordered as Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta for the elderly protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta and the contract for Hindenburg was issued under the provisional name Ersatz Hertha , to replace the protected cruiser Hertha .
Derfflinger was constructed at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg under construction number 213 . She was the least expensive of the three ships , at a cost of 56 million gold marks . The ship was ready to be launched on 14 June 1913 , but during the ceremony , one of the wooden sledges upon which the hull rested became jammed . It took until 12 July for her to enter the water . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 September 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. Lützow was built at the Schichau dockyard in Danzig under construction number 885 , at the cost of 58 million gold marks . The ship was launched on 29 November 1913 , and after lengthy trials , commissioned on 8 August 1915 . Hindenburg , the final member of the class , was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 34 . The ship was built at a cost of 59 million gold marks , the most expensive of the three vessels . She was launched on 1 August 1915 and commissioned on 10 May 1917 .
= = Units = =
= = = SMS Derfflinger = = =
Named after Georg von Derfflinger , a German field marshal during the Thirty Years ' War , Derfflinger was commissioned on 1 September 1914 . A dockyard crew transferred the ship from Hamburg to Kiel , via the Skagen . The ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group at the end of October . Damage to the ship 's turbines sustained during trials prevented the ship from seeing active service until 16 November . On 15 December , the ship took part in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby . She was also present during the battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . The ship was hit once by a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shell from one of the British battlecruisers ; in response , she heavily damaged HMS Lion . Repair work was completed by 16 February , but Derfflinger 's starboard turbine was accidentally damaged on 28 June , and the ship was again in the dockyard until August . On 24 April 1916 , Derfflinger took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth .
On 31 May , Derfflinger was heavily engaged during the Battle of Jutland , as the second ship in the German battlecruiser line . She sustained 21 major hits during the battle , but dealt considerable damage to the British battlecruiser force as well . At 16 : 26 , HMS Queen Mary sank after a magazine explosion that tore the ship apart ; she had been targeted with a hail of heavy @-@ caliber gunfire from Derfflinger and Seydlitz . Two hours later , at 18 : 30 , HMS Invincible suffered a similar fate , though Derfflinger was assisted by her sister Lützow . During the engagement , Derfflinger had both of her rear turrets knocked out by British gunfire . Her crew suffered 157 men killed and 26 wounded , which was the highest casualty figure for any German ship not sunk . The resilience of the vessel earned her the nickname " Iron Dog " from her British adversaries . Repair work lasted until 15 October , during which the ship had her pole mast removed and replaced with a tripod mast . The ship conducted training operations until November , at which point she returned to active duty with the fleet .
Following the German capitulation in November 1918 , Derfflinger was interned with a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . On 21 June 1919 , with the guard ships of the Royal Navy out on maneuvers , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered that the fleet be scuttled . The resulting scuttling of the German fleet saw some 66 vessels of various types sunk . Among those was Derfflinger , which sank at 14 : 45 . The ship was raised in 1939 to be broken up for scrap metal , but the outbreak of World War II intervened . The ship , which remained capsized , was anchored off the island of Risa until 1946 , at which point she was sent to Faslane Port , where she was broken up . The ship 's bell was delivered to the German Federal Navy on 30 August 1965 .
= = = SMS Lützow = = =
Lützow was named after Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow , a Prussian lieutenant @-@ general who fought during the Napoleonic Wars . The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1915 , and then underwent trials . On 25 October , while still running sea trials , Lützow 's port low pressure turbine were severely damaged . She was sent to Kiel for repairs , which lasted until late January 1916 . The ship went on additional trials that lasted until 19 February . Lützow was by then fully operational , and assigned to the I Scouting Group on 20 March 1916 . She took part in two fleet advances , on 25 March and 21 – 22 April , without any major incidents . The following day , on 23 April , Lützow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the battlecruisers Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann , bombarded Yarmouth . While en route to the target , Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper 's flagship Seydlitz was heavily damaged by mines . As a result , Lützow was transferred to the role of squadron flagship . During the operation , the German battlecruisers encountered British light forces , and a running battle ensued . Lützow engaged the light cruiser HMS Conquest and hit her several times .
At the Battle of Jutland , she was the first ship in the German line , and Hipper 's flagship , and drew fire from the British battlecruisers which included hits below her waterline . Shortly after the start of the battlecruiser action , Lützow hit her opponent Lion several times ; one hit knocked out Lion 's " Q " turret , and the resulting magazine fire nearly destroyed the ship . Shortly after 19 : 00 , the armored cruisers Defence and Warrior inadvertently ran into the German line ; Lützow opened fire immediately , followed by several German dreadnoughts . In a hail of shells , Defence 's ammunition magazines detonated and the ship was sunk . At around the same time , the fresh battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron engaged their German opposites . Between 19 : 26 and 19 : 34 , Lützow sustained four 12 @-@ inch shell hits in her bow from the British battlecruisers ; these eventually proved to be fatal . Despite this , at 19 : 30 , the combined fire of Lützow and her sister Derfflinger destroyed the battlecruiser Invincible . By 20 : 15 , Lützow had been hit five more times , including hits on her two forward turrets .
By 22 : 15 , Lützow had shipped nearly 2 @,@ 400 tons of water , and the ship was dangerously down by the bows . After midnight , attempts were made to steer the ship in reverse . This failed when the bow became submerged enough to bring the stern out of the water ; by 02 : 20 , the screws and both rudders were coming out of the water and the ship was no longer able to steer . The order to abandon ship was given , and at 02 : 47 , Lützow was sunk by the torpedo boat G38 . The ship was lost because the flooding in the bow could not be controlled ; the forward pump system failed and the central system could not keep up with the rising water . The crew was picked up by four torpedo boats that had been escorting the crippled battlecruiser ; during the battle the ship suffered 116 men killed .
= = = SMS Hindenburg = = =
Hindenburg was the last battlecruiser completed for the Imperial German Navy , and as such had a very short career . She was commissioned 10 May 1917 , and was fully operational by 20 October 1917 , too late to see any major action in World War I. On 17 November Hindenburg and Moltke , along with the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group , were acting as distant support for German minesweepers off the German coast when they were attacked by British battlecruisers . The raid was brief ; by the time Hindenburg and Moltke arrived on the scene , the British ships had broken off the attack and withdrawn . Six days later , Hindenburg replaced Seydlitz as flagship of the I Scouting Group . On 23 April 1918 , the ship took part in an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea that attempted to intercept an Allied convoy . Moltke sustained mechanical damage while en route , and as a result , Vice Admiral Hipper decided to cancel the operation . On 11 August , Hipper was promoted to Admiral and given command of the entire High Seas Fleet . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter replaced Hipper as the commander of the I Scouting Group ; he raised his flag on Hindenburg the following day .
Hindenburg was interned at Scapa Flow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the rest of the German battlecruisers . She was scuttled on 21 June 1919 , and sank at 17 : 00 . Several unsuccessful attempts to raise her were made ; on 23 July 1930 the ship was finally raised . From 1930 to 1932 she was scrapped at Rosyth . Her bell was presented to the German Federal Navy on 28 May 1959 .
= O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer =
The O 'Brien class of destroyers was a class of six ships designed by and built for the United States Navy shortly before the United States entered World War I. The O 'Brien class was the third of five classes of destroyers that were known as the " thousand tonners " , because they were the first U.S. destroyers over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) displacement .
The design of what became the O 'Brien class was the result of discussions between the General Board of the United States Navy and the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance . What resulted was a design that was an incremental development of the Aylwin class , which itself was similar to the first of the thousand tonners , the Cassin class ( which displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class ) . The key difference in the O 'Brien class was the increase in torpedo size , going up to 21 inches ( 533 mm ) from the preceding classes ' 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes .
The ships had a median displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) , were just over 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , and had a beam of about 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) . All of the ships had two direct @-@ drive steam turbines and a combination of other engines for cruising at speeds less than 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All of the ships were designed for a maximum speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . As built , they were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had four twin 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes with a load of eight torpedoes , but all were later equipped with depth charges . The ships were built by four private American shipyards — Bath Iron Works , Fore River Shipbuilding Company , New York Shipbuilding Corporation , and William Cramp and Sons — and were laid down between September and November 1913 ; launched between April 1914 and February 1915 ; and commissioned into the U.S. Navy between June 1914 and August 1915 .
All six ships operated in the Atlantic or Caribbean until the U.S. entrance into World War I in April 1917 , when all six were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort duties . Several of the ships rescued passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats , and several had encounters with U @-@ boats themselves ; Nicholson helped sink U @-@ 58 in November 1917 , the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy . All six members of the class had returned to the United States in January 1919 and were decommissioned by June 1922 . In 1924 , two of the six — Ericsson and McDougal — were commissioned into the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . They were returned to U.S. Navy custody in 1932 and 1933 , respectively . All six ships had been sold for scrapping by June 1936 .
= = Background = =
For the 1913 fiscal year , the General Board of the United States Navy determined that six destroyers would be authorized . The design for Destroyers No. 51 through No. 56 — what became the O 'Brien class , was to closely follow the design of the Cassin and Aylwin classes from fiscal year 1912 . The chief of the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) suggested that the new destroyers be equipped with ten torpedo tubes and urged that the new 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo be adopted . The General Board agreed in principle , adopting the 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , but eliminated BuOrd 's proposed centerline torpedo tubes and keeping the number of tubes at eight , the same as the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The additional weight of the larger torpedoes , 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) of top weight , was offset by reducing the planned two aft @-@ facing guns to a single one . This gave the class four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , which , again , matched the battery of the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The design for the O 'Brien class was approved on 20 August 1912 , and authorized by Congress on 4 March 1913 .
= = Design = =
As built , the O 'Brien @-@ class ships were 305 feet 5 inches ( 93 @.@ 09 m ) in length ( overall ) , were 31 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 50 m ) abeam , and had a standard draft of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The hull shape featured the distinctive high forecastle typical of U.S. destroyer classes since the 1908 – 09 Smith class , the first destroyers designed to be truly ocean @-@ going vessels . The ships displaced between 1 @,@ 020 and 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 and 1 @,@ 110 t ) with a median of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) .
The ships were equipped with two propeller shafts and two direct @-@ drive , Zoelly steam turbines fed by four White @-@ Forster boilers . The power plant of the ships generated 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) which drive the ships to the design speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . Because of inherent inefficiency of turbines at low speeds , all of the ships were equipped with supplemental cruising engines for travel at speeds under 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All except Cushing were equipped with supplemental triple @-@ expansion reciprocating engines : O 'Brien , Nicholson , and Winslow each had a pair of reciprocating engines for cruising ; McDougal and Ericsson were outfitted with only one . Instead of reciprocating engines , Cushing was equipped with a pair of geared steam turbines for cruising .
The main battery of the O 'Brien class consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
The O 'Brien ships were also equipped with four twin 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , for a total load of eight Mark 8 torpedoes . Although the General Board had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien class , they were not originally outfitted with the weapons ; the later Sampson class was the first American destroyer class so armed . Likewise , there is no record of any of the O 'Brien ships being outfitted with mine @-@ laying apparatus . During World War I , most American destroyers were used in anti @-@ submarine warfare roles , and were equipped with depth charges and delivery systems , such as Y @-@ guns and depth charge racks . O 'Brien @-@ class ships were equipped with depth charges during the war , but no specific mentions of the types of depth charges used or delivery system are recorded in secondary sources .
= = = Comparisons with other " thousand tonners " = = =
The " thousand tonners " were the 26 United States Navy destroyers of five classes — Cassin , Aylwin , O 'Brien , Tucker , and Sampson — so named because they were the first U.S. Navy destroyers to have displacements greater than 1 @,@ 000 long tons . The Cassin class , the first of the thousand tonners , displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class . The introduction of the thousand tonners led to the Pauldings and other older , smaller displacement destroyers of previous classes to be dismissively called " flivvers " , a nickname also commonly applied to the Ford Model T.
The O 'Brien class was the third of the five classes of " thousand tonners " . The earlier Cassin- ( DD @-@ 43 to DD @-@ 46 ) and Aylwin @-@ class ( DD @-@ 47 to DD @-@ 50 ) ships were about the same length as the O 'Brien ships and all had median displacements in the range of 1 @,@ 020 – 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 – 1 @,@ 070 t ) ; the later Tucker- ( DD @-@ 57 to DD @-@ 62 ) and Sampson @-@ class ( DD @-@ 63 to DD @-@ 68 ) ships were about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) longer and had median displacements of 1 @,@ 090 – 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 – 1 @,@ 120 t ) . All five classes were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , but the torpedo size and complement varied . All were equipped with four twin torpedo tubes loaded with eight torpedoes except for the Sampsons ( which had four triple tubes carrying twelve torpedoes ) , but the Cassin and Aylwin classes were armed with 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes . The O 'Brien ships were the first armed with the new21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) Mark 8 torpedoes ; the Tucker and Sampson ships also used the 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . The Sampsons were the only group originally equipped with anti @-@ aircraft guns , a pair of 1 @-@ pounder ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) guns with a caliber of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) .
= = Construction = =
The construction of the six O 'Brien @-@ class ships was allocated to four U.S. shipbuilders . William Cramp constructed a trio of O 'Brien destroyers , while the Fore River Shipbuilding Company , Bath Iron Works , and New York Shipbuilding Corporation built one ship each . The keels for all six ships were laid down between July and November 1913 , with McDougal being the first and Ericsson the last . All were launched between April 1915 and January 1915 , with McDougal again being the first and Winslow being the last . McDougal was commissioned in June 1914 , two months after her launch ; the rest were commissioned between April and August 1915 , with Cushing the final ship to enter service . The cost of each ship for hull and machinery was $ 790 @,@ 000 .
= = Ships in class = =
All six members of the class served in the Atlantic or Caribbean throughout their U.S. Navy careers . In October 1916 , with the United States still neutral in World War I , five of the six class members ( all except Nicholson ) were among the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five ships torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket .
After the United States entered the war in April 1917 , all six class members were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . McDougal was in the first group of six American destroyers that arrived at Queenstown on 4 May ; Ericsson and Winslow followed in the second group , which arrived thirteen days later , and Cushing , Nicholson , and O 'Brien in the third group , a week after that . Several of the ships had encounters with U @-@ boats during the war : Nicholson , working with Fanning in November 1917 , helped to sink U @-@ 58 , which was the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy ; earlier , in June , O 'Brien had depth @-@ charged U @-@ 16 and was thought by the British Admiralty to have seriously damaged the U @-@ boat , but post @-@ war analysis of records showed that U @-@ 16 survived the attack and returned safely to port .
All six ships returned to the United States in January 1919 and served in various roles over the next two years . Cushing was decommissioned in August 1920 , followed by Nicholson and McDougal in May 1922 , and the remaining three in the following month . In June 1924 , two of the six ships — Ericsson and McDougal — were reactivated for service with the United States Coast Guard 's " Rum Patrol " . Ericsson was returned to the U.S. Navy in May 1932 , and McDougal in June 1933 ; both were sold for scrapping in 1934 . O 'Brien was sold for scrapping in 1935 , and the remaining three in June 1936 .
= = = USS O 'Brien ( DD @-@ 51 ) = = =
USS O 'Brien ( Destroyer No. 51 / DD @-@ 51 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in July 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of Jeremiah O 'Brien and his five brothers , Gideon , John , William , Dennis , and Joseph who , together on the sloop Unity , captured a British warship during the American Revolutionary War .
After O 'Brien 's May 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , O 'Brien was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland .
After returning to the United States in January 1919 , O 'Brien returned to European waters in May to serve as one of the picket ships for the NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 sold for scrapping in April .
= = = USS Nicholson ( DD @-@ 52 ) = = =
USS Nicholson ( Destroyer No. 52 / DD @-@ 52 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in August 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of five members of the Nicholson family who gave distinguished service in the American Revolutionary War , the War of 1812 , and the American Civil War : brothers James , Samuel , and John Nicholson ; William Nicholson , son of John ; and James W. Nicholson , grandson of Samuel .
After Nicholson 's April 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Nicholson was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . In October 1917 , Nicholson steamed to the rescue of SS J. L. Luckenbach , driving off German submarine U @-@ 62 , which had shelled the American cargo ship for over three hours . In November , Nicholson and another U.S. destroyer , Fanning , were responsible for sinking German submarine U @-@ 58 , the first submarine taken by U.S. forces during the war . In September 1918 , Nicholson helped drive off U @-@ 82 after that U @-@ boat had torpedoed the American troopship Mount Vernon off the coast of France .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Nicholson was placed in reduced commission in November 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June .
= = = USS Winslow ( DD @-@ 53 ) = = =
USS Winslow ( Destroyer No. 53 / DD @-@ 53 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in October 1913 and launched in February 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ancrum Winslow , a U.S. Navy officer notable for sinking the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama during the American Civil War .
After Winslow 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Winslow was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Winslow made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Winslow was placed in reduced commission in December 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 53 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June .
= = = USS McDougal ( DD @-@ 54 ) = = =
USS McDougal ( Destroyer No. 54 / DD @-@ 54 ) was laid down by Bath Iron Works of Bath , Maine , in July 1913 and launched in April 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of David Stockton McDougal , a U.S. Navy officer notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming .
After McDougal 's June 1914 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 6 crewmen from a sunken Dutch cargo ship to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , McDougal was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , McDougal made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of ships sunk by the German craft . After a collision with a British cargo ship in February 1918 , McDougal was under repair until mid @-@ July , and afterwards , operated out of Brest , France .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , McDougal conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC McDougal ( CG @-@ 6 ) until May 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 54 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in July 1934 sold for scrapping in August .
= = = USS Cushing ( DD @-@ 55 ) = = =
USS Cushing ( Destroyer No. 55 / DD @-@ 55 ) was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in September 1913 and launched in January 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of William B. Cushing , a U.S. Navy officer best known for sinking the Confederate ironclad warship CSS Albemarle during the American Civil War .
After Cushing 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Cushing was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Cushing made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United States after the war , Cushing was placed in reserve in reduced commission . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in August 1920 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and was sold for scrapping in June .
= = = USS Ericsson ( DD @-@ 56 ) = = =
USS Ericsson ( Destroyer No. 56 / DD @-@ 56 ) was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in November 1913 and launched in August of the following year . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ericsson , the Swedish @-@ born builder of the ironclad warship USS Monitor during the American Civil War .
After Ericsson 's May 1916 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 81 passengers from a sunken British ocean liner to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Ericsson was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Ericsson made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .
Upon returning to the United State after the war , Ericsson conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Ericsson ( CG @-@ 5 ) until May 1932 , when she was returned to the Navy . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .
= Who Am I ( Casting Crowns song ) =
" Who Am I " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , it was released on February 22 , 2004 , as the second single from the band 's 2003 self @-@ titled debut album . A pop rock and adult contemporary ballad , the song is based around the piano and utilizes orchestral sounds . Lyrically , the song is centered on worshiping God . The song received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with several regarding it as one of the best songs on their debut album .
" Who Am I " received the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards , and it was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year . It achieved success on Christian radio , topping the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts as well as simultaneously peaking atop the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . It has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Casting Crowns has performed the song in concert as well as at special events , and re @-@ recorded the song in 2013 for their acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One .
= = Background and composition = =
According to Casting Crowns ' lead singer Mark Hall , the idea for " Who Am I " came while he was driving home with his wife and children one night . Hall , who was having personal worship time during the drive , recounts that he wondered " Who am I to think I can just call up to God whenever I want , from the middle of nowhere , and expect Him to hear me ? " Hall says " immediately I started thinking I 'm a new creation , I 'm more than a conqueror ... I 'm [ also ] grass , that is rises up and is gone in a day " . In an interview , he commented that " me being a conqueror is true , but at the same time I need to understand that my life is a vapor , and me being able to even pray to [ God ] is because of what he 's done for me " . " Who Am I " was produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman . It was recorded at Glow In The Dark Studio in Decatur , Georgia and Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , and it was engineered by Matt Goldman and Sam Hewitt .
" Who Am I " is a song with a length of five minutes and thirty @-@ five seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is in set common time in the key of B major and has a tempo of 66 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G ♯ 3 to the high note of F ♯ 3 . " Who Am I " has been described as a pop rock and adult contemporary ballad . Based around the piano and featuring orchestral sounds , it begins slowly before building up into a musical crescendo . Lyrically , the song is centered in praising God , relating a theme of nothingness without Christ .
= = Reception = =
" Who Am I " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine described the song as a " standout " from the album . Tom Lennie of Cross Rhythms noted it as one of the best songs from their debut album . In 2007 , Andree Farias of Christianity Today described it as one of the many Casting Crowns songs that have become " beloved anthems of the Christian faith " . In 2013 , Roger Gelwicks described it as an " AC radio favorite " but felt it was " dated " . At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , " Who Am I " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ; It was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year .
" Who Am I " was released to Christian adult contemporary , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on January 22 , 2004 as the second single from the band 's debut album . It spent six weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs songs chart and two weeks atop the Hot Christian AC chart . It also simultaneously topped the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . In July 26 , 2011 , it was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = Live performances and other uses = =
On October 5 , 2003 at the band 's church in Atlanta , Casting Crowns performed " Who Am I " . This performance was included on their 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band performed the song on May 6 , 2004 at the Nationally Broadcast Concert of Prayer event , held at Daytona International Speedway in front of nearly 10 @,@ 000 people ; the band 's performance , along with the rest of those participating in the three @-@ hour event , was simulcast nationally on television , radio , and the internet . The band performed the song on October 27 , 2004 at the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit , Michigan as part of a Bush @-@ Cheney ' 04 campaign rally . The event was attended by around 20 @,@ 000 people .
At a concert at the Giant Center in Hershey , Pennsylvania held on April 1 , 2005 , Casting Crowns performed it as the third song on their set list . On July 10 , 2005 at a concert at Seaholm High School in Ypsilanti , Michigan , Casting Crowns performed it as their third song in their set list . At a concert at Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey , Casting Crowns performed an acoustic version of the song . At a concert on November 12 , 2005 in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania 's Stabler Arena , Casting Crowns performed the song as the thirteenth song in their set . The band performed the song at a February 5 , 2010 concert at the Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri . In 2009 , the band was invited to perform in North Korea at the 2009 Spring Friendship Art Festival ; the band 's set list at the festival included a Korean @-@ language version of " Who Am I " .
" Who Am I " was included on the 2004 compilation album WOW Hits 2005 , the 2006 compilation album WOW Worship : Aqua , and the 2008 compilation album WOW Essentials , as well as the band 's 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band re @-@ recorded the song for their 2013 acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One ; unlike the original , which featured Mark Hall on lead vocals , the acoustic version features Megan Garrett on lead vocals .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= We 'll Always Have Paris ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" We 'll Always Have Paris " is the 24th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , first aired on May 2 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The story and script were both created by Deborah Dean Davis and Hannah Louise Shearer , and the episode was directed by Robert Becker .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the crew respond to a distress call from Dr. Paul Manheim ( Rod Loomis ) . While the crew must deal with the results of Manheim 's haywire experiments with time , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) must deal with his former love Jenice ( Michelle Phillips ) , who is also Manheim 's wife .
The story of the episode was influenced by the film Casablanca , and was affected by the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike . Because of the strike , the script was written in five days and it was only when it was filmed that it was discovered to be incomplete . Shearer was not happy with the result and felt that the on @-@ screen chemistry of Stewart and Phillips was lacking . Reviews of the episode have been mixed , with one reviewer summing it up by saying " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes . "
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise , along with other ships in the sector , experience a localized time @-@ distortion , and soon after receive a distress @-@ call from Dr. Paul Manheim in a nearby system . Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) recalls that Manheim was ejected from the Federation Science Institute for conducting unauthorized experiments . They find the distress signal coming from a facility on a planetoid surrounded by a force @-@ field . When they make contact with the facility , a woman requests help to save her husband , Dr. Manheim , and lowers the shields .
The two are brought aboard and while Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) tends to Dr. Manheim , who is having conv | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
syndication during the week commencing May 5 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 7 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the same ratings received as the previous episode , " Skin of Evil " .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode on behalf of TrekNation in September 2007 , comparing certain elements of the episode to Casablanca and the series finale " All Good Things ... " . These included the ending where time distortions caused Data to be replicated three time in " We 'll Always Have Paris " compared to the similar situation with three Picards in " All Good Things ... " . Overall she thought that the episode was better than she recalled previously . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as too simple , especially the ending which he said was " they give Data a canister , which he sticks into a hall of mirrors ; problem solved " .
Zack Handlen , reviewing the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , said that he enjoyed the " time blips " in the episode , but that he wasn 't a fan of the romance between Jenice and Picard . He also felt that there wasn 't much follow up on Manheim 's experiments and that he seemed to be left to cause a more serious accident in the future . Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com in July 2011 . He thought that Michele Phillips was " incredibly radiant " , and said , " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes " , giving it a score of four out of ten .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " We 'll Always Have Paris " was on VHS cassette was on July 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Burn =
A burn is a type of injury to skin , or other tissues , caused by heat , cold , electricity , chemicals , friction , or radiation . Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids , solids , or fire . Among women in many areas of the world the risk is related to the use of open cooking fires or unsafe cook stoves . Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors . Burns can also occur as a result of self harm or violence between people .
Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first @-@ degree burns . They appear red without blisters and pain typically lasts around three days . When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer , it is a partial @-@ thickness or second @-@ degree burn . Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful . Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur . In a full @-@ thickness or third @-@ degree burn , the injury extends to all layers of the skin . Often there is no pain and the burn area is stiff . Healing typically does not occur on its own . A fourth @-@ degree burn additionally involves injury to deeper tissues , such as muscle , tendons , or bone . The burn is often black and frequently leads to loss of the burned part .
Burns are generally preventable . Treatment depends on the severity of the burn . Superficial burns may be managed with little more than simple pain medication , while major burns may require prolonged treatment in specialized burn centers . Cooling with tap water may help pain and decrease damage ; however , prolonged cooling may result in low body temperature . Partial @-@ thickness burns may require cleaning with soap and water , followed by dressings . It is not clear how to manage blisters , but it is probably reasonable to leave them intact if small and drain them if large . Full @-@ thickness burns usually require surgical treatments , such as skin grafting . Extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid , due to capillary fluid leakage and tissue swelling . The most common complications of burns involve infection . Tetanus toxoid should be given if not up to date .
In 2013 , fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . Most deaths due to burns occur in the developing world , particularly in Southeast Asia . While large burns can be fatal , treatments developed since 1960 have improved outcomes , especially in children and young adults . In the United States , approximately 96 % of those admitted to a burn center survive their injuries . Burns occur at similar frequencies in men and women . The long @-@ term outcome is related to the size of burn and the age of the person affected .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth . Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or three days , followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days . Individuals suffering from more severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain . Full @-@ thickness burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture . While superficial burns are typically red in color , severe burns may be pink , white or black . Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred , but these findings are not definitive . More worrisome signs include : shortness of breath , hoarseness , and stridor or wheezing . Itchiness is common during the healing process , occurring in up to 90 % of adults and nearly all children . Numbness or tingling may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury . Burns may also produce emotional and psychological distress .
= = Cause = =
Burns are caused by a variety of external sources classified as thermal ( heat @-@ related ) , chemical , electrical , and radiation . In the United States , the most common causes of burns are : fire or flame ( 44 % ) , scalds ( 33 % ) , hot objects ( 9 % ) , electricity ( 4 % ) , and chemicals ( 3 % ) . Most ( 69 % ) burn injuries occur at home or at work ( 9 % ) , and most are accidental , with 2 % due to assault by another , and 1 @-@ 2 % resulting from a suicide attempt . These sources can cause inhalation injury to the airway and / or lungs , occurring in about 6 % .
Burn injuries occur more commonly among the poor . Smoking is a risk factor , although alcohol use is not . Fire @-@ related burns are generally more common in colder climates . Specific risk factors in the developing world include cooking with open fires or on the floor as well as developmental disabilities in children and chronic diseases in adults .
= = = Thermal = = =
In the United States , fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns . Of house fires that result in death , smoking causes 25 % and heating devices cause 22 % . Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire . Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks , high temperature tap water in baths or showers , hot cooking oil , or steam . Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and , in the United States and Australia , this population makes up about two @-@ thirds of all burns . Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20 @-@ 30 % of burns in children . Generally , scalds are first- or second @-@ degree burns , but third @-@ degree burns may also result , especially with prolonged contact . Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries . This is a particular risk for adolescent males .
= = = Chemical = = =
Chemicals cause from 2 to 11 % of all burns and contribute to as many as 30 % of burn @-@ related deaths . Chemical burns can be caused by over 25 @,@ 000 substances , most of which are either a strong base ( 55 % ) or a strong acid ( 26 % ) . Most chemical burn deaths are secondary to ingestion . Common agents include : sulfuric acid as found in toilet cleaners , sodium hypochlorite as found in bleach , and halogenated hydrocarbons as found in paint remover , among others . Hydrofluoric acid can cause particularly deep burns that may not become symptomatic until some time after exposure . Formic acid may cause the breakdown of significant numbers of red blood cells .
= = = Electrical = = =
Electrical burns or injuries are classified as high voltage ( greater than or equal to 1000 volts ) , low voltage ( less than 1000 volts ) , or as flash burns secondary to an electric arc . The most common causes of electrical burns in children are electrical cords ( 60 % ) followed by electrical outlets ( 14 % ) . Lightning may also result in electrical burns . Risk factors for being struck include involvement in outdoor activities such as mountain climbing , golf and field sports , and working outside . Mortality from a lightning strike is about 10 % .
While electrical injuries primarily result in burns , they may also cause fractures or dislocations secondary to blunt force trauma or muscle contractions . In high voltage injuries , most damage may occur internally and thus the extent of the injury cannot be judged by examination of the skin alone . Contact with either low voltage or high voltage may produce cardiac arrhythmias or cardiac arrest .
= = = Radiation = = =
Radiation burns may be caused by protracted exposure to ultraviolet light ( such as from the sun , tanning booths or arc welding ) or from ionizing radiation ( such as from radiation therapy , X @-@ rays or radioactive fallout ) . Sun exposure is the most common cause of radiation burns and the most common cause of superficial burns overall . There is significant variation in how easily people sunburn based on their skin type . Skin effects from ionizing radiation depend on the amount of exposure to the area , with hair loss seen after 3 Gy , redness seen after 10 Gy , wet skin peeling after 20 Gy , and necrosis after 30 Gy . Redness , if it occurs , may not appear until some time after exposure . Radiation burns are treated the same as other burns . Microwave burns occur via thermal heating caused by the microwaves . While exposures as short as two seconds may cause injury , overall this is an uncommon occurrence .
= = = Non accidental = = =
In those hospitalized from scalds or fire burns , 3 – 10 % are from assault . Reasons include : child abuse , personal disputes , spousal abuse , elder abuse , and business disputes . An immersion injury or immersion scald may indicate child abuse . It is created when an extremity or the lower body ( buttock or perineum ) is held under the surface of hot water . It typically produces a sharp upper border and is often symmetrical . Other high @-@ risk signs of potential abuse include : circumferential burns , the absence of splash marks , a burn of uniform depth , and association with other signs of neglect or abuse .
Bride burning , a form of domestic violence , occurs in some cultures , such as India where women have been burned in revenge for what the husband or his family consider an inadequate dowry . In Pakistan , acid burns represent 13 % of intentional burns , and are frequently related to domestic violence . Self @-@ immolation ( setting oneself on fire ) is also used as a form of protest in various parts of the world .
= = Pathophysiology = =
At temperatures greater than 44 ° C ( 111 ° F ) , proteins begin losing their three @-@ dimensional shape and start breaking down . This results in cell and tissue damage . Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin . They include disruption of the skin 's sensation , ability to prevent water loss through evaporation , and ability to control body temperature . Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium .
In large burns ( over 30 % of the total body surface area ) , there is a significant inflammatory response . This results in increased leakage of fluid from the capillaries , and subsequent tissue edema . This causes overall blood volume loss , with the remaining blood suffering significant plasma loss , making the blood more concentrated . Poor blood flow to organs such as the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract may result in renal failure and stomach ulcers .
Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years . This is associated with increased cardiac output , metabolism , a fast heart rate , and poor immune function .
= = Diagnosis = =
Burns can be classified by depth , mechanism of injury , extent , and associated injuries . The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury . The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination , although a biopsy may also be used . It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary . In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire @-@ related burn , carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered . Cyanide poisoning should also be considered .
= = = Size = = =
The size of a burn is measured as a percentage of total body surface area ( TBSA ) affected by partial thickness or full thickness burns . First @-@ degree burns that are only red in color and are not blistering are not included in this estimation . Most burns ( 70 % ) involve less than 10 % of the TBSA .
There are a number of methods to determine the TBSA , including the Wallace rule of nines , Lund and Browder chart , and estimations based on a person 's palm size . The rule of nines is easy to remember but only accurate in people over 16 years of age . More accurate estimates can be made using Lund and Browder charts , which take into account the different proportions of body parts in adults and children . The size of a person 's handprint ( including the palm and fingers ) is approximately 1 % of their TBSA .
= = = Severity = = =
To determine the need for referral to a specialized burn unit , the American Burn Association devised a classification system . Under this system , burns can be classified as major , moderate and minor . This is assessed based on a number of factors , including total body surface area affected , the involvement of specific anatomical zones , the age of the person , and associated injuries . Minor burns can typically be managed at home , moderate burns are often managed in hospital , and major burns are managed by a burn center .
= = Prevention = =
Historically , about half of all burns were deemed preventable . Burn prevention programs have significantly decreased rates of serious burns . Preventive measures include : limiting hot water temperatures , smoke alarms , sprinkler systems , proper construction of buildings , and fire @-@ resistant clothing . Experts recommend setting water heaters below 48 @.@ 8 ° C ( 119 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Other measures to prevent scalds include using a thermometer to measure bath water temperatures , and splash guards on stoves . While the effect of the regulation of fireworks is unclear , there is tentative evidence of benefit with recommendations including the limitation of the sale of fireworks to children .
= = Management = =
Resuscitation begins with the assessment and stabilization of the person 's airway , breathing and circulation . If inhalation injury is suspected , early intubation may be required . This is followed by care of the burn wound itself . People with extensive burns may be wrapped in clean sheets until they arrive at a hospital . As burn wounds are prone to infection , a tetanus booster shot should be given if an individual has not been immunized within the last five years . In the United States , 95 % of burns that present to the emergency department are treated and discharged ; 5 % require hospital admission . With major burns , early feeding is important . Hyperbaric oxygenation may be useful in addition to traditional treatments .
= = = Intravenous fluids = = =
In those with poor tissue perfusion , boluses of isotonic crystalloid solution should be given . In children with more than 10 @-@ 20 % TBSA burns , and adults with more than 15 % TBSA burns , formal fluid resuscitation and monitoring should follow . This should be begun pre @-@ hospital if possible in those with burns greater than 25 % TBSA . The Parkland formula can help determine the volume of intravenous fluids required over the first 24 hours . The formula is based on the affected individual 's TBSA and weight . Half of the fluid is administered over the first 8 hours , and the remainder over the following 16 hours . The time is calculated from when the burn occurred , and not from the time that fluid resuscitation began . Children require additional maintenance fluid that includes glucose . Additionally , those with inhalation injuries require more fluid . While inadequate fluid resuscitation may cause problems , over @-@ resuscitation can also be detrimental . The formulas are only a guide , with infusions ideally tailored to a urinary output of > 30 mL / h in adults or > 1mL / kg in children and mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg .
While lactated Ringer 's solution is often used , there is no evidence that it is superior to normal saline . Crystalloid fluids appear just as good as colloid fluids , and as colloids are more expensive they are not recommended . Blood transfusions are rarely required . They are typically only recommended when the hemoglobin level falls below 60 @-@ 80 g / L ( 6 @-@ 8 g / dL ) due to the associated risk of complications . Intravenous catheters may be placed through burned skin if needed or intraosseous infusions may be used .
= = = Wound care = = =
Early cooling ( within 30 minutes of the burn ) reduces burn depth and pain , but care must be taken as over @-@ cooling can result in hypothermia . It should be performed with cool water 10 – 25 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 – 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury . Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation . Cleaning with soap and water , removal of dead tissue , and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care . If intact blisters are present , it is not clear what should be done with them . Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact . Second @-@ degree burns should be re @-@ evaluated after two days .
In the management of first and second @-@ degree burns , little quality evidence exists to determine which dressing type to use . It is reasonable to manage first @-@ degree burns without dressings . While topical antibiotics are often recommended , there is little evidence to support their use . Silver sulfadiazine ( a type of antibiotic ) is not recommended as it potentially prolongs healing time . There is insufficient evidence to support the use of dressings containing silver or negative @-@ pressure wound therapy .
= = = Medications = = =
Burns can be very painful and a number of different options may be used for pain management . These include simple analgesics ( such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen ) and opioids such as morphine . Benzodiazepines may be used in addition to analgesics to help with anxiety . During the healing process , antihistamines , massage , or transcutaneous nerve stimulation may be used to aid with itching . Antihistamines , however , are only effective for this purpose in 20 % of people . There is tentative evidence supporting the use of gabapentin and its use may be reasonable in those who do not improve with antihistamines . Intravenous lidocaine requires more study before it can be recommended for pain .
Intravenous antibiotics are recommended before surgery for those with extensive burns ( > 60 % TBSA ) . As of 2008 , guidelines do not recommend their general use due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance and the increased risk of fungal infections . Tentative evidence , however , shows that they may improve survival rates in those with large and severe burns . Erythropoietin has not been found effective to prevent or treat anemia in burn cases . In burns caused by hydrofluoric acid , calcium gluconate is a specific antidote and may be used intravenously and / or topically . Recombinant human growth hormone ( rhGH ) in those with burns that involve more than 40 % of their body appears to speed healing without affecting the risk of death .
= = = Surgery = = =
Wounds requiring surgical closure with skin grafts or flaps ( typically anything more than a small full thickness burn ) should be dealt with as early as possible . Circumferential burns of the limbs or chest may need urgent surgical release of the skin , known as an escharotomy . This is done to treat or prevent problems with distal circulation , or ventilation . It is uncertain if it is useful for neck or digit burns . Fasciotomies may be required for electrical burns .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Honey has been used since ancient times to aid wound healing and may be beneficial in first- and second @-@ degree burns . There is tentative evidence that honey helps heal partial thickness burns . The evidence for aloe vera is of poor quality . While it might be beneficial in reducing pain , and a review from 2007 found tentative evidence of improved healing times a subsequent review from 2012 did not find improved healing over silver sulfadiazine . There were only three randomized controlled trials for the use of plants for burns , two for aloe vera and one for oatmeal .
There is little evidence that vitamin E helps with keloids or scarring . Butter is not recommended . In low income countries , burns are treated up to one @-@ third of the time with traditional medicine , which may include applications of eggs , mud , leaves or cow dung . Surgical management is limited in some cases due to insufficient financial resources and availability . There are a number of other methods that may be used in addition to medications to reduce procedural pain and anxiety including : virtual reality therapy , hypnosis , and behavioral approaches such as distraction techniques .
= = Prognosis = =
The prognosis is worse in those with larger burns , those who are older , and those who are females . The presence of a smoke inhalation injury , other significant injuries such as long bone fractures , and serious co @-@ morbidities ( e.g. heart disease , diabetes , psychiatric illness , and suicidal intent ) also influence prognosis . On average , of those admitted to United States burn centers , 4 % die , with the outcome for individuals dependent on the extent of the burn injury . For example , admittees with burn areas less than 10 % TBSA had a mortality rate of less than 1 % , while admittees with over 90 % TBSA had a mortality rate of 85 % . In Afghanistan , people with more than 60 % TBSA burns rarely survive . The Baux score has historically been used to determine prognosis of major burns . However , with improved care , it is no longer very accurate . The score is determined by adding the size of the burn ( % TBSA ) to the age of the person , and taking that to be more or less equal to the risk of death . Burns in 2013 resulted in 1 @.@ 2 million years lived with disability and 12 @.@ 3 million disability adjusted life years .
= = = Complications = = =
A number of complications may occur , with infections being the most common . In order of frequency , potential complications include : pneumonia , cellulitis , urinary tract infections and respiratory failure . Risk factors for infection include : burns of more than 30 % TBSA , full @-@ thickness burns , extremes of age ( young or old ) , or burns involving the legs or perineum . Pneumonia occurs particularly commonly in those with inhalation injuries .
Anemia secondary to full thickness burns of greater than 10 % TBSA is common . Electrical burns may lead to compartment syndrome or rhabdomyolysis due to muscle breakdown . Blood clotting in the veins of the legs is estimated to occur in 6 to 25 % of people . The hypermetabolic state that may persist for years after a major burn can result in a decrease in bone density and a loss of muscle mass . Keloids may form subsequent to a burn , particularly in those who are young and dark skinned . Following a burn , children may have significant psychological trauma and experience post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Scarring may also result in a disturbance in body image . In the developing world , significant burns may result in social isolation , extreme poverty and child abandonment .
= = Epidemiology = =
In 2013 fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . This is down from 300 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . This makes it the 4th leading cause of injuries after motor vehicle collisions , falls , and violence . About 90 % of burns occur in the developing world . This has been attributed partly to overcrowding and an unsafe cooking situation . Overall , nearly 60 % of fatal burns occur in Southeast Asia with a rate of 11 @.@ 6 per 100 @,@ 000 . The number of fatal burns has increased from 280 @,@ 000 in 1990 to 338 @,@ 000 in 2010 .
In the developed world , adult males have twice the mortality as females from burns . This is most probably due to their higher risk occupations and greater risk @-@ taking activities . In many countries in the developing world , however , females have twice the risk of males . This is often related to accidents in the kitchen or domestic violence . In children , deaths from burns occur at more than ten times the rate in the developing than the developed world . Overall , in children it is one of the top fifteen leading causes of death . From the 1980s to 2004 , many countries have seen both a decrease in the rates of fatal burns and in burns generally .
= = = Developed countries = = =
An estimated 500 @,@ 000 burn injuries receive medical treatment yearly in the United States . They resulted in about 3 @,@ 300 deaths in 2008 . Most burns ( 70 % ) and deaths from burns occur in males . The highest incidence of fire burns occurs in those 18 – 35 years old , while the highest incidence of scalds occurs in children less than five years old and adults over 65 . Electrical burns result in about 1 @,@ 000 deaths per year . Lightning results in the death of about 60 people a year . In Europe , intentional burns occur most commonly in middle aged men .
= = = Developing countries = = =
In India , about 700 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 people per year sustain significant burns , though very few are looked after in specialist burn units . The highest rates occur in women 16 – 35 years of age . Part of this high rate is related to unsafe kitchens and loose @-@ fitting clothing typical to India . It is estimated that one @-@ third of all burns in India are due to clothing catching fire from open flames . Intentional burns are also a common cause and occur at high rates in young women , secondary to domestic violence and self @-@ harm .
= = History = =
Cave paintings from more than 3 @,@ 500 years ago document burns and their management . The earliest Egyptian records on treating burns describes dressings prepared with milk from mothers of baby boys , and the 1500 BCE Edwin Smith Papyrus describes treatments using honey and the salve of resin . Many other treatments have been used over the ages , including the use of tea leaves by the Chinese documented to 600 BCE , pig fat and vinegar by Hippocrates documented to 400 BCE , and wine and myrrh by Celsus documented to 100 CE . French barber @-@ surgeon Ambroise Paré was the first to describe different degrees of burns in the 1500s . Guillaume Dupuytren expanded these degrees into six different severities in 1832 .
The first hospital to treat burns opened in 1843 in London , England and the development of modern burn care began in the late 1800s and early 1900s . During World War I , Henry D. Dakin and Alexis Carrel developed standards for the cleaning and disinfecting of burns and wounds using sodium hypochlorite solutions , which significantly reduced mortality . In the 1940s , the importance of early excision and skin grafting was acknowledged , and around the same time , fluid resuscitation and formulas to guide it were developed . In the 1970s , researchers demonstrated the significance of the hypermetabolic state that follows large burns .
= Tropical Storm Brenda ( 1960 ) =
Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28 , and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula , it attained tropical storm status . Brenda accelerated northeast along the U.S. East Coast , ultimately peaking as a moderate storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) before crossing the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England ; it dissipated on July 31 over southern Canada . The storm inflicted moderate damage in Florida , the worst since Hurricane Easy of 1950 , and dropped heavy rainfall as far north as New York City . Total damage is estimated at US $ 5 million , and only indirect deaths are blamed on the cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak low @-@ pressure area that organized in the northeast Gulf of Mexico began to intensify on July 28 , while located west of the Tampa Bay . Early in its life , the system had a broad circulation with primarily light winds , similar to that of a subtropical storm . The storm is estimated to have become a tropical depression earlier the previous day as it moved toward the northeast . It made landfall along the Florida coast near Cross City and continued inland , gradually accelerating . It likely attained tropical storm status at around 1200 UTC on July 28 while its center was situated west of Tampa . The cyclone was named Brenda after reconnaissance aircraft confirmed that it had reached tropical storm strength .
Brenda tracked northward , hugging the Georgia and South Carolina coasts before moving inland over North Carolina . It attained its peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in the late evening of July 29 , while situated south of Wilmington . Several hours later , the storm emerged over the Chesapeake Bay moving northeast at about 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) . Brenda crossed the Delmarva Peninsula and rapidly tracked into southern New Jersey . The storm crossed the state and eventually made another landfall on Long Island before making yet another landfall in coastal Connecticut .
At around 0000 UTC on July 31 , Brenda moved into Massachusetts . Shortly thereafter , it lost its tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . It dissipated by August 1 over southern Canada . Because Brenda was in the vicinity of land for most of its course , it was not able to intensify beyond tropical storm status .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In advance of the storm , tropical storm advisories and wind warnings were issued from Florida to Maine .
Rainfall from Tropical Storm Brenda affected at least 16 states . The heaviest precipitation fell in western Florida near Tampa , east of the storm 's center ; the Tampa International Airport recorded 14 @.@ 57 in ( 370 mm ) of rainfall . Extensive flooding occurred in the west @-@ central Florida Peninsula . Wind gusts exceeded 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and the storm produced 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high waves along the coast , leading to considerable erosion . However , storm tides were not severe . Around the Naples area , Brenda 's effects were primarily light , although small boat and dock facilities and roads sustained some damage . A private seawall at Clearwater was breached in two places by the cyclone .
Brenda was considered the worst storm to strike the area since Hurricane Easy in 1950 . While no casualties are directly blamed on the storm , at least one traffic @-@ related death took place . According to an American Red Cross Disaster Service report encompassing eight Florida counties , 11 houses sustained significant damage , while 567 suffered more minor damage . Around 590 families were affected overall . Total monetary damage is placed at near $ 5 million .
Tides along the Outer Banks of North Carolina were generally reported at 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above @-@ normal . In and around Wilmington , the storm caused minor damage to roofs and windows of some beachfront structures . Power was temporarily interrupted due to fallen tree limbs . Heavy rainfall caused flooding on streams and rivers , and in some areas the precipitation helped to end a serious drought . Some boats were swamped , and the winds ripped the roof off a cottage at Long Beach . The heavy rain and high tides flooded tobacco fields .
Moderate rains extended northward into the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , with lighter totals reported farther north in New York . At New York City , 4 @.@ 79 in ( 122 mm ) of precipitation fell , beating the one @-@ day July record of 3 @.@ 80 in ( 97 mm ) set in 1872 . The heavy rains flooded parts of LaGuardia Airport . Elsewhere , reports of 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) were common throughout New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland and Virginia . High winds also affected portions of the northeastern United States , gusting to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) across southern New England . Tides often ran 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above @-@ normal throughout the region . The storm caused travel delays and ran several ships aground , but otherwise inflicted little serious damage . The storm forced the cancellation of two American League baseball games and the postponement of several other sporting events .
= Stanley Price Weir =
Brigadier General Stanley Price Weir , DSO , VD , JP ( 23 April 1866 – 14 November 1944 ) was a public servant and Australian Army officer . During World War I , he commanded the 10th Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) during the landing at Anzac Cove and the subsequent Gallipoli Campaign , and during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm in France .
Weir returned to Australia at his own request in late 1916 at the age of 50 , and in 1917 he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . He went on to become the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner . He was given an honorary promotion to brigadier general on his retirement from the Australian Military Forces in 1921 . Weir was retired as public service commissioner in 1931 . In retirement he contributed to various benevolent and charitable organisations , and died in 1944 .
= = Early life = =
Weir was born in Norwood , South Australia , on 23 April 1866 , a son of Alfred Weir and Susannah Mary ( née Price ) . His father was a carpenter , who had emigrated to South Australia from Aberdeen , Scotland , in 1839 , two years after the colony was founded . Weir attended Moore 's School , the Norwood Public School , and Pulteney Street Grammar School . In 1879 , at the age of 13 , he joined the Surveyor General 's Department as an office assistant . He assisted the surveyor who pegged out the land at the rear of Government House , Adelaide , for the Torrens Parade Ground , and was later promoted to clerk . On 14 May 1890 , he married Rosa Wadham at the Christian Chapel , Norwood . He rose through the department to be appointed Survey Storekeeper , Custodian of Plans and Custodian of Government Motor Cars , on 1 July 1911 . He was appointed a justice of the peace on 10 September 1914 .
= = Early military service = =
Weir enlisted in the part @-@ time South Australian Volunteer Military Force in March 1885 , joining the 1st Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , as a private . By 1890 , he had been promoted to colour sergeant . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , on 19 March 1890 , and was promoted to captain on 25 May 1893 . When the South African War broke out he volunteered for service with the South Australian Bushmen 's Corps , but mounted officers were preferred , and he was not selected .
On 1 July 1903 , the Adelaide Rifles became the 10th Infantry Regiment of the Commonwealth Military Forces , and Weir was appointed adjutant . He was promoted to major on 1 January 1904 , and appointed as regimental second @-@ in @-@ command . He was awarded the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905 , and the Volunteer Officers ' Decoration in 1908 . On 22 June 1908 , Weir was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed the commanding officer of the 10th Infantry Regiment . On 1 January 1912 , he was transferred to the unattached list but this only lasted until 1 July , when the universal training scheme was introduced . He was soon appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , and on 9 September 1913 he was promoted to colonel .
= = World War I = =
On 12 August 1914 , Weir received a telegram from Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , the designated commander of the 3rd Brigade , offering him the command of the 10th Battalion . Weir promptly accepted , and on 17 August was appointed as a lieutenant colonel in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , making him the first South Australian to be commissioned in the AIF . He retained his rank of colonel in the part @-@ time forces in an honorary capacity .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Weir assembled and trained his battalion at the Morphettville Racecourse , then embarked with them on the transport Ascanius on 20 October 1914 as the first convoy of Australian troops departed for overseas service . On arrival in Fremantle , six companies of the 11th Battalion were embarked on the transport , and Weir was appointed Officer Commanding Troops for the voyage . The troops began disembarking at Alexandria on 6 December 1914 , and were entrained for Cairo , where they began to set up camp at Mena . The Australian Official War Historian , Charles Bean , described Weir as being " somewhat above average in years " for a battalion commander . Following the Allied decision to land a force on the Gallipoli Peninsula , the 3rd Brigade was selected as the covering force for the landing at Anzac Cove . The 10th Battalion embarked for the Greek island of Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea on 1 March 1915 , and after further training on Lemnos , the battalion was one of the first two battalions ashore on the morning of 25 April 1915 .
During the landing , when the boats carrying the lead elements of the battalion were around 40 yards ( 37 m ) from shore , according to Bean , Weir observed to another officer in his boat that everything was silent , but soon after Ottoman troops began firing at the landing force . Weir landed with the scout platoon , and urged both his men and those of the 9th Battalion to immediately begin climbing the cliffs that overlooked the beach . Weir , along with " B " and " C " Companies of the battalion , reached what later became known as " Plugge 's Plateau " . Heavy fighting followed the initial landing and , within five days , half of Weir 's battalion had been killed or wounded . The Australian and New Zealand advance inland from Anzac Cove was subsequently checked by the defending Ottoman forces and was eventually contained in a small beachhead inside a series of ridges that ranged around the cove . Weir was the only commanding officer from the 3rd Brigade to go forward of the first ridge , and a ridge running off the 400 Plateau subsequently became known as " Weir Ridge " .
As stalemate set in , Weir continued to command his battalion throughout the early stages of the campaign until 25 August , when he was appointed acting brigadier general and placed in command of the 3rd Brigade . On 11 September , he became ill and was evacuated to Malta , where he was admitted to hospital . He was subsequently evacuated to the United Kingdom , where he convalesced until January 1916 , when he was appointed commandant of the Australian reinforcement camp at Weymouth , Dorset .
= = = Western Front = = =
Weir 's health had not completely recovered by the time he embarked for Egypt , and he rejoined his battalion on 4 March 1916 . After his departure , the 10th had fought through the remainder of the campaign before being withdrawn along with the rest of the Allied force in December 1915 . The battalion was subsequently moved back to Egypt . In mid @-@ 1916 , the bulk of the AIF was transferred to the Western Front , and Weir led the 10th Battalion through July and August 1916 during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm . At Pozières , the battalion suffered 350 casualties in four days . By the time of the battle , Weir was the only original battalion commander remaining in the 1st Australian Division , and had turned 50 years of age . On 23 August , immediately after Mouquet Farm , Weir was again appointed acting commander of the 3rd Brigade . Exhausted , on 7 September 1916 he asked to be relieved , and his request was granted . He returned to Australia on 23 September 1916 , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 December . In the Australian official history of the war , Bean observed that despite his age , Weir " took his battalion into the front line , commanded it there throughout its first battle , and remained longer in the field than almost any of the senior militia officers who had left with the original force " .
= = Post @-@ war military service = =
After his AIF appointment was terminated , Weir resumed his service in the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . In 1917 , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and the Russian Empire Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords , and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . From 1917 to 1920 , he was aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Sir Ronald Craufurd Munro Ferguson . Weir retired from the CMF as an honorary brigadier general in March 1921 , his last appointment being as commander of the 20th Infantry Brigade . He was only the second South Australia @-@ born officer to reach the rank of brigadier general . On 31 March 1921 , Weir was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 10th Battalion , a position he held for many years .
= = Later life = =
Weir had two significant advantages in his return to a civilian career . Firstly , he was repatriated well before most servicemen and , secondly , South Australia had implemented a policy of preferment of returned servicemen for government employment . These circumstances helped him gain appointment as the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner in 1916 . Weir was not suited to this role , being unable to navigate the competing personal and political agendas of senior public servants and politicians , and was soon sidelined . In 1925 , legislative changes made it possible for the government to replace Weir , and this took place in 1930 . In the last year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before his retirement in 1931 , Weir was the chairman of both the Central Board of Health and the Public Relief Board , excelling at the latter .
On 8 June 1923 , after many years of poor health , Weir 's wife Rosa died . He married Lydia Maria Schrapel in 1926 . Weir led an active retirement , contributing to several religious , charitable and welfare organisations and activities . These included the Norwood and Maylands Churches of Christ , Benevolent and Stranger 's Friend Society , the Our Boys Institute ( OBI ) , the Masonic Lodge , Cheer Up Society , and YMCA . At various times he served as President of the Commonwealth Club , the Churches of Christ Union , the St. Peters Sub @-@ Branch of the Returned and Services League , and the Cheer Up Society .
Weir wrote the foreword for the history of the 10th Battalion , titled The Fighting 10th : A South Australian Centenary Souvenir of the 10th Battalion , AIF 1914 – 1919 , which was written by a former member of the battalion , Cecil Lock , and published in 1936 . In 1943 , Weir was badly injured in a car accident while returning from an OBI camp at Victor Harbor . It was believed that his injuries in the accident contributed to his death on 14 November 1944 . Weir was survived by his wife Lydia , and his son Lionel and daughter Beryl from his first marriage . His brother , Harrison Weir , was the State Government Printer . Weir was buried in West Terrace Cemetery .
= = Awards = =
Weir received the following honours and awards :
Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905
Volunteer Officers ' Decoration on 11 April 1908
Distinguished Service Order on 1 January 1917
Mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917
Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords ( Russian Empire ) on 15 February 1917
King George V Silver Jubilee Medal on 6 May 1935
= = Promotions = =
Weir 's military career commenced in March 1885 , when he enlisted as a private . He quickly rose to the rank of colour sergeant before being commissioned in 1890 . He rose from private to brigadier general over a career spanning 36 years . His officer promotion dates were :
Lieutenant on 19 March 1890
Captain on 25 May 1893
Major on 1 January 1904
Lieutenant colonel on 22 June 1908
Colonel on 9 September 1913
Lieutenant colonel ( AIF ) on 17 August 1914
Brigadier general ( honorary ) on 17 March 1921
= Chapter 1 ( House of Cards ) =
" Chapter 1 " ( sometimes " Episode 101 " ) is the pilot episode of the American political thriller drama television series House of Cards and is the first episode of the first season . It premiered on February 1 , 2013 , when it was released along with the rest of the first season on the American streaming service Netflix . This episode became the first web television webisode to earn Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations . " Chapter 1 " was written by series developer Beau Willimon and directed by executive producer David Fincher . The episode also earned 3 other Emmy nominations as well as WGA : Episodic Drama and DGA – Drama Series nominations .
Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) is an ambitious Democratic congressman and the House Majority Whip . Underwood helped ensure the election of President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , who promised to appoint Underwood as Secretary of State . However , before Walker is sworn in , Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) announces that the president will not honor the agreement and will instead nominate Senator Michael Kern . Furious at Walker 's betrayal , Underwood and his wife Claire ( Robin Wright ) , an environmental activist , make a pact to destroy Kern . When Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) makes her resources available , she becomes one of their pawns .
The episode was well received by most television critics . They praised the production values of the series as well as the performances of the lead actors .
= = Plot = =
South Carolina Congressman Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) , the Democratic Majority Whip , leaves his house in Washington , D.C. after hearing his neighbors ’ dog get hit by a car . As he comforts the mortally @-@ wounded dog , he looks into the camera and says “ Moments like this require someone who will act , who will do the unpleasant thing , the necessary thing , ” before calmly proceeding to strangle it . This introduces both his habit of breaking the fourth wall to narrate , and his cold and vicious nature . Frank and his wife , Claire ( Robin Wright ) , go on to attend a New Year ’ s Eve party in honor of the new President @-@ elect , Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , a fellow Democrat and winner of the 2012 election . Frank confesses to the viewer that he does not like Walker , but saw his political potential early on and ingratiated himself to him , putting himself in line to be nominated as Walker ’ s Secretary of State after 22 years in Congress .
Frank meets with Walker 's Chief of Staff , Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) , whom Frank recommended for the job . She reveals that she and Walker have decided to rescind their promise to nominate him as Secretary of State because they want him to remain in Congress and use his political expertise to get the President @-@ elect ’ s education reform agenda passed . Frank is initially incensed , but when Linda asks if he will continue to be an ally to the future President he says that he will . Linda reveals that Senator Michael Kern ( Kevin Kilner ) has been chosen for the position instead . Despite his statement to the contrary , Frank feels personally betrayed and , with Claire ’ s encouragement , begins to formulate a plot for revenge , which he shares with his Chief of Staff , Doug Stamper ( Michael Kelly ) . Mrs. Underwood , meanwhile , is forced to downsize the non @-@ profit organization she manages , the Clean Water Initiative , which had been promised a large donation upon her husband ’ s confirmation as Secretary , without which the organization is forced to substantially curtail its budget .
On a whim , Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , a young reporter for the Washington Herald who is stuck covering trivial “ human interest ” stories , pays a late @-@ night visit to Frank at his home . She offers to be Frank ’ s undercover mouthpiece in the press in exchange for the elevated profile that she would gain from breaking substantive stories . Meanwhile , Peter Russo ( Corey Stoll ) , a young , inexperienced congressman from Philadelphia , is arrested for drunk driving . Stamper finds out about the arrest and immediately contacts the D.C. police commissioner , offering Underwood ’ s support for his mayoral campaign in exchange for releasing Russo and completely covering up the incident . Russo is picked up from jail by his secretary and romantic partner , Christina Gallagher ( Kristen Connolly ) . He lies to her , telling her that he was alone when he was arrested when , in fact , there was a prostitute in the car ( Rachel Brosnahan ) .
Frank meets with Congressman Donald Blythe ( Reed Birney ) , a committed progressive liberal who has long pushed for education reform , with whom the Walker administration wants to work on a bill . Frank dismisses his proposal as too ambitious and asks him to rewrite it . Frank secretly passes a copy of Blythe ’ s proposal to Zoe . He then meets with Senator Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) and suggests that she ought to consider seeking the nomination for Secretary of State . He also privately confronts Congressman Russo about his arrest and checkered history of substance abuse and soliciting prostitutes , and demands Russo ’ s loyalty in exchange for making the incident disappear .
Zoe takes the draft of the education bill to the Herald ’ s political editor , Lucas Goodwin ( Sebastian Arcelus ) , and its chief editor , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) , who gives her the lead on the story over the more experienced chief political correspondent Janine Skorsky ( Constance Zimmer ) . The episode ends the morning after Walker ’ s inauguration , with Frank visiting his favorite restaurant , Freddy ’ s BBQ Joint , for breakfast . On the front page of the Washington Herald is Zoe ’ s story about Blythe ’ s “ far left ” education plan .
= = Production = =
The episode was directed by David Fincher and was written by Beau Willimon , who has served as an aide to Charles Schumer , Howard Dean and Hillary Clinton . Independent studio Media Rights Capital purchased the rights to House of Cards , with the intent on creating a series . Netflix agreed to contribute an undisclosed fixed fee to production costs in March 2011 . As he was completing his work on The Curious Case of Benjamin Button , Fincher was introduced to the original miniseries by his agent and sought to develop a series with Eric Roth . House of Cards was pitched to several cable networks , including HBO , AMC and Showtime . Netflix , interested in launching their own original programming , outbid the networks , picking the series up for 26 episodes , totaling two seasons . Netflix was the only bidder that was interested in purchasing the rights without seeing a completed pilot . Thus , the show was not forced into manipulating story arcs introduced in the pilot to create artificial cliffhangers .
= = = Casting = = =
Fincher stated that every main cast member was their first choice . In the first read through , he said " I want everybody here to know that you represent our first choice — each actor here represents our first choice for these characters . So do not fuck this up . " Spacey , whose last regular television role was in the series Wiseguy , responded positively to the script . He then played Richard III , which Fincher said was " great training " . Spacey supported the decision to release all of the episodes at once , believing that this type of release pattern will be increasingly common with television shows . He said , " When I ask my friends what they did with their weekend , they say , ' Oh , I stayed in and watched three seasons of Breaking Bad ' or it 's two seasons of Game of Thrones " . He was officially cast on March 18 , 2011 . Robin Wright was approached by Fincher to star in the series when they worked together in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . She was cast as Claire Underwood in June 2011 . Kate Mara was cast as Zoe Barnes in early February 2012 . Mara 's sister , Rooney Mara , worked with Fincher in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo , and when Kate Mara read the part of Zoe , she " fell in love with the character " and asked her sister to " put in a word for me with Fincher " . The next month , she got a call for an audition .
= = = Cast = = =
In order billed in the episode opening credits :
= = = Filming = = =
While Netflix had ventured into original programming by greenlighting foreign shows that were new to United States audiences with shows such as Lilyhammer , House of Cards represented the first show made for Netflix . Filming for the first season began in January 2012 in Harford County , Maryland .
" Chapter 1 " sets the tone for the environs of the series . According to David Carr the political environs have such " marbleness " that it belies the clandestine nature of political activities , including those of Underwood who says he is there to " clear the pipes and keep the sludge moving " . The fictional newspaper , The Washington Herald , is set with " brutal " lighting and drab furniture , in part because it was filmed at the real life Baltimore Sun offices . Carr uses several pejorative adjectives to describe Barnes ' apartment including sad , grubby , dirty , dreary and humble but note that this implies that the digital revolution is dominated by people " on laptops who have no furniture " . Similarly , Underwood and his associates are nattily clad , Barnes shows a lack of fashion recognition .
= = = Release = = =
The episode was broadcast online by Netflix on February 1 , 2013 as part of the simultaneous release of all 13 episodes of season 1 of the series . The debut date was a weekend when there was little competition on television other than Super Bowl XLVII and a new episode of Downton Abbey on PBS . Netflix broadcast " Chapter 1 " and " Chapter 2 " to critics several days in advance of the release .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Elements of the opening scene were lauded . Matt Roush of TV Guide praised Spacey 's self introduction as a Machiavellian politician in which he says " I have no patience for useless things . " Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert noted that " the first two episodes were expertly directed by David Fincher " and Spacey 's harmonious cadence such as those used in the first scene of this episode " makes even his character ’ s mercy killing of an injured dog — which he does by hand — seem a little less brutal . " Not only is Underwood described as Machiavellian , one critic from The New York Times notes that his belief in the omnipresence of dirt expressed as " Nobody ’ s a Boy Scout , not even a Boy Scout " harkens back to Willie Stark in All the King 's Men who said " There 's always something " .
Time television critic James Poniewozik , notes that by the end of the first episode Frank establishes that his metaphor of choice is meat because both literally and figuratively it is his preference . He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs , because " I ’ m feelin ’ hungry today ! " , but also he describes life with meat metaphors : he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration : " She ’ s as tough as a two @-@ dollar steak . " ; he plans to destroy an enemy the way " you devour a whale . One bite at a time . " ; and he endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders , he tells us , by " [ imagining ] their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet . " Poniewozik notes that all of this comes from a character whose name , Underwood is a reference to the hallmark deviled ham of the William Underwood Company .
Roush also notes that the first two weeks show how Claire " runs a charity with a brutally iron fist " . While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice @-@ queen wife . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes what she sees of their relationship in the first two episodes as pivotal to the show 's success : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " .
Gilbert also notes that Mara 's surprising naivete is a welcome respite against a backdrop of a " terminally jaded " cast . As the show begins , aspiring journalist Zoe Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the " Fairfax County Council " beat to covering " ' what 's behind the veil ' of power in the Capitol hallways . " Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times notes that by the end of the first episode , Mara 's Barnes is among the cadre of Frank 's accomplices . After she pleads for a relationship with him by promising to earn his trust and not " ask any questions " , Frank uses her fiendishly . However , Ashley Parker of The New York Times considers her unfathomably aggressive and too overt , transactional and sexual . Parker points out that Barnes ' statement " I protect your identity , I print what you tell me , and I 'll never ask any questions " almost discredits itself .
The Washington Post 's Stuever has many complaints about the show including the fact that it is about Washington , DC , but filmed in Baltimore . He also complains about its entrance into the television landscape littered with " more fictitious administrations than anyone can keep track of " . He says that perspective will affect your perception of the show . Those not already inundated with " Type A personalities inside the Beltway " in their daily lives may be drawn to the show . However , it is not likely a show that will serve well those who spend a lot of time with the issues that the show deals with . After viewing the first two episodes , Stuever also finds fault with the use of breaking the fourth wall , describing it as " the show 's unwise narrative trope " . The Wall Street Journal 's Smith defends the fourth wall as an " artifice that generally works well here to loosen our bearings " .
Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club notes Russo seems to employ vices without restraint , which is a respite from the other exacting characters in the episode and a makes him a sort of metaphor for the show . McGee also notes that the episode includes " establishing shots within Zoe ’ s apartment that offer up almost everything you need to know about her current position in life " .
= = = Accolades = = =
On July 18 , 2013 , House of Cards ( along with Netflix 's other web series ' Arrested Development and Hemlock Grove ) earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2013 . Among House of Cards ' nine nominations , " Chapter 1 " received four nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards becoming the first webisode ( online @-@ only episode ) of a television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination : Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for David Fincher . This episode also received several Creative Arts Emmy Award nominations , including Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series , and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic ) . Although the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series is not a category that formally recognizes an episode , Spacey submitted " Chapter 1 " for consideration due to his nomination .
On September 15 , at the Creative Arts Emmy Award presentation , " Chapter 1 " and Eigil Bryld earned the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , making " Chapter 1 " the first ever Emmy @-@ awarded webisode . Then on September 22 , David Fincher won Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing the pilot episode " Chapter 1 " , bringing the series to a total of three wins and marking the first ever win for a webisode at the Primetime Emmy award ceremony . None of the Emmy awards were considered to be in major categories , however .
= Alice in Chains =
Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley . The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr , who was replaced in 1993 by Mike Inez .
Although widely associated with grunge music , the band 's sound incorporates heavy metal elements . Since its formation , Alice in Chains has released five studio albums , three EPs , two live albums , four compilations , and two DVDs . The band is known for its distinctive vocal style , which often included the harmonized vocals of Staley and Cantrell ( and later William DuVall ) .
Alice in Chains rose to international fame as part of the grunge movement of the early 1990s , along with other Seattle bands such as Nirvana , Pearl Jam , and Soundgarden . The band was one of the most successful music acts of the 1990s , selling over 20 million albums worldwide , and over 14 million in the US alone . In 1992 the band 's second album , Dirt , was released to critical acclaim and was certified quadruple platinum . Their third album , Alice in Chains , was released in 1995 and has been certified double platinum . It achieved No. 1 position on the Billboard 200 chart . The band has had 14 top ten songs on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and nine Grammy Award nominations .
Although never officially disbanding , Alice in Chains was plagued by extended inactivity from 1996 onwards due to Staley 's substance abuse , which resulted in his death in 2002 . The band reunited in 2005 for a live benefit show , performing with a number of guest vocalists . They toured in 2006 , with William DuVall taking over as lead vocalist full @-@ time . The new line @-@ up released the band 's fourth studio album , Black Gives Way to Blue , in 2009 . The album received gold certification by the RIAA . In 2013 , the band released The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , its fifth studio album . The band has toured extensively and released several videos in support of these albums . Alice in Chains is currently working on their sixth studio album .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1984 – 89 ) = = =
Before the formation of Alice in Chains , then @-@ drummer Layne Staley landed his first gig as a vocalist when he auditioned to sing for a local glam metal band known as Sleze after receiving some encouragement from his stepbrother Ken Elmer . Other members of this group at that time were guitarists Johnny Bacolas and Zoli Semanate , drummer James Bergstrom , and bassist Byron Hansen . This band went through several lineup changes culminating with Nick Pollock as their sole guitarist and Bacolas switching to bass before discussions arose about changing their name to Alice in Chains . This was prompted by a conversation that Bacolas had with a singer from another band about backstage passes . Due to concerns over the reference to female bondage , the group ultimately chose to spell it differently as Alice N ' Chains to allay any parental concerns , though Staley 's mother Nancy McCallum has said she was still not happy with this name at first .
Staley met guitarist Jerry Cantrell while working with Alice N ' Chains at Music Bank rehearsal studios . The two struggling musicians became roommates , living in a rehearsal space they shared . Alice N ' Chains soon disbanded , and Staley joined a funk band that also required a guitarist at the time . Staley asked Cantrell to join as a sideman . Cantrell agreed on condition that Staley join Cantrell 's band , which at the time included drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr . Eventually the funk project broke up , and in 1987 Staley joined Cantrell 's band on a full @-@ time basis , playing in clubs around the Pacific Northwest , often stretching 15 minutes of material into a 45 @-@ minute set . The band played a couple of gigs , calling themselves different monikers , including Diamond Lie , the name of Cantrell 's previous band , before eventually adopting the name that Staley 's previous band had initially flirted with , Alice in Chains .
Local promoter Randy Hauser became aware of the band at a concert and offered to pay for demo recordings . However , one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington , police shut down the studio during the biggest cannabis raid in the history of the state . The final demo , completed in 1988 , was named The Treehouse Tapes and found its way to the music managers Kelly Curtis and Susan Silver , who also managed the Seattle @-@ based band Soundgarden . Curtis and Silver passed the demo on to Columbia Records ' A & R representative Nick Terzo , who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner . Based on The Treehouse Tapes , Ienner signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989 . The band also recorded another untitled demo over a three @-@ month period in 1989 . This recording can be found on the bootleg release Sweet Alice .
= = = Facelift and Sap ( 1990 – 92 ) = = =
Alice in Chains soon became a top priority of the label , which released the band 's first official recording in July 1990 , a promotional EP called We Die Young . The EP 's lead single , " We Die Young " , became a hit on metal radio . After its success , the label rushed Alice in Chains ' debut album into production with producer Dave Jerden . Cantrell stated the album was intended to have a " moody aura " that was a " direct result of the brooding atmosphere and feel of Seattle " .
The resulting album , Facelift , was released on August 21 , 1990 , peaking at number 42 in the summer of 1991 on the Billboard 200 chart . Facelift was not an instant success , selling under 40 @,@ 000 copies in the first six months of release , until MTV added " Man in the Box " to regular daytime rotation . The single hit number 18 on the Mainstream rock charts , with the album 's follow up single , " Sea of Sorrow " , reaching number 27 , and in six weeks Facelift sold 400 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of AllMusic citing Facelift as " one of the most important records in establishing an audience for grunge and alternative rock among hard rock and heavy metal listeners . "
Facelift was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) by the end of 1990 , while the band continued to hone its audience , opening for such artists as Iggy Pop , Van Halen , Poison , and Extreme . In early 1991 , Alice in Chains landed the opening slot for the Clash of the Titans tour with Anthrax , Megadeth , and Slayer , exposing the band to a wide metal audience but receiving mainly poor reception . Alice in Chains was nominated for a Best Hard Rock Performance Grammy Award in 1992 for " Man in the Box " but lost to Van Halen for their 1991 album For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge .
Following the tour , Alice in Chains entered the studio to record demos for its next album , but ended up recording five acoustic songs instead . While in the studio , drummer Sean Kinney had a dream about " making an EP called Sap " . The band decided " not to mess with fate " , and on March 21 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released their second EP , Sap . The EP was released while Nirvana 's Nevermind was at the top of the Billboard 200 charts , resulting in a rising popularity of Seattle @-@ based bands , and of the term " grunge music " . Sap was certified gold within two weeks . The EP features guest vocals by Ann Wilson from the band Heart , who joined Staley and Cantrell for the choruses of " Brother " , " Am I Inside " , and " Love Song " . The EP also features Mark Arm of Mudhoney and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden , who appeared together on the song " Right Turn " , credited to " Alice Mudgarden " in the liner notes . In 1992 , Alice in Chains appeared in the Cameron Crowe film Singles , performing as a " bar band " . The band also contributed the song " Would ? " to the film 's soundtrack , whose video received an award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = = Dirt ( 1992 – 93 ) = = =
In March 1992 , the band returned to the studio . With new songs written primarily on the road , the material has an overall darker feel than Facelift , with six of the album 's thirteen songs dealing with the subject of addiction . " We did a lot of soul searching on this album . There 's a lot of intense feelings . " Cantrell said , " We deal with our daily demons through music . All of the poison that builds up during the day we cleanse when we play " .
On September 29 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released its second album , Dirt . The album peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and since its release has been certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA , making Dirt the band 's highest selling album to date . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of Allmusic praising the album as a " major artistic statement , and the closest they ever came to recording a flat @-@ out masterpiece " . Chris Gill of Guitar World called Dirt " huge and foreboding , yet eerie and intimate " , and " sublimely dark and brutally honest " . Dirt spawned five top 30 singles , " Would ? " , " Rooster " , " Them Bones " , " Angry Chair " , and " Down in a Hole " , and remained on the charts for nearly two years . Alice in Chains was added as openers to Ozzy Osbourne 's No More Tears tour . Days before the tour began , Layne Staley broke his foot in an ATV accident , forcing him to use crutches on stage . Starr left the band shortly after the Rock in Rio concert in January of 1993 and was replaced by former Ozzy Osbourne bassist Mike Inez . In 1993 , the band recorded two songs with Inez , " What the Hell Have I " and " A Little Bitter " , for the Last Action Hero soundtrack . During the summer of 1993 , Alice in Chains toured with the alternative music festival Lollapalooza , their last major tour with Staley .
= = = Jar of Flies ( 1993 – 94 ) = = =
Following Alice in Chains ' extensive 1993 world tour , Staley said the band " just wanted to go into the studio for a few days with our acoustic guitars and see what happened " . " We never really planned on the music we made at that time to be released . But the record label heard it and they really liked it . For us , it was just the experience of four guys getting together in the studio and making some music . "
Columbia Records released Alice in Chains ' second acoustic @-@ based EP , Jar of Flies , on January 25 , 1994 . Written and recorded in one week , Jar of Flies debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming the first ever EP — and first Alice in Chains release — to top the charts . Paul Evans of Rolling Stone called the EP " darkly gorgeous " , and Steve Huey stated " Jar of Flies is a low @-@ key stunner , achingly gorgeous and harrowingly sorrowful all at once " . Jar of Flies features Alice in Chains ' first number @-@ one single on the Mainstream Rock charts , " No Excuses " . The second single , " I Stay Away " , reached number ten on the Mainstream rock charts , while the final single " Don 't Follow " , reached number 25 . After the release of Jar of Flies , Staley entered rehab for heroin addiction . The band was scheduled to tour during the summer of 1994 with Metallica , Suicidal Tendencies , Danzig , and Fight , as well as a slot during Woodstock 94 , but while in rehearsal for the tour , Staley began using heroin again . Staley 's condition prompted the other band members to cancel all scheduled dates one day before the start of the tour , putting the band on hiatus . Alice in Chains was replaced by Candlebox on the tour .
= = = Alice in Chains ( 1995 – 96 ) = = =
While Alice in Chains was inactive during 1995 , Staley joined the " grunge supergroup " Mad Season , which also featured Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready , bassist John Baker Saunders from The Walkabouts , and Screaming Trees drummer Barrett Martin . Mad Season released one album , Above , for which Staley provided lead vocals and the album artwork . The album spawned a number @-@ two single , " River of Deceit " , as well as a home video release of Live at the Moore . In April 1995 , Alice in Chains entered Bad Animals Studio in Seattle with producer Toby Wright , who had previously worked with Corrosion of Conformity and Slayer . While in the studio , an inferior version of the song " Grind " was leaked to radio , and received major airplay . On October 6 , 1995 , the band released the studio version of the song to radio via satellite uplink . On November 7 , 1995 , Columbia Records released the eponymous album , Alice in Chains , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and has since been certified double platinum . Of the album 's four singles , " Grind " , " Again " , " Over Now " , and " Heaven Beside You " , three feature Cantrell on lead vocals . Jon Wiederhorn of Rolling Stone called the album " liberating and enlightening , the songs achieve a startling , staggering and palpable impact . " The song " Got Me Wrong " unexpectedly charted three years after its release on the Sap EP . The song was re @-@ released as a single on the soundtrack for the independent film Clerks in 1995 , reaching number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The band opted not to tour in support of Alice in Chains , adding to the rumors of drug abuse .
Alice in Chains resurfaced on April 10 , 1996 , to perform their first concert in two and a half years for MTV Unplugged , a program featuring all @-@ acoustic set lists . The performance featured some of the band 's highest charting singles , including " Down in a Hole " , " Heaven Beside You " , " No Excuses " and " Would ? " , and introduced a new song , " Killer Is Me " . The show marked Alice in Chains ' only appearance as a five @-@ piece band , adding second guitarist Scott Olson . A live album of the performance was released in July 1996 , debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 , and was accompanied by a home video release , both of which received platinum certification by the RIAA . Alice in Chains performed four shows supporting the reunited original Kiss lineup on their 1996 / 97 Alive / Worldwide Tour , including the final live appearance of Layne Staley on July 3 , 1996 , in Kansas City , Missouri . Shortly after the show , Staley was found unresponsive after he overdosed on heroin and was taken to the hospital . Although he recovered , the band was forced to go on hiatus .
= = = Hiatus and the death of Layne Staley ( 1996 – 2002 ) = = =
Although Alice in Chains never officially disbanded , Staley became a recluse , rarely leaving his Seattle condominium following the death of his ex @-@ fiancée Demri Parrott due to infective endocarditis . " Drugs worked for me for years " , Staley told Rolling Stone in 1996 , " and now they 're turning against me ... now I 'm walking through hell " . Unable to continue with new Alice in Chains material , Cantrell released his first solo album , Boggy Depot , in 1998 , also featuring Sean Kinney and Mike Inez . In 1998 , Staley reunited with Alice in Chains to record two new songs , " Get Born Again " and " Died " . Originally intended for Cantrell 's second solo album , the songs were reworked by Alice in Chains and were released in the fall of 1999 on the box set , Music Bank . The set contains 48 songs , including rarities , demos , and previously released album tracks and singles . The band also released a 15 @-@ track compilation titled Nothing Safe : Best of the Box , serving as a sampler for Music Bank , as well as the band 's first compilation album ; a live album , simply titled Live , released on December 5 , 2000 ; and a second compilation , titled Greatest Hits in 2001 .
By 2002 , Cantrell had finished work on his second solo album , Degradation Trip . Written in 1998 , the album 's lyrical content focused heavily on what Cantrell regarded as the demise of Alice in Chains , which still remained evident as the album approached its June 2002 release . However , in March that year , Cantrell commented , " We 're all still around , so it 's possible [ Alice in Chains ] could all do something someday , and I fully hope someday we will . "
After a decade of battling drug addiction , Layne Staley was found dead in his condominium on April 19 , 2002 , two weeks after his actual death . His mother and stepfather became alarmed when accountants noticed that money was no longer being withdrawn from his accounts . With assistance from the police , they broke into his condo and made the discovery . An autopsy revealed Staley had died from a mixture of heroin and cocaine . His friends speculate that in addition to drugs , he may have contracted an illness that his body could not fight off , due to a compromised immune system . In his last interview , given months before his death , Staley admitted , " I know I 'm near death , I did crack and heroin for years . I never wanted to end my life this way . " Cantrell dedicated his 2002 solo album , released two months after Staley 's death , to his memory .
= = = Reunion shows ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =
In 2005 , Jerry Cantrell , Mike Inez , and Sean Kinney reunited to perform a benefit concert in Seattle for victims of the tsunami disaster that struck South Asia in 2004 . The band featured Damageplan vocalist Pat Lachman , as well as other special guests including Maynard James Keenan of Tool and Ann Wilson of Heart . On March 10 , 2006 , the surviving members performed at VH1 's Decades Rock Live concert , honoring fellow Seattle musicians Ann and Nancy Wilson of Heart . They played " Would ? " with vocalist Phil Anselmo of Pantera and Down and bass player Duff McKagan of Guns N ' Roses and Velvet Revolver , then they played " Rooster " with Comes with the Fall vocalist William DuVall and Ann Wilson . The band followed the concert with a short United States club tour , several festival dates in Europe , and a brief tour in Japan . To coincide with the band 's reunion , Sony Music released the long @-@ delayed third Alice in Chains compilation , The Essential Alice in Chains , a double album that includes 28 songs .
DuVall joined Alice in Chains as lead singer during the band 's reunion concerts . Duff McKagan again joined the band for the reunion tour , playing rhythm guitar on selected songs . Before the tour , Kinney mentioned in an interview that he would be interested in writing new material , but not as Alice in Chains . However , AliceinChains.com reported that the band had begun writing new material , with DuVall on lead vocals .
= = = Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
Blabbermouth.net reported in September 2008 that Alice in Chains would enter the studio that October to begin recording a new album for a summer 2009 release . In October 2008 , Alice in Chains began recording its fourth studio album at the Foo Fighters ' Studio 606 in Los Angeles with producer Nick Raskulinecz . At the Revolver Golden God Awards , Jerry Cantrell said that the group had finished recording in March 2009 and were mixing the album for a September release . In April 2009 , it was reported that the new Alice in Chains album would be released by Virgin / EMI , making it the band 's first label change in its 20 @-@ plus year career . On June 11 , 2009 , Blabbermouth.net reported that the new album would be titled Black Gives Way to Blue and was officially set to be released on September 29 , 2009 . On June 30 , 2009 , the song " A Looking in View " was released as the first single from the album . It was made available for a limited time as a free download through the official Alice in Chains website in early July . The music video for the song debuted via the official website on July 7 , 2009 . The second single , " Check My Brain " , was released to radio stations on August 14 , 2009 and was made available for purchase on August 17 , 2009 . In addition , it was announced that Elton John appears on the album 's title track .
In September 2008 , it was announced that Alice in Chains would headline Australia 's Soundwave Festival in 2009 , alongside Nine Inch Nails and Lamb of God . In February 2009 , it was also announced that Alice in Chains would play at the third annual Rock on the Range festival . On August 1 , 2009 , Alice in Chains performed , along with Mastodon , Avenged Sevenfold , and Glyder , at Marlay Park , Dublin as direct support to Metallica . The band made an appearance on Later Live ... With Jools Holland on November 10 , 2009 , performing " Lesson Learned " , " Black Gives Way To Blue " , and " Check My Brain " as the final performance of the episode .
To coincide with the band 's European tour , Alice in Chains released its next single , " Your Decision " , on November 16 in the UK and on December 1 in the US . The fourth single from the album was " Lesson Learned " and was released to rock radio in mid @-@ June . On May 18 , 2010 , Black Gives Way to Blue was certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Along with Mastodon and Deftones , Alice in Chains toured the United States and Canada in late 2010 on the Blackdiamondskye tour , an amalgam of the three bands ' latest album titles ( Black Gives Way to Blue , Diamond Eyes , and Crack the Skye ) .
= = = Future plans and the death of Mike Starr ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
In April 2010 , Cantrell revealed to MTV News that Alice in Chains was contemplating making a fifth studio album in the foreseeable future . He explained , " There are thoughts . We 'll see how far we get . Staying in the moment is a good way to live and we certainly hope that it happens . I don 't see any reason why it wouldn 't [ happen ] . " DuVall also commented on the next album and Alice in Chains ' future , " we 've got a lot of water to sail before we do that . There 's a lot of shows . But yeah , generally speaking , yeah , we 're excited about the future . I don 't anticipate some long layoff . "
DuVall revealed in September 2010 that Alice in Chains had not begun writing their next album yet , but " there 's plenty of riffs flying around . " He added , " That was the case when we first started back up . We would just stockpile these fragments , and then some time later we would sift through the mountain of stuff , and that 's what became Black Gives Way to Blue . The same thing has been happening since we 've been touring Black Gives Way to Blue , so it would be only natural to at some point say , ' Hey , we 've got a lot of stuff . Let 's sift through and see what we 've got this time . ' " DuVall also mentioned that it was possible that the new album would feature songs that were written for Black Gives Way to Blue .
On March 8 , 2011 , former Alice in Chains bassist Mike Starr was found dead at his home in Salt Lake City . Police told Reuters they were called to Starr 's home at 1 : 42 pm and found his body ; Starr was 44 . Reports later surfaced that Starr 's roommate had seen him mixing methadone and anxiety medication hours before he was found dead . Later reports indicated Starr 's death may have been linked to two different types of antidepressants prescribed to him by his doctor . A public memorial was held for Starr at the Seattle Center 's International Fountain on March 20 , 2011 . A private memorial was also held , which Jerry Cantrell and Sean Kinney attended according to Mike Inez .
= = = The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here and next album ( 2011 – present ) = = =
On March 21 , 2011 , Alice in Chains announced that they were working on a fifth studio album , and both Cantrell and Inez later made statements that they had begun the recording process . The album was expected to be finished by summer of 2012 and released by the end of 2012 or beginning of 2013 . While Alice in Chains were writing for the album in 2011 , Cantrell required surgery , which delayed recording the new material . In an interview published in May 2012 , Cantrell explained , " The thing that set me back is I had some bone spurs [ and ] cartilage issues in my shoulders . I had the same issue in the other shoulder about six years ago so I 've had them both done now . It 's a repetitive motion injury from playing . "
In December 2012 , Cantrell confirmed that the new album had been completed , and the first single , " Hollow " , debuted online on December 18 , available for digital download in January 2013 , along with an official music video . On February 13 , 2013 , Alice in Chains posted on Facebook that their new album title would be an anagram of the letters H V L E N T P S U S D A H I E E O E D T I U R R. The next day they announced that the album would be called The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was released on May 28 , 2013 , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 . The band released videos for the songs " Stone , " " Voices , " and the title track later in 2013 .
Alice in Chains toured the U.S. in the spring of 2013 , with further international dates in the summer . In the spring and summer of 2014 they embarked on a more extensive tour of Canada , Europe , and the U.S. Asked in September 2013 if Alice in Chains would make another album , Cantrell replied , " It 'll be a while . It 's [ been ] four years since we put the last one out , but at least it 's not the gap that was between the last one , so that 's about right - about three to four years . " In May 2014 Cantrell stated that Alice in Chains would wrap up their tour in the fall , take a break , then begin work on their next studio album .
In January 2015 , Alice in Chains performed in the halftime show of the NFC Championship game between the Seattle Seahawks and the Green Bay Packers at CenturyLink Field in Seattle . Cantrell is a lifelong Seahawks fan and often attends their games .
In March 2015 , Alice in Chains announced dates for a U.S. summer tour , set to begin on July 17 in Pala , CA and end in Bethlehem , PA on August 16 . A second leg of the tour was announced in June 2016 , including select shows opening for Guns N ' Roses as part of the Not in This Lifetime ... Tour .
As of May 2015 , according to Blabbermouth.net , Alice in Chains has been working on their follow @-@ up to The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was expected to be released later in the year . Bassist Mike Inez said that the band has been " throwing around riffs for a new record " and " taking it nice and slow . " Asked in a June 2016 interview if Alice in Chains has begun recording their new album , frontman William DuVall replied , " I don 't know . I know we 'll be probably talking about that kind of thing over the next few months . It 's still early yet . We 've gotta get through this tour first . "
= = Musical style = =
Although Alice in Chains has been labeled grunge by the mainstream media , Jerry Cantrell identifies the band as primarily heavy metal . He told Guitar World in 1996 , " We 're a lot of different things ... I don 't quite know what the mixture is , but there 's definitely metal , blues , rock and roll , maybe a touch of punk . The metal part will never leave , and I never want it to " . The Edmonton Journal has stated , " Living and playing in Seattle might have got them the grunge tag , but they 've always pretty much been a classic metal band to the core . " Over the course of their career , the band 's sound has also been described as alternative metal , sludge metal , doom metal , drone rock , hard rock , and alternative rock . Regarding the band 's constant categorization by the media , Cantrell stated " When we first came out we were metal . Then we started being called alternative metal . Then grunge came out and then we were hard rock . And now , since we 've started doing this again I 've seen us listed as : hard rock , alternative , alternative metal and just straight metal . I walked into an HMV the other day to check out the placement and see what 's on and they 've got us relegated back into the metal section . Right back where we started ! " . According to Mike Inez , they were always the metal stepchildren of the Seattle scene .
Jerry Cantrell 's guitar style combines " pummeling riffs and expansive guitar textures " to create " slow , brooding minor @-@ key grinds " . He is also recognized for his natural ability to blend acoustic and electric guitars . While down @-@ tuned , distorted guitars mixed with Staley 's distinctive " snarl @-@ to @-@ a @-@ scream " vocals appealed to heavy metal fans , the band also had " a sense of melody that was undeniable " , which introduced Alice in Chains to a much wider audience outside of the heavy metal underground .
According to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , Alice in Chains ' sound has a " Black Sabbath @-@ style riffing and an unconventional vocal style " . The band has been described by Erlewine as " hard enough for metal fans , yet their dark subject matter and punky attack placed them among the front ranks of the Seattle @-@ based grunge bands " . Three of the band 's releases feature acoustic music , and while the band initially kept these releases separate , Alice in Chains ' self @-@ titled album combined the styles to form " a bleak , nihilistic sound that balanced grinding hard rock with subtly textured acoustic numbers " .
Alice in Chains is also noted for the unique vocal harmonies of Staley ( or DuVall ) and Cantrell , which included overlapping passages , dual lead vocals , and trademark harmonies typically separated by a major third . Alyssa Burrows said the band 's distinctive sound " came from Staley 's vocal style and his lyrics dealing with personal struggles and addiction " . Staley 's songs were often considered " dark " , with themes such as drug abuse , depression , and suicide , while Cantrell 's lyrics often dealt with personal relationships .
= = Legacy = =
Alice in Chains has sold more than 14 million albums in the United States , around 35 million worldwide , released two number @-@ one albums , had 21 top 40 singles , and has received nine Grammy nominations . The band was ranked number 34 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . Alice in Chains was named 15th greatest live band by Hit Parader , with vocalist Layne Staley placing as 27th greatest heavy metal vocalist of all time . The band 's second album , Dirt , was named 5th best album in the last two decades by Close @-@ Up magazine . In August 2009 , Alice in Chains won the Kerrang ! Icon Award .
Alice in Chains has had a large impact on many bands , such as Godsmack , who are named after the song off their sophomore album Dirt . According to Jon Wiederhorn of MTV , Godsmack has " sonically followed Alice in Chains ' lead while adding their own distinctive edge " . Godsmack singer and founder Sully Erna has also cited Layne Staley as his primary influence . Staind has covered Alice in Chains ' song " Nutshell " live , which appears on the compilation The Singles : 1996 @-@ 2006 , and also wrote a song entitled " Layne " , dedicated to Staley , on the album 14 Shades of Grey . Three Days Grace also performs a cover of " Rooster " , which can be seen on the DVD Live at the Palace . Other bands that have been inspired by Alice in Chains include Creed , Nickelback , Taproot , Stone Sour , Puddle of Mudd , Queens of the Stone Age , A Pale Horse Named Death , Godsmack , Smile Empty Soul , Avenged Sevenfold , Cold , Hurt , Incubus , Hoobastank , Mudvayne , 10 Years , Breaking Benjamin , Days of the New , and Tantric . Metallica said they have always wanted to tour with the band , citing Alice in Chains as a major inspiration for their 2008 release , Death Magnetic . Metallica also recorded " Rebel Of Babylon " as a tribute to Layne Staley , but the song was left off Death Magnetic due to manufacturing restrictions and then later released on a four @-@ song EP , Beyond Magnetic .
Alice in Chains has also had a significant influence on modern heavy metal . Their songs were covered by various metal bands such as Opeth , Dream Theater , Secrets of the Moon , Suicide Silence , and Grave . Pantera and Damageplan guitarist Dimebag Darrell had expressed his admiration for Jerry Cantrell 's guitar work in an interview for Guitar International saying that " the layering and the honest feel that Jerry Cantrell gets on [ Alice in Chains ' Dirt ] record is worth a lot more than someone who plays five million notes " . Anders Fridén of Swedish melodic death metal band In Flames cited Layne Staley as an inspiration for his vocals on the band 's later albums . In addition to fellow musicians , the band has also received praise from critics , with Steve Huey of AllMusic calling them " one of the best metal bands of the ' 90s " upon reviewing the 1999 compilation Nothing Safe .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Facelift ( 1990 )
Dirt ( 1992 )
Alice in Chains ( 1995 )
Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2009 )
The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here ( 2013 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Alice in Chains has received nine Grammy nominations . Their first nomination was for the song " Man in the Box " , nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992 . The album Dirt was nominated in the same category in 1993 . Six more songs were nominated between 1995 and 2011 , and the album The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here was nominated for Best Engineered Album , Non Classical in 2014 .
The music video for the song " Would ? " , Alice in Chains ' contribution to the 1992 film , Singles , won the award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards . In 2009 they won the Kerrang ! Icon award , and in 2010 they won the Revolver Golden Gods award for Black Gives Way to Blue .
American Music Awards
The American Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Dick Clark in 1973 .
Grammy Awards
The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences .
MTV Video Music Awards
The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV .
= 2007 Hawaii Bowl =
The 2007 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season college football bowl game between the Boise State University Broncos from the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) and the East Carolina University Pirates from Conference USA ( C @-@ USA ) at the Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaiʻi on December 23 , 2007 . The game was the final competition of the 2007 football season for each team and resulted in a 41 – 38 East Carolina victory , even though sportsbooks favored Boise State to win by 10 ½ points . Many experts believed East Carolina to be big underdogs to Boise State , which had defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl . The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl paid $ 750 @,@ 000 to each team 's conference in exchange for their participation .
The game , which was the sixth edition of the bowl , was expected to be an offensive shootout . Boise State averaged 42 @.@ 4 points during the 2007 season , while East Carolina averaged 31 . That expectation turned out to be justified as East Carolina took a 31 – 14 lead in the first half . The Broncos fought back in the second half , however , tying the score at 38 late in the fourth quarter after East Carolina 's Chris Johnson fumbled the ball , allowing Bronco defender Marty Tadman to recover the ball and return it 47 yards for a touchdown . The game remained tied until the final moments as East Carolina 's Ben Hartman made a 34 – yard game @-@ winning field goal as time expired . The attendance of 30 @,@ 467 was the largest crowd to attend a Hawaiʻi Bowl game that did not feature the host school . Boise State 's loss dropped them to a final 2007 record of 10 – 3 , while East Carolina 's final @-@ game win earned them a record of 8 – 5 .
= = Selection process = =
The Hawaiʻi football team normally receives an automatic bid to the game unless the team is selected to participate in a BCS game or is not bowl eligible . If either of those events happen , the WAC selects its next @-@ highest ranked team to compete in the game . In 2007 , Hawaiʻi was selected to play on January 1 , 2008 in the Sugar Bowl against Georgia , marking just the second time since the creation of the Hawaiʻi Bowl that Hawaiʻi would not participate . The only previous time that Hawaiʻi failed to make an appearance was in 2005 , when the Warriors finished their season with a 5 – 7 record and were not eligible for a bowl game .
Conference USA fields the other team in the Hawaiʻi Bowl . The Liberty Bowl has the first selection of C @-@ USA teams , and GMAC Bowl picks second . After those two are picked , the conference provides a team for the Hawaiʻi Bowl and three other bowls . In 2007 , the University of Central Florida accepted the bid to compete in the Liberty Bowl , Tulsa accepted the bid to compete in the GMAC Bowl , leaving East Carolina to be selected by the Hawaiʻi Bowl on December 1 , 2007 .
Boise State was undefeated in conference play going into the final game of the regular season , and suffered just one out @-@ of @-@ conference loss . In that final game , BSU lost 39 – 27 to undefeated Hawaiʻi . Following the game , the Broncos decided to travel to Hawaiʻi , rather than play at home in the Humanitarian Bowl , which is located at Boise 's home stadium in Boise , Idaho and features a matchup between a WAC team and one from the Atlantic Coast Conference . Boise ended its regular season 10 – 2 overall and 7 – 1 in conference play .
East Carolina , meanwhile , had been in first place in the C @-@ USA 's East Division with just two games remaining . A loss to Marshall University in that second @-@ to @-@ last game , however , put ECU into second place in its division , and thus out of competition for the Conference USA Championship . After winning against conference foe Tulane in the final game of the season , the Pirates decided to travel to the Hawaiʻi Bowl . East Carolina ended the regular season 7 – 5 overall , and 6 – 2 in conference play .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
On December 1 , 2007 , Hawaiʻi Bowl representatives announced East Carolina and Boise State as the competitors in the 2007 edition of the game . It would be the first time in history that the two teams had ever met . Two weeks after the announcement , Boise State 's top wide receiver Jeremy Childs , cornerback Keith McGowen , and linebacker Ben Chandler were declared out for the game after violating team rules . In an online contest held by ESPN.com in the weeks leading up to the game , 98 % of the participants voted that Boise State would beat East Carolina . Participants also gave 32 out of 32 " confidence points " on average , indicating the highest possible confidence in the predicted outcome .
= = = Boise State offense versus East Carolina defense = = =
Boise State came into the game averaging 42 @.@ 75 points and 475 @.@ 67 yards per game , the fourth and twelfth highest totals in college football . Senior quarterback Taylor Tharp led the offense by more than 3 @,@ 000 yards and 28 touchdowns , headed into the 2007 Hawaiiʻ Bowl . On the ground , the Broncos were led by junior running back Ian Johnson , who had 17 touchdowns and 1 @,@ 030 yards in the regular season . Wide receiver Jeremy Childs also was a potent threat on offense , averaging 87 @.@ 08 receiving yards per game , and backup running back D.J. Harper rushed for 41 @.@ 44 yards per game on average . Johnson and Childs both earned First Team All @-@ WAC honors , and Tharp was named to Second Team All @-@ WAC . Offensive tackle Ryan Clady was the team 's only All @-@ American , and promised to do a good job protecting Taylor Tharp on the offensive line .
East Carolina had been shaky on defense . ECU ranked 98th in total defense and 115th in passing defense , giving up an average of 436 @.@ 42 yards per game . Despite that fact , the Pirates did well in the turnover battle , gaining 27 turnovers while losing just 13 – a margin of + 14 – good enough for ninth in the country . In addition , the ECU defense ranked eleventh nationally in tackles for loss . Defensive linemen Zack Slate and C.J. Wilson and defensive back Van Eskridge took C – USA All – Conference second team honors .
= = = East Carolina offense versus Boise State defense = = =
Boise State faced the nation 's top all @-@ purpose yards leader , All @-@ American Chris Johnson . Johnson racked up an average of 212 @.@ 67 all @-@ purpose yards per game during the 2007 season , making him a potent threat on offense . Taking snaps for the offense were quarterbacks Patrick Pinkney and Rob Kass . Pinkney had a passer rating of 131 @.@ 58 , while Kass had a comparable rating of 122 @.@ 94 . The top receiver for the Pirates was Jamar Bryant , who averaged 3 @.@ 5 catches for 52 @.@ 17 yards per game . In addition to Chris Johnson , who was named to the C – USA All – Conference second team , offensive lineman Josh Coffman received C – USA All @-@ Conference second team honors .
The Broncos ' defense , meanwhile , was ranked number one in the WAC in total defense , scoring defense , rushing defense , and pass defense . The team 's defense ranked number two in the conference in pass efficiency defense , turnover margin , and sacks . Defensive lineman Nick Schlekeway and defensive back Marty Tadman both received All – WAC first team honors and promised to pose difficulties for the Pirates ' offensive front .
= = Game summary = =
The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl kicked off on December 23 , 2007 at 8 : 00 p.m EST in front of an estimated crowd of 30 @,@ 467 , which was the largest crowd in Hawaiʻi Bowl history for a game not featuring the Hawai 'i football team . The game was nationally televised on ESPN , and was watched by an estimated average of 1 @.@ 6 million people , good enough for a television rating of 1 @.@ 47 . East Carolina had to travel 4 @,@ 861 miles ( 7 @,@ 823 km ) one way , making it the longest bowl trip of the season for any team during the 2007 bowl season . Boise State , meanwhile , traveled 2 @,@ 835 miles ( 4 @,@ 562 km ) to Hawaiʻi . Due to the distance involved , East Carolina fans wishing to support their school , but unable to travel to the game , bought 2 @,@ 709 tickets for troops stationed in Hawaiʻi as a show of support . The weather at kickoff was mostly cloudy with winds from the northeast at 13 miles ( 21 km ) . The temperature was 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) . For the officiating crew , the referee was Terry Leyden , umpire was Kevin Matthews , and the linesman was Bob Bahne . The line judge was Bart Longson , the back judge was Joe Johnston and the field judge was Ed Vinzant . The side judge was Craig Falkner .
= = = First quarter = = =
East Carolina won the pre @-@ game coin toss and deferred the ball until the second half , allowing Boise State to receive the ball to begin the game . The Broncos received the opening kickoff at their 4 – yard line and went three @-@ and @-@ out . Following the Broncos ' punt , East Carolina began its first possession of the game on its 43 – yard line . The offense marched to the 19 – yard line of Boise State , but was stopped on third down . ECU kicker Ben Hartman was sent into the game and made a field goal from 36 yards away .
East Carolina kicked the ball to Boise State 's Austin Smith and he returned the kickoff 89 yards for a touchdown . The touchdown and extra point made the score 7 – 3 and gave Boise State its only lead of the game .
The next two drives for each team ended in punts . On East Carolina 's third drive , Chris Johnson rushed on the first play 68 yards for a touchdown . With the point after , East Carolina lead 10 – 7 . The next Boise State drive ended in a three and out , and the Broncos kicked the ball away . The Pirates marched down the field 55 yards , but the quarter ended before ECU had a chance to score .
At the end of the first quarter , East Carolina led Boise State 10 – 7 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
ECU began the second quarter on Boise 's 30 – yard line , and quarterback Patrick Pinkney continued the Pirates ' drive with a 14 – yard rush . After three more successful plays , Dominique Lindsay rushed 3 yards for a touchdown . Kicker Ben Hartman converted the point after , which made the score 17 – 7 ECU .
The Broncos ' first drive of the second quarter was halted after a holding penalty and an incomplete pass denied BSU a chance for a first down . Boise was forced to kick the ball away once more . The Pirates ' second drive of the quarter began at their 26 – yard line . ECU needed just four plays to march 74 yards down the field for a touchdown . On the drive , Chris Johnson rushed for 46 yards and threw an 18 – yard pass for a touchdown . After the touchdown and the extra point kick , ECU led 24 – 7 .
Boise State 's first play after the post @-@ touchdown kickoff was intercepted by Pirates ' defender Travis Williams . Despite the turnover , East Carolina was unable to attain a first down , and went three @-@ and @-@ out before punting . On Boise 's second play of the new drive following the punt , the team earned its first first down of the game . The Broncos continued the drive by going 69 yards in eight plays , culminating in a touchdown . The series included five complete passes and two rushes . With the score , The Broncos had closed the gap to ten points : 24 – 14 East Carolina .
East Carolina started their series on their 41 – yard line . A substitution infraction on ECU and an incomplete pass forced ECU to punt the ball away . On the Broncos ' fourth drive of the second quarter , the team began with three complete passes for 18 yards . On the fourth play , however , BSU 's Titus Young fumbled the ball away . Pirates ' defender Jay Ross recovered the fumble , and ECU had another chance on offense before the end of the first half . East Carolina ran five plays for 38 yards . With the clock running down , ECU elected to kick a field goal . The kick was good , and made the score 31 – 14 ECU . Boise State had one final chance on offense , and Boise Quarterback Taylor Tharp went two @-@ for @-@ four , but ran out of time before coming into field goal range .
At halftime , East Carolina led Boise State 31 – 14 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Boise State had received the opening kickoff , East Carolina received the ball to open the second half . ECU completed seven rushes and four passes for 74 yards in five minutes and 53 seconds . On the last play of the drive , Brandon Simmons rushed three yards for a touchdown , and ECU increased its lead to 38 – 14 .
To begin its first series of the second half , Boise State returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff 55 yards . Two quick plays later , Boise quarterback Taylor Tharp completed a pass to Jeremy Avery for a touchdown , cutting East Carolina 's lead to 17 points , 38 – 21 .
After the punt , the Pirates were unable to obtain a first down . Three plays netted only two yards , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . On the ensuing drive , Boise State completed three first downs on the series . BSU kicker Kyle Brotzman , converted a 31 yard field goal and the Broncos shrank the ECU lead further . The series went 40 yards in nine plays . It took the team two minutes and 37 seconds to score .
East Carolina took the kickoff on the 39 – yard line , after a Boise player illegally touched the ball on the 39 . Pinkney threw an incomplete pass to start the drive , and after two more plays failed to convert the first down , ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began at its 20 – yard line . The Broncos completed three plays for 11 yards before the third quarter ended .
At the end of the third quarter , East Carolina led | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the contrary , all @-@ black coloring ( melanism ) has never been documented in cougars . The term " black panther " is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species , particularly jaguars and leopards .
Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family . This physique allows it great leaping and short @-@ sprint ability . The cougar is able to leap as high as 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) in one bound , and as far as 40 to 45 ft ( 12 to 13 @.@ 5 m ) horizontally . The cougar 's top running speed ranges between 64 and 80 km / h ( 40 and 50 mph ) , but is best adapted for short , powerful sprints rather than long chases . It is adept at climbing , which allows it to evade canine competitors . Although it is not strongly associated with water , it can swim .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
A successful generalist predator , the cougar will eat any animal it can catch , from insects to large ungulates ( over 500 kg ) . Like all cats , it is an obligate carnivore , meaning it needs to feed exclusively on meat to survive . The mean weight of vertebrate prey ( MWVP ) that pumas attack increases with the puma 's body weight ; in general , MWVP is lower in areas closer to the equator . Its most important prey species are various deer species , particularly in North America ; mule deer , white @-@ tailed deer , elk and even bull moose are taken . Other species such as the bighorn and Dall 's sheep , horse , fallow deer , caribou , mountain goat , coyote , pronghorn , and domestic livestock such as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas . A survey of North America research found 68 % of prey items were ungulates , especially deer . Only the Florida panther showed variation , often preferring feral hogs and armadillos .
Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed that elk , followed by mule deer , were the cougar 's primary targets ; the prey base is shared with the park 's gray wolves , with which the cougar competes for resources . Another study on winter kills ( November – April ) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99 % of the cougar diet . Learned , individual prey recognition was observed , as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep , while others relied heavily on the species .
In Pacific Rim National Park Reserve , scat samples showed raccoons to make up 28 % of the cougar 's diet , harbor seals and blacktail deer 24 % each , North American river otters 10 % , California sea lion 7 % , and American mink 4 % ; the remaining 3 % were unidentified .
In the Central and South American cougar range , the ratio of deer in the diet declines . Small to mid @-@ sized mammals are preferred , including large rodents such as the capybara . Ungulates accounted for only 35 % of prey items in one survey , about half that of North America . Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items . Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice , porcupines , beavers , raccoons , hares , guanaco , peccary , vicuna , rhea , and wild turkey . Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south , but this is rarely recorded in North America . Not all of their prey is listed here due to their large range .
Though capable of sprinting , the cougar is typically an ambush predator . It stalks through brush and trees , across ledges , or other covered spots , before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite . The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground .
Kills are generally estimated around one large ungulate every two weeks . The period shrinks for females raising young , and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature around 15 months . The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot , covers it with brush , and returns to feed over a period of days . The cougar is generally reported to not be a scavenger , and rarely consumes prey it has not killed , but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California , suggesting more opportunistic behavior .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Females reach sexual maturity between one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to three years of age . They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives , though the period can be as short as one year . Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23 @-@ day cycle ; the gestation period is approximately 91 days . Females are sometimes reported as monogamous , but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common . Copulation is brief but frequent . Chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity as well as in the field .
Only females are involved in parenting . Female cougars are fiercely protective of their cubs , and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as Grizzly bears in their defense . Litter size is between one and six cubs ; typically two . Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens . Born blind , cubs are completely dependent on their mother at first , and begin to be weaned at around three months of age . As they grow , they begin to go out on forays with their mother , first visiting kill sites , and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own . Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter . When cougars are born , they have spots , but they lose them as they grow , and by the age of 2 1 / 2 years , they will completely be gone
Young adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier ; males tend to leave sooner . One study has shown high mortality amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range , often due to conflicts with other cougars ( intraspecific competition ) . Research in New Mexico has shown that " males dispersed significantly farther than females , were more likely to traverse large expanses of non @-@ cougar habitat , and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches . "
Life expectancy in the wild is reported at eight to 13 years , and probably averages eight to 10 ; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island . Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity . One male North American cougar ( P. c. couguar ) , named Scratch , was two months short of his 30th birthday when he died in 2007 . Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease , competition with other cougars , starvation , accidents , and , where allowed , human hunting . Feline immunodeficiency virus , an endemic HIV @-@ like virus in cats , is well @-@ adapted to the cougar .
= = = Social structure and home range = = =
Like almost all cats , the cougar is a solitary animal . Only mothers and kittens live in groups , with adults meeting only to mate . It is secretive and crepuscular , being most active around dawn and dusk .
Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly . Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 km2 ( 58 to 386 sq mi ) with female ranges half the size . Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 ( 10 sq mi ) , but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 ( 500 sq mi ) for males . In the United States , very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains , in excess of 775 km2 ( 300 sq mi ) . Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but , at least where studied , not with those of other males , which serves to reduce conflict between cougars . Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other . Scrape marks , urine , and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates . Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory .
Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain , vegetation , and prey abundance . One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains , for instance , was found with a large range of 215 km2 ( 83 sq mi ) , necessitated by poor prey abundance . Research has shown cougar abundances from 0 @.@ 5 animals to as much as 7 ( in one study in South America ) per 100 km2 ( 38 sq mi ) .
Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory , they are most likely to be involved in conflict . Where a subadult fails to leave his maternal range , for example , he may be killed by his father . When males encounter each other , they hiss , spit , and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down . Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young , transient animals into conflict with established individuals .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas . Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude , from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes . Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type : it is found in all forest types , as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts . The cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush , but can live with little vegetation in open areas . Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons , escarpments , rim rocks , and dense brush .
The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range ( with the exception of Florida ) in the two centuries after European colonization , and faced grave threats in the remainder of its territory . Currently , it ranges across most western American states , the Canadian provinces of Alberta , Saskatchewan and British Columbia , and the Canadian territory of Yukon . There have been widely debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America . DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America , while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports , from the mid @-@ western Great Plains through to eastern Canada . The Quebec wildlife services ( known locally as MRNF ) also considers cougar to be present in the province as a threatened species after multiple DNA tests confirmed cougar hair in lynx mating sites . The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther , which is critically endangered . There have been unconfirmed sightings in Elliotsville Plantation , Maine ( north of Monson ) ; and in New Hampshire , there have been unconfirmed sightings as early as 1997 . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Natural Resources confirmed a cougar sighting in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . Typically , extreme @-@ range sightings of cougars involve young males , which can travel great distances to establish ranges away from established males ; all four confirmed cougar kills in Iowa since 2000 involved males .
On April 14 , 2008 , police shot and killed a cougar on the north side of Chicago , Illinois . DNA tests were consistent with cougars from the Black Hills of South Dakota . Less than a year later , on March 5 , 2009 , a cougar was photographed and unsuccessfully tranquilized by state wildlife biologists in a tree near Spooner , Wisconsin , in the northwestern part of the state .
Other eastern sightings since 2010 have occurred in locations such as Greene County , Indiana , Greenwich and Milford , Connecticut , Morgan County Pike County , and Whiteside County , Illinois , and Bourbon County , Kentucky .
South of the Rio Grande , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) lists the cat in every Central and South American country . While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America , much less is known about the cat in its southern range .
The cougar 's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50 @,@ 000 by the IUCN , with a declining trend . US state @-@ level statistics are often more optimistic , suggesting cougar populations have rebounded . In Oregon , a healthy population of 5 @,@ 000 was reported in 2006 , exceeding a target of 3 @,@ 000 . California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested , between 4 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 .
In 2012 research in Río Los Cipreses National Reserve , Chile , based in 18 motion @-@ sensitive cameras counted a population of two males and two females , one of them with at least two cubs , in an area of 600 km2 , that is 0 @.@ 63 cougars every 100 km2 .
= = = Habitat fragmentation = = =
With the increase of human development and infrastructure growth in California , the North American Cougar populations are becoming more isolated from one another .
= = = Ecological role = = =
Aside from humans , no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild , although conflicts with other predators or scavengers occur . The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter @-@ predator interaction in North America . Of the three large predators , the massive grizzly bear appears dominant , often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their kills . One study found that American black bears visited 24 % of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks , usurping 10 % of carcasses . Bears gained up to 113 % , and cougars lost up to 26 % , of their respective daily energy requirements from these encounters . Accounts of cougars and black bears killing each other in fights to the death have been documented from the 19th century . In spite of the size and power of the cougar , there have also been accounts of both brown and black bears killing cougars , either in disputes or in self @-@ defense .
The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey , especially in winter . Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat . One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens . Conversely , lone female or young wolves are vulnerable to predation , and have been reported ambushed and killed by cougars . Various accounts of cougars killing lone wolves , including a six @-@ year @-@ old female , have also been documented . Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities , and disrupting the feline 's behavior . Preliminary research in Yellowstone , for instance , has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves . In nearby Sun Valley , Idaho , a cougar / wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented . One researcher in Oregon noted : " When there is a pack around , cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf , but the pack phenomenon changes the table . "
Both species , meanwhile , are capable of killing mid @-@ sized predators , such as bobcats and coyotes , and tend to suppress their numbers . Although cougars can kill coyotes , the latter have been documented attempting to prey on cougar cubs .
In the southern portion of its range , the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory . The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap , reducing the cougar 's size and also further reducing the likelihood of direct competition . Of the two felines , the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey .
As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain , the cougar impacts the population of prey species . Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region . For example , a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer , a favored cougar prey , was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed @-@ upon white @-@ tailed deer was increasing . The Vancouver Island marmot , an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population , has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation . Nevertheless , there is a measurable effect on the quality of deer populations by puma predation .
In the southern part of South America , the puma is a top level predator that has controlled the population of guanaco and other species since prehistoric times .
= = Hybrids = =
A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a cougar and a leopard . Three sets of these hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg , Germany . Most did not reach adulthood . One of these was purchased in 1898 by Berlin Zoo . A similar hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma . Hamburg Zoo 's specimen was the reverse pairing , the one in the black @-@ and @-@ white photo , fathered by a puma bred to an Indian leopardess .
Whether born to a female puma mated to a male leopard , or to a male puma mated to a female leopard , pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism . Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents . They have a puma @-@ like long body ( proportional to the limbs , but nevertheless shorter than either parent ) , but short legs . The coat is variously described as sandy , tawny or greyish with brown , chestnut or " faded " rosettes .
= = Conservation status = =
The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) currently lists the cougar as a " least concern " species . The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts .
In the United States east of the Mississippi River , the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther . Until 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) recognized both an Eastern cougar ( claimed to be a subspecies by some , denied by others ) and the Florida panther , affording protection under the Endangered Species Act . Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American cougar , with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized , while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists . In 2003 the documented count for the Florida sub @-@ population was 87 individuals . In March 2011 , the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct . With the taxonomic uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as well as the possibility of eastward migration of cougars from the western range , the subject remains open .
This uncertainty has been recognized by Canadian authorities . The Canadian federal agency called Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada rates its current data as " insufficient " to draw conclusions regarding the eastern cougar 's survival , and says on its Web site " Despite many sightings in the past two decades from eastern Canada , there are insufficient data to evaluate the taxonomy or assign a status to this cougar . " Notwithstanding numerous reported sightings in Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia , it has been said that the evidence is inconclusive : " . . . there may not be a distinct ' eastern ' subspecies , and some sightings may be of escaped pets . "
The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range . As of 1996 , cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina , Brazil , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , French Guiana , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Suriname , Venezuela , and Uruguay . The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador , El Salvador , and Guyana . Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada , although they are protected from all hunting in the Yukon ; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean , with the exception of California . Texas is the only state in the United States with a viable population of cougars that does not protect that population in some way . In Texas , cougars are listed as nuisance wildlife and any person holding a hunting or a trapping permit can kill a cougar regardless of the season , number killed , sex or age of the animal . Killed animals are not required to be reported to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department . Conservation work in Texas is the effort of a non @-@ profit organization , Balanced Ecology Inc ( BEI ) , as part of their Texas Mountain Lion Conservation Project . Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs , until the animal is ' treed ' . When the hunter arrives on the scene , he shoots the cat from the tree at close range . The cougar cannot be legally killed without a permit in California except under very specific circumstances , such as when a cougar is in act of pursuing livestock or domestic animals , or is declared a threat to public safety . Permits are issued when owners can prove property damage on their livestock or pets . For example , multiple dogs have been attacked and killed , sometimes while with the owner . Many attribute this to the protection cougars have from being hunted and are now becoming desensitized to humans ; most are removed from the population after the attacks have already occurred . Statistics from the Department of Fish and Game indicate that cougar killings in California have been on the rise since the 1970s with an average of over 112 cats killed per year from 2000 to 2006 compared to six per year in the 1970s . They also state on their website that there is a healthy number of cougars in California . The Bay Area Puma Project aims to obtain information on cougar populations in the San Francisco Bay area and the animals ' interactions with habitat , prey , humans , and residential communities .
Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal , environmental degradation and habitat fragmentation , and depletion of their prey base . Wildlife corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations . Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km2 ( 850 sq mi ) or more . As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence , foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors .
On March 2 , 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declared the Eastern cougar ( Puma concolor couguar ) officially extinct .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = In mythology = = =
The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas . The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar , and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people . The Moche people represented the puma often in their ceramics . The sky and thunder god of the Inca , Viracocha , has been associated with the animal .
In North America , mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hocąk language ( " Ho @-@ Chunk " or " Winnebago " ) of Wisconsin and Illinois and the Cheyenne , amongst others . To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona , the wail of the cougar was a harbinger of death . The Algonquins and Ojibwe believe that the cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked , whereas it was a sacred animal among the Cherokee .
= = = Livestock predation = = =
During the early years of ranching , cougars were considered on par with wolves in destructiveness . According to figures in Texas in 1990 , 86 calves ( 0 @.@ 0006 % of a total of 13 @.@ 4 million cattle & calves in Texas ) , 253 Mohair goats , 302 Mohair kids , 445 sheep ( 0 @.@ 02 % of a total of 2 @.@ 0 million sheep & lambs in Texas ) and 562 lambs ( 0 @.@ 04 % of 1 @.@ 2 million lambs in Texas ) were confirmed to have been killed by cougars that year . In Nevada in 1992 , cougars were confirmed to have killed 9 calves , 1 horse , 4 foals , 5 goats , 318 sheep and 400 lambs . In both cases , sheep were the most frequently attacked . Some instances of surplus killing have resulted in the deaths of 20 sheep in one attack . A cougar 's killing bite is applied to the back of the neck , head , or throat and they inflict puncture marks with their claws usually seen on the sides and underside of the prey , sometimes also shredding the prey as they hold on . Coyotes also typically bite the throat region but do not inflict the claw marks and farmers will normally see the signature zig @-@ zag pattern that coyotes create as they feed on the prey whereas cougars typically drag in a straight line . The work of a cougar is generally clean , differing greatly from the indiscriminate mutilation by coyotes and feral dogs . The size of the tooth puncture marks also helps distinguish kills made by cougars from those made by smaller predators .
Remedial hunting appears to have the paradoxical effect of increased livestock predation and complaints of human @-@ puma conflicts . In a 2013 study the most important predictor of puma problems were remedial hunting of puma the previous year . Each additional puma on the landscape increased predation and human @-@ puma complaints by 5 % but each additional animal killed on the landscape the previous year increased complaints by 50 % , an order of magnitude higher . The effect had a dose @-@ response relationship with very heavy ( 100 % removal of adult puma ) remedial hunting leading to a 150 % – 340 % increase in livestock and human conflicts . This effect is attributed to the fact that inexperienced younger male pumas are most likely to approach human developments , whereas remedial hunting removes older pumas who have learned to avoid people in their established territories . Remedial hunting enables younger males to enter the former territories of the older animals .
= = = Attacks on humans = = =
= = = = North American subspecies = = = =
The pertinent North American subspecies is P. concolor couguar .
Due to the expanding human population , cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans . Attacks on humans are very rare , as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey . Attacks on people , livestock , and pets may occur when a puma habituates to humans or is in a condition of severe starvation . Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer , when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory .
Between 1890 and 1990 , in North America there were 53 reported , confirmed attacks on humans , resulting in 48 nonfatal injuries and 10 deaths of humans ( the total is greater than 53 because some attacks had more than one victim ) . By 2004 , the count had climbed to 88 attacks and 20 deaths .
Within North America , the distribution of attacks is not uniform . The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 ( after just three from 1890 to 1985 ) , including three fatalities . Lightly populated New Mexico reported an attack in 2008 , the first there since 1974 .
As with many predators , a cougar may attack if cornered , if a fleeing human stimulates their instinct to chase , or if a person " plays dead " . Standing still may cause the cougar to consider a person easy prey . Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact , loud shouting , and any other action to appear larger and more menacing , may make the animal retreat . Fighting back with sticks and rocks , or even bare hands , is often effective in persuading an attacking cougar to disengage .
When cougars do attack , they usually employ their characteristic neck bite , attempting to position their teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord . Neck , head , and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal . Children are at greatest risk of attack , and least likely to survive an encounter . Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64 % of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children . The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia , particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense . Preceding attacks on humans , cougars display aberrant behavior , such as activity during daylight hours , a lack of fear of humans , and stalking humans . There have sometimes been incidents of pet cougars mauling people .
Research on new wildlife collars may be able to reduce human @-@ animal conflicts by predicting when and where predatory animals hunt . This can not only save human lives and the lives of their pets and livestock but also save these large predatory mammals that are important to the balance of ecosystems .
= = = = Other subspecies = = = =
The puma of the plains of South America ( P. concolor cabrerae , called the Argentine cougar by North Americans ) is noted for its extreme unwillingness to attack humans . According to the Anglo @-@ Argentine naturalist William Henry Hudson " It does not attack man , and Azara is perfectly correct when he affirms that it never hurts , or threatens to hurt , man or child , even when it finds them sleeping . This , however , is not a full statement of the facts ; the puma will not even defend itself against man " . And : " All who have killed or witnessed the killing of the puma — and I have questioned scores of hunters on this point — agree that it resigns itself in this unresisting , pathetic manner to death at the hands of man . Claudio Gay , in his Natural History of Chili , says , " When attacked by man its energy and daring at once forsake it , and it becomes a weak , inoffensive animal , and trembling , and uttering piteous moans , and shedding abundant tears , it seems to implore compassion from a generous enemy " . Hudson adds that , except in relation to man , the puma is a ferocious animal , attacking even the much stronger jaguar .
= New York State Route 164 =
New York State Route 164 ( NY 164 ) is a short state highway located entirely in the town of Patterson in northeastern Putnam County , New York , in the United States . It is a short , two @-@ lane back road that does not pass through any major populated areas and serves primarily as a connector between NY 311 and NY 22 . NY 164 also allows for faster passage from Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) to the Putnam Lake area via NY 311 . The route was originally designated as NY 312 during the 1930s and later became part of NY 216 . NY 164 was established on January 1 , 1970 , following the truncation of NY 216 to its current eastern terminus .
= = Route description = =
In the west , NY 164 splits off from NY 311 a short distance east of I @-@ 84 . It crosses under the Metro North tracks three times , including two one @-@ lane underpasses with limited sight to the other side . It passes along the northern base of a small mountain and turns slightly southward . The highway turns due eastward and intersects with County Route 64 in the hamlet of Towners . Just to the north is Mandel Pond , and the route makes a series of erratic turns around small mountains , passing south of Cornwall Hill as it does so . NY 164 turns south @-@ southeast and ends at NY 22 in Patterson , east of the East Branch Croton River .
= = History = =
The entirety of modern @-@ day NY 164 was originally designated as NY 312 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . When the NY 312 designation was shifted south to its current location in the town of Southeast c . 1937 , its former routing in Patterson became part of an extended NY 216 , which connected with its current routing by way of modern NY 311 , NY 292 and NY 55 . NY 216 was truncated to its current length on January 1 , 1970 . The portion of its former alignment between NY 311 and NY 22 was then redesignated as NY 164 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Patterson , Putnam County .
= Sorraia =
The Sorraia is a rare breed of horse indigenous to the portion of the Iberian peninsula , in the Sorraia River basin , in Portugal . The Sorraia is known for its primitive features , including a convex profile and dun coloring with primitive markings . Concerning its origins , a theory has been advanced by some authors that the Sorraia is a descendant of primitive horses belonging to the naturally occurring wild fauna of Southern Iberia . Studies are currently ongoing to discover the relationship between the Sorraia and various wild horse types , as well as its relationship with other breeds from the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa .
Members of the breed are small , but hardy and well @-@ adapted to harsh conditions . They were occasionally captured and used by native farmers for centuries , and a remnant population of these nearly extinct horses was discovered by a Portuguese zoologist in the early 20th century . Today , the Sorraia has become the focus of preservation efforts , with European scientists leading the way and enthusiasts from several countries forming projects and establishing herds to assist in the re @-@ establishment of this breed from its current endangered status .
= = Characteristics = =
The Sorraia breed stands between 14 @.@ 1 and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 57 and 59 inches , 145 and 150 cm ) high , although some individuals are as small as 12 @.@ 3 hands ( 51 inches , 130 cm ) The head tends to be large , the profile convex , and the ears long . The neck is slender and long , the withers high , and the croup slightly sloping . The legs are strong , with long pasterns and well @-@ proportioned hooves . These horses have good endurance and are easy keepers , thriving on relatively little fodder . They have a reputation for being independent of temperament , but tractable .
On adult horses , the lay of the hair can create the appearance of stripes or " barring " on the neck and chest . Also due to the lay of the hair , newborn foals can appear to have stripes all over , reminiscent of zebra stripes . The breed standard refers to this as " hair stroke " .
= = = Color = = =
Sorraia are generally dun or a dun variation called grullo . Dun coloring includes primitive markings such as a black dorsal stripe , black tipped ears , horizontal striping on the legs and a dark muzzle area . The dark muzzle area is in contrast to some other dun @-@ colored horse breeds , who have light @-@ colored muzzle areas and underbellies , possibly due to the presence of pangare genetics . Sorraia horses have bi @-@ colored manes and tails with lighter colored hairs that fringe the outside of the longer growing black hair . This is a characteristic shared with other predominantly dun @-@ colored breeds , such as the Fjord horse . Purebred Sorraia occasionally have white markings , although they are rare and undesired by the breed 's studbook .
= = Genetics = =
The relationship between the Sorraia and other breeds remains largely undetermined , as is its relationship to the wild horse subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse . The Sorraia originally developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula. d 'Andrade hypothesized that the Sorraia would be the ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds . Morphologically , scientists place the Sorraia as closely related to the Gallego and the Asturcon , but genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia forms a cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds . Some evidence links this cluster with Konik and domestic Mongolian horses . At the same time , one of the maternal lineages is shared with the Lusitano . Genetic evidence has not supported an hypothesis that the Sorraia is related to the Barb horse , an African breed introduced to Iberia by the Moors .
Multiple authors have suggested that the Sorraia might be a descendant of the Tarpan based on shared morphological features , principally the typical color of its coat . Other authors simply state that the Sorraia has " evident primitive characteristics " , although they do not refer to a specific ancestor . However , there have been no genetic studies comparing the Sorraia with the Tarpan , and similarity of external morphology is an unreliable measure of relatedness .
Genetic studies to date have been inconclusive about the closest relative of the Sorraia . On one hand , studies using mitochondrial DNA showed a relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse , in that Przewalski 's Horse has a unique haplotype ( A2 ) not found in domestic horses , which differs by just one single nucleotide from one of the major Sorraia haplotypes ( JSO41 , later A7 ) . In comparison , genetic distances within the domestic horse are as large as 11 nucleotide differences . However , this relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse was contradicted in another study using microsatellite data that showed that the genetic distance between the Prewalski 's Horse and the Sorraia was the largest . Such conflicting results can arise when a population passes through a genetic bottleneck , and evidence suggests that the Sorraia , among other rare breeds , has recently passed through a bottleneck , effectively obscuring the position of this breed in the family tree of the domestic horse . Thus , the morphological , physiological , and cultural characteristics of the Sorraia are the subject of continued study to better understand the relationship between various Iberian horse breeds and wild horse subspecies .
= = History = =
Although it is known that the Sorraia developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula , the breed was isolated and unknown to science until the 20th century . Despite the lack of documentation , attempts have been made to reconstruct its history . Paleolithic parietal art images in the region depict equines with a distinct likeness to the Sorraia , with similar zebra @-@ like markings . Analysis of mtDNA has been performed on Mustangs in the western United States that show similar mtDNA patterns between some Mustangs and the Sorraia breed . Spanish conquistadors took Iberian horses , some of whom closely resembled the modern @-@ day Sorraia , to the Americas in their conquests , probably as pack animals . Similarities between the Sorraia and several North and South American breeds are shown in the dun and grullo coloring and various physical characteristics . This evidence suggests that the Sorraia , their ancestors , or other horses with similar features , may have had a long history in the Iberian region and a role in the creation of American breeds .
Otherwise , the Sorraia breed was lost to history until 1920 , when Portuguese zoologist and paleontologist Dr. Ruy d 'Andrade first encountered the Sorraia horse during a hunting trip in the Portuguese lowlands . This remnant herd of primitive horses had continued to live a wild existence in these lowlands , which were rather inaccessible and had been used as a hunting preserve by Portuguese royalty until the early 1900s . At the time of d 'Andrade 's initial meeting the breed , the horses were ill @-@ regarded by native farmers , although they were considered hardy native fauna that lived off of the uncultivated lands and salt marshes in the local river valleys . For centuries , peasant farmers of the area would occasionally capture the horses and use them for agricultural work , including threshing grain and herding bulls .
In the 1920s and 1930s , as mechanization became more prevalent , both wild and domesticated breeding stock diminished to almost nothing , and d 'Andrade , along with his son Fernando , encouraged the conservation of the breed . In 1937 , d 'Andrade began a small herd of his own with five stallions and seven mares from horses obtained near Coruche , Portugal . All Sorraias currently in captivity descend from these original horses obtained by d 'Andrade , and it is believed that the remnant wild herds of the breed died out soon after . These horses were kept in a habitat similar to their native one . In 1975 , two other farms took up the Sorraia 's cause and acquired small herds to help with conservation . In 1976 , three stallions and three mares were imported to Germany from Portugal to begin a sub @-@ population there . In March 2004 , a small breeding herd of Sorraia horses was released on the estate of a private land owner who dedicated a portion of his property so that these horses could live completely wild , as did their ancestors . The refuge created for them is in the Vale de Zebro region of south western Portugal , one of places so named because this is where the Sorraia 's predecessors dwelt .
Two Sorraia stallions were imported to the United States in the early 21st century . In 2006 , another Sorraia stallion was imported to Canada where a Sorraia Mustang Preserve has been established on Manitoulin Island in Ontario . Unrelated to existing preservation efforts which work in conjunction with the Sorraia Mustang Studbook , another project by a consortium of breeders in the United States is attempting to establish a separate network and studbook . These breeders have gathered Spanish Mustangs that through mtDNA testing show a genetic relationship with the Sorraia and are breeding them according to both genotype and phenotype in an attempt to help preserve what they are calling the " American Sorraia " .
Today , the breed is nearly extinct , with fewer than 200 horses existing as of 2007 , including around 80 breeding mares . The Food and Agriculture Organization considers it to be maintaining critical risk status . The first studbook was published in 2004 , dedicated to maintaining a written record of the bloodlines of the Sorraia . Sorraias are present mainly in Portugal , with a small population in Germany . While not bred for a specific use , the Sorraia horses are versatile and have been used in herding bulls , dressage riding and light harness .
= = = Naming = = =
Dr. Ruy d 'Andrade gave the breed their name of " Sorraia " . D 'Andrade took the name from the Sorraia River in Portugal . The breed had previously been known by the local Portuguese as " zebro " or " zebra " , due to their markings . In the time of Christopher Columbus , the Sorraia was also known as the Marismeño , but the Sorraia and the Marismeño have evolved into two different breeds over time . Today , the name Marismeño refers to a population of semiferal horses living in Doñana Natural Park in Spain .
= Haifa =
Haifa ( Hebrew : חֵיפָה Hefa , Hebrew pronunciation : [ ħeˈfa ] , colloquial Hebrew pronunciation : [ ˈχai ̯ fa ] Hayfa ; Arabic : حيفا Hayfa ) , the third @-@ largest city in the State of Israel , has a population of over 277 @,@ 082 . Another 300 @,@ 000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including Daliyat al @-@ Karmel , the Krayot , Nesher , Tirat Carmel , and some kibbutzim . Together these areas form a contiguous urban area , home to nearly 600 @,@ 000 residents , which makes up the inner core of the Haifa metropolitan area , the second- or third @-@ most populous metropolitan area in Israel . It is also home to the Bahá 'í World Centre , a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Baha 'i pilgrims .
Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel , the settlement has a history spanning more than 3 @,@ 000 years . The earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam , a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age ( 14th century BCE ) . In the 3rd century CE , Haifa was known as a dye @-@ making center . Over the centuries , the city has changed hands : being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians , Persians , Hasmoneans , Romans , Byzantines , Arabs , Crusaders , Ottomans , British , and the Israelis . Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 , the Haifa Municipality has governed the city .
As of 2016 the city is a major seaport located on Israel 's Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 24 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . It lies about 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) north of Tel Aviv and is the major regional center of northern Israel . Two respected academic institutions , the University of Haifa and the Technion , are located in Haifa , in addition to the largest k @-@ 12 school in Israel , the Hebrew Reali School . The city plays an important role in Israel 's economy . It is home to Matam , one of the oldest and largest high @-@ tech parks in the country . Haifa Bay is a center of heavy industry , petroleum refining and chemical processing . Haifa formerly functioned as the western terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest named settlement within the domain of modern @-@ day Haifa was a city known as Sycaminum . Tel Shikmona Hebrew meaning " mound of the Ficus sycomorus " ( Arabic Tell el @-@ Semak or Tell es @-@ Samak , meaning " mound of the fish " ) preserved and transformed this ancient name and is mentioned once in the Mishnah ( composed c . 200 CE ) for the wild fruits that grow around it . , with locals using it to refer to a coastal tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains .
The name Efa first appears during Roman rule , some time after the end of the 1st century , when a Roman fortress and small Jewish settlement were established not far from Tell es @-@ Samak . Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud , a book central to Judaism .
Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesarea 's 4th @-@ century work , Onomasticon ( Onom . 108 , 31 ) , is said to be another name for Sycaminus . This synonymizing of the names is explained by Moshe Sharon who writes that the twin ancient settlements , which he calls Haifa @-@ Sycaminon , gradually expanded into one another , becoming a twin city known by the Greek names Sycaminon or Sycaminos Polis . References to this city end with the Byzantine period .
Around the 6th century , Porphyreon or Porphyrea is mentioned in the writings of William of Tyre , and while it lies within the area covered by modern Haifa , it was a settlement situated south of Haifa @-@ Sycaminon .
Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century , Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tell es @-@ Samak upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon ( Shiqmona ) . Haifa ( or Haifah ) is mentioned by the mid @-@ 11th @-@ century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw , and the 12th- and 13th @-@ century Arab chroniclers , Muhammad al @-@ Idrisi and Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi .
The Crusaders , who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century , call it Caiphas , and believe its name related to Cephas , the Aramaic name of Simon Peter . Eusebius is also said to have referred to Hefa as Caiaphas civitas , and Benjamin of Tudela , the 12th @-@ century Jewish traveller and chronicler , is said to have attributed the city 's founding to Caiaphas , the Jewish high priest at the time of Jesus .
Other spellings in English have included Caipha , Kaipha , Caiffa , Kaiffa and Khaifa .
Haifa al- ' Atiqa ( Arabic : " Ancient Haifa " ) is another name used by locals to refer to Tell es @-@ Samak , as it was the site of Haifa when it was a hamlet of 250 residents , before it was moved in 1764 @-@ 5 to a new fortified site founded by Zahir al @-@ Umar 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ) to the east . The new village , the nucleus of modern Haifa , was originally named al @-@ imara al @-@ jadida ( Arabic : " the new construction " ) , but locals called it Haifa al @-@ Jadida ( Arabic : " New Haifa " ) at first , and then simply Haifa . In the early 20th century , Haifa al ' Atiqa was repopulated as a predominantly Arab Christian neighborhood of Haifa as it expanded outward from its new location .
The ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear . One theory holds it derives from the name of the high priest Caiaphas . Some Christians believe it was named for Saint Peter , whose Aramaic name was Keiphah . Another theory holds it could be derived from the Hebrew verb root חפה ( hafa ) , meaning to cover or shield , i.e. Mount Carmel covers Haifa ; others point to a possible origin in the Hebrew word חוֹף ( hof ) , meaning shore , or חוֹף יָפֶה ( hof yafe ) , meaning beautiful shore .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
A small port city known today as Tell Abu Hawam was established Late Bronze Age ( 14th century BCE ) . During the 6th century BCE , Greek geographer Scylax told of a city " between the bay and the Promontory of Zeus " ( i.e. , the Carmel ) which may be a reference to Shikmona , a locality in the Haifa area , during the Persian period . By Hellenistic times , the city had moved to a new site south of what is now Bat Galim because the port 's harbour had become blocked with sand . About the 3rd century CE , the city was first mentioned in Talmudic literature , as a Jewish fishing village and the home of Rabbi Avdimi and other Jewish scholars . A Greek @-@ speaking population living along the coast at this time was engaged in commerce .
Haifa was located near the town of Shikmona , a center for making the traditional Tekhelet dye used in the garments of the high priests in the Temple . The archaeological site of Shikmona is southwest of Bat Galim . Mount Carmel and the Kishon River are also mentioned in the Bible . A grotto on the top of Mount Carmel is known as the " Cave of Elijah " , traditionally linked to the Prophet Elijah and his apprentice , Elisha . In Arabic , the highest peak of the Carmel range is called the Muhraka , or " place of burning , " harking back to the burnt offerings and sacrifices there in Canaanite and early Israelite times
Early Haifa is believed to have occupied the area which extends from the present @-@ day Rambam Hospital to the Jewish Cemetery on Yafo Street . The inhabitants engaged in fishing and agriculture .
Under Byzantine rule , Haifa continued to grow but did not assume major importance . Following the Arab conquest of Palestine in the 630s @-@ 40s , Haifa was largely overlooked in favor of the port city of ' Akka . Under the Rashidun Caliphate , Haifa began to develop . In the 9th century under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates , Haifa established trading relations with Egyptian ports and the city featured several shipyards . The inhabitants , Arabs and Jews , engaged in trade and maritime commerce . Glass production and dye @-@ making from marine snails were the city 's most lucrative industries .
= = = Crusader , Ayyubid and Mamluk rule = = =
Prosperity ended in 1100 or 1101 , when Haifa was besieged and blockaded by the Crusaders and then conquered after a fierce battle with its Jewish inhabitants and Fatimid garrison . Under the Crusaders , Haifa was reduced to a small fortified coastal stronghold . It was a part of the Principality of Galilee within the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Following their victory at the Battle of Hattin , Saladin 's Ayyubid army captured Haifa in mid @-@ July 1187 and the city 's Crusader fortress was destroyed . The Crusaders under Richard the Lionheart retook Haifa in 1191 .
In the 12th century religious hermits started inhabiting the caves on Mount Carmel , and in the 13th century they formed a new Catholic monastic order , the Carmelites . Under Muslim rule , the church which they had built on Mount Carmel was turned into a mosque , later becoming a hospital . In the 19th century , it was restored as a Carmelite monastery , the Stella Maris Monastery . The altar of the church as we see it today , stands over a cave associated with Prophet Elijah .
In 1265 , the army of Baibars the Mamluk captured Haifa , destroying its fortifications , which had been rebuilt by King Louis IX of France , as well as the majority of the city 's homes to prevent the European Crusaders from returning . For much of their rule , the city was desolate in the Mamluk period between the 13th and 16th centuries . Information from this period is scarce . During Mamluk rule in the 14th century , al @-@ Idrisi wrote that Haifa served as the port for Tiberias and featured a " fine harbor for the anchorage of galleys and other vessels .
= = = Ottoman era = = =
In 1596 , Haifa appeared in Ottoman tax registers as being in the Nahiya of Sahil Atlit of the Liwa of Lajjun . It had a population of 32 Muslim households and paid taxes on wheat , barley , summercrops , olives , and goats or beehives .
Haifa was a hamlet of 250 inhabitants in 1764 @-@ 5 . It was located at Tell el @-@ Semak , the site of ancient Sycaminum . In 1765 Zahir al @-@ Umar , the Arab ruler of Acre and the Galilee , moved the population to a new fortified site 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ) to the east and laid waste to the old site . According to historian Moshe Sharon , the new Haifa was established by Zahir in 1769 . This event marked the beginning of the town 's life at its modern location . After al @-@ Umar 's death in 1775 , the town remained under Ottoman rule until 1918 , with the exception of two brief periods .
In 1799 , Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Haifa during his unsuccessful campaign to conquer Palestine and Syria , but soon had to withdraw ; in the campaign 's final proclamation , Napoleon took credit for having razed the fortifications of " Kaïffa " ( as the name was spelled at the time ) along with those of Gaza , Jaffa and Acre .
Between 1831 and 1840 , the Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali governed Haifa , after his son Ibrahim Pasha had wrested its control from the Ottomans . When the Egyptian occupation ended and Acre declined , the importance of Haifa rose .
The arrival of the German Templers in 1868 , who settled in what is now known as the German Colony of Haifa , was a turning point in Haifa 's development . The Templers built and operated a steam @-@ based power station , opened factories and inaugurated carriage services to Acre , Nazareth and Tiberias , playing a key role in modernizing the city .
The first major Jewish Immigration took place at the middle 19th century from Morocco , with small immigration from Turkey few years later . A wave of European Jews arrived at the end of the 19th century from Romania . The Central Jewish Colonisation Society in Romania purchased over 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) near Haifa . As the Jewish settlers had been city dwellers , they hired the former fellahin tenants to instruct them in agriculture .
In 1909 , Haifa became important to the Bahá 'í Faith when the remains of the Báb , founder of the Bábí Faith and forerunner of Bahá 'u'lláh in the Bahá 'í Faith , were moved from Acre to Haifa and interred in the shrine built on Mount Carmel . Bahá 'ís consider the shrine to be their second holiest place on Earth after the Shrine of Bahá 'u'lláh in Acre . Its precise location on Mount Carmel was shown by Bahá 'u'lláh himself to his eldest son , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , in 1891 . `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá planned the structure , which was designed and completed several years later by his grandson , Shoghi Effendi . In a separate room , the remains of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá were buried in November 1921 .
A branch of the Hejaz railway , known as the Jezreel Valley railway , was built between 1903 and 1905 . This event accelerated the growth of Haifa , which became a township ( nahiya ) centre in Akka in the sanjak of Beyrut Eyalet before the end of Ottoman rule . The Technion Institute of Technology was established around this time , that is , in 1912 .
= = = British Mandate = = =
Haifa was captured from the Ottomans in September 1918 by Indian horsemen of the British Army after overrunning Ottoman positions armed with spears and swords . On 22 September , British troops were heading to Nazareth when a reconnaissance report was received indicating that the Turks were leaving Haifa . The British made preparations to enter the city and came under fire in the Balad al @-@ Sheikh district ( today Nesher ) . After the British regrouped , an elite unit of Indian horsemen were sent to attack the Turkish positions on the flanks and overrun their artillery guns on Mount Carmel .
Under the British Mandate , Haifa became an industrial port city . The Bahá 'í Faith in 1918 and today has its administrative and spiritual centre in the environs of Haifa . Over the next few decades the number of Jews increased steadily , due to immigration , especially from Europe . The Arab immigration on the other hand swelled by influx of Arabs , coming mainly from surrounding villages as well as Syrian Hauran . The Arab immigration mainly came as a result of prices and salary drop . Between the censuses of 1922 and 1931 , the Muslim , Jewish , and Christian populations rose by 217 % , 256 % , and 156 % , respectively .
Haifa 's development owed much to British plans to make it a central port and hub for Middle @-@ East crude oil . The British Government of Palestine developed the port and built refineries , thereby facilitating the rapid development of the city as a center for the country 's heavy industries . Haifa was also among the first towns to be fully electrified . The Palestine Electric Company inaugurated the Haifa Electrical Power Station already in 1925 , opening the door to considerable industrialization . The State @-@ run Palestine Railways also built its main workshops in Haifa .
By 1945 the population had shifted to 33 percent Muslim , 20 percent Christian and 47 percent Jewish . In 1947 , about 70 @,@ 910 Arabs ( 41 @,@ 000 Muslims , 29 @,@ 910 Christians ) and 74 @,@ 230 Jews were living there . The Christian community were mostly Greek @-@ Melkite Catholics .
The 1947 UN Partition Plan in late November 1947 designated Haifa as part of the proposed Jewish state . Arab protests over that decision evolved into violence between Jews and Arabs that left several dozen people dead during December . On 30 December 1947 , members of the Irgun , a Jewish underground militia , threw bombs into a crowd of Arabs outside the gates of the Consolidated Refineries in Haifa , killing six and injuring 42 . In response Arab employees of the company killed 39 Jewish employees in what became known as the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre . The Jewish Haganah militia retaliated with a raid on the Arab village of Balad al @-@ Shaykh , where many of the Arab refinery workers lived , in what became known as the Balad al @-@ Shaykh massacre . Control of Haifa was critical in the ensuing civil war , since it was the major industrial and oil refinery port in British Palestine .
British forces in Haifa redeployed on 21 April 1948 , withdrawing from most of the city while still maintaining control over the port facilities . Two days later the downtown , controlled by a combination of local and foreign ( ALA ) Arab irregulars was assaulted by Jewish forces in Operation Bi 'ur Hametz , by the Carmeli Brigade of the Haganah , commanded by Moshe Carmel . The operation led to a massive displacement of Haifa 's Arab population . According to The Economist at the time , only 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 of the city 's 62 @,@ 000 Arabs remained there by 2 October 1948 .
Contemporaneous sources emphasized the Jewish leadership 's attempt to stop the Arab exodus from the city and the Arab leadership as a motivating factor in the refugees ' flight . According to the British district superintendent of police , " Every effort is being made by the Jews to persuade the Arab populace to stay and carry on with their normal lives , to get their shops and business open and to be assured that their lives and interests will be safe . " Time Magazine wrote on 3 May 1948 :
The mass evacuation , prompted partly by fear , partly by orders of Arab leaders , left the Arab quarter of Haifa a ghost city ... By withdrawing Arab workers their leaders hoped to paralyze Haifa .
Benny Morris said Haifa 's Arabs left due to of a combination of Zionist threats and encouragement to do so by Arab leaders . Ilan Pappé writes that the shelling culminated in an attack on a Palestinian crowd in the old marketplace using three @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) mortars on 22 April 1948 . Shabtai Levy , the Mayor of the city , and some other Jewish leaders urged Arabs not to leave . According to Ilan Pappé , Jewish loudspeakers could be heard in the city ordering Arab residents to leave " before it 's too late . " Morris quotes British sources as stating that during the battles between 22 and 23 April 100 Arabs were killed and 100 wounded , but he adds that the total may have been higher .
= = = State of Israel = = =
After the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948 Haifa became the gateway for Jewish immigration into Israel . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , the neighborhoods of Haifa were sometimes contested . After the war , Jewish immigrants were settled in new neighborhoods , among them Kiryat Hayim , Ramot Remez , Ramat Shaul , Kiryat Sprinzak , and Kiryat Eliezer . Bnei Zion Hospital ( formerly Rothschild Hospital ) and the Central Synagogue in Hadar Hacarmel date from this period . In 1953 , a master plan was created for transportation and the future architectural layout .
In 1959 , a group of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews , mostly Moroccan Jews , rioted in Wadi Salib , claiming the state was discriminating against them . Their demand for “ bread and work ” was directed at the state institutions and what they viewed as an Ashkenazi elite in the Labor Party and the Histadrut .
Tel Aviv gained in status , while Haifa suffered a decline in the role as regional capital . The opening of Ashdod as a port exacerbated this . Tourism shrank when the Israeli Ministry of Tourism placed emphasis on developing Tiberias as a tourist centre .
Nevertheless , Haifa 's population had reached 200 @,@ 000 by the early 1970s , and mass immigration from the former Soviet Union boosted the population by a further 35 @,@ 000 .
Many of Wadi Salib 's historic Ottoman buildings have now been demolished , and in the 1990s a major section of the Old City was razed to make way for a new municipal center .
From 1999 to 2003 , several Palestinian suicide attacks took place in Haifa ( in Maxim and Matza restaurants , bus 37 , and others ) , killing 68 civilians .
In 2006 , Haifa was hit by 93 Hezbollah rockets during the Second Lebanon War , killing 11 civilians and leading to half of the city 's population fleeing at the end of the first week of the war . Among the places hit by rockets were a train depot and the oil refinery complex .
= = Demographics = =
Haifa is Israel 's third @-@ largest city , consisting of 103 @,@ 000 households , or a population of 266 @,@ 300 . Immigrants from the former Soviet Union constitute 25 % of Haifa 's population . According to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics , Israeli Arabs constitute 10 % of Haifa 's population , the majority living in Wadi Nisnas , Abbas and Halissa neighborhoods .
Haifa is commonly portrayed as a model of co @-@ existence between Arabs and Jews , although tensions and hostility do still exist .
Between 1994 and 2009 , the city had a declining and aging population compared to Tel Aviv and Jerusalem , as young people moved to the center of the country for education and jobs , while young families migrated to bedroom communities in the suburbs . However , as a result of new projects and improving infrastructure , the city managed to reverse its population decline , reducing emigration while attracting more internal migration into the city . In 2009 , positive net immigration into the city was shown for the first time in 15 years .
= = = Religious and ethnic communities = = =
The population is heterogeneous . Jews comprise some 82 % of the population , almost 14 % are Christians ( the majority of whom are Arab Christians ) and , some 4 % are Muslims ( of which many are Ahmadis ) . Haifa also includes Druze and Bahá 'í communities . In 2006 , 27 % of the Arab population was aged 14 and under , compared to 17 % of the Jewish and other population groups . The trend continues in the age 15 @-@ 29 group , in which 27 % of the Arab population is found , and the age 30 @-@ 44 group ( 23 % ) . The population of Jews and others in these age groups are 22 % and 18 % respectively . Nineteen percent of the city 's Jewish and other population is between 45 and 59 , compared to 14 % of the Arab population . This continues with 14 % of Jews and others aged 60 – 74 and 10 % over age 75 , in comparison to 7 % and just 2 % respectively in the Arab population .
In 2006 , 2 @.@ 9 % of the Jews in the city were Haredi , compared to 7 @.@ 5 % on a national scale . However , the Haredi community in Haifa is growing fast due to a high fertility rate . 66 @.@ 6 % were secular , compared to a national average of 43 @.@ 7 % . A significant portion of the immigrants from the former Soviet Union either lack official religious @-@ ethnic classification or are Non @-@ Jews as they are from mixed @-@ marriage families of some Jewish origin . There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church , established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye @-@ Hansen .
Haifa is the center of liberal Palestinian culture , as it was under British colonial rule . The Palestinian neighborhoods , which are mixed Muslim and Christian , are in the lowlands near the sea while Jewish neighborhoods are at higher elevation . An active Palestinian cultural life has developed in the 21st century .
= = Geography = =
Haifa is situated on the Israeli Mediterranean Coastal Plain , the historic land bridge between Europe , Africa , and Asia , and the mouth of the Kishon River . Located on the northern slopes of Mount Carmel and around Haifa Bay , the city is split over three tiers . The lowest is the center of commerce and industry including the Port of Haifa . The middle level is on the slopes of Mount Carmel and consists of older residential neighborhoods , while the upper level consists of modern neighborhoods looking over the lower tiers . From here views can be had across the Western Galilee region of Israel towards Rosh HaNikra and the Lebanese border . Haifa is about 90 kilometers ( 55 @.@ 9 mi ) north of the city of Tel Aviv , and has a large number of beaches on the Mediterranean .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Carmel Mountain has three main wadis : Lotem , Amik and Si ’ ach . For the most part these valleys are undeveloped natural corridors that run up through the city from the coast to the top of the mountain . Marked hiking paths traverse these areas and they provide habitat for wildlife such as wild boar , golden jackal , hyrax , Egyptian mongoose , owls and chameleons .
= = Climate = =
Haifa has a hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate with hot , dry summers and cool , rainy winters ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) . Spring arrives in March when temperatures begin to increase . By late May , the temperature has warmed up considerably to herald warm summer days . The average temperature in summer is 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) and in winter , 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Snow is rare in Haifa , but temperatures around 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) can sometimes occur , usually in the early morning . Humidity tends to be high all year round , and rain usually occurs between September and May . Annual precipitation is approximately 629 millimeters ( 25 in ) .
= = Neighborhoods = =
Haifa has developed in tiers , from the lower to the upper city on the Carmel . The oldest neighborhood in the modern Haifa is Wadi Salib , the Old City center near the port , which has been bisected by a major road and razed in part to make way for government buildings . Wadi Salib stretches across to Wadi Nisnas , the center of Arab life in Haifa today . In the 19th century , under Ottoman rule , the German Colony was built , providing the first model of urban planning in Haifa . Some of the buildings have been restored and the colony has turned into a center of Haifa nightlife .
The first buildings in Hadar were constructed at the start of the 20th century . Hadar was Haifa 's cultural center and marketplace throughout the 1920s and into the 1980s , nestled above and around the Haifa 's Arab neighborhoods . Today Hadar stretches from the port area near the bay , approximately halfway up Mount Carmel , around the German Colony , Wadi Nisnas and Wadi Salib . Hadar houses two commercial centers ( one in the port area , and one midway up the mountain ) surrounded by some of the city 's older neighborhoods .
Neve Sha 'anan , a neighborhood located on the second tier of Mount Carmel , was founded in the 1920s . West of the port are the neighborhoods of Bat Galim , Shikmona Beach , and Kiryat Eliezer . To the west and east of Hadar are the Arab neighborhoods of Abbas and Khalisa , built in the 1960s and 70s . To the south of Mount Carmel 's headland , along the road to Tel Aviv , are the neighborhoods of Ein HaYam , Shaar HaAliya , Kiryat Sprinzak and Neve David .
Above Hadar are affluent neighborhoods such as the Carmel Tzarfati ( French Carmel ) , Merkaz Ha 'Carmel , Romema , Ahuzat Ha 'Carmel ( Ahuza ) , Carmeliya , Vardiya , Ramat Golda , Ramat Alon and Hod Ha 'Carmel ( Denya ) . While there are general divisions between Arab and Jewish neighborhoods , there is an increasing trend for wealthy Arabs to move into affluent Jewish neighborhoods . Another of the Carmel neighborhoods is Kababir , home to the National Headquarters of Israel 's Ahmadiyya Muslim Community ; located near Merkaz HaCarmel and overlooking the coast .
= = Urban development = =
Recently , residential construction has been concentrated around Kiryat Haim and Kiryat Shmuel , with 75 @,@ 000 m2 ( 807 @,@ 293 sq ft ) of new residential construction between 2002 – 2004 , the Carmel , with 70 @,@ 000 m2 ( 753 @,@ 474 sq ft ) , and Ramot Neve Sha 'anan with approximately 70 @,@ 000 m2 ( 753 @,@ 474 sq ft ) Non @-@ residential construction was highest in the Lower Town , ( 90 @,@ 000 sq m ) , Haifa Bay ( 72 @,@ 000 sq m ) and Ramot Neve Sha 'anan ( 54 @,@ 000 sq m ) . In 2004 , 80 % of construction in the city was private .
Currently , the city has a modest number of skyscrapers and high @-@ rise buildings , and many additional high @-@ rise buildings are planned , have been approved , or are under construction . Though buildings rising up to 20 stories were built on Mount Carmel in the past , the Haifa municipality banned the construction of any new buildings taller than nine stories on Mount Carmel in July 2012 .
The neighborhood of Wadi Salib , located in the heart of downtown Haifa , is being redeveloped . Most of its Jewish and Arab residents are considered squatters and have been gradually evicted over the years . The Haifa Economic Corporation Ltd is developing two 1 @,@ 000 square meter lots for office and commercial use . Some historic buildings have been renovated and redeveloped , especially into nightclubs and theaters , such as the Palace of the Pasha , a Turkish bathhouse , and a Middle Eastern music and dance club , which has been converted into theaters and offices .
In 2012 , a new , massive development plan was announced for Haifa 's waterfront . According to the plan , the western section of the city 's port will be torn down , and all port activity will be moved to the east . The west side of the port will be transformed into a tourism and nightlife center and a point of embarkation and arrival for sea travel through the construction of public spaces , a beach promenade , and the renovation of commercial buildings . The train tracks that currently bisect the city and separate the city 's beach from the rest of Haifa will also be buried . A park will be developed on the border of the Kishon River , the refineries ' cooling towers will be turned into a visitors ' center , and bridges will lead from the port to the rest of the city . Massive renovations are also currently underway in Haifa 's lower town , in the Turkish market and Paris Square , which will become the city 's business center . In addition , the ammonia depository tank in the Haifa bay industrial zone will be dismantled , and a new one built in an alternative location .
Another plan seeks to turn the western section of Haifa Port into a major tourism and nightlife center , as well as a functioning point of embarkation and arrival for sea travel . All port activity will be moved to the western side , and the area will be redeveloped . Public spaces and a beach promenade will be developed , and commercial buildings will be renovated .
As part of the development plans , the Israeli Navy , which has a large presence in Haifa , will withdraw from the shoreline between Bat Galim and Hof Hashaket . A 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ) long esplanade which will encircle the shoreline will be constructed . It will include a bicycle path , and possibly also a small bridge under which navy vessels will pass on their way to the sea .
In addition , a 50 @,@ 000 square @-@ meter entertainment complex that will contain a Disney theme park , cinemas , shops , and a 25 @-@ screen Multiplex theater will be built at the Check Post exit from the Carmel Tunnels .
In 2014 , a new major plan for the city was proposed , under which extensive development of residential , business , and leisure areas will take place with the target of increasing the city 's population by 60 @,@ 000 by 2025 . Under the plan , five new neighborhoods will be built , along with new high @-@ tech parks . In addition , existing employment centers will be renovated , and new leisure areas and a large park will be built .
= = Economy = =
The common Israeli saying , " Haifa works , Jerusalem prays , and Tel Aviv plays " attests to Haifa 's reputation as a city of workers and industry . The industrial region of Haifa is in the eastern part of the city , around the Kishon River . It is home to the Haifa oil refinery , one of the two oil refineries in Israel ( the other refinery being located in Ashdod ) . The Haifa refinery processes 9 million tons ( 66 million barrels ) of crude oil a year . Its nowadays unused twin 80 @-@ meter high cooling towers , built in the 1930s , were the tallest buildings built in the British Mandate period .
Matam ( short for Merkaz Ta 'asiyot Mada - Scientific Industries Center ) , the largest and oldest business park in Israel , is at the southern entrance to the city , hosting manufacturing and R & D facilities for a large number of Israeli and international hi @-@ tech companies , such as Intel , IBM , Microsoft , Motorola , Google , Yahoo ! , Elbit , CSR , Philips , and Amdocs . The campus of the University of Haifa is also home to IBM Haifa Labs .
The Port of Haifa is the leader in passenger traffic among Israeli ports , and is also a major cargo harbor , although deregulation has seen its dominance challenged by the Port of Ashdod .
Haifa malls and shopping centers include Hutsot Hamifratz , Horev Center Mall , Panorama Center , Castra Center , Colony Center ( Lev HaMoshava ) , Hanevi 'im Tower Mall , Kanyon Haifa , Lev Hamifratz Mall and Grand Kanyon .
In 2010 , Monocle magazine identified Haifa as the city with the most promising business potential , with the greatest investment opportunities in the world . The magazine noted that " a massive head @-@ to @-@ toe regeneration is starting to have an impact ; from scaffolding and cranes around town , to renovated façades and new smart places to eat " . The Haifa municipality had spent more than $ 350 million on roads and infrastructure , and the number of building permits had risen 83 % in the previous two years .
In 2014 , it was announced that a technology @-@ focused stock exchange would be established to compete with the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange .
Currently , some 40 hotels , mostly boutique hotels , are planned , have been approved , or are under construction . The Haifa Municipality is seeking to turn the city into Northern Israel 's tourist center , from where travelers can embark on day trips into Acre , Nazareth , Tiberias , and the Galilee .
A new life sciences industrial park containing five buildings with 85 @,@ 000 square meters of space on a 31 @-@ duman ( 7 @.@ 75 acre ) site is being built adjacent to the Matam industrial park .
= = = Tourism = = =
In 2005 , Haifa has 13 hotels with a total of 1 @,@ 462 rooms . The city has a 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) shoreline , of which 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) are beaches . Haifa 's main tourist attraction is the Bahá 'í World Centre , with the golden @-@ domed Shrine of the Báb and the surrounding gardens . Between 2005 and 2006 , 86 @,@ 037 visited the shrine . In 2008 , the Bahá 'í gardens were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The restored German Colony , founded by the Templers , Stella Maris and Elijah 's Cave also draw many tourists .
Located in the Haifa district are the Ein Hod artists ' colony , where over 90 artists and craftsmen have studios and exhibitions , and the Mount Carmel national park , with caves where Neanderthal and early Homo Sapiens remains were found .
A 2007 report commissioned by the Haifa Municipality calls for the construction of more hotels , a ferry line between Haifa , Acre and Caesarea , development of the western anchorage of the port as a recreation and entertainment area , and an expansion of the local airport and port to accommodate international travel and cruise ships .
= = Arts and culture = =
Despite its image as a port and industrial city , Haifa is the cultural hub of northern Israel . During the 1950s , mayor Abba Hushi made a special effort to encourage authors and poets to move to the city , and founded the Haifa Theatre , a repertory theater , the first municipal theater founded in the country . The principal Arabic theater servicing the northern Arab population is the al @-@ Midan Theater . Other theaters in the city include the Krieger Centre for the Performing Arts and the Rappaport Art and Culture Center . The Congress Center hosts exhibitions , concerts and special events .
The New Haifa Symphony Orchestra , established in 1950 , has more than 5 @,@ 000 subscribers . In 2004 , 49 @,@ 000 people attended its concerts . The Haifa Cinematheque , founded in 1975 , hosts the annual Haifa International Film Festival during the intermediate days of the Sukkot holiday . Haifa has 29 movie theaters . The city publishes a local newspaper , Yediot Haifa , and has its own radio station , Radio Haifa .
During the 1990s , Haifa hosted the Haifa Rock & Blues Festival featuring Bob Dylan , Nick Cave , Blur and PJ Harvey . The last festival was held in 1995 with Sheryl Crow , Suede and Faith No More as headliners .
= = = Museums = = =
Haifa has over a dozen museums . The most popular museum is the Israel National Museum of Science , Technology , and Space , which recorded almost 150 @,@ 000 visitors in 2004 . The museum is located in the historic Technion building in the Hadar neighborhood . The Haifa Museum of Art houses a collection of modern and classical art , as well as displays on the history of Haifa . The Tikotin Museum of Japanese Art is the only museum in the Middle East dedicated solely to Japanese art . Other museums in Haifa include the Museum of Prehistory , the National Maritime Museum and Haifa City Museum , the Hecht Museum , the Dagon Archaeological Museum of Grain Handling , the Railway Museum , the Clandestine Immigration and Navy Museum , the Israeli Oil Industry Museum , and Chagall Artists ' House . As part of his campaign to bring culture to Haifa , Mayor Abba Hushi provided the artist Mane @-@ Katz with a building on Mount Carmel to house his collection of Judaica , which is now a museum . The Haifa Educational Zoo at Gan HaEm park houses a small animal collection including Syrian brown bears , now extinct from Israel . Wןthin the zoo is the Pinhas House biology institute . In the close vicinity of Haifa , on the Carmel , the Northern " Hai @-@ Bar " ( " wild life " ) operated by Israel 's Parks and Reserves Authority for the purpose of breeding and reintroduction of species now extinct from Israel , such as Persian Fallow Deer .
= = Government = =
As an industrial port city , Haifa has traditionally been a Labor party stronghold . The strong presence of dock workers and trade unions earned it the nickname ' Red Haifa . ' In addition , many prominent Arabs in the Israeli Communist Party , among them Tawfik Toubi , Emile Habibi , Zahi Karkabi , Bulus Farah and Emile Toma , were from Haifa .
In recent years , there has been a drift toward the center . This was best signified by , in the 2006 legislative elections , the Kadima party receiving about 28 @.@ 9 % of the votes in Haifa , and Labor lagging behind with 16 @.@ 9 % .
Before 1948 , Haifa 's Municipality was fairly unusual as it developed cooperation between the mixed Arab and Jewish community in the city , with representatives of both groups involved in the city 's management . Under mayor al @-@ Haj , between 1920 and 1927 , the city council had six Arab and two Jewish representatives , with the city run as a mixed municipality with overall Arab control . Greater cooperation was introduced under Hasan Bey Shukri , who adopted a positive and conciliatory attitude toward the city 's Jews and gave them senior posts in the municipality . In 1940 , the first Jewish mayor , Shabtai Levy , was elected . Levy 's two deputies were Arab ( one Muslim , the other Christian ) , with the remainder of the council made up of four Jews and six Arabs .
Today , Haifa is governed by its 12th city council , headed by the mayor Yona Yahav . The results of municipal elections decide on the makeup of the council , similarly to the Knesset elections . The city council is the legislative council in the city , and has the authority to pass auxiliary laws . The 12th council , which was elected in 2003 , has 31 members , with the liberal Shinui @-@ Greens ticket holding the most seats ( 6 ) , and Likud coming second with 5 . Many of the decisions passed by the city council are results of recommendation made by the various municipal committees , which are committees where non @-@ municipal organs meet with representatives from the city council . Some committees are spontaneous , but some are mandatory , such as the security committee , tender committee and financial committee .
= = = Mayors = = =
= = Medical facilities = =
Haifa medical facilities have a total of 4 @,@ 000 hospital beds . The largest hospital is the government @-@ operated Rambam Hospital with 900 beds and 78 @,@ 000 admissions in 2004 . Bnai Zion Hospital and Carmel Hospital each have 400 beds . Other hospitals in the city include the Italian Hospital , Elisha Hospital ( 100 beds ) , Horev Medical Center ( 36 beds ) and Ramat Marpe ( 18 beds ) . Haifa has 20 family health centers . In 2004 , there were a total of 177 @,@ 478 hospital admissions .
Rambam Medical Center was in the direct line of fire during the Second Lebanon War in 2006 and was forced to take special precautions to protect its patients . Whole wings of the hospital were moved to large underground shelters .
= = Education = =
Haifa is home to two internationally acclaimed universities and several colleges The University of Haifa , founded in 1963 , is at the top of Mt . Carmel . The campus was designed by the architect of Brasília and United Nations Headquarters in New York , Oscar Niemeyer . The top floor of the 30 @-@ story Eshkol Tower provides a panoramic view of northern Israel . The Hecht Museum , with important archeology and art collections , is on the campus of Haifa University .
The Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , described as Israel 's MIT , was founded in 1912 . It has 18 faculties and 42 research institutes . The original building now houses Haifa 's science museum . The Hebrew Reali School was founded in 1913 . It is the largest k @-@ 12 school in Israel , with 4 @,@ 000 students in 7 branches , all over the city . The first technological high school in Israel , Bosmat , was established in Haifa in 1933 .
Other academic institutions in Haifa are the Gordon College of Education and Sha 'anan Religious Teachers ' College , the WIZO Haifa Academy of Design and Education , and Tiltan College of Design . The Michlala Leminhal College of Management and the Open University of Israel have branches in Haifa . The city also has a nursing college and the P.E.T Practical Engineering School .
As of 2006 – 07 , Haifa had 70 elementary schools , 23 middle schools , 28 academic high schools and 8 vocational high schools . There were 5 @,@ 133 pupils in municipal kindergartens , 20 @,@ 081 in elementary schools , 7 @,@ 911 in middle schools , 8 @,@ 072 in academic high schools , 2 @,@ 646 in vocational high schools , and 2 @,@ 068 in comprehensive district high schools . 86 % of the students attended Hebrew @-@ speaking schools and 14 % attended Arab schools . 5 % were in special education . In 2004 , Haifa had 16 municipal libraries stocking 367 @,@ 323 books .
Two prestigious Arab schools in Haifa are the Orthodox School , run by the Greek Orthodox church , and the Nazareth Nuns ' School , a Catholic institution .
= = Transportation = =
Haifa is served by six railway stations and the Carmelit , currently Israel 's only subway system ( another is under construction in Tel Aviv ) . The Nahariya – Tel Aviv Coastal Railway main line of Israel Railways runs along the coast of the Gulf of Haifa and has six stations within the city . From south @-@ west to north @-@ east , these stations are : Haifa Hof HaCarmel , Haifa Bat Galim , Haifa Merkaz HaShmona , Lev HaMifratz , Hutzot HaMifratz and Kiryat Haim . Together with the Kiryat Motzkin Railway Station in the northern suburb Kiryat Motzkin , they form the Haifa - Krayot suburban line ( " Parvarit " ) . There are direct trains from Haifa to Tel Aviv , Ben Gurion International Airport , Nahariya , Akko , Kiryat Motzkin , Binyamina , Lod , Ramla , Beit Shemesh , Jerusalem and other locations , but all trains to Beersheba skips all Haifa stations
Haifa 's intercity bus connections are operated almost exclusively by the Egged bus company , which operates two terminals :
HaMifratz Central Bus Station , adjacent to the Lev HaMifratz Railway Station
Haifa Hof HaCarmel Central Bus Station , adjacent to the Hof HaCarmel Railway Station
Lines to the North of the country use HaMifratz Central Bus Station and their coverage includes most towns in the North of Israel . Lines heading south use Haifa Hof HaCarmel Central Bus Station .
Destinations directly reachable from Hof HaCarmel CBS include Tel Aviv , Jerusalem , Eilat , Raanana , Netanya , Hadera , Zikhron Ya 'akov , Atlit , Tirat Carmel , Ben Gurion International Airport and intermediate communities . There are also three Egged lines that have their terminus in the Ramat Vizhnitz neighborhood and run to Jerusalem , Bnei Brak and Ashdod . These used to be " mehadrin " ( i.e. gender segregated ) lines .
All urban lines are run by Egged | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
as a " vast money @-@ making scheme under the guise of ' religion ' " . By January 30 , 2008 , 170 protests had been planned outside Church of Scientology centers worldwide . A video posted to YouTube called " Code of Conduct " outlined twenty @-@ two rules to follow when protesting , and urged protestors to remain peaceful .
= = = February 2008 = = =
= = = = February 2 = = = =
On February 2 , 2008 , 150 people gathered outside a Church of Scientology center in Orlando , Florida to protest the organization 's practices . Small protests were also held in Santa Barbara , California ( during the Santa Barbara International Film Festival ) , and Manchester , England . Protesters in Orlando carried signs with messages " Knowledge is Free " and " Honk if you hate Scientology " . According to WKMG @-@ TV , the protesters called the Church of Scientology a " dangerous cult " and said the organization is responsible for crimes and deaths . The Orlando Sentinel reported that the protest was " part of a worldwide campaign by a group that calls itself Anonymous " , and an unnamed organizer who spoke to the paper stated that the group was protesting " a gross violation of the right to see free church material " , referring to the Tom Cruise video that was pulled from YouTube .
Protesters at the demonstration wore masks , and said they were attempting to inform the public about what they believed to be " restrictions of free speech and profiteering through pyramid schemes " by the Church of Scientology . They asserted they were not protesting the doctrine of Scientology , but rather alleged actions of individual Scientologists . One protester stated that he had created a Facebook group to organize the protest , explaining " It started online with a group called Anonymous ... They got upset with Scientology because the church hides important documents that are supposed to be released to the public . "
= = = = February 10 = = = =
On February 10 , 2008 , about 7 @,@ 000 people protested in at least 100 cities worldwide . Within 24 hours of the first protest , a search for " Scientology " and " protest " on Google Blog Search returned more than 4 @,@ 000 results and more than 2 @,@ 000 pictures on the image @-@ sharing site Flickr . Cities with turnouts of one hundred or more protesters included Adelaide , Melbourne , and Sydney , Australia ; Toronto , Canada ; London , England ; Dublin , Ireland ; and Austin , Dallas , Boston , Clearwater , and New York City , United States .
150 people protested at the Church of Scientology building in Sydney , Australia , carrying signs and wearing costumes . Participants were masked to maintain their anonymity and avoid possible retaliation from the Church of Scientology . Protesters chanted " Church on the left , cult on the right " ( in reference to the Church that was beside the Church of Scientology building ) , " Religion is free " and " We want Xenu " . Scientology staff locked down the building and set up a camera to record the event . After the protest in Sydney , a surge in online Internet traffic due to individuals attempting to view pictures from the protest crashed hundreds of websites when a server was overloaded . The Sydney protest was one of the first worldwide , and after the first images of the protest went online a surge in traffic drove the hosting company 's bandwidth usage up by 900 percent . The hosting company Digitalis temporarily prevented access to hundreds of its clients ' sites , and customer support representative Denis Kukic said the surge was unexpected : " We had no advance notice that there was going to be a sudden surge of traffic or that there would be more than 100 times the average traffic that this customer 's website normally consumes . "
Masked protesters in Seattle , Washington , United States congregated in front of the Church of Scientology of Washington . Protesters were quoted as saying , " We believe in total freedom of belief . We have nothing against the people of Scientology , however the Church of Scientology has committed crimes . They 're vehemently anti @-@ opposition . Anyone who opposes them , must go down . " A protester in Santa Barbara emphasized that their opposition was against the organization , not the belief system , and that they supported the Scientology split @-@ off group known as the Free Zone . Protesters turned out in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania despite unusually cold weather . The masked crowd consisted mainly of college students , including some who had travelled from as far as Penn State University .
Protesters in Boston , Los Angeles , Pittsburgh , Toronto , Edinburgh , London , and other cities worldwide , wore Guy Fawkes masks modeled after the 2005 film V for Vendetta . ( Guy Fawkes was an English Catholic executed for a 1605 attempt to destroy the House of Lords . In V for Vendetta , a rebel against a near @-@ future fascist regime uses the mask in his public appearances and distributes many of its copies to the population to enable mass protests . The Boston Globe characterized usage of the Guy Fawkes masks as " an allusion to the British insurgent and a film depicting an antigovernment movement " . Aaron Tavena of College Times wrote that the Guy Fawkes masks provided a " dramatic effect " to the protests , and Nick Jamison of The Retriever Weekly wrote : " During the February 10 protests , Anonymous was informative , Anonymous was peaceful , and Anonymous was effective . After seeing all of the pictures from the 10th with everyone in disguise , many sporting Guy Fawkes masks , I wanted to be a part of that . " Scott Stewart of University of Nebraska at Omaha 's The Gateway wrote : " Many participants sported Guy Fawkes masks to draw attention both to their identity as Anonymous and the Church of Scientology 's abuse of litigation and coercion to suppress anti @-@ Scientology viewpoints . "
The Internet meme Rickroll , where a link is given to a seemingly relevant website only to be directed to a music video of singer Rick Astley 's pop single " Never Gonna Give You Up " , has been used as a theme in the protests against Scientology . At February 10 protests in New York , Washington , D.C. , London and Seattle , protesters played the song through boomboxes and shouted the phrase " Never gonna let you down ! " , in what The Guardian called " a live rick @-@ rolling of the Church of Scientology " . In response to a website created by Scientologists showing an anti @-@ Anonymous video , Project Chanology participants created a website with a similar domain name with a video displaying the music video to " Never Gonna Give You Up " . In a March 2008 interview , Astley said that he found the rickrolling of Scientology to be " hilarious " ; he also said that he will not try to capitalize on the rickroll phenomenon with a new recording or remix of his own , but that he 'd be happy to have other artists remix it .
Following the protests , there were reports that YouTube was freezing the view counts on videos criticizing Scientology , including clips from the protests themselves , potentially preventing them from being displayed on YouTube 's front page . Similarly , the original " Message to Scientology " video had received nearly 2 @.@ 5 million views and yet failed to be featured as a " most @-@ watched " . The net neutrality activist group movieLOL strongly criticized YouTube for a " display of the decay of internet freedom " . YouTube 's official response stated : " There was an issue with video view counts not increasing that has now been resolved . The correct number of views should be displayed in the next 24 hours . Thanks for your patience . "
Jonathan Holmes , the presenter of the Australian watchdog program Media Watch , reported on two cases of media censorship of the protests . News.com.au pixelated a poster carried by a protester which was revealed , through a Today Tonight segment , to have displayed the word " CULT " . The Advertiser erased Tom Cruise 's name from a protest placard , rendering the placard 's message meaningless , without informing its readers . The Advertiser 's editor , Melvin Mansell , stated that the alteration had " slipped by " and that he was opposed to the publication of doctored photographs .
= = = March – December 2008 = = =
= = = = March 2008 = = = =
According to NBC11 , a woman from Anonymous contacted them and stated that protests were planned against Scientology each month through May 2008 ; and that a large protest was planned for two days after Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard 's birthday , March 15 . Carlos Moncada of The Tampa Tribune reported that an " open letter to the press from Anonymous " was sent out via e @-@ mail , and states that a protest is planned for March 15 , 2008 . The e @-@ mail refers to the Ides of March : " We , too , wish to celebrate this event , albeit in our own special way ... Beware the Ides of March , Church of Scientology ! " The March protests were titled " Operation Party Hard " .
Protests began in Australia on March 15 , 2008 , and were followed by protests in major cities worldwide including Brussels , London , Seattle , Phoenix , Manchester , and Los Angeles . Approximately 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people protested in about 100 cities worldwide . The protests took place in locations in Australia , Europe , Canada , and the United States .
Approximately 200 masked protesters gathered outside the Church of Scientology 's headquarters in Adelaide , Australia . An anonymous spokesman told News.com.au that Scientology should lose its tax @-@ exempt status . About 150 protesters came to the Yonge Street headquarters of Scientology in Toronto , Canada ; sang " Happy Birthday " and chanted " we want cake " . During the Los Angeles protests , a plane flew overhead trailing a large sign that read " Honk if you think Scientology is a cult . " 150 protesters demonstrated in Clearwater , Florida , and a local organizer for Anonymous told The Tampa Tribune , " We feel that we have an obligation to educate the public about the things that have gone on and hopefully make the Church of Scientology understand that they have to change . "
Two people were arrested by DeKalb County , Georgia police for using megaphones while stepping onto the surrounding street opposite of the church during a protest . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution reported that five protesters were cited for " causing ' hazardous ' or ' offensive ' conditions " , and that eight motorists were pulled over by police and ticketed for excessive use of horns , after they honked while driving past the protest . The American Civil Liberties Union and Amnesty International are investigating the reaction of the police at the Atlanta protest . In contrast , a Los Angeles Police Department officer at the Los Angeles protest was widely praised after a video was uploaded to YouTube showing him acknowledging the demonstrators ' right to protest and encouraging them to stay on the sidewalk for their own safety .
= = = = April 2008 = = = =
Anonymous held its third international protest against Scientology on April 12 , 2008 . Named " Operation Reconnect " , the protest focused on increasing awareness of the Church of Scientology 's disconnection policy . Protesters around the world gathered in over 50 cities , including Toronto , London , Sydney , and Berlin . A subsequent international protest was planned for May 10 , 2008 , according to The University Register it was titled " Operation Battletoad Earth " , and an additional protest was planned for June 2008 . According to John DeSio of The Village Voice , the May 10 , 2008 protests were referred to as " Operation : Fair Game : Stop " , and National Nine News has reported that the full title of the May 10 protests is " Battletoad Earth : Operation Fairgame Stop " . The May 10 date was chosen as May 9 is the anniversary of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard 's book Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health . Over 400 people were present at the May 10 , 2008 protests in cities in Australia . Wen Hsing , a member of Anonymous , commented to scopical.com.au about the Church of Scientology 's denial of its " Fair Game " policy : " Even if the name ' fair game ' is not in use , the Church of Scientology is an organisation that continues to practice a vicious policy of retribution against perceived enemies , and it teaches its members that extreme measures are morally justified if they aid the Church . "
= = = = May 2008 = = = =
On May 10 , a teenager who went to the protests in front of the Queen Victoria Street Church of Scientology in London was issued a court summons after being asked to take down a sign that read " Scientology is not a religion , it is a dangerous cult " . Posting anonymously on a forum , the teenager stated " Within five minutes of arriving ... I was told by a member of the police that I was not allowed to use ' that word ' " . He said that the police told him he had 15 minutes to take down the sign . The teenager did not , citing a 1984 high court ruling by Justice Latey which he described the Church of Scientology as a " cult " that was " corrupt , sinister and dangerous " . The sign was then confiscated . Shami Chakrabarti , the director of Liberty , a human rights group , said that , " They will be banning words like ' war ' and ' tax ' from placards and demonstrations next . This is just barmy " . On May 23 , 2008 , the legal action against the boy was dropped . A Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) spokesman said : " In consultation with the City of London Police , we were asked whether the sign was abusive or insulting . Our advice is that it is not abusive or insulting and there is no offensiveness ( as opposed to criticism ) , neither in the idea expressed nor in the mode of expression . " Anonymous also held a protest in Budapest , Hungary , in the same time and location as a program of the local Scientology church .
= = = = June – October 2008 = = = =
A protest was held June 14 , 2008 titled " Sea Arrrgh " ( a satirical reference to the Church of Scientology 's Sea Org ) . Protesters dressed up as pirates . According to Macquarie National News , members of Anonymous highlighted the controversial practices of the Sea Org , including what the protesters believe to be forced contracts where Scientologists work below a livable wage , that female Sea Org members who become pregnant are pressured to have abortions , and that children of families in the organization are made to perform difficult physical labor . An international protest held on July 12 , 2008 titled : " Spy vs. Sci " highlighted the Church of Scientology 's Office of Special Affairs . A press release by the group posed the question : " Why does something that describes itself as a religion need an intelligence agency that aggressively persecutes critics ? " The group posted a video in early August 2008 calling for renewed activity in their protest efforts , and planned a subsequent international protest for August 16 , 2008 . About 35 protesters gathered twice in September 2008 during the first preview and premiere of Arthur Miller 's play All My Sons . They encouraged Scientologist Katie Holmes , wife of Tom Cruise , to leave the Church . The most recent international organized protest was held October 18 , 2008 . Members of Anonymous dressed as zombies , and highlighted what they described as questionable deaths and suicides of Scientologists .
= = = = December 2008 = = = =
The film Valkyrie , starring and produced by Tom Cruise , premiered in New York City on December 17 . Entertainment reporter Roger Friedman noted that it was held " in the private screening room at the Time Warner Center . Not the Ziegfield [ sic ] or Loews Lincoln Square , where most premieres are held in public . " The venue was chosen in part to minimize the exposure to Scientology protestors gathered at the Time Warner Center . For the same reason , Cruise arrived at the December 18 Los Angeles screening through an underground tunnel . There were also Scientology protests at the European premiere in Berlin , where one protester got his V for Vendetta mask autographed by Tom Cruise . Chanology participants shared the limelight with a person in a bunny suit protesting against the hero worship of Claus von Stauffenberg .
= = = 2009 = = =
= = = = January – February 2009 = = = =
On January 8 , 2009 , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old male member of Anonymous ran into the New York Scientology building shirtless and covered with Vaseline , pubic hair , and toenail clippings . He then proceeded to toss books around and smear the mixture on objects in the building . The man , identified by police as Mahoud Samed Almahadin , was charged with burglary , criminal mischief , and aggravated harassment as hate crimes . Two weeks later , 21 @-@ year @-@ old film student and Anonymous member Jacob Speregen was charged with aggravated harassment and criminal mischief as hate crimes after he filmed Almahadin carrying out his prank . According to his mother and the video , Speregen was filming the event from behind the barricade . Scientology critics Mark Bunker and Jason Beghe disagreed with the individual 's actions .
Anonymous organized a 12th global protest against Scientology for January 10 , 2009 , to coincide with the Chanology movement 's first anniversary . On February 10 , 2009 , Anonymous released a statement : " Scientology operatives still continue to paint Anonymous in a negative light as a means of distracting attention from Scientology operations and attempting to discredit those who bring truth to the issues at hand . It just isn ’ t working . " The group claimed credit for leaks of internal Scientology documents that appeared on the website Wikileaks , and announced further global protests for subsequent weekends in February 2009 . Members of Anonymous continued to celebrate the one @-@ year anniversary of the Chanology movement during February 2009 , with protests held in locations including Hemet , California .
= = = = March – May 2009 = = = =
On March 3 , 2009 , the Board of Supervisors in Riverside County , California , voted to approve an ordinance which restricts residential picketing there to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) or further from an individual 's residence . The ordinance was originally introduced by Supervisor Jeff Stone , board chairman , in November 2008 , and went through multiple changes . Critics of the ordinance stated that Stone proposed the measure due to favor for Scientology , which has its Hemet compound located in Riverside County . " The whole ordinance is tainted . The reasons behind it are tainted , " said county resident Lirra Bishop . Stone stated the measure was intended for all residents of the county , though he cited protests at Scientology 's Gold Base facility which houses residences and Scientology 's Golden Era Productions as an example of why the ordinance is needed . Protesters at Gold Base have included members of Anonymous , and Scientology officials claimed they were " threatened with violence " . Protesters told the Board of Supervisors that due to the lack of sidewalk near Gold Base , the anti @-@ picketing ordinance would severely hamper the ability to protest outside the Scientology compound .
After stating on October 17 , 2008 , that he would plead guilty to involvement in the January 2008 DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old self @-@ described member of Anonymous entered a guilty plea related to hacking charges in May 2009 . A release from the US Justice Department said that the individual , a resident of New Jersey , " participated in the attack because he considered himself a member of an underground group called ' Anonymous ' " . Thom Mrozek , a spokesman for the Justice Department , said that the Church of Scientology had cooperated in the investigation . The individual faces a sentencing scheduled for August 2009 .
In May 2009 , members of Anonymous told WSMV @-@ TV that they were bullied by off @-@ duty security guards while protesting at a Scientology event in April in Nashville , Tennessee . According to WSMV @-@ TV , a protester stated he was assaulted by three Scientology security guards while on public property , 400 yd ( 370 m ) away from the Scientology building . The Church of Scientology had previously informed the security guards that the protesters were " dangerous people " . A protester was issued three citations by the Scientology security guards , but these were all dismissed by the district attorney . On May 8 , 2009 , WSMV @-@ TV reported that " laws appear to have been broken " in the manner in which the Scientology security guards handled the protesters . The Scientology security guards were not clearly identified as off @-@ duty police officers , and permits for the Scientology event attended by the Anonymous protesters were for the wrong day . " The armed people from the other county are not identified police officers . You 're looking for a problem " , said John M. L. Brown , a Fraternal Order of Police attorney .
= = = = November 2009 = = = =
In November 2009 , the New York Post interviewed former Scientologist Mandy Mullen , who had joined the Manhattan organization in 2008 after seeing information on 4chan about Chanology protests . Over the next year , she recalled cases of members being coerced into donating more and more money . When she told her " leader " that she had looked at websites run by anti @-@ Scientology protesters ( and disagreed with them ) , he reportedly replied " That 's like saying I don 't burn niggers , I just like to party with the KKK ! " In Fall 2008 Mullen left the church , joining a group of Chanology protesters across the street . Church of Scientology Manhattan President John Carmichael issued a response the following week , stating " Mandy Mullen 's story about Scientology ... is all lies in the service of Anonymous , a hate group that targets our Church , or even anyone who just falls onto their radar . " On November 13 , 2009 , Independent Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used parliamentary privilege to accuse the Church of Scientology of being a criminal organisation .
= = = Campaign against Scientology 's tax @-@ exempt status = = =
A woman who stated she was a member of Anonymous told KNTV that the group has shifted strategy to activities which fight Scientology but are not deemed illegal by the United States government , including an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology 's 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax @-@ exempt status . Another woman from Anonymous told Newsweek that the group plans to accomplish this through a lobbying campaign . United States tax authorities removed the Church of Scientology 's tax @-@ exemption status in 1967 , stating that the organization 's auditing techniques served as a for @-@ profit operation for L. Ron Hubbard . In 1984 , the United States Tax Court ruled that the Church of Scientology was guilty of " manufacturing and falsifying records to present to the IRS , burglarizing IRS offices and stealing government documents , and subverting government processes for unlawful purposes . " The Church of Scientology 's tax @-@ exempt status in the United States was reinstated in 1993 .
A member of Anonymous calling herself " Envie " told Today Tonight that the group has longer term plans against the Church of Scientology : " We are incredibly determined ... There are those of us who have been talking about plans for the next 12 to 18 months . " A member of Anonymous calling herself " Sarah " spoke with Radar magazine about a letter @-@ writing campaign : " We 're sending letters to senators and congresspeople requesting that their tax @-@ exempt status be looked at . "
= = Church of Scientology response = =
In a January 25 , 2008 statement made to News.com.au , a spokesman for the Church of Scientology said , " These types of people have got some wrong information about us . " A Toronto , Canada spokesperson for the Church of Scientology said she didn 't " give a damn " if the group Anonymous was responsible for disrupting access to the Scientology site . Church spokeswoman Yvette Shank told Sun Media that she thought the Anonymous members were a " pathetic " group of " computer geeks " . On January 26 , 2008 , CNET News reported that Karin Pouw , public affairs director for the Church of Scientology , did not address their specific request for a comment about the denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks but instead only responded to the appearance of the Tom Cruise video on YouTube . Pouw stated that the video consisted of " pirated and edited " excerpts of Cruise from a 2004 Scientology event , and that after the video appeared , there was increased traffic to Scientology sites as shown by top lists compiled by search engines . Pouw went on to state " Those wishing to find out the Church of Scientology 's views and to gain context of the video have the right to search official Church Web sites if they so desire . "
On January 28 , 2008 , Radar Online reported that the Church of Scientology asked the U.S. Attorney General 's office in Los Angeles , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and the Los Angeles Police Department to start a criminal investigation of possible criminal activity related to the DDoS attacks . An unnamed source told Radar that the Church of Scientology argued to law enforcement that the Internet attacks are a form of " illegal interference with business . " Radar also reported that in statements to law enforcement the Church of Scientology emphasized its status as a religious organization in the United States in order to assert that the DDoS attacks can be classed as hate crimes . The day after the Church of Scientology complained to law enforcement about the DDoS attacks , one of the main Project Chanology sites was down , and a message on the site said that their site crashed due to attacks from Scientologists . In a statement issued to Wikinews , a Church of Scientology employee confirmed that actions of Anonymous had been reported to law enforcement : " Activities of Anonymous have been reported to the Authorities and actions are being taken . Their activities are illegal and we do not approve of them . At the same time , our main work is to improve the environment , make people more able and spiritually aware . ... yes , we are taking action . "
The Church of Scientology issued a statement explaining the website move to Prolexic Technologies : " The attacks have defaced and rendered inoperable a number of CoS web sites . But as a very wealthy institution , the Church has fought back with technological answers . On January 21 , the Church of Scientology moved its domain to Prolexic Technologies , a group that specializes in protecting Web sites from [ denial of service ] attacks by creating a safe tunnel by filtering all incoming mail and then allowing only clean messages through . "
Lee Sheldon of the Church of Scientology of Orlando and Lee Holzinger of the Church of Scientology of Santa Barbara issued similar statements regarding the February 2 , 2008 protests in Florida and California , respectively . Sheldon stated " we recognize the right to legal protest " , and Holzinger said " People have the right to express themselves ... The Church of Scientology has always defended the right of freedom of expression . " Both representatives also expressed concerns regarding the spread of " hate speech " .
The Church of Scientology released a statement regarding the February 10 , 2008 worldwide protests , which was published February 7 , 2008 in the St. Petersburg Times . In the statement , the Church of Scientology called the organizers of the protests " cyberterrorists " , and stated : " We take this seriously because of the nature of the threats this group has made publicly . We will take every step necessary to protect our parishioners and staff as well as members of the community , in coordination with the local authorities . " The statement also referred to the actions of members of Project Chanology as " hate crimes " and " religious bigotry " , and in a media release said that the group is guided by Communist Manifesto and Mein Kampf ; one of the organizers of the protest responded to the latter allegation by stating : " I don 't know where they got that from , but I don 't think that 's true considering that I am a capitalist and a Jew " . Pat Harney , spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology in Clearwater , Florida told the St. Petersburg Times : " We are dealing with a worldwide threat ... This is not a light matter . " In preparation for the February 10 , 2008 protests outside Scientology 's spiritual headquarters in Clearwater , the Church of Scientology spent $ 4 @,@ 500 to hire ten off @-@ duty police officers for security . Clearwater Police Department spokeswoman Elizabeth Daly @-@ Watts stated that the off @-@ duty police officers will make sure that protesters do not trespass on Scientology property or violate the law , but will report to police supervisors and not representatives of the Church of Scientology .
The Church of Scientology posted a YouTube video claiming that Anonymous are " terrorists " and alleging that Anonymous is perpetrating " hate crimes " against the church . The video does not provide any evidence supporting their claims , and the FBI has not named any suspects for several of the threats mentioned . Anonymous has denied involvement in the more severe accusations . The church also released a DVD containing the YouTube video . The DVD called Anonymous a " dangerous " group and accused them of making threats against Scientology . Men claiming to be from the law firm Latham and Watkins delivered the DVD to family members of at least one person who protested .
YouTube user " AnonymousFacts " , which Radar Online described as an associate of Scientology , displayed the names and personal information of several supposed Anonymous members and accused the group of violent threats and terrorism . YouTube quickly took the video down and suspended the " AnonymousFacts " account .
The Church of Scientology sought an injunction and a restraining order to prevent Anonymous from protesting on March 15 , 2008 , citing threats allegedly made by Anonymous . Both the injunction and the restraining order were denied . On March 31 , 2008 , Radar Online reported that representatives of law firms delivered legal letters to suspected Anons , often at their homes . The Church filed complaints of trespassing and criminal harassment against Boston organizer Gregg Housh , who was charged with disturbing an assembly of worship , disturbing the peace , and harassment . The District Attorney 's office dropped the harassment charge , and Judge Thomas Horgan issued a continuance without finding for the remaining charges .
In a May 8 , 2008 appearance on CNN , Church of Scientology spokesman Thomas W. Davis said that Scientology was " dealing with ninety @-@ six death threats , bomb threats , acts of violence , vandalism " from the group Anonymous . CNN 's John Roberts responded , stating that the Federal Bureau of Investigation found nothing connecting Anonymous to the Church of Scientology 's accusations of violence : " You are leveling these accusations at this group , the F.B.I. , which is looking into it , says it has found nothing to connect this group Anonymous with what you 're talking about , or death threats against members of the church , the F.B.I. at this point says - it has no reason to believe that charges would be leveled against this group . "
= = Reaction = =
Andreas Heldal @-@ Lund , founder of the Scientology @-@ critical website and non @-@ profit organization Operation Clambake , released a statement criticizing the digital assault against Scientology . Heldal @-@ Lund commented , " People should be able to have easy access to both sides and make up their own opinions . Freedom of speech means we need to allow all to speak - including those we strongly disagree with . I am of the opinion that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organisation and a cult which is designed by its delusional founder to abuse people . I am still committed to fight for their right to speak their opinion . " He also stated that " Attacking Scientology like that will just make them play the religious persecution card ... They will use it to defend their own counter actions when they try to shatter criticism and crush critics without mercy . "
Mark Bunker , an Emmy Award @-@ winning journalist and Scientology critic who runs the website XenuTV.com , posted a video to YouTube and asked Anonymous to tone down their campaign against the Church of Scientology . According to NPR 's Morning Edition , Bunker has " become a revered voice to many members of Anonymous " , and they refer to him as " Wise Beard Man " . Bunker told Newsweek that he was pleased to see a large group of young individuals acting against Scientology , but stated he was also concerned for their safety : " I know the way Scientology works : they 're going to get these people in trouble ... I 'm very concerned about their safety , and I 'm concerned about the Scientologists ' safety , too . " Bunker stated that he has received 6 @,@ 000 emails from individuals who say they are part of Anonymous . Bunker attended the February 10 , 2008 protest against Scientology in Los Angeles .
Tory Christman , a critic of Scientology and former Scientologist from 1969 to 2000 , stated she disapproved of illegal tactics but felt encouraged by the new influx of critics of Scientology . Christman told Morning Edition : " It feels like we 've been out in this desert , fighting this group one @-@ on @-@ one by ourselves , and all of a sudden this huge army came up with not only tons of people , thousands of people , but better tools ... " Scientology critic Arnaldo Lerma told the St. Petersburg Times he was impressed by a video of a protest against Scientology which took place in Orlando , Florida : " I 've never seen anything like that before . This is incredible . I wouldn 't have believed it if I didn 't see it on a Web cam . "
In a February 4 , 2008 appearance on the G4 television program Attack of the Show ! , Mark Ebner , journalist and author of the book Hollywood , Interrupted , and Nick Douglas of Gawker.com commented on Project Chanology . Ebner stated that " Hacking their site is not really the best way to go about taking them ( the Church of Scientology ) down . Most critics you talk to want the Scientology site to be up there so that people who are interested can see the stupidity they have on the web and at the same time they can go - they are a few keystrokes from getting a thousand other opinions . " Nick Douglas explained that the group decided to shift their strategy away from the attacks to Scientology websites : " Anonymous even decided that they were going to stop that attack , that it was a bad idea . It 's the usual thing they used to do when they really hadn 't had a thought out plan , and here they 're realizing they actually have to figure out some real plan against a real enemy . "
University of Alberta professor Stephen A. Kent weighed in on the issue , and said " I think these disruptions probably are illegal . At the very least , they ’ re forms of harassment ... We now have three parties involved . Anonymous , Scientology and law enforcement . " Kent stated that " The hacker community has been angry at Scientology for ( their ) attempts to block free speech on the Internet . " Reaction to the denial of service attack on the Church of Scientology websites was mixed in message board forums for PC World . Some readers praised the actions of Anonymous , while others commented that the DDoS attacks bring more attention to Scientology . The Economist likened the DDoS attacks used by Project Chanology to " cyberwarfare techniques normally associated with extortionists , spies and terrorists " , and referred to Anonymous as " internet activists " .
Dan Schultz of PBS 's MediaShift Idea Lab commented that the movement " ... is a really fascinating case study of how current technologies and information dissemination via digital media can snowball into something that actually results in real world action " . In a follow @-@ up piece , Schultz discussed the tools used by digital media to achieve community impact , including lower barriers to entry and greater efficiencies through the use of information systems . Schultz wrote " For members of Anonymous I 'm betting most of these things are already unspoken understandings " , and pointed to their use of memes and cited the forums of the website enturbulation.org as an example of the group 's ability to collaborate effectively to accomplish goals .
In a May 8 , 2008 report on the recent actions of Anonymous against Scientology , CNN reporter Kareen Wynter commented : " Legal experts say the church may be facing its biggest challenge yet – trying to protect its image , in a loosely policed medium seen by millions of people . In a July 2008 interview with Entertainment Weekly , Alan Moore had this to say about the use of the Guy Fawkes motif , adopted from his comic V for Vendetta : " I was also quite heartened the other day when watching the news to see that there were demonstrations outside the Scientology headquarters over here , and that they suddenly flashed to a clip showing all these demonstrators wearing V for Vendetta [ Guy Fawkes ] masks . That pleased me . That gave me a warm little glow . "
= = = Audio / video = = =
NBC11 Staff ( January 24 , 2008 ) . " Group Wants To Destroy Scientology , Video : ' We Do Not Forgive ' - An anonymous group of hackers , fittingly known as " Anonymous " , has declared war on the Church of Scientology " . KNTV ( NBC Universal , Inc . ) . ( Video broadcast . )
" Know Your Meme : Project Chanology " , Know Your Meme Season 2008 , Episode 13 , " Rocketboom " , YouTube , December 31 , 2008 . ( Video podcast )
Seymour , Brian ( February 7 , 2008 ) . " The Anonymous war on Scientology : The Church of Scientology is already banned in several countries but now it is facing one of its biggest threats from a group called Anonymous . " . Today Tonight ( Yahoo ! News ) . ( Video broadcast )
Wynter , Kareen ( May 8 , 2008 ) . " Attacking Scientology : The Church of Scientology faces a new breed of Internet attacks . Kareen Wynter reports . " . CNN . ( Video broadcast )
Seabrook , Andrea ( January 27 , 2008 ) . " Hackers Target Scientology Web Sites " . All Things Considered ( NPR ) . ( Radio broadcast )
Masters , Kim ; Renée Montagne ( February 7 , 2008 ) . " ' Anonymous Wages Attack on Scientologists : The fight started when the Scientologists tried to get a video of Tom Cruise off the Internet . " . Morning Edition : Digital Culture ( National Public Radio ) . ( Radio broadcast )
Braiker , Brian ( February 11 , 2008 ) . " ' Anonymous ' Takes on Scientology : Online activists take their protest against the Church of Scientology to the streets . " . The Bryant Park Project ( National Public Radio ) . ( Radio broadcast )
Miller , Nancy ; Baker , Chris ( September 30 , 2009 ) . " Storyboard Podcast : The Assclown Offensive " . Wired News . ( Audio podcast )
= Transportation in Omaha =
Transportation in Omaha , Nebraska , includes most major modes , such as pedestrian , bicycle , automobile , bus , train and airplane . While early transportation consisted of ferries , stagecoaches , steamboats , street railroads , and railroads , the city 's transportation systems have evolved to include the Interstate Highway System , parklike boulevards and a variety of bicycle and pedestrian trails . The historic head of several important emigrant trails and the First Transcontinental Railroad , its center as a national transportation hub earned Omaha the nickname " Gate City of the West " as early as the 1860s .
During a tumultuous pioneer period characterized by its centrality in proximity to the Western United States , transportation in Omaha demanded the construction of massive warehouses where frontier settlers could stock up and communities west of Omaha got food and supplies to build themselves with . Riverboats and stagecoaches jammed the riverside city with a variety of newcomers , prospectors and shady characters . Early Omaha also landed the Union Pacific Railroad headquarters , leading to its important place in national railroad lore .
After quickly growing into a city , Omaha failed to pave its streets accordingly . A chaotic transportation system was highlighted by several miles of successful horsecar tracks ; however , the city only ever had four miles ( 6 km ) of cable car service . Several early suburbs were built on reliance of service from these lines , including Dundee , Benson and Kountze Place . In the early 1880s an extensive boulevard system was built to create a park @-@ like atmosphere for drivers throughout the city . The Trans @-@ Mississippi Exposition in 1889 led to the construction of many new transportation features , particularly the magnificent Burlington Station .
In the 1930s the city 's transportation system was marred by violent protests . Transit workers wanted to unionize , and with the main company 's management against any effort to change Omaha 's reputation as a non @-@ unionized city . After the introduction of buses in the early 1950s , streetcars were closed down , and in the last years of the decade the city began construction on its components in the Interstate Highway System .
Today Omaha 's transportation system is growing with the city , and trails for bicycles and pedestrians , as well as public transportation , highways and parkways , and other innovations are being developed . The city has a section of the Lincoln Highway listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and there are more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of Interstate and freeway lanes , more than any other area in the state of Nebraska .
= = Pioneer period = =
Omaha was not projected to become a great city or bigger than its neighbor across the Missouri River , Council Bluffs , Iowa . In 1856 a land speculator reported to his East Coast concerns that ,
" C. Bluffs is steadily growing down towards the river and someday it will be one great city on both sides the river with Rail Road & foot & Carriage Bridges connecting the two – and this is now the hope and talk of the Bluffers . " - J. Barker , 1856 .
In August 1859 Abraham Lincoln visited land he had invested in Council Bluffs , and while there did not consider it worth the time to cross the river to the village of Omaha .
= = = Water traffic = = =
In 1804 , fifty years before the city of Omaha was founded , the Lewis and Clark Expedition first arrived via the Missouri River . The 1806 Fort Lisa and 1820 Cabanne 's Trading Post were important fur trading outposts located in proximity to the river , along with earlier Fontenelle 's Post in Bellevue . The Engineer Cantonment was built by Captain Stephen Watts Kearny 's Yellowstone Expedition in 1819 . The Expedition 's craft , the Western Engineer , was the first steamboat to successfully venture up the Missouri River to the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs area .
The Missouri was the reason Omaha was founded , and continued to be important to the city 's growth for many years . In 1853 William D. Brown had the first vision for the city , leading him to found the Lone Tree Ferry crossing the Missouri River from Council Bluffs , Iowa . Later the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry Company hired Alfred D. Jones to plat Omaha City , which was among the first settlements in the Nebraska Territory . Along with the Lone Tree Ferry Landing in Downtown Omaha , other ferries were established in the Omaha area at Florence , Saratoga and Bellevue . Large steamboats would carry provisions up the Missouri from St. Louis , stocking the warehouses in Jobbers Canyon and loading the trains of the Union Pacific and at the Omaha Quartermaster Depot , which in turn supplied the U.S. Army 's Department of the Platte .
The Banner State was the first steamboat to land materials for building the city in early 1854 , before the city was formally founded . Until 1879 Captain Joseph La Barge was the principal figure among the Missouri steamboat captains in the early years of the city . According to J. Sterling Morton , the golden era for steamboating on the Missouri was from 1855 to 1860 , just before the advent of the railroads . In 1857 , 174 steamboats carrying 13 @,@ 000 tons of freight tied up at Omaha wharves . When Omaha became the outfitting center for Colorado gold seekers headed for Pikes Peak in 1859 , 268 steamboats arrived at Omaha between March and November .
With railroads becoming the dominant form of long @-@ range shipping and passenger travel in the early 1870s , riverboats like those in Omaha became obsolete . However , as late at 1949 the steamship Avalon was letting passengers in Omaha , before becoming one of the famous St. Louis steamboats in the 1960s .
= = = Railroads = = =
In 1863 , ground was broke near Miller 's Landing on the Missouri River for the First Transcontinental Railroad . Along with local financier Edward Creighton , George Francis Train was the promoter who was mostly responsible for the city landing the railroad . He was made rich from its convenient placement near land that he owned ( near Deer Park . The Union Pacific Railroad has been headquartered in Omaha since its inception in 1867 . In 1872 , Union Pacific opened the first [ railroad ] bridge across the Missouri to Omaha .
= = = Trails = = =
In the 1860s and 1870s , the city became a major outfitting center for the major trails that went across Nebraska , including the Oregon , California and Mormon Trails . Jobbers Canyon was built in Downtown Omaha for the purpose of outfitting these migrants . Stagecoach lines had arrived by 1858 , including the Local Stage Coach Company in 1857 , and the Western Stage Company which began its easterly and westerly routes in Omaha . The Pony Express and Wells Fargo lines maintained offices in the city .
= = = Streets = = =
Omaha had terrible streets through the late 1880s , which caused many residents to believe the city was not progressing appropriately . This lack of responsiveness by the city government was caused by property owners throughout the city who did not want to pay for improvements . On rainy days stagecoaches would sink up to their hubcaps , and residents wore knee @-@ high boots to wade through the mud , and at times rivers ran through the streets .
= = = Public transportation = = =
In 1867 Ezra Millard , Andrew J. Hanscom , and Augustus Kountze formed the Omaha Horse Railway Company to provide horsecar service in the city . By the late 1870s the line had five miles ( 8 km ) of track , 10 cars , 70 horses , 20 employees and 495 @,@ 000 passengers annually . The Omaha Cable Tramway Company was the city 's only cable car , and started in 1884 and ended in 1895 after consolidating with the Horse Railway as the Omaha Street Railway Company . In 1896 the new company disbanded as competitors moved in . An electric car was built by Eurastus Benson between Omaha and Benson specifically to promote that suburbs development during this time .
= = 1880s - 1950 = =
= = = Streets = = =
In 1880 only a quarter mile of Omaha 's estimated 118 miles ( 190 km ) of streets were paved . In 1883 Andrew Rosewater , brother of newspaper owner Edward Rosewater , became city engineer and began an ambitious project to modernize city streets . By 1886 the city had 44 miles ( 71 km ) of paved streets , including asphaltum , Colorado sandstone , Sioux Falls granite and wooden blocks .
In 1889 Horace W.S. Cleveland proposed that the city of Omaha develop a series of " broad ornamental avenues , known as boulevards or parkways " designed " with a tasteful arrangement of trees and shrubbery at the sides and in the center " , similar to the comprehensive plans of European cities in the mid @-@ 19th century . His plan was accepted by the city 's Parks Commission , resulting in the construction of Omaha 's Prettiest Mile Boulevard in 1892 , and dozens of other boulevards in the through to the present . Today , Fontenelle and Lincoln boulevards are among the many remnants of the early plan ; Sorenson Parkway is a modern version of the historical plan . Saddle Creek Boulevard , currently known as Saddle Creek Road , which was originally the westernmost boulevard in the system .
= = = Bridges = = =
While the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge was the first railroad bridge across the river , the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 430 m ) Douglas Street Bridge opened in 1888 as the first road bridge . The East Omaha Bridge was originally opened in 1893 , and rebuilt a decade later in 1903 . The Mormon Bridge was first attempted to be built across the river in 1932 , and failed ; it was finally successfully constructed in 1952 . The South Omaha Bridge opened in 1936 . The Knights of Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben operated the Douglas Street Bridge as a toll bridge from 1938 to 1947 . The bridge was removed in 1968 . Traffic was carried by a new girder bridge built in 1966 for I @-@ 480 . The Saddle Creek Underpass , over which is the Dodge Street Overpass , was completed in 1934 by the Works Progress Administration . Over 1 @,@ 175 cubic yards ( 898 m3 ) of dirt were excavated to lower Saddle Creek Road sufficiently to pass under the overpass , which is still in use today . Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992 , it is part of the Bridges in Nebraska Multiple Property Submission as well .
= = = Highways = = =
In 1889 Otto Baysdorfer built Omaha 's first auto , an electric car . The " Ottomobile " was the first of nearly a dozen car manufacturers eventually started in Omaha . The Ottomobile weighed 265 pounds , had two cylinders , and could achieve a speed of 15 miles per hour . An " Auto Row " developed along Farnam Street and featured dealers , garages , and parts stores .
The original Lincoln Highway in Omaha was designated through Omaha in 1913 . Crossing the Missouri River into Omaha on the old Douglas Street Bridge , it traveled west on Dodge Street , then meandered across the state following section lines . Some of these sections were built exclusively to accommodate the highway . Important buildings on the Lincoln Highway in Omaha included the Hupmobile Building , the Nash Building at 902 @-@ 912 Farnam and 901 @-@ 911 Douglas streets , and the Blackstone Hotel at Farnum Street and 36th Street . Additionally , the Rose Blumkin Performance Arts Center at 20th and Farnum Street and the Farnum Street Automobile Row , from 30th to 40th Streets were both important landmarks .
In 1930 49 @,@ 128 autos were registered in Omaha ; ten years later 65 @,@ 489 were registered to drive on local streets .
After trucks became popular in the 1910s , the Omaha Stockyards grew exponentially . Cattle , hogs and sheep were shipped cheaper by truck than by trains . In 1919 27 % of livestock at the Stockyards was shipped by truck ; by 1940 's it rose to over 75 % . In 1955 the Stockyards became the biggest livestock distribution center in the United States , and almost all of the cattle was shipped by truck .
= = = Airport = = =
The aforementioned Baysdorfer provided Omaha with another invention by successfully flying an airship in the city in 1889 . In 1929 a bond was passed that would construct the Omaha Municipal Airport in East Omaha . This was thought to embody the city 's hope for the future ; however , air travel did not become popular in Omaha until the 1960s . The land was swampy and had to be filled in with silt taken from the bottom of Carter Lake . Northwest Airlines started service between Minneapolis and Omaha in 1930 .
In the late 1940s Eppley Airfield was completed . In 1959 the airport was named for Eugene C. Eppley , the Omaha Eppley Hotel magnate . Eppley 's estate donated $ 1 million to be used to convert the Omaha Municipal Airport into a jet port .
= = = Public transportation = = =
The Omaha and Council Bluffs Railway and Bridge Company was founded in 1886 in order to span the Missouri River . In the late 1880s the city had five franchise companies providing transit services within city limits . They included the Omaha and Southwestern Street Railway Company , which provided services to Kountze Place , Dundee , Bemis Park and the Gold Coast neighborhoods . Short lines ran with limited purposes : one went only to a baseball field at the end of its line , while another ran to and from a park .
By 1901 local businessman Gurdon W. Wattles consolidated several of the older horsecar and cable car companies to create the Omaha and Council Bluffs Streetcar Company , which later became the Omaha Traction Company . After receiving a 30 @-@ year franchise from the city of Omaha , the company established a mass transit system that covered the entire city , including commuter trains and interurbans .
= = = = Traction Company strike = = = =
Wattles was vehemently opposed to unionization , and in 1909 fought strikes in favor of unionization with hired policemen and rampant violence . By 1934 the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees was organized in Omaha .
However , by April 1935 the fragile truce between pro @-@ open shop management and pro @-@ union forces broke . A long , violent strike ensued . Strikebreakers were hired , and within four days the company rolled out heavily fortified streetcars , complete with windows covered by heavy wire and armed guards on board . While few cars attracted passengers , the cars encountered little resistance . The company resisted calls for arbitration from the Omaha City Council , and continued employing strikebreakers . In early May violence broke out , with rifle attacks , violent beatings and bombings across the city . In June riots broke out throughout the city with mobs burning streetcars , looting and two deaths . The city government lost control of the violence and called in the National Guard , which sent 1 @,@ 800 troops while Governor Robert Cochran declared martial law and ordered the streetcars to stop running . After the governor intervened and Wattles allowed arbitration , a number of agreements were made . However , no changes occurred , and strikebreakers stayed on the job . The violence ended , court cases ensued , and the situation slowly faded away . The Omaha Traction Company never unionized .
= = = Omaha Belt Line = = =
The Omaha Belt Line was formed in 1883 by the Union Pacific ; some shady dealings by Jay Gould brought the Belt Line into the control of the Missouri Pacific Railroad by 1885 , when it was constructed with Union Pacific materials under the control of the MoPac . Stations along with Line included the Florence Depot , Webster Street Station and the Ralston Station . Operated by that company until the early 1960s , today the Line is largely abandoned , with a section redeveloped into the recreational MoPac Trail .
= = 1950 @-@ present = =
= = = Streets = = =
Starting in 1950 the city has continuously developed and redeveloped its major streets , particularly relying on them for east @-@ west traffic . Major east @-@ west thoroughfares in Omaha include Fort , Ames , Maple , Blondo , Dodge , Pacific , Center , L , Q and Harrison streets . Major north @-@ south thoroughfares in Omaha include North and South 24th streets , 30th street , Saddle Creek Road , and 72nd , 84th , 90th , and 120th streets . South 10th Street is important in South Omaha .
= = = Highways = = =
The first long segment of Interstate 80 in Nebraska to be opened was a fifty @-@ mile section between Dodge Street in Omaha and the West Lincoln interchange in 1961 .
Construction of the freeway in North Omaha in the 1970s faced many hurdles . Built immediately after the construction of I @-@ 480 , this 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) section was originally supposed to be designated as Interstate 580 . However , the city refused to invest the additional money the federal government required in order to gain the designation . Coupled with social unrest in the 1970s , the highway is blamed for causing a 30 percent housing loss and major increase in crime . The freeway became the route of U.S. Highway 75 and is known locally as the North Freeway .
Today , Omaha is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . The city has eleven highway exits along Interstate 80 . From that Interstate drivers can connect to Nebraska Highway 50 , US 275 / NE 92 , I @-@ 680 and I @-@ 480 / US 75 . Continuing north , I @-@ 680 connects with I @-@ 29 near Crescent , Iowa and reconnects with I @-@ 80 near Neola , Iowa ; I @-@ 480 cuts through Downtown Omaha to connect with I @-@ 29 in Council Bluffs , Iowa . The North Freeway also veers from I @-@ 480 , and in 2005 , the Nebraska Department of Roads began a project to bring the I @-@ 480 / US 75 interchange up to Interstate standards . Construction is expected to be complete in 2009 , and it is unknown if the North Freeway will receive an Interstate designation upon completion of the project .
There are a number of important arterial roads throughout Omaha . U.S. Route 75 comes south through Omaha from Fort Calhoun along North 30 Street , North Freeway , I @-@ 480 and Kennedy Freeway , exiting through Bellevue . U.S. Route 6 crosses into the city from Council Bluffs on I @-@ 480 , also called the Gerald R. Ford Freeway in honor of the Omaha native son . It then follows Dodge Street , until it intersects South 204th Street , when it runs south towards Gretna . Nebraska Highway 64 assumes the route of the former Military Road northwest out of Omaha , following Maple Road and West Maple Road to converge with US 275 at Waterloo . US 275 becomes Nebraska Highway 92 after crossing the South Omaha Veterans Memorial Bridge , following Missouri Avenue , which then becomes " L " Street . At South 132nd Street , at which point it veers northeast to follow the old Mormon Trail along Industrial Road when it joins West Center Road , crossing the Platte River and continuing westward .
In 2005 a portion of the Lincoln Highway in Omaha was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = = = Traffic monitoring = = = =
Beginning in fall 2007 there will be more than 30 traffic cameras operating on Omaha area freeways , including one at I @-@ 80 near Gretna and another on West Dodge near 120th Street . Operated by the Nebraska Department of Roads , the sensors and cameras are not used to catch speeders or for other traffic enforcement . The state also operates an extensive traffic operations center that utilizes the cameras to monitor Omaha traffic patterns . Similar to traffic monitoring centers in Lincoln and North Platte , the one in Omaha is the biggest and has the greatest capability to provide traffic information .
= = = Public transportation = = =
The Omaha Traction Company , which operated as the Street Railway Company , changed its name to the Omaha Transit Company when streetcar service ended in the city in 1952 . After World War II Omahans preferred their automobiles and new highways . When the Urban Mass Transit Act of 1964 was passed , Omaha 's private transit companies were not able to apply for federal subsidies available to public transit operators . The Omaha Transit Company ceased operations on June 30 , 1972 , when the City of Omaha assumed authority for public transportation in the city . City Transit Lines , another private company in Omaha , went out of business on that day as well . The Metro Area Transit Authority was created by the Nebraska Legislature , consisting of a five @-@ member board appointed by the mayor and confirmed by Omaha 's City Council and the Douglas County Commissioners . It acquired the assets of the Omaha Transit Company and selected assets of the City Transit Lines of Council Bluffs , along with more than $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in federal funding . The Authority operates today as Metro Area Transit , or MAT .
Today the Authority supervises the level of service , miles and hours of operation within Omaha , and maintains individual service contracts with local authorities outside Omaha . Currently , MAT has three contracts , including the cities of Council Bluffs , Bellevue and the Tri @-@ Communities of Ralston , LaVista and Papillion .
MAT recently completed three new transit centers , which function much like airport hubs . Located at Benson Park , Westroads Mall , and Metro Community College in South Omaha , they are designed to bolster the city 's public busing needs . These join existing centers in Midtown and North Omaha .
= = = = Light rail = = = =
In recent years the city of Omaha has grown exponentially , and with a renewed focus on public transit , there have been plans for new streetcars and light rail in the city , including a movement initiated by former mayor Hal Daub , which in a 2003 City Council action , failed to reach approval by only one vote . The currently proposed streetcars would cost $ 55 million and run in a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) loop through Downtown Omaha and NoDo . It would cost about $ 2 million per year to operate and would serve almost 7 @,@ 000 passengers in its first year . One route would run the cars from Creighton University near 20th and Webster streets , proceeding east to 10th Street , passing by the Qwest Center and moving south to Jackson Street in the Old Market . After that it would then move west to 16th Street and then north to Farnam before returning to 10th Street .
= = = Air = = =
Today Eppley Airfield sits on 2 @,@ 650 acres ( 10 @.@ 7 km2 ) and handles approximately 400 flights a week . There are two concourses that hold 20 gates . The airport handled more than 4 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , and as of September 2008 , Southwest Airlines is the largest carrier handling approximately 24 percent of passengers . United is the second @-@ largest carrier , handling approximately 19 percent of passengers . Currently all regularly scheduled flights from Eppley Airfield terminate within the United States .
Airlines serving Omaha include American , Delta , Frontier , Southwest , United and US Airways .
= = = Trails = = =
Omaha was completely devoid of trails leading up to early 1989 . That year the city began developing trails , and since then the city of Omaha has developed approximately 67 miles ( 108 km ) of paved recreational trails , and another 35 miles ( 56 km ) of trails are scheduled for completion within the next eight years .
Paved and unpaved trails and paths are used for recreational and commuter purposes throughout the city . Popular among bicyclists , runners , hikers and recreational walkers , these trails are included in comprehensive plans for the city of Omaha , the Omaha metro area , Douglas County , and long @-@ distance coordinated plans between the municipalities of southeast Nebraska .
The Missouri River Pedestrian Bridge will connect Miller 's Landing to Council Bluffs in 2009 . A riverfront trail will run the length of the river from the South Omaha Bridge to N.P. Dodge Park .
= = = Water traffic = = =
An anomaly in the city 's transportation is the River City Star , a passenger excursion paddleboat that sails between Omaha and Council Bluffs . The boat is docked at Miller 's Landing near the Qwest Center , near mile marker 617 on the Missouri River .
Marinas for public usage are operated by the Omaha Parks and Recreation Department . Dodge Park , located in North Omaha , has 326 slips , while the new Riverfront Marina in Downtown Omaha has 31 . Levi Carter Park , which has a long history as a water haven , offers non @-@ restricted boating for jet skis , recreational boating and water skiing . No wake boating allowed available at Lake Cunningham , Standing Bear Lake or Zorinsky Lake ; however , these lakes offer opportunities for sailing , fishing and pleasure boating . Cunningham Lake offers a small marina where rental boats are available .
The Port of Omaha was located downtown where Miller 's Landing is now . In addition to handling outbound barge shipments of grain , it also handled inbound shipments of steel and asphalt .
The Omaha District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers operates from the city .
= = Image gallery = =
= Clocks ( song ) =
" Clocks " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written and composed , as a collaboration between all the members of the band , for their second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head . Built around a piano riff , the song features cryptic lyrics of contrast and urgency themes . Several remixes of the track exist and its riff has been widely sampled .
" Clocks " debuted to critical and commercial success , with critics mainly commenting on the song 's piano melody . It was released in the United Kingdom as the third single from A Rush of Blood to the Head , where it reached number nine in the UK Singles Chart . It was released in the United States as the album 's second single , it reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart . It won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year .
= = Background and writing = =
" Clocks " was written and composed during the late stages of production of Coldplay 's second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head . A riff popped into Chris Martin 's mind late one night in Liverpool when he came in to the studio , where he then developed it on piano . According to Martin , " Clocks " was inspired by the English rock band Muse . Martin presented the riff to the band 's guitarist , Jonny Buckland , who then added a layer of guitar chords to the basic track : " He picked up his guitar [ a sure sign that he likes a song ] and played these brilliant chords ... It was like a chemical reaction process . " ( The syncopated piano arpeggio that gives the song its signature sound also bears a similarity to a syncopated arpeggio that is repeated several times in Alex De Grassi 's 1981 instrumental " Clockwork . " )
Before writing and composing " Clocks , " the band had already written 10 songs for the album . But as they thought it was too late for the song 's inclusion in the album , since A Rush Of Blood To The Head was nearing completion , they recorded a demo and saved it with other unfinished tracks , labeling it " Songs for # 3 ; " the band projected these tracks for what would be their third album .
By June 2002 , Coldplay were ready to present the album to their record label Parlophone . However , Martin felt it was " rubbish ; " they were so far from being completely satisfied with the album that both the band and Parlophone delayed the release . After a headlining tour , Coldplay went on working " Songs for # 3 . " Phil Harvey , a friend of Martin and the band 's manager , heard it and egged him on to rework " Clocks " immediately . With lyrics that speak of urgency , Harvey pointed out that its meaning would contradict Martin 's idea of stashing the track . Thus persuaded by Harvey , Martin then further developed " Clocks , " while other band members supplemented their ideas based on the main piano track , adding bass and drums . Coldplay recorded the song very quickly , since they were running after the postponed schedule of A Rush of Blood to the Head , which was released two months later .
= = Composition = =
" Clocks " has a repeating piano melody , and features a minimalist soundscape of drums and bass guitar . Martin applied an ostinato , with emphasis that imitates a three against two polyrhythm , as well as a descending scale on the piano chord progression , which switches from major to minor chords . The music of " Clocks " is also provided using synthesizers and a sparse string arrangement .
The themes of the lyrics include contrast , contradictions and urgency . According to Jon Wiederhon of MTV News , " Martin seems to address the helplessness of being in a dysfunctional relationship he doesn 't necessarily want to escape . " The lyrics are cryptic ; the ending lines of the second verse emphasize contradicting emotion : " Come out upon my seas / Cursed missed opportunities / Am I a part of the cure / Or am I part of the disease ? " The song 's title also " metaphorically alludes " to its lyrics , " pushing one to wonder about the world 's obsession with time while connecting it to the theory : make the best of it when we ’ re here , present and alive . "
The song is in the key of E flat Mixolydian , with a main chord progression of E ♭ - B ♭ m - Fm .
= = Personnel = =
Chris Martin – lead vocals , piano , synthesizer
Jonny Buckland – electric guitar
Guy Berryman – bass guitar
Will Champion – drums , backing vocals
= = Release and music video = =
Coldplay released " Clocks " in Europe on 24 March 2003 as the album 's third single . The single was issued with two B @-@ sides : " Animals , " which was one of the band 's favourite songs performed on tour but was not included in the album , and " Crests of Waves . " The single 's cover , created by Sølve Sundsbø as with the album 's and its other singles , is a portrayal of Chris Martin . Across the United States , while preparing " The Scientist " as the album 's second release , Coldplay 's US label felt the song failed to " provide enough of a blood rush for American listeners ; " instead , they released " Clocks " as the second single in the US .
A music video was filmed in support of the song . It was directed by British film maker Dominic Leung , and shot at Docklands ' ExCeL Building in London . It features the band performing the song , with a laser show , in front of a staged audience , mostly local college students . Stage effects and blue @-@ red light transitions give the video a surreal feel , while a stoic crowd make up the audience .
= = Reception = =
The song received acclaim from music critics . Rob Sheffield , in his review of the album for Rolling Stone magazine , said : that " [ guitarist ] Buckland shines in excellent psychedelic rockers such as ... ' Clocks . ' " David Cheal of The Daily Telegraph said that " Clocks " features a " hypnotic piano riff , a pounding , almost frantic rhythm , and a contagious tune , all building to a gorgeously serene climax with Martin 's floaty voice singing . " Scott Floman , music critic for Goldmine magazine , described the song as " a stunningly pretty piano rocker , absolutely perfect and is simply one of the finest songs of the decade . "
" Clocks " won the Record of the Year at the 2004 Grammy Awards . It was nominated for Best Single at the 2003 Q Awards . " Clocks " was ranked at number 68 on Pitchfork 's Top 100 Singles of 2000 @-@ 04 . It was ranked at number 155 on Pitchfork Media 's 500 Greatest Songs of the 2000s list . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 148 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . In February 2013 the song was voted by listeners of BBC Radio 6 Music as the greatest song released during the 10 years the station had been broadcasting .
The single was successful in radio throughout 2003 and appeared on several singles charts worldwide . In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number nine and in the United States rose to number 29 . It also reached number seven in Canada and number 28 in Australia .
= = = The piano riff and its parallels = = =
" Clocks " has been regarded as one of the finest achievements of Coldplay ; the song 's piano progression remains the band 's signature creation . According to The New York Times , the opening piano arpeggios of " Clocks " have been widely sampled . Also , many of the songs in X & Y feature influences from " Clocks . " Brian Cohen of Billboard magazine noted that " Clocks " served as a " launching pad " for songs featured in X & Y , " several of which echo that track either in structure or feel . " " Speed of Sound , " the first single from Coldplay 's third album , X & Y , is similar to " Clocks , " in that the two songs have the same descending chord progression . According to The New York Times , American singer Jordin Sparks 's 2008 single " No Air " " breathes life into the overfamiliar piano line " from " Clocks . " The song " Should I Go " by American singer Brandy Norwood , from her album Afrodisiac , samples the piano riff of " Clocks , " as does Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández 's 2007 single " Te Voy A Perder . " In 2009 , French DJ David Guetta , featuring Kelly Rowland , released the song " When Love Takes Over , " which has a piano introduction like " Clocks . " A riff similar to " Clocks " was also used for the 2009 song " Shining Down " by Chicagoan hip hop artist Lupe Fiasco and featuring Matthew Santos . An analogous riff can also be heard in the DJ Cahill Remix of the Agnes song I Need You Now . Rolling Stone ranked it # 490 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010 .
= = Usage in media = =
Throughout 2003 , " Clocks " was featured in various commercials , movies and television programs : from the BBC using a sample to advertise Freeview TV , WWE promos featuring the return of American professional wrestler Kurt Angle , HBO , the 2002 Irish drama film In America , and an episode of the American medical drama television series ER . The song was played in its entirety during the ending credits for the 2003 film Confidence and was also featured on the TV shows The Sopranos , Third Watch , Hindsight , and Family Guy . In late 2003 , the song was used in a trailer for the movie Peter Pan . This song was also used in the 2006 Disney film , The Wild and the 2014 Blue Skies film , Rio 2 .
= = Reworked version and remixes = =
A number of versions and remixes of " Clocks " exist .
Norwegian duo Röyksopp made a remixed version of the song , pressed on 1000 , limited @-@ edition 12 " vinyl records , 100 of which were made available through the band 's official website . The version placed fifth in the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2003 ( the original version of the song placed 69th the previous year ) .
In 2004 , R & B singer Brandy , together with producer Timbaland , sampled " Clocks " for her song " Should I Go " on her fourth studio album Afrodisiac .
A remixed cover of the song is included on the soundtrack of the 2007 video game Dance Dance Revolution : Hottest Party for the Wii console .
The song , albeit with altered lyrics , appears in the Two and a Half Men episode " Twanging Your Magic Clanger . "
Live versions appeared on Coldplay 's live albums Live 2003 , LeftRightLeftRightLeft ( 2009 ) , and Live 2012 .
A version of the song in the style of Buena Vista Social Club appears on the 2006 Rhythms del Mundo album .
A further version based on the 2006 Rhythms Del Mundo version was released as part of the 2010 album Revival . It features " Lele " of Los Van Van .
= = Track listings = =
Official remixes
" Clocks " ( Royksopp Trembling Heart Mix )
" Clocks " ( Fedde le Grand Remix )
" Clocks " ( Deep Dish Mix )
" Clocks " ( Gabriel & Dresden ' I Gotta Thank You ' Mix )
" Clocks " ( Tom Middleton 's Cosmos Mix )
" Clocks " ( Judge Jules Remix )
" Clocks " ( David X Mix )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Khoo Kheng @-@ Hor =
Khoo Kheng @-@ Hor ( Chinese : 邱庆河 ; pinyin : Qiū Qìnghé ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Khu Khìng @-@ hô ; born 2 March 1956 ) is a Malaysian author and speaker on contemporary application of the 500 BC Chinese military treatise , The Art of War , by renowned military strategist Sun Tzu . In the 1990s , Khoo was the first Sun Tzu student in South @-@ east Asia to link and teach the general 's principles in relation to business and management . To date , Khoo has written over 26 business and management books , most of which are based on Sun Tzu 's Art of War as he made it his life 's mission to " suntzunize " as many people as possible . In 1997 , although a Malaysian citizen , he was appointed as honorary Assistant Superintendent of Police by the Singapore Police Force in recognition for his contribution as consultant @-@ trainer to the police force of Singapore . His first novel , Taikor , was nominated by the National Library of Malaysia for the 2006 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award . Since 1999 , Khoo has gone into retirement and occasionally travels in Malaysia and Singapore to share the wisdom of Sun Tzu 's strategies for success and happiness upon requests from his readers and supporters .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Khoo was born in 1956 in the Penang state of Malaysia . He received his formal education at St. Xavier 's Institution before leaving for Singapore in 1974 , to continue his pre @-@ university education at St. Joseph 's Institution . After completing his studies in 1978 , he worked as a journalist with The Star in Kuala Lumpur until 1980 when he joined Malaysia 's largest sugar refinery , Malayan Sugar Manufacturing Company Berhad , as a personnel manager .
To help him in tackle the numerous challenging tasks he faced in Malayan Sugar then , his future wife , Judy Hwang , gave him some notes of her translation of Sun Tzu 's Art of War from Chinese to English , as he is not conversant in Chinese . Khoo immediately took keen interest in the military treatise and began to learn and apply Sun Tzu 's teachings into his work . Throughout his professional career , Sun Tzu 's Art of War was his indispensable guide . Khoo married Judy , a former Taiwanese singer in early 1982 . In 1983 , he moved to Kuala Lumpur as sales and marketing manager . When Asian sugar baron Robert Kuok was invited to turn around the ailing Multi @-@ Purpose group of companies in 1987 , Khoo joined them as administration manager at Magnum Corporation . In 1989 , he left Magnum to head the personnel and administration department of Metroplex Holdings Berhad , where he later became the general manager within just four months , managing The Mall shopping complex . Khoo initiated a series of management and sales policies that enabled The Mall to secure the ' Best Shopping Mall ' award for two years in a row . In the same year , he began writing his first best @-@ seller hit ; War at Work – Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Today 's Business World , which was a collection of memoranda based on Sun Tzu 's Art of War he wrote to his managers at The Mall .
From the early 1980s , Khoo tried to pursue a Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) degree from various universities , but all of them rejected his application as he did not possess a first degree for admission . Khoo only had two professional diplomas – a Diploma in Administrative Management and a Certified Diploma in Accounting and Finance from ACCA . He finally received an unconditional offer from the University of Stirling after he impressed the visiting Director of the MBA programme showing how he managed the award @-@ winning shopping mall . In 1989 , accompanied by his wife , he left Malaysia to pursue his MBA studies in Scotland and graduated with Distinction in 1991 . Instead of returning to Malaysia , he went to Singapore again to seek better opportunities there and was offered the job as Director of Operations for Kentucky Fried Chicken ( KFC ) .
= = = Retrenchment = = =
In early 1994 , Khoo was retrenched from KFC as a result of an ownership change , despite contributing to increased sales and profitability . He said :
Months before leaving my office , I had already looked around for another job , but unfortunately , top jobs are hard to come by . I felt like a ronin then . It occurred to me then that if no daimyo wanted to employ me , then I would be my own little warlord and employ myself .
From his home near Outram Park , Khoo set up Stirling Training & Management Consultants Pte Ltd , a training and consultancy firm , which assisted clients in planning and implementing strategies , and motivating their executives through his proprietary " Management : The Sun Tzu Way " programmes . He runs the company with his wife , who handles all the accounting and administration . Half of his time is spent elsewhere , conducting management seminars for businessmen and employees of multinational corporations . Khoo also lectured part @-@ time on Strategic Management for Singapore Institute of Management 's external degree programmes . In early 1999 , he co @-@ authored with Nigel Munro @-@ Smith , a lecturer at RMIT University in Australia , to produce a book titled Reader Friendly Strategic Management that brings out the essentials of strategic management for beginners .
= = = Early retirement = = =
In 1999 , at the age of 43 , Khoo decided to ' hang up his sword ' ( as described in his own words ) to live a quiet and leisurely life in Cameron Highlands of Malaysia , with his wife and their " four @-@ legged son , " Bandit , a Yorkshire Terrier to this very day . When asked on his decision to live in the mountains , Khoo said :
Life is more than work , work , work or just making money . I don 't want to be like the preacher in the Book of Ecclesiastes who lamented that he looked on all labours that he had laboured to do , and he beheld only vanity and a striving after wind . We may not be very wealthy but we have made enough to live by since we do not subscribe to a lavish lifestyle . So why not have time to do the things we like to do for a change ?
The seclusion of his mountain sanctuary offers him a good opportunity to pursue and enjoy his lifelong passion in writing his books wholeheartedly at a leisurely pace . Upon requests from his readers and supporters , Khoo still travels once a month for a few days to " suntzunize " – a term he coined for sharing the wisdom of Sun Tzu 's strategies for success and happiness for his seminar and conference audiences . Khoo has " suntzunized " thousands of " pupils " of his clients , among whom were well @-@ known corporations like AIA , Cisco Systems , Citibank , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Intel , Johnson & Johnson , Port of Singapore Authority , among many others , and also government bodies such as the Prime Minister 's Office of Singapore , Brunei and Malaysia . To keep in touch with his readers , Khoo writes monthly newsletters touching on contemporary issues using Sun Tzu 's perspective . While not travelling in the region to teach , he enjoys writing fiction and has had three fiction books published to date – Taikor , Mamasan and Nanyang .
= = = Commendation = = =
As a consultant @-@ trainer to the Singapore Police Force since 1995 , Khoo has taught many police officers in Singapore how to use Sun Tzu 's principles of " Generalship " to be effective leaders and team builders . In 1997 , he was sent for intensive training and thereafter appointed as honorary Assistant Superintendent of Police ( ASP ) in recognition for his contribution to the police force of Singapore . On 1 July 2009 , Khoo was promoted to the hononary rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police for his long years of service to the police force . Khoo was listed as one of the top 50 great minds and thinkers by Great Minds , an American think @-@ tank , for being " one of the outstanding figures in their own fields of endeavours , who have taught and enlightened the minds of other fellow human beings all over the world . "
= = His works = =
= = = Sun Tzu series = = =
Sun Tzu ( pinyin : Sun Zi ; c . 544 BC — 496 BC ) was a native of the Qi state ( now Huimin county in Shandong ) during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history , that was characterised by warring factions and a fragmented state . He came to the attention of King He Lu of Wu , who was impressed by his 13 @-@ chapter military treatise , The Art of War . In 512 BC , He Lu made Sun Tzu his Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Wu army . For almost 20 years , the armies of Wu were victorious over their hereditary enemies , the kingdoms of Chu and Yue . In 496 BC , after He Lu died from his wounds in battle , his son , Fu Chai succeeded him . After numerous victories in battles , Fu Chai became arrogant and began to indulge in merrymaking . In time , the king started to disregard Sun Tzu 's counsel and began to distance himself from Sun Tzu . Sensing this , Sun Tzu wisely gave up his position and left Wu for Qi in retirement . Fu Chai and his generals did not follow Sun Tzu 's precepts and his kingdom was subsequently conquered by Chu in 473 BC . Out of shame , Fu Chai committed suicide after he had fled with the remnants of his defeated army .
As a contemporary teacher of Sun Tzu 's Art of War , Khoo has written over 26 books on business and management based on its principles such as :
Crime Prevention : The Sun Tzu Way ( 2006 )
Win Without Fighting ( 2006 )
Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War ( 2002 ) – A six handguides collection
Sun Tzu : The Keeper of CEO 's Conscience ( 1997 )
Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Corporate Politics ( 1995 )
Sun Tzu and Management ( 1992 )
War at Work : Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Today Business World ( 1990 )
Due to his ability to translate what is a complicated treatise into an easily readable and understandable prose for a beginner , Khoo 's Sun Tzu series were well received and continue to grow in scope and depth in later years . He additionally manages to add realism by injecting real @-@ life situations culled from his 15 years in management , that provoke much thought and encourage readers to assess their own performance , and take positive measures to become more effective in their workplace and interpersonal relationships .
= = = Novels = = =
His first novel , Taikor , was released in late 2004 . It is a historical saga of Malaya which traces the years 1922 to 1982 , telling the story of Ya Loong , from his family 's migration from South Thailand to Penang after his father 's death . It was among the 132 entries nominated for the 2006 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award .
His second novel , Mamasan , is about life of those people working in the glitzy world of nightclubbing and their customers who patronise nightclubs . Along with the main tale , Khoo spins other tales covering love , juvenile delinquency , deceit versus honesty , murder , corruption and power abuse of police officers . It was released in April 2007 .
His third novel , Nanyang , is a historical saga about the multi @-@ racial people who inhabit the lands of the ' Southern Ocean ' , as early Chinese migrants called Malaya and Singapore . It was seen through the lives of four generations as they toiled and struggled for wealth and power , for their beliefs and freedom , and felt their hopes and dreams for their future and those of their offsprings , as Nanyang eventually became two separate fledging nations . It hit the book stores in October 2007 .
= The Wave ( Miike Snow song ) =
" The Wave " is a song performed by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow . It was released as the second single from the band 's second studio album Happy to You ( 2012 ) on 14 May 2012 , through Columbia Records . The song was written and produced by the band . Musically , " The Wave " is an electropop song with marching band influences and autoharp , military drum and piano instrumentation . It features Swedish musician Gustav Ejstes on autoharp and the Swedish Army drum corps on military drums .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who commended its catchiness and musical direction . However , some critics were divided regarding lead singer Andrew Wyatt 's falsetto vocals . The single failed to match the commercial performance of Happy to You 's lead single " Paddling Out " ; it only charted on the Flemish Ultratip chart at number 43 . Andreas Nilsson directed the single 's accompanying music video , the second part in a continuous story that began in the " Paddling Out " video .
= = Background and release = =
" The Wave " was written and produced by Miike Snow 's three members : Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt . The song was recorded alongside the rest of their second studio album Happy to You ( 2012 ) during the second half of 2011 . The band had more " creative freedom " while making the album , compared to their 2009 self @-@ titled debut album . They felt they could " plan the process more " , which included inviting the Swedish Army drum corps to play military drums on several tracks , such as " The Wave " . Karlsson told Billboard that his favorite part of the song occurs during the second verse , in which all band members are hitting the drums simultaneously . " We hit anything we could hit at the same time ... and it sounded kind of cool " , he said . Nils Törnqvist is credited for playing the drums , while David Lindberg , Jonathan Lundberg and Claes Malmberg played the military drums . Swedish musician Gustav Ejstes of band Dungen played the autoharp , and the band provided additional instruments , arrangement and programming . Niklas Flyckt mixed the track at Robotberget , Miike Snow 's own studio in Stockholm , Sweden .
The song was selected as the second single from Happy to You . Initially , Axtone Records released Thomas Gold 's remix exclusively on the online music store Beatport on 14 May 2012 . A mere week later , a digital extended play ( EP ) was released in Europe through Columbia Records . The release features the radio edit of the original song and remixes by Gold , Brodinski and Style of Eye . The EP was released in the United States on 12 June 2012 , through Universal Republic and Downtown Records .
Prior to the release of both their second album and single , the band announced on February 2012 that they were going to play two UK shows in May : Manchester 's HMV Ritz on May 30 and London 's O2 Academy Brixton on May 31 . For their show at the O2 Academy Brixton , the band launched an interactive video of their performance of " The Wave " in which viewers could choose from where in the venue they could experience the show . On September 15 , 2012 , Karlsson and Winnberg were guests on BBC Radio 1 's Essential Mix in which they premiered exclusive new remixes of their songs .
= = Composition = =
" The Wave " is a piano @-@ based electropop piece with a " marching band vibe " . Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald described it as an " electro @-@ anthem " with a " skittery dubstep throb " . Instrumentation is provided by an autoharp , drums , handclaps , military drums , percussion and a piano . In an interview for Complex , Wyatt said that the song is built in " tsunami form " , stating that " the real pay @-@ off " does not come until the final refrain . According to critic Josh Modell of Spin , the song " dips its toes in the kind of Brit @-@ rock purveyed by Elbow but mixes in some organic , tribal fun à la Yeasayer " . Wyatt sings with falsetto vocals , which Chris Martins of The A.V. Club thought recalled a " sad @-@ faced " Peter Gabriel . In the chorus , Wyatt sings , " My love won 't be saved / We 'll all be staring at the wave " . Winnberg told Billboard that " The Wave " " kind of sums up a lot what Miike Snow is about " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of " The Wave " was generally positive . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly named it one of the best tracks on Happy to You , while Will Salmon of Clash and Amber Genuske of The Huffington Post called it a standout . Exclaim ! ' s Ashley Hampson deemed it " incredibly catchy " , writing that it " capitalize [ s ] on the falsetto musings of vocalist Andrew Wyatt " . Andy Baber of musicOMH described the track as " much more like the Miike Snow that many came to know and love " . The writer praised the piano and marching drums for " giving the song a sense of direction that the opener lacked " . Caroline Sullivan , writing for The Guardian , commented that " a martial beat , contrastingly languid vocals and a snaggy hookline give ' The Wave ' a toothsome kick " , and Slant Magazine 's Kevin Liedel wrote that the beat " succeeds " .
Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald said that the song , alongside the album tracks " Paddling Out " and " Bavarian # 1 ( Say You Will ) " , " will swirl around in your head for days and demand repeat plays " . Spin 's Josh Modell named it a highlight of the album ; he wrote that if the album as a whole sounded like " The Wave " , " it could fill arenas " . Chris Martins of The A.V. Club wrote , " Though Wyatt 's vocals recall a sad @-@ faced Peter Gabriel , the song is steeped in the kind of effervescent magic that makes Lykke Li and Peter Bjorn and John stars in their own right . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters was critical of Wyatt 's vocal performance ; he wrote that " we really get a sense of how Wyatt 's voice hinders the group " . He said that the singer intones the lyrics " somewhat abstractly , but with absolutely no sense of gravity to be found in his voice at all " .
" The Wave " only charted on the Flemish Ultratip chart in Belgium ; it debuted at number 84 in the issue dated 30 June 2012 . The following week , the single rose 12 positions to number 72 , and to number 54 the next . In the issue dated 28 July 2012 , its fifth and final week on the chart , it obtained its peak position of number 43 .
= = Music video = =
Andreas Nilsson directed the music video for " The Wave " , a continuation of the video for Happy to You 's lead single " Paddling Out " . Picking up where the first part left of , the video follows Jean Noel , a human man who has received plastic surgery from aliens to be transformed into the " perfect specimen " . In an interview for The Creators Project , Nilsson explained how the videos were conceptualized : " The concept of this was born after long evenings of me and the band talking about gene technology in contemporary science . We share a mutual excitement in what 's happening on the medical scene right now . " " The Wave " was filmed before " Paddling Out " , although the latter was released first . Wyatt explained to Billboard , " We really liked [ director ] Andreas 's images and I think they go together in a way that feels truthful with what we do ... and you can read into it in different ways . "
The video for " The Wave " begins with the aliens ' spaceship crashing to Earth . The camera then hovers over a playground where dozens of children appear to be dead . Several policemen arrive at the scene and begin to remove the bodies by putting them in wheelbarrows . Meanwhile , Jean Noel is seen running on a desert road . The policemen then begin to dig graves for the corpses . Jean Noel then spots another specimen who looks just like him and the two begin to run . They are soon joined by more specimens before arriving at the playground . By chanting at the policemen , the specimens appear to mind control them into dance . Jean Noel continues to run and stops when he sees the crashed spaceship . The video ends with the band 's jackalope logo .
The video was made available for download through the iTunes Store on 13 March 2012 , in conjunction with the digital release of Happy to You . It later premiered on YouTube on 14 March 2012 . It received generally positive reviews . Amber Genuske of The Huffington Post stated that it lacked a plotline , but praised its production . Tom Breihan of Stereogum called it " slapsticky absurdism " and wrote , " I don 't think it 's supposed to be depressing , but it totally is . "
= = Track listings = =
Beatport remix download
" The Wave " ( Thomas Gold remix ) – 6 : 35
Digital EP
" The Wave " ( radio edit ) – 3 : 36
" The Wave " ( Thomas Gold mix ) – 6 : 35
" The Wave " ( Brodinski remix ) – 5 : 00
" The Wave " ( Style of Eye remix ) – 5 : 01
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the Happy to You liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Washington State Route 516 =
State Route 516 ( SR 516 ) is a 16 @.@ 49 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 54 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving communities in southern King County . The highway travels east as the Kent @-@ Des Moines Road and the Kent @-@ Kangley Road from a concurrency with SR 509 in Des Moines through Kent and Covington to an intersection with SR 169 in Maple Valley . SR 516 , designated as part of the National Highway System within Kent , intersects three major freeways in the area : Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in western Kent , SR 167 in downtown Kent , and SR 18 in Covington . The roadway , built in the 1890s , was codified in 1937 as Secondary State Highway 1K ( SSH 1K ) from Des Moines to Kent and SSH 5A from Kent to Maple Valley . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to form SR 516 on its current route .
= = Route description = =
SR 516 begins in Des Moines at Marine View Drive as SR 509 turns north towards Burien near the East Passage of Puget Sound . The two concurrent highways travel east on the Kent @-@ Des Moines Road past Highline Community College and Mount Rainier High School to an intersection with SR 99 in western Kent , where SR 509 turns south towards Tacoma . Shortly thereafter , SR 516 intersects I @-@ 5 at a partial cloverleaf interchange and continues east onto a four @-@ lane divided highway over the Green River and its pedestrian and bicycle trail into downtown Kent . The highway serves as the southern terminus of SR 181 before intersecting SR 167 in a diamond interchange at the western edge of downtown Kent . SR 516 shifts south onto Willis Street and crosses the Interurban Trail and a BNSF rail line before turning north onto Central Avenue and east onto Smith Street near Kent Station . The highway travels southeast along Mill Creek onto the Kent @-@ Kangley Road and serves as the southern terminus of SR 515 at Kent @-@ Meridian High School before leaving Kent for Covington . SR 516 passes Lake Meridian as 272nd Street and intersects SR 18 at a diamond interchange located in Covington . The highway continues east past Pipe Lake and into Maple Valley before crossing the Cedar to Green River Trail and ending at an intersection with SR 169 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was between SR 181 and the SR 167 interchange , serving 38 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was its western terminus at SR 509 , serving 8 @,@ 900 vehicles . SR 516 between I @-@ 5 and SR 167 within western Kent is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The Kent @-@ Kangley Road was built as a wagon road by King County by the late 1890s and was upgraded to a paved highway after being codified as two highways during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways system in 1937 : SSH 1K and SSH 5A . SSH 1K traveled 12 @.@ 76 miles ( 20 @.@ 54 km ) south from U.S. Route 99 and Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) through Burien and east through Des Moines to US 99 and PSH 1 in Midway . SSH 5A traveled 14 @.@ 50 miles ( 23 @.@ 34 km ) east from US 99 and PSH | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1 in Midway across the Green River into Kent , intersecting SSH 5M , PSH 5 , and SSH 5C , before ending at the Enumclaw – Renton branch of PSH 5 in Maple Valley . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to form SR 516 and codified into law in 1970 . The highway traveled east from SR 509 in Des Moines through I @-@ 5 at Midway , SR 167 in Kent , and SR 18 in Covington to SR 169 in Maple Valley . SR 509 was re @-@ aligned in 1991 onto SR 516 and SR 99 , forming new concurrencies , until the completion of a new north – south freeway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in King County .
= Stefan Wever =
Stefan Matthew Wever ( born 22 April 1958 ) is a former professional baseball pitcher . He made his Major League Baseball debut , incidentally his only game , with the New York Yankees in 1982 , and had a 0 – 1 record a 27 @.@ 00 earned run average ( ERA ) , and two strikeouts in that game .
Born in West Germany , Wever moved to the United States as a child , where he took up baseball . He played baseball in high school and the University of California , Santa Barbara , which led to him being drafted by the New York Yankees . After four seasons in the minor leagues , Wever made his major league debut on 17 September 1982 . In his debut , he suffered a shoulder injury , which he tried to pitch through for two years before having surgery in 1984 . He tried to come back from the injury in 1985 , but retired . After retiring , he opened a bar in San Francisco , which he continues to run .
= = Early life = =
Wever was born in Marburg , West Germany in 1958 . He immigrated to the United States with his mother and twin sister at six and lived in Boston until he was 12 , when he moved to San Francisco . He attended Lowell High School , where he played on the school 's baseball team . During his senior year , Wever helped lead the Lowell Cardinals to the city championship game , and he graduated in 1976 .
After graduating from high school , Wever was not looked at by college recruiters due to a lack of competition he faced . As a result , he attended the University of California , Santa Barbara on an academic scholarship , and walked on to the school 's baseball team . In three seasons with the Santa Barbara Gauchos , he had 18 wins , 17 losses , 199 strikeouts , and 15 complete games ; the losses and complete games were at that time school records . After his junior year , Wever was drafted by the New York Yankees in the sixth round of the 1979 Major League Baseball draft . He was given a signing bonus of $ 16 @,@ 000 , and officially signed with the team shortly after the draft concluded .
= = Baseball career = =
Wever began his professional career in 1979 with the Oneonta Yankees of the New York – Penn League ( NYPL ) . He pitched in ten games for the team , finishing the season with a 6 – 3 record , a 1 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 70 strikeouts . In the Yankees ' championship series against the Geneva Cubs , he pitched a shutout and threw nine strikeouts to win the first game and help the Yankees win the NYPL Championship . The following year , Wever was promoted to the Fort Lauderdale Yankees of the Florida State League . That year , he had a 7 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 64 ERA and 94 innings pitched in 15 games .
In 1981 , Wever began the season remaining with Fort Lauderdale . He had a 7 – 3 record and a 2 @.@ 00 ERA in 12 games before being promoted to the Nashville Sounds of the Southern League , the Yankees ' AA affiliate . With Nashville , he had a 5 – 2 record and 2 @.@ 05 ERA in nine appearances . Wever 's pitching coach in Nashville was Hall of Famer Hoyt Wilhelm . Wilhelm felt he had the ability but not the confidence to pitch in the majors , and spent his time in Nashville working on that aspect of Wever 's game . The following season , Weber was almost unanimously named to the Southern League All @-@ Star team , thanks to 11 wins and 116 strikeouts through the end of June . He improved to a 16 @-@ 6 record , a 2 @.@ 78 ERA , and 191 strikeouts , won the Southern League Pitcher of the Year award , and accomplished the pitcher 's Triple Crown , leading the league in wins , ERA , and strikeouts . He led Nashville to the Southern League championship , and right after doing so , the Yankees called Weber up to the major leagues .
His first and only major league appearance came against the Milwaukee Brewers on 17 September 1982 . The first two batters he faced were Paul Molitor and Robin Yount , both future Hall of Famers , one of only a few players in history to do so . Partway through the first inning , he felt a twinge in his shoulder ; not wanting to leave his first game early , he pitched through it , and allowed five runs in the first . Partway through the third , after three more runs allowed , Wever was taken out of the game . He pitched for 2 ⅔ innings and had eight earned runs , two strikeouts , and three wild pitches . Entering the 1983 season , Wever was projected to be the fifth starter in the Yankees ' starting rotation . Because of continued pain in his shoulder , he instead spent the season with the AAA Columbus Clippers , where he went 1 – 4 with a 9 @.@ 78 ERA in seven appearances .
Wever spent 1984 with Fort Lauderdale , where he went 1 – 3 in seven games . After the seven games , he visited Dr. James Andrews , who diagnosed the twinge he suffered two years earlier as a torn rotator cuff and torn labrum ; it explained why he had been throwing 85 mph since the injury , compared to 95 mph beforehand . He had surgery shortly afterward , and spent the rest of the year rehabbing the injury . He attempted a comeback in 1985 with the Albany @-@ Colonie Yankees , and had a 4 @.@ 91 ERA in five games with the team . In June , having continued to pitch through shoulder pain , Wever retired from baseball and ended his professional career .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
After retiring from baseball , Wever returned to school , and earned a bachelor 's degree in English literature from the University of California , Berkeley . He married Melinda in 1988 , and three years later opened up the Horseshoe Tavern , a bar in San Francisco 's Marina District , which he continues to run .
While working at his bar , Wever made a return to baseball in a coaching role . He was named varsity baseball coach at Redwood High School in Larkspur , California in 2008 , after having volunteered for the freshman team the year before . He was forced to resign in 2010 due to a diagnosis of large @-@ cell lymphoma . He went on to continue coaching youth baseball camps and leagues , and was bench coach for the San Rafael Pacifics in 2013 . He now spends three days a week feeding the homeless at SF 's St. Anthony 's Dining Room .
= Djedkare Isesi =
Djedkare Isesi ( known in Greek as Tancherês ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty in the late 25th century to mid 24th century BCE , during the Old Kingdom period . Djedkare succeeded Menkauhor Kaiu and was in turn succeeded by Unas . His relations to both of these pharaohs remain uncertain , although it is often conjectured that Unas was Djedkare 's son owing to the smooth transition between the two .
Djedkare likely enjoyed a long reign of over 40 years , which heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom . Breaking with a tradition followed by his predecessors since the time of Userkaf , Djedkare did not build a temple to the sun god Ra , possibly reflecting the rise of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon . More significantly , Djedkare effected comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian state administration , the first undertaken since the inception of the system of ranking titles . He also reorganised the funerary cults of his forebears buried in the necropolis of Abusir and reformed the corresponding priesthood . Djedkare commissioned expeditions to Sinai to procure copper and turquoise , to Nubia for its gold and diorite and to the fabled Land of Punt for its incense . One such expedition had the earliest recorded instance of oracular divination undertaken to ensure an expedition 's success . The word " Nub " , meaning gold , to designate Nubia is first recorded during Djedkare 's reign . Under his rule , Egypt also entertained continuing trade relations with the Levantine coast and made punitive raids in Canaan . In particular , one of the earliest depictions of a battle or siege scene was found in the tomb of one of Djedkare 's subjects .
Djedkare was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara named Nefer Djedkare ( " Djedkare is perfect " ) , which is now ruined owing to theft of stone from its outer casing during antiquity . The burial chamber still held Djedkare 's mummy when it was excavated in the 1940s . Examinations of the mummy revealed that he died in his fifties . Following his death , Djedkare was the object of a cult that lasted at least until the end of the Old Kingdom . He seemed to have been held in particularly high esteem during the mid @-@ Sixth Dynasty , whose pharaohs lavished rich offerings on his cult . Archaeological evidence suggests the continuing existence of this funerary cult throughout the much later New Kingdom period ( c . 1550 – 1077 BCE ) . Djedkare was also remembered by the Ancient Egyptians as the king of vizier Ptahhotep , the purported author of The Maxims of Ptahhotep , one of the earliest pieces of philosophic wisdom literature .
The reforms implemented by Djedkare are generally assessed negatively in modern Egyptology as his policy of decentralization created a virtual feudal system that transferred much power to the high and provincial administrations . Some Egyptologists such as Naguib Kanawati argue that this contributed heavily to the collapse of the Egyptian state during the First Intermediate Period , c . 200 years later . These conclusions are rejected by Nigel Strudwick , who says that in spite of Djedkare 's reforms , Ancient Egyptian officials never amassed enough power to rival that of the king .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =
Djedkare is well attested in sources contemporaneous with his reign . The tombs of many of his courtiers and family members have been discovered in Giza , Saqqara and Abusir . They give insights into the administrative reforms that Djedkare conducted during his reign and , in a few cases , even record letters that the king sent to his officials . These letters , inscribed on the walls of tombs , typically present royal praises for the tomb owner .
Another important source of information about Egypt during the reign of Djedkare Isesi is the Abusir papyri . These are administrative documents , covering a period of 24 years during Djedkare 's reign ; they were discovered in the mortuary temples of pharaohs Neferirkare Kakai , Neferefre and queen Khentkaus II . In addition to these texts , the earliest letters on papyrus preserved to the present day also date to Djedkare 's reign , dealing with administrative or private matters .
= = = Historical sources = = =
Djedkare is attested in four ancient Egyptian king lists , all dating to the New Kingdom . The earliest of these is the Karnak king list , dating to the reign of Thutmose III ( 1479 – 1425 BCE ) , where Djedkare is mentioned on the fifth entry . Djedkare 's prenomen occupies the 32nd entry of the Abydos King List , which was written during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BCE ) . Djedkare is also present on the Saqqara Tablet ( 31st entry ) where he is listed under the name " Maatkare " , probably because of a scribal error . Djedkare 's prenomen is given as " Djed " on the Turin canon ( third column , 24th row ) , probably because of a lacuna affecting the original document from which the canon was copied during the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BCE ) . The Turin canon credits Djedkare with 28 years of reign .
In addition to these sources , Djedkare is mentioned on the Prisse Papyrus dating to the 12th Dynasty ( c . 1990 – 1800 BCE ) . The papyrus records The Maxims of Ptahhotep and gives Djedkare 's nomen " Isesi " to name the pharaoh whom the purported authors of the maxims , vizier Ptahhotep , served . Djedkare was also probably mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BCE ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that a pharaoh " Tancherês " ( Ancient Greek Τανχέρης ) reigned for 44 years as the eighth and penultimate king of the Fifth Dynasty . Given its position within the dynasty , Tancherês is believed to be the Hellenized name of Djedkare Isesi .
= = Family = =
= = = Parents = = =
Djedkare 's parentage is unknown ; in particular his relation with his predecessors Menkauhor Kaiu and Nyuserre Ini cannot be ascertained . Djedkare is generally thought to have been the son of Menkauhor Kaiu , but the two might instead have been brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini . Another hypothesis suggests that Djedkare and Menkauhor could have been cousins , being sons of Nyuserre and Neferefre respectively . The identity of Djedkare 's mother is similarly unknown .
= = = Queens = = =
The name of Djedkare Isesi 's principal wife is not known . An important queen consort whose name is lost was very likely the owner of a large pyramid complex located to the northeast of Djedkare 's pyramid in Saqqara . This could indicate that she was the mother of Djedkare 's successor , Unas , or that Djedkare owed the throne to her . The very high status of this queen is suggested by some features of her funerary complex that are otherwise reserved to kings : her pyramid has its own satellite pyramid , has a causeway leading from a valley temple up to a mortuary temple devoted to the cult of the queen and had an entrance hall pr @-@ wrw , an open courtyard and a square antechamber . Furthermore , some reliefs showing the queen had been reworked with royal insignia and vultures added above her head . Since the construction of the queen 's pyramid was apparently undertaken after the planning of Djedkare 's pyramid and her relief had been reworked , the Egyptologist Klaus Baer suggests that this queen may have ruled after the death of Djedkare , playing an important role in his succession . This is rejected by other Egyptologists , such as Michel Baud , owing to the lack of evidence for a regency or interregnum between Djedkare and Unas .
The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that this pyramid was initially intended for queen Meresankh IV , whom he and Verner see as a wife of Djedkare . Seipel contends that Meresankh was finally buried in a smaller mastaba in Saqqara North after she fell into disgrace . Alternatively , Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have proposed that she was a wife of the preceding king , Menkauhor Kaiu .
= = = Sons = = =
Only one son of Djedkare Isesi has been identified for certain , Neserkauhor , who bore the title of " eldest beloved king 's son of his body " . Neserkauhor also bore the title of Iry @-@ pat , showing that he was an important member of the royal court , as well as a priestly title " Greatest of the Five in the temple of Thot " , suggesting that he may have been a vizier or had similar occupations .
As well as Neserkauhor , there is indirect evidence that princes Raemka and Kaemtjenent are sons of Djedkare based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara . For example , the tomb of Kaemtjenent mentions vizier Rashepses , who served during the reign of Djedkare . Raemka also bore the title of " king 's son of his body " , almost exclusively reserved to true princes of royal blood . The locations of Raemka 's and Kaemtjenent 's tombs have led some Egyptologists to believe that both princes are sons of queen Meresankh IV buried nearby , who would thus be one of Djedkare 's wives . These conclusions are debated , in particular in the case of Kaemtjenent , whose title of " king 's son " may have been purely honorific .
A high official named Isesi @-@ ankh could have been yet another son of Djedkare Isesi , as suggested by his name meaning " Isesi lives " . Yet , similarities in the titles and locations of the tombs of Isesi @-@ ankh and Kaemtjenent have led Egyptologists to propose that they could instead be brothers and sons of Meresankh IV , or that the former is a son of the latter . Even though Isesi @-@ ankh bore the title of " king 's son " , the Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz argue that this filiation was fictitious , being only an honorary title .
Finally , the successor of Djedkare , Unas , is thought to have been his son in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question . The main argument in favor of this filiation is that the succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth , as suggested indirectly , for example , by the Abusir papyri . Indirect evidence also comes from the reliefs of Unas ' causeway , which show many officials bearing names incorporating " Isesi " , suggesting at the very least that Unas did not perceive Djedkare as an antagonist .
= = = Daughters = = =
Several daughters of Djedkare Isesi have been identified by the title of " king 's daughter of his body " and the general date of their tomb . These include Kekheretnebti , whose filiation is clearly indicated by her other title of " Beloved of Isesi " , Meret @-@ Isesi , Hedjetnebu , and Nebtyemneferes . Less certain is the filiation of Kentkhaus III , wife of vizier Senedjemib Mehi , who bore the title of " king 's daughter of his body " . It is debated whether this title indicates a true filiation or if it is only honorary .
= = Chronology = =
The relative chronological position of Djedkare Isesi as the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , succeeding Menkauhor Kaiu and preceding Unas on the throne , is well established by historical sources and confirmed by archaeological evidence .
The duration of Djedkare 's reign is much less certain . Djedkare 's time on the throne is well documented by the Abusir papyri , numerous royal seals and contemporary inscriptions ; taken together , they indicate a fairly long rule for this king . While the Turin canon credits him with 28 years of reign , there is direct evidence for an even longer reign . Several artefacts and inscriptions have been uncovered relating to Djedkare 's rejuvenation or " sed " festival , normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign . For example , the tomb of one of Djedkare 's viziers , Senedjemib Inti , relates construction works undertaken during the year of the 16th cattle count in preparation for the festival ceremonies . An alabaster vase now on display at the Louvre museum bears an inscription celebrating Djedkare 's first sed festival , indicating in all likelihood that he reigned beyond his 30th year on the throne .
One of the Abusir papyri was found to be dated to the " Year of the 22nd Count , IV Akhet day 12 " , constituting Djedkare 's latest known date . This date might correspond to any time from the 32nd year of Djedkare 's reign up to his 44th year on the throne , depending on whether the cattle count was once every two years or once every year and a half . The higher estimate is close to Manetho 's 44 @-@ year figure credited to Tancherês , the Hellenized name of Djedkare , although this may just be coincidental . Modern estimates thus put Djedkare 's reign length as certainly more than 33 years and , if the cattle count was regularly biennial , at least 42 to 44 years . This makes Djedkare the longest reigning king of the Fifth Dynasty .
= = Reign = =
The reign of Djedkare Isesi heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom . First , Djedkare Isesi did not build a sun temple , as his predecessors had done since the time of Userkaf , some 80 years earlier . This may be a result of the increased prominence of Osiris compared with the sun god Ra during the late Fifth Dynasty . The importance of this cult becomes manifest when the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas are inscribed a few decades later . In this context , it is perhaps noteworthy that the only known statue of Djedkare Isesi was discovered in the ruins of the temple of Osiris , in Abydos . Another manifestation of the winds of change during Djedkare 's time on throne is the confirmation of the relocation of the royal necropolis from Abusir , where it had been since the reign of Sahure , to Saqqara , where Menkauhor Kaiu , Djedkare and his successor , Unas , built their pyramids . Abusir may have become overcrowded by the time of Menkauhor 's accession and the capital may have been shifted south to Saqqara along with the royal necropolis around the same time . The abandonment of Abusir as a royal necropolis and the termination of sun temple building are possibly related given the close association between the two since the reign of Userkaf .
= = = Domestic reforms = = =
During his reign Djedkare effected significant reforms of the state administration and priesthood , in particular that pertaining to the funerary cults in the necropolis of Abusir . These evolutions are witnessed by changes in priestly titles and more broadly , in the system of ranking titles of high officials , which was modified for the first time in its existence . For example , the priesthood of the royal pyramids was reorganized , with Djedkare changing the titles and functions of the priests from " priest of king " to " priest of the pyramid " . Princes of royal blood could once more hold administrative titles , a prerogative they had lost during the early Fifth Dynasty . At the same time , viziers could now hold the prestigious titles of Iry @-@ pat and Haty @-@ a and , as " overseer of the royal scribes " , became the head of the scribal administration . At least one vizier , Seshemnefer III , even bore the title of " king 's son of his body " , one of the most distinguished titles at the time and normally reserved to princes of royal blood . Yet neither Seshemnefer III 's father nor his mother seems to have belonged to the royal family . For the period spanning the reign of Djedkare until that of Teti , viziers were furthermore responsible for the weaponry of the state , both for military and other purposes . Following the reforms undertaken by Djedkare , three viziers would be in office at the same time : two in the Memphite region and a Southern one , the " governor of Upper Egypt " , with a seat at Abydos . In total six viziers were appointed during Djedkare 's reign .
Lower ranking officials lost power during the late Fifth Dynasty and were frequently limited to holding only one high title , a departure from the preceding period . Such functions as " overseer of the granary " and " overseer of the treasury " disappear from the record some time between Djedkare 's reign and that of Teti , while men of lower status became head of the legal administration . Consequently , the viziers concentrated more power than before while lower echelons of the state administration were reduced . At the same time , the size of the provincial administration was increased , and it also became more autonomous from the central government . In particular , the nomarchs were responsible in their provinces for performing works hitherto conducted by Memphite officials .
= = = Building activities = = =
The main building activity undertaken during the reign of Djedkare Isesi was the construction of his pyramid complex in Saqqara . Djedkare also either completed or undertook restoration works in the funerary complex of Nyuserre Ini in Abusir , as indicated by a now damaged inscription , which must have detailed Djedkare 's activities on the site . Further building works took place in Abusir during the second half of Djedkare 's reign following the curious decision by members of the royal family to be buried there rather than next to Djedkare 's pyramid in Saqqara . A group of mastabas was thus constructed for princess Kekheretnebti and her daughter Tisethor , princess Hedjetnebu , the courtiers Mernefu and Idu , who was buried with his wife Khenit , and prince Neserkauhor .
Djedkare Isesi also undertook building activities in relation with his " sed " festival as indicated by a decree that he sent to his vizier Senedjemib Inti on the year of the 16th cattle count , praising him for his work . The decree mentions the construction of a broad rectangular court or artificial lake for the jubilee of the king , some 1000 cubits long and 400 cubits wide , amounting to c . 525 m × 231 m ( 1 @,@ 722 ft × 758 ft ) . The court was located within the precincts of a palace built for the ceremonies of the " sed " festival , which was probably located in the vicinity of his pyramid . Another decree addressed to Senedjemib Inti and later inscribed on the walls of his mastaba records the decoration of a chapel of Hathor in the palace of the king . This chapel was most likely built during his reign .
Djedkare may have left some of his monuments unfinished at his death , as suggested by several relief @-@ bearing blocks inscribed with his name and which were found reused in the pyramid of king Unas . Their original setting remains unknown .
= = = Activities outside Egypt = = =
= = = = Expeditions to mines and quarries = = = =
Three or four rock inscriptions dating to Djedkare 's reign have been found in the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai , where mines of copper and semi @-@ precious stones were exploited throughout the Old Kingdom , from the Fourth until the Sixth Dynasty . These inscriptions record three expeditions sent to look for turquoise : the earliest one , dated to the third or fourth cattle count – possibly corresponding to the sixth or eighth year of Dejdkare 's reign – explicitly recalls the arrival of the mining party to the " hills of the turquoise " after being given " divine authority for the finding of semi @-@ precious stones in the writing of the god himself , [ as was enacted ] in the broad court of the temple Nekhenre " . This sentence could indicate the earliest known record of an oracular divination undertaken in order to ensure the success of the expedition prior to its departure , Nekhenre being the sun temple of Userkaf . Another inscription dating to the year of the ninth cattle count – possibly Djedkare 's 18th year on the throne – shows the king " subduing all foreign lands . Smiting the chief of the foreign land " . The expedition that left this inscription comprised over 1400 men and administration officials . Some Egyptologists have proposed that these men were also sent to mine copper .
These expeditions departed Egypt from the port of Ain Sukhna , on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez , as revealed by papyri and seals bearing Djedkare Isesi 's name found on the site . The port comprised large galleries carved into the sandstone serving as living quarters and storage places . The wall of one such gallery was inscribed with a text mentioning yet another expedition to the hills of turquoise in the year of the seventh cattle count – possibly Djedkare 's 14th year on the throne .
South of Egypt , Djedkare dispatched at least one expedition to the diorite quarries located 65 km ( 40 mi ) north @-@ west of Abu Simbel . Djedkare was not the first king to do so , as these quarries were already exploited during the Fourth Dynasty and continued to be so during the Sixth Dynasty and later , in the Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2055 BCE – c . 1650 BCE ) .
Djedkare probably also exploited gold mines in the Eastern Desert and in Nubia : indeed , the earliest mention of the " land of gold " – an Ancient Egyptian term for Nubia – is found in an inscription from the mortuary temple of Djedkare Isesi .
= = = = Trade relations = = = =
Egypt entertained continuing trade relations with the Levant during Djedkare 's reign , possibly as far north as Anatolia . A gold cylinder seal bearing the serekh of Djedkare Isesi together with the cartouche of Menkauhor Kaiu is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston . The seal , whose gold may originate from the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia , could attest to wide ranging trade @-@ contacts during the later Fifth Dynasty , but its provenance remains unverifiable .
Trade contacts with Byblos , on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon , are suggested by a fragmentary stone vessel unearthed in the city and bearing the inscription " King of Upper and Lower Egypt , Djedkare [ living ] forever " . A biographical inscription discovered in the tomb of Iny , a Sixth Dynasty official , provides further evidence for an Egyptian expedition to Byblos during Djedkare 's reign . Iny 's inscription relates his travels to procure lapis lazuli and lead or tin for pharaoh Merenre , but starts by recounting what must have been similar events taking place under Djedkare .
To the south of Egypt , Djedkare also sent an expedition to the fabled land of Punt to procure the myrrh used as incense in the Egyptian temples . The expedition to Punt is referred to in the letter from Pepi II Neferkare to Harkuf some 100 years later . Harkuf had reported that he would bring back a " dwarf of the god 's dancers from the land of the horizon dwellers " . Pepi mentions that the god 's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum had returned from Punt with a dwarf during the reign of Djedkare Isesi and had been richly rewarded . The decree mentions that " My Majesty will do for you something greater than what was done for the god 's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum in the reign of Isesi , reflecting my majesty 's yearning to see this dwarf " .
Djedkare 's expedition to Punt is also mentioned in a contemporaneous graffito found in Tumas , a locality of Lower Nubia some 150 km ( 93 mi ) south of Aswan , where Isesi 's cartouche was discovered .
= = = = Warfare = = = =
Not all relations between Egypt and its neighbors were peaceful during Djedkare 's reign . In particular , one of the earliest known depictions of a battle or city being besieged is found in the tomb of Inti , an official from the 21st nome of Upper Egypt , who lived during the late Fifth Dynasty . The scene shows Egyptian soldiers scaling the walls of a near eastern fortress on ladders . More generally , ancient Egyptians seem to have regularly organised punitive raids in Canaan during the later Old Kingdom period but did not attempt to establish a permanent dominion there .
= = Pyramid = =
Djedkare built his pyramid in South Saqqara . It was called Nefer Isesi or Nefer Djedkare in Ancient Egyptian , variously translated as " Isesi / Djedkare is beautiful " or " Isesi / Djedkare is perfect " . It is known today as " Haram el @-@ Shawwâf El @-@ Kably " , meaning " the Southern Sentinel pyramid " , because it stands on the edge of the Nile valley .
The pyramid originally comprised six or seven steps made of irregular and roughly hewn limestone blocks and mortar , of which only three survive . This core was overlaid by casing stones of white Tura limestone , which have been stolen in antiquity . At the time of its construction the pyramid stood 52 m ( 171 ft ) high with a base length of 78 @.@ 75 m ( 258 @.@ 4 ft ) and an inclination angle of 52 ° .
In the interior of the pyramid a descending passage led , behind three granite portcullises , to an antechamber , three magazine rooms and the burial chamber . In it , pieces of alabaster and a faience bead on a gold thread were discovered as well as many fragments of what was originally a large sarcophagus of dark grey basalt . The sarcophagus was sunk into the floor of the burial chamber together with a niche for the canopic chest of the king to its north @-@ east . An almost complete mummy was discovered in the remnants of the sarcophagus . An examination by Ahmed Batrawi of these skeletal remains , excavated in the mid @-@ 1940s under the direction of Abdel Salam Hussein , suggests that Djedkare died at the age of 50 to 60 years old .
To the east of the pyramid , Djedkare 's mortuary temple was laid out . The east facade of the mortuary temple was flanked by two massive stone structures , which resemble the later pylons . The mortuary temple is connected via a yet unexcavated causeway to a valley temple .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Impact of the reforms = = =
For Nigel Strudwick , the reforms of Djedkare Isesi were undertaken as a reaction to the rapid growth of the central administration in the first part of the Fifth Dynasty which , Baer adds , had amassed too much political or economic power in the eyes of the king . Joyce Tyldesley sees the reign of Djedkare Isesi as the very beginning of a decline in the importance of the king , in conjunction with the gradual rise of the power wielded by the high and provincial administration . Concurrent with this trend is a process of decentralization , with local loyalties slowly superseding allegiance to the central state . Since offices and in particular , the vizierate , could be inherited the reforms of Djedkare Isesi created a " virtual feudal system " as Nicolas Grimal writes , with much power in the hands of a few puissant officials . This is best witnessed by the large , magnificent mastaba tombs that Djedkare 's viziers built . In this context , Djedkare 's reforms of the ranking system might have been an attempt at maintaining a sprawling administration under control , yet ultimately failed . For some Egyptologists , such as Naguib Kanawati , this failure contributed in no small part to the fall of the Old Kingdom , but others , including Strudwick , believe the reasons of the collapse must be sought elsewhere as the power of an administration official never approached that of the king .
The reforms of Djedkare Isesi played an important role in flourishing of the arts during the later Old Kingdom , as artisans and craftsmen could now find many wealthy patrons beyond the king . This created a surge in the number of commissions leading to a general improvement of the artistic works . This also provided the artisans with a new wealth , which they used to build their own large funerary complexes .
= = = Funerary cult = = =
= = = = Old Kingdom = = = =
Djedkare Isesi was the object of a funerary cult established at his death and which lasted until the end of the Old Kingdom nearly 200 years later . Provisions for this cult were produced in several agricultural estates set up during Djedkare 's reign . The names of some of these estates have been found inscribed on the walls of the tombs of his courtiers : " Ra desires that Isesi lives " , " Heqa desires that Izezi live " , " Perfect of emulation is Isesi " , " The mnza @-@ vessel of Djedkare " , " Perfect of favors is Isesi " , " Seshat makes Isesi live " , " The Ka of Isesi is foremost " , " Dominion belongs to Izezi " , " Work of the command of Izezi " , " Bastet wishes that Izezi lives " , " Horus perpetuates Izezi " , " The offerings of Izezi " , and " Izezi is one who loves life " .
Djedkare seems to have been held in high esteem during the Sixth Dynasty . For example , Merenre Nemtyemsaf I chose to place his pyramid complex close to that of Djedkare . In addition , the South Saqqara Stone , a royal annal dating to the reign of Merenre or of his successor Pepi II , records rich offerings being made to Djedkare on behalf of the king . An estimated 92 % of the text inscribed on the stone was lost when it was roughly polished to be reused as a sarcophagus lid , possibly in the late First Intermediate ( c . 2160 – 2055 BC ) to early Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) .
More generally , an historical or literary tradition concerning events in the time of Djedkare seems to have flourished toward the end of Old Kingdom as can be inferred from the tombs of Harkuf and Iny . These two officials were in charge of expeditions to foreign lands – Punt and Byblos – under Merenre I and Pepi II and both relate similar expeditions that took place during the time of Djedkare Isesi .
= = = = New Kingdom = = = =
The funerary cult of Djedkare Isesi enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1077 BCE ) . For the early part of this period , this is best attested by the Karnak king list , a list of kings commissioned by pharaoh Thutmose III . The list was not meant to be exhaustive , rather it gave the names of Thutmose 's forefathers whom he wanted to honor by dedicating offerings .
For the later New Kingdom , a relief from the Saqqara tomb of the priest Mehu , dating to the 19th or 20th Dynasty shows three gods faced by several deceased pharaohs . These are Djoser and Sekhemket , of the Third Dynasty and Userkaf , founder of the Fifth Dynasty . He is followed by a fourth king whose name is damaged but which is often read " Djedkare " or , much less likely , " Shepseskare " . The relief is an expression of personal piety on Mehu 's behalf , who prayed to the ancient kings for them to recommend him to the gods .
= Route 261 ( Delaware – Pennsylvania ) =
Delaware Route 261 ( DE 261 ) and Pennsylvania Route 261 ( PA 261 ) , also known as Foulk Road , is a 6 @.@ 88 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 07 km ) state highway running through Delaware and Pennsylvania . DE 261 runs 4 @.@ 62 miles ( 7 @.@ 44 km ) through New Castle County , Delaware from an interchange with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and DE 141 north of Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) near Fairfax , Delaware , a community north of Wilmington , northeast to the Pennsylvania state line . The road runs through suburban areas of Brandywine Hundred as a four @-@ lane road south of DE 92 and a two @-@ lane road north of DE 92 . At the Pennsylvania state line , Foulk Road becomes PA 261 and continues 2 @.@ 26 miles ( 3 @.@ 64 km ) through Bethel Township in Delaware County , intersecting PA 491 in Booths Corner before ending at an interchange with US 322 .
DE 261 was originally designated along Foulk Road in the 1930s . In the 1960s , most of the route was widened into a four @-@ lane road . The southern terminus at US 202 was reconstructed into an interchange in the 2000s . PA 261 was first designated in 1928 along Foulk Road between the Delaware border and PA 61 and PA 161 in Chelsea . The route was extended north along Valley Brook Road to US 1 in Chester Heights by 1940 . The northern terminus of PA 261 was moved to its current location by 1980 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Delaware = = =
DE 261 begins at an interchange with US 202 and the northern terminus of DE 141 north of Alapocas Run State Park near Fairfax , heading northeast on four @-@ lane divided Foulk Road . The road heads near business parks , becoming an undivided road . The route continues through the suburban Brandywine Hundred area , passing residences along with a few businesses . DE 261 remains a four @-@ lane undivided road through this area , occasionally widening into a divided highway at intersections . The route intersects several roads including Murphy Road , Shipley Road , and Silverside Road . Between Shipley and Silverside roads , the road passes to the west of Brandywine High School . Farther northeast , DE 261 comes to the intersection with DE 92 , at which point it turns north and becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes more homes . The route ends at the Pennsylvania state line .
DE 261 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 22 @,@ 555 vehicles at the Silverside Road intersection to a low of 10 @,@ 414 vehicles at the Pennsylvania border . None of DE 261 is part of the National Highway System .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
PA 261 begins at the Pennsylvania state line and continues northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Foulk Road through Bethel Township in Delaware County , passing through residential areas as it crosses Zebley Road . In the community of Booths Corner , PA 261 crosses PA 491 , at which point the road passes a few businesses . North of this intersection , the road runs between a tank farm to the west and Bethel Springs Elementary School to the east prior to crossing Bethel Road and entering wooded residential neighborhoods . PA 261 ends at an interchange with US 322 , with Foulk Road continuing north to an intersection with Concord Road , Chelsea Road , and Valley Brook Road .
PA 261 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 9 @,@ 400 vehicles between the Delaware border and PA 491 to a low of 7 @,@ 200 vehicles between the Bethel Road intersection and US 322 . None of PA 261 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
= = = Delaware = = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 261 existed as a county road . When Delaware first assigned state highway numbers by 1936 , what is now DE 261 had been upgraded to a state highway , but did not receive a number at that time . By 1938 , DE 261 was designated onto its current alignment between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border , continuing the PA 261 designation . DE 261 was widened into a four @-@ lane road between US 202 and Silverside Road by 1966 . The four @-@ lane portion was extended north to Naamans Road a year later . In summer 2007 , construction on converting the intersection with US 202 into interchange was completed as part of the Blue Ball Properties project , a project undertaken to improve roads in this area as part of AstraZeneca locating their North American headquarters to the area . DE 141 was also realigned to intersect US 202 and DE 261 at this interchange . The total cost of the project was $ 123 million .
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
When Pennsylvania first legislated its highways in 1911 , what would become PA 261 was legislated as part of Legislative Route 180 between the Delaware border and Chelsea . PA 261 was first designated in 1928 to run from the Delaware border to PA 61 ( Concord Road ) and PA 161 ( Chelsea Road ) in Chelsea , following Foulk Road . By 1940 , PA 261 was extended north along Valley Brook Road from US 322 ( which replaced PA 61 ) to US 1 in Chester Heights . By 1980 , the northern terminus of PA 261 was truncated to its current location at the interchange with US 322 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Comair Flight 5191 =
Comair Flight 5191 , marketed as Delta Connection Flight 5191 , was a scheduled United States ( US ) domestic passenger flight from Lexington , Kentucky , to Atlanta , Georgia , operated on behalf of Delta Connection by Comair . On the morning of August 27 , 2006 , at around 06 : 07 EDT , the Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet 100ER that was being used for the flight crashed while attempting to take off from Blue Grass Airport in Fayette County , Kentucky , four miles ( 6 kilometers ) west of the central business district of the City of Lexington .
The aircraft was assigned the airport 's runway 22 for the takeoff , but used runway 26 instead . Runway 26 was too short for a safe takeoff , causing the aircraft to overrun the end of the runway before it could become airborne . It crashed just past the end of the runway , killing all 47 passengers and two of the three crew . The flight 's first officer was the only survivor .
Although not the pilot in command , according to the cockpit voice recorder transcript , the first officer was the pilot flying at the time of the accident . In the National Transportation Safety Board report on the crash , investigators concluded that the likely cause of the crash was pilot error .
= = Flight details = =
The flight was sold under the Delta Air Lines brand as Delta Connection Flight 5191 ( DL5191 ) and was operated by Comair as Comair Flight 5191 ( OH5191 ) . It is usually identified as Comair Flight 5191 .
The flight had been scheduled to land at Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport at 7 : 18 a.m.
The aircraft involved was a 50 @-@ seat Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet CRJ @-@ 100ER , serial number 7472 . Manufactured in Canada in January 2001 , it was delivered to the airline on January 30 , 2001 .
= = Crash = =
The aircraft was assigned the airport 's Runway 22 for the takeoff , but used Runway 26 instead . Analysis of the cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) indicated the aircraft was cleared to take off from Runway 22 , a 7 @,@ 003 feet ( 2 @,@ 135 m ) strip used by most airline traffic at Lexington . Instead , after confirming " Runway two @-@ two " , Captain Jeffrey Clay taxied onto Runway 26 , an unlit secondary runway only 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , and turned the controls over to First Officer James Polehinke for takeoff . The air traffic controller was not required to maintain visual contact with the aircraft ; after clearing the aircraft for takeoff , he turned to perform administrative duties and did not see the aircraft taxi to the runway .
NTSB investigators concluded that the likely cause of the crash was pilot error . The board concluded that Clay and Polehinke ignored clues that they were on the wrong runway , failed to confirm their position on the runway and talked too much , in violation of " sterile cockpit " procedures . Comair later accepted responsibility for the crash , but also placed blame on the airport , for what it called poor runway signs and markings , and the Federal Aviation Administration , which had only one air traffic controller on duty , contrary to a memo it had previously issued to have two workers on overnight shifts . A judge ruled that , since it was owned by county governments , the airport had sovereign immunity and could not be sued by Comair .
Based upon an estimated takeoff weight of 49 @,@ 087 pounds ( 22 @,@ 265 kg ) , the manufacturer calculated a speed of 138 knots ( 159 miles per hour or 256 kilometers per hour ) and a distance of 3 @,@ 744 feet ( 1 @,@ 141 m ) would have been needed for rotation ( increasing nose @-@ up pitch ) , with more runway needed to achieve lift @-@ off . At a speed approaching 100 knots ( 120 mph ) , Polehinke remarked , " That is weird with no lights " referring to the lack of lighting on Runway 26 – it was about an hour before daybreak . " Yeah " , confirmed Clay , but the flight data recorder gave no indication either pilot tried to abort the takeoff as the aircraft accelerated to 137 knots ( 158 mph ) .
Clay called for rotation but the aircraft sped off the end of the runway before it could lift off . It then struck a low earthen wall adjacent to a ditch , becoming momentarily airborne , clipped the airport perimeter fence with its landing gear , and smashed into trees , separating the fuselage and flight deck from the tail . The aircraft struck the ground about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the end of the runway . Forty @-@ nine of the 50 people on board perished in the accident ; most of them died instantly in the initial impact . The resulting fire destroyed the aircraft .
= = Victims = =
All 47 passengers and two of the three crew members on board the flight died . Comair released the passenger manifest on August 29 , 2006 .
Most of the passengers were US citizens from the Lexington area , ranging in age from 16 to 72 . They included a young couple who had been married the previous day and were traveling to California on their honeymoon .
A memorial service for the victims was held on August 31 , 2006 , at the Lexington Opera House . A second public memorial service was held on September 10 , 2006 , at Rupp Arena in Lexington . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader published a list of the victims with short biographies .
The Flight 5191 Memorial Commission was established shortly after the crash to create an appropriate memorial for the victims , first responders , and community that supported them . The Commission chose the University of Kentucky Arboretum as its memorial site .
= = Survivor = =
James Polehinke , the first officer , suffered serious injuries , including multiple broken bones , a collapsed lung , and severe bleeding . Lexington @-@ Fayette and airport police officers pulled Polehinke out of the wreckage . Polehinke underwent surgery for his injuries , including an amputation of his left leg . Doctors later determined that Polehinke had suffered brain damage and has no memory of the crash or the events leading up to it . As of August 2007 , Polehinke was a wheelchair user . During the same month , Polehinke filed a lawsuit against the airport and the company that designed the runway and taxi lights . A January 2014 episode of Piers Morgan Live reported that Polehinke was paraplegic .
The estates or families of 21 of the 47 passengers filed lawsuits against Polehinke . In response , Polehinke 's attorney , William E. Johnson , raised the possibility of contributory negligence on the part of the passengers . When asked by the plaintiffs ' attorney , David Royse , what that meant , Johnson replied that " ... ( they ) ... should have been aware of the dangerous conditions that existed in that there had been considerable media coverage about the necessity of improving runway conditions at the airport . " At the time Johnson submitted the contributory negligence defense , he had not yet been able to speak to Polehinke himself . By the time newspapers reported on the court documents , Johnson said he had already told Royse , who criticized the statements , that he would withdraw the argument . Prior to his employment by Comair , Polehinke worked for Gulfstream International as a captain .
= = Aftermath = =
During the course of its investigation , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) discovered that tower staffing levels at Blue Grass Airport violated an internal policy as reflected in a November 16 , 2005 , memorandum requiring two controllers during the overnight shift : one in the tower working clearance , ground , and tower frequencies , and another , either in the tower or remotely at Indianapolis Center , working TRACON ( radar ) . At the time of the accident , the single controller in the tower was performing both tower and radar duties . On August 30 , 2006 , the FAA announced that Lexington , as well as other airports with similar traffic levels , would be staffed with two controllers in the tower around the clock effective immediately .
Comair discovered after the accident that all of its pilots had been using an airport map that did not accurately reflect changes made to the airport layout during ongoing construction work . The NTSB later determined that this did not contribute to the accident . Construction work was halted after the accident on the orders of Fayette Circuit Judge Pamela Goodwine in order to preserve evidence in the crash pending the inspection by safety experts and attorneys for the families of the victims .
In April 2007 , acting on a recommendation made by the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) during its investigation of Comair 5191 , the FAA issued a safety notice that reiterated advice to pilots to positively confirm their position before crossing the hold @-@ short line onto the take @-@ off runway , and again when initiating takeoff . And in May , acting on another NTSB recommendation , the FAA advised that pilot training should include specific guidance on runway lighting requirements for take @-@ off at night .
The NTSB released several reports on January 17 , 2007 , including transcripts and recordings of the CVR and an engineering report .
In April 2007 , the NTSB made four further recommendations , three measures to avoid fatigue affecting the performance of air traffic controllers , and one to prevent controllers from carrying out non @-@ essential administrative tasks while aircraft are taxiing under their control . Although these recommendations were published during the course of the NTSB 's investigation into the accident to Comair Flight 5191 , they were in part prompted by four earlier accidents , and the Board was unable to determine whether fatigue contributed to the Comair accident .
In July 2007 , a flying instructor for Comair testified that he would have failed both pilots for violating Sterile Cockpit Rules . Later the same month , the NTSB released its final report into the accident , citing this " non @-@ pertinent conversation " as a contributing factor in the accident .
In July 2008 , United States District Judge Karl Forester ruled Delta will not be held liable for the crash , because while Comair is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Atlanta @-@ based airline , Comair maintains its own management and policies , and employs its own pilots . In December of the following year , Forester granted a passenger family 's motion for " partial summary judgment " determining , as a matter of law , that Comair 's flight crew was negligent , and that this negligence was a substantial factor causing the crash of Flight 5191 .
Runway 8 / 26 on Blue Grass Airport was closed on March 2009 , and the new 4000 foot runway , runway 9 / 27 , opened on August 4 , 2010 . This runway has been built on a separate location not connected to the runway 22 .
Families of 45 of the 47 passengers sued Comair for negligence . ( Families of the other two victims settled with the airline before filing litigation . ) Three sample cases were due to be heard on August 4 , 2008 ; but the trial was indefinitely postponed after Comair reached a settlement with the majority of the families . Cases brought by Comair against the airport authority and the FAA , arguing each should share in the compensation payments , are now resolved . The case against the airport authority was dismissed on sovereign immunity grounds , and this ruling was upheld by the Kentucky Supreme Court on October 1 , 2009 . In Comair 's case against the United States , a settlement was reached with the United States agreeing to pay 22 % of the liability for the crash , while Comair agreed to pay the remaining 78 % .
All but one of the passengers ' families settled their cases . After a four @-@ day jury trial in Lexington , Kentucky , that ended on December 7 , 2009 , the estate and daughters of 39 ‑ year ‑ old Bryan Woodward were awarded compensatory damages in the amount of $ 7 @.@ 1 million . While Comair challenged this verdict as excessive , on April 2 , 2010 , Judge Forester overruled Comair 's objections and upheld the verdict .
The Woodward case , formally known as Hebert v. Comair , was set for a punitive damages jury trial July 19 , 2010 . In that trial a different jury was to decide whether Comair was guilty of gross negligence that was a substantial factor causing the crash and , if so , the amount of any punitive damages the jury deemed appropriate . The decision to allow a jury trial was reversed in a later hearing , with the judge ruling that the company couldn 't be punished for the " reprehensible conduct " of its pilot .
= = Probable cause = =
During a public meeting on July 26 , 2007 , the NTSB announced the probable cause of the accident , as follows :
The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the flight crew members ' failure to use available cues and aids to identify the airplane 's location on the airport surface during taxi and their failure to cross @-@ check and verify that the airplane was on the correct runway before takeoff . Contributing to the accident were the flight crew 's nonpertinent conversations during taxi , which resulted in a loss of positional awareness and the Federal Aviation Administration 's failure to require that all runway crossings be authorized only by specific air traffic control clearances .
Captain Clay 's wife strongly disputes laying primary blame on the pilots , stating that other factors contributed , " including an under @-@ staffed control tower and an inaccurate runway map " .
= = Similar accidents and incidents = =
In 1993 , a commercial jet at Blue Grass Airport was cleared for takeoff on Runway 22 but mistakenly took Runway 26 instead . Tower personnel noticed the mistake and canceled the aircraft 's takeoff clearance just as the crew realized their error . The aircraft subsequently made a safe departure from Runway 22 .
In January 2007 , a Learjet was cleared to take off at Blue Grass Airport on runway 22 , but mistakenly turned onto runway 26 . Takeoff clearance was canceled by the local controller prior to the start of the takeoff roll .
On October 31 , 2000 , the crew of Singapore Airlines Flight 006 mistakenly used a closed runway for departure from Chiang Kai @-@ shek International Airport , Taipei . The Boeing 747 @-@ 400 collided with construction equipment during the takeoff roll , resulting in the deaths of 83 of the 179 passengers and crew on board .
= Berg ( station ) =
Berg is a station on the Sognsvann Line ( line 6 ) of the Oslo Metro in Norway . Located between Ullevål stadion and Tåsen stations , it is the first station after the Ring Line leaves the Sognsvann Line . The station is located 6 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) from Stortinget station . Berg is amongst the original stations on the line , and was opened on 10 October 1934 . It was upgraded and rebuilt in the 1990s , when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded from light rail to rapid transit standard . Three accidents have taken place at Berg station , the latest in 2008 . The area around the station is mainly residential . Berg Upper Secondary School is located approximately 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from the station .
= = History = =
Berg station was opened on 10 October 1934 , when the municipally owned company Akersbanerne had completed the Sognsvann Line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann . Residential areas at Sogn , Tåsen and Berg were starting to grow , in pace with a larger suburban development plan . Akersbanerne bought new property along the line , upon which new houses were to be designed by the Norwegian architect Kristofer Lange ( 1886 – 1977 ) .
The line was originally double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll ( now Østhorn ) station and single @-@ tracked from Korsvoll to Sognsvann . On 21 February 1939 , the section from Korsvoll to Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and Korsvoll station had its name changed to Østhorn .
In the 1980s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were rebuilt . The platforms were lengthened from fitting two @-@ car to fitting four @-@ car trains and the platform height was increased . The third rail made it impossible to cross the line at @-@ grade ; an underpass was therefore constructed at Berg station . The station was also redesigned in concrete with steel columns and wooden sheds designed by architect Arne Henriksen .
In 1991 , Oslo Sporveier presented plans involving a rapid transit circle line in Oslo , connecting the newly built hospital Rikshospitalet with the rest of the city . A detailed suggestion was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996 . In the local newspaper Aftenposten Aften there was a debate on whether there should be a ring line from Berg along the National Road 150 towards Gaustad over Rikshospitalet , or whether the Ullevål Hageby Line should be extended from John Colletts plass to Rikshospitalet , thereby creating a correspondence with the Sognsvann Line at the new station Forskningsparken . In the first plans , Berg was meant to be a station on the new ring line . This plan was discarded since local residents feared noise pollution and destroyed lawns . Even though Berg was not made a station on the Ring Line , noise shields were put up along the Sognsvann Line .
Berg station has seen many accidents and almost @-@ accidents . In 1965 , a deadly accident occurred between Ullevål and Berg stations , when a train ran over a 33 @-@ year @-@ old man walking in the tracks . In 2002 , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old man was run over by a metro train approaching the station . The man survived the accident with minor wounds . In 2008 , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old drunk man was found crawling around on the tracks between the platforms . The police removed him from the station and sent him home in a taxi .
= = Service = =
Berg is served by line 6 on the Sognsvann Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 11 minutes .
The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 23 and 24 at a nearby bus stop in Kaj Munks vei .
= = Facilities = =
Berg has two platforms , each with a wooden shed and ticket machines . The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalistic and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel .
= = = Location = = =
Berg is located in the borough of Nordre Aker , northeast of the residential area Ullevål Hageby , northwest of Voldsløkka , west of Tåsen , south of Nordberg and east of Sogn . The area Berg is named after an old farm from 1264 with the same name . The street John Colletts allé , starting from John Colletts plass in Ullevål Hageby , ends at Berg station . Kaj Munks vei , as part of the Norwegian National Road 150 , runs parallel with the line from Ullevål stadion via Berg to Tåsen , and continues thereafter towards Nydalen . There are many Swiss chalet and functionalist style houses in the residential area around the station . Berg Upper Secondary School is located 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from the station .
= Adams River ( British Columbia ) =
The Adams River is a tributary to the Thompson and Fraser Rivers in British Columbia , Canada . Beginning in the Monashee Mountains to the north , the Upper Adams River flows mainly southward and eventually reaches Adams Lake . The Lower Adams River begins at the southern end of the lake and flows into the extreme western end of Shuswap Lake . The river is one of the most important sockeye salmon breeding areas in North America . The run occurs in mid @-@ October and can bring millions of fish to a concentrated area near the river mouth . Excavations of Secwepemc villages on the river have shown a long tradition of habitation and salmon fishing in the area . The river also served as an important transportation route for early logging operations in the watershed .
= = Course = =
The headwaters of the Adams are several unnamed glaciers at roughly 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) elevation in the north @-@ east region of the Monashee Range of the Columbia Mountains . The upper portion of the river flows roughly south and southwest through wetlands and passes through two small lakes , Tumtum and Mica . It has sections of rapids and whitewater , and flows over cataracts below Tumtum Lake . Its flow drops by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) per kilometre in certain sections . After travelling for 94 kilometres ( 58 mi ) and entering the Shuswap Highland , it enters the northern end of Adams Lake .
Adams Lake is roughly 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) along its north @-@ south axis , and reaches a maximum depth of 457 metres ( 1 @,@ 499 ft ) , making it the 24th deepest lake in the world . The Lower Adams issues from the extreme southern end of the lake and travels 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) through a narrow valley . It empties into Shuswap Lake near the community of Squilax . From Adams Lake to the Shuswap , the Lower Adams drops 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in elevation .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Tributaries of the Upper Adams include :
Oliver Creek
Dudgeon Creek
Sunset Creek
Fisher Creek
Adams Lake and the Lower Adams are fed by :
Cayenne Creek
Sinmax Creek
Momich River
Hiuihill ( Bear ) Creek
Nikwikwaia ( Gold ) Creek
= = History = =
= = = Secwepemc = = =
The Secwepemc people have lived in the Adams River valley for millennia . A 1977 study by the provincial government along the lower river found sixty @-@ six sites with evidence of habitation dating to 2000 BCE . The abundance of the salmon run made the river an important food source and trade commodity for First Nations people in the region .
Ethnographer James Teit records that the people of the Adams River area formed a sub @-@ group of the Secwepemc called the " Sxste 'lln " , now known as the Adams Lake Indian Band . The Sxste 'lln moved between summer and winter camps at the outlet of the lower river and the Little River area near Chase . The river 's namesake , Chief Sel @-@ howt @-@ ken ( baptized as Adam by Oblate missionaries ) was a Sxste 'lln leader in the 1860s . Like more than 200 of his people , he died in the 1862 smallpox epidemic .
= = = Adams River Lumber Company = = =
Although prospectors , surveyors , and trappers had travelled the region in the 1800s , the first large scale activity in the river valley by Europeans was logging . J.P. McGoldrick , an experienced lumberman from Spokane , established the Adams River Lumber Company in 1909 . He licensed large tracts of timber along both the Upper and Lower rivers , as well as the surrounding plateau . McGoldrick 's company is described as the first major industrial operation in the British Columbia Interior .
A camp was built on the upper river and logging operations began at Tumtum Lake . The cut logs were run down the river , then towed in booms by the company owned sternwheeler Helen down Adams Lake . The logs then were run down the Lower river to the mill at Chase . In 1908 , Adams River Logging constructed a " splash dam " at the outlet of the Lower Adams . This dam allowed operators to raise the water level of Adams Lake . When sufficient logs had been collected above the dam , the gates were opened and the resulting flood carried the logs to Shuswap Lake . This proved to be destructive to the salmon run as it damaged the gravel beds the fish use to spawn .
In order to move logs from the plateau above the Lower river , Adams River Lumber constructed several flumes . The flumes were elevated wooden troughs filled with water that floated logs down to the valley bottom . The largest of these was at Bear Creek . It incorporated trestles up to 25 metres ( 82 ft ) high and was capable of moving 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 ft ) of logs per month . It was the largest flume in North America at its peak . The structures were dismantled after the areas became logged out .
Although logging continues in the region , the Adams is no longer used for log transport .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Flora = = =
Much of the ecology of the watershed has been affected by wildfires and forestry , and is considered to be in a seral phase . The river travels through several different vegetation zones . In its upper reaches , the Adams flows through the Interior Cedar Hemlock zone . These forests are similar to the coastal forests of British Columbia and contain old @-@ growth trees up to 1000 years in age . Old @-@ growth stands along the river also contain rare species of lichen , likely isolated by the last Ice Age . The floodplain of the Upper Adams contains wetland species of deciduous trees such as black cottonwood as well as a dense layer of shrubs including black twinberry , red @-@ osier dogwood , and thimbleberry . The lower river is dominated by the drier Interior Douglas Fir vegetation zone . Other conifer species present are Ponderosa pine , Engelmann spruce , and alpine fir . The area around the river mouth has been altered by human activities such as farming and livestock grazing .
= = = Fauna = = =
= = = = Sockeye salmon = = = =
Adams River sockeye travel from their spawning grounds to the South Thompson River , then into the Fraser River , and enter the Pacific . From the Strait of Georgia , they spend three years in the open ocean following Arctic currents to Alaska and the Aleutian islands . They then retrace their route to the Adams , completing a round trip of over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . They complete the arduous trip upstream , including navigating the swift waters and rapids of the Fraser Canyon , in just seventeen days . They do not eat during this period ; instead they rely on fat reserves stored up from heavy feeding in the Strait of Georgia in the late summer . It is at this point that the salmon take on their distinctive red hue , with the male fish also developing large humped backs and aggressive hooked mouths . How they are able navigate back to their natal river is not fully understood , but a highly developed olfactory system is believed to play a part .
The alluvial gravel deposits that form the Adams river bottom are ideal for the development of salmon roe and alevins . The temperature and neutral Ph of the water is also well @-@ suited to the sockeye . Shuswap Lake , below the river , is called a " nursery lake " by biologists due to its high concentration of picoplankton , a food source for young salmon .
= = = = Dominant runs = = = =
The Adams River run occurs every year , but every fourth year ( called a " dominant " year ) , the numbers are much higher . 2014 was the most recent dominant run . According to Canada 's Department of Fisheries and Oceans , the Fraser River sockeye run of 2010 was the largest since 1913 , numbering an estimated 34 million fish . At least 3 @,@ 866 @,@ 000 of these fish returned to the Adams River to spawn . There is no clear consensus as to why the Adams stock has rebounded so remarkably ( 1991 saw an estimated return of 718 fish ) . In the Globe and Mail , Simon Fraser University biologist John Reynolds said “ [ predicting salmon numbers ] is massively complex , even for a scientist . ”
= = = = Other fauna = = = =
The Adams River valley supports large populations of mule deer , with smaller herds of white @-@ tail deer . Black bears are common in the watershed . The bear population grows substantially during the fall as they gather from adjacent valleys to feed on the spawning salmon . In the upper river valley , moose are common , and the headwaters of the river contain grizzly bear habitat . Several species of aquatic mammals are found on the river , including beaver , mink , and river otter .
The river 's mouth has populations of Canada geese and swans . Other waterfowl include mallards , green @-@ winged teal , and goldeneye . The river supports Bald eagle and osprey populations , whose eyries can be seen high up in black cottonwood and dead conifers . Grouse , especially ruffed grouse , are numerous throughout the valley .
= = Protected areas = =
The Adams passes through the 5 @,@ 733 hectare Upper Adams River Provincial Park and the 1 @,@ 076 hectare Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Provincial Park , which provides trails and platforms for salmon viewing . Human visitors to Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Provincial Park were estimated at 160 @,@ 000 in 2010 . Haig @-@ Brown was a Canadian conservationist , writer and a member of the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission .
= Independence Day ( India ) =
Independence Day , observed annually on 15 August is a national holiday in India commemorating the nation 's independence from the British Empire on 15 August 1947 . India attained independence following an Independence Movement noted for largely nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience led by the Indian National Congress ( INC ) . Independence coincided with the partition of India , in which the British Indian Empire was divided along religious lines into the Dominions of India and Pakistan ; the partition was accompanied by violent riots and mass casualties , and the displacement of nearly 15 million people due to sectarian violence . On 15 August 1947 , Jawaharlal Nehru , who had become the first Prime Minister of India that day , raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate of the Red Fort in Delhi . On each subsequent Independence Day , the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech .
The holiday is observed throughout India with flag @-@ hoisting ceremonies , parades and cultural events . Indians celebrate the day by displaying the national flag on their attire , accessories and homes ; by listening to patriotic songs , watching patriotic movies ; and bonding with family and friends . Books and films feature the independence and partition in their narrative . There have been threats of terrorist attack on and around 15 August by separatist and militant organisations .
= = History = =
European traders had established outposts on the Indian subcontinent by the 17th century . Through overwhelming military strength , the British East India company subdued local kingdoms and established themselves as the dominant force by the 18th century . Following the Rebellion of 1857 , the Government of India Act 1858 led the British Crown to assume direct control of India . In the decades following , civic society gradually emerged across India , most notably the Indian National Congress Party , formed in 1885 . The period after World War I was marked by British reforms such as the Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms , but it also witnessed the enactment of the repressive Rowlatt Act and calls for self @-@ rule by Indian activists . The discontent of this period crystallized into nationwide non @-@ violent movements of non @-@ cooperation and civil disobedience , led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi .
During the 1930s , reform was gradually legislated by the British ; Congress won victories in the resulting elections . The next decade was beset with political turmoil : Indian participation in World War II , the Congress ' final push for non @-@ cooperation , and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism led by the All @-@ India Muslim League . The escalating political tension was capped by Independence in 1947 . The jubilation was tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan .
= = = Independence Day before Independence = = =
At the 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress , the Purna Swaraj declaration , or " Declaration of the Independence of India " was promulgated , and 26 January was declared as Independence Day . The Congress called on people to pledge themselves to civil disobedience and " to carry out the Congress instructions issued from time to time " until India attained complete independence . Celebration of such an Independence Day was envisioned to stoke nationalistic fervour among Indian citizens , and to force the British government to consider granting independence .
The Congress observed 26 January as the Independence Day between 1930 and 1946 . The celebration was marked by meetings where the attendants took the " pledge of independence " . Jawaharlal Nehru described in his autobiography that such meetings were peaceful , solemn , and " without any speeches or exhortation " . Gandhi envisaged that besides the meetings , the day would be spent " ... in doing some constructive work , whether it is spinning , or service of ' untouchables , ' or reunion of Hindus and Mussalmans , or prohibition work , or even all these together " . Following actual independence in 1947 , the Constitution of India came into effect on and from 26 January 1950 ; since then 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day .
= = = Immediate background = = =
In 1946 , the Labour government in Britain , its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II , realised that it had neither the mandate at home , the international support , nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless India . In February 1947 , Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self @-@ governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest .
The new viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , advanced the date for the transfer of power , believing the continuous contention between the Congress and the Muslim League might lead to a collapse of the interim government . He chose the second anniversary of Japan 's surrender in World War II , 15 August , as the date of power transfer . The British government announced on 3 June 1947 that it had accepted the idea of partitioning British India into two states ; the successor governments would be given dominion status and would have an implicit right to secede from the British Commonwealth . The Indian Independence Act 1947 ( 10 & 11 Geo 6 c . 30 ) of the Parliament of the United Kingdom partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan ( including what is now Bangladesh ) with effect from 15 August 1947 , and granted complete legislative authority upon the respective constituent assemblies of the new countries . The Act received royal assent on 18 July 1947 .
= = = Partition and independence = = =
Millions of Muslim , Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders in the months surrounding independence . In Punjab , where the borders divided the Sikh regions in halves , massive bloodshed followed ; in Bengal and Bihar , where Mahatma Gandhi 's presence assuaged communal tempers , the violence was mitigated . In all , between 250 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence . While the entire nation was celebrating the Independence Day , Gandhi stayed in Calcutta in an attempt to stem the carnage . On 14 August 1947 , the Independence Day of Pakistan , the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being ; Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi .
The Constituent Assembly of India met for its fifth session at 11 pm on 14 August in the Constitution Hall in New Delhi . The session was chaired by the president Rajendra Prasad . In this session , Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the Tryst with Destiny speech proclaiming India 's independence .
The members of the Assembly formally took the pledge of being in the service of the country . A group of women , representing the women of India , formally presented the national flag to the assembly .
The Dominion of India became an independent country as official ceremonies took place in New Delhi . Nehru assumed office as the first prime minister , and the viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , continued as its first governor general . Gandhi 's name was invoked by crowds celebrating the occasion ; Gandhi himself however took no part in the official events . Instead , he marked the day with a 24 @-@ hour fast , during which he spoke to a crowd in Calcutta , encouraging peace between Hindu and Muslim .
= = Celebration = =
Independence Day , one of the three national holidays in India ( the other two being the Republic Day on 26 January and Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday on 2 October ) , is observed in all Indian states and union territories . On the eve of Independence Day , the President of India delivers the " Address to the Nation " . On 15 August , the prime minister hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site Red Fort in Delhi . Twenty @-@ one gun shots are fired in honour of the solemn occasion . In his speech , the prime minister highlights the past year 's achievements , raises important issues and calls for further development . He pays tribute to the leaders of the Indian independence movement . The Indian national anthem , " Jana Gana Mana " is sung . The speech is followed by march past of divisions of the Indian Armed Forces and paramilitary forces . Parades and pageants showcase scenes from the independence struggle and India 's diverse cultural traditions . Similar events take place in state capitals where the Chief Ministers of individual states unfurl the national flag , followed by parades and pageants .
Flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural programmes take place in governmental and non @-@ governmental institutions throughout the country . Schools and colleges conduct flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural events . Major government buildings are often adorned with strings of lights . In Delhi and some other cities , kite flying adds to the occasion . National flags of different sizes are used abundantly to symbolise allegiance to the country . Citizens adorn their clothing , wristbands , cars , household accessories with replicas of the tri @-@ colour . Over a period of time , the celebration has changed emphasis from nationalism to a broader celebration of all things India .
The Indian diaspora celebrates Independence Day around the world with parades and pageants , particularly in regions with higher concentrations of Indian immigrants . In some locations , such as New York and other US cities , 15 August has become " India Day " among the diaspora and the local populace . Pageants celebrate " India Day " either on 15 August or an adjoining weekend day .
= = Security threats = =
As early as three years after independence , the Naga National Council called for a boycott of Independence Day in northeast India . Separatist protests in this region intensified in the 1980s ; calls for boycotts and terrorist attacks by insurgent organisations such as the United Liberation Front of Assam and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland , marred celebrations . With increasing insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir from the late 1980s , separatist protesters boycotted Independence Day there with bandh ( strikes ) , use of black flags and by flag burning . Terrorist outfits such as Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Taiba , the Hizbul Mujahideen and the Jaish @-@ e @-@ Mohammed have issued threats , and have carried out attacks around Independence Day . Boycotting of the celebration has also been advocated by insurgent Maoist rebel organisations .
In the anticipation of terrorist attacks , particularly from militants , security measures are intensified , especially in major cities such as Delhi and Mumbai and in troubled states such as Jammu and Kashmir . The airspace around the Red Fort is declared a no @-@ fly zone to prevent aerial attacks and additional police forces are deployed in other cities .
= = In popular culture = =
On Independence Day and Republic Day , patriotic songs in Hindi and regional languages are broadcast on television and radio channels . They are also played alongside flag hoisting ceremonies . Patriotic films are broadcast . Over the decades , according to The Times of India , the number of such films broadcast has decreased as channels report that audiences are oversaturated with patriotic films . The population cohort that belong to the Generation Next often combine nationalism with popular culture during the celebrations . This mixture is exemplified by outfits and savouries dyed with the tricolour and designer garments that represent India 's various cultural traditions . Retail stores offer Independence Day sales promotions . Some news reports have decried the commercialism . Indian Postal Service publishes commemorative stamps depicting independence movement leaders , nationalistic themes and defence @-@ related themes on 15 August .
Independence and partition inspired literary and other artistic creations . Such creations mostly describe the human cost of partition , limiting the holiday to a small part of their narrative . Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children ( 1980 ) , which won the Booker Prize and the Booker of Bookers , wove its narrative around children born at midnight of 14 – 15 August 1947 with magical abilities . Freedom at Midnight ( 1975 ) is a non @-@ fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947 . Few films center on the moment of independence , instead highlighting the circumstances of partition and its aftermath . On the Internet , Google has commemorated Independence Day since 2003 with a special doodle on its Indian homepage .
= The One I Love ( manga ) =
The One I Love ( Japanese : わたしのすきなひと , Hepburn : Watashi no Sukinahito ) is a romantic , slice @-@ of @-@ life shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga by Clamp , an all @-@ female , manga artist team consisting of Satsuki Igarashi , Mokona , Tsubaki Nekoi , and Nanase Ohkawa . Appearing as a monthly serial in the Japanese manga magazine Monthly Young Rose from December 1993 to June 1995 , the twelve stories were collected into a bound volume by Kadokawa Shoten and published in July 1995 . The One I Love contains twelve independent manga stories , each focusing on an aspect of love and accompanied by an essay . Ohkawa wrote the essays while Nekoi illustrated the manga ; it was the first time she primarily illustrated a manga by Clamp . Some of the stories draw on the life experiences of the women while others take inspiration from conversations they had with friends .
In 2003 , Tokyopop licensed The One I Love for an English @-@ language translation in North America , and published it in October 2004 . Viz Media republished the manga in February 2015 . The manga has also been translated into other languages . Reviewers have identified a few themes in the collection . They had a range of reactions to The One I Love : some considered it heartfelt entertainment , while others reviewed it less positively , as a badly done take on romance .
= = Plot = =
Each story of The One I Love consists of seven pages of manga and an accompanying essay .
" Different " ( ちがう , Chigau ) : A girl asks to meet her boyfriend in the park after they have had a fight . She wants to apologize , but she does not know what to say . She wears a kimono instead . When she meets her boyfriend , she finds that he is dressed up too ; he had the same idea as she did .
" Cute " ( かわいい , Kawaii ) : A girl reflects on the word " cute " with her boyfriend . She cannot visualize " cute , " so she does not understand why it makes her happy when he says that she is cute .
" I Miss You " ( あいたい , Aitai ) : A girl has doubts about staying with her boyfriend , who has a very demanding work schedule . In the end , he skips work to visit her , and she decides that their romantic relationship will work out .
" A Younger Man " ( としした , Toshishita ) : A young woman working at a bakery reflects on a past unsuccessful relationship with a younger man . In the end , a younger bakery worker asks her on a date , and she is hopeful that their romantic relationship will work out .
" Suddenly " ( とつぜん , Totsuzen ) : A girl working in a design company thinks about her past relationships , and one of her coworkers , whom she does not get along with . When a design job goes wrong and that coworker offers his ideas , she realizes that she is in love with him .
" Together " ( いっしょに , Isshoni ) : A girl reflects on her childhood sweetheart , who introduced her to playing the harmonica .
" Pretty " ( きれい , Kirei ) : A girl panics as she decides what to wear to meet her boyfriend . When she is late to meet him , she realizes that her boyfriend always thinks she is pretty no matter what she wears .
" Insecure " ( ふあん , Fuan ) : A girl has a dream about her boyfriend ending their relationship , and she is worried that it is a premonition .
" Courage " ( ゆうき , Yûki ) : A girl confesses her love on Valentine 's Day .
" Normal " ( ふつう , Futsû ) : A young woman has doubts about getting married to her boyfriend . In the end , she realizes that even if they marry , nothing will change between them .
" Apart " ( はなれる , Hanareru ) : A young woman wonders if her long @-@ distance boyfriend is being faithful . In the end , she finds out that he is very dedicated to her .
" Marriage " ( けっこん , Kekkon ) : A young woman about to be married is nervous about her future . She is worried that she might change , but her husband reassures her that they will change together .
= = Development = =
The One I Love was developed by Clamp — the all @-@ female , manga artist team consisting of Satsuki Igarashi , Mokona , Tsubaki Nekoi , and Nanase Ohkawa . The group decided on the theme of romance after considering the target audience of the manga magazine Monthly Young Rose , whose editors had asked them for a manga . For The One I Love , Ohkawa wrote the essays , and Nekoi illustrated the manga , the first time she primarily illustrated a series for the group . For costumes , Ohkawa used " Anon non @-@ no Olive " as a reference . Additionally , the preview panels of each story featured different visual motifs , primarily girls and animals . In retrospective , Nekoi self @-@ deprecatingly thought that her illustrations of the female protagonists , including working women , made them resemble junior high students .
Some of the stories in The One I Love contain autobiographical elements . " Different " and " Cute " draw on Ohkawa 's personal experiences , while " Together " draws on Mokona 's . Additionally , " Suddenly " is based on her admiration of manga artist Hagiwara Kuzushi 's dedication to his fans . " Normal " , " Apart " , and " Insecure " were inspired by Ohkawa 's conversations with friends , and " I Miss You " has its origins in a conversation with manga artist Okazaki Takeshi , who rarely saw his girlfriend because of his work . " A Younger Man " stems from Ohkawa 's conversation with actor Tonesaku Toshihide and his thoughts on men and age in a relationship . In contrast , " Courage " appeared as a Valentine 's Day story in the February issue of Young Rose ; Clamp rarely had opportunities to create seasonal stories , as the magazine that typically serialized their work did not run seasonal stories .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Clamp , the stories of The One I Love appeared as a monthly serial in Monthly Young Rose from December 1993 to June 1995 . Kadokawa Shot | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
A black satire of the film industry , it is also a parody of the " oral biographies " popularized by George Plimpton with his books about Edie Sedgwick and Truman Capote , in that the protagonist 's life is revealed in the form of interviews between the writer and the characters . Though it has been praised as " one of the few novels from the last couple of decades that could justifiably be called a classic " , reviewers have also pointed out that it is probably unfilmable due to its bitter cynicism regarding the movie industry .
Baker 's last published work , Right Wing , as well as his posthumous novels Testosterone and Anarchy , represent a stylistic departure in that he inserts himself into the plot as either a secondary character or the protagonist . The latter two were edited , and in the case of Anarchy , partially rewritten by his editor , Scott Brassart . Testosterone needed only minor changes , while Anarchy underwent an entire rewrite , with Brassart restructuring the plot and streamlining over 500 pages of prose and notes into a fast @-@ paced , 250 page novel . For the reader , however , it is only Baker 's voice as writer that is heard .
Three of Baker 's books have thus far not been published : White Devils , Proto Punk , and Crucifying Todd . Additionally , he wrote two screenplays which have not as yet been filmed : Inez and Desert Women .
= = Published works = =
Adrenaline ( 1985 ) Signet Books / New American Library ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 451 @-@ 13563 @-@ 6
Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams ( 1986 ) E. P. Dutton ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 24417 @-@ 2
Boy Wonder ( 1988 ) New American Library ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 453 @-@ 00597 @-@ 5
Tim and Pete ( 1993 ) Simon & Schuster ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 79184 @-@ 1
Right Wing ( 1996 , only published on the Internet )
Testosterone ( published posthumously 2000 ) Alyson Publications ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55583 @-@ 567 @-@ 5
Anarchy ( published posthumously 2002 ) Alyson Publications ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55583 @-@ 743 @-@ 3
= Ernie Cooksey =
Ernest George Cooksey ( 11 June 1980 – 3 July 2008 ) was an English footballer , who was described as a utility player . He could play as a left @-@ sided defender and midfielder as well as in a central @-@ midfield role . He started as a trainee with Colchester United , before joining non @-@ League clubs Heybridge Swifts , Bishop 's Stortford , Chesham United and Bromley . In 2002 , he joined Southern Football League Premier Division side Crawley Town before turning professional with Football League side Oldham Athletic in 2003 .
He then moved to Rochdale in 2004 and Boston United in 2007 , totalling 140 appearances in the Football League over a four @-@ year period . He dropped down back into non @-@ League football , joining Conference National club Grays Athletic , making 19 league appearances .
Cooksey had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006 , but was diagnosed with a recurrence of a malignant melanoma in February 2008 . He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008 , aged 28 .
= = Football career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Cooksey had started his career as a trainee with Colchester United , prior to moving onto a number of non @-@ League clubs . His first move was to Heybridge Swifts before joining Bishop 's Stortford in 1998 . He then moved onto Chesham United in 2000 , leaving in 2002 to have a brief spell at Bromley .
He joined Southern Football League Premier Division club , Crawley Town in July 2002 , ready for the 2002 – 03 season . Cooksey made his debut for Crawley on 26 August , against Welling United coming on as a substitute , after he returned from coaching schoolchildren in Las Vegas , United States for six @-@ months . He made 34 appearances , scoring once during his spell with Crawley , helping them to finish seventh in the Southern Football League Premier Division .
= = = Turning professional = = =
Cooksey joined Oldham Athletic on trial in July 2003 . At the age of 23 , he stepped up three leagues into professional football permanently when Iain Dowie signed him on for financially troubled Oldham in August , who were in the Second Division . Bob Dowie , who was Cooksey 's former manager at Chesham United , recommended the player to his brother , Iain . He followed in the footsteps of Fitz Hall and Wayne Andrews who also joined the club from Chesham as recommendations from Bob Dowie . Cooksey scored twice in Oldham 's 3 – 0 home victory over Carlisle United in their FA Cup first round match on 8 November 2003 . When the new season , 2003 – 04 , started Cooksey was unable to make his debut due to suspension . He made 37 Second Division appearances for Oldham in the 2003 – 04 season , scoring four goals .
Cooksey started the 2004 – 05 season with Oldham Athletic , playing one match , away against Luton Town on 7 August . He was released by Oldham on 15 September , after he was left out of manager Brian Talbot 's plans . He dropped down into the Third Division , newly renamed as League Two and signed for Rochdale a day later on 16 September , despite discussing terms with Carlisle United . He made his debut , away against Mansfield Town in the 1 – 0 away defeat on 18 September . During his first season with Rochdale , Cooksey picked up six yellow cards and two red cards on the field . However , his first red card of the season against Notts County was later overturned and downgraded to a yellow after a successful appeal to The FA .
At the start of the 2006 – 07 season , he signed a 12 @-@ month extension to his contract . He spent more than two years with League Two side Rochdale , before joining Boston United in the January transfer window of 2007 . Boston United were reduced to just 12 professionals on their books in the closing stages of the 2006 – 07 season , as the club could not afford to pay players wages . Cooksey had not been paid since February , and was spending £ 30 a day in fuel travelling from his Manchester home . He spent six months at Boston United and played 16 League Two games , but was unable to prevent them from being relegated from The Football League on the final day of the season .
= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =
Following his release from Boston United , Cooksey stated that he 'd like to reunite with former Boston manager Steve Evans , who was now manager of Cooksey 's previous club , Crawley Town . He had an unsuccessful trial at Barnet , before joining Conference National side Grays Athletic in July 2007 . He made his debut in Grays ' first game of the season away to Torquay United in the 0 – 0 draw , on 12 August . Cooksey was sent @-@ off in Grays ' 1 – 0 home defeat on 8 September , for a mistimed tackle on Michael Brough , as his trailing leg caught the opposition player . His last ever game before his death was for Grays Athletic at home in a Conference National match , against Exeter City on 16 February 2008 . Cooksey played the full 90 minutes in the 2 – 0 defeat . During the 2007 – 08 season , he made 19 appearances in the Conference for Grays .
= = Playing style = =
Cooksey was a utility player , due to his versatility on the left @-@ flank and in the centre of midfield as a box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder . He was predominately a midfielder , throughout his career playing in the centre or on the left @-@ wing . During his spell with Grays Athletic , he was used as a defender , playing as a left full @-@ back .
= = Personal life and illness = =
Before joining Oldham Athletic in August 2003 , Cooksey worked as a builder fitting false ceilings , leaving the better @-@ paid job to fulfil a lifelong ambition to become a professional footballer .
In early 2008 , he was diagnosed with malignant melanoma , a severe form of skin cancer . He had fought the disease before , when he had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006 . Cooksey suspected his cancer originated from a six @-@ month spell coaching schoolchildren in the searing heat of Las Vegas in the United States . In April 2008 , Grays Athletic staged a benefit match for Cooksey . The match consisted of former professional players , as well as current professionals such as Leroy Lita , Nicky Shorey , Aaron McLean , Ray Parlour , Justin Edinburgh , Iain Dowie , Bob Dowie , Clive Allen , Scott Fitzgerald and Paul Merson . He returned to his former club Oldham Athletic in May 2008 , where another benefit match was staged for his appeal at Boundary Park , attended by 1 @,@ 500 fans to see such former players as John Barnes , Luther Blissett and Chris Waddle as well as television actors from Coronation Street .
Cooksey was born in Bishop 's Stortford . He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008 , at the age of 28 , five weeks before partner Louise Newlove was due to give birth to their first child . Newlove gave birth to their daughter , Isabella @-@ Georgia Cooksey , on 27 July 2008 .
= = Tributes = =
Before the League Cup match between Oldham Athletic and Rochdale on 12 August 2008 , both sets of players and management emerged from the tunnel wearing special Ernie Cooksey t @-@ shirts bearing the number 4 , the shirt number he wore at both clubs . The t @-@ shirts bore both clubs ' crests on the front along with the slogan " ERNIE COOKSEY – A TRUE GENT " , and the reverse read " 4 ERNIE " . A bucket collection also took place with all the proceeds going to a fund set up in Cooksey 's name . Additionally , his family , including partner Louise , were present at the game .
Oldham Athletic fans had a St George 's Cross flag made in his honour , which was due to be displayed at Oldham 's matches , as well as being taken abroad for England international fixtures . The tribute flag was stolen in February 2009 , when Spanish hooligans attacked English fans in Seville before an international friendly on 20 February , stealing England flags from fans as trophies . The flag was replaced after a number of donations helped to cover the costs .
= Simon de Montfort 's Parliament =
Simon de Montfort 's Parliament was an English parliament held from 20 January 1265 until mid @-@ March the same year , instigated by Simon de Montfort , a baronial rebel leader .
Simon de Montfort had seized power in England following his victory over Henry III at the Battle of Lewes during the Second Barons ' War , but his grip on the country was under threat . In an attempt to gather more support he summoned representatives from not only the barons and the knights of the shires , as had occurred in previous parliaments , but also burgesses from the major towns . The resulting parliament in London discussed radical reforms and temporarily stabilised Montfort 's political situation . Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham later that year , but the idea of inviting both knights and burgesses to parliaments became more popular under the reign of Henry 's son Edward I. By the 14th century this had become the norm , with the gathering becoming known as the House of Commons . This parliament is sometimes referred to as the first English parliament and Montfort himself is often termed the founder of the Commons .
= = Background = =
In 1258 , King Henry III of England faced a revolt among the English barons . Anger had grown about the way the King 's officials were raising funds , the influence of his Poitevin relatives at court and his unpopular Sicilian policy ; even the English Church had grievances over its treatment by the King . Within Henry 's court there was a strong feeling that the King would be unable to lead the country through these problems . On 30 April , Hugh Bigod marched into Westminster in the middle of the King 's parliament , backed by his co @-@ conspirators , including Simon de Montfort , the Earl of Leicester , and carried out a coup d 'état . Henry , fearful that he was about to be arrested and imprisoned , agreed to abandon his policy of personal rule and instead govern through a council of 24 barons and churchmen , half chosen by the King and half by the barons .
The pressure for reform continued to grow unabated and a parliament met in June . The term " parliament " had first appeared in the 1230s and 1240s to describe large gatherings of the royal court , and parliamentary gatherings were held periodically throughout Henry 's reign . They were used to agree upon the raising of taxes which , in the 13th century , were single , one @-@ off levies , typically on movable property , intended to support the King 's normal revenues for particular projects . During Henry 's reign , the counties had begun to send regular delegations to these parliaments , and came to represent a broader cross @-@ section of the community than simply the major barons .
The new parliament passed a set of measures known as the Provisions of Oxford , which Henry swore to uphold . These provisions created a smaller council of 15 members , elected solely by the barons , which then had the power to appoint England 's justiciar , chancellor and treasurer , and which would be monitored through triennial parliaments . Pressure from the lesser barons and the gentry present at Oxford also helped to push through wider reform , intended to limit the abuse of power by both the King 's officials and the major barons . More radical measures were passed by the new council the next year , in the form of the Provisions of Westminster .
The disagreements between the leading barons involved in the revolt soon became evident . Montfort championed radical reforms that would place further limitations on the authority and power of the major barons as well as the Crown ; others promoted only moderate change , while the conservative barons expressed concerns about the existing limitations on the King 's powers . Over the next four years , neither Henry nor the barons were able to restore stability in England , and power swung back and forth between the different factions . By early 1263 , what remained of Henry 's authority had disintegrated and the country slipped back towards open civil war . Montfort convened a council of rebel barons in Oxford to pursue his radical agenda and by October , England faced a likely civil war . Montfort marched east with an army and London rose up in revolt . Montfort took Henry and Queen Eleanor prisoner , and although he maintained a fiction of ruling in Henry 's name , the rebels completely replaced the royal government and household with their own , trusted men .
Montfort 's coalition began to quickly fragment , Henry regained his freedom of movement and renewed chaos spread across England . Henry appealed to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Louis of France for arbitration in the dispute ; Montfort was initially hostile to this idea , but , as war became more likely again , he decided to agree to French arbitration as well . Initially Montfort 's legal arguments held sway , but in January 1264 , Louis announced the Mise of Amiens , condemning the rebels , upholding the King 's rights and annulling the Provisions of Oxford . The Second Barons ' War finally broke out in April , when Henry led an army into Montfort 's territories . Becoming desperate , Montfort marched in pursuit of Henry and the two armies met at the Battle of Lewes on 14 May . Despite their numerical superiority , Henry 's forces were overwhelmed . Captured , Henry was forced to pardon the rebel barons and reinstate the Provisions of Oxford , leaving him , as historian Adrian Jobson describes , " little more than a figurehead " .
= = Parliament = =
Simon de Montfort claimed to be ruling in the King 's name through a council of officials . However , he had effective political control over the government even though he was not himself the monarch , the first time this had happened in English history . Montfort successfully held a parliament in London in June 1264 to confirm new constitutional arrangements for England ; four knights were summoned from each county , chosen by the county court , and were allowed to comment on general matters of state – the first time this had occurred . Montfort was unable to consolidate his victory at Lewes , however , and widespread disorder persisted across the country . In France , Eleanor made plans for an invasion of England with the support of Louis .
In response , and hoping to win wider support for his government , Montfort summoned a new parliament for 20 January 1265 which continued until mid March that year . It was held at short notice , with the summons being issued on 14 December , leaving little time for attendees to respond . He summoned not only the barons , senior churchmen and two knights from each county , but also two burgesses from each of the major towns such as York , Lincoln , Sandwich , and the Cinque Ports , the first time this had been done . Due to the lack of support for Montfort among the barons , only 23 of them were summoned to parliament , in comparison to the summons issued to 120 churchmen , who largely supported the new government ; it is unknown how many burgesses were called . The event was overseen by King Henry , and held in the Palace of Westminster , London , which was the largest city in England , and whose continuing loyalty was essential to Montfort 's cause .
This parliament was a populist , tactical move by Montfort in an attempt to gather support from the regions , and the historian Jeffrey Hamilton characterises it as " a very partisan assembly , not some sort of proto @-@ democratic representative body " . Once again the representatives were allowed to comment on wider political matters than just the usual issues of taxation . The business of the parliament focused on enforcing the Provisions of Westminster , in particular its restrictions on the major nobles , and promising judicial help to those who felt they were suffering from unfair feudal lordship .
The parliament bought temporary calm but opposition grew once more , particularly as Montfort and his immediate family began to amass a huge personal fortune . Prince Edward escaped his captors in May and formed a new army , resulting in a fresh outbreak of civil war . Edward pursued Monfort 's forces through the Welsh Marches , before striking east to attack his fortress at Kenilworth and then turning once more on the rebel leader himself . Montfort , accompanied by the captive Henry , was unable to retreat and the Battle of Evesham ensued . Edward was triumphant and Montfort 's corpse was mutilated by the victors . In places the now leaderless rebellion dragged on , with some rebels gathering at Kenilworth , which Henry and Edward took after a long siege in 1266 . The remaining pockets of resistance were mopped up , and the final rebels , holed up on the Isle of Ely , surrendered in July 1267 , marking the end of the war .
= = Legacy = =
Henry III ruled England until his death in 1272 , continuing to summon parliaments , sometimes including the county knights and on one occasion including burgesses from the towns . After 1297 under Edward I 's reign , this became the norm , and by the early 14th century it was normal to include the knights and burgesses , a grouping that would become known as the " Commons " of England and , ultimately , form the " House of Commons " .
Simon de Montfort 's parliament of 1265 is sometimes referred to as the first English parliament , because of its inclusion of both the knights and the burgesses , and Montfort himself is often regarded as the founder of the House of Commons . The 19th century historian William Stubbs popularised the 1295 " Model Parliament " of Edward I as the first genuine parliament ; however , modern scholarship questions this analysis . The historian David Carpenter describes Montfort 's 1265 parliament as " a landmark " in the development of parliament as an institution during the medieval period .
= = = Modern recognition = = =
The Parliament of the United Kingdom presented a loyal address to Queen Elizabeth II in 1965 to mark the 700th anniversary of Montfort 's Parliament , and the Queen addressed both Houses of Parliament . The House of Lords Record Office , now known as the Parliamentary Archives , organised an exhibition in the Houses of Parliament of several important Acts of Parliament . Some of these documents were displayed again in a 2015 exhibition .
In 2015 , Parliament planned a year @-@ long programme of events called " Parliament in the Making " , coordinated with Parliament Week , including events to mark the 750th anniversary of Montfort 's Parliament . The BBC broadcast a " Democracy Day " on 20 January to coincide with the 750th anniversary consisting of live discussions and debate about parliament and democracy . It was presented in partnership with the Speaker ’ s Office of the House of Commons , including broadcasts from inside the Palace of Westminster . Westminster Abbey held a special evensong on 22 January commemorating the anniversary of the Montfort parliament and the development of rights and representation .
= USS O 'Brien ( DD @-@ 51 ) =
USS O 'Brien ( Destroyer No. 51 / DD @-@ 51 ) was the lead ship of O 'Brien @-@ class destroyers built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second US Navy vessel named in honor of Jeremiah O 'Brien and his five brothers Gideon , John , William , Dennis , and Joseph who , together on the sloop Unity , captured a British warship during the American Revolutionary War .
O 'Brien was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in July 1914 .
After her May 1915 commissioning , O 'Brien sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , O 'Brien was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland .
After returning to the United States in January 1919 , O 'Brien revisited European waters in May to serve as one of the picket ships for the NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 and sold for scrapping in April .
= = Design and construction = =
O 'Brien was authorized in March 1913 as the lead ship of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 8 September 1913 . On 20 July 1914 , O 'Brien was launched by sponsor Miss Marcia Bradbury Campbell , great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Gideon O 'Brien , one of the ship 's namesakes . Gideon and his four brothers — John , William , Dennis , and Joseph — were crewmen aboard sloop Unity , under the command of their brother Jeremiah O 'Brien , when that vessel captured HMS Margaretta on 12 June 1775 during the American Revolutionary War ; the destroyer O 'Brien was named after all six brothers , and was the second US Navy vessel named in their honor . As built , the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 31 ft 1 in ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 9 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .
O 'Brien had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .
O 'Brien 's main battery consisted of four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 lb ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 lb ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yd ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
O 'Brien was also equipped with four twin 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for O 'Brien or any of the other ships of the class .
= = Pre @-@ World War I = =
O 'Brien was commissioned into the United States Navy on 22 May 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander C. E. Courtney , after which she conducted her shakedown cruise between Newport , Rhode Island , and Hampton Roads , Virginia . In fleet exercises off New York in November , O 'Brien collided with the destroyer Drayton , in a minor incident that carried away part of Drayton 's topmast and wireless gear . In December , she was assigned to the 5th Division , Torpedo Flotilla , Atlantic Fleet . From early 1916 @-@ spring of 1917 , she operated with the Fleet along the East Coast and in Cuban waters .
At 05 : 30 on 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer SS West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered O 'Brien and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors .
The American destroyers arrived on the scene at about 17 : 00 when the U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , was in the process of stopping the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships before sinking the pair . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla .
In February 1917 , one of O 'Brien 's gun crews hit a target at 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) eight times in eight attempts with one of the destroyer 's 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns , a feat which earned the crew and O 'Brien recognition in The Independent , a weekly newsmagazine published in Boston .
= = World War I = =
Returning from winter maneuvers off Cuba in March 1917 , the ship was in the York River when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April , entering World War I. After fitting out at Brooklyn Navy Yard , she got underway from New York on 15 May with Cummings , Nicholson , Cushing , and Sampson , and joined convoy at Halifax , Nova Scotia , en route to Ireland . Upon arrival at Queenstown on 24 May , O 'Brien was assigned to the 6th Destroyer Division which cooperated with the British forces . She patrolled off the Irish coast in company with other destroyers answering distress calls and meeting eastbound convoys to escort them through the war zone .
While escorting SS Elysia 12 nmi ( 14 mi ; 22 km ) off Queenstown on 16 June , lookouts on O 'Brien sighted a periscope . Heading toward the submarine for an attack , a lookout in the foretop saw the submerged boat pass close along the starboard side . A depth charge was dropped but no immediate evidence of damage was found . Nearly three hours later , the British vessel HMS Jessamine reported a large patch of oil in approximately the same position . The next morning , Cushing also reported and confirmed Jessamine 's report . The British Admiralty believed the submarine was probably seriously damaged . However , later investigation reveals that German submarine U @-@ 16 , the submarine in question , continued to operate and completed her cruise .
In the summer of 1918 , O 'Brien was transferred to the French coast where she continued her antisubmarine patrols through the end of the war .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
After the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , which ended all fighting , O 'Brien transported mail and passengers between Brest , France , and Plymouth , England . She returned to New York on 8 January 1919 , but returned to European waters in May when she served as one of the rescue pickets stationed along the route across the Atlantic flown by three Navy NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic .
In 1919 , she assisted in the unsuccessful first attempt to lay the Ambrose Channel pilot cable . In July 1920 , she was assigned the hull code of DD @-@ 51 under the US Navy 's alphanumeric classification system . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 5 June 1922 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 8 March 1935 , and broken up at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and her materials sold for scrap on 23 April . The ship 's bell remains in the Plattsburgh Memorial Chapel on the former Plattsburgh Air Force Base .
= Christine Hakim =
Herlina Christine Natalia Hakim ( born 25 December 1956 ) , also known by the popular name Christine Hakim , is an Indonesian actress , film producer , and activist . Born to a devout Muslim family of a mixed @-@ race background in Jambi , she grew up in Yogyakarta , aspiring to be an architect or psychologist . This changed after she was discovered by Teguh Karya for his 1973 movie Cinta Pertama , a role which garnered her a Citra Award for Best Actress and convinced her to follow a career in acting . Since then , she has starred in numerous films , including 1977 's Badai Pasti Berlalu and 1988 's Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ; she also had a minor role in the 2010 Hollywood movie Eat Pray Love . As of 2011 , she has won six Citra Awards , received a lifetime achievement award from the Cinemanila International Film Festival , and served as a member of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival
Hakim began branching out from acting in 1998 , beginning with roles as producer of Daun di Atas Bantal and Pasir Berbisik and eventually spreading to documentary film @-@ making and an activist for education and autism . Beginning in 2008 , she has served as Indonesia 's goodwill ambassador to UNESCO , focusing on educational issues .
= = Biography = =
Hakim was born in Kuala Tungkal , Jambi on 25 December 1956 , but grew up in Yogyakarta . She is of mixed descent , with her relatives coming from Padang , Aceh , Banten , Pekalongan , Madiun , and the Middle East ; this caused her to question her identity as a child and teenager . Despite being devout Muslims , her parents named her Christine and Natalia because she was born on Christmas Day .
Originally , Hakim did not intend to be an actress , but an architect or psychologist . However , she was cast in Teguh Karya 's 1973 film Cinta Pertama after he saw pictures of her modelling in a magazine ; despite only modelling to help her friend and not wanting to act , she was unable to decline Karya 's request for fear of being impolite to such a " warm and friendly " person . She later described Karya as having " reeled [ her ] in , slowly , slowly , like a fisherma , " and considered leaving acting after wrapping up filming . Her work in Cinta Pertama garnered her a Citra Award for Best Actress , which convinced her to continue acting . Karya later told her that he had fought with his producer over her casting ; the producer expressed concern that Hakim was " too thin and had no chest , " to which Karya replied " are we selling a film or are we selling breasts ? "
The following year , Hakim starred in another Karya @-@ directed film , Kawin Lari ( Elope ) . The experience gave her a greater understanding of acting , causing her to " see life from a different perspective in studying [ her ] character . " It was followed by a role in 1976 's Sesuatu yang Indah ( Something Beautiful ) , directed by Wim Umboh . Sesuatu yang Indah was the first film in which Hakim used her own voice ; her voice had been dubbed by Titi Qadarsih in previous movies ; Hakim 's own voice had been considered " too heavy . " The next year , she starred in Badai Pasti Berlalu , appearing on the poster and the cover of the soundtrack album .
Hakim presented 14 Indonesian films at the Nantes Three Continents Festival in November 1983 ; she had acted in half of them . Two years later she became an observer at the Cannes Film Festival , striking up a working relationship with Pierre Risient , who later assisted her in bringing her films to Cannes .
One of these was Eros Djarot 's 1988 film Tjoet Nja ' Dhien , in which Hakim was cast as Acehnese guerilla leader Cut Nyak Dhien . It won the 1989 Cannes Film Festival award for Best International Film , being screened in Le Semaine de Critique . Hakim later described the role as a " huge honour " and " very challenging " ; she has credited the role for answering her questions on her identity . The film later became Indonesia 's submission to the 62nd Academy Awards for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film .
Hakim screened her first work as a producer , Daun di Atas Bantal ( Leaf on a Pillow ) during Un Certain Regard at Cannes ten years later . When producing the film , she chose young director Garin Nugroho , whom she perceived to be highly talented ; she also took the leading role . During production , she made a mistake that required the reshooting of all footage . In an attempt to cut expenses , she had saved all cans of exposed film to send to the developing lab at once ; the lab then notified her that a technical fault with the camera had rendered all of it unusable and that the problem could have been detected earlier had she sent each can as it was filmed .
Another production , 2001 's Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ) , went more smoothly . The film , which Hakim co @-@ produced and played the leading role , was screened at the Deauville Asian Film Festival . The following year she was appointed to the jury of the Cannes Film Festival , along with Michelle Yeoh . In 2005 she received a special tribute during the opening ceremony of the 7th Deauville Asian Film Festival .
In 2003 , Hakim began work with RCTI and Metro TV on the TV show Untukmu Guru ( For You , Teacher ) . Five years later , Hakim was selected Indonesia ’ s voluntary goodwill ambassador for UNESCO ; she has used the position to promote education , push for education reforms in Indonesia , and promote disaster relief programs in South @-@ East Asia .
Hakim 's first Hollywood experience came in 2010 , Hakim played Wayan , a Balinese jamu seller , alongside Julia Roberts in Eat Pray Love . Arriving in Bali three days before shooting , she found herself rushed to read the script , be fitted , and rid herself of her green hair . She met with the person her character was based on to prepare for her role . That same year , Hakim accepted a FIAPF Award for her " outstanding achievements " ; she compared the award to Viagra , saying that it " make [ s ] [ her ] stronger to satisfy [ audiences ] " .
Hakim is also a documentary filmmaker . She has made a documentary on the Indonesian UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and in 2011 produced a documentary on autism to " educate the public " that was released to coincide with World Autism Awareness Day . As of May 2011 , she is producing a documentary on the Dayak people of Kalimantan . She is considering making a fiction film based on their culture .
= = Activism = =
Beginning in the early 2000s , Hakim became an activist , with a focus on education . After the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , she went on numerous humanitarian trips to Aceh . She later founded the Christine Hakim feature , a foundation to promote public education about autism . She has urged the government to eliminate misconceptions regarding autism , calling the refusal to accept autistic students in public schools " a violation of human rights " .
= = Personal life = =
In 2000 , Hakim married Dutchman Jeroen Lezer , a film producer , writer and actor . They currently live in Cibubur East Jakarta with Hakim 's mother and adopted daughter Shena ; Bruce Emond of The Jakarta Post describes her home as being " like a lush secret garden amid the creeping suburbia " .
Hakim generally avoids discussing her personal life with the press and is unwilling to discuss topics that are not of public interest . In 1992 she said that " 90 percent of the journalists here aren 't interested in [ her ] films , they just want to know about [ her ] private life . "
= = Legacy = =
Hakim has been described as the " grande dame of Indonesian cinema " as well as " Indonesia ’ s foremost actress " . She has also received a lifetime achievement award at the Cinemanila International Film Festival .
Hakim has received several awards for her films :
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Cinta Pertama ( 1973 )
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Sesuatu Yang Indah ( 1976 )
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( 1978 )
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Di Balik Kelambu ( 1982 )
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( 1984 )
Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ( 1988 )
Best Actress at Asia Pacific International Film Festival
Hakim has refused a position on the Asia Pacific Screen Awards numerous times , due to being unable to reconcile her schedule with the awards .
= = Filmography = =
Cinta Pertama ( First Love ; 1973 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1974 , Surabaya )
Atheis ( Atheist ; 1974 )
Ranjang Pengantin ( Wedding Bed ; 1974 )
Kawin Lari ( Elope ; 1975 )
Si Doel Anak Modern ( Doel the Modern Child ; 1976 )
Sesuatu yang Indah ( Something Beautiful ; 1977 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1977 , Jakarta )
Badai Pasti Berlalu ( The Storm Will Surely Pass ; 1977 )
Petualang @-@ Petualang ( Wanderers ; 1977 )
Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( The Beggar and the Pedicab Driver ; 1978 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1979 , Palembang )
Dr. Siti Pertiwi ( 1980 )
Seputih Hatinya , Semerah Bibirnya ( As White as the Heart , as Red as the Lips ; 1982 )
Di Balik Kelambu ( Behind the Screen ; 1982 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1983 , Medan )
Ponirah Terpidana ( Ponirah is Convicted ; 1984 )
Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( Sharp Pebbles ; 1984 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1985 , Bandung )
Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ( 1988 ) ( awarded Citra FFI )
Nemuru Otoko - Japan ( 1994 ) ( The Sleeping Man ; 1994 )
De Gordel van Smaragd - Netherlands ( 1997 ) ( The Tropic of Emerald ; 1997 )
Daun di Atas Bantal ( Leaf on a Pillow ; 1998 )
Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ; 2001 )
Merantau ( Find Oneself ; 2009 )
Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ; 2009 )
Eat Pray Love ( 2010 )
Sang Kiai ( 2013 ) ( The Clerics ; 2013 )
Pendekar Tongkat Emas ( 2014 ) ( The Golden Cane Warrior ; 2014 )
De Reis - Netherlands ( Short ) ( 2014 ) ( The Journey ; 2014 )
Guru Bangsa HOS Tjokroaminoto ( 2014 ) ( HOS Tjokroaminoto : Teacher of the People ; 2014 )
= A Month in the Country ( film ) =
A Month in the Country is a 1987 British film directed by Pat O 'Connor . The film is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by J. L. Carr , and stars Colin Firth , Kenneth Branagh , Natasha Richardson and Patrick Malahide . The screenplay was by Simon Gray .
Set in rural Yorkshire during the summer of 1920 , the film follows a destitute World War I veteran employed to carry out restoration work on a Medieval mural discovered in a rural church while coming to terms with the after @-@ effects of the war .
Shot during the summer of 1986 and featuring an original score by Howard Blake , the film has been neglected since its 1987 cinema release and it was only in 2004 that an original 35 mm film print was discovered due to the intervention of a fan .
= = Plot = =
Set in 1920 , the film follows the experiences of Tom Birkin ( Colin Firth ) , who has been employed under a bequest to carry out restoration work on a Medieval mural discovered in a church in the small rural community of Oxgodby , Yorkshire . The escape to the idyllic countryside is cathartic for Birkin , haunted by his experiences in World War I. Birkin soon fits into the slow @-@ paced life of the remote village , and over the course of the summer uncovering the painting begins to lose his trauma @-@ induced stammer and tics .
In particular , he forms a close friendship with archaeologist James Moon ( Kenneth Branagh ) , another veteran , who like Birkin has been emotionally scarred by the war . Moon is employed in the village under the same bequest , working to uncover a mysterious lost grave , but is more interested in discovering the remains of an earlier Saxon church building in the field next to the churchyard .
Birkin becomes accepted into the Nonconformist family of Mr Ellerbeck the station master ( Jim Carter ) , with whom he dines on Sundays ; the hospitality of the chapel congregation is contrasted against the established church , who have consigned the penniless Birkin to sleep in the church belfry . Ellerbeck 's children eventually persuade Birkin to preach a sermon at a nearby Methodist chapel . Birkin also forms an emotional , albeit unspoken , attachment to Alice Keach ( Natasha Richardson ) , the young wife of the vicar . The vicar himself ( Patrick Malahide ) is portrayed unsympathetically as an obstruction to the work in the church , viewing the medieval painting as symptomatic of the superstition prevalent in the community .
= = Cast = =
A Month in the Country featured film debuts or early roles of several notable British actors . Although it was the third cinema feature film to cast Colin Firth , it was his first lead role . Similarly , it was Kenneth Branagh 's first cinema film , and Natasha Richardson 's second . Conversely , it was the last role of David Garth who died in May 1988 .
Colin Firth as Tom Birkin
Kenneth Branagh as James Moon
Natasha Richardson as Alice Keach
Patrick Malahide as the Reverend J.G. Keach
Jim Carter as Ellerbeck
Vicki Arundale as Kathy Ellerbeck
Martin O 'Neil as Edgar Ellerbeck
Richard Vernon as Colonel Hebron
Tim Barker as Mossop
David Garth as Old Birkin
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Initially intended to be a made @-@ for @-@ TV film , the film 's producer Kenith Trodd upgraded his original plan to a cinema feature . The original working title for the film was " Falling Man " . Playwright Simon Gray was commissioned to write the screenplay , and Pat O ’ Connor chosen to direct . In contrast to the book , which is narrated as a recollection by Birkin as an old man , the film is set entirely in the 1920s , except for a brief moment towards the end . In initial drafts of the screenplay , Gray had included a narrator , but O 'Connor felt this was not the correct way to present the story :
I felt that if I couldn ’ t do it in the present , suggesting internal pain by performance , then I wouldn ’ t really want to do it at all .
Funding for the film was scarce , and it eventually fell to Euston Films ( a subsidiary of Thames Television ) and Channel Four Films , who had had some success with low budget features such as My Beautiful Laundrette .
= = = Filming = = =
To compensate for the lack of budget , a very tight shooting schedule was planned over 28 days , during which Kenneth Branagh was only available for two weeks and was performing on @-@ stage nightly in London .
Despite being set in Yorkshire , the majority of location filming was moved to Buckinghamshire , although Levisham railway station and the surrounding area in North Yorkshire were utilised . The location shooting of the film began on August 18 , 1986 at St. Mary 's church in Radnage . Filming was periodically hindered by inclement weather — the perfect summer in which the book was set was not forthcoming , and scenes were filmed during breaks in heavy rain . Interiors were shot at Bray Studios in Berkshire .
The church , which is a main location for the film , was substantially set @-@ dressed . Despite having several original medieval wall paintings , the largest addition was the creation of the medieval mural by artist Margot Noyes . To create the impression of an austere country church , Victorian stone flags were replaced with brick pavers for the duration of filming and the original wall paintings covered up . Plastic guttering and other modern additions were covered up or removed . The churchyard had several gravestones added , including the large box tomb which is a focus of several scenes .
Several members of the local community were used as extras in the film , and local children were recruited by the director to collect butterflies to be released out @-@ of @-@ shot to create a " summer feeling " . However there was some opposition to the disruption caused by the filming , and also problems involving unwelcome damage to a section of the interior plasterwork , which had to be restored after filming had concluded .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack of the film was written by Howard Blake , and is scored entirely for string orchestra in the style of early 20th Century British music . Blake notes that the style chosen was intended to complement and contrast recordings of classical music during particular scenes : Verdi 's Quattro pezzi sacri was used during the uncovering of the mediaeval mural and a flashback montage of the First World War which opened the film utilised an excerpt from Schubert 's Deutsche Messe ( D. 872 ) " Zum Sanctus : Heilig , heilig ist der Herr " .
Howard Blake recalls : " I went to a viewing and saw that the film was very profound , with a serious anti @-@ war theme , but a certain amount of ' found ' choral music had already been laid in by the editors ... I explained that I loved the film and I thought the choral / orchestral music worked brilliantly but it was very big and rich and I felt a score would have to emerge from it and be very pure and expressive and quite small — and that I could only hear this in my head as done by strings only . " Blake decided to compose his score to match the key of the Schubert Mass , in order for the music to continue seamlessly . However , during the recording session with his orchestra , the Sinfonia of London , he found that the Schubert piece was running slow and therefore flat , and he had to ask the players to tune flat to match his intended key .
Due to the small budget of the film , Blake agreed " in lieu of a reasonable fee " to retain the copyright to his music . The score was subsequently arranged into a suite for string orchestra , and is available on CD in a recording by the English Northern Philharmonia conducted by Paul Daniel .
= = Reception and awards = =
Upon its release in 1987 , the film was generally well received by critics . Rita Kempley , writing in The Washington Post suggested " It 's all rather Arthurian , with its chivalric hero on his spiritual quest , the atmosphere suffused , seeming to dance with once and future truths . " Tom Hutchinson in the Mail on Sunday praised " a script whose delight is in the rounded reality of its characters " . Janet Maslin , writing in The New York Times praised O 'Connor 's direction , suggesting it lent the film " a strong sense of yearning , as well as a spiritual quality more apparent in the look of the film than in its dialogue . " Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote " Rarely has the impossibility of love been more wrenchingly presented than in the scenes of dashed hope between Firth and Richardson .
However , Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times found it " like a pastoral parable that has been left outside in the damp too long , causing its batteries to go flat " and following a 2008 screening , Sam Jordison of The Guardian suggested " even though this film is ( unusually ) faithful to the book ... it is really little better than inoffensive . Somehow the magic that makes JL Carr 's book so precious is missing . "
The film was the recipient of two awards : Pat O 'Connor won the Silver Rosa Camuna at the Bergamo Film Meeting in 1987 and Howard Blake was awarded the Anthony Asquith Award for Musical Excellence by the British Film Institute in 1988 . In addition , Colin Firth was nominated for an Evening Standard Award . The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival .
= = DVD and Blu @-@ ray release = =
Following its cinema release , the film was transferred to VHS in 1991 in a pan and scan edition . However , when Glyn Watkins , a poet who had been encouraged by J.L. Carr early in his career , wanted to screen the film at the launch of a poetry book in 2003 at the National Media Museum in Bradford , the museum found that all original 35mm film prints had disappeared .
Undeterred , Watkins contacted the agents of the cast and director , and eventually the online fan clubs " Friends of Firth " and " Ken Friends " . He discovered that the film had appeared as part of the National Film Theatre 's Branagh season in May 1999 , and that the film 's American distributors , Warner Bros. , had a print in a bonded warehouse . However , it was unclear who possessed the rights to the film . Only after several months it was found that Channel 4 still owned the rights , and the film was eventually released on a limited @-@ edition Region 2 DVD in late 2004 . However , the DVD is now no longer widely available in the United Kingdom . In 2008 , a complete 96 minute print was located in the Academy Film Archive in Los Angeles and a campaign began to have it restored and released on DVD . A limited edition Region A Blu @-@ ray release of the full 96 minute version of the film is planned on 14 July 2015 .
= Hydnellum peckii =
Hydnellum peckii is an inedible ( though not toxic ) fungus , and a member of the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae . It is a hydnoid species , producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth @-@ like projections that hang from the undersurface of the fruit bodies . It is found in North America , Europe , and was recently discovered in Iran ( 2008 ) and Korea ( 2010 ) . Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal species , and forms mutually beneficial relationships with a variety of coniferous trees , growing on the ground singly , scattered , or in fused masses .
The fruit bodies typically have a funnel @-@ shaped cap with a white edge , although the shape can be highly variable . Young , moist fruit bodies can " bleed " a bright red fluid that contains a pigment known to have anticoagulant properties similar to heparin . The unusual appearance of the young fruit bodies has earned the species several descriptive common names , including strawberries and cream , the bleeding Hydnellum , the bleeding tooth fungus , the red @-@ juice tooth , and the Devil 's tooth . Although Hydnellum peckii fruit bodies are readily identifiable when young , they become brown and nondescript when they age .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described scientifically by American mycologist Howard James Banker in 1913 . Italian Pier Andrea Saccardo placed the species in the genus Hydnum in 1925 , while Walter Henry Snell and Esther Amelia Dick placed it in Calodon in 1956 ; Hydnum peckii ( Banker ) Sacc. and Calodon peckii Snell & E.A. Dick are synonyms of Hydnellum peckii .
The fungus is classified in the stirps ( species thought to be descendants of a common ancestor ) Diabolum of the genus Hydnellum , a grouping of similar species with the following shared characteristics : flesh that is marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones ( zonate ) ; an extremely peppery taste ; a sweetish odor ; spores that are ellipsoid , and not amyloid ( that is , not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , acyanophilous ( not staining with the reagent Cotton Blue ) , and covered with tubercules ; the presence of clamp connections in the hyphae . Molecular analysis based on the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer DNA of several Hydnellum species placed H. peckii as most closely related to H. ferrugineum and H. spongiosipes .
The specific epithet honors mycologist Charles Horton Peck . The fungus is known in the vernacular by several names , including " strawberries and cream " , the " bleeding Hydnellum " , the " red @-@ juice tooth " , " Peck 's hydnum " , the " bleeding tooth fungus " , and the " devil 's tooth " .
= = Description = =
As in all mushroom @-@ producing fungi , the fruit bodies ( sporocarps ) are the reproductive structures that are produced from fungal mycelium when the appropriate environmental conditions of temperature , humidity and nutrient availability are met . Hydnellum peckii is a stipitate hydnoid fungus , meaning that it has a cap atop a stipe ( stem ) , and a form resembling a Hydnum — characterized by a teeth @-@ like hymenium , rather than gills or pores on the underside of the cap . Fruit bodies growing closely together often appear to fuse together ( this is called " confluence " ) . They can reach a height of up to 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) . Fresh fruit bodies exude a striking , thick red fluid when they are moist .
The cap 's surface is convex to flattened , more or less uneven and sometimes slightly depressed in the center . It is usually densely covered with " hairs " that give it a texture similar to felt or velvet ; these hairs are sloughed off in age , leaving the caps of mature specimens smooth . Its shape varies from somewhat round to irregular , 4 to 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , or even as much as 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide as a result of confluence . The cap is initially whitish , but later turns slightly brownish , with irregular dark @-@ brown to nearly black blotches where it is bruised . In maturity , the surface is fibrous and tough , scaly and jagged , grayish @-@ brown in the upper part of the cap , and somewhat woody . The flesh is a pale pinkish @-@ brown .
The teeth are slender , cylindrical and tapering ( terete ) , less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) long , and become shorter closer to the cap edge . They are crowded together , with typically between three and five teeth per square millimeter . Pinkish @-@ white initially , they age to a grayish @-@ brown . The stem is thick , very short , and often deformed . It becomes bulbous where it penetrates the ground , and may root into the soil for several centimeters . Although it may reach up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in total length , and is 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , only about 0 @.@ 1 to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 0 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) appear above ground . The upper part is covered with the same teeth found on the underside of the cap , whereas the lower part is hairy and often encases debris from the forest floor . The odor of the fruit body has been described as " mild to disagreeable " , or , as Banker suggested in his original description , similar to hickory nuts .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
In deposit , the spores appear brown . Viewing them with a light microscope reveals finer details of their structure : they are roughly spherical but end abruptly in a small point , their surfaces are covered with small , wart @-@ like nodules , and their size is between 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 µm . The spores are in amyloid , meaning they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent .
Hydnellum peckii 's cells ( the hyphae ) also present various characters useful for its characterization . The hyphae that form the cap are hyaline ( translucent ) , smooth , thin @-@ walled , and 3 – 4 µm thick . They collapse when dry , but may be readily revived with a weak ( 2 % ) solution of potassium hydroxide . Those in the cap form an intricate tangle with a tendency to run longitudinally . They are divided into cellular compartments ( septa ) and have clamp connections — short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division . The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium , are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 35 – 40 by 4 @.@ 7 – 6 µm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Hydnellum diabolus ( the species epithet is given the neuter diabolum in some publications ) has a very similar appearance , so much so that some consider it and H. peckii to be synonymous ; H. diabolus is said to have a sweetish pungent odor that is lacking in H. peckii . The differences between the two species are amplified in mature specimens : H. diabolus has an irregularly thickened stem , while the stem of H. peckii is thickened by a " definite spongy layer " . Additionally , old specimens of H. peckii have a smooth cap , while H. diabolus is tomentose . The related species H. pineticola also exudes pink droplets of liquid when young and moist . Commonly found growing under conifers in northeastern North America , H. pineticola tastes " unpleasant " , but not acrid . Fruit bodies tend to grow singly , rather than in fused clusters , and , unlike H. peckii , they do not have bulbous stems .
= = Ecology = =
Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal fungus , and as such establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ( referred to as " hosts " ) , in which the fungus exchanges minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species , in an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host ( termed ectomycorrhizal ) , as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree .
The ectomycorrhizal structures of H. peckii are among a few in the Bankeraceae that have been studied in detail . They are characterized by a plectenchymatous mantle — a layer of tissue made of hyphae tightly arranged in a parallel orientation , or palisade , and which rarely branch or overlap each other . These hyphae , along with adhering mineral soil particles , are embedded in a gelatinous matrix . The hyphae of the ectomycorrhizae can become chlamydospores , an adaptation that helps the fungus tolerate unfavorable conditions . Chlamydospores of H. peckii have a peculiar structure — markedly distinct from those of other Bankeraceae — with thick , smooth inner walls and an outer wall that is split radially into warts . The most striking characteristic of the ectomycorrhizae as a whole is the way the black outer layers of older sections are shed , giving a " carbonized appearance " . The majority of the underground biomass of the fungus is concentrated near the surface , most likely as " mycelial mats " — dense clusters of ectomycorrhizae and mycelium . The mycelium is also known to extend far beyond the site of the fruit bodies , as far as 337 centimeters ( 11 @.@ 1 ft ) away .
Molecular techniques have been developed to help with conservation efforts of stipitate hydnoid fungi , including H. peckii . While the distribution of the fungus has traditionally been determined by counting the fruit bodies , this method has a major drawback in that fruit bodies are not produced consistently every year , and the absence of fruit bodies is not an indication of the absence of its mycelium in the soil . More modern techniques using the polymerase chain reaction to assess the presence of the fungal DNA in the soil have helped alleviate the issues in monitoring the presence and distribution of fungi mycelia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Hydnellum peckii are found growing solitary , scattered , or clustered together on the ground under conifers , often among mosses and pine needle litter . H. peckii is a " late @-@ stage " fungus that , in boreal forests dominated by jack pine , typically begins associating with more mature hosts once the canopy has closed . A preference for mountainous or subalpine ecosystems has been noted .
The fungus has a wide distribution in North America , and is particularly common in the Pacific Northwest ; its range extends north to Alaska and east to North Carolina . In the Puget Sound area of the U.S. state of Washington , it is found in association with Douglas @-@ fir , fir , and hemlock . Along the Oregon Coast it has been collected under lodgepole pine . In addition to North America , the mushroom is widespread in Europe , and its presence has been documented in Italy , Germany , and Scotland . The species is common in the latter location , but becoming increasingly rare in several European countries , such as Norway , The Netherlands , and the Czech Republic . Increased pollution in central Europe has been suggested as one possible factor in the mushroom 's decline there . Reports from Iran in 2008 and Korea in 2010 were the first outside Europe and North America .
= = Uses = =
Although the fruit bodies of H. peckii have been described as resembling " Danish pastry topped with strawberry jam " , and Hydnellum species in general are not known to be poisonous , they are inedible due to their extremely bitter taste . This acridity persists even in dried specimens .
The fruit bodies of this and other Hydnellum species are prized by mushroom dyers . The colors may range from beige when no mordant is used , to various shades of blue or green depending on the mordant added .
= = Chemistry = =
Screening of an extract of Hydnellum peckii revealed the presence of an effective anticoagulant , named atromentin ( 2 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydroxy @-@ 3 @,@ 6 @-@ bis ( 4 @-@ hydroxyphenyl ) -1,4 @-@ benzoquinone ) , and similar in biological activity to the well @-@ known anticoagulant heparin . Atromentin also possesses antibacterial activity , inhibiting the enzyme enoyl @-@ acyl carrier protein reductase ( essential for the biosynthesis of fatty acids ) in the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae .
Hydnellum peckii can bioaccumulate the heavy metal caesium . In one Swedish field study , as much as 9 % of the total caesium of the topmost 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of soil was found in the fungal mycelium . In general , ectomycorrhizal fungi , which grow most prolifically in the upper organic horizons of the soil or at the interface between the organic and mineral layers , are involved in the retention and cycling of caesium @-@ 137 in organic @-@ rich forest soils .
= Gregory Helms =
Gregory Shane Helms ( born July 12 , 1974 ) is an American professional wrestler who is currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under his birth name . In TNA , he is the manager for former TNA X Division Champion Trevor Lee . He is best known for his time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , where he wrestled as The Hurricane , Gregory Helms , and Hurricane Helms and also for his time with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , where he wrestled as " Sugar " Shane Helms .
Helms first began wrestling in 1991 at the age of 16 , and wrestled in numerous independent promotions , including the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts , winning numerous light heavyweight and tag team championships . In 1999 , he signed with WCW , and gained fame as " Sugar " Shane Helms , a member of 3 Count . During his time there he won both the WCW Hardcore Championship and the WCW Cruiserweight Championship . When WCW was bought by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now WWE ) , Helms ' contract was kept by WWF . Helms renamed himself " The Hurricane " and won the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . He later picked up a sidekick , Rosey , and they won the World Tag Team Championship together .
He dropped the superhero gimmick in 2005 , and began wrestling under his real name . He once again won the Cruiserweight Championship in early 2006 , and held it for over a year , becoming the longest reigning Cruiserweight Champion and the longest reigning champion of any kind in SmackDown history . After being out of action for over a year after neck fusion surgery Helms returned to SmackDown in September 2008 , referring to himself as Hurricane Helms , before moving to the ECW brand where he reverted to his Gregory Helms name , and became the backstage interviewer . In mid @-@ 2009 , he brought back The Hurricane character , and appeared as both Gregory Helms and The Hurricane on ECW . After ECW was cancelled , Helms was released by WWE on February 26 , 2010 , and returned to the independent circuit .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1991 – 1999 ) = = =
Helms began wrestling at the age of 16 in 1991 . He won his first championship shortly afterwards , by defeating " Playboy " T.C. Cruise to become the Southern Wrestling Alliance ( SWA ) Light Heavyweight Champion . Helms spent the majority of his early career in his home state of North Carolina , winning numerous light heavyweight championships .
Helms began calling himself " The Show " Shane Helms , and teamed with " Big Daddy " Mike Maverick , initially using the team name Assault and Battery . They later dubbed themselves The Serial Thrillaz , and won several independent tag championships . The pair also began wrestling in the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , which was founded by The Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) . The Serial Thrillaz won the OMEGA Tag Team Championship twice between 1997 and 1998 , before they began competing for Southern Championship Wrestling ( SCW ) . They won the SCW Tag Team Championship , and Helms also won the SCW Heavyweight Championship . SCW would mark the end of the Serial Thrillaz , as Helms vacated both titles before moving on to NWA Worldwide . Once there , Helms joined the Bad Street Boys with Shannon Moore , Christian York , and Joey Matthews .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
Helms and his friend Shannon Moore signed with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in May 1999 . In WCW , Helms , along with Moore and Evan Karagias , formed the heel ( villainous ) stable ( faction ) 3 Count , and the trio debuted on the December 23 episode of WCW Thunder . The trio was a parody of the boy bands ' N Sync and the Backstreet Boys , and their gimmick involved making music videos and performing songs before their matches .
3 Count collectively won the WCW Hardcore Championship on WCW Monday Nitro in February 2000 . This win made 3 Count the first trio to win the Hardcore Championship . At Uncensored , Brian Knobbs defeated all members of 3 Count to win the Hardcore Championship . During a match , Helms suffered a broken nose , and was sidelined while he recovered . Upon his return , Tank Abbott had been added to the group , as a fan , and was utilized in an enforcer role . 3 Count had a long @-@ running feud ( scripted rivalry ) with The Jung Dragons , with the Dragons attempting to steal 3 Count 's fictional recording contract . This led to a ladder match between the two teams at New Blood Rising , which 3 Count won due to Abbott 's interference . As a result , Abbott claimed that he should be the lead singer of 3 Count , and was kicked out by the other three members , leading to a feud .
3 Count later disbanded as Moore and Helms kicked Karagias out of the group for attempting to steal the spotlight . At the same time , the Jung Dragons turned on Jamie Noble , who formed a team with Karagias . The three teams met in a Triangle match at Mayhem , which 3 Count won . They also wrestled each other in a number one contendership ladder match at Starrcade , to earn a WCW Cruiserweight Championship match , in which both Moore and Helms grabbed the contract at the same time . As a result , they later wrestled for the opportunity to wrestle for the championship , which Helms won , although he lost the subsequent championship match to Chavo Guerrero at the Sin pay @-@ per @-@ view .
Moore and Helms would leave WCW briefly in 2001 to wrestle in NWA Wildside , where they held the Wildside Tag Team Championship for one day . Helms became the number one contender for the Cruiserweight Championship after winning a match at SuperBrawl Revenge , but was attacked by Karagias and Moore afterwards . Despite the attack , Helms would go on to defeat Guerrero for the WCW Cruiserweight Championship at Greed and was the reigning Cruiserweight Champion immediately before WCW was bought out by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . Helms ' contract with WCW was one of twenty @-@ five that were included in WWF 's purchase of WCW .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Early appearances ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
Helms made his WWF debut on the July 5 , 2001 episode of SmackDown ! , using the name " Hollywood " Gregory Helms . He was part of the Invasion storyline as a member of The Alliance losing his Cruiserweight Championship in a one @-@ on @-@ one match to another Alliance member , Billy Kidman .
Helms began wrestling as " The Hurricane " on August 27 , and also began wearing a superhero costume . That night , he won the WWF European Championship from Matt Hardy with help from Ivory , but lost it to Bradshaw on October 22 , 2001 . In September 2001 , Helms formed a tag team with Lance Storm who was now managed by Ivory and Helms later picked up a sidekick , in Molly Holly who began to call herself " Mighty Molly " , and the two came to the arena in a custom " Hurri @-@ Cycle " ( with Molly in the sidecar ) . The team of Helms and Storm began feuds with teams like The Hardy Boyz and Big Show and Spike Dudley . Helms and Storm got a shot at the WCW Tag Team Championship against The Hardy Boyz at No Mercy in a losing effort .
During 2002 , The Hurricane won the WWF Hardcore Championship at WrestleMania X8 , but Molly betrayed him , hitting him in the back of the head with a frying pan , and defeating him for the championship . Helms was later drafted to the SmackDown ! brand following the brand extension , and he won the Cruiserweight Championship from Tajiri and Billy Kidman in a triple threat match . He lost it to Jamie Noble at King of the Ring . Later in 2002 , he was traded to Raw , won the World Tag Team Championship with Kane , and held them for around a month in an alliance known as Hurri @-@ Kane .
= = = = Teaming with Rosey ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = = =
In 2003 , Hurricane feuded with The Rock . In backstage segments , The Rock referred to The Hurricane as " The Hamburglar " ( in part because his mask was similar to the Hamburglar 's ) . The feud culminated in a match on Raw , in which The Rock dominated . Hurricane , however , was able to roll up The Rock from behind after The Rock was distracted by Stone Cold Steve Austin 's appearance on the ramp .
In late 2003 , Hurricane " discovered " Rosey 's potential as a superhero and christened him " Rosey , the Super Hero in Training " ( the " S.H.I.T. " ) . On May 1 , at Backlash , Rosey and The Hurricane defeated La Résistance in the finals of a Tag Team Turmoil match to win the World Tag Team Championship . Not long after winning the championship , Stacy Keibler joined Rosey and The Hurricane as their sidekick , " Super Stacy " . In August 2005 , Rosey and The Hurricane lost Keibler as their sidekick when she and Christy Hemme were traded to the SmackDown ! brand . On September 5 , 2005 Hurricane and Rosey were defeated by Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch during Cade and Murdoch 's debut match on Raw . As a result , Cade and Murdoch earned a title match at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view . During the title match , Murdoch delivered an elevated DDT on The Hurricane to the outside . The DDT caused Hurricane to suffer a storyline " stinger " and allowed Cade and Murdoch to beat the injured Hurricane later in the match to win the World Tag Team Titles .
During the next few weeks , the pair began a losing streak , mainly caused by Hurricane 's on @-@ screen injuries . During the October 17 episode of Raw , The Hurricane was assaulted by Kurt Angle at the request of Vince McMahon . After the beating , footage was shown of The Hurricane ripping off his mask and striking Rosey because he did not help him fend off Angle . The next week , The Hurricane no @-@ showed a World Tag Team Title match , leaving Rosey to face the champions alone . During the match , The Hurricane ( out of costume ) appeared at the top of the entrance ramp , reverting to his real name , Gregory Helms , and watched as Rosey was double teamed and defeated . After the match , Helms announced that he was fed up with being funny for the crowd , and that he was sick of carrying Rosey as a tag team partner . This turned him into a heel in the process . On the November 7 episode of Raw , Helms and Rosey faced off in a singles match , which Helms won . Subsequently , Helms wrestled mostly on Raw 's sister show , Heat . On the January 2 , 2006 episode of Raw Helms confronted Jerry Lawler over jokes that Lawler had been making at Helms ' expense , and Lawler said that when Helms was The Hurricane , he was entertaining and called Helms a joke . Helms responded by slapping Lawler , who hit Helms back . This confrontation led to Lawler defeating Helms in a match at New Year 's Revolution .
= = = = Cruiserweight Champion and injury ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
At the 2006 Royal Rumble , Helms participated in an Open Invitational match for the Cruiserweight Championship and won , even though he was a Raw superstar and the championship was defended solely on SmackDown ! . As a result , he returned to the SmackDown ! brand in February 2006 to start a feud with Nunzio , Kid Kash and the other cruiserweights . During this time , Helms defeated Nunzio in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . The next week , he was supposed to defend against Kid Kash , but Kash was away on a family emergency , so Scotty 2 Hotty took his place . Helms defeated him and declared that he was better than all the other cruiserweights . As a result , all the cruiserweights at the show invaded the ring and attacked Helms . It was later announced by SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long that at the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Helms would face all the cruiserweights in a match for the title . Helms was able to retain the championship . Later , Long mandated that Helms had to defend his title against a cruiserweight each week on SmackDown ! to prove that he truly was better than all the cruiserweights . Helm 's first defense under this new rule was against Psicosis of The Mexicools ; Helms retained by cheating .
In early March 2006 , Helms suffered a broken nose . After complaining to Long about having to wrestle on the March 10 episode of SmackDown ! , Long told Helms that he did not have to defend his title , but put Helms in a champion versus champion match against the United States Champion , Chris Benoit . During the match , Helms attempted to leave , but was blocked by other cruiserweights who threw Helms back into the ring , resulting in Helms losing the match . Helms underwent successful surgery on his nose and was expected to miss five to six weeks . During this time SmackDown ! announcers stated that Helms had a no @-@ compete clause in his contract allowing him to waive the thirty @-@ day title defense rule due to any injury . Helms returned to the ring on the April 28 episode of SmackDown ! , teaming with MNM to face Super Crazy , London and Kendrick in a six @-@ man tag team match . Helms continued to defend his belt during pay @-@ per @-@ views , but he made more regular appearances on SmackDown ! ' s sister show , Velocity .
Helms continued defending his title against other cruiserweights , while on occasion facing off against SmackDown ! ' s other title holders in champion versus champion matches . Helms faced World Heavyweight Champion Rey Mysterio on June 16 and United States Champion Bobby Lashley on July 7 but lost both matches . Eventually , Helms became the longest cruiserweight champion in WWE history , as well as the longest reigning champion of any kind in SmackDown ! history . For much of late 2006 , he feuded with Matt Hardy , with whom Helms exchanged several victories in matches on SmackDown ! . In Helms ' hometown of Raleigh , North Carolina , at the 2006 No Mercy pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hardy beat Helms . The two rivals also joined opposing teams at Survivor Series , where Helms was in Team Rated @-@ RKO , and Hardy was a member of Team DX ; Team Rated @-@ RKO lost the match .
Helms went on to feud with Jimmy Wang Yang over the Cruiserweight Title , after a tag team match in which Matt Hardy and Yang defeated Helms and Sylvan . The feud ended after Helms defeated him to retain the title at Armageddon in December 2006 . In 2007 , Helms once again feuded with the entire Cruiserweight division on SmackDown ! . During this feud , Helms ' reign as Cruiserweight Champion came to an end at No Way Out , when he was unable to win a Cruiserweight open invitational , which saw Chavo Guerrero win the championship . Shortly after losing the championship , Helms formed a tag team with Guerrero , but they did not win any matches as a team .
On May 18 , 2007 , WWE reported that Helms had broken two vertebrae in his neck , one of which was pressing on his spinal cord . He underwent surgery with Dr. Lloyd Youngblood to repair them approximately a week later . Following the surgery , Helms was announced to be out for a year and a half due to the injury .
= = = = Interviewer and The Hurricane 's return ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
Helms returned on the September 19 , 2008 , episode of SmackDown in a non @-@ wrestling role . Throughout the show , he appeared in short video promos , called " Hurrapops " , referring to himself as " Hurricane Helms " , a modified version of his old ring name " The Hurricane " , and mocked heel superstars including Shelton Benjamin and Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder . In the following weeks , he mocked several other superstars in the " Hurrapops " , ending each promo with the phrase , " I 'm just sayin ' ! " On the November 28 episode of SmackDown , a " Hurrapop " appeared in which Helms announced that he would make his return to the ring on the next episode of SmackDown . On the December 5 episode of SmackDown , Helms defeated Montel Vontavious Porter in his ring return . Helms was quickly scripted into a feud with the United States Champion Shelton Benjamin , defeating him in two non @-@ title matches on SmackDown , although he failed to win a championship match on December 26 .
On April 15 , 2009 , Helms was drafted to the ECW brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . Helms made his ECW debut as a backstage interviewer on April 28 , 2009 , reverting to his Gregory Helms ring name , interviewing Evan Bourne . He started a storyline where , while he was interviewing someone , a scripted accident would occur , leading to Helms leaving the interview seconds before the person in distress was saved by The Hurricane . On the August 11 , 2009 episode of ECW , Helms was attacked by Paul Burchill after Helms denied being The Hurricane . The Hurricane later attacked Burchill in the ring dressed in his Hurricane attire , to save Yoshi Tatsu . The next week on ECW , he made his in @-@ ring debut for the brand as The Hurricane , and defeated Burchill . He continued to feud with Burchill , who attempted to expose The Hurricane 's true identity , until the November 17 episode of ECW when The Hurricane defeated Burchill in a mask versus career match .
On February 26 , 2010 , Helms was released from his WWE contract .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Following his WWE release , Helms began wrestling on the independent circuit , including for the Canadian Wrestling 's Elite as Hurricane Helms . On October 23 , 2010 , Helms made his debut for Jersey All Pro Wrestling , where he , under his Hurricane gimmick , defeated Azrieal . On January 10 , 2011 , Helms signed a contract with Lucha Libre USA . In the promotion , Helms allied himself with Marco Corleone , and in his debut for the promotion at the January 22 tapings , he defeated Corleone 's rival and Lucha Libre USA Champion Lizmark Jr. via disqualification .
On January 29 , 2011 Helms made his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla ( PWG ) , during the WrestleReunion 5 weekend , in a match , where he was defeated by Joey Ryan . He also took part in 20 @-@ Man Legends Battle Royale , making his second appearance of the night . He eliminated Cruel Connection , but later was thrown out by Shane Douglas and Terry Funk .
In April 2011 , Helms wrestled at Carolina Wrestling Federation ( Mid @-@ Atlantic ) where he defeated Ric Converse and won the vacant PWI International Heavyweight Championship . In 2013 , Helms returned to the revived OMEGA , now called OMEGA Championship Wrestling , and on October 12 , he defeated Shane Williams to advance in a tournament for the OMEGA Championship . On November 16 , 2013 , Helms was defeated by Chris Hero at a Pro Wrestling Syndicate event .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In March 2015 , Helms received a tryout for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) as an agent and began working for the company within that capacity that same month . At Bound for Glory , Helms made his on @-@ screen debut under his full birth name to congratulate the TNA X Division Champion Tigre Uno . On the February 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Helms assisted Trevor Lee in defeating Tigre Uno for the X Division Championship , turning heel in the process .
= = Personal life = =
Helms is a comic book fan , and one of his favorite characters is the Green Lantern . He has a tattoo on his biceps which is the Lantern 's logo and his original WWE character , The Hurricane , was inspired by the Green Lantern . In 2008 , he got a tattoo of his last name on his upper back . Helms owns a motorcycle called " The Hurri @-@ Cycle " , which he got when he was using The Hurricane gimmick . Helms is good friends with Jeff Hardy , Matt Hardy and Shannon Moore.He appears on The Hardy Show , The Hardys ' internet show . He also performed as the stunt double of actor David Arquette in the movie Ready to Rumble .
On March 19 , 2007 , Sports Illustrated posted on its website an article in its continuing series investigating a steroid and HGH ring used by a number of professional athletes in several sports . That article mentioned several current and former WWE wrestlers , including Helms who was alleged to have obtained HGH . WWE has since made a statement on this situation , mentioning that the allegations preceded the Talent Wellness program WWE launched in April 2006 . On August 30 , 2007 , an article by Sports Illustrated named Helms and nine other wrestlers to be given growth hormone not in compliance with the WWE Talent Wellness program . He was said to have received testosterone , HGH and nandrolone between November 2003 and February 2007 .
On May 6 , 2008 , Helms was assaulted in a club in Johnston County , North Carolina , by an acquaintance , Dustin Narron . An argument between the two of them led to Narron hitting Helms in the face . Narron was later charged with assault and battery . On January 27 , 2010 , Helms and fellow WWE wrestler Chris Jericho were arrested in Fort Mitchell , Kentucky after leaving a bar . A police report stated that Helms had punched Jericho and the other passengers in the cab they were sharing . Helms and Jericho were given tickets for public intoxication and released after each posted a $ 120 bail bond . On March 13 , 2011 , Helms was cited for affray following an altercation at a bar in Smithfield , North Carolina .
On May 5 , 2011 , Helms and his girlfriend were involved in a motorbike accident in North Carolina , for which Helms was charged with driving under the influence . Helms suffered a broken leg , ankle , jaw , and nose during the accident , as well as sustaining other fractures and receiving over 200 stitches , while his girlfriend sustained a broken neck . As a result of the accident , Helms ' foot had to be reconstructed with four plates and 22 screws .
Helms was previously in a relationship with fellow professional wrestler Jamie Szantyr , from 2004 @-@ 2009 who is better known by her ring name Velvet Sky . In June 2012 , Helms ' girlfriend gave birth to his first child , a boy named Sebastian .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Eye of the Hurricane ( WWF / E ) / Nightmare on Helms Street ( WCW / WWE ) ( Spinning headlock elbow drop )
Hurrichokeslam ( Chokeslam ) – 2002 – 2003 ; used rarely thereafter
Avalanche Swinging Neckbreaker – 2005 @-@ 2007 ; used rarely thereafter
Double knee facebreaker
Shining wizard – 2003 – present
Vertebreaker – 2000 – 2003
Signature moves
Diving splash
Elbow smash
European uppercut on the turnbuckle as a counter to an oncoming opponent
Frog splash into a diving crossbody
Headscissors takedown
Hurricanrana
Hurri @-@ clothesline ( Leaping clothesline )
Jumping neckbreaker
Jumping tornado DDT
Overcast ( Diving neckbreaker )
Somersault plancha
Straight jacket sitout rear mat slam
Sugarsmack ( WCW ) / Hurri @-@ Kick ( WWF ) ( Superkick )
Suplex
Topé con hilo
TopSpin Facebuster ( Fireman 's carry spun out into a facebreaker knee smash ) ( often followed by a shining wizard )
X @-@ Plex
Managers
Mike Maverick
Ivory
Mighty Molly
Super Stacy
Tank Abbott
Wrestlers managed
Trevor Lee
Andrew Everett
Nicknames
" Hollywood "
" The Show "
" Sugar "
" Supernatural "
Entrance themes
World Championship Wrestling
" Can 't Get You Out of My Heart " by 3 Count
" Do the Three Count " by 3 Count
" Vertebreaker " by Jimmy Hart and Howard Helm
World Wrestling Entertainment
" Eye of the Hurricane " by Jim Johnston ( WWF / E ; August 2001 – October 2005 ; August 2009 – February 2010 )
" Fire Storm A " by Wolfgang Killian & Hermann Langschwert ( WWE ; November 2005 – February 2007 )
" It 's Time " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; February 2007 – January 2009 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Carolina Championship Wrestling Alliance
CCWA Light Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
Empire State Wrestling
ESW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Johnny Adams
New Dimension Wrestling
NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Mike Maverick
NWA Wildside
NWA Wildside Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Shannon Moore
Other titles
NAPW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts
OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Mike Maverick
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him 21 of the 500 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the earliest successful expert systems , such as XCON , proved too expensive to maintain . They were difficult to update , they could not learn , they were " brittle " ( i.e. , they could make grotesque mistakes when given unusual inputs ) , and they fell prey to problems ( such as the qualification problem ) that had been identified years earlier . Expert systems proved useful , but only in a few special contexts .
In the late 80s , the Strategic Computing Initiative cut funding to AI " deeply and brutally . " New leadership at DARPA had decided that AI was not " the next wave " and directed funds towards projects that seemed more likely to produce immediate results .
By 1991 , the impressive list of goals penned in 1981 for Japan 's Fifth Generation Project had not been met . Indeed , some of them , like " carry on a casual conversation " had not been met by 2010 . As with other AI projects , expectations had run much higher than what was actually possible .
= = = The importance of having a body : Nouvelle AI and embodied reason = = =
In the late 80s , several researchers advocated a completely new approach to artificial intelligence , based on robotics . They believed that , to show real intelligence , a machine needs to have a body — it needs to perceive , move , survive and deal with the world . They argued that these sensorimotor skills are essential to higher level skills like commonsense reasoning and that abstract reasoning was actually the least interesting or important human skill ( see Moravec 's paradox ) . They advocated building intelligence " from the bottom up . "
The approach revived ideas from cybernetics and control theory that had been unpopular since the sixties . Another precursor was David Marr , who had come to MIT in the late 70s from a successful background in theoretical neuroscience to lead the group studying vision . He rejected all symbolic approaches ( both McCarthy 's logic and Minsky 's frames ) , arguing that AI needed to understand the physical machinery of vision from the bottom up before any symbolic processing took place . ( Marr 's work would be cut short by leukemia in 1980 . )
In a 1990 paper , " Elephants Don 't Play Chess , " robotics researcher Rodney Brooks took direct aim at the physical symbol system hypothesis , arguing that symbols are not always necessary since " the world is its own best model . It is always exactly up to date . It always has every detail there is to be known . The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough . " In the 80s and 90s , many cognitive scientists also rejected the symbol processing model of the mind and argued that the body was essential for reasoning , a theory called the embodied mind thesis .
= = AI 1993 – present = =
The field of AI , now more than a half a century old , finally achieved some of its oldest goals . It began to be used successfully throughout the technology industry , although somewhat behind the scenes . Some of the success was due to increasing computer power and some was achieved by focusing on specific isolated problems and pursuing them with the highest standards of scientific accountability . Still , the reputation of AI , in the business world at least , was less than pristine . Inside the field there was little agreement on the reasons for AI 's failure to fulfill the dream of human level intelligence that had captured the imagination of the world in the 1960s . Together , all these factors helped to fragment AI into competing subfields focused on particular problems or approaches , sometimes even under new names that disguised the tarnished pedigree of " artificial intelligence " . AI was both more cautious and more successful than it had ever been .
= = = Milestones and Moore 's Law = = =
On 11 May 1997 , Deep Blue became the first computer chess @-@ playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion , Garry Kasparov . The super computer was a specialized version of a framework produced by IBM , and was capable of processing twice as many moves per second as it had during the first match ( which Deep Blue had lost ) , reportedly 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 moves per second . The event was broadcast live over the internet and received over 74 million hits .
In 2005 , a Stanford robot won the DARPA Grand Challenge by driving autonomously for 131 miles along an unrehearsed desert trail . Two years later , a team from CMU won the DARPA Urban Challenge by autonomously navigating 55 miles in an Urban environment while adhering to traffic hazards and all traffic laws . In February 2011 , in a Jeopardy ! quiz show exhibition match , IBM 's question answering system , Watson , defeated the two greatest Jeopardy ! champions , Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings , by a significant margin .
These successes were not due to some revolutionary new paradigm , but mostly on the tedious application of engineering skill and on the tremendous power of computers today . In fact , Deep Blue 's computer was 10 million times faster than the Ferranti Mark 1 that Christopher Strachey taught to play chess in 1951 . This dramatic increase is measured by Moore 's law , which predicts that the speed and memory capacity of computers doubles every two years . The fundamental problem of " raw computer power " was slowly being overcome .
= = = Intelligent agents = = =
A new paradigm called " intelligent agents " became widely accepted during the 90s . Although earlier researchers had proposed modular " divide and conquer " approaches to AI , the intelligent agent did not reach its modern form until Judea Pearl , Allen Newell and others brought concepts from decision theory and economics into the study of AI . When the economist 's definition of a rational agent was married to computer science 's definition of an object or module , the intelligent agent paradigm was complete .
An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success . By this definition , simple programs that solve specific problems are " intelligent agents " , as are human beings and organizations of human beings , such as firms . The intelligent agent paradigm defines AI research as " the study of intelligent agents " . This is a generalization of some earlier definitions of AI : it goes beyond studying human intelligence ; it studies all kinds of intelligence .
The paradigm gave researchers license to study isolated problems and find solutions that were both verifiable and useful . It provided a common language to describe problems and share their solutions with each other , and with other fields that also used concepts of abstract agents , like economics and control theory . It was hoped that a complete agent architecture ( like Newell 's SOAR ) would one day allow researchers to build more versatile and intelligent systems out of interacting intelligent agents .
= = = " Victory of the neats " = = =
AI researchers began to develop and use sophisticated mathematical tools more than they ever had in the past . There was a widespread realization that many of the problems that AI needed to solve were already being worked on by researchers in fields like mathematics , economics or operations research . The shared mathematical language allowed both a higher level of collaboration with more established and successful fields and the achievement of results which were measurable and provable ; AI had become a more rigorous " scientific " discipline . Russell & Norvig ( 2003 ) describe this as nothing less than a " revolution " and " the victory of the neats " .
Judea Pearl 's highly influential 1988 book brought probability and decision theory into AI . Among the many new tools in use were Bayesian networks , hidden Markov models , information theory , stochastic modeling and classical optimization . Precise mathematical descriptions were also developed for " computational intelligence " paradigms like neural networks and evolutionary algorithms .
= = = AI behind the scenes = = =
Algorithms originally developed by AI researchers began to appear as parts of larger systems . AI had solved a lot of very difficult problems and their solutions proved to be useful throughout the technology industry , such as data mining , industrial robotics , logistics , speech recognition , banking software , medical diagnosis and Google 's search engine .
The field of AI receives little or no credit for these successes . Many of AI 's greatest innovations have been reduced to the status of just another item in the tool chest of computer science . Nick Bostrom explains " A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications , often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it 's not labeled AI anymore . "
Many researchers in AI in 1990s deliberately called their work by other names , such as informatics , knowledge @-@ based systems , cognitive systems or computational intelligence . In part , this may be because they considered their field to be fundamentally different from AI , but also the new names help to procure funding . In the commercial world at least , the failed promises of the AI Winter continue to haunt AI research , as the New York Times reported in 2005 : " Computer scientists and software engineers avoided the term artificial intelligence for fear of being viewed as wild @-@ eyed dreamers . "
= = = Where is HAL 9000 ? = = =
In 1968 , Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick had imagined that by the year 2001 , a machine would exist with an intelligence that matched or exceeded the capability of human beings . The character they created , HAL 9000 , was based on a belief shared by many leading AI researchers that such a machine would exist by the year 2001 .
Marvin Minsky asks " So the question is why didn 't we get HAL in 2001 ? " Minsky believes that the answer is that the central problems , like commonsense reasoning , were being neglected , while most researchers pursued things like commercial applications of neural nets or genetic algorithms . John McCarthy , on the other hand , still blames the qualification problem . For Ray Kurzweil , the issue is computer power and , using Moore 's Law , he predicts that machines with human @-@ level intelligence will appear by 2029 . Jeff Hawkins argues that neural net research ignores the essential properties of the human cortex , preferring simple models that have been successful at solving simple problems . There are many other explanations and for each there is a corresponding research program underway .
= Cyclone Graham =
Cyclone Graham of the 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season was a weak tropical storm that affected Australia during late February and early March 2003 . Graham originated from an area of convection that emerged onto water after sitting over Australia on 23 February . The interaction with a monsoon trough formed an area of low pressure that developed into Tropical Cyclone Graham on 27 February . The storm moved slowly to the east @-@ southeast , and after turning to the south it peaked as a tropical storm and made landfall on Western Australia the next day . The cyclone weakened as it moved inland , and dissipated on 1 March . The storm dropped heavy rainfall and caused high winds , which produced flooding and downed trees . One fatality occurred , though no significant damages were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
On 23 February 2003 , an area of convection that was situated over land for roughly a week emerged over open waters along the northern coast of Australia . The strengthening of a deep , persistent monsoon trough contributed to cyclogenesis , and a low pressure area formed . By 25 February , the low developed a banding feature in which the highest winds were located . Though the storm was located in an area of unfavorable wind shear , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) began to issue gale warnings on the system at 0100 UTC the next day , while the low was located several hundred miles north @-@ northeast of Port Hedland . The disturbance was initially nearly stationary as it showed signs of organization due to relaxed shear , and at 0700 UTC on 27 February , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) designated the storm as Tropical Cyclone Graham , as it had attained 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds . The first warning was issued on Graham later that day .
Initially exhibiting characteristics of a monsoonal low , a mid @-@ level ridge to the south of Graham caused strong westerly winds that moved the storm slowly east @-@ southeastward . However , a deep trough eroded the ridge , allowing the cyclone to move more towards the south . According to the JTWC , the storm had intensified late on 28 February , though at the same time the BoM noted the slight weakening of the storm . Graham reached its peak intensity that day while nearing the coast .
The storm made landfall at Western Australia 's Eighty Mile Beach at 1400 UTC on 28 February , and began to weaken . The storm had dissipated on 1 March ; the BoM issued their last advisory on the cyclone at 0400 UTC that day , while similarly , the JTWC issued their last advisory just two hours later . The storm 's remnants died out in the country 's desert .
= = Impact = =
In advance of the cyclone , the communities of Wallal , Sandfire , Punmu and Telfer were put on alert . A warning was issued for Bidyadanga , Pardoo and Cotton Creek . The storm 's landfall in Western Australia brought heavy rainfall and high winds . The storm dropped 163 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) of rain at Telfer in one night , over half the town 's annual average ; total rainfall reached 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) there . The heavy rain caused flooding and road closures , and swelled a river passing through Fitzroy Crossing , though the river only topped its banks slightly . Near that town , at Blue Bush Creek , while a group of people attempted to cross floodwaters , two men were swept away . Both men were rescued , though one died before emergency services arrived . In addition to the flooding , a number of trees were downed . No significant damages were reported .
Following the storm , the name Graham was retired from the Australian region basin .
= Languedoc @-@ Roussillon wine =
Languedoc @-@ Roussillon wine , including the vin de pays labeled Vin de Pays d 'Oc , is produced in southern France . While " Languedoc " can refer to a specific historic region of France and Northern Catalonia , usage since the 20th century ( especially in the context of wine ) has primarily referred to the northern part of the Languedoc @-@ Roussillon région of France , an area which spans the Mediterranean coastline from the French border with Spain to the region of Provence . The area has around 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 800 km2 ) under vines and is the single biggest wine @-@ producing region in the world , being responsible for more than a third of France 's total wine production . In 2001 , the region produced more wine than the United States .
= = History = =
The history of Languedoc wines can be traced to the first vineyards planted along the coast near Narbonne by the early Greeks in the fifth century BC . Along with parts of Provence , these are the oldest planted vineyards in France . The region of Languedoc has belonged to France since the thirteenth century and the Roussillon was acquired from Spain in the mid @-@ seventeenth century . The two regions were joined as one administrative region in the late 1980s .
From the 4th century through the 18th and early 19th centuries , the Languedoc had a reputation for producing high quality wine . In Paris during the 14th century , wines from the St. Chinian area were prescribed in hospitals for their " healing powers " . During the advent of the Industrial Age in the late 19th century , production shifted towards mass @-@ produced le gros rouge — cheap red wine that could satisfy the growing work force . The use of highly prolific grape varieties produced high yields and thin wines , which were normally blended with red wine from Algeria to give them more body .
The phylloxera epidemic in the 19th century severely affected the Languedoc wine industry , killing off many of the higher quality Vitis vinifera that were susceptible to the louse . American rootstock that was naturally resistant to phylloxera did not take well to the limestone soil on the hillside . In place of these vines , acres of the lower quality Aramon , Alicante Bouschet and Carignan were planted .
During both World Wars the Languedoc was responsible for providing the daily wine rations given to French soldiers . In 1962 , Algeria gained its independence from France , bringing about an end to the blending of the stronger Algerian red wine to mask the thin le gros rouge . This event , coupled with French consumers moving away from cheap red wines in the 1970s , has contributed to several decades of surplus wine production in France , with Languedoc as the largest contributor to the European " wine lake " and recurring European Union subsidies aimed at reducing production . These developments prompted many Languedoc producers to start refocusing on higher quality , but has also led to many local and regional protests , including violent ones from the infamous Comité Régional d 'Action Viticole ( CRAV ) .
Despite the general reputation as a mass producer and a consensus that the region is in the midst of an economic crisis , parts of the Languedoc wine industry are experiencing commercial success due to outside investment and an increased focus on quality . Sales have been improved by many vineyards that concentrate on creating a good brand name rather than relying on the sometimes infamous regional designations . Some vineyards have adopted the youngest batch of AOC classifications developed in the late 1990s , while other vineyards eschew designated blends entirely and are instead shifting toward bottling single varietal wines , a practice increasingly demanded by consumers in the large New World wine market .
= = Climate and geography = =
The Languedoc @-@ Roussillon region shares many terrain and climate characteristics with the neighboring regions of Southern Rhone and Provence . The region stretches 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the Banyuls AOC at the Spanish border and Pyrenees in the west , along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea to the Rhone River and Provence in the east . The northern boundaries of the region sit on the Massif Central with the Cévennes mountain ranges and valleys dominating the area . Many vineyards are located along the Hérault River .
Vineyards in the Languedoc are generally planted along the coastal plains of the Mediterranean while those in the Roussillon are to be found in the narrow valleys around the Pyrenees . The peak growing season ( between May and August ) is very dry and the majority of annual rainfall occurs during the winter . In the Languedoc , the plains area is the most arid and hottest region of France . The region 's Mediterranean climate is very conducive to growing a large amount of a wide variety of grapes , with vintners in the area excelling in mass production . The average annual temperature is 57 ° F ( 14 ° C ) . The tramontane inland wind from the northwest often accentuates the dry climate ; drought is the most common threat to vine production , with French AOC and European Union regulation prohibiting the use of irrigation . In December 2006 , the French government responded to global warming concerns and relaxed some of the irrigation regulations .
In 1999 severe weather had damaging effects on the wine producing industry , including hailstorms in May that affected Roussillon and a rain surge in mid November that saw a year 's worth of rain fall in 36 hours in the areas of Corbières and Minervois in the western Languedoc .
The composition of soil in the Languedoc varies from the chalk , limestone and gravel based soils inland to more alluvial soils near the coast . Some of the more highly rated vineyards are laid on top of ancient riverbed stones similar to those of Châteauneuf @-@ du @-@ Pape .
= = Appellations = =
The five best known appellations in the Languedoc include Languedoc AOC ( formerly known as the Coteaux du Languedoc ) , Corbières AOC , Faugères , Minervois AOC , and Saint @-@ Chinian AOCs . The vast majority of Languedoc wines are produced by wine cooperatives which number more than 500 . However , the appellation system in the region is undergoing considerable changes with both new appellations being created and existing ones changing . One recent change is that the Coteaux du Languedoc has changed name to Languedoc and been extended to include also the Roussillon .
Within the larger Languedoc AOC appellations are several sub @-@ districts , or Cru 's , with distinct wine styles of their own . Some of these sub @-@ districts have pending AOC applications to become appellations in their own right and some have been granted sub @-@ appellations to the umbrella appellation Languedoc AOC . These include the Quatourze , La Clape , Montpeyroux , St. Saturnin , Picpoul de Pinet , Terrasses du Larzac , and Pic St.-Loup.
The boundary of the eastern Languedoc with the Southern Rhône Valley wine region was moved slightly in 2004 , with the result that Costières de Nîmes AOC is now a Rhône appellation rather than a Languedoc one . In that year , INAO moved the responsibility for oversight of this appellation 's wine to the regional committee of the Rhône valley . Local producers of Côtes du Rhône @-@ styled wines made from Syrah and Grenache lobbied for this change since the local winemaking traditions did not coincide with administrative borders , and presumably due to the greater prestige of Rhône wines in the marketplace . Such changes of borders between wine regions are very rare , so out of habit , Costières de Nîmes remains listed as a Languedoc wine in many publications .
= = Grapes = =
The Languedoc @-@ Roussillon area is home to numerous grape varieties , including many international varieties like Merlot , Cabernet Sauvignon , Sauvignon blanc , and Chardonnay . The traditional Rhône grapes of Mourvedre , Grenache , Syrah , and Viognier are also prominent .
Chardonnay is a major white grape , used in the Vin de Pays d 'Oc and the sparkling Crémant de Limoux . Others include Chenin blanc and Mauzac , which is also the principal grape in the sparkling Blanquette de Limoux . The sweet fortified wines of the Muscat de Frontignan and Muscat de St @-@ Jean Minervois regions are made with the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grapes . In the Muscat de Rivesaltes AOC , fortified wines are made from Muscat of Alexandria grapes .
Among the reds , Grenache , Syrah , Carignan , Cinsault , and Mourvedre are major grapes of the Corbières , Faugères , Fitou , and Minervois AOCs . Cinsault is also commonly used in rosé production along with Lladoner Pelut , Picpoul noir , Terret noir , and Grenache . Grenache is also the main grape used in the fortified wines of the Banyuls and Rivesaltes region . Some of the oldest vines in France are Carignan grapes . Winemakers often use carbonic maceration to soften the tannins .
Other varieties that can be found include Roussanne , Marsanne , Vermentino , Bourboulenc , Clairette blanche , Grenache blanc , Grenache gris , Picpoul , Maccabéo , and Rolle .
= = Wines and taxonomy = =
Wines from the Languedoc can carry an enormous number of names , ranging from broad regional designations like Vin de Pays d 'Oc to very specific geographical classifications with restrictions on grape variety , like Corbières and Minervois . Since the 1990s , the INAO has been creating smaller AOC classifications which take into account the intricate microclimates and soil variations in the Languedoc @-@ Roussillon . Younger appellations like the Cabardes and subregions like Minervois la Livinière , Corbières @-@ Boutenac and St @-@ Chinian @-@ Berlou are much smaller in scope . While these new appellations have been praised for consistently improving their product , others have criticized the additions for further complicating an already esoteric system of classification .
The majority of wine produced in the Languedoc are labeled vin ordinaire . There is also sizable production of Vins Doux Naturels .
= = = Vins de Pays = = =
The introduction of the vins de pays , a classification produced under less stringent regulations than those of an AOC , opened up the Languedoc wine industry to the labeling of varietal wines and the blending of international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot , Syrah and Chardonnay . Examples include Vin de pays d 'Oc , Vin de pays d 'Aude , Vin de pays de l 'Hérault , and Vin de Pays du Gard . Winemakers such as Guy Anderson , Thierry Boudinaud and E. & J. Gallo Winery capitalized on this new horizon , producing wines like FAT bastard and Red Bicyclette .
= = = Vins Doux Naturels = = =
Vins Doux Naturels are " naturally sweet " wines that have been fortified with brandy to stop fermentation , leaving residual sugar to add sweetness to the wine . The majority of Languedoc sweet white wines are made with a variety of Muscat grapes . The red fortified wines of the Banyuls are made from Grenache grapes , normally have an alcohol level between 16 and 17 % and carry residual sugars in the 8 to 12 % range .
In Banyuls , winemakers use various methods to " bake " their wines to encourage deep raisin colors . Some winemakers utilize a solera system of transporting the wine among different size barrels of various ages that are left out in the sun to warm . Others will put the wine in large glass jars to expose it to direct sunlight . In addition to the dark color , the resulting wines often have a nutty , rancid taste called rancio . In the Banyuls Grand Cru AOC the wine is required to be aged in wood barrels for two and a half years .
= = = Crémant de Limoux = = =
The crémant produced in the Languedoc is made according to the Méthode Traditionnelle - formerly known as méthode champenoise , the same method used to produce the Champagne , including a second fermentation in the bottle to encapture the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast - in the small villages around the town of Limoux . The wines are normally composed of 70 % Mauzac and a 30 % combination of Chardonnay and Chenin blanc . AOC regulations require a year of aging on the lees . The Blanquette de Limoux , when labelled méthode ancestrale , is composed entirely of Mauzac , undergoes only one fermentation and is aged approximately three months less on the lees before the bottling , the actual date being determined by the moon 's cycle .
= Silver Bullet ( roller coaster ) =
Silver Bullet is a western @-@ themed steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard located at Knott 's Berry Farm , an amusement park in Buena Park , California . The $ 16 million roller coaster was announced on December 1 , 2003 and opened on December 7 , 2004 . A first rider auction was also held where people would bid on seats to be the first riders . The track is approximately 3 @,@ 125 feet ( 952 m ) long and the lift hill is about 146 feet ( 45 m ) tall . The ride lasts two minutes and thirty seconds and features six inversions including a vertical loop , cobra roll , zero @-@ g roll , and two corkscrews .
= = History = =
On May 28 , 2003 , a trademark for the name " Silver Bullet " was filed by Cedar Fair , the owners of the park . Construction for the new roller coaster began in September 2003 with the relocation of The Church of Reflections . As part of a $ 85 million investment in all Cedar Fair parks , Silver Bullet was announced to the public on December 1 , 2003 . The final piece of track was placed on September 30 , 2004 . On November 5 , 2004 , Knott 's Berry Farm launched a " First Rider Auction " in which people from anywhere in the world would bid against each other in order to be one of the first public riders on Silver Bullet on December 7 , 2004 . Although sixty seats were made available , only 13 of these received bids . Out of those bids , the highest bid was $ 200 ( US ) , and a total of $ 1643 was raised with all the money going to the Speech & Language Development Center of Buena Park . After construction and testing was completed , the roller coaster opened first to the media , then to the public on December 7 , 2004 though the initial scheduled opening was on Christmas Eve of 2004 . Silver Bullet was also one of four attractions that opened at Knott 's Berry Farm in the same year and carries a western theme .
= = Ride experience = =
Silver Bullet 's layout passes through three of the park 's themed areas : Ghost Town , Fiesta Village , and Indian Trails .
After the train departs from the station , it makes a 90 degree right turn before beginning to climb the 146 @-@ foot ( 45 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train goes through a pre @-@ drop before entering the 109 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) downward right drop . Once at the bottom , the train enters a 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) loop . After exiting the loop , the train makes a banked right turn leading into the cobra roll . Almost immediately after , the train goes through a zero @-@ gravity roll followed by a downward left helix . Then , the train enters the first of two corkscrews which are separated by a banked left turn . Next , the train enters an upward left helix ( the beginning of the helix is close to water ) before entering the brake run . The train then makes a right turn into a second , shorter , brake run which leads straight back to the station . One cycle lasts approximately two minutes and thirty seconds .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Silver Bullet is approximately 3 @,@ 125 feet ( 952 m ) long , and the height of the lift is approximately 146 feet ( 45 m ) high . Silver Bullet , along with all of Bolliger & Mabillard 's other roller coasters , was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio and erected by Coan Construction Company . The track is filled with sand to reduce the noise made by the trains . Silver Bullet was also the first Bolliger & Mabillard inverted roller coaster to use magnetic brakes in the brake run . The track and supports of the lift hill are red , with the remaining track being yellow with red rails and the remaining supports colored white .
= = = Trains = = =
Silver Bullet operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 32 riders per train . The seats are coloured light blue , with orange over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints and tri @-@ color wheel coverings ( red , orange , and yellow ) .
= = Reception = =
Joel Taylor from Amusement Business praised the ride saying , " In all , it 's an exhilarating 2 1 / 2 minutes from start to finish . " He was also impressed with the ride 's smoothness and overall excitement , stating that the ride is , " smooth and comfortable while delivering twisting , stomach @-@ churning excitement . "
= = = Awards = = =
Since Silver Bullet 's debut in 2004 , it has consistently been ranked in the top 140 positions in Mitch Hawker 's Best Roller Steel Coaster Poll . It peaked at position 99 in 2010 . The roller coaster has never placed on the Golden Ticket Awards .
^ No Steel Roller Coaster Poll was held in 2011 .
= Blackburn Firecrest =
The Blackburn B @-@ 48 Firecrest , given the SBAC designation YA.1 , was a single @-@ engine naval strike fighter built by Blackburn Aircraft for service with the British Fleet Air Arm during World War II . It was a development of the troubled Firebrand , designed to Air Ministry Specification S.28 / 43 , for an improved aircraft more suited to carrier operations . Three prototypes were ordered with the company designation of B @-@ 48 and the informal name of " Firecrest " , but only two of them actually flew . The development of the aircraft was prolonged by significant design changes and slow deliveries of components , but the determination by the Ministry of Supply in 1946 that the airframe did not meet the requirements for a strike fighter doomed the aircraft . Construction of two of the prototypes was continued to gain flight @-@ test data and the third was allocated to strength testing . The two flying aircraft were sold back to Blackburn in 1950 for disposal and the other aircraft survived until 1952 .
= = Design = =
The Firebrand required significant effort by Blackburn to produce a useful aircraft and the first discussions on a redesign of the aircraft with a laminar @-@ flow wing took place in September 1943 . The new wing was estimated to reduce the weight of the wing by 700 lb ( 318 kg ) and increase the aircraft speed by 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) . The extent of redesign increased and this led to a new fuselage and other improvements . In October 1943 , Blackburn 's design staff , led by G.E. Petty , started work on this development of the Firebrand which led to Specification S.28 / 43 being issued by the Air Ministry on 26 February 1944 covering the new aircraft . The specification was designed around a Bristol Centaurus 77 radial engine with contra @-@ rotating propellers that allowed the size of the rudder to be reduced .
The new design , given the company designation B @-@ 48 , was known unofficially by Blackburn as the " Firecrest " but was always known by its specification number by the Air Ministry and Navy . It was a low @-@ winged , single @-@ seat , all @-@ metal monoplane . Aft of the cockpit the fuselage was an oval @-@ shaped stressed @-@ skin semi @-@ monocoque , but forward it had a circular @-@ section , tubular @-@ steel frame . The cockpit of the Firecrest was moved forward and raised the pilot 's position so that he now looked over the wing leading edge , and down the nose . The canopy was adapted from the Hawker Tempest fighter . In the rear fuselage was a single 52 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 240 l ; 62 US gal ) fuel tank with two 92 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 420 l ; 110 US gal ) fuel tanks in the centre wing section . The aircraft had a redesigned , thinner , inverted gull wing of laminar flow aerofoil section . The wing consisted of a two @-@ spar centre section with just over 6 @.@ 5 degrees of anhedral and outer panels with 9 degrees of dihedral . It could be hydraulically folded in two places to allow more compact storage in the hangar decks of aircraft carriers . Four Fowler flaps were fitted to give good low @-@ speed handling for landing and the wing had retractable dive brakes on both surfaces . In the course of the redesign the structure was simplified which reduced weight by 1 @,@ 400 lb ( 635 kg ) and even after the fuel capacity was increased by 70 imperial gallons ( 320 l ; 84 US gal ) the gross weight was still 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) less than that of the Firebrand .
Work on two prototypes was authorised in November 1943 , but proposals for alternative engines delayed progress . In 1945 , it was decided that as well as adding another Centaurus @-@ engined prototype , there should be three prototypes with the Napier E.122 ( a development of the Sabre ) as Specification S.10 / 45 . The Ministry believed that this would enable Blackburn to develop their knowledge of aerodynamic and structural design and support the engine development at Napier . However , it was found that the S.10 / 45 aircraft could only be balanced if the E.122 powerplant was placed behind the pilot . The necessary redesign and 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 454 kg ) weight increase , coupled with the limited funds available to the Royal Navy , meant that it could no longer be justified and the S.10 / 45 was cancelled on 8 October . While in final design , the Centaurus 77 engine with contra @-@ rotating propellers was cancelled in January 1946 and a conventional 2 @,@ 825 @-@ horsepower ( 2 @,@ 107 kW ) Centaurus 57 was substituted . This engine was found to require flexible mounts and was modified into the Centaurus 59 . The vertical stabiliser and rudder had to be enlarged from 33 to 41 square feet ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 8 m2 ) to counteract the new engine 's torque . In September 1946 a strength analysis conducted by the Ministry of Supply revealed that the aircraft would require strengthening to serve as a strike fighter and that a costly redesign would be required to bring it up to requirements . This would have made it comparable in weight and performance to the Westland Wyvern which had already flown so no contract was placed for production aircraft .
Delayed by the late delivery of its propeller , the first prototype was rolled out at Brough in February 1947 and then taken by road to RAF Leconfield where it made its maiden flight on 1 April that year . All three prototypes were completed by the end of September and the third prototype had been modified to reduce the outer @-@ wing dihedral to 3 degrees . Both the second and third prototypes remained unflown when the Ministry of Supply ordered that flying be ceased and work on the aircraft be stopped . Later in the month , however , the third prototype was allocated to tests of powered aileron controls , as testing of the first prototype had shown that while adequate at cruise speed , the ailerons were heavy both at low and high speed . The second prototype was allocated to structural testing .
The third prototype made its maiden flight in early 1948 , but the pace of the flight testing was leisurely with only 7 hours and 40 minutes completed by 30 November , over half of which were connected with air show performances . Testing concluded in March 1949 when the officer in charge concluded that there was no further purpose to the tests . While the Firecrest was faster than the Firebrand , and gave its pilot a much better view from the cockpit , it was otherwise disappointing , with test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown claiming that the Firecrest was even less manoeuvrable than the sluggish Firebrand , while the powered ailerons gave lumpy controls , leading to instability in turbulent air .
= = Operational history = =
Operational experience had found Blackburn 's Firebrand strike fighter to be far from suited to carrier operations . In particular , the pilot sat near the wing 's trailing edge , looking over a very long and wide nose which gave a particularly poor view for landing . The Firecrest had also been rendered obsolete by the arrival of gas turbine engines , and while Blackburn did draw up proposals for turboprop @-@ powered derivatives of the Firecrest , ( as the B @-@ 62 ( Y.A.6 ) with the Armstrong Siddeley Python engine ) , these went unbuilt , with orders instead going to Westland for the Wyvern . The two flying prototypes remained in use until 1949 , being sold back to Blackburn in 1950 , and were later scrapped .
= = Aircraft = =
RT651
One of two prototypes ordered on 1 January 1944 to Specification S.28 / 43 . The airframe was sold by the Controller of Supplies ( Air ) to Blackburn on 17 April 1950 .
RT656
The second of two prototypes ordered on 1 January 1944 , it was used for structural testing before being disposed of in 1952 .
VF172
A third aircraft was ordered on 18 April 1945 and it was used for research into power @-@ boosted ailerons during February 1948 . The airframe was sold to Blackburn on 17 October 1949 .
Three further prototypes were ordered on 14 March 1945 against Specification S.10 / 45 and powered by Napier E.122 engine , but the order was cancelled and the aircraft were not built .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Fleet Air Arm ( never entered service )
= = Specifications = =
Data from Blackburn Aircraft since 1909
General characteristics
Crew : one pilot
Length : 39 ft 3 ½ in ( 11 @.@ 98 m )
Wingspan : 44 ft 11 ½ in ( 13 @.@ 71 m )
Height : 14 ft 6 in ( 4 @.@ 42 m )
Wing area : 361 @.@ 5 ft ² ( 33 @.@ 60 m ² )
Empty weight : 10 @,@ 513 lb ( 4 @,@ 779 kg )
Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 280 lb ( 6 @,@ 645 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus 59 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 475 hp ( 1 @,@ 846 kW )
Performance
Maximum speed : 380 mph ( 330 knots , 612 km / h ) at 19 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 790 m )
Cruise speed : 213 mph ( 185 knots , 343 km / h ) at 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m )
Range : 900 mi ( 783 nmi , 1 @,@ 450 km )
Service ceiling : 31 @,@ 600 ft ( 9 @,@ 630 m )
Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 500 ft / min ( 12 @.@ 7 m / s )
Armament
Guns : Provision for 2 × .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns under or in wing ( not fitted to prototypes )
Rockets : 8 × RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on underwing rails
Bombs : 1 × 2 @,@ 097 lb ( 951 kg ) torpedo , or
2 × 250 lb ( 110 kg ) bombs , one under each wing , in lieu of torpedo
= Magadheera =
Magadheera ( English : Great Warrior ) is a 2009 Indian Telugu @-@ language romantic @-@ action film , written by K. V. Vijayendra Prasad and directed by S. S. Rajamouli . Based on the theme of reincarnation , the film was produced by Allu Aravind of Geetha Arts . The film stars Ram Charan and Kajal Aggarwal , while Dev Gill and Srihari appear in prominent roles . The plot revolves around four people : a valiant warrior in charge of the princess ' safety ; the princess who loves him ; her cousin who lusts after her ; and an emperor who wants to conquer their kingdom . They all die before their wishes are fulfilled and are reborn after 400 years , at which point the warrior kills the scheming cousin with the support of the reformed emperor and wins over the princess .
Made on a budget of ₹ 350 million , the production was launched on 2 March 2008 while principal photography commenced on 19 March 2008 . The cinematography was done by K. K. Senthil Kumar , and was edited by Kotagiri Venkateshwara Rao . Production design was done by R. Ravinder , while the action sequences were choreographed by Peter Hein and the duo of Ram — Lakshman . The visual effects were designed by R. C. Kamalakannan , with assistance from Adel Adili and Pete Draper . It is the first Telugu film to list a " visual effects producer " in its credits . The soundtrack was composed by M. M. Keeravani , who collaborated with Kalyani Malik to score the background music .
Magadheera was released on 31 July 2009 across 1250 screens worldwide , to critical acclaim , and collected a distributor 's share of ₹ 731 million . The film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion worldwide and remained the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time for five years , until it was surpassed by Attarintiki Daredi in 2013 . Its 1000 @-@ day theatrical run surpassed Chandramukhi ( 2005 ) as the longest running South Indian film . It is also the first Telugu film to have a home media release in Blu @-@ ray . The film won the National Award for Best Choreography and Best Special Effects at the 57th National Film Awards as well as winning six Filmfare Awards , nine Nandi Awards and ten CineMAA Awards . The film 's success catapulted the lead actors into stardom .
The film was dubbed into Tamil as Maaveeran and Malayalam as Dheera : The Warrior , and was released simultaneously on 27 May 2011 in more than 100 and 50 screens respectively , with both versions being commercially successful . In 2014 , the film was further remade in Bengali as Yoddha : The Warrior by Raj Chakraborty with Dev and Mimi Chakraborty portraying the lead roles .
= = Plot = =
Harsha , a dirt @-@ bike racer , is taking an auto rickshaw to the airport in the rain . He spots the blurry outline of a woman trying to flag the auto down , and gestures to her that it is already occupied . As he does , their fingers accidentally touch , and Harsha feels an electric current passing through him , which triggers a few fleeting images . Later , feeling that this was the girl he was destined to be with , he enquires about her to a woman named Indira ( called " Indu " ) , without realising that she is the same girl . Indu , thinking that he is stalking her , misdirects him . She and her friends take advantage of Harsha , duping him out of his finances . Meanwhile , Indu 's distant cousin Raghuveer , lusts after her . He manipulates Indu and her father into trusting him . However , whenever he attempts to touch a sleeping Indu , he sees visions of a warrior slitting his throat . Raghuveer consults a tantrik , Ghora , who reveals to him that in a prior life , he was a prince who lusted after Indu , and was killed by her lover , a warrior . Raghuveer is determined to find the reincarnation of the warrior and kill him . Meanwhile , Harsha discovers how Indu and her friends have been defrauding him , and she falls in love with him .
Raghuveer discovers that Harsha is the reincarnation of the warrior . He murders Indu 's father and frames Harsha , causing Indu to hate Harsha . As Raghuveer and Indu leave in a helicopter , Harsha tries to catch them but fails ; falling into a lake , he faces a near @-@ death experience and learns about his past life in 1609 . In that year , Emperor Sher Khan is preparing to invade the kingdom of Udayghar when he hears of the brave warrior Kala Bhairava ( Harsha ) , commander of the Udayghad army . King Vikram Singh 's daughter , Mithravindha Devi ( Indu ) , loves Bhairava , but he holds himself back . Her cousin , Ranadev Billa ( Raghuveer ) , lusts after Mithra and plans a competition between himself and Bhairava ; the winner will marry her and the loser will be banished from Udayghad . Bhairava 's victory leads to Ranadev 's banishment . Vikram Singh , however , secretly requests that Bhairava not marry his daughter , because Bhairava has a high chance of dying in battle , and he does not wish to see Mithra widowed . Though shocked , Bhirava concedes to the king 's request and publicly declines to marry Mithra , leaving her distraught .
Bhairava then takes Mithra , his soldiers , and his caretakers to the Bhairavakona temple atop a cliff to seek blessings from God . Mithra demands Bhairava admit his love for her . When he does not respond , she upsets the sacred items they have brought for the puja and , using her own blood , paints an image on a nearby rock of Bhairava leaving his true love to do his duty . An injured soldier arrives to tell Bhairava that Ranadev and Sher Khan 's army have killed Vikram Singh and are now rushing toward them . They arrive shortly , and Sher Khan challenges Bhairava to battle his soldiers . Bhairava boldly accepts the challenge and kills a hundred soldiers , but is severely injured in the process . Sher Khan , impressed by Bhairava 'a bravery , has a change of heart . However , Ranadev continues attacking , eventually wounding Mithra fatally , but he is in turn killed by Bhairava . A dying Mithra asks Bhairava to confess his love , but before he can respond , she dies and falls off the cliff . Distraught , he follows her and falls to his own death .
After learning about his past life , Harsha is rescued from the lake by a fisherman named Solomon ( who is the reincarnation of Sher Khan ) and , with Soloman 's help , visits Udayghad . He gains access to Raghuveer 's palace and overhears Ghora telling Raghuveer that if Indu 's memories of the past are not revived within the day they can never be revived , and she will be with Raghuveer forever . Harsha kidnaps Indu and takes her to Bhairavakona and in the process , Ghora is accidentally killed by Raghuveer . Raghuveer arrives by helicopter and asks Indu to come with him ; however Indu sees Mithra 's painting , and her past @-@ life memories are revived ; she reunites with Harsha . Harsha fights Raghuveer , and with the help of Solomon , manages to kill him .
= = Cast = =
Ram Charan as Kala Bhairava and Harsha . Kala Bhairava is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Udayghad army who dies in battle in 1609 . His reincarnation , Harsha , is a dirt @-@ bike racer in 2009 , who falls in love with Indu . When Harsha discovers his past life , he saves Indu from her cousin Raghuveer , who killed her father and framed Harsha as the murderer .
Kajal Aggarwal as Mithravinda Devi and Indu . Mithravinda Devi is the crown princess of Udayghad who is in love with Bhairava and also dies in 1609 . In 2009 , her reincarnation is Indira ( alias Indu ) , a carefree student . She falls in love with Harsha but believes him to be her father 's murderer because of Raghuveer 's deception . She reunites with Harsha in the end after remembering her past life .
Dev Gill as Ranadev Billa and Raghuveer . Ranadev Billa is Mithravinda 's cousin who lusts after her and is jealous of Bhairava . He , after killing Mithravinda , is killed by Bhairava . His reincarnation , Raghuveer , is Indu 's cousin who lusts after her . He is the first to remember his past life , and murders Indu 's father in both eras . He is finally killed by Harsha .
Srihari as Sher Khan and Solomon . Sher Khan is a Muslim emperor who invades Udayghad . He realises Bhairava 's potential just before his death but fails to save him . His reincarnation , Solomon , is a fisherman who is a native to Srikakulam . He helps Harsha to reunite with Indu , and plays a vital role in Raghuveer 's death .
Rao Ramesh as Ghora , a hunchbacked old tantrik who advises Raghuveer . He helps Raghuveer in remembering his past . His conversation with Raghuveer helps Harsha to remind Indu of her past . Ghora is accidentally killed by Raghuveer .
Sarath Babu as Vikram Singh , the king of Udayghad and father of Mithravinda . He respects Bhairava for his valour but believes that he will die in battle and consequently requests that Bhairava hold back his love for Mithra . Vikram is murdered by Ranadev when Sher Khan invades the kingdom .
Surya as Bhoopathi Varma , Indu 's father . Raghuveer manipulates him for access to Indu and kills him just before he accepts Harsha 's proposal to marry Indu .
Sunil as Harsha 's gullible friend . He accompanies him most of the time and constantly warns him about Indu exploiting him financially .
Sameer as Maan Singh , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Sher Khan 's army who informs Sher Khan about Bhairava 's strengths .
Cameo appearances
Chiranjeevi in a cameo appearance in the item song " Bangaru Kodipetta " .
Mumaith Khan as Reshma , the dirt bike race organiser . She also appears in " Bangaru Kodipetta " .
Kim Sharma as Hamsa , a dancer who appears in the item song " Jorsey " .
Brahmanandam as Indu 's neighbour .
Hema as Sasikala .
Saloni Aswani as Solomon 's girlfriend .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
K. V. Vijayendra Prasad was watching a Marathi film where two warriors Sivaji and Tanaji are attacked by Mughal Army . Once the duo can reach Sinhagad fort , they can kill the army together effectively . While Sivaji escapes to the fort for support , Tanaji fights with the army and dies in the process leaving Sivaji in grief . Prasad took this as an inspiration and wrote a story on the theme of reincarnation of a bodyguard who serves a queen . He fights 100 warriors and dies in his attempt to re @-@ enthrone his queen after she is overthrown by her conspirators . He is reborn after 400 years and fulfils his ambition of placing her on the throne by making her a Chief Minister or a popular social worker like Medha Patkar . It was subsequently rejected and after fifteen years , his son director S. S. Rajamouli selected this script , but made several changes to it . Rajamouli re @-@ characterised the queen as a princess to create a vital love story for the film , as he felt that the relationship between a queen and a bodyguard would be only about loyalty and honesty .
Production for the film was officially launched on 2 March 2008 at FNCC in Hyderabad . B. V. S. N. Prasad co @-@ produced the film with Allu Aravind under his production banner , Geetha Arts . M. Rathnam was announced as the dialogue writer while Rajamouli 's usual associates K. K. Senthil Kumar , Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao and M. M. Keeravani worked on the film 's cinematography , editing and music respectively .
After many potential titles , Magadheera was considered and finalised in early February 2009 . Tamil and Malayalam dubbed versions were planned in mid February 2009 . The film 's Tamil dubbed version was titled as Maaveeran , named after the 1986 Tamil film . Geetha Arts collaborated with Udhayanidhi Stalin for the Tamil version and distributed it under his production banner , Red Giant Movies . K. Bhagyaraj wrote the dialogues for Maaveeran . The Malayalam version was titled Dheera — The Warrior and was distributed by Pallavi films .
= = = Casting = = =
After considering several actresses ( including Tamannaah ) for the princess role , Kajal Aggarwal was selected by Rajamouli as the female lead opposite Ram Charan after conducting a photoshoot in his office . Rajamouli said that he wanted to cast her as the female lead in Yamadonga ( 2007 ) after her Telugu debut Lakshmi Kalyanam ( 2007 ) , but she was unavailable . He added that he wanted somebody " good looking , who would look like a princess and who had dates available " and finalised her because she met all of these prerequisites . After conducting her photoshoot , Rajamouli explained the story and Mithra 's characterisation to her in 45 minutes . He said she needed to treat the hero arrogantly , but do so out of love for the hero . Kajal kept this in mind and acted accordingly while playing the dual roles of a princess from 400 years ago and a modern @-@ day college student . Kajal called both her roles " unique and challenging " .
Dev Gill was selected to portray the film 's antagonist . Rajamouli was criticised for selecting him considering Gill 's previous film , Krishnarjuna ( 2008 ) , but remained adamant about casting him . He said that he had to cast a good looking man as the film 's villain because the heroine needed to find him trustworthy . For this film , Gill had to practice horse riding in Ramoji Film City ; Ram Charan was already an experienced equestrian . Srihari was cast in his role in the film in early April 2008 . Kim Sharma was selected to perform one of the two item numbers in the film in early June 2008 . Saloni Aswani made a cameo appearance in the film and shot for three days . She was subsequently signed for Rajamouli 's next project , Maryada Ramanna ( 2010 ) , before Magadheera was even released .
Rao Ramesh was cast as a tantrik who helps Gill 's character in the present era . Mumaith Khan was selected for another item number , a remix version of the hit song " Bangaru Kodipetta " from Gharana Mogudu ( 1992 ) ; Gharana Mogudu 's music was also composed by M. M. Keeravani . Chiranjeevi made a special appearance after the song , making Magadheera the first film he appeared in after his entry into politics . When Rajamouli suggested the idea of a cameo appearance , Chiranjeevi was initially hesitant till the director narrated the complete sequence and the importance of the song .
= = = Costume designs = = =
Regarding his looks in the film , Ram Charan said , " Personality wise there isn ’ t really much difference to Kalabhairava but I have to tell you minor changes like the shape of my mustache , a slight voice modulation , the background scale , the atmosphere and even the ‘ Chandrabindu ’ worked wonders on screen and gave a totally different look and feel and I felt like it was an altogether different side of me . When I was told of the characterization of ‘ Kalabhairava ’ , I had an impression of a young , passionate soldier and naturally it had to have a great body and an authoritative voice . So , we also worked on it . We actually went to Rajasthan and observed the local culture and their way of dressing , we researched a lot about their costumes , history and great personalities 400 years ago and planned it accordingly . " Ram Charan sported a long hairdo for both of his characters in the film .
To design the armour used by Charan in his role as Kalabhairava , art director R. Ravinder wanted the precise measurements of Charan 's body ; they used plaster of Paris to make a mould of Charan 's body shape from which they created a statue . They designed costumes for the statue and had Charan try them on once they were satisfied with the designs . In an interview with Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com , the film 's stylist , Rama Rajamouli , said that it took one month to develop the right look for the olden period before she began working on the materials and costumes for the film . She added that all of the film 's costumes were designed by her and stitched in Hyderabad , and that Kajal 's costumes were heavily detailed as she needed to look rich , elegant and bright . Rajamouli had some disagreements with cinematographer K. K. Senthil Kumar over the colours of the costumes . Her decision of having Kajal wear a dress of baby pink and pista green during the war sequence at Bhairavakona was initially opposed by Rajamouli , but later agreed to after the director saw the final edit . She also used minimal jewellery for the princess 's outfits .
= = = Filming = = =
The film 's principal photography was expected to begin on 26 February 2008 , and then on 15 March 2008 , but finally began on 19 March 2008 in Rajasthan . Initial shooting occurred for 10 days in Rann of Kutch , Gujarat . Art director Ravinder went to Chennai and gave details of their requirements to a prominent chariot @-@ making specialist . After rejecting the maker 's first iron skeletons , Ravinder opted to design them himself , and prepared three models of chariots with different heights to be used , depending on the camera ’ s location and other technical requirements . He used fibre material for the iron skeleton 's exteriors . For a scene in which neither the hero nor the villain was present on the chariot , Ravinder measured a short person and designed a hidden chamber in which he could sit and secretly control the horses . While the chariot race sequence was shot in Dholavira , the sequence in which the chariot sinks in quicksand was shot at a set comprising three acres in Ramoji Film City .
K. K. Senthil Kumar scouted for locations in Gujarat , looking for dry , open lands to shoot the chariot race sequence . They found salt lands with white sands in Dholavira . To shoot the sequence there , they wanted a light weight vehicle to follow the horses ; they bought a Maruti van , removed the vehicle 's top and mounted the camera along with a jimmy jib atop it . A part of the song Dheera Dheera was also shot there , requiring filmmakers to plant a dry tree and a couple of oxen for use in the song 's backdrop . An item number featuring Kim Sharma and Ram Charan was shot in late June 2008 in a specially erected fisherman colony . It was set up on the first floor of Annapurna Studios and cost less than ₹ 3 million . Ravinder explained , " The set should look like an outdoor location , but need to be constructed in an indoor floor . I constructed exteriors of around 28 houses in that floor with detailed interior plan for the house of Srihari . I also constructed a small boat and a big wheeled fish with thermocol . When director wanted smoke @-@ effect for a shot I held the heavy smoke machine on my shoulders in a low angle for the required effect . "
After filming key parts of the film in Rajasthan , suburbs of Hyderabad , and at Badami in Karnataka , filming continued in Ramoji Film City in a specially erected set named Bhairavakona in late October 2008 . Two more schedules , one from 3 – 10 December and one in January , were also shot at the Bhairavakona set . The sequence of Charan killing 100 warriors , also at Bhairavakona , included a bridge . As the set did not permit for shooting with low angles , a separate half @-@ bridge was erected at Bhoot Bangla in Road No. 22 of Banjara Hills . The bridge , which had a height of 60 feet ( 18 m ) and a length of 100 feet ( 30 m ) , was constructed on top of a rocky hill using steel beams as the skeleton and wooden material as support . It was built in around 20 days by over 60 men amid heavy rains . 20 trucks of black soil were transported from Ramoji Film City for the bridge set , as that type of soil was only available in the former location .
After the completion of shooting at the arena set in Ramoji Film City , the arena set was demolished and a set for heroine 's house was constructed in its place . This was the last set constructed for this film . By late September 2008 , 70 % of the film 's shoot was complete . The remix version of " Bangaru Kodipetta " was shot by Ram Charan and Mumaith Khan under the supervision of Prem Rakshith at Chennai Port , although Visakhapatnam Port was first considered . Filming continued in and around Hyderabad very discreetly in November 2008 . Stunt sequences by Ram Charan and some stuntmen were shot in mid @-@ December 2008 at Hyderabad . By mid February 2009 , the film 's scripted part had been wrapped up , with only some songs left to shoot . The song " Nakosam Nuvvu " was shot in Switzerland while " Panchadara Bomma Bomma " was shot at Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad . Both songs were duets shot by Ram Charan and Kajal . K. K. Senthil Kumar said in an interview that Magadheera could not have been made in eight months because of its long pre @-@ production and post @-@ production phases . Over two lakhs worth of props , including swords , daggers , knives , bows and arrows , pouches , armour , footwear and other accessories , were used in the film . They were designed by 160 workers , including welders , molders , carpenters , painters , cobblers , artists , tailors and leather men , who worked for two months in the Geetha Arts Studio . Five people were appointed exclusively to look after these props . However , during the film 's shoot both Peter Hein and Ram Charan suffered major injuries . The former fell down from a height of 80 — 90 feet during the composition of a stunt and was advised a bed rest for four months . Charan faced severe leg fractures , while Rajamouli said that Peter " met with an accident on the sets , had two broken ribs , fractured hands and jaw and lost all his teeth . Within a month , he was back on the sets with his face and body covered in bandages and plaster . He could barely lift his hands to shoot . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
R. C. Kamalakannan was the VFX producer of this film . Magadheera was the first Telugu film in which the position of " Visual Effects Producer " was used in the credits . He was assisted by a team of five experts from abroad and a 62 dedicated group members apart from 130 people from the company EFX in Chennai and Hyderabad . Special effects and CG was used for about 1 hour and 40 minutes out of the total 2 hours and 35 minutes in the film . 15 % of the frames in the film 's scenes of Udayghad city were actually shot with a camera ; the rest were CG extension . For the scenes in the stadium , CG extension was slightly above 50 % . For the stadium , Italian concept artist Marco Rolandi began with a CAD drawing and made his first 3D concept in 5 days . It took five months for Marco to reach the design shown in the film and as imagined by Rajamouli . Simultaneously , Iranian 3D technical director Adel Adili , who worked with Kamalakannan for Anji ( 2004 ) , Yamadonga and Arundathi ( 2009 ) , was working on the 3D Udayghad city . He started with a city @-@ plan and added streets , buildings , mountains , temples , palaces , water bodies , a huge waterfall , rivers , gates , a moat and trees , all of which were planned and received Rajamouli 's approval before being executed to full scale . Adili redesigned Marco 's 3D stadium to suit Indian aesthetics and made it fit perfectly within the city .
Pete Draper , who worked with Kamalakanna in Ghajini ( 2008 ) , was selected as the pipeline technical director of the film . At that time , Kamalakannan was in Iran finalising the CG stadium and City with Adili . The majority of the film was shot in anamorphic format , but a Super 35 camera gate and lens were used for the stadium episode to minimise distortion . Post @-@ production of the stadium scenes were given to Prasad EFX , and the film set up their own render farm in Chennai . The post process was done in several stages after the scan . The live stadium had only 7 steps , in which live people were positioned in 6 steps while the remaining 12 steps were CG extension . Adili created 3D CG people to fill the CG steps and their actions in a library of 3000 frames .
Draper designed the birds in two flows : one flow kept flying around the stadium , while the other flow took off from a position dome and landed on a target dome . Rajamouli used those birds in several shots . Upon finishing the stages of the stadium composite , Kamalakannan flew to Iran again to work with Adel for the 3D city shots which were created entirely in CG . Adili designed 3D horses for the hero and villain and Draper designed the 3D people flocking behind the horses . About Adili 's work , Kamalakannan said , " When we started the city @-@ shot renders , it has taken several hours to render one frame . But Adili re @-@ corrected the geometry and applied several path breaking ideas , so even on 24 July , just a week before the film release , we were able to do corrections , render and submit . " ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) was spent solely on VFX for Magadheera .
= = = Piracy = = =
During the film 's shoot at Ramoji Film City in late November 2008 , a 500 square feet ( 46 m2 ) film can , containing two or three scenes , was discovered missing from Rainbow lab . The filmmakers filed a case at Hayathnagar police station . Security personnel and film unit members searched , but failed to recover the reels . Rajamouli 's unit said it was not important if the scenes from the can were aired online since they were not crucial scenes , were all on a blue matte and lacked finishing . Later , raw footage from the film was seen on the internet but no details about the culprits were found . After the photographs and small video clips were leaked on the Internet , some of the film unit members felt that the loss might have been a ploy on the part of the producers to create hype .
= = Themes and influences = =
The film is based on the concept of reincarnation and eternal love . According to Rediff , the rewritten script 's basic storyline is that " Love remains eternal and it will follow generations and generations . There is always a big victory for Love . " The film 's flashback sequences were used as a flip switch between the film 's olden and present day eras . Initially the film featured a scene in which the present day heroine accidentally receives a dupatta preserved in a museum that is used in the flashbacks as the dupatta Bhairava and Ranadheer race for . However , separate dupattas were used in the film as Rajamouli felt that getting the dupatta from the flashback would complicate the narrative .
In her book Bimal Roy 's Madhumati : Untold Stories from Behind the Scenes , writer Rinki Bhattacharya compared the reincarnation theme of Magadheera with that of Madhumati ( 1958 ) , Karz ( 1980 ) , Karan Arjun ( 1995 ) and Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) . Touching the heroine unleashes locked memories within the hero that transport him to Rajasthan in 1609 from contemporary Hyderabad . Bhattacharya also compared Magadheera to another Telugu film , Mooga Manasulu ( 1964 ) . Rajamouli told Subhash K. Jha that he was inspired by Karan Arjun to make films based on reincarnation .
= = Music = =
M. M. Keeravani composed the film 's soundtrack . It features six songs including the remixed version of his own composition " Bangaru Kodipetta " from the film Gharana Mogudu . The soundtrack of the Tamil dubbed version , Maaveeran , had three additional tracks . The Telugu soundtrack was launched at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad on 28 June 2009 . The Tamil version was launched on 25 April 2011 in Chennai .
= = Release = =
Geetha Arts released the film on 31 July 2009 , with 625 digital UFO prints in 1250 theatres across the globe , making Magadheera the biggest release for a Telugu film in history . Its release included more than 1000 screens in Andhra Pradesh alone . The film opened up with 25 prints overseas in almost 40 locations . Magadheera was the first Telugu film to be released on 21 screens in North America . Huge vinyl posters featuring Ram Charan and his father , cameo performer Chiranjeevi , were put up at all of the theatres in Krishna District . Posters also featured the head of Chiranjeevi 's political party , former MLA Vangaveeti Radhakrishna , which added political importance to the release . The Tamil dubbed version Maaveeran and Malayalam dubbed version Dheera — The Warrior were released in more than 100 screens and 50 screens respectively on 27 May 2011 .
= = = Distribution = = =
Raju Hirwani , the owner of Supreme Music , ventured into overseas distribution with Magadheera . He distributed the film in the USA via Blue Sky Cinemas Inc . The distribution rights of non @-@ US countries , including the UK , Ireland , Middle East , Australia , New Zealand and Singapore , were acquired by Krishna Productions . The theatrical rights of Australia and New Zealand were sold to Tollyfilmz . The film 's Singaporean rights were sold to Pragati films . Gulf and Kuwait theatrical rights were sold to K. A. Chowdary and Basheer respectively . Red Giant Movies distributed Maaveeran while Pallavi films distributed Dheera — The Warrior . The film 's Karnataka distributor , Vijayakumar , was disciplined for breaking the rules of the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce by simultaneously releasing a non @-@ Kannada film in more than 21 screens in the state . The proceeds of 21 screens were given to him while the rest was confiscated by the Chamber of Commerce . The KFCC also suspended Vijaykumar , who was KFCC 's secretary for distribution , from its executive committee .
Joint collector Gaurav Uppal convened a meeting of film exhibitors and distributors , warning them against black @-@ marketing tickets to Magadheera . This was after local leaders , attempting to acquire a maximum number of tickets , blocked and booked tickets to the film in advance , to enthuse their supporters during the local civic polls in Guntur . Special teams of revenue , police and commercial tax officers were appointed to keep watch at ticket counters and ensure that each person was issued only one ticket . Priority was ordered to be given for the sanitation , safety and comfort of the viewers . Authorities in Vijayawada ensured the strict checking and prevention of black @-@ marketing of tickets . However , Ram Charan 's fans resorted to sloganeering and an impromptu protest demonstration in the office of Revenue Divisional Officer K. Hymavathi in Machilipatnam . They demanded the screening of a benefit show and the advance sale of tickets after being rejected by the management of the twin theatres , Siri Venkata and Siri Krishna , where the film was screened . Their plea was rejected by the officer , who said that the tickets would be issued only to those who came in queue and that no special concessions would be made for fans .
= = = Mishaps = = =
On 9 August 2009 , two persons , identified as NIT student M. Praveen Kumar and Ganesh , were killed and 15 others sustained severe injuries after being electrocuted while jostling for tickets for Magadheera at the theatre Bhavani in Kazipet , Warangal . The screening of Magadheera at theatres in Vizianagaram was prohibited by the then minister Botsa Satyanarayana until safety measures were complied with . Satyanarayana 's announcement followed the death of five people in Salur Village due to an electrical accident at the Lakshmi theatre screening Magadheera .
= = = Accusation of plagiarism = = =
Folk lyricist Vangapandu Prasada Rao alleged that his 40 @-@ year @-@ old folk song " Em Pillado Eldamostavaa " , which was featured in T. Krishna 's Ardharathri Swatanthram ( 1986 ) , was used by film director Rajamouli and Allu Aravind in the Magadheera song " Jorsey " without Rao 's consent . Activists of PDSU , POW and PYL staged a protest demonstration in front of the Ashok 70 MM theatre in Nizamabad , where the film was screened , to demand the removal of the song . The protesters said that the song was written by Rao during the famous Srikakulam armed struggle four decades prior and had been misused to portray an obscene duet in the film . They added that the song was used without the permission of the writer and that the depiction defeated the very purpose of the song , which was written in a revolutionary spirit . They demanded a public apology by the makers to Rao . A few reports stated that Rao demanded Aravind pay him compensation of ₹ 5 million .
After the completion of the film 's 175 day run , novelist S. P. Chary accused the film of being based on a novel that he had written and published as a serial under the title Chanderi in a monthly magazine in 1998 . He demanded that filmmakers compensate him for using his idea without consent , and threatened to take legal action if the producers did not heed his demands , or remade the film in another language . He added that he deserved to be credited for the story and alleged that Allu Arjun and Allu Sirish were trying to postpone his acknowledgment by discussing the issue with him .
= = = Home media = = =
Magadheera was the first Telugu film in India to have a home media release in Blu @-@ ray format . During the release announcement , Allu Sirish said that although they initially were reluctant to go for it , given the fact that there were approximately only 2500 Blu @-@ ray devices in Andhra Pradesh , the overwhelming demand for it made him rethink the decision . He added , " Sharing this vision with us was Sri Balaji Videos , the largest home @-@ video label in Andhra Pradesh . Together , we 're bringing out Magadheera on Blu @-@ ray . Though Bhavani Videos released Nagarjuna 's King ( 2008 ) on Blu @-@ ray , it was only for the overseas market . This makes Magadheera the first Blu @-@ ray film to be released in India and with a bonus disc with additional footage . We 're also a holding a press event on this regard to officially announce the launch of the movie on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . "
A press note announced that the DVDs would be available beginning the third week of March 2010 while the Blu @-@ ray would be available 2 weeks later . The launch ceremony took place in a Marriott Hotel on 27 February 2010 . The first DVD was released by M. M. Keeravani and was presented by journalist Pasupuleti Ramarao . The DVD was released in NTSC video format and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround audio format on 5 March 2010 . The Blu @-@ ray disc released on 13 April 2010 . Magadheera held the top position in sales for its 720p Blu @-@ ray edition with 5 @.@ 1 Dolby digital sound format as of July 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Suresh Krishnamoorthy of The Hindu summarised , " Magadheera is not for the weak @-@ hearted , those who do not like the sight of blood and neither is it for those who like movies with storylines that are much @-@ closer @-@ to @-@ everyday- reality . But Rajamouli excels in story @-@ telling . The way he has used the flashback as a flip switch , going back and forth and taking the viewer through a 400 @-@ year journey in a jiffy is interesting . The rest is about how well technology , creativity , imagination and innovation are leveraged to present what is an eye @-@ pleasing experience for viewers . " B. V. S. Prakash of The Times of India wrote , " Despite a few narrative lapses , the much @-@ hyped semi @-@ periodic epic lives up to expectations . Unlike his previous action @-@ centric films , director Rajamouli dishes a heart @-@ touching love story in a lavish canvas convincingly . Also kudos for the way he has visualised and presented the film . " He added , " After not @-@ so @-@ impressive Chirutha , Ram Charan Tej returns as a valiant soldier and breathes life into the larger @-@ than @-@ life role with ease . Similarly , Kajal known for simple lover girl roles transforms into a determined princess and truly impresses . Dev Gil is adequate as the ruthless villain " , and rated the film 3 out of 5 .
Oneindia Entertainment stated , " S. S. Rajamouli has chosen a fantastic love story for his movie Magadheera and linked it to a love story that dated back to some 400 years . He has filled complete energy in the film and no doubt , the graphic works and modern technology are perfectly used for the movie . As a whole , the film reminds the audiences of watching a Hollywood movie with perfect local flavor " , and called the film 's screenplay by Rajamouli a highlight . Upperstall.com stated " Magadheera is not an epic , not a legend , not even a cult movie , but it is certainly an artistic extravaganza and a sensory treat . Like we said before , a must watch ! A mast watch ! " .
Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com called the film " technically brilliant " and wrote " A reincarnation story is not often seen in Telugu cinema and SS Rajamouli uses this theme for Ram Charan Teja 's second film Magadheera . It 's a magnum opus production with great technical work . The graphics are excellent for a Telugu movie . Overall , the movie is a mainstream one with good packaging . " She rated the film 3 out of 5 . Sify called the film a " brilliant entertainer " and wrote , " Set against the backdrop of an eerie theme — reincarnation — Magadheera unfolds on the screen with multiple shades of entertainment . When the movie was launched last year , director Rajamouli dared to reveal the central theme of the story . He has succeeded in his attempt , as he was able to keep the screenplay and narration gripping from start to finish . The second half has the soul in it . " Sify summarised , " In short , the movie encompasses some of the best commercial elements that Telugu audience have seen in the recent past . "
IndiaGlitz called the film " royal and spellbinding " and opined , " The film deserves a special credit for many reasons , notable among them is the grandeur of the movie and the amazing technical aspects . This is surely a path breaker in terms of Telugu film making and with the likes of ' Arundhati ' , Tollywood sure is proud to have this one in its league . It is a valiant attempt to bring such genre to the modern day audience and present it with finesse so that it fits the historical angle and the today 's angle . " However , Rajamouli was accused of lifting scenes from films like Gladiator ( 2000 ) , Troy ( 2004 ) , The Myth ( 2005 ) and 300 ( 2007 ) .
= = = Box office = = =
The film collected a share of approximately ₹ 200 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 0 million ) in its first week in Andhra Pradesh alone , of which a share of ₹ 71 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) was collected in Nizam region . Sixteen centres collected ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) , each of which was an all @-@ time state record . It collected a share of ₹ 381 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) in 21 days in Andhra Pradesh . By the end of its four @-@ week run , the film was declared a blockbuster and collected a share of ₹ 435 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) in 28 days and ₹ 470 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 0 million ) in 35 days . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in 302 centres on 18 September 2009 . By then , the film had collected ₹ 650 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) and stood strong .
The film completed its 100 @-@ day run in 223 centres and grossed over ₹ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( US $ 19 million ) without satellite and audio rights . By then it had surpassed Rajinikanth 's Sivaji ( 2007 ) , which grossed ₹ 650 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) in Tamil Nadu , and stood second to Ghajini ( 2008 ) , which reached ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . The film completed a 175 @-@ day run in 3 centres and , by then , collected a share of ₹ 580 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 6 million ) . The film completed a 365 @-@ day run in Vijayalakshmi theatre in Kurnool on 31 July 2010 and a 1000 @-@ day run in the same theatre on 26 April 2012 . The film collected a share of ₹ 731 million ( US $ 11 million ) at the worldwide box office in its lifetime with a gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) . It was declared the highest grosser in the history of Telugu cinema and stood in the first place in the list of Telugu films with highest worldwide shares . It held that position until 2013 when Attarintiki Daredi pushed it to the second spot .
More than 50 % of the film 's lifetime collections were from the Nizam region . The film also did well in the overseas box office . It was released in New Jersey with three prints on three screens and collected a record share of more than 150 @,@ 000 dollars , turning the highest amount raised overseas by a Telugu film ; the previous record holder was Trivikram Srinivas ' Jalsa ( 2008 ) , which collected more than 100 @,@ 000 dollars . It grossed 102 @,@ 000 dollars in its first two days in New Jersey and a share of 95 @,@ 000 dollars in Virginia with two prints as of mid August 2009 . It collected a share of 78 @,@ 000 dollars in the San Francisco Bay Area with a single print . It managed to sell 2300 tickets in Minneapolis ; the previous record for tickets sold there for a Telugu film was 1200 . The film 's overseas records were beaten two years later by Dookudu ( 2011 ) , although disputes have arisen over which film holds the Tollywood all @-@ time sales record .
= = Legacy = =
Magadheera 's success turned Kajal into one of the most sought @-@ after actresses in Telugu cinema and catapulted her into the foray of leading Telugu actresses . The film was also considered a fate changer in the career of Ram Charan . The role of Sher Khan played by Srihari was considered as one of the best roles in his career and also catapulted S. S. Rajamouli to stardom . Dev Gill attained stardom with this film and went on to work in several South Indian films as an antagonist . After the release of Magadheera , people began recognising him as Ranadheer . According to writer Gopimohan , Magadheera started a trend of experimentation with period , socio @-@ fantasy and spiritual themes that was continued in films like Panchakshari ( 2010 ) , Nagavalli ( 2010 ) , Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) , Mangala ( 2011 ) , Sri Rama Rajyam ( 2011 ) and Uu Kodathara ? Ulikki Padathara ? ( 2012 ) .
The props used in this film , including weapons like swords and shields , were auctioned by Movie Artist Association . Actors , technicians , and the general public were invited to bid and the proceeds were used to aid poor artists in the Telugu film industry . Actor Sivaji Raja started the bidding by offering ₹ 50 @,@ 000 for the sword that Ram Charan used and comedian Venu Madhav started the bidding for the shield with ₹ 25 @,@ 000 . B. V. S. N. Prasad bid for both the sword and knife for ₹ 100 @,@ 000 . The bidding started on 7 May 2010 online in the association 's official website and ended on 16 May . The winners were declared on 20 May 2010 . After Magadheera , S. S. Rajamouli worked on a small budget film Maryada Ramanna ( 2010 ) which , according to Crazy Mohan , was similar to the act of S. S. Vasan directing the small budget film Mr. Sampat ( 1952 ) after Chandralekha ( 1948 ) . Rajamouli explained his decision by saying , " I decided that my next project would be Maryada Ramanna during the Magadheera shooting itself because it is a 1 and half year project that demands lot of physical labor and mental strain . I didn 't want to commit another physically exhausting film immediately after Magadheera . Maryada Ramanna gave us time to recharge our batteries so that we could come up with another huge project . " He revealed Maryada Ramanna 's plot before its launch to minimise the expectations of his audience after Magadheera 's success .
Tammareddy Bharadwaja said " Ever since Arundhati and Magadheera did well at the box office , the rest of the industry started following their footsteps . Also , since there is an irrational craze to make high budget films right now , producers are turning towards mythological films . It is the only genre where you can boast of spending crores for creating the sets and the look of the film . But what they don 't realize is that if these films flop , the blow to the producer will be severe . " Films like Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) and Shakti ( 2011 ) were commercial failures and Badrinath ( 2012 ) was an average grosser ; all being fantasy films in which the protagonist is a warrior . The promos of Badrinath looked similar to Magadheera and the former 's director V. V. Vinayak along with its male lead Allu Arjun kept insisting that Badrinath is dissimilar to Magadheera . Producer Natti Kumar said " If a hero delivers a hit , producers run after him for five years and burn their fingers only after six or eight flops . It 's the same story with movies . Since Magadheera became a hit , every other hero and director wants to do period film where there is scope to spend crores . They don 't work on the script , story or relevance . It is a pure display of graphics , heroes ' abs and grandeur . The plot is lost . Magadheera worked because it was a novel genre then , but why will people want to see the same things again ? " .
Janani Iyer cited the character of Mithravinda played by Kajal in the film as one of her dream roles . Ram Gopal Varma refused to call Magadheera a film and instead termed it as an event that comes " once in a blue moon " . While commenting on Mahesh Babu 's Aagadu ( 2014 ) , he said that Magadheera looked like a 750 crore film when compared to Aagadu if the latter was a 75 crore film and added , " My comparison between " Aagadu " and " Magadheera " is mainly because they both are the most expensive films for their own individual times . " Reviewing the Tamil film Anegan ( 2014 ) , few critics opined that the film had traces of Magadheera mainly due to the theme of reincarnation . The Tamil dubbed version of the Telugu film Yevadu ( 2014 ) , which featured Charan in one of the lead roles and Kajal in a crucial cameo , was titled Magadheera .
= = Awards and nominations = =
The film won the National Award for Best Choreography and Best Special Effects at the 57th National Film Awards . The film also won six Filmfare Awards , nine Nandi Awards , and ten CineMAA Awards .
= = Remakes = =
Ram Charan decided not to debut in Bollywood with Magadheera 's Hindi remake , as he believed the film might not be recreated well . In an interview with The Times of India , Charan said , " When I met Anil Kapoor some time back , he told me I will ask Boney Kapoor to remake Magadheera with you in Hindi . But I said I don 't know if I would want to do the remake . Magadheera is a lovely film which can 't be recreated . " The film was remade in Bengali as Yoddha : The Warrior in 2014 ; it was directed by Raj Chakraborty with Dev and Mimi Chakraborty playing the lead roles . The 2014 Kannada film Brahma , according to its director R. Chandru , was inspired by Magadheera but was not a remake . In August 2014 , Shahid Kapoor expressed his desire to reprise Ram Charan 's role in a Hindi remake saying , " I have been wanting to do Magadheera for the longest . I have seen the film and loved it ..... I think it ’ s a killer subject . " In late November 2014 , Sajid Nadiadwala confirmed that he would direct the film 's Hindi remake with Kapoor as the lead . When asked by Subhash K. Jha the reason for not directing the Hindi remake , Rajamouli said " I 've already spent two years of my life on it . I ’ d rather make something else . Magadheera was my toughest film to make . Very tiring . "
= Hurricane Flossy ( 1956 ) =
Hurricane Flossy originated from a tropical disturbance in the eastern Pacific Ocean and moved across Central America into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical depression on September 21 , 1956 , which became a tropical storm on September 22 and a hurricane on September 23 . The hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) before it struck the central Gulf coast of the United States as a Category 1 hurricane on September 24 , and evolved into an extratropical cyclone on September 25 . It was the first hurricane to affect oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico . The tropical cyclone led to flooding in New Orleans , and broke a drought across the eastern United States . The death toll was 15 , and total damages reached $ 24 @.@ 8 million ( 1956 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance moved northward , crossing Guatemala from the eastern Pacific ocean into the northwest Caribbean Sea between September 20 and September 21 . It became a tropical cyclone soon after emerging into the Caribbean , and moved across the Yucatán Peninsula as a tropical depression before becoming a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico on September 22 and a hurricane on September 23 . It turned sharply east @-@ northeast across the Mouth of the Mississippi river on September 24 as a minor hurricane . The storm continued east @-@ northeast and made landfall in Florida east of Pensacola . The system evolved into an extratropical cyclone soon after passing out of the Sunshine State and continued moving east to northeast hugging the Atlantic Seaboard to near the Virginia Capes before moving slowly through the shipping lanes between Canada and Bermuda , blocked by a high pressure system in southeast Canada .
= = Preparations = =
By the morning of September 22 , hurricane watches were posted for the upper Texas and Louisiana coasts . By the morning of September 24 , hurricane warnings were in effect from Grand Isle , Louisiana to Fort Walton Beach , Florida while storm warnings were in effect from Morgan City , Louisiana to St. Marks , Florida . The approach of the hurricane led to the evacuation of 15 aircraft from Florida to Ardmore Air Force Base , in Oklahoma .
= = Impact = =
= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =
This was the first hurricane to cause significant disruption to oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico . Several hundred active wells went out of service , and drilling came to a halt for a few days during and after the cyclone 's passage . One of Humble company 's tenders saw three @-@ quarters of its mooring chains compromised , which swung it around into an adjacent oil platform , causing $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1956 USD ) . The cost to downtime in production was greater than the damage Flossy created to the oil rigs . There was no loss of life . Due to the impact of Flossy on oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico , the American Petroleum Institute formed a committee called Fundamental Research on Weather Forecasting . Their goal was to use mathematical models and historic data to better predict hurricane formation and path . Studies went on into 1962 , but no reliable forecast mechanism was found .
= = = United States = = =
In Louisiana , wind @-@ blown sand from the beach spread over area highways due to the hurricane . A total of 16 @.@ 70 inches ( 424 mm ) of rainfall fell at Golden Meadow , Louisiana . Burrwood , Louisiana 's pressure fell to 29 @.@ 03 inHg ( 983 @.@ 1 hPa or mb ) . Hundreds lost their homes in the storm . The storm surge was significant enough to submerge Grand Isle , Louisiana . At Ostrica Lock , the storm tide reached 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Extensive coastal erosion was caused by the cyclone across the Mississippi Delta . In New Orleans , Louisiana , about 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) were flooded as portions of the seawall were overtopped . Cattle drowned across the region , and crops such as citrus , sugar cane , and pecan were heavily damaged .
Winds as high as 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) struck coastal Mississippi . A total of 16 @.@ 30 inches ( 414 mm ) of rain fell at Gulf Shores . In Montgomery , Alabama , the tent used to house the Eastern Hills Baptist Church was destroyed . Across northern Florida , southern Alabama , and Georgia , Flossy was considered drought @-@ breaking . In southwest Georgia , high winds from Flossy damaged the corn and cotton crops . The lowest pressure reported was 28 @.@ 93 inches / 979 @.@ 8 hPa or mb at Pensacola Naval Air Station . The storm tide at Laguna Beach , Florida , reached 7 @.@ 4 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) above mean sea level . As tides damaged some piers and small craft , and resulted in severe beach erosion . At least three tornadoes touched down throughout northern Florida in association with Flossy . One damaged or destroyed numerous structures in Gulf County ; two others in Jefferson and Suwannee counties caused little or no damage .
Further northeast , rains brought by Flossy helped relieve drought conditions across the Carolinas , and were considered beneficial . Winds as high as 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) were recorded in Washington , D.C .. The gas screw vessel Mary Anne was lost at the Hampton Roads Naval Base . High tides caused by the then @-@ extratropical cyclone led to water 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) deep in sections of Norfolk . The Back River Light collapsed during the storm , 127 years after it was built . Severe flooding occurred along the state 's coastline , including interior bays . This occurred despite efforts to curb the storm surge with 500 tons ( 454 tonnes ) of broken rock .
Total damages to Louisiana , Florida , Alabama , the Carolinas , and Virginia was $ 24 @.@ 8 million ( 1956 USD ) .
= Battle of Binh Gia =
The Battle of Binh Gia ( Vietnamese : Trận Bình Giã ) , which was part of a larger communist campaign , was conducted by the Viet Cong from December 28 , 1964 , to January 1 , 1965 , during the Vietnam War in Bình Giã . The battle took place in Phước Tuy Province ( now part of Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu Province ) , South Vietnam .
The year of 1964 marked a decisive turning point in the Vietnam War . Following the ousting of President Ngô Đình Diệm in 1963 , South Vietnam 's top army generals continued to vie with each other for control of the country ’ s military @-@ dominated government instead of combating the emerging forces of the National Liberation Front , also known as the Viet Cong . The fragility of the South Vietnamese government was reflected on the battlefield , where its military experienced great setbacks against the Viet Cong . Taking advantage of Saigon 's political instability , Communist leaders in Hanoi began preparing for war . Even though key members of North Vietnam 's Politburo disagreed on the best strategy to reunite their country , they ultimately went ahead to prepare for armed struggle against South Vietnam and their American supporters .
Towards the end of 1964 , the National Liberation Front commenced a series of large @-@ scale military operations against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , as ordered by the North Vietnamese government . As part of their Winter @-@ Spring Offensive , the Viet Cong unleashed its newly created 9th Division against the South Vietnamese forces at Bình Giã , fighting a large set @-@ piece battle for the first time . Over a period of four days , the Viet Cong 9th Division held its ground and mauled the best units the South Vietnamese army could send against them , only breaking after intense attack by U.S. bombers .
= = Background = =
In 1964 , the political establishment in South Vietnam was still in turmoil . Following the coup that ousted Ngô Đình Diệm , the military situation quickly worsened as the National Liberation Front ( NLF , also known as Viet Cong ) gained significant ground in the countryside because the Military Revolutionary Council which governed South Vietnam , lacked direction both in terms of policy and planning . Furthermore , General Dương Văn Minh , as the Chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council , and his civilian Prime Minister Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ favoured a political resolution instead of using military force , which brought them into conflict with the United States over the best strategy to end the Communist threat in South Vietnam . As a result , both men became increasingly unpopular among the military generals who held real political power in Saigon . On January 30 , 1964 , General Nguyễn Khánh successfully ousted Dương Văn Minh from the Military Revolutionary Council without firing a single shot . For much of the year , Khánh spent most of his efforts on consolidating political power , instead of fighting the Viet Cong .
In contrast to the political unrest in Saigon , the Communist leadership in North Vietnam were far more concerned about the best strategy to fight the South Vietnamese government and their American supporters . While all leaders in Hanoi shared the same goal of eventual reunification of their homeland , different factions within the Communist Party disagreed on the best method to achieve their desired goal . Members of North Vietnam 's Politburo were divided by the issues surrounding the Soviet strategy of peaceful co @-@ existence versus the Chinese strategy of supporting national liberation movements in emerging countries . Despite their differences of opinion , the Communist Party leadership ultimately made preparations for armed struggle in South Vietnam . From Hanoi 's perspective , the military regime in Saigon was able to hold out because the Communist main forces were still not ready to fight a conventional war , so North Vietnam must focus on the development of its military force in the shortest period of time . In the meantime , however , the war must be kept at its current level in order to prevent the full involvement of the United States military .
On October 11 , 1964 , the National Liberation Front in South Vietnam was ordered to carry out a series of military operations as part of the Communist winter @-@ spring offensive . The NLF Nam Bo ( Mekong Delta ) Regional Command established a sub @-@ command under the leadership of Trần Đình Xu , with Nguyễn Hòa as the deputy commander , and Lê Trọng Tấn as the political commissar . Their mission was to inflict damage | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
on the regular units of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) and destroy the strategic hamlets constructed by the former Ngô Đình Diệm regime . The National Liberation Front in South Vietnam identified the regions of Bình Long @-@ Phước Long and Bà Rịa @-@ Long Khánh , along Route 14 , as the main targets for their offensive . Meanwhile , the Central Military Commission in Hanoi appointed General Nguyen Chi Thanh as the commander of North Vietnamese military operations in southern Vietnam . Other high @-@ ranking officers such as Major Generals Lê Trọng Tấn and Trần Độ , and Colonel Hoàng Cầm were sent to South Vietnam to supervise the military build @-@ up which would commence in November 1964 .
= = Prelude = =
In July 1964 , the 271st and 272nd Regiments of the People 's Liberation Armed Forces ( PLAF ) , began moving into the provinces of Bình Dương , Bình Long and Phước Long to carry out their mission . During the first phase of their campaign , the Viet Cong regiments overran several strategic hamlets at Xan Sang , Cam Xe , Dong Xa , and Thai Khai . Between August and September 1964 , Viet Cong regiments executed deep thrusts into Bình Dương and Châu Thành to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese outposts situated on Route 14 . During the second phase of their campaign , the Viet Cong ambushed two South Vietnamese infantry companies and destroyed five armoured vehicles , which consisted of M24 Chaffee light tanks and M @-@ 113 APCs . The PLAF defeated regular South Vietnamese units at the strategic hamlets of Bình Mỹ and Bình Co .
Following the completion of the initial stages in their campaign , the Viet Cong forces were ordered to regroup and prepare for the next offensive in the Long Khánh region . Viet Cong soldiers from the two regiments were assembled in War Zone D , where they were trained to attack well @-@ fortified enemy strongholds . On November 20 , 1964 , the Viet Cong reached the Long Khánh battlefield , having completed a 200 kilometres march from War Zone D. On the battlefield the Viet Cong 186th Battalion ( from Military Region 5 ) , the 500th and 800th Battalions ( from Military Region 7 ) , and the 445th Company also joined the offensive . To kick @-@ start their offensive in the Baria @-@ Long Khánh region , the Viet Cong selected Bình Giã as their next target . Bình Giã was a small village located in Phước Tuy Province , about 67 kilometres away from South Vietnam 's capital of Saigon .
During the war about 6 @,@ 000 people lived in Bình Giã , and most of whom were staunchly anti @-@ communist . The inhabitants of Bình Giã were Roman Catholic refugees who had fled from North Vietnam in 1954 during Operation Passage to Freedom because of fears of Communist persecution . To prepare for their main battle , the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment was ordered to block Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 and 15 , and destroy any South Vietnamese units attempting to reach Bình Giã from the south @-@ western flank of the battlefield . In the days leading up to the battle , the Viet Cong often came out to harass the local militia forces . On December 9 , 1964 , the 272nd Regiment destroyed an entire South Vietnamese mechanised rifle company along Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 , destroying 16 M @-@ 113 APCs . On December 17 , the 272nd Regiment destroyed another six armoured vehicles on Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 15 .
= = Battle = =
During the early hours of December 28 , 1964 , elements of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment and the 445th Company , signaled their main attack on Bình Giã by penetrating the village 's eastern perimeter . There , they clashed with members of the South Vietnamese Popular Force militiamen , which numbered about 65 personnel . The South Vietnamese militia fighters proved no match for the Viet Cong and their overwhelming firepower , so they quickly retreated into underground bunkers , and called for help . Once the village was captured , Colonel Ta Minh Kham , the Viet Cong regimental commander , established his command post in the main village church and waited for fresh reinforcements , which came in the form of heavy mortars , machine guns and recoil @-@ less rifles . To counter South Vietnamese helicopter assaults , Colonel Kham 's troops set up a network of defensive fortifications around the village , with trenches and bunkers protected by land mines and barbed wire . The local Catholic priest , who was also the village chief , sent a bicycle messenger out to the Bà Rịa district headquarters to ask for a relief force . In response , the Bà Rịa district chief sent out elements of two Vietnamese Rangers battalions to retake Bình Giã . On December 29 , two companies of the ARVN 33rd Ranger Battalion and a company from the 30th Ranger Battalion were airlifted into area located west of Bình Giã , by helicopters from the U.S. 118th Aviation Company to face an enemy force of unknown size .
However , as soon as the soldiers from the 30th and 33rd Ranger Battalions arrived at the landing zone , they were quickly overwhelmed by the Viet Cong in a deadly ambush . The entire 30th Ranger Battalion was then committed to join the attack , but they too did not initially succeed in penetrating the strong Viet Cong defensive lines . Several more companies of the Rangers then arrived for an attack from multiple directions . Two companies of the 33rd Ranger Battalion advanced from the northeast . One of them came to the outskirts of the village but was unable to break through the enemy defenses . The other one , trying to outflank the enemy , had been lured into a kill zone in open terrain at the coffee plantation and were quickly obliterated in an ambush by the three VC battalions using heavy weapons . The two companies suffered a 70 percent casualty rate , and survivors were forced to retreat to the nearby Catholic church . The 30th Rangers had more success by assaulting from the western direction and succeeded in fighting their way into the village , aided by local residents . It however also suffered heavy losses , with the battalion commander and his American adviser severely wounded . The local civilians in Bình Giã retrieved weapons and ammunition from the dead Rangers , and hid the wounded government soldiers from the Viet Cong . The 38th Ranger Battalion , on the other hand , landed on the battlefield unopposed by the Viet Cong , and they immediately advanced on Bình Giã from the south . Soldiers from the 38th Rangers spent the whole day fighting but they could not break through their enemies ' defences to link up with the survivors hiding in the church , and fell back after calling in mortar fire to decimate Viet Cong fighters moving to encircle them .
The morning of December 30 , the 4th South Vietnamese Marine Battalion moved out to Biên Hòa Air Base , waiting to be airlifted into the battlefield . The 1 / 4th Marine Battalion was the first unit to arrive on the outskirts of Bình Giã , but the 1st Company commander decided to secure the landing zone , to wait for the rest of the battalion to arrive instead of moving on to their objective . After the rest of the 4th Marine Battalion had arrived , they marched towards the Catholic church to relieve the besieged Rangers . About one and a half hours later , the 4th Marine Battalion linked up with the 30th , 33rd and 38th Ranger Battalions , as the Viet Cong began withdrawing to the northeast . That afternoon the 4th Marine Battalion recaptured the village , but the Viet Cong was nowhere to be seen , as all their units had withdrawn from the village during the previous night , linking with other Viet Cong elements in the forest to attack the government relief forces . On the evening of December 30 , the Viet Cong returned Bình Giã and attacked from the south @-@ eastern perimeter of the village . The local villagers , who discovered the approaching Viet Cong , immediately sounded the alarm to alert the ARVN soldiers defending the village . The South Vietnamese were able to repel the Viet Cong , with support from U.S. Army helicopter gunships flown out from Vung Tau airbase .
While pursuing the Viet Cong , a helicopter gunship from the U.S. 68th Assault Helicopter Company was shot down and crashed in the Quảng Giao rubber plantation , about four kilometres away from Bình Giã , killing four of its crewmen . On December 31 , the U.S. Marines Advisory Group sent a team of four personnel , led by Captain Donald G. Cook , to Bình Giã to observe conditions on the battlefield . At the same time , the 4th Marine Battalion was ordered to locate the crashed helicopter and recover the bodies of the dead American crewmen . Acting against the advice of his American advisor , Major Nguyễn Văn Nho , commander of the 4th Marine Battalion , sent his 2 / 4th Marine Battalion company out to the Quảng Giao rubber plantation . Unknown to the 4th Marine Battalion , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment had assembled in the plantation . About one hour after they had departed from the village of Bình Giã , the commander of the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion reported via radio that his troops had found the helicopter wreckage , and the bodies of four American crewmen . Shortly afterwards , the Viet Cong opened fire and the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion was forced to pull back . In an attempt to save the 2nd Company , the entire 4th Marine Battalion was sent out to confront the Viet Cong . As the lead element of the 4th Marine Battalion closed in on the Quảng Giao plantation , they were hit by accurate Viet Cong artillery fire , which was soon followed by repeated human wave attacks . Having absorbed heavy casualties from the Viet Cong 's ambush , the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion had to fight their way out of the plantation with their bayonets fixed . During the entire ordeal , the company did not receive artillery support because the plantation was beyond the range of 105mm artillery guns based in Phước Tuy and Bà Rịa . They however escaped with the crucial support of the U.S. aircraft and helicopters whose rocket attacks forced the enemy to pull back and halted their attempt at pursuit .
In the morning of December 31 , the 4th Marines Battalion returned to the crash site with the entire force and the American graves were located and their corpses were dug up . At about 3 pm , a single U.S. helicopter arrived on the battlefield to evacuate the casualties , but they only picked up the bodies of the four American crewmen , while South Vietnamese casualties were forced to wait for another helicopter to arrive . At 4 pm , Major Nguyễn Văn Nho ordered the 4th Marine Battalion to carry their casualties back to the village , instead of continuing to wait for the helicopters . As the 4th Marine Battalion began their return march , three Viet Cong battalions , with artillery support , suddenly attacked them from three directions . The battalion 's commanding and executive officers were immediately killed and air support was not available . Two ARVN Marine companies managed to fight their way out of the ambush and back to Bình Giã , but the third was overrun and almost completely wiped out . The fourth company desperately held out at a hilltop against Viet Cong artillery barrages and large infantry charges , before slipping out through the enemy positions at dawn . The 4th Marines Battalion of 426 men lost a total of 117 soldiers killed , 71 wounded and 13 missing . Among the casualties were 35 officers of the 4th Marine Battalion killed in action , and the four American advisers attached to the unit were also wounded . Backed by U.S. Air Force bombers , on January 1 three battalions of ARVN Airborne reinforcements arrived , they were too late as most of the Viet Cong had already withdrawn from the battlefield .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle of Bình Giã reflected the Viet Cong 's growing military strength and influence , especially in the Mekong Delta region . It was the first time the National Liberation Front launched a large @-@ scale operation , holding its ground and fighting for four days against government troops equipped with armor , artillery and helicopters , and aided by U.S. air support and military advisers . The Viet Cong demonstrated that , when well @-@ supplied with military supplies from North Vietnam , they had the ability to fight and inflict damage even on the best ARVN units . For the first time in their history , the NLF was able to control a government stronghold for several days , and inflict heavy casualties on regular units of the South Vietnamese army in a large set @-@ piece battle .
The Viet Cong suffered light casualties with only 32 soldiers officially confirmed killed , and they did not leave a single casualty on the battlefield . In recognition of the 271st Regiment 's performance during the Bình Giã campaign , the NLF High Command bestowed the title ' Bình Giã Regiment ' on the unit to honour their achievement . Following the Bình Giã campaign , the NLF went on to occupy Hoài Đức District and the strategic hamlets of Đất Đỏ , Long Thành and Nhơn Trạch along Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 and 15 . They also expanded the Hát Dịch base area , which was located in Bà Rịa and Bình Thuận provinces , to protect the important sea transportation routes used by the Vietnam People 's Navy to supply Viet Cong units around the regions of the Mekong River .
Unlike their adversaries , the South Vietnamese military suffered heavily in their attempts to recapture the village of Bình Giã and secure the surrounding areas . The South Vietnamese and their American allies lost the total of about 201 personnel killed in action , 192 wounded and 68 missing . In just four days of fighting , two of South Vietnam 's elite Ranger companies were destroyed and several others suffered heavy losses , while the 4th Marine Battalion was rendered ineffective as a fighting force . At that stage of the war , Bình Giã was the worst defeat experienced by any South Vietnamese army . Despite the humiliating defeat inflicted on them , the South Vietnamese army stubbornly considered the battle as their victory and erected a monument at the site of the battle to acknowledge the sacrifices of the soldiers who had fallen to retake Bình Giã .
= = Order of battle ( ground forces ) = =
= = = Viet Cong = = =
271st Regiment ( renamed the 1st PLAF Regiment and became part of the 9th Division on 2 Sep 1965 )
272nd Regiment ( renamed the 2nd PLAF Regiment and became part of the 9th Division on 2 Sep 1965 )
186th Battalion
500th Battalion
514th Battalion
800th Battalion
445th Company
80th Artillery Detachment
= = = Army of the Republic of Vietnam = = =
1st Airborne Battalion
3rd Airborne Battalion
7th Airborne Battalion
4th Marine Battalion
29th Ranger Battalion
30th Ranger Battalion
33rd Ranger Battalion
35th Ranger Battalion
38th Ranger Battalion
Two artillery platoons and one section of M @-@ 24 tanks in support .
= June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina =
In June 1941 , Serbs in eastern Herzegovina rebelled against the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , an Axis puppet state established during World War II on the territory of the defeated Kingdom of Yugoslavia . As the NDH imposed its authority , members of the fascist Ustaše ruling party began a campaign of persecution against Serbs throughout the country . In eastern Herzegovina , the Ustaše perpetrated a series of massacres and attacks against the majority Serb population commencing in the first week of June . Between 3 and 22 June 1941 , spontaneous clashes occurred between NDH authorities and groups of Serbs in the region .
The German invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June . Over the next two days , the sporadic revolts by Serbs against the NDH in eastern Herzegovina erupted into mass rebellion , triggered by Ustaše persecution , Serb solidarity with the Russian people , hatred and fear of the NDH authorities , and other factors . Serb rebels , under the leadership of both local Serbs and Montenegrins , attacked police , gendarmerie , Ustaše and Croatian Home Guard forces in the region . In the first few days , the rebels captured gendarmerie posts in several villages , set up roadblocks on the major roads and ambushed several military vehicles . On the night of 26 June , the rebels mounted a sustained attack on the town of Nevesinje in an attempt to capture it , but the garrison held out until the morning of 28 June when NDH troops broke through the rebel roadblocks .
On 28 June , the rebels ambushed a truckload of Italian soldiers , prompting the Italian Army commander in the NDH to warn the NDH government that he would take unilateral action to secure communication routes . A further gendarmerie post was destroyed by the rebels , and in the evening the rebels captured the village of Avtovac , looting and burning it , and killing dozens of non @-@ Serb civilians . The following day an Italian column cleared the rebels from Avtovac and relieved the hard @-@ pressed NDH garrison in the town of Gacko . From 3 July , an NDH force of over 2 @,@ 000 fanned out from Nevesinje , clearing towns , villages and routes of rebels . The rebel forces did not put up any significant opposition to the clearing operation , and either retreated into nearby Montenegro , or hid their weapons in the mountains and went home . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control of all towns and major transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .
= = Background = =
The Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was founded on 10 April 1941 , during the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers . The NDH consisted of most of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , together with some parts of modern @-@ day Serbia . It was essentially an Italo – German quasi @-@ protectorate , as it owed its existence to the Axis powers , who maintained occupation forces within the puppet state throughout its existence . In the immediate aftermath of the Yugoslav surrender on 17 April , former Royal Yugoslav Army troops returned to their homes in eastern Herzegovina with their weapons . This was a significant security concern for the fledgling NDH government due to the proximity of the border with Montenegro , the close relationship between the people of eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro , and widespread banditry in the region . On the day after the surrender , the commander of the NDH armed forces , Vojskovođa ( Marshal ) Slavko Kvaternik issued a proclamation demanding the surrender of all weapons to NDH authorities by 24 April .
On 24 April , the NDH created five military command areas , including Bosnia Command and Adriatic Command , both of which were initially headquartered in Sarajevo . Each of the five military commands included several district commands . Adriatic Command included the districts of Knin and Sinj in the Dalmatian hinterland , and Mostar and Trebinje in eastern Herzegovina . The NDH began to mobilise soldiers for the Home Guard , with six battalions identified to join Adriatic Command . The battalions were mobilised from areas outside of eastern Herzegovina , and were to be ready by 20 May . The aggressive actions of the Ustaše fifth column during the Axis invasion made Serb civilian leaders in eastern Herzegovina apprehensive about the NDH , and they attempted to obtain Italian protection , and urged the Italians to annex eastern Herzegovina to the neighboring Italian @-@ occupied territory of Montenegro . A collaborationist " Interim Advisory Committee " of Montenegrin separatists was advocating the establishment of an " independent " Montenegrin state , and a similar committee of separatist Serbs was formed in eastern Herzegovina . A delegation from that committee arrived in Cetinje in Montenegro on 6 May to ask for Italian protection . Similarly , a delegation of Muslims from eastern Herzegovina travelled to Sarajevo , the historic Bosnian capital , to urge the NDH authorities to link eastern Herzegovina to that city .
Due to the poor response to the demand for the surrender of weapons , the deadline was extended several times until a date of 8 July was fixed . On 17 May , courts @-@ martial were established to try those that were arrested in possession of weapons , and those found guilty were immediately executed by firing squad . The precedent for this brutal repressive measure against Serbs had already been established by the Germans . It was clear from the outset that the NDH weapons laws were not being enforced as strictly against Croats as they were against Serbs . Securing the border between eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro was considered a high priority due to concerns that the Montenegrin Federalist Party had revived Montenegrin claims to parts of the NDH that had been promised to the Kingdom of Montenegro in the 1915 Treaty of London .
The Italians handed over the administration of eastern Herzegovina to the NDH government on 20 May 1941 , following the signing of the Treaties of Rome , which ceded formerly Yugoslav territory along the Adriatic coast to Italy . The Italians did not immediately withdraw all their troops from the region . The NDH moved quickly to establish its authority in the towns and districts of eastern Herzegovina , which included appointing mayors and prefects , the creation of local units of the Ustaše Militia , and deploying hundreds of gendarmes , Croatian Home Guards and Ustaše Militia units from outside eastern Herzegovina . These forces were brought in to maintain order . The academic Professor Alija Šuljak was appointed the Ustaše commissioner for eastern Herzegovina .
On 20 May , the recently formed Home Guard battalions began to deploy into the Adriatic Command area . On 27 May , 6 officers and 300 gendarmes of the Sarajevo @-@ based 4th Gendarmerie Regiment were deployed into parts of eastern Herzegovina . They established platoon strength posts in Nevesinje , Trebinje , Gacko and Bileća , with their headquarters also in Bileća . The Dubrovnik @-@ based 2nd Gendarmerie Regiment established posts in Stolac and Berkovići . The headquarters of Adriatic Command was transferred to Mostar in late May , and General Ivan Prpić was appointed as its commander .
By 29 May , the battalions of Adriatic Command were in their garrison locations : the 6th Battalion at Mostar , the 7th Battalion at Trebinje , and the 10th Battalion in the Dubrovnik area . The other two Adriatic Command battalions were deployed to Knin and Sinj far to the west . The 18th Battalion was allocated as a reserve and was garrisoned in Mostar . Main Ustaše Headquarters was tasked to recruit one battalion for duties within the Adriatic Command area . Home Guard battalions had a standard structure , consisting of a headquarters company , three infantry companies , a machine gun platoon and a communications section , while battalions of the Ustaše Militia consisted of a headquarters , three companies and a motorised section . Even after the establishment of NDH authorities in eastern Herzegovina , Italian forces maintained their presence in the region . The 55th Regiment of the 32nd Infantry Division Marche remained garrisoned in Trebinje , with the 56th Regiment based in Mostar . The 49th MVSN Legion ( Blackshirts ) were also stationed in Bileća . The Italians maintained a troop presence in Nevesinje until 17 June , and conducted almost daily motorised patrols throughout eastern Herzegovina .
The NDH authorities established new administrative sub @-@ divisions , organising the state into counties ( Croatian : velike župe ) and then districts ( Croatian : kotar ) . Eastern Herzegovina was covered by the counties of Hum and Dubrava . Hum County included the districts of Mostar and Nevesinje , and Dubrava County included the districts of Bileća , Gacko , Stolac , Ravno and Trebinje . The Župan ( county prefect ) of Hum was Josip Trajer with his seat in Mostar , and the Župan of Dubrava was Ante Buć , based in Dubrovnik .
According to the Yugoslav census of 1931 , the population of eastern Herzegovina comprised 4 per cent Croats , 28 per cent Muslims , and 68 per cent Serbs . According to Professor Jozo Tomasevich , the estimated population of the districts of Bileća , Gacko and Nevesinje was only around 1 @.@ 1 per cent Croat , so in those areas nearly all the NDH government appointments and local Ustaše units were staffed by Muslims , an ethnic group that made up about 23 @.@ 7 per cent of the local population . The poor Muslim peasants of eastern Herzegovina largely sided with the Ustaše . The NDH government immediately tried to strengthen their position by vilifying the Serbs , who , according to Tomasevich , comprised around 75 per cent of the population .
= = Prelude = =
The Ustaše began to impose the new laws on the Serb population of the NDH . On 28 May , a group of ten young Ustaše students from the University of Zagreb arrived in Trebinje and began removing signs written in the Cyrillic script used by Serbs . On 1 June , in several towns and villages in eastern Herzegovina , Serbs were shot and businesses belonging to Serb merchants and others were seized . On that day , the Ustaše students in Trebinje shot nine Serbs and arrested another fifteen , apparently due to their links to the inter @-@ war Chetnik Association . Differences began to appear between the brutal treatment of Serbs by the Ustaše and the more careful approach of the other NDH authorities such as the Home Guard , who were aware of the potential danger created by Ustaše methods . In early June , the NDH authorities began operations to confiscate weapons from the population , meeting with immediate resistance . On 1 June , the residents of the village of Donji Drežanj , near Nevesinje , refused to co @-@ operate with weapons collectors . In response , the Ustaše killed a number of Serbs and burned their homes .
On 3 June , there were several incidents in which armed villagers spontaneously retaliated against the local authorities . That afternoon , 20 Ustaše were entering Donji Drežanj to confiscate firearms when they were attacked by a group of armed villagers . The villagers withdrew after a short firefight , with one of their number being captured . Reinforcements from the Home Guard and gendarmerie soon arrived , along with more Ustaše who burned another 20 houses and shot a woman . On the night of 4 / 5 June , a group under the control of the Ustaše commissioner for the Gacko district , Herman Tonogal , killed 140 Serbs in the village of Korita , near Bileća , and threw their bodies into a nearby sinkhole . Another 27 Serbs from the village were killed between this massacre and 9 June , and over 5 @,@ 000 head of livestock were stolen and distributed to Muslim villages in the Gacko area for the exclusive use of the Ustaše . The estimated number of Serbs killed at Korita vary from 133 to 180 .
In the immediate aftermath , Serbs and Montenegrins from the local area attacked villages , and Adriatic Command sent the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion from Bileća to reinforce the Ustaše . After a brief clash near Korita , during which the Ustaše and gendarmerie lost one killed and several wounded , the rebels withdrew across the nearby border into Montenegro . The 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion spent the night in the village of Stepen before establishing itself as the Avtovac garrison the following day . Due to its exposure to fire from rebels overlooking their location , the gendarmes were unable to re @-@ occupy their post in Stepen , which meant that the Stepen – Korita road was no longer secure . On 8 June , the district office in Gacko reported to Adriatic Command that they had taken 200 Serbs as hostages and issued a proclamation to the population to cease fighting and surrender their weapons . As this proclamation met with no response , on 10 June the Ustaše Commissioner for Bosnia and Herzegovina , Jure Francetić , had 19 hostages shot ( one escaped ) . On 12 June , the gendarmerie in Ravno shot four people on the orders of the Ustaše commissioner for Ljubinje . Such actions led to Serb peasants leaving their villages to seek safety in more remote areas , and Muslim villagers became increasingly nervous about their Serb neighbours .
In mid @-@ June , the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Bileća wrote to Adriatic Command complaining about the activities of the Ustaše , referring to them as " armed scum and animals " who were dishonouring " honest Croats " . When the Italians heard that the Ustaše had burned two villages across the border in Montenegro , they sent an intelligence officer to Gacko to investigate the unrest . He did not accept the explanation of the gendarmerie commander in Gacko , who claimed that the violence was caused by " personal hatred and revenge " , and met with rebels . The rebels did not attack him or his security escort , and told him that the reason behind the rebellion was that " Croats and Turks are beating us and throwing us into a pit " . He concluded that the cause of the unrest was the attempt to disarm the Serb community .
On 17 and 18 June , Tonogal and Lieutenant Colonel Aganović , gendarmerie commander for eastern Herzegovina , made an attempt to calm the situation by visiting villages east of the Gacko – Avtovac road to re @-@ establish peace in the area . They received a written message from four villages that they did not acknowledge the NDH authorities , and wanted the message to be passed on to the Italians . The residents of the villages of Jasenik and Lipnik were willing to talk and return to work , but they asked that the gendarmerie not visit their villages , as this would tempt the Montenegrins to attack . Aganović assessed that while this was probably true , their request was insincere . The gendarmerie commander in Bileća believed that the reason for the rebellion was that the local Serbs were wedded to the idea of Greater Serbia , and did not accept that their villages were part of the NDH . This approach essentially meant that local Serbs wanted the NDH authorities to leave them alone and not impose on their lives . According to the historian Davor Marijan , this was a poor choice that gave the Ustaše an excuse to take radical action .
The response of the NDH authorities to resistance had been to burn down the villages where this had occurred , and there were mass shootings of Serbs , which escalated the level of violence even further . In late May and June , 173 Serbs had been rounded up , tortured and killed in Nevesinje , and in early June , another 140 Serbs had been killed at Ljubinje . In response , Serbs attacked Ustaše officials and facilities , and conducted raids themselves , killing Muslim villagers .
= = Uprising = =
The NDH authorities only had weak forces in eastern Herzegovina at the time the mass uprising occurred , roughly equal to two Croatian Home Guard battalions , as well as gendarmerie posts in some towns . This was barely adequate to guard important locations , and was insufficient for offensive action . Deployed forces consisted of one company of the 10th Battalion in Trebinje , the headquarters and a reinforced company of the 7th Battalion in Bileća ( the balance of the battalion being divided between Gacko and Avtovac ) , and a company of the 6th Battalion in Nevesinje . The remainder of the 10th Battalion was deploying to Trebinje at the time the rebellion broke out .
= = = 23 – 24 June = = =
The first indication that the situation had changed significantly was on 23 June , when a group of 200 Ustaše clashed with a group of rebels they estimated to number between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 . After an extended firefight near the village of Stepen , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Korita , during which they suffered several casualties , the Ustaše also burned down four villages . They then entered two Muslim @-@ majority villages in the area and arrested 13 Serbs who had not been involved in the earlier fighting . The arrested Serbs were transported north to Avtovac and shot . That night , all adult Serbs above the age of 16 in Gacko , 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Avtovac , were arrested , and 26 were immediately shot . The rest were transported 50 km ( 31 mi ) west to a camp in Nevesinje . Over the period 23 – 25 June , 150 Serbs from the village of Ravno , 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Ljubinje , were arrested and killed at the gendarmerie post , and the remainder of the population fled to the hills .
On 23 and 24 June , spontaneous mass gatherings occurred at several villages in the Gacko and Nevesinje districts . These rallies were prompted by the news of the German invasion of the Soviet Union , and those attending them voted to fight against the Ustaše . Professor Marko Attila Hoare states that the full @-@ scale uprising resulted from the Ustaše retaliation against attempts of the Serbs of eastern Herzegovina to defend themselves , combined with the launching of the German invasion on 22 June . At dawn on 24 June , the area of Nevesinje descended into full @-@ scale revolt , with around 400 armed rebels engaging the Home Guard garrison . By 24 June , the uprising had reached a massive scale across eastern Herzegovina , with between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 armed rebels in total , including some Montenegrins .
= = = 25 June = = =
On the morning of 25 June , the company of the 6th Battalion at Nevesinje reported that rebels were gathering to attack the town ; Nevesinje 's Ustaše commissioner claimed that the rebel force numbered 5 @,@ 000 , and were led by a former Yugoslav Army colonel . About 10 : 00 , the town was attacked from the south and southwest . In response , the Home Guard despatched two more companies of the 6th Battalion from Mostar to Nevesinje . That morning , reports also arrived from Bileća and Stolac that rebels were approaching the village of Berkovići from the north , and had captured the gendarmerie post at Gornji Lukavac . About 11 : 30 , the Ustaše commissioner for Stolac reported that 3 @,@ 000 Montenegrins had gathered between Nevesinje and Stolac , and he requested the immediate supply of 150 rifles for his men . A rebel attack on the gendarmerie post in the village of Divin near Bileća was repulsed around midday . A platoon of Home Guard reinforcements and weapons for the Ustaše arrived at Stolac in the afternoon , and Bileća was held throughout the day .
Reports of the uprising reached Kvaternik during 25 June , but he dismissed them and the reports of 5 @,@ 000 rebels , cancelling Adriatic Command 's redeployment of the 21st Battalion from Slavonski Brod as well as a request to the Italians for air reconnaissance support . He stated that the suppression of the uprising could be handled by local forces . Loss of communication with Nevesinje resulted in rumours that the town had fallen to the rebels . The gendarmerie post at Fojnica ( near Gacko ) was captured on the afternoon of 25 June , with the survivors escaping to Gacko . Newspapers reported rumours that Gacko and Avtovac had fallen to the rebels . Having already despatched a reinforced company towards Nevesinje from Sarajevo earlier in the day , Adriatic Command ordered the rest of the battalion to follow . The initial company group had already reached Kalinovik some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from Nevesinje , and the rest of the battalion was expected to spend the night of 25 / 26 June there before arriving in Nevesinje around noon on 26 June . Kvaternik received an updated report on the situation in eastern Herzegovina during the night , and Prpić travelled from Sarajevo to Mostar to take control of operations , to find that information about the situation in eastern Herzegovina was unclear , but suggested that NDH forces could be facing serious difficulties .
= = = 26 June = = =
On the morning of 26 June , the company of the 6th Battalion that had been sent from Mostar continued towards Nevesinje , but almost immediately came under fire from a rebel group . With the assistance of Ustaše , the Home Guard were able to hold their ground , but they were unable to break through to Nevesinje . That afternoon , two aircraft of the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske , ZNDH ) from Sarajevo conducted an armed reconnaissance over eastern Herzegovina , and discovered that NDH forces still held Nevesinje . They observed barricades across the Mostar – Nevesinje road , and strafed a group of 50 rebels north of Nevesinje near the village of Kifino Selo . Prpić bolstered the force on the Mostar – Nevesinje road with the 17th Battalion , recently arrived from Sarajevo , and sent his deputy , Colonel Antun Prohaska to command it . The 17th Battalion joined that force at 20 : 00 . About 17 : 00 , the company of the 11th Battalion reached Nevesinje from Kalinovik , and a further company of the battalion was despatched from Sarajevo , along with the battalion commander .
In the southern part of the area of operations around Stolac , the situation was significantly calmer than around Nevesinje , although a group of 200 Ustaše at Berkovići were falsely claiming that they were being surrounded by rebels at night . Despite this claim , they had suffered no casualties . Regardless , Prpić sent them ammunition and a platoon of the 18th Battalion . At 19 : 00 on 26 June , Francetić arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to be briefed on the situation . He resolved that he would travel to Berkovići the following day and take personal command of the Ustaše unit there .
Around Gacko and Avtovac in the north , the day had been quiet . When the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Gacko reported rebels gathering near the town , Prpić sent a truck @-@ mounted platoon with an ammunition resupply . The platoon was ambushed en route , with 14 Home Guardsmen being captured . Gacko was reinforced later in the day from troops in Avtovac . On the night of 26 June , the Nevesinje garrison was subjected to a sustained attack by the rebels , but held out .
The NDH authorities in Trebinje heard rumours that the Serbs could start an uprising there on 28 June , the feast day of Saint Vitus , and warned NDH forces in the region to be prepared for a revolt . As a result of these reports , the Poglavnik ( leader ) of the NDH , Ante Pavelić , issued orders threatening that anyone who spread these rumours would be court @-@ martialled . On the eve of the feast day , both the gendarmerie and Ustaše took several hostages in case the rumours were true . Later , the gendarmerie released their hostages , but the 19 hostages held by the Ustaše were killed . In contrast to the actions of the Ustaše , the Home Guard units in the area tried to calm the situation down .
= = = 27 – 28 June = = =
On the morning of 27 June , Prpić launched a three @-@ pronged assault to clear the routes to Nevesinje . Prohaska commanded the push east along the Mostar – Nevesinje road by a force close to two battalions , Francetić led his unit of Ustaše north from Berkovići through the mountains via Odžak to approach Nevesinje from the south , and two companies of the 11th Battalion thrust southwest along the road from Plužine . Once this task was complete , the NDH forces were to vigorously pursue the rebels and destroy them .
The Prohaska group deployed with one company on the road , and elements of the 17th Battalion and 70 Ustaše on the left flank . Their attack commenced about 10 : 00 , and although they faced strong resistance from the rebels , aided by strafing and bombing by ZNDH aircraft , they reached villages on the outskirts of Nevesinje after fighting that lasted until dawn on 28 June . One Home Guard battalion halted and took up a defensive stance , and the commander was threatened with dismissal by Prpić before he resumed the attack . Francetić 's Ustaše unit also faced heavy fighting , and had to call for ammunition resupply on two occasions . One of the resupply vehicles was ambushed by rebels between Stolac and Berkovići , and some ammunition was finally delivered by passenger car during the night . Elsewhere , rebels attacked Gacko and Avtovac , and one ZNDH aircraft was shot down by rebel machine gun fire near Avtovac . That night , Prpić telephoned Kvaternik and advised him that the imposition of martial law was necessary to restore order to Herzegovina . Army Chief of Staff General Vladimir Laxa was immediately appointed by Pavelić to control both Hum and Dubrava counties , which incorporated much of eastern Herzegovina .
On 28 June , Laxa became the overall commander of all NDH authorities in Hum and Dubrava counties , which included Ustaše , Home Guard , civil administration , gendarmerie and police . Military courts were established to deal with those resisting the NDH authorities . Armed guards were posted at the entrance to towns and villages , and any armed civilians were to be disarmed and brought to military authorities . Laxa issued an order that gave the rebels until 2 July to submit to the authorities . On that day , after the Prohaska group broke through to Nevesinje from Mostar , Prohaska sent a company of the 6th Battalion to Kifino Selo to meet the two companies of the 11th Battalion advancing from Plužine . Despite ZNDH air support , the company of the 6th Battalion was attacked by rebels near the entrance to Kifino Selo and the majority broke and ran . Prohaska had to send reserves to block the road between Nevesinje and Kifino Selo , and the companies from the 11th Battalion began to reconnoitre the rebel positions towards Odžak .
Also on that morning , the 200 Home Guard troops and about 50 armed locals in Avtovac were attacked from three directions by rebels . They recovered from their initial surprise and held the town during the day , but in the evening a renewed assault caused them to withdraw from Avtovac and retreat to the villages of Međuljići and Ključ . Upon capturing Avtovac , the rebels looted the village , burned down a large number of Muslim homes and killed 32 Muslim civilians , mostly women , children and the elderly . Gacko was also attacked by the rebels , with eight soldiers killed , and one officer and 12 soldiers wounded . Also on 28 June , two Italian Army trucks driving from Bileća to Avtovac were ambushed by rebels , who killed three soldiers and wounded 17 . Around 18 : 00 , the Italian command advised Kvaternik that they would be clearing the route from Bileća via Gacko to Nevesinje on an unspecified future date . During the fighting around Gacko , several ZNDH aircraft were forced to land due to pilot casualties and engine trouble . ZNDH air support operations were suspended due to lack of fuel and spares for the aircraft .
There was no improvement in the situation around Stolac , and an Ustaše unit made up of armed civilians proved to be of such low combat value that Laxa spoke to Francetić and criticised its performance . South of Bileća , rebels destroyed the gendarmerie post in a village , killing seven gendarmes . Dozens of gendarmes were sent from Trebinje to assist them , but they were stopped by rebels and withdrew into a village schoolhouse . In the afternoon a platoon of the 10th Home Guard Battalion was sent north from Trebinje to support the gendarmes , but they were attacked near the village of Mosko , and withdrew into a defensive position . They were reinforced by a second platoon during the night , and were given orders to clear the road from Trebinje to Bileća on the following morning ahead of the Italians .
= = = 29 – 30 June = = =
At dawn on 29 June , the rebels attacked the Ustaše in a village on the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Prohaska demanded help from Mostar , and planned to send a force from Nevesinje to assist . From Mostar , a company of the 21st Battalion was despatched to relieve the Ustaše , who had managed to hold off the rebels . The Home Guard company then took over the post from the Ustaše . The same day , two new battalions arrived in Mostar , the 23rd Battalion from Osijek and the 15th Battalion from Travnik . These reinforcements arrived just as Prpić received confirmation that Avtovac had been captured by the rebels . The remaining small garrison in Gacko , consisting of only 20 gendarmes and 30 Ustaše , were holding out but expecting more attacks by the rebels . In the morning , the attack by elements of the 10th Battalion stalled until the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Julije Reš , personally took command of the operation , clearing the way for the Italians . The promised Italian intervention commenced about midday , and about 100 trucks of Italian soldiers arrived in Gacko about 17 : 00 . As they had passed through Avtovac , the rebels had left the town and withdrawn to villages to the east . About 18 : 00 , the 10th Battalion relieved the besieged gendarmes in the village schoolhouse . ZNDH aircraft from Mostar airfield flew reconnaissance sorties over the area and dropped leaflets over Stolac , Stepen , Avtovac , Gacko and Plužine .
After the garrison of Nevesinje had been relieved , Laxa directed his main effort towards the Gacko and Avtovac districts . Sensitive to the fact that the Italians had not respected the territorial borders of the NDH when they sent their column to Gacko , he considered it very important that Croatian military and political prestige be restored , otherwise the Italians might decide to remain in the area rather than withdraw to their garrison near the Adriatic coast . He planned to follow this consolidation by clearing the border areas with Montenegro then clearing the hinterland of any remaining rebels . For this last task he intended to deploy a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed special unit to be led by Lieutenant Colonel Josip Metzger . The task of re @-@ asserting NDH authority in the Gacko and Avtovac districts was allocated to Prohaska 's group , consisting of the 6th Battalion , one company of the 18th Battalion , two companies of the 17th Battalion , and the recently arrived 15th and 21st Battalions , which were to be sent to Nevesinje from Mostar . Prohaska was to act in concert with the 11th Battalion who were already in the vicinity of Plužine , just to the north of the Nevesinje – Gacko road . In preparation , the 15th Battalion was trucked to Nevesinje , and a company of the 17th Battalion conducted a coordinated attack with the 11th Battalion on rebel positions near Kifino Selo . This attack was defeated by the rebels , and a battalion commander was killed .
During the remainder of the day , the Italians collected the bodies of their dead from the rebel ambush on 28 June , and rescued some Home Guard troops that had escaped Avtovac , but then returned to Plana , just north of Bileća . The value of further operations in the Gacko and Avtovac areas was brought into question when the Italians reported that both towns had been burned to the ground , and all the inhabitants had been massacred . The Italians blamed Montenegrins attached to the rebels for the destruction and killings in the two towns . The Italian estimate of rebel strength was around 3 @,@ 000 armed with machine guns , artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns . A German intelligence officer from Sarajevo arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to receive a briefing on the situation . The small garrison of Gacko was anticipating an attack by rebels during the night , but in the afternoon 180 Home Guardsmen that had withdrawn from Avtovac arrived to bolster their position , and the night passed without incident .
= = = 1 – 7 July = = =
On 1 July , an Italian armoured unit arrived in Gacko to reinforce the garrison . An Ustaše operation to clear the insurgents from the Stolac district began on 3 July , meeting with success and opening of the road from Berkovci north to Odžak . The Ustaše did not go closer to Nevesinje as they were not in uniform , and were concerned that the Home Guards would mistake them for rebels . During this operation , three Ustaše were killed , including their commander , and the Ustaše fighters killed ten rebels and captured two . In the belongings of one of the captured rebels , the Ustaše located a report by the " National Movement for the Liberation of Nevesinje " ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Narodni pokret za oslobođenje Nevesinja ) , which was apparently how the rebels referred to themselves . The report made it clear that the rebels were using military tactics and organisation , and hinted at co @-@ operation with the Italians . According to information gathered by the police , the local rebel leadership included former Mostar merchant Čedo Milić , the Bjelogrlić brothers from Avtovac , the Orthodox priest Father Mastilović from Nadinići , and a Captain Radović from Avtovac . Montenegrins involved in the leadership of the uprising included Colonel Bajo Stanišić , Major Minja Višnjić , and Radojica Nikčević from Nikšić .
Following the Italian intervention , Prpić was able to proceed with the task of clearing the wider area of Nevesinje from 3 July , ensuring NDH control of population centres and roads . On 5 July , he replaced his deputy Prohaska with Colonel Franjo Šimić , and assigned him a force consisting of the 6th , 11th , 15th and 17th Battalions , a company of the 18th Battalion and a troop of artillery . The force numbered 62 officers and 2 @,@ 062 men , with heavy weapons including four 100 mm Skoda houfnice vz 14 mountain howitzers , six heavy machine guns and twenty @-@ seven light machine guns . Šimić seized the crossroads near Kifino Selo and Plužine , securing it with one company of the 11th Battalion , then sent the 15th Battalion to Gacko and the 17th Battalion to Berkovići . A half company of the 21st Battalion secured the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Once this was completed , the major roads in eastern Herzegovina were secured . These operations proceeded without significant fighting , as some of the rebels retreated over the border with Montenegro , and others hid their weapons in the mountains and returned to their homes . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control over all the towns and transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .
= = Aftermath = =
Tomasevich states that the uprising was a " spontaneous , unorganised outburst " that was doomed to failure , and involved neither the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović nor the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) . He contends that the uprising was the result of several factors , including the Ustaše persecutions , fear and hatred of the NDH authorities , a local tradition of rebellion against the Ottoman Empire , the poor economic conditions in eastern Herzegovina , and news of the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union . Hoare concurs with Tomasevich that the uprising was in the tradition of the Herzegovinian rebellions against the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century , such as the uprisings in 1875 – 77 . Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , the German Plenipotentiary General in the NDH , believed that the Italians might have deliberately avoided interfering in the uprising . General Renzo Dalmazzo , the commander of the Italian 6th Army Corps , blamed the Ustaše and Muslims for stoking the revolt .
In eastern Herzegovina , the KPJ had little impact until mid @-@ August 1941 , well after the initial revolt had been suppressed . During the lead @-@ up to the mass uprising , the KPJ organisation in Herzegovina would not commit itself , as it was waiting for orders from the provincial organisation in Sarajevo , which was expecting direction from the KPJ Central Committee to launch a general uprising across Yugoslavia . Once they became aware of the German attack on the Soviet Union , the KPJ in Herzegovina voted to join the mass uprising , but this only occurred on 24 June , when the uprising was already in full swing . According to Milazzo , the rebels remained a threat throughout eastern Herzegovina well into July , although the uprising in Herzegovina did not advance until the Bosnia @-@ wide revolt occurred at the end of July , by which time the KPJ was ready for active involvement in the fighting .
= Crush ( video game ) =
Crush is a platformer @-@ puzzle video game developed by Kuju Entertainment 's Zoë Mode studio and published by Sega in 2007 for the PlayStation Portable . Its protagonist is Danny , a young man suffering from insomnia , who uses an experimental device to explore his mind and discover the cause of his sleeplessness . Each level of the game , representing events from Danny 's life and inspired by artists such as Tim Burton and M.C. Escher , requires the player to control Danny as he collects his " lost marbles " and other thoughts .
Crush 's primary gameplay feature involves manipulating each game level between 3D and 2D views , allowing the player to reach platforms and locations inaccessible from within a different view . This element was noted by critics to be similar to one in Super Paper Mario , also released in 2007 , though the Zoë Mode team had envisioned the concept five years prior . Crush received positive reviews upon release , with critics praising its incorporation of this dimension @-@ shifting component alongside other aspects of the game presentation . Though Crush won several gaming awards , including PSP game of the month , it failed to meet the developer 's sales expectations . A port of the game for the Nintendo 3DS called Crush 3D was announced on January 19 , 2011 and was made available on January 13 , 2012 in Europe and on March 6 , 2012 in North America .
= = Plot = =
While Crush and its Nintendo 3DS port Crush 3D retain the same gameplay mechanics and premise , the two versions feature different plots .
= = = PSP version = = =
( Note : The voice actors for the story are unknown at the moment as Zoë Mode never credited them )
The protagonist of the game , a young man named Danny , suffers from chronic insomnia caused by worry , stress , and repressed memories . He is admitted to a mental institution for it , where he consults a mad scientist , Dr. Reubens , who treats Danny with his Cognitive Regression Utilizing pSychiatric Heuristics ( C.R.U.S.H. ) device , which has a sentient female persona . The device 's helmet places Danny under hypnosis , during which he can regain control of his sanity by collecting his lost marbles , and facing his primal fears in the form of monsters ( i.e. cockroaches , slugs ) . Danny starts spilling the beans to Reubens about his city life ; moving into his first apartment and his suffering job as a chef ( because " the ladies love a man who can cook " ) . He heavily depends on Reubens for some serious help if he wants to get rid of his insomnia . Later , when C.R.U.S.H. projects the image of a bucket and shovel at the beach onto the helmet , he recalls his love life some few years ago with a girl named Tina Ash ( who Reubens mistakenly thought was Danny 's mother ) . Returning the next summer , Danny is jilted for a more handsome man . Devastated , Danny ends up sitting on the pier crying , inadvertently falling into the ocean below , but eventually rescued . Reubens claims Danny 's rejection made him " shy away from the fairer sex " , and tells him to get some rest . The next day , Dr. Reubens tunes up his machine to " match [ Danny 's ] abnormally low cognitive frequency . " Danny recommends he give them some time alone , but the word " alone " has Reubens allude to the time Danny was heavily abused as a young boy at a local funfair by three thugs , however , Danny discloses that he ditched his parents to go to the funfair alone , but they find and rescue him . He then promised his parents that he 'd " stay with them forever . " Dr. Reubens uses this evidence to come to a conclusion that homesickness is the cause of his insomnia , recommending that Danny moves back into his parents ' house , but his conclusion is proved wrong when Danny returns one more time . Dr. Reubens lashes out at Danny for wearing out his machine , demanding that Danny fess up to where he " buried [ his ] pain " and if he is merely " toying " with them . Pushing the limit , Reubens subjects Danny to regress all the way to his childhood , when he was only six years old , against Danny 's own will . Danny cries at the breaking point , dictating that Reubens stop " unlocking doors that should stay bolted , " but in the end , Danny mutters the words , " Come back , " implying that his parents went out on a date and left him at his house alone , with disturbing shadows of the night leaving Danny in psychological trauma . Danny discovers that his childhood fears at that time , principally being afraid of the dark , are the real cause his insomnia , sending him " spiraling back into [ his ] six @-@ year @-@ old self . " Reubens is full of disgust that his treatment was a complete waste and that Danny ruined his machine due to his nyctophobia , but tells Danny he 's cured . Right when Reubens begins to snap Danny out of hypnosis , C.R.U.S.H. , following suit in Reubens thoughts , goes over the edge and seems to attack Danny 's mind , with Reubens panicking and Danny 's life on the line while the screen fades to black at the start of the attempt .
= = = 3DS version = = =
Doctor ' Doc ' Doccerson ( instead of Reubens in the PSP version ) , is infuriated that all of his inventions failed , but today he ' shall surpass them all ' with his latest invention , C.R.U.S.H. He uses a tape recorder for his scientific narrative on the experiment . With the help of his best friend and protégé , Danny ( a running gag consists of him correcting Doc throughout the game ) , he enters his mind as his subject to C.R.U.S.H. , but after a few tests , Danny is trapped inside C.R.U.S.H. , where he can collect his lost marbles ( which will unlock new dressing gowns / robe designs ) and facing his fears in the form of monsters ( i.e. cockroaches , slugs ) . At one point , Doc tells Danny that C.R.U.S.H. will not let Danny out due to " unresolved feelings . " The two question that reasoning as they progress . Towards the end , C.R.U.S.H. interrupts contact between Danny and Doc , overly infatuated with Danny . Danny slowly admits to C.R.U.S.H. that she is simply a machine and compares it to " flirting with a parking meter . " C.R.U.S.H. , infuriated , sends Danny back to his childhood as a result . When Doc comes back into contact with Danny , Danny lashes out at Doc for building a machine " with the heart of a teenage girl " who " LOLd " at him . Doc , calming Danny down , explains how this " subconscious " is not really his , but old data , and suddenly Danny becomes shocked when he realizes he took the place of someone who underwent treatment with C.R.U.S.H. ( being the PSP Danny ) , but " she knows [ he 's ] not the same . " C.R.U.S.H. really wanted Danny to clear her head . In the ending , Danny finally escapes and is free out of C.R.U.S.H 's mind . He and Doc discuss C.R.U.S.H 's future , while Doc says that he 'll fix her . In a sudden plot twist , it turns out that they were not in the real world at all , but all the levels throughout the game are outside Doc 's lab . C.R.U.S.H. smiles and laughs into the camera , she winks and the screen cuts to black .
= = Gameplay = =
Crush contains ten levels in each of the four locations , all based on an event in Danny 's past . The levels represent Danny 's mind : a dark city landscape with many tall buildings and the occasional street lamp , a hotel resting aside a seaside location , a dark and mysterious funfair , and a haunted childhood bedroom . Levels are mostly composed of platforms formed by blocks . The player 's goal in each level is to collect marbles , which give the player points based on their color . The exit from the level is opened once a predetermined number of points have been collected . Danny can crawl into narrow areas and jump a small height .
The main gameplay feature of Crush is the ability to transpose the layout of a level between 2D and 3D representations to reach seemingly inaccessible areas and solve the game 's puzzles . The player can switch the third @-@ person camera between four directional side views and a top @-@ down view at any time while in 3D . When in these views , the player can have Danny " crush " the level , collapsing all 3D elements into 2D ; crushing from side views results in a 2D platformer @-@ like view , while crushing from the top @-@ down view provides a 2D top @-@ down perspective . Crushing can connect and merge platforms on the same visual plane in the 3D view but separated by a large distance , creating pathways across the level in the 2D view . The player can also " uncrush " the level at any time . Certain blocks , when crushed , become either obstacles through which Danny cannot pass , or ledges the player can use to reach other parts of the level . Attempts to crush a level in any manner that would harm Danny are thwarted . However , uncrushing can leave Danny in a helpless state , such as hanging in mid @-@ air .
Enemy monsters inhabit the levels , but the player can crush them by flattening impassable blocks against them . The player may also encounter timers in the form of alarm clocks that will begin to elapse when crushed for the first time and can only be stopped when Danny jumps on them . Danny wakes from his mental explorations if he falls off the level or too high of a surface , is touched by a monster , or fails to stop a timer , but the C.R.U.S.H. device reinserts him at the start of the level or the last checkpoint Danny passed .
Throughout the levels are scattered large spheres and cylinders , which the player can roll when crushed appropriately . These can then be used as platforms or to depress switches . Jigsaw pieces can be collected to reveal concept art and extras in the game 's menus . Some of Danny 's " thoughts " , represented by glowing neon icons on the walls of the level , are only activated when the level is crushed in a manner that does not obscure them . Some thoughts allow Danny to jump higher or stop time . Once the player completes each level , they are graded by the duration of Danny 's stay on the level , how many times Danny " woke up " , and a bonus for collecting all marbles , the jigsaw piece , and a hidden thought trophy . The thought trophy , once completed by crushing , unlocks a level 's special challenge mode for later play which requires time @-@ limited completion of the level with an allotted number of crushes .
= = Development = =
In an interview , Zoë Mode executive producer Paul Mottram claimed that the game concept was envisioned in 2002 , but work did not actually begin until 2006 . The initial concept was built on the crushing mechanism between 2D and 3D , and they only had to create appropriate obstacles to prevent players from simply " crushing " across the level . Mottram noted that during the development of Crush , the gameplay of Super Paper Mario had not yet been revealed , and thus the team was surprised to learn that it shared a similar feature .
Mottram stated that the crushing mechanism had been developed and refined for six months before developing the story and characters ; the development team wanted to have " a normal person in an impossible situation " . The art and level design were inspired by Tim Burton , Mike Mignola , and M.C. Escher . The plot was originally more morbid than in the final product , with Danny dying and the rest of the game told as flashbacks .
The game levels were developed on a level editor on the PlayStation Portable , but Zoë Mode were not able to refine the editor in time for shipping . Mottram said " It would be great to see user generated content and this is something we have been seriously thinking about for the future " and that downloadable content " would work perfectly with the Crush level structure and I am sure that fans of the game would be eager to see more levels . " Mottram has stated they would like to market a sequel based on the highly positive feedback they had received ; however , with other Zoë Mode projects such as SingStar and Play taking precedence , he does not know when this could be .
= = Reception = =
Crush received generally positive reviews , with aggregate scores of 83 out of 100 from Metacritic and 82 % from Game Rankings . The game was highly praised for its innovative approach to gameplay . Ryan Davis of GameSpot appreciated Crush for owing " very little of its novel concept to games that preceded it " . Nick Suttner of 1UP called the game a " cognitively rewarding , expertly designed puzzle experience that truly plays like nothing else " . Reviews were mixed on the game 's learning curve . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham praised the ordering of the puzzle elements , that new gaming elements are introduced at " an ideal pace " , and that most puzzles have solutions where the player must " think ' outside the box ' " . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead commented that the game introduces these elements too quickly and " doesn 't give you much time to put the basics into practice " . Some critics found that elements of the game detracted from the game 's uniqueness . X @-@ Play 's Greg Orlando , while stating that this was " one of the most novel games ever made " , noted that it was " simply not very fun " , as it lacked many player incentives beyond manipulating the world and collecting objects on each level . Reviewers noted that some puzzles were awkward due to the selection of the PlayStation Portable 's controls . Reviewers found the game 's story poor , but this was overcome by the gameplay elements ; Charles Harold of the New York Times said " the minimal story is as forgettable as its puzzles are ingenious " . GamesRadar included it in their list of the 100 most overlooked games of its generation . Editor Jason Fanelli stated that the ability to switch from 2D to 3D was " one of the most unique ( at the time ) features we ’ ve ever seen . "
IGN awarded Crush PSP Game of the Month for May 2007 . GameSpy called Crush the third best PlayStation Portable game and the " PSP Puzzle Game of the Year " for its Game of the Year 2007 awards . Similarly , IGN awarded Crush the " Best PSP Puzzle Game " , " Most Innovative PSP Game " , and " Best PSP Game No One Played " awards in their Game of the Year 2007 selections . Crush won the 2007 Develop Conference Industry Award for " Best New Handheld IP " . According to Paul Mottram , positive reception of the game did not translate into high sales , but the game " will hopefully stick around for a while and continue to shift units " .
= Odyssey Number Five =
Odyssey Number Five is the fourth studio album by the Australian rock band Powderfinger , produced by Nick DiDia and released on 4 September 2000 by Universal Music . It won the 2001 ARIA Music Award for Highest Selling Album , Best Group and Best Rock Album . The album was the band 's shortest yet , focusing on social , political , and emotional issues that had appeared in prior works , especially Internationalist .
The album produced four singles . The most successful , " My Happiness " , reached # 4 on the ARIA Singles Chart , won the 2001 ARIA Music Award for " Single of the Year " , and topped Triple J 's Hottest 100 in 2000 . The album also featured " These Days " , which topped Triple J 's Hottest 100 in 1999 . The album was also ranked at number 1 in Triple J 's Hottest 100 Australian Albums of All Time poll in 2011 .
Many critics lauded the album as Powderfinger 's best work ; one stated that the album was " the Finger 's Crowning Glory " , however , others were critical of the " imitation " contained in the album . Overall , the album won five ARIA Music Awards in 2001 and was certified platinum seven times , and earned an eighth in 2004 . Odyssey Number Five was Powderfinger 's first album to chart in the United States , and the band toured extensively around North America to promote its release .
= = Background , recording , and production = =
In a 1997 interview , Powderfinger bassist John Collins hinted that the group 's next album would be similar to their previous album , Internationalist , while frontman Bernard Fanning said in September 2000 that the lyrics on the album , like those on " Waiting for the Sun " , were his " most personal and direct yet " . Fanning said his lyrics were based on the " obstacles in the way of being in a relationship , especially in our work situation " .
Powderfinger worked with producer Nick DiDia on Odyssey Number Five , as they had done on Internationalist , finishing the album in August 2000 after six weeks of recording . The band spent this time ensuring higher quality songs than on Internationalist , which had featured out @-@ of @-@ tune guitars on " Passenger " .
Odyssey Number Five was Powderfinger 's shortest album when recorded , running for approximately 45 minutes . The focus of the album was on restraint , with more simplistic lyrics than previously , and with a plain and simple message intended . Fanning said of his songwriting ethic : " You try and make it something that ’ s got some substance , but also , you can never do that at the cost of it having relevance to what you ’ re singing . " Powderfinger manager Paul Piticco commented that " their ethos is to be pushing the limits of their songwriting ability " .
Like Powderfinger 's previous album Internationalist , Odyssey Number Five commented on social and political issues heavily , with the primary point of focus being Aboriginal affairs . The lyrics of " Like a Dog " attacked former Prime Minister of Australia John Howard 's Liberal government for its treatment of Indigenous Australians , and for breaking the " relaxed and comfortable " promise he made in the Australian federal election , 1996 . Lead singer Bernard Fanning related this to the band 's other ethical stances — refusing to appear on Hey Hey it 's Saturday , for its anti @-@ gay commentary , or not allowing Powderfinger songs to be used in jingles , amongst others — stating , " We 're not here to set an example . We just want to be happy with ourselves and not end up with a guilty conscience . " Fanning said that despite " Like a Dog " being about a political issue , it was not a political song , rather just Powderfinger " voicing our opinions " . The band worked with boxer Anthony Mundine on the song 's music video , whom Fanning praised as " the perfect lead , in terms of what the song is about and the fact that he ’ s prepared to speak up for what he believes in . "
As well as providing social commentary , Odyssey Number Five also discussed love , a recurring motif in Fanning 's songwriting . Fanning noted that one of the causes of this was his passion for soul and gospel music , stating that he " listen [ s ] to a lot of soul music that 's unashamedly about love and how good it makes you feel " . Lead guitarist Ian Haug agreed , and also noted that the band as a whole were fully committed to Fanning 's lyrics , stating " It 's really important for us to agree with what Bernard is singing . "
Odyssey Number Five marked Powderfinger 's first successful attempt to enter the United States market . Fanning told Billboard in a 2001 interview that the band were not taking anything for granted , however , stating , " In America , we haven 't really done any work yet to deserve any major popularity " , with the " vibes " on previous albums failing to reach the American mainstream . Powderfinger toured extensively around the country , performing in 22 cities . As a result of these efforts , " My Happiness " was briefly placed on rotation on KROQ @-@ FM and several other radio stations . The song ultimately peaked at # 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . This success was assisted by the band appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman , and by supporting Coldplay on tour . Guitarist Darren Middleton summarised their work in the United States by stating " This year has been a bit of a blur . "
= = Album and single releases = =
Odyssey Number Five was released on 4 September 2000 , on the Grudge / Universal record labels . The album was released in the United Kingdom on Polydor , with 15 minutes of video and an additional track Nature Boy , at a later date . A sampler version was released in the United States in 2001 , containing five tracks .
Four singles were released from the album . " My Kind of Scene " was the first ; released as a promotional single in June 2000 . The track was written for the 2000 film Mission : Impossible II , and appeared on its soundtrack . Collins and Middleton recalled that the song was written and produced with photos of Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman on the wall of the band 's studio " as inspiration " . They noted that the band made three songs in response to the Mission : Impossible II request , and that " My Kind of Scene " was chosen over " Up & Down & Back Again " and " Whatever Makes You Happy " .
The second single from the album was " My Happiness " , released on 14 August 2000 in Australia . " My Happiness " entered the ARIA Singles Chart at # 4 , and spent 24 weeks on the chart , making it Powderfinger 's highest charting single in Australia . It peaked at # 7 on the New Zealand singles chart , and spent 23 weeks in the top 50 . Furthermore , " My Happiness " was Powderfinger 's first single to chart in the USA , reaching # 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart .
" Like a Dog " was released as the third single on 15 January 2001 . The song was heavy in political sentiment , akin to " The Day You Come " on Internationalist . The riff for the song was written by Ian Haug , and the song 's music video featured Australian Aboriginal boxer Anthony Mundine , and was based on the 1980 Martin Scorsese film Raging Bull . Drummer Jon Coghill said the song revolved around the question of " why the hell won ’ t John Howard say sorry to the Aboriginal people ! " " Like a Dog " spent one week on the ARIA Singles Chart , at # 40 .
Two songs from the album , " The Metre " and " Waiting for the Sun " , were released as a double A @-@ side to form the final single . The single was released on 21 August 2001 , and included a cover of Iron Maiden 's " Number of the Beast " . " Waiting for the Sun " was written by Fanning as a devotional , gospel style song . He said of the song ; " It ’ s about being in a relationship and being really heavily happy with it . " " The Metre " spent one week on the ARIA Singles Chart , at # 31 .
= = Reception = =
Odyssey Number Five mostly gained positive reviews , and was more successful than its predecessor , Internationalist . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Marc Weingarten gave the album a B + . He stated that album entered new " terrain " in guitar rock , complimenting the " scratching and clawing guitars " , drawing comparisons to Travis ( " prim " ) and Oasis ( " mock @-@ grandiose " ) .
Allmusic reviewer Dean Carlson disliked the album , giving it a rating of one and a half stars . He described it as " little more than a slightly off @-@ base perspective into the world of mid @-@ 90s American grunge " , and described it as highly similar to Neil Young . Carlson 's only praise was for songs " Odyssey # 5 " and " My Happiness " , stating that " [ t ] oo often , Powderfinger is too earnest , a bit too careful in their career " . Carlson noted that despite his critique , the album achieved some success in the American market .
Devon Powers of PopMatters complimented Fanning 's vocals , and said the focus of the album was " meaty , rolling ballads " . Powers said that many of the songs on the album were " the kind of songs you put on repeat for hours , or days " . The main critique was for the " faster numbers " , stating that " Like a Dog " " sounds mostly a little bored " . The review concluded by noting that the best songs on Odyssey were those not available as " fleeting radio singles and background music " .
Odyssey Number Five won the 2001 ARIA Awards for " Album of the Year " , " Highest Selling Album " , " Best Rock Album " , " Best Cover Art " , and " Best Group " . " My Happiness " won the award for " Single of the Year " , while " Like a Dog " was nominated for " Highest Selling Single " and " Best Video " . At the 2002 ARIA Awards , " The Metre " was nominated for " Best Group " . The album was named " Album of the Year " by Rolling Stone Australia readers , with " My Happiness " taking out " Song of the Year " and Powderfinger receiving " Band of the Year " .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = ARIA Awards = = =
= = = Other accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Powderfinger :
" Waiting for the Sun " – 3 : 54
" My Happiness " – 4 : 36
" The Metre " – 4 : 33
" Like a Dog " – 4 : 20
" Odyssey # 5 " – 1 : 44
" Up & Down & Back Again " – 4 : 24
" My Kind of Scene " – 4 : 37
" These Days " – 4 : 58
" We Should Be Together Now " – 3 : 42
" Thrilloilogy " – 6 : 10
" Whatever Makes You Happy " – 2 : 28
" Nature Boy " ( UK release ) – 3 : 37
= = Personnel = =
= Amanita muscaria =
Amanita muscaria , commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita , is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus , one of many in the genus Amanita . Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere , generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations , and is now a true cosmopolitan species . It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees .
This iconic toadstool is a large white @-@ gilled , white @-@ spotted , usually red mushroom , and is one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture . Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised , including the brown regalis ( often considered a separate species ) , the yellow @-@ orange flavivolvata , guessowii , formosa , and the pinkish persicina . Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species .
Although classified as poisonous , reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare . After parboiling — which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom 's psychoactive substances — it is eaten in parts of Europe , Asia , and North America . Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties , with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol . The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia , and has a religious significance in these cultures . There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East , Eurasia , North America , and Scandinavia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to be derived from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk . This practice has been recorded from Germanic- and Slavic @-@ speaking parts of Europe , as well as the Vosges region and pockets elsewhere in France , and Romania . Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his work De vegetabilibus some time before 1256 , commenting vocatur fungus muscarum , eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas , " it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies . "
The 16th @-@ century Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany , while Carl Linnaeus , the " father of taxonomy " , reported it from Småland in southern Sweden , where he had lived as a child . He described it in volume two of his Species Plantarum in 1753 , giving it the name Agaricus muscarius , the specific epithet deriving from Latin musca meaning " fly " . It gained its current name in 1783 , when placed in the genus Amanita by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , a name sanctioned in 1821 by the " father of mycology " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1 , 1821 , the date of Fries 's work , and so the full name was then Amanita muscaria ( L. : Fr . ) Hook . The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi , and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's work . Hence , Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of Amanita muscaria ( L. ) Lam ..
The English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported that Amanita muscaria was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden , and bug agaric was an old alternate name for the species . French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly @-@ killing properties in his work Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France ( 1784 ) , and proposed a new binomial name Agaricus pseudo @-@ aurantiacus because of this . One compound isolated from the fungus is 1 @,@ 3 @-@ diolein ( 1 @,@ 3 @-@ Di ( cis @-@ 9 @-@ octadecenoyl ) glycerol ) , which attracts insects . It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties . An alternative derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus . This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person 's head and cause mental illness . Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation , meaning the " mad " or " fool 's " version of the highly regarded edible mushroom Amanita caesarea . Hence there is oriol foll " mad oriol " in Catalan , mujolo folo from Toulouse , concourlo fouolo from the Aveyron department in Southern France , ovolo matto from Trentino in Italy . A local dialect name in Fribourg in Switzerland is tsapi de diablhou , which translates as " Devil 's hat " .
= = = Classification = = =
Amanita muscaria is the type species of the genus . By extension , it is also the type species of Amanita subgenus Amanita , as well as section Amanita within this subgenus . Amanita subgenus Amanita includes all Amanita with inamyloid spores . Amanita section Amanita includes the species which have very patchy universal veil remnants , including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts . Most species in this group also have a bulbous base . Amanita section Amanita consists of A. muscaria and its close relatives , including A. pantherina ( the panther cap ) , A. gemmata , A. farinosa , and A. xanthocephala . Modern fungal taxonomists have classified Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy . Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural .
Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology , and many authorities recognise several subspecies or varieties within the species . In The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies , though without description : A. muscaria ssp. muscaria , A. muscaria ssp. americana , and A. muscaria ssp. flavivolvata .
Contemporary authorities recognise up to seven varieties :
A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of A. muscaria by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing , roughly , Eurasian , Eurasian " subalpine " , and North American populations . Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska ; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species . The study also looked at four named varieties of the species : var. alba , var. flavivolvata , var. formosa ( including var. guessowii ) , and var. regalis from both areas . All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades , evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties . Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups , plus a fourth associated with oak – hickory – pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California , are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species ; thus A. muscaria as it stands currently is evidently a species complex . The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species : A. breckonii is a buff @-@ capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest , and the brown @-@ capped A. gioiosa and A. heterochroma from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively . Both of these last two are found with Eucalyptus and Cistus trees , and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia .
= = Description = =
A large , conspicuous mushroom , Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows , and is often found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development . Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs . After emerging from the ground , the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid @-@ shaped warts . These are remnants of the universal veil , a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young . Dissecting the mushroom at this stage will reveal a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil ; this is helpful in identification . As the fungus grows , the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent ; they do not change in size , but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area . The cap changes from globose to hemispherical , and finally to plate @-@ like and flat in mature specimens . Fully grown , the bright red cap is usually around 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) in diameter , although larger specimens have been found . The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms .
The free gills are white , as is the spore print . The oval spores measure 9 – 13 by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 μm ; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine . The stipe is white , 5 – 20 cm high ( 2 – 8 in ) by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and has the slightly brittle , fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms . At the base is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs . Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil ( which covers the gills during development ) in the form of a white ring . It can be quite wide and flaccid with age . There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness .
Although very distinctive in appearance , the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas , such as Armillaria cf. mellea and the edible Amanita basii — a Mexican species similar to A. caesarea of Europe . Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that amarill ( Spanish for ' yellow ' ) is a common name for the A. caesarea @-@ like species in Mexico . Amanita caesarea can be distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric . Furthermore , the stem , gills and ring of A. caesarea are bright yellow , not white . The volva is a distinct white bag , not broken into scales . In Australia , the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette ( Amanita xanthocephala ) , which grows in association with eucalypts . The latter species generally lacks the white warts of A. muscaria and bears no ring .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Amanita muscaria is a cosmopolitan mushroom , native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush , the Mediterranean and also Central America . A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian – Beringian region in the Tertiary period , before radiating outwards across Asia , Europe and North America . The season for fruiting varies in different climates : fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America , but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast . This species is often found in similar locations to Boletus edulis , and may appear in fairy rings . Conveyed with pine seedlings , it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere , including Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and South America , where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul .
Ectomycorrhizal , Amanita muscaria forms symbiotic relationships with many trees , including pine , spruce , fir , birch , and cedar . Commonly seen under introduced trees , A. muscaria is the fungal equivalent of a weed in New Zealand , Tasmania and Victoria , forming new associations with southern beech ( Nothofagus ) . The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia , where it may be displacing the native species . It appears to be spreading northwards , with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast . It was recorded under silver birch ( Betula pendula ) in Manjimup , Western Australia in 2010 . Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia , it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal .
= = Toxicity = =
Amanita muscaria poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience . Occasionally it has been ingested in error , because immature button forms resemble puffballs . The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible A. caesarea .
Amanita muscaria contains several biologically active agents , at least one of which , muscimol , is known to be psychoactive . Ibotenic acid , a neurotoxin , serves as a prodrug to muscimol , with approximately 10 – 20 % converting to muscimol after ingestion . An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid ; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of Amanita muscaria . The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season , which can further confuse the issue . Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings .
A fatal dose has been calculated as 15 caps . Deaths from this fungus A. muscaria have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports , but with modern medical treatment , fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare . Many older books list Amanita muscaria as " deadly " , but this is an error that implies the mushroom is more toxic than it is . The North American Mycological Association has stated there were no reliably documented fatalities from eating this mushroom during the 20th century . The vast majority ( 90 % or more ) of mushroom poisoning deaths are from eating the greenish to yellowish " death cap " , ( A. phalloides ) or perhaps even one of the several white Amanita species which are known as destroying angels .
The active constituents of this species are water @-@ soluble , and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies A. muscaria . Drying may increase potency , as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol . According to some sources , once detoxified , the mushroom becomes edible .
= = = Pharmacology = = =
Muscarine , discovered in 1869 , was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in A. muscaria . Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors . The levels of muscarine in Amanita muscaria are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as Inocybe erubescens , the small white Clitocybe species C. dealbata and C. rivulosa . The level of muscarine in A. muscaria is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning .
The major toxins involved in A. muscaria poisoning are muscimol ( 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 5 @-@ aminomethyl @-@ 1 @-@ isoxazole , an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid ) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid . Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation ( usually by drying ) of ibotenic acid . Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid @-@ 20th century . Researchers in England , Japan , and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol , not muscarine . These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom . Most are detected in the cap of the fruit , a moderate amount in the base , with the smallest amount in the stalk . Quite rapidly , between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion , a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer . Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten , but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating A. muscaria , which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol .
Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system : glutamic acid and GABA respectively . Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters , muscimol being a potent GABAA agonist , while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in the control of neuronal activity . It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication . Muscimol is the agent responsible for the majority of the psychoactivity .
Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric . It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra @-@ violet radiation . Muscazone is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents . Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective bioaccumulators of vanadium ; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants . Vanadium is present in fruit @-@ bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine . The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown .
= = = Symptoms = = =
Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects . Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight , effects can range from nausea and twitching to drowsiness , cholinergic crisis @-@ like effects ( low blood pressure , sweating and salivation ) , auditory and visual distortions , mood changes , euphoria , relaxation , ataxia , and loss of equilibrium .
In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium , somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning ( such as that caused by Datura stramonium ) , characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion , hallucinations , and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression . Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings . Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours , but certain effects can last for several days . In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours . The effect is highly variable between individuals , with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions . Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards . Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery .
= = = Treatment = = =
Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning . If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours , activated charcoal is given . Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion . Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situations .
There is no antidote , and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication . Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from A. muscaria and as such is its namesake , muscimol does not have action , either as an agonist or antagonist , at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site , and therefore atropine or physostigmine as an antidote is not recommended . If a patient is delirious or agitated , this can usually be treated by reassurance and , if necessary , physical restraints . A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness , agitation , muscular overactivity , and seizures . Only small doses should be used , as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol . Recurrent vomiting is rare , but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances ; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required . Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma , and may need intubation and artificial ventilation . Hemodialysis can remove the toxins , although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary . With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment .
= = = Psychoactive use = = =
The wide range of psychedelic effects can be variously described as depressant , sedative @-@ hypnotic , dissociative , and deliriant ; paradoxical effects may occur . Perceptual phenomena such as macropsia and micropsia may occur , which may have been the inspiration for the effect of mushroom @-@ consumption in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , although " no evidence has ever been found that linked Carroll to recreational drug use " . Additionally , A. muscaria cannot be commercially cultivated , due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees . However , following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006 , the sale of the still legal A. muscaria began increasing .
Professor Marija Gimbutas , a renowned Lithuanian historian , reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania . In remote areas of Lithuania Amanita muscaria has been consumed at wedding feasts , in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka . The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export A. muscaria to the Lapps in the Far North for use in shamanic rituals . The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe .
= = = Siberia = = =
Amanita muscaria was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia . Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic @-@ speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian @-@ speaking peoples of the Russian Far East . There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of A. muscaria was not practised by these peoples . In western Siberia , the use of A. muscaria was restricted to shamans , who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state . ( Normally , Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing . ) In eastern Siberia , A. muscaria was used by both shamans and laypeople alike , and was used recreationally as well as religiously . In eastern Siberia , the shaman would take the mushrooms , and others would drink his urine . This urine , still containing psychoactive elements , may be more potent than the A. muscaria mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching , suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom .
The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ( wapaq ) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home . In the story , the deity Vahiyinin ( " Existence " ) spat onto earth , and his spittle became the wapaq , and his saliva becomes the warts . After experiencing the power of the wapaq , Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children , the people , could learn from it . Among the Koryaks , one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy , who could afford to buy the mushrooms .
= = = Other reports of use = = =
The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that A. muscaria was once used among the Sami people : sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots . In 1979 , Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi @-@ speaking group in Afghanistan . There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of A. muscaria among two Subarctic Native American tribes . Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people , where it was known as the miskwedo . This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson , although evidence from other sources was lacking . There is also one account of a Euro @-@ American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of Amanita muscaria .
= = = Vikings = = =
The notion that Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784 . Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans . The notion has become widespread since the 19th century , but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers . Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant , but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people . It is possible that it could make a person angry , or cause them to be " very jolly or sad , jump about , dance , sing or give way to great fright " .
= = Fly trap = =
Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol . Recently , an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent ( milk or water ) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol .
= = In Religion = =
= = = Soma = = =
In 1968 , R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in the Rig Veda of India , a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time . He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots , stems or seeds , which suggested a mushroom , and used the adjective hári " dazzling " or " flaming " which the author interprets as meaning red . One line described men urinating Soma ; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia . Soma is mentioned as coming " from the mountains " , which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan invaders from the north . Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed , using as a source the Manusmṛti . In 1971 , Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson 's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma . In his 1976 survey , Hallucinogens and Culture , anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma , concluding cautiously in its favour .
= = = Christianity = = =
Philologist , archeologist , and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross , but his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology . The book was roundly discredited by academics and theologians , including Sir Godfrey Driver , Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University , and Henry Chadwick , the Dean of Christ Church , Oxford . Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro 's theory in the 1970 book A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth ; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East , even though cedars and pines are found there , and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro . He concludes that if the theory was true , the use of the mushroom must have been " the best kept secret in the world " as it was so well concealed for two thousand years .
= = Culinary use = =
The toxins in A. muscaria are water @-@ soluble . When sliced thinly , or finely diced and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked , it seems to be detoxified . Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread , the consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe ( notably by Russian settlers in Siberia ) since at least the 19th century , and likely earlier . The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823 . In the late 19th century , the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of A. muscaria consumption , comparing it to manioc , an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption .
Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America . A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African @-@ American mushroom seller in Washington , D.C. , in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville . In this case , the mushroom , after parboiling , and soaking in vinegar , is made into a mushroom sauce for steak . It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan . The most well @-@ known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture , Japan . There , it is primarily salted and pickled .
A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods . They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom , though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it . The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias , as several other popular edible species , notably morels , are toxic unless properly cooked .
= = Legal Status = =
= = = Australia = = =
Muscimol found within Amanita muscaria is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and / or State or Territory Health Authorities .
= = = The Netherlands = = =
Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina are illegal to buy , sell , or possess since December 2008 . Possession of amounts larger than 0.5g dried or 5g fresh lead to a criminal charge .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
It is illegal to produce , supply , or import this drug under the Psychoactive Substance Act , which came into effect on May 26th , 2016 .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The red @-@ and @-@ white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture . Garden ornaments and children 's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies , such as the Smurfs , often show fly agarics used as seats , or homes . Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance , albeit in a subtle manner . In the Victorian era they became more visible , becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings . Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros. ( specifically two of the power @-@ up items and the platforms in several stages ) , and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia .
= = = Literature = = =
An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the mukhomor there was published in English in 1736 . The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo @-@ Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel , Citizen of the World . The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time . Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus , including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books The Seven Sisters of Sleep and A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi . This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . A hallucinogenic " scarlet toadstool " from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley 's 1866 novel Hereward the Wake based on the medieval figure of the same name . Thomas Pynchon 's 1973 novel Gravity 's Rainbow describes the fungus as a " relative of the poisonous Destroying Angel " and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested Amanita muscaria . Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel Thursbitch by Alan Garner .
= Burning of women in England =
In England , burning was a legal punishment inflicted on women found guilty of high treason , petty treason and heresy . Over a period of several centuries , female convicts were publicly burnt at the stake , sometimes alive , for a range of activities including coining and mariticide .
While men guilty of heresy were also burned at the stake , those who committed high treason were instead hanged , drawn and quartered . The English jurist William Blackstone supposed that the difference in sentencing , although " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " , could be explained by the desire not to publicly expose a woman 's body . Public executions were well @-@ attended affairs , and contemporary reports detail the cries of women on the pyre as they were burned alive . It later became commonplace for the executioner to strangle the convict , and for the body to be burned post @-@ mortem .
In the latter half of the eighteenth century , changing attitudes to such public displays prompted Sir Benjamin Hammett MP to denounce the practice in Parliament . His bill , by no means the first such attempt to end the public burning of women , led to the Treason Act 1790 , which abolished the sentence .
= = Crimes punishable by burning = =
= = = Treason = = =
By the end of the thirteenth century , several offences against either one 's lord , or one 's king , were treasonable . High treason , defined as transgressions against the sovereign , was first codified during King Edward III 's reign by the Treason Act 1351 . It clarified exactly what crimes constituted treason , following earlier , somewhat " over zealous " interpretations of England 's legal codes . For instance , high treason could be committed by anyone found to be compassing the king 's death or counterfeiting his coin . High treason remained distinct though , from what became known as petty treason : the killing of a lawful superior , such as a husband by his wife . Though twelfth century contemporary authors made few attempts to differentiate between high treason and petty treason , enhanced punishments may indicate that the latter was treated more seriously than an ordinary felony .
As the most egregious offence an individual could commit , viewed as seriously as though the accused had personally attacked the monarch , high treason demanded the ultimate punishment . But whereas men guilty of this crime were hanged , drawn and quartered , women were drawn and burned . In his Commentaries on the Laws of England the 18th @-@ century English jurist William Blackstone noted that the sentence , " to be drawn to the gallows , and there to be burned alive " , was " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " . Blackstone wrote that women were burned rather than quartered as " the decency due to the sex forbids the exposing and publicly mangling their bodies " . However , an observation by historian Jules Michelet , that " the first flame to rise consumed the clothes , revealing poor trembling nakedness " , may , in the opinion of historian Vic Gatrell , suggest that this solution is " misconceived " . In The Hanging Tree , Gatrell concludes that the occasional live burial of women in Europe gave tacit acknowledgement to the possibility that a struggling , kicking female hanging from a noose could " elicit obscene fantasies " from watching males .
= = = Heresy = = =
Another law enforceable by public burning was De heretico comburendo , introduced in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV . It allowed for the execution of persons of both sexes found guilty of heresy , thought to be " sacrilegious and dangerous to souls , but also seditious and treasonable . " Bishops were empowered to arrest and imprison anyone suspected of offences related to heresy and , once convicted , send them to be burned " in the presence of the people in a lofty place " . Although the act was repealed in 1533 / 34 , it was revived over 20 years later at the request of Queen Mary I who , during the Marian persecutions , made frequent use of the punishment it allowed .
De heretico comburendo was repealed by the Act of Supremacy 1558 , although that act allowed ecclesiastical commissions to deal with occasional instances of heresy . Persons declared guilty , such as Bartholomew Legate and Edward Wightman , could still be burned under a writ of de heretico comburendo issued by the Court of Chancery . The burning of heretics was finally ended by the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1677 which , although it allowed ecclesiastical courts to charge people with " atheism , blasphemy , heresy , schism , or other damnable doctrine or opinion " , limited their power to excommunication .
= = Execution of the sentence = =
Public executions were normally attended by large crowds . For the killing in 1546 of Anne Askew , charged with heresy and tortured at the Tower of London , a " Substancyall Stage " was built to seat the various officials who presided over her burning . A witness to proceedings reported that Askew was so badly injured by her torture that she was unable to stand . Instead , " the dounge carte was holden up betwene ij sarjantes , perhaptes syttyng there in a cheare " .
A pamphlet detailing the burning in April 1652 of Joan Peterson , the so @-@ called Witch of Wapping , also describes the execution of Prudence Lee , found guilty of mariticide . Lee was apparently brought on foot , between two sheriff 's officers and dressed in a red waistcoat , to the place of execution in Smithfield . There she confessed to having " been a very lewd liver , and much given to cursing and swearing , for which the Lord being offended with her , had suffered her to be brought to that untimely end " . She admitted to being jealous of and arguing with her husband , and stabbing him with a knife . The executioner put her in a pitch barrel , tied her to the stake , placed the fuel and faggots around her and set them alight . Lee was reported to have " desired all that were present to pray for her " and , feeling the flames , " shrike [ d ] out terribly some five or six several times . " Burning alive for murder was abolished in 1656 , although burning for adultery remained . Thereafter , out of mercy , the condemned were often strangled before the flames took hold . Notable exceptions to this practice were the burnings in 1685 and 1726 of Elizabeth Gaunt , found guilty of high treason for her part in the Rye House Plot , and Catherine Hayes , for petty treason . Hayes apparently " rent the air with her cries and lamentations " when the fire was lit too early , preventing the executioner from strangling her in time . She became the last woman in England to be burned alive .
The law also allowed for the hanging of children aged seven years or more . Mary Troke , " but sixteen years of age " , was burned at Winchester in 1738 for poisoning her mistress . An unidentified 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl imprisoned at Newgate was more fortunate . Found guilty in 1777 of being an accomplice to treason , for concealing whitewashed farthings on her person ( at her master 's request ) , she had been sentenced to burn . She was saved by the intervention of Thomas Thynne , 1st Marquess of Bath , who happened to be passing .
= = Changing attitudes = =
In 1786 , Phoebe Harris and her accomplices were " indicted , for that they , on the 11th of February last , one piece of false , feigned , and counterfeit money and coin , to the likeness and similitude of the good , legal , and silver coin of this realm , called a shilling , falsely , deceitfully , feloniously , and traiterously did counterfeit and coin " . Watched by a reported 20 @,@ 000 people , she was led to the stake and stood on a stool , where a noose , attached to an iron bolt driven into the top of the stake , was placed around her neck . As prayers were read , the stool was taken away and over the course of several minutes , her feet kicking as her body convulsed , Harris choked to death . About 30 minutes later , faggots were placed around the stake , her body was chained into position , and subsequently burned for over two hours .
Executions like this had once passed with little to no comment in the press . Historically , while fewer women than men were subjected to capital punishment , proportionately more were acquitted , found guilty of lesser charges , or pardoned if condemned . In centuries past , these women were judged by publications such as The Newgate Calendar to have succumbed to their own perversions , or to have been led astray . But while 18th and 19th @-@ century women guilty of treasonable crimes were still seen as villains , increasingly , the cause of their descent was ascribed to villainous men . Those people concerned about the brutality inflicted on condemned women were , in Gatrell 's opinion , " activated by the sense that even at their worst women were creatures to be pitied and protected from themselves , and perhaps revered , like all women from whom men were born . " Commenting on Harris 's execution , The Daily Universal Register claimed that the act reflected " a scandal upon the law " , " a disgrace to the police " and " was not only inhuman , but shamefully indelicate and shocking " . The newspaper asked " why should the law in this species of offence inflict a severer punishment upon a woman , than upon a man " ?
Harris 's fate prompted William Wilberforce to sponsor a bill which , if passed , would have abolished the practice . But as one of its proposals would have allowed the anatomical dissection of criminals other than murderers , the House of Lords rejected it . Though sympathetic to reform of England 's Bloody Code , Lord Chief Justice Loughborough saw no need to change the law : " Although the punishment , as a spectacle , was rather attended with circumstances of horror , likely to make a more strong impression on the beholders than mere hanging , the effect was much the same , as in fact , no greater degree of personal pain was sustained , the criminal being always strangled before the flames were suffered to approach the body " .
When on 25 June 1788 Margaret Sullivan was hanged and burned for coining , the same newspaper ( by then called The Times ) wrote :
There is something so inhuman in burning a woman , for what only subjects a man to hanging , that human nature shudders at the idea . Must not mankind laugh as our long speeches against African slavery — and our fine sentiments on Indian cruelties , when just in the very eye of the Sovereign we roast a female fellow creature alive , for putting a pennyworth of quicksilver on a half @-@ penny worth of brass . The savage barbarity of the punishment — and the smallness of the offence in the eye of God are contrasts that should meet the consideration of Government .
The Gentleman 's Magazine addressed the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger :
the woman was brought out attended by a priest of the Romish persuasion , and as soon as she came to the stake she was placed upon a stool , which was instantly removed from under her , and she left suspended , when the faggots were placed around her , and being set on fire she was soon consumed to ashes . — Mr. Pitt , himself a lawyer , ' tis hoped , will not suffer this cruel remain of savage legislation to escape his notice , and continue a disgrace to the enlightened sense of this country .
Although in his objections to Wilberforce 's 1786 bill Loughborough had noted that these women were dead long before they suffered the flames , many newspapers of the day made no such distinction . The Times incorrectly stated that Sullivan was burned alive , rhetoric which , in Dr Simon Devereaux 's opinion , could be " rooted in the growing reverence for domesticated womanhood " that might have been expected at the time . As many objections may also have been raised by the perceived iniquity of drawing and burning women for coining , whereas until 1783 , when the halting of executions at Tyburn removed ritualistic dragging from public view , men were simply drawn and hanged . A widening gulf between the numbers of men and women whipped in London ( during the 1790s , 393 men versus 47 women ) , which mirrors a similar decline in the sending of women to the pillory , may also indicate an imposition of commonly @-@ held gender ideals on English penal practices .
= = Abolition = =
The burning in 1789 of Christian Murphy , for coining , received practically no attention from the newspapers ( perhaps owing to practical limitations on how much news they could publish across only four pages ) , but it may have been enacted by Sir Benjamin Hammett , a former sheriff of London . Hammett was also an MP , and in 1790 he introduced to Parliament a Bill for Altering the Sentence of Burning Women . He denounced the punishment as " the savage remains of Norman policy " which " disgraced our statutes " , as " the practice did the common law " . He also highlighted how a sheriff who refused to carry out the sentence was liable to prosecution . William Wilberforce and Hammett were not the first men to attempt to end the burning of women . Almost 140 years earlier , during the Interregnum , a group of lawyers and laymen known as the Hale Commission ( after its chairman Matthew Hale ) , was tasked by the House of Commons to take " into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law " . Among the proposed reforms was the replacement of burning at the stake with hanging , but , mainly through the objections of various interested parties , none of the commission 's proposals made it into law during the Rump Parliament . Hammett was confident though . He believed that public opinion was on his side and that " the House would go with him in the cause of humanity " . The change in execution venues , from Tyburn to Newgate , also attracted criticism . Following Phoebe Harris 's burning in 1786 , as well as questioning the inequality of English law The Times complained about the location of the punishment and its effect on locals :
When remission of burning was refused , the scene of inhumanity should have been changed ; the consequences have been serious ; several persons in the neighbourhood of Newgate lying ill , have been severely affected by the smoke which issued from the body of the unhappy female victim .
Another factor was the fate of Sophia Girton , found guilty of coining . Hammett 's bill was introduced only four days before Girton 's fate was to be decided , but a petition for her respite from burning , supported by another sheriff of London ( either Thomas Baker or William Newman ) and brought to King George III 's notice by William Grenville , proved successful . Devereaux suggests that her impending fate lent weight to the eventual outcome of Hammett 's bill , which was to abolish the burning of women for treason through the Treason Act 1790 . Christian Murphy , who at her execution in 1789 was " drest in a clean striped gown , a white ribbon , and a black ribbon round her cap " , was the last woman in England to be burned .
= Strand , London =
Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London . It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the A4 , a main road running west from inner London .
The road 's name comes from the Old English strond , meaning the edge of a river , as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames . The street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries , with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river . These included Essex House , Arundel House , Somerset House , Savoy Palace , Durham House and Cecil House . The aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century , following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops , restaurants and taverns . The street was a centre point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century , and several venues remain on the Strand . At the east end of the street are two historic churches ; St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes .
Several authors , poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand , including Charles Dickens , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Virginia Woolf . The street has been commemorated in the song , " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall .
= = Geography = =
The street is the main link between the two cities of Westminster and London . It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square , parallel to the River Thames , to Temple Bar which is the boundary between the two city districts ; the road ahead being Fleet Street . Traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych , connected at both ends to the Strand . The road marks the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district and forms part of the Northbank business improvement district .
The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway , then in 1185 as Stronde and in 1220 as la Stranda . It is formed from the Old English word ' strond ' , meaning the edge of a river . Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames , before the construction of the Victoria Embankment . The name was later applied to the road itself . In the 13th century it was known as ' Densemanestret ' or ' street of the Danes ' , referring to the community of Danes in the area .
Two London Underground stations were once named Strand : a Piccadilly line station ( which was renamed Aldwych station ) that operated between 1907 and 1994 and a former Northern line station which today forms part of Charing Cross station . ' Strand Bridge ' was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction ; it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo . London Bus routes 6 , 23 , 139 and 176 all run along the Strand , as do numerous night bus services .
= = History = =
During Roman Britain , what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester , known as " Iter VIII " on the Antonine Itinerary , and which later became known by the name Akeman Street . It was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD , and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych . Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards , leaving no mark of the old town , and the area returned to fields .
In the Middle Ages , the Strand became the principal route between the separate settlements of the City of London ( the civil and commercial centre ) and the royal Palace of Westminster ( the national political centre ) . In the archaeological record , there is considerable evidence of occupation to the north of Aldwych , but much along the former foreshore has been covered by rubble from the demolition of the Tudor Somerset Place , a former royal residence , to create a large platform for the building of the first Somerset House , in the 17th century . The landmark Eleanor 's Cross was built in the 13th century at the western end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile . It was demolished in 1647 by the request of Parliament during the First English Civil War , but reconstructed in 1865 .
The west part of the Strand was in the parish of St Martin in the Fields and in the east it extended into the parishes of St Clement Danes and St Mary le Strand . Most of its length was in the Liberty of Westminster , although part of the eastern section in St Clement Danes was in the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex . The precinct of the Savoy , located approximately where the approach to Waterloo Bridge is now , had the Strand as its northern boundary . All of these parishes and places became part of the Strand District in 1855 , except St Martin in the Fields which was governed separately . The Strand District Board of Works was based at No. 22 , Tavistock Street . Strand District was abolished in October 1900 and became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster .
= = = Palaces = = =
From the 12th century onwards , large mansions lined the Strand including several palaces and townhouses inhabited by bishops and royal courtiers , mainly located on the south side , with their own river gates and landings directly on the Thames . The road was poorly maintained , with many pits and sloughs , and a paving order was issued in 1532 to improve traffic .
What later became Essex House on the Strand was originally an Outer Temple of the Knights Templar in the 11th century . In 1313 , ownership passed to the Knights of St John . Henry VIII gave the house to William , Baron Paget in the early 16th century . Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , rebuilt the house in 1563 , originally calling it Leicester House . It was renamed Essex House after being inherited by Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex , in 1588 . It was demolished around 1674 and Essex Street , leading up to the Strand , was built on the location by property speculator Nicholas Barbon .
Arundel House was originally the town house of the Bishops of Bath and Wells . It was owned by William FitzWilliam , 1st Earl of Southampton between 1539 and his death in 1542 , with ownership passing to Thomas Seymour in 1545 . After Seymour was executed in 1549 , the property was sold to Henry FitzAlan , Earl of Arundel , and was owned by the Earldom for much of the 16th and 17th century . In 1666 , it became the meeting place of the Royal Society following the destruction of the previous venue due to the Great Fire of London . The house was demolished in 1678 and Arundel Street , adjoining the Strand , was built on the site .
Somerset House was built by Edward Seymour , Duke of Somerset , regent of England from 1547 to 1549 , demolishing three inns and the church of the Nativity of Our Lady and the Innocents in the process . After Somerset was executed in 1552 , it became an occasional residence for Princess Elizabeth . On her ascension to the throne in 1558 , she returned part of the house to Seymour 's family ( with ownership passing to his son , Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford ) with the remainder being an occasional meeting place for the Royal Society . After Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , it was owned by Anne of Denmark , wife of James VI and I. The building was renamed Denmark House in commemoration of Anne 's brother , Christian IV of Denmark . Following James ' death in 1625 , his body lay there intestate for a month . It was taken over by Parliament in 1645 following the Civil War , renaming it back to Somerset House . It had an irregular series of owners and residents for much of the 18th century until its demolition in 1775 . The house was rebuilt as a series of government buildings . The Stamp Office , later to become the Inland Revenue was established in Somerset House in 1789 . In the late 20th century , a number of art galleries were set up on vacant parts , including the Courtauld Institute of Art and the King 's College London School of Law .
Savoy Palace was the London residence of John of Gaunt , King Richard II 's uncle and the nation 's power broker . In the 14th century the Savoy was the most magnificent nobleman 's mansion in England . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels , led by Wat Tyler , inflamed by opposition to the poll tax promoted by John of Gaunt , systematically demolished the Savoy and everything in it . In 1512 it was rebuilt as the Savoy Hospital for the poor . It gradually fell into dereliction and was divided into multiple tenancies . It was demolished in 1816 – 20 to build the approach road to Waterloo Bridge. eventually being demolished in the 19th century . The Savoy Hotel now occupies this site .
Durham House , the historic London residence of the Bishop of Durham , was built circa 1345 and demolished in the mid @-@ 17th century . Having once been the home of Anne Boleyn , it had become derelict by the mid @-@ 17th century and was demolished in 1660 . Durham Street and the Adelphi Buildings were built on its site . York House was built as the London residence for the Bishop of Norwich not later than 1237 . At the time of the Reformation it was acquired by King Henry VIII and came to be known as York House when he granted it to the Archbishop of York in 1556 . In the 1620s it was acquired by the royal favourite George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham , and after an interlude during the Civil War it was returned to George Villiers , 2nd Duke of Buckingham , who sold it to developers in 1672 . It was then demolished and new streets and buildings built on the site , including George Street , Villiers Street , Duke Street , Of Alley , and Buckingham Street .
Cecil House , also called Exeter House or Burghley House , built in the 16th century by Lord Burghley as an expansion of an existing Tudor house . Exeter House was demolished in 1676 and Exeter Exchange built on the site . A menagerie was built on the upper floors in 1773 , which was later run by Edward Cross , who housed lions , tigers , monkeys and hippopotami . In 1826 , an elephant , Chunee , nearly broke free from its cage and had to be destroyed ; the skeleton was later put on display . The exchange was demolished in 1829 , with the menagerie moving to the Surrey Zoological Gardens , and replaced by Exeter Hall , noted for its Evangelical meetings . This was demolished in 1907 , and the site is now occupied by the Strand Palace Hotel .
Other significant palaces along the Strand include Worcester House , formerly the Inn , or residence , of the Bishop of Carlisle . , Salisbury House , used for royal lodgings in the 15th and 16th centuries , Hungerford House , which was demolished and replaced , in turn , by Hungerford Market and Charing Cross station , and Northumberland House , a large Jacobean mansion , the historic London residence of the Dukes of Northumberland ; built in 1605 and demolished in 1874 . Northumberland Avenue now occupies the site . The official residence of the Secretary of State , next door at No. 1 the Strand , became the first numbered address in London . Apart from the rebuilt Somerset House , all of these buildings have been | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
demolished and replaced from the 17th century onwards . A New Exchange was built on part of the gardens of Durham House , in 1608 @-@ 9 , facing the Strand . This high @-@ class shopping centre enjoyed considerable popularity but was eventually destroyed in 1737 .
= = = Modern era = = =
During the 17th century , many of the grand mansions on the Strand were demolished as the aristocracy moved to the West End . The Duck and Drake tavern on Strand was famed as a venue for the conspirators involved in the Gunpowder Plot . In the time of the Civil War , the Nag 's Head tavern was the venue of a meeting between Henry Ireton and some of the Levellers which resulted in the production of Remonstrance of the Army , demanding the abolition of the monarchy and the trial of King Charles I.
In the 18th century , coffee and chop houses were established on the street ; Twinings was established at No. 206 in 1706 by Thomas Twining , supplier of tea to Queen Anne . The company claims to be the oldest ratepayer in Westminster . The Grecian Coffee House ran from around 1702 to 1803 , while Tom 's ran from 1706 to around 1775 . Though these premises were well @-@ known , the alleyways around the Strand were regular haunts for pickpockets and prostitutes during this time . The Rose Tavern , at the eastern end of the street , was frequented by lawyers during the 18th century . It was later demolished and became Thanet Place . The Crown and Anchor was the main meeting place for the Catholic Association and helped established the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 . It was later used for Catholic politicians such as Daniel O 'Connell to address constituents . The original premises burned down in 1854 , but was rebuilt . Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand originally started at No. 100 in 1828 as a smoking and dining club . It later became a restaurant . The Strand was also notable in the 18th century as a centre for the British book trade , with numerous printers and publishers along the street . The prominent bookseller Andrew Millar is an example of one of the most successful publishers who owned a shop there .
King 's College London was founded in 1828 . The Strand Campus , based next to the church of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Strand , was designed by Robert Smirke and constructed in 1829 – 31 . King 's College Hospital opened as a branch of the college in 1840 , and became a constituent part of the University of London in 1908 . The current campus building was constructed in 1966 . In 2015 , the college acquired Strand House , Bush House and other buildings in the Aldwych Quarter . The Royal Courts of Justice , at the eastern end of the Strand , was designed in the mid @-@ 1860s by G.E. Street as a replacement for the older courts at Westminster Hall , though construction was so delayed that he died shortly before Queen Victoria opened the courts in 1882 . The West Green extension to the courts opened in 1911 , while the Queen 's Building opened in 1968 .
The architect John Nash redeveloped the western end of the Strand in the 1830s , including the construction of Charing Cross Hospital . In the 19th century , much of the Strand was rebuilt and the houses to the south no longer backed onto the Thames , separated from the river by the Victoria Embankment constructed in 1865 – 70 and reclaiming 37 acres ( 15 ha ) of land . The street became well known for theatres , and at one point contained more than any other ; including the Tivoli Music Hall at No. 65 , the Adelphi , Gaiety , Savoy , Terry 's and Vaudeville . In the 21st century , only the Adelphi , Vaudeville and Savoy remain . The Piccadilly branch line from Holborn to Aldwych was built partly to serve theatre traffic . The Coal Hole tavern was founded at No. 91 in the early 19th century , and frequented by coal @-@ heavers working on the Thames . The impresario Renton Nicholson held song @-@ and @-@ supper evenings at the inn , featuring tableaux vivants . The actor Edmund Kean established the Wolf Club at the venue , which is now commemorated by the Wolf Room .
Charing Cross railway station was built on the Strand in 1864 , providing a boat train service to Europe , which stimulated the growth of hotels in the area to cater for travellers . These included the Charing Cross Hotel , attached to the station itself . Today , there are several luggage outlets and tourist agents on the Strand , as well as old postage stamp dealers . The philatelist Stanley Gibbons opened a shop at No. 435 in 1891 . It moved to No. 391 in 1893 , and is now currently based at No. 399 .
The Strand Palace Hotel was designed by F.J.Wills and constructed in 1925 – 30 . The entrance was rebuilt in 1968 , with the original being moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum . The Strand underwent extensive redevelopment in the mid @-@ 20th century . The length of road from St Mary 's eastwards up to St Clement 's was widened in 1900 , subsuming the former Holywell Street which forked from the Strand and ran parallel with it to the north , leaving the two churches of St Mary Le Strand and St.Clement Danes as islands in the centre of the road . Gaiety Theatre was demolished , to be replaced by Citibank House , while Villiers House and New South Wales House were both built in 1957 – 59 . New South Wales House was subsequently demolished in 1996 and replaced by an office block . In 1998 , a statue of Oscar Wilde was built at the junction of Adelaide Street and Duncannon Street , adjoining the western end of the Strand .
= = Churches = =
The church of St Clement Danes is believed to date from the 9th century . The name may have come from Harold Harefoot , a Danish king who ruled England around 1035 – 40 and is buried in the church , or from a place of refuge for Danes after the conquest of Alfred the Great . It was transferred to the Order of the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1189 . It survived the Great Fire in 1666 , but was declared unsafe and rebuilt by Christopher Wren in 1679 . The building was damaged during the Blitz in 1941 , gutting much of the interior , and was rebuilt in 1958 by Sam Lloyd , since when it has served as the central church of the Royal Air Force . The church is one of two possible origins for the " St Clement 's " in the nursery rhyme " Oranges and Lemons " , though more contemporary accounts suggest St Clement 's , Eastcheap in the City of London to be more likely .
St Mary le Strand was designed by James Gibbs and completed in 1717 , to replace a previous church demolished to make way for Somerset House . It was the first building to be designed by Gibbs , who was influenced by Wren and Michelangelo . The column on top of the church was originally designed to support a statue of Queen Anne , but was replaced with a spire following Anne 's death in 1714 . It survived the Blitz but was in poor shape until John Betjeman led a campaign to restore it in the 1970s . Essex Street Chapel , the birthplace of British Unitarianism , abuts onto the Strand . The original chapel was built in 1774 , but damaged in the Blitz . It was restored after the war , and now serves as the denominational headquarters .
= = Notable residents = =
The print seller Rudolph Ackermann lived and worked at No. 101 The Strand between 1797 and 1827 . His shop was one of the first to have gas lighting fitted .
In the 19th century , The Strand became a newly fashionable address and many avant @-@ garde writers and thinkers gathered here , among them Thomas Carlyle , Charles Dickens , John Stuart Mill , Ralph Waldo Emerson and the scientist Thomas Henry Huxley . No. 142 was the home of radical publisher and physician John Chapman , who published contemporary authors from this house during the 1850s and edited the journal Westminster Review from 1851 . George Eliot lived at No. 142 between 1851 and 1855 . Virginia Woolf regularly travelled along the Strand , and a King 's College building named after her is in nearby Kingsway .
= = Cultural references = =
The Strand is the subject of a famous music hall song " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , composed by Harry Castling and C. W. Murphy . The song opens with a group of tourists , staying the night at Trafalgar Square about to embark for Rhineland . The chorus of " Let 's all go down the Strand – have a banana " is now recognised as a stereotypical part of Cockney music hall and parodied by English comedian Bill Bailey . English composer Percy Grainger used the name for his 1911 piano trio Handel in the Strand .
Virginia Woolf has written about the Strand in several of her essays , including " Street Haunting : A London Adventure , " and the novel Mrs. Dalloway . T. S. Eliot alludes to the Strand in his 1905 poem " At Graduation " and in his 1922 poem " The Waste Land " ( part III , The Fire Sermon , v. 258 : " and along the Strand , up Queen Victoria Street " ) . John Masefield also refers to a " jostling in the Strand " in his poem " On Growing Old " . The street name also figures in the 1958 poem " Buses on the Strand " by Richard Percival Lister , which in 2013 was featured as part of TFL ’ s " Poems on the Underground " scheme , appearing in tube carriages all over London .
John Betjeman used the title of the song for a television documentary made for Associated @-@ Rediffusion in 1967 . The same year , Margaret Williams used it for a stage comedy . The Strand Magazine , which began publishing in 1891 , was named after the street . A BBC World Service arts and culture radio series was called The Strand . Bush House , situated on the Strand , was home to the World Service between 1941 and 2012 .
The standard British Monopoly board has the Strand in a group with two roads it connects to ; Fleet Street and Trafalgar Square .
= President Evil =
" President Evil " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the forty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , the episode premiered on The CW on October 31 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates when two masked men rob a Halloween party and steal Veronica 's necklace from Lilly Kane ( Amanda Seyfried ) . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) helps Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) find the biological father of his stepson , the only person who can give the stepson a life @-@ saving bone marrow transplant .
Dianna Agron , Richard Grieco , Ryan Pinkston , and Robert Ri 'chard guest star or make their first appearances as recurring characters in the episode . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , with general praise towards Veronica and Weevil 's relationship and criticism for the case of the week and the episode 's ending .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica shows one of the rape victims ( Krista Kalmus ) the photo of a suspect , but she doesn ’ t recognize him . In criminology class , Veronica does a case study of Weevil ( Francis Capra ) , and the class enjoys it . After the study , Veronica tells Weevil that she ’ s dating Logan ( Jason Dohring ) , and he reacts negatively . Veronica then walks into Mars Investigations and finds Cyrus O ’ Dell and his wife ( Jaime Ray Newman ) talking with Keith , while Veronica herself does some detective work . Keith informs Veronica that Dean O ’ Dell ’ s stepson is dying and that he wants Keith to find the boy ’ s biological father . At Mercer 's ( Ryan Devlin ) party , two masked men enter and steal everyone ’ s valuables , including the necklace that Lilly gave Veronica . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) is failing his mechanical engineering class , a subject in which he wanted to major . Meanwhile , Keith tracks down the husband , and Veronica accuses Weevil of robbing the party .
At the meeting , Dean O ’ Dell ’ s wife asks the ex @-@ husband to give their son a bone marrow transplant . Meanwhile , Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) arrests Weevil for the robbery . Veronica visits Weevil in prison before she decides to look into a pizza delivered to Weevil ’ s house . Sheriff Lamb tells Keith that the ex @-@ husband has disappeared before accusing Keith in the ex @-@ husband ’ s disappearance . Keith thinks that Dean O ’ Dell was involved in the disappearance , but when he visits Dean , it turns out that Dean 's wife and stepson have disappeared to a hospital in Mexico , presumably taking the ex @-@ husband with them . Wallace visits a “ tutor ” , who gives him a mysterious “ study guide ” before going back to for the “ answers . ” Veronica notices the masks being used in a short film , but they were stolen . When they are in Mexico , Dean O ’ Dell reveals that he lied to Keith about their whereabouts .
Veronica tracks the casino robber down to a volunteer police officer . She has evidence , and the police comes to arrest him . However , they don ’ t find the necklace . At the hospital , Keith hesitates when O ’ Dell asks him what he would do if Veronica were in danger . Veronica gets her necklace back from the perpetrator ’ s daughter . Because he gave bone marrow , the ex @-@ husband now has a much more favorable divorce settlement . Veronica tracks down the suspect in the photo , Wang Yi , but his roommate tells Veronica that he is Claire ’ s boyfriend .
= = Production = =
" President Evil " was written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , marking Moskin 's first writing credit , Mulei 's first writing credit for the show , and Marck 's eighth directing credit for Veronica Mars . Dianna Agron , famous for her role as Quinn Fabray on Glee , makes her first appearance on the series in this episode as Jenny , Veronica 's classmate . She would eventually appear on several episodes of the third season .
Richard Grieco , known for his role as Dennis Booker on the original 21 Jump Street TV series , appears for the first time as Steve Batando , Mindy O 'Dell 's ex @-@ husband . In 2012 , the New York Daily News called Grieco 's role on Veronica Mars " his last mainstream role " . Ryan Pinkston guest stars as Danny Rossow , a pizza shop employee . He would go on to make a guest appearance on series creator Rob Thomas 's later show Party Down . Robert Ri 'chard appears as Mason , Wallace 's friend .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " President Evil " was viewed by 2 @.@ 70 million viewers , ranking 99th of 101 in the weekly rankings . This figure was a decrease in 630 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous episode , Charlie Don 't Surf .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , gave a mostly positive review , giving it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , indicating that it was a " good " episode . He stated , " Things are still a bit wobbly on Veronica Mars this season , though this episode had some elements that hopefully herald a turn in the right direction . " While criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , he was more laudatory to the subplots , calling Sheriff Lamb arresting Weevil " the most entertaining scene of the episode " and that " the episode definitely picked up in the last act . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a very mixed review , commenting positively on Veronica and Weevil 's relationship while criticizing other aspects of the episode . " While ' President Evil ' was not a favorite , and has a few annoying moments , it was generally a perfectly adequate episode of Veronica Mars . That is , until the ending . [ … ] The implication here is one that I 've been dreading for a few episodes : that the radical feminist Lilith House has staged Claire 's rape , and possibly others . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B- " .
Reviewer Alan Sepinwall also had mixed comments , comparing the episode to House and stating , " And yet as much as Veronica was annoying me , as much as I wanted to yell at her for automatically jumping to conclusions with Weevil ( more on that in a minute ) , this was maybe my favorite episode of the season . [ … ] Hell , they even had a cliffhanger ending to the mystery arc for the first time in forever . I dug it . " Price Peterson of TV.com gave a mostly negative review , writing , " This episode was not the best ! Not terrible by any means , but it felt lacking in certain ways , particularly when it came to the total lack of Piz and Dick . Where were they ? Also this episode made it clear that Logan didn 't have all that much to do on the show anymore . "
= Dave Sisler =
David Michael Sisler ( October 16 , 1931 – January 9 , 2011 ) was a professional baseball pitcher who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1956 through 1962 . Early in his career , Sisler was a starter , then later was used as a middle reliever and occasionally as a closer . He reached the majors in 1956 with the Boston Red Sox after he completed a two @-@ year obligation in the active military . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons with the Red Sox , he was traded to the Detroit Tigers in 1959 and served the team through the 1960 season . Before the 1961 season , he was selected by the Washington Senators in the 1960 Major League Baseball expansion draft , for whom he played the 1961 season . He was then traded to the Cincinnati Reds in 1962 , playing one season at the major league level , and one in their minor league system .
His most productive years came with Boston , where he won 24 games from 1956 to 1958 , averaging 138 innings each season . After that , he appeared strictly as a reliever and saved a career @-@ high 11 games for the Senators . In a seven @-@ season career , Sisler posted a 38 – 44 record with a 4 @.@ 33 ERA in 247 appearances , including 29 saves , 12 complete games , one shutout and 656 ⅓ innings . Sisler retired from baseball after the 1963 season to become an investment firm executive , a career that lasted for over 30 years , retiring as a vice @-@ chairman for A. G. Edwards .
His father , Hall of Famer George Sisler ; and one of his brothers , Dick Sisler , also played baseball at the major league level ; while another brother , George Sisler , Jr . , was a general manager for several minor league baseball teams , and later became president of the International League from 1966 to 1976 .
= = Early life = =
Sisler was born on October 16 , 1931 , in St. Louis , Missouri , to George Sisler , a Baseball Hall of Fame player , and Kathleen . He played baseball in high school and when he was 16 he went to work for his father who was a coach in the Brooklyn Dodgers organization . Dave kept statistics and was occasionally allowed to pitch . The Dodgers did not envision a future with him and did not pursue a contract due to his commitment to Princeton and future military obligation . Sisler was signed by the Boston Red Sox of the American League ( AL ) after his time with Princeton , and began his professional baseball career at the age of 21 in 1953 for the Albany Senators in the class @-@ A Eastern League . He pitched in 21 games that season , 20 as their starting pitcher ; he had a 12 – 7 win – loss record , an ERA of 2 @.@ 60 in 135 innings pitched . He did not play professional baseball in either 1954 or 1955 due to his active military service .
= = Major League career = =
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
After his military commitment , he re @-@ joined the organization , and began the season with the Red Sox . He made his major league debut on April 26 , 1956 , a one @-@ inning relief appearance against the New York Yankees . His first MLB victory came seven days later , a three @-@ inning relief appearance against the Yankees in Boston . On August 5 , in his sixth start , he pitched a seven @-@ inning complete game 2 @-@ 1 victory over the Cleveland Indians and their pitching star , future Hall of Famer Bob Lemon . In total , he appeared in 39 games his first season , 14 as their starting pitcher , had a 9 – 8 win – loss record with three saves , 98 strikeouts , and a 4 @.@ 66 ERA in 142 ⅓ inning pitched . He tied for the AL league with a 1 @.@ 000 fielding percentage by not committing a single error , although he had the sixth highest total of hit batsmen with seven . Following the season , Sisler was praised for his performance ; he was selected by Boston area sportswriters as the " Harry Agganis Award " winner , given annually to whom they voted as the top Boston Red Sox rookie , and was named to the 1956 " Rookie All @-@ Star Team " .
On January 17 , 1957 , Sisler was re @-@ signed by the Red Sox . The Red Sox expected Sisler to be a candidate for a pitching rotation slot . He impressed his coaching staff during early spring practices , manager Mike " Pinky " Higgins commented that Sisler " looks good ; he 's more mature and shows more confidence " . When the regular season began , he was initially effective , winning three games against one defeat in his first four starts , including two complete game victories against the Yankees . At this point , he was 4 – 0 against the Yankees , earning him the moniker " Yankee Killer " from sportswriter Chester L. Smith of the Pittsburgh Press . Although his ERA of 4 @.@ 88 was considered high , it was due in large part to his loss against the Kansas City Athletics who scored six earned runs in just two innings . On July 4 , he defeated the Yankees once again , making him 5 – 0 against them in his career , and 7 – 4 overall for the 1957 season , and had lowered his ERA to 4 @.@ 02 . That was his last victory of the season , however , which he followed with two consecutive losses , pitching a total of four innings ; he did not appear in another game until September 2 . He recorded a save against the Baltimore Orioles on September 7 , but closed the season with two consecutive losses against the Yankees , though he pitched well in the second game , giving up just three hits and two earned runs in eight innings . His season totals include a 7 – 8 record , and a 4 @.@ 72 ERA in 122 ⅓ inning pitched .
Sisler began the 1958 spring training in spectacular form , pitching a total of nine hitless innings and allowed just one baserunner in 28 batters faced ; the last 27 in order . However , he finished the spring with two consecutive losses , including one to the Pittsburgh Pirates , with whom his father was a special assistant to their manager . He opened the regular season with a complete game victory against the Yankees on April 16 . On May 2 , he pitched his only career complete game shutout , a 6 – 0 victory against the Detroit Tigers and future Hall of Famer Jim Bunning , improving his record to 3 – 1 for the season . Over the next two months , his average innings pitched declined during his starts , and on several occasions he entered the game in relief . He went winless from June 12 to August 9 , when he defeated the Yankees . He recorded just one more victory in 1958 , and completed the season with an 8 – 9 record , a 4 @.@ 94 ERA , and 71 strikeouts in a career @-@ high 149 ⅓ innings pitched .
On February 8 , 1959 , the Red Sox announced that they had Sisler signed for the 1959 season . After what was considered a " disappointing " season , he did not impress with his first outing in spring training , giving up two hits and five bases on balls in just two innings of work . Lack of pitching depth was a noted weakness for the Red Sox entering the season , with unpredictable youth and with hopes that Sisler could regain his previous level of success . Sisler opened the season slated as a relief pitcher with the idea that he would start in certain cases . In three relief appearances through April , he had a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in 6 ⅔ inning pitched . Management decided that his performance along with a pitching staff that they considered inexperienced , Sisler and Ted Lepcio were traded to the Detroit Tigers on May 2 for starting pitcher Billy Hoeft .
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
Hoeft , who won 20 games for the Tigers in 1956 , had continually under @-@ performed since , and was noted for being in the manager 's " doghouse " ; however , TimesDaily sportswriter Hap Halbrooks commented , " I can 't see where they ( Tigers ) gained a thing in this transaction . " The Tigers had lost 15 of their first 17 games of the season before the trade and decided that changes were needed . In addition to the Sisler trade they fired manager Bill Norman and replaced him with Jimmy Dykes . These moves initially proved effective , sparking a winning game streak , which began by defeating the Yankees in both games of a doubleheader on May 3 . Continuing their rebound , the Tigers faced the Red Sox next , winning two of three , and Sisler pitched a scoreless one @-@ inning relief appearance against his former team on May 6 . Used exclusively in relief , Sisler pitched in 32 games for the Tigers , winning one game against three losses and collected seven saves , which was seventh most in the AL , and he did not record an error .
Sisler returned to the Tigers for the 1960 season , and manager Dykes noted that he was not confident that his bullpen could help when needed , pointing to the previous season as a reference . The Tigers bullpen had won just nine games in 1959 , but began 1960 with three straight victories , with Sisler pitching a scoreless two @-@ inning appearance on April 22 . His performance was considered a surprise , due to having a poor spring training . Although he pitched well in his first game of the season , he quickly lost his form , and by May 18 , his ERA had risen to 5 @.@ 06 and had a 1 – 2 record . It was at this point in the season that he began to turn his fortunes around and regained his effectiveness , and by August 12 he had lowered his ERA to 1 @.@ 90 . His season totals included a 2 @.@ 47 ERA and a 7 @-@ 5 win @-@ loss record , both career bests , and added six saves in 80 innings pitched .
= = = Washington Senators = = =
After the 1960 season , it was announced that the AL were going to create two new teams , one in Los Angeles and one in Washington , D. C. Although he was thought of as the Tigers ' best reliever during the season , Sisler was listed by the Tigers as eligible for the 1960 Major League Baseball expansion draft . The draft occurred on December 14 , 1960 and Sisler was selected by the Washington Senators with the fourth overall pick . The Senators received communication from several teams that were interested in Sisler , namely the Milwaukee Braves of the National League ( NL ) and the Athletics , but decided to trade their first pick in the expansion draft , Bobby Shantz , instead . New manager Mickey Vernon defined Sisler 's role with the team before the season began , designating him as their top relief pitcher . Sisler felt slighted by the Tigers , having been left unprotected by the team , and had considered retiring from baseball , but ultimately decided to sign with the Senators .
Sisler was solid for much of the first half of the season , not allowing an earned run until May 19 , and by June 5 he had an ERA of 0 @.@ 74 , a 1 – 0 record with seven saves . It was at the point that his effectiveness declined rapidly , allowing runs to score in four of his next five appearances . In a game against the Red Sox on June 18 , he relieved starter Carl Mathias , and immediately gave up bases on balls to the first two batters he faced , which forced in two runs , then gave up a grand slam to Jim Pagliaroni . He followed with another base on balls , and was relieved without having recording an out . Over the course of the next couple months , with his ERA steadily rising , his playing time was lessened , making just six appearances in the month of July , and five in August . He made his last major league start on August 31 against the Tigers , giving up seven hits and six earned runs for the loss . In 45 total appearances in 1961 , he had a 2 – 8 win @-@ loss record and finished sixth in AL with 11 saves . On September 16 , the Senators agreed to send $ 75 @,@ 000 ( $ 593 @,@ 900 current dollar adjustment ) and a player to be named later to the Cincinnati Reds of the NL for pitcher Claude Osteen . To complete the transaction , Washington sent Sisler to the Reds as that player named on November 28 .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
The Reds were the NL champions in 1961 , and with the addition of Sisler , Dave Hillman , and Moe Drabowsky to ensure stability to their pitching staff in 1962 , the team 's management had high hopes of a return to the World Series . Sisler , who was expected to be used as a relief pitcher , joined a Reds team that already had his brother Dick , who was their first base coach . His father , still with Pittsburgh , mentioned that he was relieved that his son did not play in a recent series between the Pirates and Reds , recalling how the mixed emotions he felt when his elder son , Dick , helped defeat the Dodgers in an important game in 1950 by hitting a home run . The younger Sisler 's season did not begin well ; in his ten appearances by June 5 , he allowed a run in all but three , and had a 4 @.@ 97 ERA . On June 19 , Sisler pitched a scoreless inning in victory against the Pirates , the time first time George watched his son pitch as an opponent . Although Sisler 's season was a disappointment , he completed the season well , allowing just one earned run over the course of his final eight games , as well as earning the victory on September 23 , his final major league appearance . His totals for the season included a 4 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 92 ERA , and one save in 43 ⅔ innings pitched .
For the coming 1963 season , manager Fred Hutchinson envisioned the same the role for Sisler , coming out of the bullpen with the idea that he would occasionally start . The Reds announced on February 9 that Sisler had signed for the 1963 season , although he did not make the Reds ' NL club and was optioned to their class @-@ AAA team , the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . In 35 games pitched for the Padres , he started six , had a 6 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 40 ERA in 90 innings . On March 18 , 1964 , it was announced that Sisler retired from baseball to join an Investment company .
= = Later life = =
After his baseball career , Sisler became an executive with the investment firm A. G. Edwards for more than 30 years , reaching the level of vice @-@ chairman . A. G. Edwards was a sponsor of a semi @-@ professional baseball team located in St. Petersburg , Florida ; when the " Stockbrokers " were invited to play in season @-@ ending tournament to decide a champion , Sisler , a senior executive for the firm , denied the funding for the team , forcing them to decline if no other monies were raised . It was an unexpected decision considering that Sisler was former baseball player , but he did not feel that A. G. Edwards was benefitting , with the costs of running the team becoming more than originally agreed to by contract .
In 2004 , the possibility arose of his father 's record of 257 hits in a season being surpassed by Ichiro Suzuki of the Seattle Mariners . Living in Dallas , Texas at the time , Sisler and his son Dave followed Ichiro 's progress throughout the season . Both had mixed feelings about the record chase ; they were happy that George Sisler 's name was being talked about and that people were re @-@ discovering him as a player , but both were hoping that , if the record was not broken in 154 games , there would be an asterisk noting that it took Ichiro more games to achieve it . Ichiro finished the season with 262 hits , and the Mariners extended an invitation for the entire Sisler family to attend the celebration at Safeco Field . The younger Sisler was prevented by an emergency heart procedure from travelling to Seattle . Both remarked that the Mariners were a classy organization for extending the invitation .
Sisler died on January 9 , 2011 of prostate cancer at the age of 79 in St. Louis , Missouri . He was survived by his wife Janet , son and three grandchildren .
= Cole Hamels =
Colbert Michael " Cole " Hamels ( born December 27 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the Philadelphia Phillies from 2006 to 2015 .
Originally from San Diego , California , Hamels excelled in Rancho Bernardo High School both academically and athletically . The Phillies drafted him out of high school in the first round of the 2002 MLB Draft ( 17th ) , and he began his career in the Phillies minor league system . Numerous issues , including an injury sustained in a bar fight as well as other injuries , occurred during his first few minor league seasons . Having reached the Triple @-@ A level , he was the top pitcher in the Phillies ' minor league system in 2006 .
In May 2006 , Hamels made his major league debut for the Phillies . After securing a long @-@ term spot as a member of the Phillies starting rotation in his rookie season , he made large strides in the 2007 Major League Baseball season and won the Phillies ' top major league pitcher award . He was the top pitcher on the team entering the 2008 season , and during the Phillies ' postseason run , during which they ultimately won the 2008 World Series , he won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award . Since then , he has been a top starter in the Phillies ' rotation . After the 2008 season , Hamels signed a three @-@ year contract with the Phillies . His statistics declined over the next two seasons , struggling through a tumultuous 2009 campaign and somewhat bouncing back in 2010 , however still not approaching his 2008 numbers . Over the next few seasons , Hamels was joined by fellow all @-@ star pitchers including Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , and Roy Oswalt , and flourished with them , putting up some of his top career seasons before suffering from poor run support in 2013 . With the decline of his aging teammates as the team missed the postseason for the next few years , Hamels remained one of the Phillies ' consistent stars . Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers in 2015 where he sparked their run to the AL West title .
= = Early life = =
Cole Hamels attended Meadowbrook Middle School and Rancho Bernardo High School in San Diego . He was a " gifted student " , and scored a 1510 ( out of 1600 ) on the SAT . Scouts were interested in Hamels while he was in high school primarily because his fastball was clocked as high as 94 miles per hour ( 151 km / h ) , and his secondary offerings were considered advanced . However , some teams lost interest when Hamels broke his left humerus during his sophomore year . Nonetheless , Hamels was drafted in the first round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft by the Philadelphia Phillies , who held the 17th overall selection .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor league career = = =
Hamels began his professional baseball career in 2003 , pitching for the Class A Lakewood BlueClaws of the South Atlantic League . Later that season , he was promoted to the Clearwater Threshers of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League . He finished the year by receiving the Paul Owens Award , given to the best pitcher in the Phillies ' minor league system .
During the next two seasons , however , Hamels suffered through several injuries , and pitched only sparingly . He missed most of the 2004 season with elbow tendinitis , making only four starts . In 2005 , he broke his pitching hand in a bar fight before the season began ; after rehabilitation , he was assigned to Clearwater . In July , the Phillies promoted him to the Class AA Reading Phillies of the Eastern League , where he surrendered the first home run of his professional career in his first start . Subsequently , he was shut down for the remainder of the season with back spasms .
In 2006 , a healthy Hamels started again at Clearwater , and after a brief stint in Reading , he was promoted to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Red Barons of the Class AAA International League . In three games at Scranton , he struck out 36 batters while giving up only one walk and one run . His minor league statistics included a record of 14 – 4 with a 1 @.@ 43 ERA and 273 strikeouts in 35 games pitched . For his performance , the Phillies promoted him to the major league club .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Hamels was called up to the Philadelphia Phillies in May 2006 . In his Major League Baseball debut on May 12 , he pitched five scoreless innings , allowing one hit , striking out seven batters , walked five , while earning a no @-@ decision against the Cincinnati Reds . In his second career start , Hamels was dominant until the seventh inning , during which he was pulled after he allowed several baserunners , but again received a no @-@ decision . A shoulder injury scratched Hamels from the lineup of what would have originally been his third major league start . He was put on the 15 @-@ day disabled list and returned on June 6 to defeat the Arizona Diamondbacks 10 – 1 for his first Major League victory . On August 14 , 2006 , Hamels had his best start of his rookie season , shutting out the New York Mets over eight innings and striking out nine in the Phillies ' 13 – 0 victory . He finished his rookie season with a 9 – 8 record , a 4 @.@ 08 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 145 strikeouts ( third among NL rookies ) in 132 1 ⁄ 3 innings ( sixth among NL rookies ) .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Hamels entered the 2007 season having done significant work in the weight room in the offseason and at spring training . His tenacity came to fruition when , on April 21 , 2007 , Hamels pitched his first major league complete game , allowing one run on five hits and two walks while setting a career high with 15 strikeouts . Just three days before , the Phillies moved their opening day starter Brett Myers to the bullpen to be the closer , making Hamels the team 's number one starter . On May 16 , he carried a perfect game into the seventh inning , but then walked leadoff hitter Rickie Weeks and surrendered a home run to the next batter , J. J. Hardy .
For his strong performance during the first half of the season , Hamels was , for the first time in his career , selected a member of the NL All Star Team . As Hamels had been the Phillies only consistent starter to that point , even to the point that one columnist said the Phillies are a joke " as long as we are forced to look forward to someone other than Cole Hamels on the mound " , the Phillies acquired Kyle Lohse to supplement the rotation soon before the trading deadline . Several weeks later , Hamels was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list ( DL ) with a mild left elbow strain . After the Phillies activated him from the DL , on September 28 , he helped the Phillies take over first place in the National League East by striking out 13 Washington Nationals over 8 innings in a 6 – 0 win . Two days later , the team clinched a spot in the playoffs for the first time in 14 years . In the first game of the National League Division Series , he started for the Phillies , but surrendered three runs , three hits , and an " uncharacteristic " four walks , while striking out seven in 62 ⁄ 3 innings ; he was assessed the loss . Ultimately , the Phillies lost the series . Hamels finished with a regular @-@ season record of 15 – 5 , a 3 @.@ 39 ERA , and 177 strikeouts in 183 1 ⁄ 3 innings . The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Before the season began in March , Hamels made a complaint about the Phillies underpaying him , saying it was a " low blow " and he was " caught off @-@ guard " with the gap between what he and his agent John Boggs felt was a fair reward for his performance in the previous season and what he was paid ( the Phillies paid him US $ 500 @,@ 000 , barely above the minimum salary for MLB players despite Hamels ' strong performance ) .
Though Hamels was the " clear @-@ cut ace " , Charlie Manuel penciled in Brett Myers as the Phillies ' opening day starter because Myers accepted his role as closer the preceding season , putting the team ahead of his personal wishes to start .
By the end of April , Hamels led the Phillies in most pitching categories , including wins ( 3 ) , ERA ( 2 @.@ 70 ) , and innings pitched ( 43 ⅓ ) . Continuing his dominance into May , Hamels recorded his first career complete game shutout against the Atlanta Braves on the 15th of that month . By June , Myers had been demoted to the minor leagues due to his ineffectiveness , leaving Hamels alone atop the rotation . Hamels was snubbed from a selection to the All @-@ Star Game despite strong numbers . For the season , Hamels was 14 – 10 with a 3 @.@ 09 ERA and 196 strikeouts in 227 1 ⁄ 3 innings ; he had the lowest on @-@ base percentage @-@ against ( OBP ) in the majors at .272 . FanGraphs also rated his changeup as the most effective in the majors .
Hamels pitched in Game 1 of the National League Division Series against the Brewers , pitching " eight spectacular two @-@ hit shutout innings " during which he struck out nine hitters , notching his first career playoff win , and the Phillies ' first playoff win since 1993 . He commented , " I knew the importance of the game . And it 's something where , because of last year , I learned what it really takes in trying to ... kind of mellow out , not to have that sort of excitement where you can 't really control everything . " He was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the National League Championship Series , going 2 – 0 in the NLCS with a 1 @.@ 93 ERA and winning the series clincher on October 15 in Los Angeles .
Hamels was selected the Phillies starter for Game 1 of the World Series ; the Phillies won 3 – 2 , and Hamels earned his fourth win of the postseason . Hamels also started Game 5 , which was suspended due to rain after the top of the sixth inning tied at 2 @-@ 2 , and receiving a no @-@ decision ; when game five resumed the Phillies won 4 @-@ 3 to clinch the World Series . Overall , Hamels made five postseason starts in 2008 , going 4 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 80 ERA . Hamels threw a total of 35 innings during the postseason , and held opponents scoreless in 28 of them ; he never allowed more than one run in any of the seven innings in which he did not hold opponents scoreless . Hamels was named the 2008 World Series MVP .
Subsequently , Jayson Stark wrote ,
The names on the list are the names who have carved their legends in the month of October ... We know their names because October was their kind of month , and they belong on that list because they once did something very few pitchers have ever done . They all won four starts in the same postseason . And now they have company ... a 24 @-@ year @-@ old left @-@ hander named Cole Hamels . And with every time the Phillies handed him the baseball in October 2009 , it became more apparent that he is one of the sports ' most special talents .
The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award for the second consecutive year .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Hamels started his 2009 season by signing a three @-@ year , $ 20 @.@ 5 million contract with the Phillies . On February 14 , the first day of spring training for pitchers and catchers , when asked who the Opening Day starter would be , manager Charlie Manuel responded , " Yeah , you might as well go ahead and pencil him in . I don 't think there 's any sense in me playing games . Go ahead , pencil him in . "
However , Hamels left spring training on March 16 after feeling tightness between innings , and flew to Philadelphia to have his left elbow examined by Dr. Michael Ciccotti . " This will obviously set me back a couple of days , and I don 't think that should be a big deal " , said Hamels . Ciccotti found no structural damage in his arm , yet Hamels still did not pitch on Opening Day as expected ; Myers did for the third consecutive season . For the first time in his career , he went winless in his first four starts , and left back @-@ to @-@ back starts early due to injury in late April , sustaining a left @-@ shoulder contusion and an ankle sprain respectively . From June on , however , he returned to his previous form , recording two complete @-@ game shutouts ( tied for the NL @-@ lead ) , striking out at least 10 batters in two separate games , and amassing a 21 @-@ inning scoreless streak from August 21 to September 6 , while allowing just two home runs in his final eight starts . In July , the Phillies augmented their starting rotation by acquiring two former Cy Young Award winners in Cliff Lee and Pedro Martínez from a trade and a free agent signing respectively . Due to his early season injury struggles , Hamels posted a 10 – 11 record and a 4 @.@ 32 ERA in the regular season , his first major league season in which he posted a sub-.500 record , and the worst ERA of his career to that point .
Hamels started Game 2 of the 2009 National League Division Series against the Colorado Rockies , allowing four earned runs through five innings to take the loss . Nevertheless , the Phillies won the series , three games to one . He earned the win in Game 1 of the National League Championship Series as the Phillies beat the Dodgers , 8 – 6 . Hamels started Game 3 of the World Series against the New York Yankees , pitching 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing 5 earned runs and taking the loss as the Yankees won that game 8 @-@ 5 . Afterward , he told reporters , " I can 't wait for it ( the season ) to end . It 's been mentally draining . It 's one of those things where , a year in , you just can ’ t wait for a fresh start . " Later in the series , after the Phillies won game five , a confrontational Brett Myers mockingly asked Hamels : " What are you doing here ? I thought you quit . " The Phillies lost the World Series to the New York Yankees in six games .
Rob Neyer a sabermetrician and columnist for ESPN.com , contradicted anyone who asserted Hamels ' skills had deteriorated , instead commenting ,
" Last October , everybody was ready to anoint Hamels some sort of superhero . This was largely because he went 4 – 0 during the Phillies ' championship run , but also because he went 14 – 10 with a 3 @.@ 09 ERA during the regular season . Last season , Hamels ' strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio was 3 @.@ 7 ; this year it 's 3 @.@ 8 . Last year , Hamels gave up 1 @.@ 1 home runs per nine innings ; this year he 's given up 1 @.@ 3 homers per nine . The only real difference between the 2008 Hamels and the 2009 Hamels is luck . "
Phillies ' pitching coach Rich Dubee and Hamels himself blamed Hamels ' demeanor for some of his decline , noting , " He is such a perfectionist … his approach wasn ’ t very good last year . His success won ’ t come back until his demeanor changes " and " The more angry you get , it 's that much tougher to execute your next pitch . I think I let [ expectations ] get to me " respectively .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Entering the 2010 season , the Phillies traded away Cliff Lee , but in doing so , acquired Roy Halladay in a " mega @-@ trade " . They did not re @-@ sign Myers , and Halladay was named the Phillies ' opening day starter . Among Hamels ' season highlights were a start on June 7 against the San Diego Padres during which he threw 61 ⁄ 3 innings of no @-@ hit baseball , winning five consecutive starts including three consecutive scoreless starts from late @-@ August to mid @-@ September , and striking out 13 batters , tied for his second @-@ highest career total , on September 13 against the Florida Marlins .
The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB . Hamels started Game 3 of the National League Division Series against the Cincinnati Reds and , for the first time in his postseason career , pitched a complete game shutout . The Phillies advanced to the National League Championship Series facing the San Francisco Giants , where Hamels took the loss in Game 3 giving up three runs as the Giants ' Matt Cain shutout the Phillies , en route to the Phillies ' ultimate elimination in six games .
Statistically , Hamels rebounded from his previous season by posting a 12 – 11 record with a 3 @.@ 06 ERA , the latter of which was , at the time , a career @-@ best . He also struck out a career high 211 batters . Throughout the season , he was plagued by a lack of run support ; in 1 ⁄ 3 of his starts , the Phillies did not score a single run while he was in the game . Moreover , he received the fifth @-@ lowest run support in the NL . Nevertheless , he allowed three or fewer earned runs in 26 of his 33 starts . Jeff Nelson " facetiously " evaluated Hamels ' season as follows :
" Headcase . Immature . Soft . Unprepared . He wouldn ’ t pitch on three @-@ days rest if asked . He 's not a big game pitcher . He sounds like a whiny 7 @-@ year old – these were some of the descriptions I heard and read from many Phillies fans following Cole Hamels ’ disappointing 2009 season . Heck , some people even wanted him traded after what he said during the ’ 09 World Series . To the naked eye , Cole just wasn ’ t right two years ago . Fast forward a year later and Hamels all the sudden ‘ found his game . ’ He ‘ flicked a switch ’ or ‘ put his game face on . ’ He was more prepared heading in to 2010 or he was cured from the Verducci effect . "
= = = = 2011 = = = =
On December 15 , 2010 , Cliff Lee returned to the Phillies as he signed a free @-@ agent contract with Philadelphia for five years and $ 120 million with a vesting option for a sixth year . After this signing , the Phillies ' starting rotation consisted of Roy Halladay , Roy Oswalt , Cliff Lee , Cole Hamels , and Joe Blanton . This rotation was considered one of the best in pitching history by many . Halladay , Oswalt , Lee , and Hamels were dubbed the ' Phantastic Phour ' by fans and the media .
Hamels entered the 2011 season with a large amount of excitement and hype from fans and the media . By the All @-@ Star game , Hamels was 4 – 3 . On July 3 , when the rosters for the 2011 MLB All @-@ Star Game in Phoenix , Arizona were broadcast on TBS , it was announced that Hamels was voted onto the National League team along with fellow pitchers and teammates Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , Plácido Polanco , and Shane Victorino . He was not eligible to play , however , because he had pitched the Sunday prior to the All @-@ Star Game . Hamels shared his dismay with this rule , saying , " It 's one of those things where people who don 't play the game make the rules . "
The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB for the second year in a row . In the 2011 National League Division Series against the St. Louis Cardinals , Hamels started Game 3 which resulted in a 3 @-@ 2 win to give the Phillies a 2 @-@ 1 series lead , however the Phillies would lose Games 4 and 5 to be eliminated .
Hamels finished the 2011 season with a record of 14 – 9 , 194 strikeouts , an ERA of 2 @.@ 79 , and a 0 @.@ 986 WHIP . He finished fifth in the Cy Young Award voting behind Clayton Kershaw , Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , and Ian Kennedy , respectively .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
During the 2011 off @-@ season , Hamels underwent elbow and hernia surgeries . Hamels had missed scheduled starts in August due to a stiff shoulder , and loose bodies were removed from his elbow to fix his problems . Hamels was ready to pitch by the start of Spring training 2012 .
On January 17 , Hamels and the Philadelphia Phillies agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 15 million contract to avoid arbitration . This was the highest salary ever paid to a pitcher eligible for arbitration before free agency .
On May 6 , Hamels was suspended for five games after hitting Bryce Harper in his lower back with a pitch , after admitting that it was intentional . On July 21 , 2012 , Hamels hit his first career home run off San Francisco Giants pitcher Matt Cain , who had homered off of him in the top half of the same inning , the first time in MLB that two pitchers had hit home runs off of each other in the same inning .
Hamels would stay a Phillie when he agreed to a contract extension on July 24 . The six @-@ year , $ 144 million contract was the second @-@ largest contract ever signed by a pitcher . The deal included a vesting option for 2019 worth $ 24 million . If the option didn 't vest , it would have turned into a club option for $ 20 million that included a $ 6 million buyout .
Hamels finished the season with career highs in wins ( 17 ) and strikeouts ( 216 ) , and finished eighth in the NL Cy Young Award voting . His 3 @.@ 05 ERA ranked second @-@ best in his career ( behind only his 2 @.@ 79 ERA in 2011 ) . The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Before the 2013 season in spring training , manager Charlie Manuel named Hamels the 2013 opening day starter , which Matt Gelb of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote was a " long time coming " . In his first career opening day start on April 1 against the Atlanta Braves , Hamels surrendered five earned runs in five innings and took the loss .
Particularly early in the season , Hamels was plagued by a lack of run support ; as of May 27 , he had the fifth @-@ lowest in the major leagues . He lost his eighth start on May 27 , declining to a record of 1 – 8 , which one Sports Illustrated column attributed more to the Phillies poor offense than Hamels . Nevertheless , it was " easily ... Hamels ’ worst performance of his eight @-@ year career " . Aside from offensive struggles while Hamels was pitching , the Phillies defense struggled , though Hamels kept a positive attitude , once commenting that his luck should improve , as " I 've been doing pretty well on the plane in poker . " Towards the end of the season , however , Hamels " put it together " ; in his final 11 starts. he surrendered more than three runs only once . In total , he amassed an 8 – 14 record with a 3 @.@ 60 ERA in 220 innings and 202 strikeouts ( sixth in NL ) . Despite struggles from his teammates , Bill Baer noted that Hamels ,
" ... was worse at generating swings and misses . His strikeout rate declined by 2 @.@ 6 percent and his overall swinging strike rate declined by 2 @.@ 1 percent . That doesn ’ t seem like a whole lot , but consider that opposing hitters swung at 1 @,@ 774 pitches during the 2013 season . A 2 @.@ 1 percent decrease means 37 fewer swings and misses . That 's a combination of 37 more balls in play or foul balls prolonging an at @-@ bat . "
Despite Hamels ' poor record and ERA , 25 of his 33 starts were quality starts , and thus he gave his team a chance to win 25 times , yet only got eight wins .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
Before the 2014 season , Hamels announced that he would not be ready to pitch on Opening Day because of tendonitis in his biceps . On April 6 Hamels pitched in a Minor League Class A @-@ Advanced game , striking out four while allowing two earned runs on three hits in four innings . He made his first start of the season on April 23 .
Despite lack of run support contributing to a poor win @-@ loss record , Hamels was among the best pitchers in the National League , and was even mentioned as a Cy Young candidate . On September 1 , Hamels pitched six innings of a Phillies combined no @-@ hitter against the Atlanta Braves . Hamels was pulled for a pinch hitter in the top of the seventh due to having five walks , a hit @-@ batter , and 108 pitches through six innings . Overall , Hamels was the only consistent star on the Phillies , finished sixth in Cy Young voting , and was frequently mentioned as a candidate to be traded in the offseason to bolster the Phillies ' lackluster farm system , after he avoided being dealt at the July trading deadline .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
At the start of the 2015 season , there was much focus and speculation regarding trade possibilities surrounding Hamels . The Boston Red Sox , Los Angeles Dodgers , Texas Rangers , Chicago Cubs , New York Yankees , and San Francisco Giants expressed interest in trading for him during the 2015 season .
On July 25 , 2015 , in what would be his final start for the Phillies before being traded , Hamels no @-@ hit the Chicago Cubs 5 – 0 at Wrigley Field , striking out 13 and only giving up two walks , both to Dexter Fowler and besting the Cubs ' Jake Arrieta — himself a no @-@ hit pitcher a month later , on August 30 of that season . It was the first no @-@ hitter against the Cubs since Sandy Koufax 's perfect game in 1965 , and first at Wrigley since the Cubs ' Milt Pappas in 1972 . Hamels also joined Vida Blue , Mike Witt , Kent Mercker and Kevin Millwood as no @-@ hit pitchers who also pitched in a combined no @-@ hitter .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On July 31 , 2015 , Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers along with Jake Diekman in exchange for Matt Harrison , Nick Williams , Jorge Alfaro , Jake Thompson , Alec Asher , and Jerad Eickhoff . Hamels became the first pitcher to be traded during a regular season after pitching a no @-@ hitter in his final start with the team that traded him . Bert Blyleven had been the last pitcher to pitch a no @-@ hitter in his final start with the team that traded him ; after pitching a no @-@ hitter for the Rangers in his final start of the 1977 season , he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates that offseason .
With the Rangers , Hamels went 7 @-@ 1 in 12 starts with a 3 @.@ 66 ERA . The Rangers were under .500 as late as August 3 but posted a winning record for the remainder of the 2015 season and eventually overtook the Houston Astros in September for the American League West division lead . The Rangers clinched the AL West title on the final day of the season , as Hamels threw a complete @-@ game three @-@ hitter in a 9 @-@ 2 win over the Los Angeles Angels , the team 's 6th division title and 7th postseason appearance in franchise history . Hamels ' positive effect on the Rangers was compared to that of the Toronto Blue Jays ' David Price , another ace starting pitcher who helped spearhead a run to the postseason after blending in seamlessly with a struggling team who acquired him at the trade deadline .
The Rangers lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2 @-@ 0 series lead . Hamels received a no @-@ decision in Game 2 as he left the game tied , but the Rangers won in 14 innings . Hamels started Game 5 , and was pulled in the bottom of the 7th inning while the Rangers were leading 3 @-@ 2 ; the Jays subsequently scored 4 runs to win 6 @-@ 3 , and Hamels was charged with the loss as he was responsible for the runners on base .
Starting in 2016 , the Texas Rangers have a special cheering section known as Hamels Heroes , whenever Hamels starts at Globe Life Park . It was inspired by the success of the Seattle Mariners ' " King 's Court " for Felix Hernandez .
Hamels was named the Opening Day starter for the Rangers in 2016 . On Opening Day , after allowing two home runs in two innings , Hamels calmed down to pitch 7 strong innings , while only allowing two runs on 4 hits and 8 strikeouts for a 2016 Opening Day win against the Seattle Mariners . On June 12 , in a start against Seattle , Hamels recorded his 2,000th career strikeout , becoming the 77th player , and 7th active player , to reach the milestone .
= = Scouting report = =
Hamels is known throughout baseball for possessing one of the better changeups in the game . In 2012 , Fangraphs ranked Hamels as having the fourth best changeup in the game trailing only Jason Vargas , Tommy Milone , and Félix Hernández . The Hardball Times called his changeup a " killer " pitch to right @-@ handed hitters , noting that while it is also effective against left @-@ handed hitters , when they put it in play , they generally have success . Rangers pitching coach Mike Maddux said of Hamels ,
" It 's a difficult task to try to get young guys to throw changeups , because their whole amateur career is spent staring at the scout with the gun . For a young guy to have a good changeup , that 's an aptitude right there . It 's pitchability . "
The development of Hamels ' changeup is attributed by his high school pitching coach , Mark Furtak , to the fact that in high school he broke his arm . He could no longer work on his curveball for several months , and was forced to focus on the changeup . Chipper Jones , who was a star @-@ third baseman for the rival Atlanta Braves commented that Hamels is the " best lefthander in the National League ... you have to respect his fastball , and his change @-@ up is devastating . If you 're guessing fastball and you get change @-@ up , you 're way out in front of it . His change @-@ up is a soft sinker that just falls down . " Aside from the changeup , he throws a four @-@ seam fastball in the low 90s ( can reach 94 to 96 miles per hour ( 151 to 154 km / h ) ) , a cutter 87 to 89 miles per hour ( 140 to 143 km / h ) , and an " inconsistent " curveball that sometimes loops and other times is sharp , and hovers in the mid @-@ 70s ( around 73 to 77 miles per hour ( 117 to 124 km / h ) ) . Prior to the conception and advent of his cutter , he briefly threw a two @-@ seam fastball around 2008 and 2009 , before debuting his cutter in 2010 . Once he attained a " feel " for how to effectively utilize his cutter , it helped him increase his groundball rate ( percentage of balls in play that were groundballs ) , including to over 50 @-@ percent in 2011 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
Hamels , who is of Dutch descent , is the oldest of three children . He grew up in San Diego , where his parents still live . He now resides in Newtown Square , Pennsylvania with his wife , Heidi Strobel , whom he married on December 31 , 2006 , but they are making plans to move to the Dallas , Texas area full @-@ time during the 2015 offseason . Strobel was a contestant on the sixth season of the reality show Survivor : The Amazon . They had their first child , son Caleb Michael , on October 9 , 2009 , and their second son , Braxton , on November 2 , 2011 . On December 24 , 2012 , they adopted a baby girl from Ethiopia named Reeve .
= = = The Hamels Foundation = = =
Hamels created and currently runs an organization known as The Hamels Foundation with his wife , Heidi Strobel . The foundation was created in 2008 . The Hamels Foundation funds childhood programs in Philadelphia and Africa .
= Kyra ( Charmed ) =
Kyra , also known by her title the Seer , is a fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed , which aired on the WB Television Network ( the WB ) from 1998 to 2006 . Charmed follows the supernatural adventures of the Charmed Ones , a trio of sisters known as the most powerful witches of all time . The character was created by executive producer Brad Kern and was portrayed by actress Charisma Carpenter . Carpenter was invited on the show after acting with Charmed cast member Holly Marie Combs on the ABC Family television film See Jane Date ( 2003 ) . The actress ' original contract was a guest star role that included three episodes in season seven , with media outlets reporting the possibility of Carpenter becoming a series regular .
A demon characterized by her powers of divination and precognition , she eventually forms a friendship with Leo Wyatt ( Brian Krause ) and the Charmed Ones , specifically Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) , after expressing her desire to become human . Despite being killed by the demon Zankou ( Oded Fehr ) on the show , the character makes further canonical appearances in the comic book series Charmed : Season 10 . Her storylines focus on her involvement with witch Prue Halliwell 's new destiny , and her romantic relationship with the newly revived Benjamin Turner ( the father of Cole Turner ) .
The Kyra character has received mixed feedback from critics , and has been defined by her sex appeal and called " overtly sexual , coy and kitteny " , and " tasty " . Critics have positively and negatively compared the role to Carpenter 's previous performance as Cordelia Chase on the supernatural dramas Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 ) and Angel ( 1999 ) ; Demian of Television Without Pity criticized the character as a copy of Chase because of her lack of a unique identity .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Charisma Carpenter was invited to appear on Charmed because of her friendship with Holly Marie Combs after they had worked together on the ABC Family television film See Jane Date . Kyra was created as a separate character from the Seer ( Debbi Morgan ) , who was featured as the primary antagonist in the second half of season four . Carpenter joked that she was surprised to be considered for such a minor part on the show as a guest star . In an interview with her official fansite , Charmed cast member Rose McGowan stated that she looked forward to new characters like Kyra and Kyle Brody joining the show , saying " [ w ] e are all delighted to have them on board " .
According to Kristin Veitch of TV Guide , representatives from the WB Television Network ( the WB ) released a statement indicating the possibility of Kyra being promoted to star billing . In August 2004 , Carpenter was set to star in a UPN mid @-@ season replacement comedy called Like Cats and Dogs , but she expressed interest in doing more episodes of Charmed if the pilot was not picked up by the network . She stated while she enjoyed working in the supernatural genre , and viewed it as " familiar " territory , she was hesitant about committing to the show 's demanding shooting schedule as it would take time away from raising her son .
Kyra was one of three characters with precognition that Carpenter has played in her career , including Cordelia Chase from supernatural dramas Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , and Heather from the Syfy horror film Voodoo Moon ( 2006 ) . In an interview with film journal Static Mass Emporium , Carpenter did not personally identify as a " vision girl " , but described feeling a love for roles involving seers .
= = = Characterization = = =
In an interview with Charmed Magazine , Carpenter described Kyra as having the same sassiness as Cordelia Chase , added that Kyra was " totally evil and a lot sexier " than Chase . She felt that the emphasis on sexuality was the main aspect of the character 's personality , calling her " overtly sexual , coy , and kitteny " . While she viewed Chase as a " smartass " , Carpenter defined Kyra as a " temptress " and a " jezebel " and opined that her flirtatious banter with Leo Wyatt was meant to be a part of her own agenda . She stated that the way she portrayed Kyra was influenced by her revealing outfit , feeling that every woman on Charmed had to look and act " hot " and " notoriously sexy " .
Pat Shand , the writer of Charmed : Season 10 , said he incorporated Kyra in the comic book series as he enjoyed her dialogue and Carpenter 's performance of the character ; he wrote : " To write dialogue for a character played by Charisma is to hear Charisma in your head . Who would turn that down ? " . Shand commended Carpenter 's ability to voice characters in " a very unique rhythm " and called the process of replicating that energy in the form of comics as " a blast " and " super easy " in comparison with the show 's other characters .
When discussing the development of the season , Shand said that the pairing of Kyra and Prue Halliwell 's storylines was a " natural fit " , especially since both characters were his favorites from the series . He clarified that Kyra 's return , specifically her relationship with Benjamin , was central to the season and called it " straight up plot " and " inextricable " from Prue 's storylines in response to fans ' concerns about the character being limited to being part of a subplot . While the two women never interacted on the show , he explained that Prue sifted through " all of the seers in all of the history to see who best tell her what 's the deal " with her new powers and destiny . Shand said Kyra was a vital part of Prue 's plans to perform the Advent , a ritual that would resurrect a powerful race of evil demons known as the Old Ones .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
The Kyra character first appears in the season seven episode " Cheaper by the Coven " , when she helps Leo Wyatt ( Brian Krause ) uncover the identity of a masked demon attacking his son Wyatt Halliwell . She is shown as possessing the powers of precognition and divination through the use of a magical pool . She later works with the half @-@ demon Sirk on his plans to track down and kill his mortal relatives in order to seal his transformation as a full demon . As a demon , Kyra cannot feel emotions , but she is shown to be curious about the world of mortals . Longing to experience the emotions she sees in her visions , she contacts the Elders ( a council of whitelighters which governs the forces of good ) to make a deal where she would trade her information on the then unknown threat , the Avatars , if she is made human . The Avatars are later revealed to a group of magical beings capable of warping reality who devote themselves to creating a world without good or evil . As word of Kyra 's betrayal spreads across the Underworld , Leo is sent to save her and bring her to the Halliwell Manor during the negotiations .
While at the manor , Kyra bonds with Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) over their shared powers of premonition . She guides Phoebe and Lieutenant Darryl Morris ( Dorian Gregory ) to Inspector Sheridan ( Jenya Lano ) , a member of the San Francisco police department who was placed in a coma by FBI agent Kyle Brody ( Kerr Smith ) ; Brody had sequestered Sheridan after she discovered the truth about the Halliwell sisters being witches . Kyra shares her premonition of the Avatars with Phoebe . While the prior episodes established the Avatar as a threat , Kyra 's vision shows Phoebe and her future daughter living in a utopia where demons no longer exist . After witnessing the vision , Phoebe has a premonition of the demon Zankou ( Oded Fehr ) vanquishing Kyra . In order to prevent Kyra 's death , Phoebe convinces the Elders to provide a spell to turn Kyra human . During this time , Kyra forces Leo to reveal his true identity as an Avatar to the sisters . While Piper Halliwell ( Holly Marie Combs ) helps her to prepare for her new life as a mortal , Kyra reveals her real name and abandons her title as " the Seer " . Before the sisters can transform Kyra into a mortal , Zankou kills her because of her betrayal of the demonic world , and his fear of what she might tell the sisters . Her death is a turning point in the season as it pushes the sisters to agree to meet and to help the Avatars build their new world .
= = = Literature = = =
In Charmed : Season 10 ( the canonical comic book continuation of the TV series ) , Prue Halliwell summons Kyra from the past in order to better understand her new identity as the guardian of the Nexus of the All ( a spiritual energy that forms the basis of all magic ) . After completing a ritual that allowed Prue to enter her own mind , she turns Kyra human . Despite being overjoyed at her transformation , Kyra is uncertain about her plans for the future . She decides to reconnect with the other Halliwell sisters and devote her life to doing good . She begins by helping the newly resurrected Benjamin Turner , who is the father of Cole Turner ( Julian McMahon ) , readjust to his new life . As they spend more time together , Kyra falls in love with Benjamin and they start a romantic relationship . At the end of issue # 18 ( " Tribunal and Tribulations " ) , Prue kidnaps Kyra , along with Bejnamin and the archai ( a magical being capable of opening portals through reality ) Tyler Michaels , and takes them to a space deep within the Earth .
= = Reception = =
Throughout her run on Charmed , Kyra received mixed critical feedback . Television critic Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer deemed the character a " tasty demon seer " and entertainment news website Hypable 's Karen Rought praised her as being the most memorable incarnation of the Seer and a fitting role for Carpenter after her previous performance as Chase . SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington called Kyra a " great highlight of the season " . Charmed Magazine 's Tara Dilullo viewed Carpenter as the perfect actress to play Kyra as she " spent the better part of her career facing down the supernatural with a snark and a smile " . In an article from Today , reader Patrick Kelly cited Carpenter 's appearance on Charmed as an indicator of her popularity among the 16- to 39 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic .
Nadim of Nad 's Reviews opined that Carpenter should have been offered a permanent part on the show Pat Shand criticized the show 's decision to kill the character , saying that she would have filled the role of the " fourth main character " or " non @-@ Charmed One getting all that screen time " in season eight rather than novice witch Billie Jenkins ( Kaley Cuoco ) . He added that he wished that the character had a spin @-@ off with Cole Turner and Darryl Morris .
Demian of Television Without Pity praised the show 's decision to hire an actor from one of Joss Whedon 's shows , but was critical of Kyra 's introduction in the episode " Cheaper by the Coven " , saying that Carpeter was misused and " given so little to do " . He referred to the character negatively as " Cordelia Lite " . Parodying the character 's lack of a concrete identity , he referenced Kyra as " Charisma " and " Cordelia " in his recaps of the later episodes .
= Réunion ibis =
The Réunion ibis or Réunion sacred ibis ( Threskiornis solitarius ) is an extinct species of ibis that was endemic to the volcanic island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean . The first subfossil remains were found in 1974 , and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987 . Its closest relatives are the Malagasy sacred ibis , the African sacred ibis , and the straw @-@ necked ibis .
Travellers ' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird that flew with difficulty , and it was subsequently referred to as the Réunion solitaire . In the mid 19th century , the old travellers ' accounts were incorrectly assumed to refer to white relatives of the dodo , due to one account specifically mentioning dodos on the island , and because 17th @-@ century paintings of white dodos had recently surfaced . However , no fossils referable to dodo @-@ like birds were ever found on Réunion , and it was later questioned whether the paintings had anything to do with the island . Other identities were suggested as well , based only on speculation . In the late 20th century , the discovery of a subfossil ibis led to the idea that the old accounts actually referred to an ibis species instead . The idea that the solitaire and the subfossil ibis are identical has only met with limited dissent , and is now widely accepted .
Combined , the old descriptions and subfossils show that the Réunion ibis was mainly white , with this colour merging into yellow and grey . The wing tips and plumes of ostrich @-@ like feathers on its rear were black . The neck and legs were long , the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis . It was more robust in build than its extant relatives , but was otherwise quite similar to them . Subfossil wing @-@ bones indicate it had reduced flight capabilities , a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fattening . The diet of the Réunion ibis was worms and other items foraged from soil . It preferred solitude ( hence the name " solitaire " ) . In the 17th century , it lived in mountainous areas , but it may have been confined to these remote heights by heavy hunting by humans and predation by introduced animals in the more accessible areas of the island . Visitors to Réunion praised its flavour , and therefore sought after its flesh . These factors are believed to have driven the Réunion ibis to extinction by the early 18th century .
= = Taxonomy = =
The taxonomic history of the Réunion ibis is convoluted and complex , due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until recently . The supposed " white dodo " of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports which described the Réunion ibis , combined with paintings of white dodos from Mauritius by the Dutch painters Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn II ( and derivatives ) from the 17th century that surfaced in the 19th century .
The English Chief Officer John Tatton was the first to mention a specifically white bird on Réunion , in 1625 . The French occupied the island from 1646 and onwards , and referred to this bird as the " solitaire " . M. Carré of the French East Indies Company described the solitaire in 1699 , explaining the reason for its name :
I saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere ; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure , it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places ; one never sees two or more together ; it is always alone . It is not unlike a turkey , if it did not have longer legs . The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see . It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow . The flesh is exquisite ; it forms one of the best dishes in this country , and might form a dainty at our tables . We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty , but as soon as they were on board ship , they died of melancholy , having refused to eat or drink .
A marooned French Huguenot , François Leguat , used the name " solitaire " for the Raphine bird he encountered on the nearby island of Rodrigues in the 1690s , but it is thought he borrowed the name from a 1689 tract by Marquis Henri Duquesne which mentioned the Réunion species . Duquesne himself had probably based his own description on an earlier one . No specimens of the solitaire were ever preserved . The two individuals Carré attempted to send to the royal menagerie in France did not survive in captivity . Billiard claimed that Bertrand @-@ François Mahé de La Bourdonnais sent a " solitaire " to France from Réunion around 1740 . Since the Réunion ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date , the bird may actually have been a Rodrigues solitaire .
The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to " dodos " inhabiting Réunion was the Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe , though he did not mention their colouration :
There were also Dod @-@ eersen [ old Dutch for dodos ] , which have small wings , and so far from being able to fly , they were so fat that they could scarcely walk , and when they tried to run , they dragged their under side along the ground .
When his journal was published in 1646 , it was accompanied by an engraving which is now known to have been copied after one of the dodos in the Flemish painter Roelant Savery 's " Crocker Art Gallery sketch " . Since Bontekoe was shipwrecked and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619 , he may not have written his account until he returned to Holland , seven years later , which would put its reliability in question . He may have concluded in hindsight that it was a dodo , finding what he saw similar to accounts of that bird .
= = = Early interpretation = = =
In the 1770s , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the dodo inhabited both Mauritius and Réunion . It is unclear why he included Réunion , but he also combined accounts about the Rodrigues solitaire and a third bird ( " oiseau de Nazareth " , now thought to be a dodo ) under the same section . English naturalist Hugh Edwin Strickland discussed the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire in his 1848 book The Dodo and Its Kindred , and concluded it was distinct from the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire . Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the scientific name Apterornis solitarius for the Réunion solitaire in 1848 , apparently making it the type species of the genus , in which he also included two other Mascarene birds only known from contemporary accounts , the red rail and the Réunion swamphen . As the name Apterornis had already been used for a different bird by Richard Owen , and the other former names were likewise invalid , Bonaparte coined the new binomial Ornithaptera borbonica in 1854 ( Bourbon was the original French name for Réunion ) . In 1854 , Hermann Schlegel placed the solitaire in the same genus as the dodo , and named it Didus apterornis . He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts , which resulted in an ibis or stork @-@ like bird instead of a dodo . As it was considered congeneric with the dodo , the Réunion solitaire was long believed to also be a member of the Dididae family of pigeons .
In 1856 , William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th @-@ century " Persian " painting of a white dodo among waterfowl , which he had been shown in England . The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos , and many prominent 19th @-@ century naturalists subsequently assumed the image depicted the white solitaire of Réunion , a possibility originally proposed by ornithologist John Gould . Simultaneously , several similar paintings of white dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands . In 1869 , the English ornithologist Alfred Newton argued that the Withoos ' painting and engraving in Bontekoe 's memoir depicted a living Réunion dodo that had been brought to Holland , while explaining its blunt beak as a result of beak trimming to prevent it from injuring humans . He also brushed aside the inconsistencies between the illustrations and descriptions , especially the long , thin beak implied by one contemporary account .
Newton 's words particularly cemented the validity of this connection among contemporary peers , and several of them expanded on his views . Dutch zoologist Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female , and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic . Walter Rothschild claimed the yellow wings might have been due to albinism in this particular specimen , since the old descriptions described these as black . By the early 20th century , many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be white dodos , amid much speculation . Some believed the solitaire of the old descriptions was rather a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire . Rothschild commissioned British artist Frederick William Frohawk to restore the Réunion solitaire as both a white dodo , based on the Withoos painting , and as a distinct bird based on Dubois ' description , for his 1907 book Extinct Birds . In 1953 , the Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka went as far as referring to the white dodos of the paintings as Victoriornis imperialis , and the solitaire of the accounts as Ornithaptera solitarius .
= = = Recent interpretation = = =
Until the late 1980s , belief in the existence of a white dodo on Réunion was the orthodox view , and only a few researchers doubted the connection between the solitaire accounts and the dodo paintings . They cautioned that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils , and that nothing indicated that the white dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion . In 1970 , Robert W. Storer predicted that if any such remains were found , they would not belong to Raphinae , or even Columbidae .
The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion were found in 1974 , and assigned to a stork , Ciconia sp . The remains were found in a cave , which indicated it had been brought there and eaten by early settlers . It was speculated that the remains could have belonged to a large , mysterious bird described by Leguat , and called " Leguat 's giant " by some ornithologists . " Leguat 's giant " is now thought to be based on a locally extinct population of flamingos . In 1987 , subfossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion were described as Borbonibis latipes , and thought related to the bald ibises of the genus Geronticus . In 1994 , the " stork " remains were shown to belong to this ibis as well . The 1987 discovery led biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers , Francois Moutou , that the subfossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire . This suggestion was published by the describers of Borbonibis in 1995 , and they also reassigned it to the genus Threskiornis , now combined with the specific epithet solitarius from de Sélys @-@ Longchamps ' 1848 binomial for the solitaire . The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae , especially since a fragment of a comparatively short and straight ibis mandible was discovered in 1994 , and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities ; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird , whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils .
The possible origin of the 17th @-@ century white dodo paintings has also recently been examined by biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003 , and independently by experts of Mascarene fauna Anthony Cheke and Julian Hume in 2004 . The Withoos and Holsteyn paintings are clearly derived from each other , and Withoos likely copied his dodo from one of Holsteyn 's works , since these were probably produced at an earlier date . All later white dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings . According to the aforementioned writers , it appears these pictures were themselves derived from a whitish dodo in a previously unreported painting containing , called Landscape with Orpheus and the Animals , produced by Roelant Savery c . 1611 . The dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague ; a walghvogel ( old Dutch for dodo ) described as having a " dirty off @-@ white colouring " was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II to whom Savery was contracted at the time ( 1607 – 1611 ) . Savery 's several later dodo images all show greyish birds , possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen . Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism , and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe . Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait , a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens , or simply due to artistic license .
No fossil remains of dodo @-@ like birds have ever been found on Réunion . A few later sources take issue with the proposed ibis @-@ identity of the solitaire , and have even regarded the " white dodo " as a valid species . British writer Errol Fuller agrees that the 17th @-@ century paintings do not depict Réunion birds , but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the solitaire accounts . He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion . Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere " belief " and " hope " in the existence of a dodo on the island .
= = = Evolution = = =
The volcanic island of Réunion is only three million years old , whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues , with each their flightless Raphine species , are eight to ten million years old , and it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands . Therefore , it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands , and only flighted species on the island have relatives there . Three million years is enough time for flightless and weak flying abilities to have evolved in bird species on Réunion itself . But such species would have been wiped out by the eruption of the volcano Piton des Neiges between 300 @,@ 000 and 180 @,@ 000 years ago . Most recent species would therefore likely be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from Africa or Madagascar after this event , which is not enough time for a bird to become flightless .
In 1995 , morphological study suggested the closest extant relatives of the Réunion ibis are the African sacred ibis ( T. aethiopicus ) of Africa and the straw @-@ necked ibis ( T. spinicollis ) of Australia . It has also been suggested that it was closest to the Malagasy sacred ibis ( T. bernieri ) , and therefore of ultimately African origin .
= = Description = =
Contemporary accounts described the species as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow , black wing tips and tail feathers , a long neck and legs , and limited flight capabilities . Sieur Dubois ' 1674 account is the most detailed contemporary description of the bird , here as translated by Hugh Strickland in 1848 :
Solitaires . These birds are so called because they always go alone . They are the size of a large Goose , and are white , with the tips of the wings and tail black . The tail feathers resemble those of an Ostrich ; the neck is long , and the beak is like that of a Woodcock , but larger ; the legs and feet like those of Turkeys . This bird has recourse to running , as it flies but very little .
The plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African sacred ibis and straw @-@ necked ibis , which are also mainly white and glossy black . In the reproductive season , the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African sacred ibis look similar to the feathers of an ostrich , which echoes Dubois ' description . Likewise , a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis , which corresponds with Dubois ' woodcock comparison . Cheke and Hume have suggested that the French word ( bécasse ) from Dubois ' original description , usually translated to " woodcock " , could also mean oystercatcher , another bird with a long , straight , but slightly more robust , bill . They have also pointed out that the last sentence is mistranslated , and actually means the bird could be caught by running after it . The bright colouration of the plumage mentioned by some authors may refer to iridescence , as seen in the straw @-@ necked ibis .
Subfossils of the Réunion ibis show that it was more robust , likely much heavier , and had a larger head than the African sacred and straw @-@ necked ibises . It was nonetheless similar to them in most features . Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat . It was perhaps flightless , but this has not left significant osteological traces ; no complete skeletons have been collected , but of the known pectoral elements , only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability . The coracoid is elongated and the radius and ulna are robust , as in flighted birds , but a particular foramen between a metacarpal and the alular is otherwise only known from flightless birds , such as some ratites , penguins , and several extinct species . As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the solitaire was flightless or had some flight capability , Mourer @-@ Chauvire suggested that this was dependent on seasonal fat @-@ cycles , meaning that individuals fattened themselves during cool seasons , but were slim during hot seasons ; perhaps it could not fly when it was fat , but could when it was not . However , Dubois specifically stated the solitaires did not have fat @-@ cycles , unlike most other Réunion birds .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The species was termed a land @-@ bird by Dubois , so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as wetlands . It has been proposed that this is because the ancestors of the bird colonised Réunion before swamps had developed , and had therefore become adapted to the available habitats . They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of red rails there , which may have occupied a similar niche . It appears to have lived in high altitudes , and perhaps had a limited distribution . The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is Jean Feuilley 's account from 1708 , which is also the last record of a living individual :
The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock , grey and white in colour . They inhabit the tops of mountains . Their food is only worms and filth , taken on or in the soil .
The diet and mode of foraging described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis , whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been fruit eaters . Accounts by early visitors indicate the species was found near their landing sites , but they were found only in remote places by 1667 . The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s . Though many late 17th century accounts state the bird was good food , Feuilley stated it tasted bad . This may be because it changed its diet when it moved to more rugged , higher terrain , to escape pigs that destroyed its nests ; since it had limited flight capabilities , it probably nested on the ground .
Many other endemic species of Réunion became extinct after the arrival of man and the resulting disruption of the island 's ecosystem . The Réunion ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the hoopoe starling , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . Extinct reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius , but vanished from both islands .
= = Extinction = =
As Réunion was populated by settlers , the Réunion ibis appears to have become confined to the tops of mountains . Introduced predators such as cats and rats took a toll . Overhunting also contributed and several contemporary accounts state the bird was widely hunted for food . In 1625 , John Tatton described the tameness of the bird and how easy it was to hunt , as well as the large quantity consumed :
There is store of land fowle both small and great , plenty of Doves , great Parrats , and such like ; and a great fowle of the bignesse of a Turkie , very fat , and so short winged , that they cannot fly , being white , and in a manner tame : and so be all other fowles , as having not been troubled nor feared with shot . Our men did beat them down with sticks and stones . Ten men may take fowle enough to serve fortie men a day .
In 1671 , Melet mentioned the culinary quality of this species , and described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island :
( A ) nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good ( to eat ) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks ... There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms , they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod . During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods , so many were killed that our General [ de La Haye ] was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed , for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out , to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people , so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds . But , seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity , permission was again given to kill , which gave great joy to everyone , because very good fare was had at no expense .
The last definite account of the " solitaire " of Réunion was Feuilley 's from 1708 , indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century . In the 1820s , Louis Henri de Freycinet asked an old slave about drontes ( old Dutch word for dodo ) , and was told the bird existed around Saint @-@ Joseph when his father was an infant . This would perhaps be a century earlier , but the account may be unreliable . Cheke and Hume suspect that feral cats initially hunted wildlife in the lowlands and later turned to higher inland areas , which were probably the last stronghold of the Réunion ibis , as they were unreachable by pigs . The species is thought to have been driven to extinction around 1710 – 1715 .
= December 1964 South Vietnamese coup =
The December 1964 South Vietnamese coup took place before dawn on December 19 , 1964 , when the ruling military junta of South Vietnam led by General Nguyễn Khánh dissolved the High National Council ( HNC ) and arrested some of its members . The HNC was an unelected legislative @-@ style civilian advisory body they had created at the request of the United States — South Vietnam 's main sponsor — to give a veneer of civilian rule . The dissolution dismayed the Americans , particularly the ambassador , Maxwell D. Taylor , who engaged in an angry war of words with various generals including Khánh and threatened aid cuts . They were unable to do anything about the fait accompli that had been handed to them , because they strongly desired to win the Vietnam War and needed to support the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . Instead , Taylor 's searing verbal attacks were counterproductive as they galvanized the Vietnamese officers around the embattled Khánh . At the time , Khánh 's leadership was under threat from his fellow generals , as well as Taylor , who had fallen out with him and was seeking his removal .
The genesis of the removal of the HNC was a power struggle within the ruling junta . Khánh , who had been saved from an earlier coup attempt in September 1964 by the intervention of some younger generals dubbed the Young Turks , was indebted to them and needed to satisfy their wishes to stay in power . The Young Turks disliked a group of older officers who had been in high leadership positions but were now in powerless posts , and wanted to sideline them completely . As a result , they decided to hide their political motives by introducing a policy to compulsorily retire all general officers with more than 25 years of service . The chief of state Phan Khắc Sửu , an elderly figure appointed by the military to give a semblance of civilian rule , did not want to sign the decree without the agreement of the HNC , which mostly consisted of old men . The HNC recommended against the new policy , and the younger officers , led by I Corps commander General Nguyễn Chánh Thi and Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , disbanded the body and arrested some of its members along with other politicians .
As a result of this event , Taylor summoned Khánh to his office . Khánh sent Thi , Kỳ , the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Navy Admiral Chung Tấn Cang and IV Corps commander General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and after beginning with " Do all of you understand English ? " , Taylor harshly berated them and threatened cuts in aid . While angered by Taylor 's manner , the officers defended themselves in a restrained way . The next day Khánh met Taylor and the Vietnamese leader made oblique accusations that the U.S. wanted a puppet ally ; he also criticized Taylor for his manner the previous day . When Taylor told Khánh he had lost confidence in his leadership , Taylor was threatened with expulsion , to which he responded with threats of total aid cuts . Later however , Khánh said he would leave Vietnam along with some other generals he named , and during a phone conversation , asked Taylor to help with travel arrangements . He then asked Taylor to repeat the names of the would @-@ be exiles for confirmation , and Taylor complied , not knowing that Khánh was taping the dialogue . Khánh then showed the tape to his colleagues out of context , misleading them into thinking that Taylor wanted them expelled from their own country to raise the prestige of his embattled leadership .
Over the next few days , Khánh embarked on a media offensive , repeatedly criticizing U.S. policy and decrying what he saw as an undue influence and infringement on Vietnamese sovereignty , explicitly condemning Taylor and declaring the nation 's independence from " foreign manipulation " . Khánh and the Young Turks began preparations to expel Taylor before changing their minds ; however , Khánh 's misleading tactics had rallied the Young Turks around his fragile leadership for at least the short @-@ term future . The Americans were forced to back down on their insistence that the HNC be restored and did not carry through on Taylor 's threats to cut off aid , despite Saigon 's defiance .
= = Background = =
On September 26 , 1964 , Nguyễn Khánh and the senior officers in his military junta created a semblance of civilian rule by forming the High National Council ( HNC ) , an appointed advisory body akin to a legislature . This came after lobbying by American officials — led by Ambassador Maxwell Taylor — in Vietnam , as they placed great value in the appearance of civilian legitimacy , which they saw as vital to building a popular base for any government . Khánh put his rival General Dương Văn Minh — who he had deposed in a January 1964 coup — in charge of picking the 17 members of the HNC , and Minh filled it with figures sympathetic to him . The HNC then made a resolution to recommend a political model with a powerful head of state , which would likely be Minh , given their sympathy towards him . Khánh did not want his rival taking power , so he and the Americans convinced the HNC to dilute the powers of the position to make it unappealing to Minh , who was then sent on an overseas diplomatic goodwill tour to remove him from the political scene . However , Minh was back in South Vietnam after a few months and the power balance in the junta was still fragile .
The HNC , which had representatives from a wide range of social groups , selected the aging civilian politician Phan Khắc Sửu as chief of state , and Suu chose Trần Văn Hương as prime minister , a position that had greater power . However , Khánh and the senior generals retained the real power . At the same time , a group of Catholic officers were trying to replace Khánh with their co @-@ religionist , General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and the incumbent was under pressure . During 1964 , South Vietnam had suffered a succession of setbacks on the battlefield , in part due to disunity in the military and a focus on coup plotting . In the meantime , both Saigon and Washington were planning a large @-@ scale bombing campaign against North Vietnam in an attempt to deter communist aggression , but were waiting for stability in the south before starting the air strikes .
= = Compulsory retirement policy = =
Khánh and a group of younger officers called the Young Turks — led by chief of the Vietnam Air Force , Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , commander of I Corps General Nguyễn Chánh Thi and IV Corps commander Thiệu — wanted to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service , as they thought them to be lethargic and ineffective , but most importantly , rivals for power . Most of the older officers had more experience under the Vietnamese National Army during the French colonial era , and some of the younger men saw them as too detached from the modern situation . The Young Turks had quite a lot of influence over Khánh , as Thi and Kỳ had intervened militarily to save him from a coup attempt in September by Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức .
One of the specific and unspoken aims of this proposed policy was to remove Generals Minh , Trần Văn Đôn , Lê Văn Kim and Mai Hữu Xuân from the military . This quartet , along with Tôn Thất Đính , had been the leading members of a junta that overthrew President Ngô Đình Diệm in November 1963 . The generals who deposed Diệm did not trust Khánh because of his habit of changing sides , and Khánh was angered by their snubs . Khánh put Don , Kim , Xuan and Dinh under arrest in Da Lat after his January coup , claiming they were about to make a deal with the communists , a falsehood to cover up his motive of revenge . These four thus became known as the " Da Lat Generals " . Khánh later released them and placed them into meaningless desk jobs with no work to do , although they were still being paid . Khánh did this as he thought the Young Turks had become too powerful and he hoped to use the Da Lat Generals as a counterweight . All this time , Minh had been allowed to continue as a figurehead chief of state due to his popularity , but Khánh was intent on sidelining him too . The Young Turks were fully aware of Khánh 's motives for rehabilitating the Da Lat Generals , and wanted to marginalize them . In public , Khánh and the Young Turks claimed the Da Lat Generals and Minh , who had returned from his overseas tour , had been making plots with the Buddhist activists to regain power .
Suu 's signature was required to pass the ruling , but he referred the matter to the HNC to get their opinion . The HNC turned down the request . There was speculation the HNC did this as many of them were old , and therefore did not appreciate the generals ' negativity towards seniors — some South Vietnamese mockingly called the HNC the High National Museum . On December 19 , a Saturday , the generals moved to dissolve the HNC by arresting some of its members . The HNC had already ceased to function in any meaningful way , as only 9 of the 17 members were still occasionally attending its meetings , and few on a regular basis .
= = Dissolution of the High National Council = =
Before dawn on December 19 , there were troop movements in the capital as the junta deposed the civilians . The operation was commanded by Thi — who had travelled into Saigon from I Corps in the far north — and Kỳ . The national police , which was under the control of the army , moved through the streets , arresting five HNC members , other politicians and student leaders they deemed to be an obstacle to their aims . Minh and the other aging generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku , a Central Highlands town in a Montagnard area , while other officers were simply imprisoned in Saigon . The junta 's forces also arrested around 100 members of the National Salvation Council ( NSC ) of Le Khac Quyen ; the NSC was a new party active in central Vietnam in the I Corps region and opposed to the expansion of the war . It was aligned with Thi and the Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang , but as Thi was active in the purge , it was believed he had fallen out with Quyen .
At this point , Khánh had not spoken up and allowed the impression that the moves had been made without his consultation or against his will , and an attempt on the part of other officers to take power themselves . Hương had actually privately endorsed the dissolution of the HNC , as both he and the Young Turks thought it would allow them to gain more power and influence over Khánh .
The infighting exasperated Taylor , the US Ambassador to South Vietnam and former Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff , who felt the disputes between the junta 's senior officers were derailing the war effort . Only a few days earlier , General William Westmoreland — the commander of US forces in Vietnam — had invited him and the Vietnamese generals home to a dinner . There Taylor asked for an end to the persistent changes in leadership , and Khánh and his men assured him of stability . Westmoreland warned that persistent instability would turn the American political class and public against Saigon , as they would deem it useless to support such a regime . Taylor initially cabled the State Department back in the US to state a " naked military fist " had " crumpled [ the ] carefully woven fabric of civilian government " , and that the arrest of the civilians would be " immediately and understandably interpreted by all the world as another military coup , setting back all that had been accomplished " since the formation of the HNC and the creation of a veneer of civilian rule . He went on to say that an " inescapable conclusion that if a group of military officers could issue decisions abolishing one of the three fundamental organs of the governmental structure ... and carry out military arrests of civilians , that group of military officers has clearly set themselves above and beyond the structure of government in Vietnam . " Taylor bemoaned the fact that the generals had shown no second thoughts about ignoring US policy recommendations , particularly in disregarding his explicit advice to maintain stable civilian rule , at least at a nominal level . Taylor issued a thinly disguised threat to cut aid , releasing a public statement saying Washington might reconsider its military funding if " the fabric of legal government " was not reinstated .
= = Angry confrontations with Maxwell Taylor = =
Taylor summoned Khánh to his office , but the Vietnamese leader sent Thi , Kỳ , Thiệu and Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Navy , instead . Taylor asked the four to sit down and then said " Do all of you understand English ? " The ambassador then angrily denounced the officers . According to Stanley Karnow , Taylor " launched into a tirade , scolding them as if he were still superintendent of West Point and they a group of cadets caught cheating " . He said " I told you all clearly at General Westmoreland 's dinner we Americans were tired of coups . Apparently I wasted my words . " He decried the removal of the HNC as " totally illegal " , and said it had " destroyed the government @-@ making process " , and that " I made it clear that all the military plans I know you would like to carry out are dependent on government stability " , something he felt had been lost with the dismissal of the HNC . He said " ... you have made a real mess . We cannot carry you forever if you do things like this . " Taylor believed the HNC to be an essential part of the government , because as an American , he believed civilian legitimacy was a must . For him , the HNC was a necessary step in a progression towards an elected civilian legislature , which he regarded as critical for national and military morale . The historian Mark Moyar regarded Taylor 's intervention as unnecessary , and noted that there had been many instances of fierce fighting in Vietnamese history despite the complete absence of democracy throughout the nation 's history . Taylor also reminded them of an earlier meeting where he had discussed an American plan to expand the war , increase funding for the South Vietnamese military , and to go on the offensive against the communists at the request of Khánh . Taylor said the Americans would not be able to help Saigon pursue their desired military strategy if the political machinations did not stop . Taylor said that if the military did not transfer some powers or advisory capacity back to the HNC or another civilian institution , aid would be withheld , and some planned military operations against the Ho Chi Minh trail — which was being used to infiltrate communists into the south — would be suspended .
The four officers were taken aback by Taylor 's searing words and felt they had been humiliated . A decade after the incident , Kỳ described Taylor as " the sort of man who addressed people rather than talked to them " , referencing the confrontation . Karnow said " For the sake of their own pride , they [ the Vietnamese officers ] resented being treated in ways that reminded them of their almost total dependence on an alien power . How could they preserve a sense of sovereignty when Taylor , striving to push them into ' getting things done ' , behaved like a viceroy ? " However , Thi also took a perverse pleasure in riling Taylor . He was seen by a CIA officer soon after , grinning . When asked why he was happy , Thi said " Because this is one of the happiest days of my life ... Today I told the American ambassador that he could not dictate to us . " Nevertheless , Taylor 's conduct had rankled the officers , stirring their latent sense of nationalism and anti @-@ Americanism ; Khánh would exploit this to strengthen his fragile position in the junta .
Khánh 's quartet of delegates responded to Taylor in a circumlocutory way . They remained calm and did not resort to direct confrontation . Kỳ said the change was necessary , as " the political situation is worse than it ever was under Diệm " . Kỳ explained that the situation mandated the dissolution of the council , saying " We know you want stability , but you cannot have stability until you have Unity . " He claimed some HNC members were disseminating coup rumors and creating doubt among the population , and that " both military and civilian leaders regard the presence of these people in the High National Council as divisive of the Armed Forces due to their influence " . Kỳ further accused some of the HNC members of being communist sympathizers and cowards who wanted to stop the military from strengthening . He promised to explain the decision at a media conference and vowed that he and his colleagues would return to purely military roles in the near future . Thiệu added " I do not see how our action has hurt the Hương government ... Hương now has the full support of the Army and has no worries from the High National Council , which we have eliminated . " Cang said " It seems ... we are being treated as though we were guilty . What we did was only for the good of the country . "
When Taylor said the moves detracted from Hương and Suu 's powers , the officers disagreed and said they supported the pair in full and that Hương had approved of the HNC 's dissolution . Taylor was unimpressed by the reassurances , concluding with " I don 't know whether we will continue to support you after this ... You people have broken a lot of dishes and now we have to see how we can straighten out this mess . " Taylor 's deputy , U. Alexis Johnson felt the discussion had become counterproductive and was increasing the problem . He suggested that should the generals feel unwilling to alter their position immediately , they should refrain from actions that would preclude a later change of heart . He proposed they merely announce the removal of certain members of the HNC rather than the dissolution of the entire body , hoping the HNC could be reconstituted with figures they deemed to be more satisfactory . The four officers did not give a clear answer to Johnson 's idea , indicating they had not made a concrete decision by saying " the door is not closed " .
= = = Taylor meets Hương = = =
When Taylor met Hương afterwards , he urged the prime minister to reject the dissolution of the HNC . Hương said he and Suu had not been notified of the moves , but agreed to step in and take over the body 's work . Taylor nevertheless asked Hương to publicly condemn the coup and call on the army to release those arrested . Hương also said he would be willing to reorganize his administration to meet the wishes of the military , and that retaining their support was essential in keeping a civilian government functional . Taylor said the US did not agree with military rule as a principle , and might reduce aid , but Hương was unmoved and said the Vietnamese people " take a more sentimental than legalistic approach " and that the existence of civilian procedure and the HNC was much less pressing than the " moral prestige of the leaders " . American military advisers and intelligence officers who liaised with senior junta members found they were unconcerned with any possible legal ramifications of their actions .
Later , despite Taylor 's pleas to keep the dissolution of the HNC secret in the hope it would be reversed , Kỳ , Thi , Thiệu and Cang called a media conference , where they maintained the HNC had been dissolved in the nation 's best interests . The quartet vowed to stand firm and not renege on their decision . They also proclaimed their ongoing confidence for Suu and Hương . Two days later , Khánh went public in support of the Young Turks ' coup against the HNC , condemning the advisory body and asserting the army 's right to intervene if " disputes and differences create a situation favorable to the common enemies : Communism and colonialism " . The generals announced they had formed a new body called the Armed Forces Council ( AFC ) to succeed the current Military Revolutionary Council , and referred to the dissolution of the HNC as Decision No. 1 of the AFC . The American policymakers viewed the public moves by the Vietnamese generals as " throwing down the gauntlet " and challenging their counsel .
= = = Taylor meets Khánh = = =
The day after the Young Turks ' press conference , Taylor privately met Khánh at the latter 's office . He complained about the dissolution of the HNC and said it did not accord with the values of the alliance and the loyalty Washington expected of Saigon . He added that the US could not cooperate with two governments at once : a military regime that held power while a civilian body took the responsibility . Khánh testily replied that Vietnam was not a satellite of the US and compared the situation to the US support of the successful coup against Diệm , saying that loyalty was meant to be reciprocated . Khánh had hinted that he felt the Americans were about to have him deposed like Diệm , who was then assassinated , but this rankled Taylor , who had argued against the regime change . Taylor then bemoaned Khánh , saying he had lost confidence in the Vietnamese officer , recommending Khánh resign and go into exile . He also said military supplies currently being shipped to Vietnam would be withheld after arriving in Saigon and that American help in planning and advising military operations would be suspended .
Khánh bristled and said " You should keep to your place as Ambassador ... as Ambassador , it is really not appropriate for you to be dealing in this way with the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces on a political matter , nor was it appropriate for you to have summoned some of my generals to the Embassy yesterday . " He threatened to expel Taylor , who responded by saying a forced departure would mean the end of US support . However , Khánh later said he was open to the possibility of going abroad and asked Taylor if he thought this would be good for the country , to which the ambassador replied in the affirmative . Khánh also said he took responsibility for his generals ' actions , and expressed regret at what they had done . Khánh then ended the meeting , saying he would think about his future .
Later , Khánh phoned Taylor from his office and expressed his desire to resign and go abroad along with several other generals , asking for the Americans to fund the travel costs . He then read Taylor the list of generals for whom arrangements needed to be made , and asked the ambassador to repeat the names for confirmation . Taylor did so , unaware Khánh was taping the dialogue . Afterwards , Khánh played the tape out of context to his colleagues , giving them the impression Taylor was calling for their expulsion from their own country . Khánh then asked his colleagues to participate in a campaign of fomenting anti @-@ American street protests and to give the impression the country did not need Washington 's aid . A CIA informant reported the recent arguments with Taylor had incensed the volatile Thi so much that he had privately vowed to " blow up everything " and " kill Phan Khắc Sửu , Trần Văn Hương and Nguyễn Khánh and put an end to all this . Then we will see what happens . "
= = Public media campaign by Khánh = =
On the morning of December 22 , as part of his Order of the Day , a regular message to the armed forces over Radio Vietnam , Khánh went back on his promise to leave the country and announced , " We make sacrifices for the country 's independence and the Vietnamese people 's liberty , but not to carry out the policy of any foreign country . " He said it was " better to live poor but proud as free citizens of an independent country rather than in ease and shame as slaves of the foreigners and Communists . " Khánh pledged support for both Hương and Suu 's civilian rule , and condemned colonialism in a thinly veiled reference to the US .
Khánh explicitly denounced Taylor in an exclusive interview with Beverly Deepe published in the New York Herald Tribune on December 23 , saying " if Taylor did not act more intelligently , Southeast Asia would be lost " and that the US could not expect to succeed by modelling South Vietnam on American norms . Khánh said Taylor and the US would need to be " more practical and not have a dream of having Vietnam be an image of the United States , because the way of life and people are entirely different . " He added that Taylor 's " attitude during the last 48 hours — as far as my small head is concerned — has been beyond imagination " . Justifying the removal of the HNC , Khánh said they were " exploited by counter @-@ revolutionary elements who placed partisan considerations above the homeland 's sacred interest . " Khánh also threatened to divulge the content of his discussion with Taylor , saying " One day I hope to tell the Vietnamese people and the American people about this ... It is a pity because Gen. Taylor is not serving his country well . "
Khánh had not divulged that angry discussions had occurred in private , so Deepe was unsure what had happened between Taylor and Khánh to provoke such an outburst . She contacted the US Embassy to ask what the dispute was about . At first , the Americans defended Taylor without referring to what the problem was , stating : " Ambassador Taylor has undertaken no activities which can be considered improper in any way ... All his activities are designed to serve the best interests of both Vietnam and the United States . " The State Department issued a statement later in the day in more robust terms , saying " Ambassador Taylor has been acting throughout with the full support of the U.S. government ... a duly constituted government exercising full power ... without improper interference ... is the essential condition for the successful prosecution of the effort to defeat the Viet Cong . " The following day , Secretary of State Dean Rusk said aid would have to be cut , as the programs being funded needed an effective government to be useful . Taylor later responded by calling the generals ' actions an " improper interference " into the purview of civilian government .
Defying Taylor earned Khánh heightened approval among his junta colleagues , as the ambassador 's actions were seen as an insult to the nation . On the night of December 23 , Khánh convinced his fellow officers to join him in lobbying Hương to declare Taylor persona non grata and expel him from South Vietnam . They were confident Hương could not reject them and side with a foreign power at the expense of the military that had installed him , and made preparations to meet him the next day . Khánh also told Hương that if Taylor was not ejected , he and the other generals would hold a media conference and release " detailed accounts " of the ambassador 's confrontation with the quartet and his " ultimatum to General Khánh " the day after . However , someone in the junta was a CIA informant and reported the incident , allowing American officials to individually lobby the officers to change their stance . At the same time , the Americans informed Hương if Taylor was expelled , US funding would stop . The next day , the generals changed their mind and when they met Hương at his office , only asked him to formally denounce Taylor 's behavior in his meetings with Khánh and his quartet and to " take appropriate measures to preserve the honor of all the Vietnamese armed forces and to keep national prestige intact " .
On December 24 , Khánh issued a declaration of independence from " foreign manipulation " , and condemned " colonialism " , explicitly accusing Taylor of abusing his power . At the time , Khánh was also secretly negotiating with the communists , hoping to put together a peace deal so he could expel the Americans from Vietnam , although this effort did not lead anywhere in the two months before he was forced out of power . For his part , Taylor privately told Americans journalists that Khánh was expressing opposition to the US merely because he knew he had lost Washington 's confidence . Taylor said Khánh was completely unprincipled and was stirring up anti @-@ American sentiment purely to try to shore up his political prospects , not because he thought US policy was harmful to South Vietnam . The US media were generally very critical of Khánh 's actions and did not blame Taylor for the disharmony . Peter Grose of The New York Times said " It almost seems as if Viet Cong insurgents and the Saigon government conspired to make the United States feel unwelcome . " The Chicago Tribune lampooned Khánh 's junta , calling it a " parody of a government " and saying it would not survive for a week without US support and describing the generals as " remittance men on the United States ' payroll " . However , the New York Herald Tribune said it was dangerous to pressure South Vietnam too much , citing the instability that followed the American support for the coup against Diệm , who had resisted US advice so often . It said " The issue is not General Khánh versus General Taylor . It is whether the Vietnamese still have the will to exist as an independent state . " The newspaper said if the answer was yes , then both Washington and Saigon would have to look beyond personalities .
Angry with Deepe for airing Khánh 's grievances against him , Taylor invited every other US journalist in Saigon to this private briefing . Taylor gave the journalists his account of the dispute and discussions with the generals , and hoped it would be useful background information for the media , so they would understand what he had done and not reach negative conclusions about his conduct in their writing . Due to the sensitivity of the situation , he asked them to keep the remarks off the record . However , someone at the briefing informed Deepe of what Taylor had said , and she published the remarks on December 25 under the title " Taylor Rips Mask Off Khánh " . In this article , comments were also attributed to Taylor describing some South Vietnamese officers as borderline " nuts " and accusing many generals of staying in Saigon and allowing their junior officers to run the war as they saw fit . Deepe 's article caused an uproar due to the tension between Taylor and the Vietnamese generals .
= = Brinks Hotel bombing = =
At the same time , Westmoreland became concerned with the growing antipathy towards the US and requested the United States Pacific Command ( CINCPAC ) : " In view of the current unstable political situation ... and the possibility that this situation could lead to anti @-@ American activities of the unknown intensity , request Marine Landing Force now off Cap Varella be positioned out of sight of land off Cap St. Jacques soonest . " Better known as Vũng Tàu , Cap St. Jacques was a coastal city at the mouth of the Saigon River around 80 km southeast of the capital . Westmoreland also put American marines based at Subic Bay in the Philippines on notice .
On the same day , the Viet Cong bombed the Brinks Hotel , where US officers were billeted , killing two Americans and injuring around 50 people , civilian bystanders and military personnel . As a result , there was a suspicion among a minority that Khánh ' | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
species of birds have been found in the area including the brown pelican , black @-@ billed whistling duck , reddish egret , white @-@ faced ibis , pauraque , buff @-@ bellied hummingbird , golden @-@ fronted woodpecker , long @-@ billed thrasher , olive sparrow , Neotropic cormorant , laughing gull , Franklin 's gull , ring @-@ billed gull , herring gull , gull @-@ billed tern , common loon , brown @-@ crested flycatcher , hooded oriole , peregrine falcon and piping plover . Bird populations are protected and can be viewed at the Hans and Pat Suter Wildlife Refuge on Oso Bay .
= = Industry = =
Corpus Christi Bay is a natural harbor , and its port has contributed to the growth of the main port city of Corpus Christi . Corpus Christi is the 5th largest port in the United States , and the deepest on the Gulf of Mexico . The channel to the Gulf was dredged through the bay to the jetties at Port Aransas . Freight exchanged at the port include seafood , industrial and agricultural goods and petroleum . Six oil refineries and 1 @,@ 500 wells are located near the bay as well as a large supply of natural gas . In 1987 alone , $ 277 million of oil and gas were produced in the area . Metals , stone products , glass , chemicals , and gypsum products are also produced near the bay . Ingleside originally focused its economy on agriculture , notably viticulture . Later , industrial plants including those established by the Brauer Corporation , Reynolds Metals ( five miles away ) and DuPont opened . La Quinta Channel was dredged by the Army Corps of Engineers in the 1950s .
Tourism to the bay is encouraged by the area 's climate , fishing and birding opportunities as well as sites in Corpus Christi including Corpus Christi beach , Texas State Aquarium , USS Lexington Museum , the bayfront marina , and the Corpus Christi Museum of Science and History . The bay was also the site of the 2008 U.S. Wind and Water Open , as well as the Texas International Boat Show in 2008 , 2009 and 2010 .
= 1990 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1990 Pacific hurricane season is the fifth most active season on record and is the third most active season in terms of ACE Indices . The 1990 season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . However , these bounds were slightly exceeded when Hurricane Alma formed on May 12 .
Hurricane Alma became the third earliest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific basin since the satellite era began in 1966 , while Trudy is the third strongest October eastern Pacific hurricane on record . Overall , the impact of this season was minimal . Tropical Storm Rachel made two landfalls in Mexico and brought rain to the United States . Hurricane Boris brought light showers to California .
= = Season summary = =
The 1990 eastern North Pacific hurricane season was active in terms of number of storms that attained at least tropical storm intensity and of Accumulated Cyclone Energy . All of the tropical cyclones of this year developed from westward @-@ moving African tropical waves . The season established several tropical storm records for this basin and was marked by several strong hurricanes . There were 21 named tropical cyclones , seven below the record established by the 1992 Pacific hurricane season two years later , but four more than the long @-@ term average . Sixteen of those named storms , twice the average and four more than the previous record , reached hurricane intensity . Only Cristina , Douglas , Aka , Rachel , and Simon did not reach hurricane strength . Six of those hurricanes reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Hurricanes Hernan and Trudy were among the strongest ever observed in this area . Alma became the earliest named tropical cyclone for the eastern Pacific ocean east of the 140th meridian west . The eastern Pacific produced four tropical depressions that did not reach tropical storm status .
With the exception of Marie and Polo , these systems developed between 5 ° and 15 ° N , east of the longitude of Baja California in the climatologically favored area for tropical cyclogenesis . After their development , most of the tropical cyclones moved on a west to northwest track and dissipated over cool waters without affecting land . Rachel was the only system to make landfall . In addition , one tropical storm formed in the Central Pacific and eventually crossed the International Dateline before dissipating .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alma = = =
A tropical wave emerged from Africa on April 29 . It then moved across the Atlantic , crossed northern South America , and entered the Pacific Ocean on May 9 . Convection started to increase with the wave just to the south of Panama . The wave moved westward and continued to become better organized over the next few days . On May 12 , the wave had become organized enough and was designated Tropical Depression One @-@ E.
Tropical Depression One @-@ E moved slowly to the northwest while strengthening slowly due to easterly vertical wind shear . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Alma on May 14 . The storm quickly strengthened once the vertical wind shear relaxed and was near hurricane force by the morning of May 15 . Hurricane Alma reached its peak intensity early on May 16 with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The hurricane entered an area of southwesterly wind shear caused by an upper @-@ level ridge of high pressure . The increasing vertical wind shear and cooler water caused Alma to weaken to a tropical storm . On May 17 , the storm continued to weaken and became a depression . The next day , the system dissipated as a tropical cyclone well west of mainland Mexico . Alma became the earliest named storm and hurricane in the satellite era in the east Pacific proper .
= = = Hurricane Boris = = =
A tropical wave came off the northwest coast of Africa on May 20 . The wave did not significantly develop as it moved west across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . Once it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean , cloudiness increased considerably with the system on May 31 . It became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Two @-@ E on June 2 . After becoming a depression , the system moved to the west @-@ northwestward . Upper @-@ level easterly vertical wind shear limited the amount of the initial strengthening . However , an increase in convective banding led to its upgrade to Tropical Storm Boris on June 4 , 500 mi ( 800 km ) southwest of Manzanillo . Further strengthening occurred due to an anticyclone aloft fostered additional development , and by June 5 , Boris became a hurricane . The hurricane began to move to the north @-@ northwest in response to a trough off of the West Coast of the United States . Strengthening continued , and the storm reached its peak strength with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 977 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The hurricane 's cloud pattern became elongated along a southwest @-@ northeast axis on June 6 due to an increased amount of vertical wind shear . Boris was downgraded to a tropical storm later in the day on June 6 . The deep convection of the tropical storm decreased , as Boris moved over cooler waters . It was downgraded to a tropical depression on June 7 due to these factors . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 8 as the system quickly lost its tropical characteristics . A small circulation remained in the cloud field offshore the northwest coast of Baja California for a few more days .
The winds in the eyewall of Boris ripped off the sails of the Azure Dream sailboat . Outer rainbands from the storm produced moderate rain in several Mexican states . In Mexico , rainfall peaked at 8 @.@ 83 in ( 224 mm ) near San Lucas , Michoacán . The remnants of Boris also brought sporadic rainfall over the western United States , with precipitation being reported in Arizona , California , Colorado , Nevada and Wyoming . The remnants of Boris were responsible for causing the wettest June in San Diego since records began in 1850 ; however , not even 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain fell at that location . Rainfall from the remnant system in the United States peaked at 3 @.@ 28 in ( 83 mm ) over the Santa Rita Mountains . No other direct damages or casualties were reported from Boris .
= = = Tropical Storm Cristina = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa on May 28 . The wave moved across Central America into the northeastern Pacific Ocean , where convection organized with the system on June 6 . The system became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Three @-@ E on June 8 , while 920 mi ( 1 @,@ 480 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . The depression continued to strengthen , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Cristina on June 9 .
Cristina initially had well @-@ established upper @-@ level outflow . It failed to reach hurricane status , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) due to movement of its associated upper @-@ level anticyclone to the north over Mexico which caused Cristina to be exposed to easterly vertical wind shear . Cristina moved generally northwestward , which eventually placed the storm in cooler waters , and caused the deep convection of the system to dissipate . On June 14 , Cristina diminished to a tropical depression . Cristina moved west @-@ northwestward with the low @-@ level flow . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 16 , after a lack of deep convection for 48 hours .
= = = Tropical Storm Douglas = = =
A tropical wave moved off the northwest coast of Africa on June 5 . It continued westward across the tropical North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean on June 16 , where it generated an area of increased cloudiness . Organization of thunderstorm activity increased late on June 18 and early on June 19 . Tropical Depression Four @-@ E formed on June 19 , when it was 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico after evidence of low @-@ level circulation for the past 24 hours . The depression moved in a west @-@ northwest direction , due to a subtropical ridge north of the depression . Satellite analysis indicated that the depression had reached tropical storm force strength , and it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Douglas on June 19 , while 230 mi ( 370 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Douglas reached peak strength of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on June 21
A tropical storm warning was issued on June 21 , from Punta Tejupan to Cabo Corrientes before being discontinued on June 22 . Tropical Storm Douglas brushed the western coast of Mexico . The center of circulation approached within 17 mi ( 27 km ) of the coast of Mexico on June 22 . Douglas then began to weaken because of interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico . The system continued to weaken despite warm water temperatures and favorable upper @-@ level conditions . Douglas dissipated early on June 24 , while 138 mi ( 222 km ) south @-@ southeast off the southern tip of Baja California . The highest rainfall report from Mexico from Douglas totaled 11 @.@ 07 in ( 281 mm ) at La Huerta . No deaths or damage were reported .
= = = Hurricane Elida = = =
A tropical wave came off the coast of Africa into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on June 10 and 11 . The system moved across the Atlantic and entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The wave became a significant tropical system , with cyclonic turning in the lower and middle layers of the system 's cloudiness on June 25 . The center of circulation was located 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The system exhibited sufficient organization to be considered Tropical Depression Five @-@ E on June 26 . The depression quickly strengthened and became Tropical Storm Elida later that day . The track of Elida was west @-@ northwestward to northwestward from June 27 through June 28 . Some rainbands moved over the mountainous region of southwestern Mexico , but no flooding , damage , or casualties were reported as a result . Elida continued strengthening and it was upgraded to a hurricane early on June 28 passing directly over Socorro Island later in the day , right as Elida reached peak strength of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , dropping 3 @.@ 7 in ( 94 mm ) of rain on the island . Some windows broke also as a result , and minor structural damage was reported as a result on the island .
A high @-@ pressure area to the north forced Elida to move more westward on June 29 . Convection began to decrease in the hurricane as it moved into cooler waters , and it weakened to a tropical storm later in the day . It then weakened to a tropical depression on July 1 , and dissipated on July 2 .
= = = Tropical Depression Six @-@ E = = =
An area of disturbed weather south of Acapulco organized into Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on June 29 and the system began to move northwest . Originally the system was expected to reach tropical storm strength and near hurricane intensity by late on July 2 or early on July 3 , however persistent vertical wind shear over the system impeded its development . After convection began to merge into the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , stating that the depression dissipated , and regeneration seemed unlikely .
However , wind shear began to decrease , and convection associated with the remnants of Tropical Depression Six @-@ E quickly began to increase . Although the low @-@ level circulation was near the edge of the deep convection , the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories on Tropical Depression Six @-@ E by July 1 . Intensification into a tropical storm was again predicted , but Tropical Depression Six @-@ E remained poorly defined , and eventually dissipated on July 4 .
= = = Hurricane Fausto = = =
A tropical wave came off the northwest coast of Africa on June 19 . The wave crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , into the warm waters of the northeastern Pacific Ocean , on July 2 . An area of disturbed weather moved northwards towards the Gulf of Tehuantepec and became Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E early on July 6 . The depression moved northwest , and because of increased organization of deep convection , was designated Tropical Storm Fausto on July 7 , 265 mi ( 426 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . A weakly defined eye formed on July 8 , and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Fausto , 310 mi ( 500 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas .
Fausto peaked in strength with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a central pressure of 979 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) on July 9 . Fausto passed 40 mi ( 60 km ) north of Socorro Island causing a northwest wind of 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) , and 4 @.@ 3 in ( 110 mm ) of rain at that location . The hurricane fluctuated in intensity on July 10 , before weakening into a tropical storm later that day , 403 mi ( 649 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . The weakening Fausto moved over continuing cooler waters , and was downgraded to a tropical depression on June 11 , 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 13 , and its low level circulation of clouds persisted for a few days .
= = = Hurricane Genevieve = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on June 25 and moved across the Atlantic Ocean and central Caribbean Sea with little development . Within the western Caribbean Sea , convection developed with the wave on July 7 . The system became better organized as it moved into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E on July 11 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest , with a good outflow to the north , and gradually strengthened into Tropical Storm Genevieve later that day . Genevieve continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane strength on July 13 . The storm approached within 23 mi ( 37 km ) of Socorro Island where a sustained wind of 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) and gust of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) were reported , before the weather equipment on the island failed .
The hurricane began to turn west because of the strengthening and growing ridge to its north . Increasing outflow aloft began to form , and the hurricane reached its peak strength of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) with a well @-@ defined eye at its center of circulation . Genevieve turned northwest on July 16 into an area with strong vertical wind shear and low water temperatures . The hurricane quickly weakened into a tropical storm on July 17 and then into a tropical depression on July 18 . Genevieve dissipated as a tropical cyclone later in the day , reduced to a circulation in the stratocumulus cloud field .
= = = Hurricane Hernan = = =
A tropical wave that moved off the northwest coast of Africa on July 4 passed through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave moved across Central America into the northeastern Pacific Ocean on July 15 . Thunderstorm activity increased in the system between July 16 and 18 before rainbands became present within the tropical disturbance on July 19 . Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E formed later that day while 565 mi ( 910 km ) southwest of Acapulco , Mexico .
Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E strengthened into Tropical Storm Hernan on July 21 while 684 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . The tropical storm continued to strengthen and as it moved to the northwest , and became a hurricane late on July 21 . Hernan continued to strengthen and as it passed 145 mi ( 230 km ) southwest of Clarion Island . On July 23 , Hernan reached its peak strength of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and minimum pressure of 928 mb ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) as the center of circulation was 207 mi ( 335 km ) south @-@ southwest of Clarion Island . On July 24 , concentric eyewalls ( one eyewall located inside another ) formed around the center of Hernan , which was the first time this pattern had been observed with an eastern Pacific hurricane .
Hernan kept Category 4 hurricane intensity a few more days and hurricane strength for six days overall . The hurricane weakened into a tropical storm on July 28 as it moved over cooler waters . Hernan turned more to the west as its low level center became separated from its thunderstorm activity and was steering by a surface high @-@ pressure system to its north . Hernan moved over cooler waters , dissipating as a tropical cyclone early on July 31 .
= = = Hurricane Iselle = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on July 7 . The wave moved west , but it was not until it moved across the Caribbean Sea that the wave 's convection organized . The system entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean with concentrated convection and a surface center of circulation while southeast of Acapulco . Moving west @-@ northwest , Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E formed on July 20 393 mi ( 632 km ) south of Puerto Ángel , Mexico . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Iselle . The storm continued strengthening while in the proximity of Hurricane Hernan , becoming a hurricane on July 22 .
The hurricane continued to move west @-@ northwest through its duration , and reached its peak strength of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) on July 25 . Iselle crossed Socorro Island , which recorded a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) sustained wind and heavy rain on July 25 . The hurricane weakened on following days after it moved over cooler waters , downgraded to a tropical storm on July 28 and subsequently into a tropical depression on July 30 . The depression dissipated later that day , after losing its low @-@ level circulation 588 mi ( 946 km ) southwest of San Diego .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = =
On July 24 a tropical disturbance behind Hurricane Hernan strengthened into a tropical depression . Due to the close proximity of Hernan to its west , the development of the depression was hindered due to vertical wind shear from the outflow of Hernan . This wind shear dissipated the depression on July 26 , and its remnants were absorbed by the nearby cyclone . No damages or casualties were caused by the depression as it was well out to sea .
= = = Tropical Storm Aka = = =
Tropical Storm Aka was the only tropical storm to form in the Central North Pacific during 1990 . An area of disturbed weather began to organize on August 6 . By August 7 , the system became well @-@ enough organized to become designated Tropical depression One @-@ C. The depression intensified into a tropical storm while moving west , to the south of the Hawaiian Islands . On August 10 , Tropical Storm Aka peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The storm continued to move west and approached Johnston Island , though the island 's weather did not deteriorate . The tropical storm crossed the International Date Line on August 13 . Aka weakened back into a depression and dissipated two days later on August 15 .
= = = Tropical Depression Diana = = =
Hurricane Diana struck eastern Mexico and managed to hold together , remaining a tropical depression as it entered the eastern Pacific Ocean late on August 8 . Although Tropical Depression Diana entered the eastern Pacific , the National Hurricane Center did not re @-@ classify the system . No re @-@ intensification occurred after the system entered the eastern Pacific , and it had dissipated as a tropical cyclone by the following day . The remnant tropical disturbance recurved through the Gulf of California while developing significant convection before it moved into northwest Mexico , which brought rainfall amounts of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) to local areas within the state of Sonora . The remnant disturbance moved into the American Southwest on August 11 .
= = = Tropical Depression Two @-@ C = = =
Tropical Depression Two @-@ C was the second and last tropical cyclone to develop within the north @-@ central Pacific Ocean in 1990 . The depression developed from a tropical disturbance well southeast of Hawaii , which became much better organized on the night of August 10 . The tropical depression moved in a west northwest direction for the next 18 hours and then changed to a west @-@ southwest track on August 11 . As it turned more to the southwest , the depression weakened until it dissipated on August 13 about 600 mi ( 970 km ) south @-@ southeast of Hilo , Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E = = =
A persistent area of thunderstorm activity southwest of Puerto Vallarta became better organized and strengthened into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E on August 16 . Moving northwest , the system developed slowly as it was embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone . Easterly shear kept the system from reaching tropical storm strength and caused its ultimate dissipation on August 19 . No damages or fatalities were caused by this depression .
= = = Hurricane Julio = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on August 5 , moving across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The system entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean , and became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E on August 17 while centered 404 mi ( 650 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression moved on a west @-@ northwestward track and strengthened , becoming Tropical Storm Julio on August 18 . Strengthening continued and Julio reached hurricane strength on August 19 . The cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 21 . The storm turned westward and began weakening . Julio regained tropical storm status on August 23 and tropical depression status on August 24 before dissipating as a tropical cyclone later that day . No damage was reported from Julio .
= = = Hurricane Kenna = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 9 , and spawned Tropical Storm Fran four days later , before it moved through the southern Windward Islands on August 14 . While Fran dissipated shortly after that , the tropical wave progressed into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The wave spawned Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E 808 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hurricane Julio . The depression moved westward for the next several days . As Julio weakened , the depression began to increase in strength . It became Tropical Storm Kenna on August 22 and continued to strengthen into a hurricane on August 25 , peaking with winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) the next day . On August 26 , a strong frontal trough weakened the high pressure system to the storm 's north , causing a turn to the north during the next few days . The hurricane weakened in response to cooler water and increasing vertical wind shear , which removed convection from its center . Kenna weakened back to tropical storm strength on August 28 , then into a tropical depression on August 29 . The system dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 30 .
= = = Hurricane Lowell = = =
A tropical wave moved off the northwestern coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on August 11 . After moving across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without development , the system moved through the Intertropical Convergence Zone of the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The cloudiness moved northward toward the Gulf of Tehuantepec on August 22 . The thunderstorm activity organized sufficiently for the system to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E on August 23 while 298 mi ( 480 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a tropical storm 217 mi ( 350 km ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Vallarta on August 25 . The storm began to turn more westward due to a strengthening high pressure system to its north and was upgraded to a hurricane on August 27 while 286 mi ( 460 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . As the high to the north continued to strengthen , the hurricane turned west @-@ southwest .
Thunderstorm activity with the hurricane began to weaken and Lowell was downgraded back to tropical storm status on August 28 . The tropical storm then turned to a north @-@ northwestward with the storm passing over cooler waters . On August 31 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression , with only minimal amounts of deep convection remaining within its circulation . Lowell dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 1 , though a low @-@ level circulation of clouds could be seen on satellite imagery for the next few days . No damage or casualties was reported as a result of Lowell .
= = = Hurricane Marie = = =
A tropical wave moved off the northwestern coast of Africa on August 16 . The wave moved west through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave moved across Central America and into the northeastern Pacific Ocean , on August 29 . Isolated convection with the system increased while south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec as the system moved northwest parallel to the southwest coast of Mexico . Once convective activity increased , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E on September 7 while centered 659 mi ( 1 @,@ 060 km ) southwest of Clarion Island .
A weaker than normal high pressure system controlled the movement of the depression , and the system moved slowly to the west through its duration . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Marie on September 8 , and into a hurricane on September 9 , while 522 mi ( 840 km ) south @-@ southwest of Clarion Island . Marie reached its peak intensity of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 11 . The hurricane crossed into the central North Pacific on September 14 as a hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened thereafter and on September 17 Marie regained tropical storm status . The system weakened into a tropical depression on September 19 and dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 21 near the Hawaiian coast . No casualties or damages were caused by Marie .
= = = Hurricane Norbert = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean and began to show signs of organized thunderstorm development . Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E formed on September 10 while centered 758 mi ( 1 @,@ 220 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . The depression became better organized and strengthened into Tropical Storm Norbert later in the day .
On September 12 , Norbert absorbed Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E which was in close proximity . Norbert strengthened as it moved north @-@ northwestward . The tropical storm was upgraded to a hurricane on September 14 , and formed an eye on September 15 . The storm reached its peak strength of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) sustained winds that day . Turning north of due west , Norbert then weakened as it moved over cooler waters . It was downgraded to a tropical storm later on September 15 , and then to a tropical depression on September 18 . Norbert dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 19 after losing all its deep convection .
= = = Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E = = =
On September 12 , satellite images indicated that the eighteenth tropical depression of the season formed southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Located in close proximity to Tropical Storm Norbert , the depression would soon enter a region of colder sea surface temperatures , and the National Hurricane Center noted that only very little intensification was possible . As predicted , Norbert hindered further intensification of Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E. The National Hurricane Center noted six hours later that the depression would likely be absorbed into Norbert . The National Hurricane Center later believed that Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E was " dominating " the interaction between the two systems , and was forecast to absorb Norbert . Unlike the latter prediction , Norbert absorbed Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E later that day .
= = = Hurricane Odile = = =
A tropical wave move off the coast of Africa on September 5 , and crossed the Atlantic waters , the Caribbean Sea and eventually into the Pacific Ocean as a weak system . An area of convection entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean a few hundred miles south of Acapulco , Mexico . On September 2 , Tropical Depression Nineteen @-@ E formed from this convection , while 746 mi ( 1 @,@ 201 km ) south @-@ southeast from the southern tip of Baja California . The depression moved on a west @-@ northwestward track , rounding the southwest side of a strong high pressure system . The depression continued to strengthen and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Odile on September 24 and into a hurricane on September 25 . Its intensity peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on September 26 .
The hurricane began to turn more northwestward in response to a high @-@ pressure system weakening to its north . Odile began to weaken as it moved over cooler waters on September 28 . The cyclone regained tropical storm status on September 29 while it slowly progressed northward . The system weakened into a tropical depression status on September 30 . Once it lost its deep convection , Odile was steered southwestward by the low @-@ level flow , before it dissipated as a tropical cyclone on October 2 . Its remaining low @-@ level circulation of clouds continued on a southwestward course thereafter .
= = = Tropical Storm Rachel = = =
In mid @-@ September , a weak tropical wave moved off the coast of Northwest Africa . It moved westward and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean early on September 23 . Cloudiness became concentrated with the system south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . On September 27 , the organized thunderstorm area was upgraded to Tropical Depression Twenty One @-@ E while 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Acapulco . The depression developed slowly , and became a tropical storm on September 30 . As Rachel briefly moved northward , before re @-@ curving and accelerating towards the Mexican coast . The storm passed over the southern portion of Baja California Sur on October 2 . Rachel made its final landfall midway between Los Mochis and Culiacán , and became the only system to make landfall from the eastern north Pacific Ocean in 1990 . Rachel decayed rapidly over land , and the final public advisory on Rachel was issued early on October 3 @.@ its remnants continued accelerating over Texas until they lost their identity .
The highest rainfall total from the system in Mexico totaled 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) at Santa Anita near the tip of Baja California . Across northern Mexico , thousands were homeless , and 18 people died . In Texas , Rachel 's remnants caused heavy rain . Flooding occurred in the Big Bend area .
= = = Hurricane Polo = = =
Polo originated from a tropical wave that moved off the African coast on September 2 which spawned Hurricane Isidore in the Atlantic basin . On September 14 , the system increased in convection as it was moving to the west and approaching Central America . The southern extent of the wave crossed into the Pacific Ocean on September 18 .
The wave continued westward and related thunderstorm activity increased during the following week . The convective system organized into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E on September 28 nearly midway between Mexico and Hawaii . Initially , the depression drifted toward the northwest due to a large upper @-@ level trough located to its west . Polo strengthened rapidly into a hurricane early on September 30 , with its winds peaking at 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Since the storm was very small , vertical wind shear caused significant weakening thereafter . On October 1 , Polo regained tropical storm strength as it was crossing into the north Central Pacific basin . It dissipated as a tropical cyclone later that day . There were no casualties or damages caused by Polo .
= = = Tropical Storm Simon = = =
A weakly defined tropical wave moved off the northwest coast of Africa on September 20 , and crossed the northern portion of the tropical Atlantic and northern South America without significant organization . The wave moved into the northeastern Pacific waters , off the coast of Colombia on September 30 . As the wave passed over southern Central America , rainbands and cloudiness increased with the system between October 1 and October 3 , before the system merged with the ITCZ from October 4 to October 6 . Signs of convective organization reappeared on October 8 , and by October 9 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Twenty Two @-@ E 578 mi ( 930 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
The depression continued to develop and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Simon on October 10 while 604 mi ( 972 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Due to a high @-@ pressure system to the north @-@ northwest , Simon continued on a west @-@ northwestward path . The tropical storm continued to strengthen to its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) by late on October 11 . Simon passed over cooler waters and weakened back into a tropical depression on October 13 . The depression moved on a westward course , and the low @-@ level circulation was displaced from its deep convection during the following day . Simon then dissipated as a tropical cyclone early on October 15 across the open waters of the northeast Pacific .
= = = Hurricane Trudy = = =
A tropical wave moved across the northeast Pacific Ocean and formed a tropical depression south of Mexico on October 16 . It strengthened at a moderate pace and reached hurricane intensity on October 18 . Trudy entered a favorable environment and explosively intensified , reaching its first peak in strength on October 20 . At that time , an upper @-@ level trough drifted Trudy north , which increased vertical shear , causing it to substantially weaken the system back to Category 1 hurricane status . The trough outran the storm and was replaced by a ridge which turned the storm back to the west and led to its re @-@ intensification to a Category 4 hurricane . Another upper level trough approached which pulled Trudy northward once again , and sheared the hurricane apart . The cyclone dissipated on November 1 . Eventually , some of its moisture spread over parts of Mexico and the United States .
Except for Socorro Island , Trudy had no impact on land . The island reported hurricane force winds for seven hours . Trudy also had an unusually large eye , which was as large as 58 mi ( 93 km ) wide . Trudy is the fourth @-@ strongest Pacific hurricane in October , behind Kenna of the 2002 season , Rick of the 2009 season , and Patricia of the 2015 season . Trudy also spent 78 hours of its life as a Category 4 hurricane , longer than any other hurricane in the Eastern Pacific basin .
= = = Hurricane Vance = = =
An area of disturbed weather , possibly related to a tropical wave , organized into Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E on October 21 . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Vance early on October 23 and then into a hurricane two days later . Vance moved parallel to the west coast of Mexico and approached the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Before it could strike land , a high @-@ pressure area blocked Vance 's path and forced the storm to transcribe a small clockwise loop over a two @-@ day period . During the loop , Vance encountered wind shear and cool waters stirred up by Trudy as well as earlier in its duration . Vance weakened to a tropical storm on October 27 and a depression on October 30 . The cyclone dissipated late on October 31 .
= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) Rating = =
The table on the right shows the ACE for each storm in the season . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
The figures in parentheses are for storms in the Central Pacific basin west of 140 ° W ; those not in parenthesis are for the Eastern Pacific basin .
The cumulative ACE for the Eastern Pacific this season fell within the official " Above Normal " grading , being one of the most active . This occurred because the season had many intense storms that lasted for a long period of time . Also it is important to note that this is the third highest ACE , only behind the 1992 and 2015 seasons respectively .
= = 1990 storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1990 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1996 season . This is the same list used for the 1984 season . Storms were named Trudy and Vance for the first time in 1990 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
One name from the Central Pacific list was used – Aka . It was the first usage for that name .
= Track and field =
Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running , jumping , and throwing . The name is derived from the sport 's typical venue : a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take place . Track and field is categorised under the umbrella sport of athletics , which also includes road running , cross country running , and race walking .
The running events , which include sprints , middle and long @-@ distance events , race walking and hurdling , are won by the athlete with the fastest time . The jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height . Regular jumping events include long jump , triple jump , high jump and pole vault , while the most common throwing events are shot put , weight , javelin , discus and hammer . There are also " combined events " or " multi events " , such as pentathlon consisting of five events , heptathlon consisting of seven events , and decathlon consisting of ten events.For every multi event , athletes participate in a combination of sprinting , jumping , throwing , middle distance , and long distance events . Most track and field events are individual sports with a single victor , but a number are relay races consisting of four members . Events are almost exclusively divided by gender , although both the men 's and women 's competitions are usually held at the same venue .
It is one of the oldest sports . In ancient times , it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece . In modern times , the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics . The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body .
Records are kept of the best performances in specific events , at world and national levels , right down to a personal level . However , if athletes are deemed to have violated the event 's rules or regulations , they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased .
In North America , the term track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events , such as the marathon , rather than strictly track @-@ based events .
= = History = =
The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory . Track and field @-@ style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions , as running , jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression . The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games . At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia , Greece , only one event was contested : the stadion footrace . The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions , but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized today — it comprised a five @-@ event competition of the long jump , javelin throw , discus throw , stadion footrace , and wrestling .
Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period , and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC . After the period of Classical antiquity ( in which the sport was largely Greco @-@ Roman influenced ) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages . The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events . One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault , which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century .
Discrete modern track and field competitions , separate from general sporting festivals , were first recorded in the 19th century . These were typically organised by educational institutions , military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments . Competitions in the English public schools were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing , fox hunting and hare coursing , influenced by a Classics @-@ rich curriculum . The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest running club in the world , with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819 . The school organised Paper Chase races in which runners followed a trail of paper shreds left by two " foxes " ; even today RSSH runners are called " hounds " and a race victory is a " kill " . The first definite record of Shrewsbury 's ( cross @-@ country ) Annual Steeplechase is in 1834 , making it the oldest running race of the modern era . The school also lays claim to the oldest track and field meeting still in existence , originating in the Second Spring Meeting first documented in 1840 . This featured a series of throwing and jumping events with mock horse races including the Derby Stakes , the Hurdle Race and the Trial Stakes . Runners were entered by " owners " and named as though they were horses . 13 miles ( 21 km ) away and a decade later , the first Wenlock Olympian Games were held at Much Wenlock racecourse . Events at the 1851 Wenlock Games included a " half @-@ mile foot race " ( 805 m ) and a " leaping in distance " competition .
In 1865 , Dr William Penny Brookes of Wenlock helped set up the National Olympian Association , which held their first Olympian Games in 1866 at The Crystal Palace in London . This national event was a great success , attracting a crowd of over ten thousand people . In response , that same year the Amateur Athletic Club was formed and held a championship for " gentlemen amateurs " in an attempt to reclaim the sport for the educated elite . Ultimately the " allcomers " ethos of the NOA won through and the AAC was reconstituted as the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880 , the first national body for the sport of athletics . The AAA Championships , the de facto British national championships despite being for England only , have been held annually since 3 July 1880 with breaks only during two world wars and 2006 – 2008 . The AAA was effectively a global governing body in the early years of the sport , codifying its rules for the first time .
Meanwhile , the United States began holding an annual national competition — the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships — first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club . The establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States ( the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888 ) and France ( the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889 ) put the sport on a formal footing and meant that international competitions became possible .
The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field . The Olympic athletics programme , comprising track and field events plus a marathon race , contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics . The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events , both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws . The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades , and track and field contests remained among the Games ' most prominent . The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field , and only amateur sportsmen could compete . Track and field continued to be a largely amateur sport , as this rule was strictly enforced : Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball professionally .
That same year , the International Amateur Athletic Federation ( IAAF ) was established , becoming the international governing body for track and field , and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport . The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921 , making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students , and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923 . The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships , which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934 .
Up until the early 1920s , track and field had been almost exclusively a male @-@ only pursuit . A growing women 's sports movement in Europe and North America led to the establishment of the Women 's World Games in 1921 and this ultimately caused the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics . In China , women 's track and field events were being held in the 1920s , but were subject to criticism and disrespect from audiences . In 1923 , physical education advocate Zhang Ruizhen called for greater equality and participation of women in Chinese track and field . The rise of Kinue Hitomi and her 1928 Olympic medal for Japan signified the growth of women 's track and field in East Asia . More women 's events were gradually introduced as years progressed ( although it was only towards the end of the century that the men 's and women 's programmes approached parity of events ) . Marking an increasingly inclusive approach to the sport , major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics .
With the rise of numerous regional championships , as well as the growth in Olympic @-@ style multi @-@ sport events ( such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan @-@ American Games ) , competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread . From the 1960s onwards , the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations . After over half a century of amateurism , the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s . As a result , the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non @-@ amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics : The Athletics Congress ( later USA Track and Field ) . The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982 , abandoning amateurism , and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations . The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics — the first ever global competition just for athletics — which , with the Olympics , became one of track and field 's most prestigious competitions .
The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s , with a number of athletes becoming household names ( such as Carl Lewis , Sergey Bubka , Sebastian Coe , Zola Budd and Florence Griffith @-@ Joyner ) . Many world records were broken in this period , and the added political element between competitors of the United States , East Germany , and the Soviet Union , in reaction to the Cold War , only served to stoke the sport 's popularity . The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science , and there were many changes to coaching methods , athlete 's diet regimes , training facilities and sports equipment . This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and prominent cases , such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones , damaged the public image and marketability of the sport .
From the 1990s onwards , track and field became increasingly more professional and international , as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations . The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997 , and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League — an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe — provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US $ 1 million jackpot . In 2010 , the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League , a fourteen @-@ meeting series held in Europe , Asia , North America and the Middle East — the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings .
= = Events = =
Track and field events are divided into three broad categories : track events , field events , and combined events . The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event ( or event type ) with the aim of perfecting their performances , although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines . Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and — in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events — obstacles may be placed on the track . There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance .
There are two types of field events : jumps , and throws . In jumping competitions , athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps . The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker , and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled . In the jumps for height , an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards . The majority of jumping events are unaided , although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose @-@ built sticks in the pole vault .
The throwing events involve hurling an implement ( such as a heavy weight , javelin or discus ) from a set point , with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown . Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events . Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner .
Note : Events in italics are competed at indoor world championships only
= = = Running = = =
= = = = Sprints = = = =
Races over short distances , or sprints , are among the oldest running competitions . The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event , the stadion race , which was a race from one end of the stadium to the other . Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed . Three sprinting events are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships : the 100 metres , 200 metres , and 400 metres . These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements that later changed to metric : the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash , the 200 m distances came from the furlong ( or 1 / 8 of a mile ) , and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter @-@ mile race .
At the professional level , sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained . Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events , with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors . Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete 's maximum speed . All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance . Human physiology dictates that a runner 's near @-@ top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin to suffer oxygen deprivation . Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 metres .
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and indoor world championship event . Less @-@ common events include the 50 metres , 55 metres , 300 metres and 500 metres which are run in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States . The 150 metres , though rarely competed , has a star @-@ studded history : Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983 , Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head @-@ to @-@ head over the distance in 1997 , and Usain Bolt improved Mennea 's record in 2009 .
= = = = Middle distance = = = =
The most common middle @-@ distance track events are the 800 metres , 1500 metres and mile run , although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle @-@ distance event . The 880 yard run , or half mile , was the forebear of the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s . The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track , which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century .
Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter 's pistol they head towards the innermost track to follow the quickest route to the finish . In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race . This rule was introduced to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race . Physiologically , these middle @-@ distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems , and also that they have strong speed endurance .
The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events . Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other 's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s . The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister , who ( in 1954 ) was the first to run the long @-@ elusive four @-@ minute mile , and Jim Ryun 's exploits served to popularise interval training . Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe , Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle @-@ distance running in the 1980s . From the 1990s onwards , North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events .
Beyond the short distances of sprinting events , factors such as an athlete 's reactions and top speed becomes less important , while qualities such as pace , race tactics and endurance become more so .
= = = = Long distance = = = =
There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions : 3000 metres , 5000 metres and 10 @,@ 000 metres . The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors , while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships . The 5000 m and 10 @,@ 000 m events have their historical roots in the 3 @-@ mile and 6 @-@ mile races . The 3000 m was historically used as a women 's long distance event , entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984 , but this was abandoned in favour of a women 's 5000 m event in 1995 .
In terms of competition rules and physical demands , long distance track races have much in common with middle @-@ distance races , except that pacing , stamina , and race tactics become much greater factors in performances . However , a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle- and long @-@ distance events , including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m . The use of pace @-@ setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level , although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win .
The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the " Flying Finns " , such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi . The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods , but Ron Clarke 's world record @-@ breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even @-@ paced running . The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events . Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes , in particular , have since remained dominant in these events .
= = = = Relay races = = = =
Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams . Typically , a team is made up of four runners of the same sex . Each runner completes their specified distance ( referred to as a leg ) before handing over a baton to a team mate , who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton . There is usually a designated area where athletes must exchange the baton . Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area , or if the baton is dropped during the race . A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors .
Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen , who would hand a red pennant on to team mates every 300 yards . There are two very common relay events : the 4 × 100 metres relay and the 4 × 400 metres relay . Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one @-@ off men 's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics . The 4 × 100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track , meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track . Teams in a 4 × 400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend , at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner @-@ most part of the circuit . For the second and third baton change overs , team mates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes .
The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays . As with 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m events , all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances , with the less commonly contested distances being the 4 × 200 m , 4 × 800 m and 4 × 1500 m relays . Other events include the distance medley relay ( comprising legs of 1200 m , 400 m , 800 m , and 1600 m ) , which is frequently held in the United States , and a sprint relay , known as the Swedish medley relay , which is popular in Scandinavia and held at the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme . Relay events have significant participation in the United States , where a number of large meetings ( or relay carnivals ) are focused almost exclusively on relay events .
= = = = Hurdling = = = =
Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England . The first known event , held in 1830 , was a variation of the 100 @-@ yard dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles . A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this , holding a 120 @-@ yard race ( 110 m ) with ten hurdles of 3 @-@ foot and 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 06 m ) in height ( each placed 10 yards ( 9 m ) apart ) , with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish , respectively . French organisers adapted the race into metric ( adding 28 cm ) and the basics of this race , the men 's 110 metres hurdles , has remained largely unchanged . The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford , where ( around 1860 ) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1 @.@ 06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course . The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics : the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3 @-@ foot ( 91 @.@ 44 cm ) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track , with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish , respectively . Women 's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm ( 2 ft 9 in ) for the 100 m event and 76 cm ( 2 ft 6 in ) for the 400 m event .
By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women , 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes . The men 's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men 's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games . Women 's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event , which entered the Olympic programme in 1932 . This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics , but it was not until 1984 that a women 's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics ( having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year ) .
Outside of the hurdles events , the steeplechase race is the other track and field event with obstacles . Just as the hurdling events , the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford , England . However , this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing . A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men 's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races . The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event . The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954 , and the event is held on a 400 m circuit that includes a water jump on each lap . Despite the long history of men 's steeplechase in track and field , the women 's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005 , with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008 .
= = = Jumping = = =
= = = = Long jump = = = =
The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events , having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest . The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth , with the winner being the one who jumped farthest . Small weights ( Halteres ) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance . The modern long jump , standardised in England and the United States around 1860 , bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used . Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit . The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete 's body .
The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men 's long jump competition and a women 's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics . Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities . However , athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed . In addition to the traditional long jump , a standing long jump contest exists which requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run @-@ up . A men 's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912 .
= = = = Triple jump = = = =
Similar to the long jump , the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit . Originally , athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit , but this was changed to the current " hop , step and jump " pattern from 1900 onwards . There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece : while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games , others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this is incorrect , suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet ( around 16 @.@ 3 m ) . The Book of Leinster , a 12th @-@ century Irish manuscript , records the existence of geal @-@ ruith ( triple jump ) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games .
The men 's triple jump competition has been ever @-@ present at the modern Olympics , but it was not until 1993 that a women 's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later . The men 's standing triple jump event featured at the Olympics in 1900 and 1904 , but such competitions have since become very uncommon , although it is still used as a non @-@ competitive exercise drill .
= = = = High jump = = = =
The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century . Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there . Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area . The men 's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women 's competition followed in 1928 .
Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event . High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century , using either the Scissors , Eastern cut @-@ off or Western roll technique . The straddle technique became prominent in the mid @-@ 20th century , but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head @-@ first technique in the late 1960s – the Fosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics . This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards . The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912 , but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill .
= = = = Pole vault = = = =
In terms of sport , the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe , and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s . One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria , England in 1843 . The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States . The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar . Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard . Landing mattresses were introduced in the mid @-@ 20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights .
The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track , plant the pole in the metal box , and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing mattress . While earlier versions used wooden , metal or bamboo , modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre . The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men , but it was over 100 years later that the first women 's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships . The first women 's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000 .
= = = Throwing = = =
Track and field contains some of the foremost kinds of throwing sports , and the four major disciplines are the only pure throwing events to feature at the Olympic Games .
= = = = Shot put = = = =
The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre @-@ historic competitions with rocks : in the Middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland . In the 17th century , cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport . The term " shot " originates from the use of round shot @-@ style ammunition for the sport . The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) on each side . This was amended to a circle area with a seven @-@ foot diameter in 1906 , and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 26 kg ) . Throwing technique was also refined over this period , with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side @-@ step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876 .
The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women 's competition using a 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 82 lb ) shot was added in 1948 . Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post @-@ war era : in the 1950s Parry O 'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the " glide " , breaking the world record 17 times along the way , while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the " spin " or rotational technique in 1976 .
= = = = Discus throw = = = =
As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon , the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC . In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal , and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics . This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens , which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing . By the 1912 Olympics , the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2 @.@ 5 m squared throwing area became the standard . The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 pounds ) in weight and 22 cm ( 8 inches ) in diameter in 1907 . The women 's discus was among the first women 's events on the Olympic programme , being introduced in 1928 .
= = = = Javelin throw = = = =
As an implement of war and hunting , javelin throwing began in prehistoric times . Along with the discus , the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon . Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co @-@ existing : throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance . It was the latter type from which the modern event derives . In ancient competitions , athletes would wrap an ankyle ( thin leather strip ) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance . The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 18th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men 's competitions . The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line .
The first Olympic men 's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women 's competition was introduced in 1932 . The first javelins were made of various types of wood , but in the 1950s , former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin , then a metal javelin , both of which increased throwers performances . Another former athlete , Miklós Németh invented the rough @-@ tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia . The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men 's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement 's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement . Rough @-@ tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books . The women 's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999 . The current javelin specifications are 2 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men , and 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 3 m and 600 g for women .
= = = = Hammer throw = = = =
The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games around 1800 BC , which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope , a large rock on a wooden handle , or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle . Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle – the root of the term " hammer throw " due to their resemblance to the tools . In 16th century England , contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith 's Sledgehammers were recorded . The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event . The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 26 kg ) while the attached wire had to measure between 1 @.@ 175 m and 1 @.@ 215 m .
The men 's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women 's event – using a 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 82 lb ) weight – was not widely competed until much later , finally featuring on the women 's Olympic programme in 2000 . The distances thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals , a switch to concrete throwing areas , and more advanced training techniques . Professional hammer throwers as historically large , strong , sturdy athletes . However , qualities such as refined technique , speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34 @.@ 92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations .
= = = Combined events = = =
Combined ( or multi @-@ discipline ) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events , earning points for their performance in each event , which adds to a total points score . Outdoors , the most common combined events are the men 's decathlon ( ten events ) and the women 's heptathlon ( seven events ) . Due to stadium limitations , indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events , resulting in the men 's heptathlon and the women 's pentathlon . Athletes are allocated points based on an international @-@ standard points scoring system , such as the decathlon scoring table .
The Ancient Olympic pentathlon ( comprising long jump , javelin , discus , the stadion race and wrestling ) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics ( Intercalated Games ) . A men 's all @-@ around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics , contested between five American and two British athletes .
= = Stadium = =
= = = Outdoor = = =
The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums that first hosted such competitions . The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval @-@ shaped running track and an area of turf within this track — the field . In earlier competitions , track lengths varied : the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333 @.@ 33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics , while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile ( 536 @.@ 45 m ) at Francis Field . As the sport developed , the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes . Precise widths for the lanes were established , as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track . Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s . 3M 's Tartan track ( an all @-@ weather running track of polyurethane ) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport . Many track and field stadiums are multi @-@ purpose stadiums , with the running track surrounding a field built for other sports , such as the various types of football .
The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events . The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight , narrow 40 @-@ metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends . Jumps are measured from a take off board — typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached — which ensures athletes jump from behind the measurement line . The pole vault area is also a 40 @-@ metre running track and has an indentation in the ground ( the box ) where vaulters plant their poles to propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto cushioned landing mats . The high jump is a stripped down version of this , with an open area of track or field that leads to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it .
The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium . The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track . The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch ( sports field ) in the middle of the stadium , ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury . The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage usually situated in one of the corners of the field . The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium . The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end . The throwing area is a sector . Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races .
= = = Indoor = = =
Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums , which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events . Full @-@ size indoor arenas ( i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships ) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents . Typically , a central area is surrounded by a 200 @-@ metre oval track with four to eight lanes . The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably . There is also a second running track going straight across the field area , parallel to the straights of the main circuit . This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events , which are held almost exclusively indoors .
Another common adaptation is a 160 @-@ yard track ( 11 laps to a mile ) that fits into a common basketball court sized arena . This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances , which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s . Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden , and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena .
All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues . The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts . The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track . Shot put ( or weight throw ) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions . The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event , but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier .
In addition to hosting the World Indoor Championships , the IAAF has hosted the IAAF World Indoor Tour since 2016 .
= = Rules = =
= = = Track rules = = =
The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) . The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009 . Key rules of track events are those regarding starting , running and finishing .
= = = = Starting = = = =
The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide . In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved , so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish . Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m ( including the first leg of the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m ) and may not be used for any other race . No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane .
All races must be started by the report of the starter 's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after they have ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position . An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with their hands or feet when on their marks .
For sprint races up to 400 m , the starter gives two commands : " on your marks " to instruct athletes to approach the start line , followed by " set " to advise the athletes that the start of the race is imminent . The commands of the starter are typically given in the native language in national competitions , or in English or French in international competitions . Once all athletes are set in their starting position , the gun or an approved starting apparatus must be fired or activated . If the starter is not satisfied that all are ready to proceed , the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over .
There are different types of starts for races of different distances . Middle- and long @-@ distance races mainly use the waterfall start . This is when all athletes begin on a curved line that moves farther out at the outer edge of the track . Competitors are allowed to move towards the inside lane right away , as long as it is safe to do so . For some middle @-@ distance races , such as 800 m , each athlete starts in their own lane . Once the gun fires , they must run in the lane they began in until markers on the track notify them it is time to move towards the inside lane . For sprint races , athletes begin in start blocks and must stay in their own lane for the entire race .
An athlete , after assuming a final set position , may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun , or approved starting apparatus . If , in the judgment of the starter or recallers , he does so any earlier , it is considered a false start . It is deemed a false start if , in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands " on your marks " or " set " as appropriate after a reasonable time ; or an athlete after the command " on your marks " disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise . If the runner is in the " set " position and moves , then the runner is also disqualified . As of 2010 , any athlete making a false start is disqualified .
In International elite competition , electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes . If the athlete reacts in less than 0 @.@ 1 second , an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start .
= = = = Running the race = = = =
For sprinting events ( bar the 4 × 400 m relay and the indoor 400 metres ) , each athlete must run the race within their allocated lane from start to finish . If an athlete leaves their lane or steps on the line demarking each lane the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
athlete will be disqualified . Lane rules also apply for initial periods of other track races , for example , the beginning of the 800 m . Similar rules apply for longer distance races when a large field of athletes is present and separate starting points are designated , with the field merging into one group shortly after the starting phase .
Any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete , in a way that impedes his progress , should be disqualified from that event . However , if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane , and if no material advantage is gained , the athlete should not be disqualified .
= = = = The finish = = = =
The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide . The finishing position of athletes is determined by the order in which any part of their torso ( as distinguished from the head , neck , arms , legs , hands or feet ) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line . Fully automatic timing systems ( photo timing ) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets , improving the accuracy , while eliminating the need for eagle @-@ eyed officials on the finish line . Fully automatic timing ( FAT ) is required for high level meets and any time a ( sprint ) record is set ( though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches ) .
With the accuracy of the timing systems , ties are rare . Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows : In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time , a judge ( called the chief photo finish judge ) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second . If the judge decides that there has been a tie , the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or , if that is not practicable , lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round . In the case of a tie for first place in any final , the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again . If he decides it is not , the result stands . Ties in other placings remain .
= = = Field rules = = =
In general , most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually , under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition . Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the longest distance .
Vertical jumps ( high jump and pole vault ) set a bar at a particular height . The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar ( flat ) . Three failures in a row ends the competitor 's participation in the event . The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt , which can be used to strategic advantage ( of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses ) . A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings . After all competitors have either cleared , passed or failed their attempts at a height , the bar goes up . The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition , though when one competitor remains , that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts . A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor . After all competitors have taken their attempts , the one jumping the highest is the winner , and so on down the other competitors in the event . Ties are broken by first , the number of attempts taken at the highest height ( fewest wins ) , and then if still tied , by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole . The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position . If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers , all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the last height . If they still miss , the bar goes down one increment where they again jump . This process continues until the tie is broken .
Horizontal jumps ( long jump and triple jump ) and all throws must be initiated behind a line . In the case of horizontal jumps , that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway . In the case of throws , that line is an arc or a circle . Crossing the line while initiating the attempt invalidates the attempt — it becomes a foul . All landings must occur in a sector . For the jumps , that is a sand filled pit , for throws it is a defined sector . A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul ( the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector ) . Assuming a proper attempt , officials measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line . The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line . To accomplish this , the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps , or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws . The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero , while the officials at the point of initiation measure and record the length . Whenever a record ( or potential record ) occurs , that measurement is taken ( again ) with a steel tape , and observed by at least three officials ( plus usually the meet referee ) . Steel tapes are easily bent and damaged , so are not used to measure everyday competitions . For major competitions , each competitor gets three tries . The top competitors ( usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition 's rules or the number of lanes on the track ) gets three more tries . At that level of competition , the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set — so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round is last , while the last competitor to qualify goes first . Some meets rearrange the competition order again for the final round , so the final attempt is taken by the leader at that point . At other competitions , meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts . Whatever the format , all competitors get an equal number of attempts .
= = Equipment = =
Men and women have different weights for their throwing implements – men 's javelin is 800 grams compared to 600 for women , men 's weight throw is 35 pounds compared to 20 for women , men 's discus is 2 kilograms to women 's 1 , men 's shot put is 16 pounds compared to 8 pounds for women , and men 's hammer throw is also 16 pounds to the women 's 8 . Additionally , men 's high hurdles are at height of 42 inches compared to women 's hurdles which are 33 inches . For the intermediate hurdles ( 400 meter hurdles ) , the men 's hurdle height is 36 inches compared to 30 inches for women .
= = Organizations = =
The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations . The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field , and athletics as a whole . The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies . Some national federations are named after the sport , including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association , but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies . These national federations regulate sub @-@ national and local track and field clubs , as well as other types of running clubs .
= = Competitions = =
= = = Olympics , Paralympics and world championships = = =
The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics . Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic and Paralympic athletics programmes , which occur every four years . Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896 , and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympic and Paralympic Games . Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic or Paralympic sporting event .
The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF . The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913 , but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics . The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions . Initially , this worked on a quadrennial basis but , after 1991 , it changed to a biennial format . In terms of indoor track and field , the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events .
= = = Other championships = = =
Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics , Paralympics and World Championships , track and field forms a significant part of continental championships . The South American Championships in Athletics , created in 1919 , was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934 . The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990 .
There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe ( European Athletics Indoor Championships ) and Asia ( Asian Indoor Athletics Championships ) . There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America , which may be ( in part ) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships . Most countries have a national championship in track and field and , for athletes , these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions . Some countries hold many track and field championships at high school and college @-@ level , which help develop younger athletes . Some of these have gained significant exposure and prestige , such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships . However , the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country .
= = = Multi @-@ sport events = = =
Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics and Paralympics , the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi @-@ sport events . Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic @-@ style model were the World University Games in 1923 , the Commonwealth Games in 1930 , and the Maccabiah Games in 1932 . The number of major multi @-@ sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them . Typically , track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games .
After the Olympic and Paralympic Games , the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC @-@ sanctioned continental games : the All @-@ Africa Games , Asian Games , and the Pan American Games . Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade , and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes . Track and field is also present at the national games level , with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes .
= = = Meetings = = =
One @-@ day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition . Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club , or by a group or business that serves as the meeting promoter . In the case of the former , athletes are selected to represent their club or institution . In the case of privately run or independent meetings , athletes participate on an invitation @-@ only basis .
The most basic type of meetings are all @-@ comers track meets , which are largely small , local , informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete . As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport .
At the professional level , meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the " Golden Four " competition , comprising meetings in Zürich , Brussels , Berlin and Oslo . This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998 , which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour . In 2010 , the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one @-@ day track and field meetings .
= = Records = =
Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions . Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event , but it can also be used for historical comparison ( i.e. a record ) . A large variety of record types exist and men 's and women 's performances are recorded separately . The foremost types of records organise athlete 's performances by the region they represent — beginning with national records , then continental records , up to the global or world record level . National governing bodies control the national record lists , the area associations organise their respective continental lists , and the IAAF ratifies world records .
The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria . The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914 , initially for men 's events only . There were 53 recognised records in running , hurdling and relay , and 12 field records . World records in women 's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list , but significant changes were made in the late 1970s . First , all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976 , with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event . The following year , all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used ( as opposed to the traditional hand @-@ timing stopwatch method ) . In 1981 , electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field , with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second . Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987 : world records for indoor competitions , and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old .
The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition . For example , the Olympic records represent the best performances by athletes at the Summer Olympics . All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records . Other record types include : stadium records , records by age range , records by disability , and records by institution or organisation . Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records , as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions .
= = Doping = =
Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport , from the national to the international level . The IAAF 's constitution incorporates the World Anti @-@ Doping Code among other anti @-@ doping measures . Practices such as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids , peptide hormones , stimulants , or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive advantage in track and field . The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds . Given that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes ' performances , performance @-@ enhancing substances create an uneven playing field — athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do . Medically , the use of banned substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes ' health . However , some exemptions are made for athletes who take banned substances for therapeutic use , and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases , such as Kim Collins ' failed drug test due to asthma medication .
Athletes have historically been willing to take legal and health risks to improve their performance , with some even stating their willingness to risk their lives , as exemplified by research by Mirkin , Goldman and Connor in researching attitudes to the so @-@ called Goldman dilemma . To prevent use of performance @-@ enhancing substances , athletes must submit to drug tests that are conducted both in and out of competition by anti @-@ doping officials or accredited medical staff . Penalized athletes are susceptible to higher testing upon return to competition . Athletes found to have taken substances on the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency 's banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time that corresponds to the seriousness of the infraction . However , the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect . Athletes may also be sanctioned for missing tests , seeking to avoid testing or tampering with results , refusing to submit to testing , through circumstantial evidence , or confession of use .
Doping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field . State @-@ sponsored doping in East Germany with hormones and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from the German Democratic Republic in track and field from the late 1960s to the 1980s . A number of these women , such as Marita Koch , broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions . Some athletes , who were following a doping plan from their teenage years , suffered significant health problems as a result of the regime . Ben Johnson ran a new world record in the 100 metres at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but was later banned for using anabolic steroids . In the mid @-@ first decade of the 21st century , the BALCO Scandal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery , among others , through their usage of banned substances . Doping problems have also been associated with sprinters such as Tyson Gay , Michael Rogers , and Justin Gatlin , all from the United States . Doping has also affected entire nations , such as Russia , which has been banned from competing at both the Indoor World Championships and the Olympics in 2016 . This ban was imposed in 2016 after major allegations of doping and covering up were discovered in 2015 .
= = Related sports = =
Track and field bears most similarity to the others categorised under the sport of athletics , specifically cross country running , and road forms of racewalking and running . All these forms of racing tend to record finishing times , have strictly defined start and finish points , and are generally individual in nature . Middle- and long @-@ distance runners usually participate in cross country and road events , in addition to the track . Track racewalkers are most typically road specialists as well . It is unusual for track and field athletes outside of these two groups to compete in cross country or road events .
Varieties of strength athletics , such as the World 's Strongest Man and highland games , often incorporate forms of footracing carrying heavy objects as well as throwing events such as the caber toss and keg toss , which bear similarities to track and field throwing events .
= Isabella Beeton =
Isabella Mary Beeton ( née Mayson ; 14 March 1836 – 6 February 1865 ) , also known as Mrs Beeton , was an English journalist , editor and writer . Her name is particularly associated with her first book , the 1861 work Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management . She was born in London and , after schooling in Islington , north London , and Heidelberg , Germany , she married Samuel Orchart Beeton , an ambitious publisher and magazine editor .
In 1857 , less than a year after the wedding , Isabella began writing for one of her husband 's publications , The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . She translated French fiction and wrote the cookery column , though all the recipes were plagiarised from other works or sent in by the magazine 's readers . In 1859 the Beetons launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine ; the 24 instalments were published in one volume as Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management in October 1861 , which sold 60 @,@ 000 copies in the first year . Isabella was working on an abridged version of her book , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery , when she died of puerperal fever in February 1865 at the age of 28 . She gave birth to four children , two of whom died in infancy , and had several miscarriages . Two of her biographers , Nancy Spain and Kathryn Hughes , posit the theory that Samuel had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the disease on to his wife .
The Book of Household Management has been edited , revised and enlarged several times since Isabella 's death and is still in print as at 2016 . Food writers have stated that the subsequent editions of the work were far removed from and inferior to the original version . Several cookery writers , including Elizabeth David and Clarissa Dickson Wright , have criticised Isabella 's work , particularly her use of other people 's recipes . Others , such as the food writer Bee Wilson , consider the censure overstated , and that Beeton and her work should be thought extraordinary and admirable . Her name has become associated with knowledge and authority on Victorian cooking and home management , and the Oxford English Dictionary states that by 1891 the term Mrs Beeton had become used as a generic name for a domestic authority . She is also considered a strong influence in the building or shaping of a middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life , 1836 – 54 = = =
Isabella Mayson was born on 14 March 1836 in Marylebone , London . She was the eldest of three daughters to Benjamin Mayson , a linen factor ( merchant ) and his wife Elizabeth ( née Jerrom ) . Shortly after Isabella 's birth the family moved to Milk Street , Cheapside , from where Benjamin traded . He died when Isabella was four years old , and Elizabeth , pregnant and unable to cope with raising the children on her own while maintaining Benjamin 's business , sent her two elder daughters to live with relatives . Isabella went to live with her recently widowed paternal grandfather in Great Orton , Cumberland , though she was back with her mother within the next two years .
Three years after Benjamin 's death Elizabeth married Henry Dorling , a widower with four children . Henry was the Clerk of Epsom Racecourse , and had been granted residence within the racecourse grounds . The family , including Elizabeth 's mother , moved to Surrey and over the next twenty years Henry and Elizabeth had a further thirteen children . Isabella was instrumental in her siblings ' upbringing , and collectively referred to them as a " living cargo of children " . The experience gave her much insight and experience in how to manage a family and its household .
After a brief education at a boarding school in Islington , in 1851 Isabella was sent to school in Heidelberg , Germany , accompanied by her stepsister Jane Dorling . Isabella became proficient in the piano and excelled in French and German ; she also gained knowledge and experience in making pastry . She had returned to Epsom by the summer of 1854 and took further lessons in pastry @-@ making from a local baker .
= = = Marriage and career , 1854 – 61 = = =
Around 1854 Isabella began a relationship with Samuel Orchart Beeton . His family had lived in Milk Street at the same time as the Maysons — Samuel 's father still ran the Dolphin Tavern there — and Samuel 's sisters had also attended the same Heidelberg school as Isabella . Samuel was the first British publisher of Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin in 1852 and had also released two innovative and pioneering journals : The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine in 1852 and the Boys ' Own magazine in 1855 . The couple entered into extensive correspondence in 1855 — in which Isabella signed her letters as " Fatty " — and they announced their engagement in June 1855 . The marriage took place at St Martin 's Church , Epsom , in July the following year , and was announced in The Times . Samuel was " a discreet but firm believer in the equality of women " and their relationship , both personal and professional , was an equal partnership . The couple went to Paris for a three @-@ week honeymoon , after which Samuel 's mother joined them in a visit to Heidelberg . They returned to Britain in August , when the newlyweds moved into 2 Chandos Villas , a large Italianate house in Pinner .
Within a month of returning from their honeymoon Isabella was pregnant . A few weeks before the birth , Samuel persuaded his wife to contribute to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , a publication that the food writers Mary Aylett and Olive Ordish consider was " designed to make women content with their lot inside the home , not to interest them in the world outside " . The magazine was affordable , aimed at young middle class women and was commercially successful , selling 50 @,@ 000 issues a month by 1856 . Isabella began by translating French fiction for publication as stories or serials . Shortly afterwards she started to work on the cookery column — which had been moribund for the previous six months following the departure of the previous correspondent — and the household article . The Beetons ' son , Samuel Orchart , was born towards the end of May 1857 , but died at the end of August that year . On the death certificate , the cause of death was given as diarrhoea and cholera , although Hughes hypothesises that Samuel senior had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the condition on to his wife , which would have infected his son .
While coping with the loss of her child , Isabella continued to work at The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Although she was not a regular cook , she and Samuel obtained recipes from other sources . A request to receive the readers ' own recipes led to over 2 @,@ 000 being sent in , which were selected and edited by the Beetons . Published works were also copied , largely unattributed to any of the sources . These included Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Louis Eustache Ude 's The French Cook , Alexis Soyer 's The Modern Housewife or , Ménagère and The Pantropheon , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli . Suzanne Daly and Ross G. Forman , in their examination of Victorian cooking culture , consider that the plagiarism makes it " an important index of mid @-@ Victorian and middle @-@ class society " because the production of the text from its own readers ensures that it is a reflection of what was actually being cooked and eaten at the time . In copying the recipes of others , Isabella was following the recommendation given to her by Henrietta English , a family friend , who wrote that " Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had . Therefore my advice would be compile a book from receipts from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from . "
The Beetons partly followed the layout of Acton 's recipes , although with a major alteration : whereas the earlier writer provided the method of cooking followed by a list of the required ingredients , the recipes in The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine listed the components before the cooking process . Isabella 's standardised layout used for the recipes also showed the approximate costs of each serving , the seasonality of the ingredients and the number of portions per dish . According to the twentieth @-@ century British cookery writer Elizabeth David , one of the strengths of Isabella 's writing was in the " clarity and details of her general instructions , her brisk comments , her no @-@ nonsense asides " . Margaret Beetham , the historian , sees that one of the strengths of the book was the " consistent principle of organisation which made its heterogeneous contents look uniform and orderly " , and brought a consistent style in presentation and layout . Whereas Daly and Forman consider such an approach as " nothing if not formulaic " , Hughes sees it as " the thing most beloved by the mid Victorians , a system " .
During the particularly bitter winter of 1858 – 59 Isabella prepared her own soup that she served to the poor of Pinner , " Soup for benevolent purposes " ; her sister later recalled that Isabella " was busy making [ the ] soup for the poor , and the children used to call with their cans regularly to be refilled " . The recipe would become the only entry in her Book of Household Management that was her own . After two years of miscarriages , the couple 's second son was born in June 1859 ; he was also named Samuel Orchart Beeton . Hughes sees the miscarriages as further evidence of Samuel 's syphilis .
As early as 1857 the Beetons had considered using the magazine columns as the basis of a book of collected recipes and homecare advice , Hughes believes , and in November 1859 they launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements with The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . The print block for the whole series of the supplements was set from the beginning so the break between each edition was fixed at 48 pages , regardless of the text , and in several issues the text of a sentence or recipe is split between the end of one instalment and the beginning of the next .
The Beetons decided to revamp The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , particularly the fashion column , which the historian Graham Nown describes as " a rather drab piece " . They travelled to Paris in March 1860 to meet Adolphe Goubaud , the publisher of the French magazine Le Moniteur de la Mode . The magazine carried a full @-@ sized dress pattern outlined on a fold @-@ out piece of paper for users to cut out and make their own dresses . The Beetons came to an agreement with Goubaud for the Frenchman to provide patterns and illustrations for their magazine . The first edition to carry the new feature appeared on 1 May , six weeks after the couple returned from Paris . For the redesigned magazine , Samuel was joined as editor by Isabella , who was described as " Editress " . As well as being co @-@ editors , the couple were also equal partners . Isabella brought an efficiency and strong business acumen to Samuel 's normally disorganised and financially wasteful approach . She joined her husband at work , travelling daily by train to the office , where her presence caused a stir among commuters , most of whom were male . In June 1860 Isabella and Samuel travelled to Killarney , Ireland , for a fortnight 's holiday , leaving their son at home with his nurse . The Beetons enjoyed the sightseeing , although on the days it rained , they stayed inside their hotel and worked on the next edition of The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Isabella was impressed with the food they were served , and wrote in her diary that the dinners were " conducted in quite the French style " .
In September 1861 the Beetons released a new , weekly publication called The Queen , the Ladies ' Newspaper . With the Beetons busy running their other titles , they employed Frederick Greenwood as the editor .
= = = Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management and later , 1861 – 65 = = =
The complete version of Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , consisting of the 24 collected monthly instalments , was published on 1 October 1861 ; it became one of the major publishing events of the nineteenth century . Isabella included an extensive 26 @-@ page " Analytical Index " in the book . Although not an innovation — it had been used in The Family Friend magazine since 1855 — Hughes considers the index in the Book of Household Management to be " fabulously detailed and exhaustively cross @-@ referenced " . Of the 1 @,@ 112 pages , over 900 contained recipes . The remainder provided advice on fashion , child care , animal husbandry , poisons , the management of servants , science , religion , first aid and the importance in the use of local and seasonal produce . In its first year of publication , the book sold 60 @,@ 000 copies . It reflected Victorian values , particularly hard work , thrift and cleanliness . Christopher Clausen , in his study of the British middle classes , sees that Isabella " reflected better than anyone else , and for a larger audience , the optimistic message that mid @-@ Victorian England was filled with opportunities for those who were willing to learn how to take advantage of them " . The food writer Annette Hope thinks that " one can understand its success . If ... young ladies knew nothing of domestic arrangements , no better book than this could have been devised for them . "
The reviews for Book of Household Management were positive . The critic for the London Evening Standard considered that Isabella had earned herself a household reputation , remarking that she had " succeeded in producing a volume which will be , for years to come , a treasure to be made much of in every English household " . The critic for the Saturday Review wrote that " for a really valuable repertory of hints on all sorts of household matters , we recommend Mrs Beeton with few misgivings " . The anonymous reviewer for The Bradford Observer considered that " the information afforded ... appears intelligible and explicit " ; the reviewer also praised the layout of the recipes , highlighting details relating to ingredients , seasonality and the times needed . Writing in The Morning Chronicle , an anonymous commentator opined that " Mrs Beeton has omitted nothing which tends to the comfort of housekeepers , or facilitates the many little troubles and cares that fall to the lot of every wife and mother . She may safely predict that this book will in future take precedence of every other on the same subject . " For the 1906 edition of the book , The Illustrated London News 's reviewer considered the work " a formidable body of domestic doctrine " , and thought that " the book is almost of the first magnitude " .
Samuel 's business decisions from 1861 were unproductive and included an ill @-@ advised investment in purchasing paper — in which he lost £ 1 @,@ 000 — and a court case over unpaid bills . His hubris in business affairs brought on financial difficulties and in early 1862 the couple had moved from their comfortable Pinner house to premises over their office . The air of central London was not conducive to the health of the Beetons ' son , and he began to ail . Three days after Christmas his health worsened and he died on New Year 's Eve 1862 at the age of three ; his death certificate gave the cause as " suppressed scarlatina " and " laryngitis " . In March 1863 Isabella found that she was pregnant again , and in April the couple moved to a house in Greenhithe , Kent ; their son , who they named Orchart , was born on New Year 's Eve 1863 . Although the couple had been through financial problems , they enjoyed relative prosperity during 1863 , boosted by the sale of The Queen to Edward Cox in the middle of the year .
In the middle of 1864 the Beetons again visited the Goubauds in Paris — the couple 's third visit to the city — and Isabella was pregnant during the visit , just as she had been the previous year . On her return to Britain she began working on an abridged version of the Book of Household Management , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery . On 29 January 1865 , while working on the proofs of the dictionary , she went into labour ; the baby — Mayson Moss — was born that day . Isabella began to feel feverish the following day and died of puerperal fever on 6 February at the age of 28 .
Isabella was buried at West Norwood Cemetery on 11 February . When The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery was published in the same year , Samuel added a tribute to his wife at the end :
Her works speak for themselves ; and , although taken from this world in the very height and strength , and in the early days of womanhood , she felt satisfaction — so great to all who strive with good intent and warm will — of knowing herself regarded with respect and gratitude .
= = Legacy = =
In May 1866 , following a severe downturn in his financial fortunes , Samuel sold the rights to the Book of Household Management to Ward , Lock and Tyler ( later Ward Lock & Co ) . The writer Nancy Spain , in her biography of Isabella , reports that , given the money the company made from the Beetons ' work , " surely no man ever made a worse or more impractical bargain " than Samuel did . In subsequent publications Ward Lock suppressed the details of the lives of the Beetons — especially the death of Isabella — in order to protect their investment by letting readers think she was still alive and creating recipes — what Hughes considers to be " intentional censorship " . Those later editions continued to make the connection to Isabella in what Beetham considers to be a " fairly ruthless marketing policy which was begun by Beeton but carried on vigorously by Ward , Lock , and Tyler " . Those subsequent volumes bearing Isabella 's name became less reflective of the original . Since its initial publication the Book of Household Management has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
Isabella and her main work have been subjected to criticism over the course of the twentieth century . Elizabeth David complains of recipes that are " sometimes slapdash and misleading " , although she acknowledges that Prosper Montagné 's Larousse Gastronomique also contains errors . The television cook Delia Smith admits she was puzzled " how on earth Mrs Beeton 's book managed to utterly eclipse ... [ Acton 's ] superior work " , while her fellow chef , Clarissa Dickson Wright , opines that " It would be unfair to blame any one person or one book for the decline of English cookery , but Isabella Beeton and her ubiquitous book do have a lot to answer for . " In comparison , the food writer Bee Wilson opines that disparaging Isabella 's work was only a " fashionable " stance to take and that the cook 's writing " simply makes you want to cook " . Christopher Driver , the journalist and food critic , suggests that the " relative stagnation and want of refinement in the indigenous cooking of Britain between 1880 and 1930 " may instead be explained by the " progressive debasement under successive editors , revises and enlargers " . David comments that " when plain English cooks " were active in their kitchens , " they followed plain English recipes and chiefly those from the Mrs Beeton books or their derivatives " . Dickson Wright considers Beeton to be a " fascinating source of information " from a social history viewpoint , and Aylett and Ordish consider the work to be " the best and most reliable guide for the scholar to the domestic history of the mid @-@ Victorian era " .
Despite the criticism , Clausen observes that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' has ... been for over a century the standard English cookbook , frequently outselling every other book but the Bible " . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term Mrs Beeton became used as a generic name for " an authority on cooking and domestic subjects " as early as 1891 , and Beetham opines that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' became a trade mark , a brand name " . In a review by Gavin Koh published in a 2009 issue of The BMJ , Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management was labelled a medical classic . In Isabella 's " attempt to educate the average reader about common medical complaints and their management " , Koh argues , " she preceded the family health guides of today " . Robin Wensley , a professor of strategic management , believes that Isabella 's advice and guidance on household management can also be applied to business management , and her lessons on the subject have stood the test of time better than some of her advice on cooking or etiquette .
Following the radio broadcast of Meet Mrs. Beeton , a 1934 comedy in which Samuel was portrayed in an unflattering light , and Mrs Beeton , a 1937 documentary , Mayston Beeton worked with H. Montgomery Hyde to produce the biography Mr and Mrs Beeton , although completion and publication were delayed until 1951 . In the meantime Nancy Spain published Mrs Beeton and her Husband in 1948 , updated and retitled in 1956 to The Beeton Story . In the new edition Spain hinted at , but did not elucidate upon , on the possibility that Samuel contracted syphilis . Several other biographies followed , including from the historian Sarah Freeman , who wrote Isabella and Sam in 1977 ; Nown 's Mrs Beeton : 150 Years of Cookery and Household Management , published on the 150th anniversary of Isabella 's birthday , and Hughes 's The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton , published in 2006 . Isabella was ignored by the Dictionary of National Biography for many years : while Acton was included in the first published volume of 1885 , Isabella did not have an entry until 1993 .
There have been several television broadcasts about Isabella . In 1970 Margaret Tyzack portrayed her in a solo performance written by Rosemary Hill , in 2006 Anna Madeley played Isabella in a docudrama , and Sophie Dahl presented a documentary , The Marvellous Mrs Beeton , in the same year .
The literary historian Kate Thomas sees Isabella as " a powerful force in the making of middle @-@ class Victorian domesticity " , while the Oxford University Press , advertising an abridged edition of the Book of Household Management , considers Isabella 's work a " founding text " and " a force in shaping " the middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era . Within that identity , the historian Sarah Richardson sees that one of Beeton 's achievements was the integration of different threads of domestic science into one volume , which " elevat [ ed ] the middle @-@ class female housekeeper 's role ... placing it in a broader and more public context " . Nown quotes an unnamed academic who thought that " Mrs Beetonism has preserved the family as a social unit , and made social reforms a possibility " , while Nicola Humble , in her history of British food , sees The Book of Household Management as " an engine for social change " which led to a " new cult of domesticity that was to play such a major role in mid @-@ Victorian life " . Nown considers Isabella
... a singular and remarkable woman , praised in her lifetime and later forgotten and ignored when a pride in light pastry ... were no longer considered prerequisites for womanhood . Yet in her lively , progressive way , she helped many women to overcome the loneliness of marriage and gave the family the importance it deserved . In the climate of her time she was brave , strong @-@ minded and a tireless champion of her sisters everywhere .
= Martin Keamy =
First Sergeant Martin Christopher Keamy is a fictional character played by Kevin Durand in the fourth season and sixth season of the American ABC television series Lost . Keamy is introduced in the fifth episode of the fourth season as a crew member aboard the freighter called the Kahana that is offshore the island where most of Lost takes place . In the second half of the season , Keamy served as the primary antagonist . He is the leader of a mercenary team hired by billionaire Charles Widmore ( played by Alan Dale ) that is sent to the island on a mission to capture Widmore 's enemy Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) from his home , then torch the island .
Unlike Lost 's ensemble of characters who , according to the writers , each have good and bad intentions , the writers have said that Keamy is evil and knows it . Durand was contacted for the role after one of Lost 's show runners saw him in the 2007 film 3 : 10 to Yuma . Like other Lost actors , Durand was not informed of his character 's arc when he won the role . Throughout Durand 's nine @-@ episode stint as a guest star in the fourth season , little was revealed regarding Keamy 's life prior to his arrival on the island and Durand cited this as a reason why the audience " loved to hate " his villainous character . Critics praised the writers for breaking Lost tradition and creating a seemingly heartless character , while Durand 's performance and appearance were also reviewed positively . Keamy returned in the final season for a tenth and eleventh appearance .
= = Arc = =
Originally from Las Vegas , Nevada , Martin Keamy was a First Sergeant of the United States Marine Corps , serving with distinction from 1996 to 2001 . In the three years before the events of Lost in 2004 , he worked with various mercenary organizations in Uganda . In fall 2004 , Keamy is hired by Widmore to lead a mercenary team to the island via freighter then helicopter and extract Ben for a large sum of money . Once he captures Ben , Keamy has orders to kill everyone on the island ( including the forty @-@ plus survivors of the September 22 , 2004 crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 : the protagonists of the series ) by torching it .
Keamy boards the freighter Kahana in Suva , Fiji sometime between December 6 and December 10 . On the night of December 25 , helicopter pilot Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) flies Keamy and his mercenary team , which consists of Omar ( Anthony Azizi ) , Lacour , Kocol , Redfern and Mayhew , to the island . On December 27 , the team ambushes several islanders in the jungle , taking Ben 's daughter Alex Linus ( Tania Raymonde ) hostage and killing her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) and her mother Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) . The team infiltrates the Barracks compound where Ben resides , blowing up the house of 815 survivor Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and fatally shooting three 815 survivors ( played by extras ) . Keamy attempts to negotiate for Ben 's surrender in exchange for the safe release of Alex . Believing that he is bluffing , Ben does not comply , and Keamy shoots Alex dead . Ben retaliates by summoning the island 's smoke monster , which brutally assaults the mercenaries and fatally wounds Mayhew .
Upon returning to the freighter , Keamy unsuccessfully attempts to kill Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) , whom he has discovered is Ben 's spy , then obtains the " secondary protocol " from a safe . The protocol contains instructions from Widmore for finding Ben if he finds out Keamy 's intention to torch the island , which he apparently had . The protocol contains details about a 1980s research station called the " Orchid " that was previously run by a group of scientists working for the Dharma Initiative . Keamy is also informed by Captain Gault that Keamy and his mercenary squad may be suffering from some sort of mental sickness , a notion Keamy dismisses . Later in the day , Omar straps a dead man 's switch to Keamy , rigged to detonate C4 on the freighter if Keamy 's heart stops beating . That night , Frank refuses to fly the mercenaries to the island . In a display of power , Keamy slits the throat of the ship 's doctor Ray ( Marc Vann ) and throws him overboard and later outdraws and shoots Captain Gault ( Grant Bowler ) during a tense standoff . Frank flies the remaining five mercenaries back to the island . On December 30 , the team apprehends Ben at the Orchid and takes him to the chopper where they are ambushed and killed by Ben 's people — referred to as the " Others " by the 815 survivors — and 815 survivors Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) . After a chase to recapture Ben and a brawl with Sayid , Keamy is shot in the back by Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , who leaves him for dead , unaware of Keamy 's bulletproof vest . Later , Keamy descends into the Orchid 's underground level via its elevator to stalk Ben , who hides in the shadows . Goading Ben with taunts about his daughter 's death , Keamy is ambushed by Ben , who beats him into submission with an expandable baton before stabbing him repeatedly in the neck . Though Locke attempts to save his life for the sake of the freighter , Keamy dies and the dead man 's trigger detonates the explosives on the freighter , killing nearly everyone aboard .
In the afterlife , Keamy is a business associate of Mr. Paik , Sun ’ s ( Yunjin Kim ) father . Mr. Paik sends Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) to LA to give Keamy a watch and $ 25 @,@ 000 , intended to be Keamy 's reward for killing Jin . However , the money is confiscated at customs in LAX , and Keamy is disappointed to discover it missing . He takes Jin to a restaurant and has him tied up in a freezer . Shortly after , Omar , one of Keamy 's henchmen , captures Sayid and brings him to the same restaurant . Keamy explains to Sayid that his brother has been shot because he borrowed money and failed to pay it back . After Keamy threatens Sayid 's family , Sayid retaliates and shoots Keamy in the chest , presumably killing him .
= = Personality = =
During the casting process , Keamy was described as a military type in his late @-@ twenties who does not question orders . Chris Carabott of IGN wrote that " in a show that features characters fraught with uncertainty , Keamy is the polar opposite and his Marine mentality definitely sets him apart . His team has a physical advantage and with the help of Mr. Widmore , they have a tactical advantage as well . Keamy is like a bulldog being thrown into a cage full of kittens ( except for [ Iraqi military torturer ] Sayid ) " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post , stated that " Keamy is Crazy ! … out of all the bad guys on the Island — past , present , and future — Keamy has to be one of the most dangerous ones . Not because of how big he is , or the weaponry , but his willingness to kill at the drop of a hat . That doesn 't bode well for our Losties [ protagonists ] . " Co @-@ show runner / executive producer / writer Carlton Cuse has stated that he and the other writers create " complex " characters because they " are interested in exploring how good and evil can be embodied in the same characters and [ the writers are also intrigued ] the struggles we all have [ , ] to overcome the dark parts of our souls " ; however , he later clarified that there is an exception : " Keamy 's bad , he knows he 's bad , but he 's ... a guy that does the job . " Damon Lindelof stated that " the great thing about Keamy is that he is like a ... merciless survivor . [ There ] ' s this great moment [ in the season finale ] where he just sort of hackie @-@ sacks [ a grenade thrown at him ] over to where [ his ally ] Omar is standing . Omar is certainly an acceptable casualty as far as Keamy is concerned . " According to a featurette in the Lost : The Complete Fourth Season – The Expanded Experience DVD set , Keamy likes " heavy weaponry " and " physical fitness " and dislikes " negotiations " and " doctors " .
= = Development = =
A remake of the 1957 film 3 : 10 to Yuma opened in theaters on September 7 , 2007 . Lost 's co @-@ show runner / executive producer / head writer / co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof enjoyed Kevin Durand 's supporting performance as Tucker and checked to see if he was available for a role on Lost . The casting director had Durand read a page of dialogue for the new character Keamy ; Durand was offered the role in early October and he traveled to Honolulu in Hawaii — where Lost is filmed on location — by October 17 , 2007 . A former stand @-@ up comic and rapper from Thunder Bay , Ontario , Canada , with the stage name " Kevy D " , Durand had seen only around six episodes of Lost by the time that he won the part . When he was shooting , he was confused by the story , later stating " I didn 't want to know anything or be attached to anybody . I 'm glad I didn 't . But now that I 'm on it , I 'll watch all of it . " Durand revealed his appreciation for the cast , crew and scripts and the fact that he had the chance to act as someone with a similar physical appearance to himself , as he had previously done roles that had not prompted recognition from viewers on the street .
Durand was never informed of his character 's arc and only learned more of Keamy 's importance to the plot as he received new scripts ; thus , he was thrilled when the role was expanded for his third appearance , in " The Shape of Things to Come " , when he kills Alex and Durand compared his excitement to that of " a kid in a candy store . " He also stated that " you really don 't know what 's going to happen in the next episode and you get the scripts pretty late , so it is pretty secretive and it 's kind of exciting that way [ because ] you 're really forced to get in the moment and say the words and play the guy " . Durand was initially met with negative reaction from fans on the street for this action and he defended his murderous character by arguing that it was actually more Ben 's fault for failing to negotiate with Keamy ; later , fans warmed up to Keamy . Despite the antagonist 's increasing popularity and fanbase , it became apparent to Durand that fans were hoping for Keamy 's death in what promised to be a showdown in the season finale . Throughout his nine @-@ episode run , Keamy never receives an episode in which his backstory is developed through flashbacks and Durand holds this partially responsible for the negative reaction to his character , saying that the audience " [ has not ] really seen anything outside of Keamy 's mission , so I think they definitely want him put down . " Following the season 's conclusion , Durand stated that he would not be surprised if his character returned in the fifth season and concluding that " Lost was really fun . If I can have that experience in any genre , I 'd take it . "
Durand returned for the sixth season episodes " Sundown " and " The Package " , following a twenty @-@ two episode absence since his character 's death in the fourth season finale . Keamy appears in the " flash sideways " parallel timeline in September 2004 working for Sun Kwon 's father Mr. Paik to assassinate her new husband Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) upon the couple 's arrival in Los Angeles . Keamy and his sidekick Omar are also extorting money from Sayid 's brother Omer , prompting Sayid to shoot them both , aiding Jin 's rescue process .
= = Reception = =
Professional television critics deemed Martin Keamy a welcome addition to the cast . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly commented that Kevin Durand " is emerging as a real find this season ; he plays that mercenary part with a scene @-@ stealing mix of menace and damaged vulnerability . " After Jensen posted what he thought were the fifteen best moments of the season , the New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman " ha [ d ] to complain about one glaring omission from EW 's list : Martin Keamy . I have loved this character all season long — and not just solely for [ his ] physical attributes ... although those certainly don 't hurt . " Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger reflected , " He was only on the show for a season and not featured all that much in that season , but Kevin Durand always made an impression as Keamy . Lots of actors might have his sheer physical size , but there 's a sense of danger ( insanity ? ) that you can 't build at the gym , you know ? " IGN 's Chris Carabott wrote that " Keamy is one of the more striking new additions to Lost [ in the fourth ] season ... and is a welcome addition to the Lost universe . " Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune stated that Keamy has " so much charisma " and she would " rather find out more about [ him ] than most of the old @-@ school Lost characters " . TV Guide 's Bruce Fretts agreed with a reader 's reaction to Durand 's " chilling portrayal " of Keamy and posted it in his weekly column . The reader , nicknamed " huntress " , wrote " love him or hate him , nobody is neutral when it comes to Keamy , which is the hallmark of a well @-@ played villain . Even the camera seems to linger on Durand , who conveys malice with just a look or tilt of his head . This role should give Durand 's career a well @-@ deserved boost " . Following his demise , Whitney Matheson of USA Today noted that " it seems Keamy , Lost 's camouflaged baddie , is turning into a bit of a cult figure . " A " hilarious " blog containing Keamy digitally edited into various photographs , posters and art titled " Keamy 's Paradise " was set up in early June 2008 . TV Squad 's Bob Sassone thought that the blog was " a great idea " and " funny " and he called Keamy " the Boba Fett of Lost " . In 2009 , Kevin Durand was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role in a Television Series .
Reaction to the antagonist 's death was mixed . Kristin Dos Santos of E ! criticized the writing for Keamy when he futilely asks Sayid where his fellow 815 survivors are so that he can kill them , but enjoyed his attractive physique , writing that " that guy is deep @-@ fried evil , and he must die horribly for what he did to Alex , but in the meantime , well , he 's certainly a well @-@ muscled young man " . The Huffington Post 's Jay Glatfelter also called for Keamy 's death , stating that " nothing would be better to me than him getting run over by Hurley 's Dharma Bus " , alluding to a scene in the third season finale . Dan Compora of SyFy Portal commented that " Keamy took a bit too long to die . Yes , he was wearing a bulletproof vest so it wasn 't totally unexpected , but it was a bit predictable . " In a review of the season finale , Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad declared her disappointment in the conclusion of Keamy 's arc , stating that " it 's always a shame when the hot guys die , [ especially when ] Kevin Durand did an amazing job with the character … he 'll be missed . " In a later article titled " Lost Season Four Highlights " , Martell noted Durand 's " strong performance " that was " particularly fun to watch " and wrote that " we [ the audience ] all know that Widmore 's the big bad , but Keamy became the face of evil on the island in his stead . "
= Kaboom ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Kaboom " is the sixth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the twelfth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 22 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie tries to have the pit filled in and injures Andy in the process , opening Pawnee up to a possible lawsuit .
The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Charles McDougall , and featured guest performances by comedians Paul Scheer and H. Jon Benjamin . " Kaboom " saw the filling in of the Pawnee pit , a focal plot device in Parks and Recreation since the first episode . As part of a multi @-@ network television campaign to spotlight volunteerism , the episode prominently featured the real @-@ life organization KaBOOM ! , a charity that builds playgrounds in locations all over the United States .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , an improvement over the previous week . " Kaboom " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the series for resolving the long @-@ standing pit subplot .
It is the only episode of the entire series in which Aubrey Plaza does not appear as April Ludgate .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) receiving a speakerphone call about abnormal transactions on her credit card . The purchases turn out to all be legitimate , but Leslie cancels the card anyway out of embarrassment when Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) hears about her unusual purchases , including a " bucket of cake " , a man pillow in the shape of Daniel Craig , and tuition to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Later , the parks department and Ann ( Rashida Jones ) visit neighboring Indiana town Eagleton to help build a playground in a single day , as part of an event by the charity KaBOOM ! There , Leslie and Ann find Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , who claims to be volunteering , but in reality , is coming for the free food . He tells Leslie and Ann that he now has a home with the drummer of his band . Leslie is inspired by the energy of the group and its leader Keef ( Paul Scheer ) , which prompts her to take proactive measures in filling in the pit in Pawnee and turning it into a park . While discussing the matter with her parks department , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) takes her aside and suggests she simply fill it in without permission . Leslie decides to take his advice and rents a bulldozer to fill in the pit .
Leslie meets Ann at the pit with the rented bulldozer , which starts filling it in with dirt . However , they failed to realize Andy was inside his tent in the pit , and he is injured when mounds of dirt fall on him . He is taken to the hospital , where Ann is assigned as his nurse . An angry Ron ( Nick Offerman ) tells Leslie the town is now open to a large potential lawsuit from Andy , and he sends her to visit him along with their city attorney Scott ( H. Jon Benjamin ) . Meanwhile , Andy is excited to be near Ann and insists it will lead to them getting back together , but Ann tells him she is very happy dating Mark , who unlike Andy has a job , apartment and future . A disheartened Andy decides he has to get money to impress Ann . When Leslie visits , he regretfully tells her he and his attorney Wendell Adams ( Chris Tallman ) are going to sue Pawnee .
Leslie is convinced she can reason with Andy if they can talk without their lawyers , but Andy will not return her calls . Finally , Ann calls Andy and asks him to come to her house . Later that day , he arrives completely naked , having assumed Ann wanted to take him back . A disgusted Ann leaves the house , leaving Leslie and Andy to talk . Andy admits he is suing the town in an attempt to win Ann back , and she thinks of a different way he can impress her . The next day at city hall , Andy tells Leslie and Scott he will drop the lawsuit if they agree to fill in the pit right away . Scott agrees , unaware it was a trick between Andy and Leslie . The next day the pit is filled in and turned into a lot , and an impressed Ann waves at Andy while the construction work is going on . The episode ends with Keef riding a motorboat , revealing his role in KaBOOM ! was an elaborate prank to get the playground built , and announcing he is going to build a hospital in a poor part of China .
= = Production = =
" Kaboom " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Charles McDougall . The Pawnee pit , which has been a focal plot device in Parks and Recreation since the first episode , is filled in during this episode . " Kaboom " features actor and comedian Paul Scheer in a guest appearance as the KaBOOM ! organizer . Scheer has previously worked with Aziz Ansari on the MTV sketch comedy show , Human Giant . " Kaboom " also featured H. Jon Benjamin , a voice actor from Archer , Dr. Katz , and Home Movies , as Pawnee 's lawyer . Chris Pratt actually appeared naked during filming of a scene in which he arrived at Ann 's house without clothes on . Michael Schur , co @-@ creator of Parks and Recreation , said the scene was written because Pratt " loves taking his clothes off " .
The script prominently features KaBOOM ! , a real @-@ life charitable organization that builds playgrounds in locations all over the United States . Parks and Recreation included the charity in the episode as part of a charity campaign called " I Participate " , sponsored by the Entertainment Industry Foundation . The campaign involves more than 60 shows on NBC ABC , CBS , Fox and several other networks , all of which spotlighted real @-@ life charities in an effort to encourage volunteerism . Greg Daniels , the series executive producer and co @-@ creator , was responsible for choosing the KaBOOM ! charity . In an editorial featured on The Huffington Post after the " Kaboom " aired , KaBOOM ! chief executive officer Darell Hammond called the episode " Ka @-@ PERFECT ! " and said , " The writers certainly captured the spirit that fuels each of our ( playground ) builds – something that inspires volunteers to continue their great work and strive even harder to give back to their communities . "
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Kaboom " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . The first two @-@ minute clip included extended scenes of the KABOOM ! park construction , including Tom text messaging instead of working , Leslie and Ann competing with children , and Paul Scheer doing the Worm dance move . Leslie also seeks advice from her mother ( played by Pamela Reed ) after putting Pawnee in danger of a lawsuit . In the second , 15 @-@ second clip , Ann complains to Mark about Andy appearing naked at her apartment , which Mark only finds amusing .
= = Cultural references = =
Andy says he volunteers at several organizations in order to get their free food at their events . He specifically identifies the Red Cross , which he says has " amazing cookies " , and Meals on Wheels , which he described as a " bonanza " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 22 , 2009 , " Kaboom " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was a slight increase from the previous week 's episode , " Sister City " . " Kaboom " received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said " Kaboom " was the best episode of the second season , and called Parks and Recreation " one of the funniest shows on TV right now " . Heisler praised the show for not shying away from outrageousness , and called Andy 's naked entrance " by far the highlight of the series " . Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog said " Kaboom " continued a trend of superior Parks episodes in season two , and praised the episode for filling in the pit , claiming it " both tied up a plot thread that had overstayed its welcome and put to rest any lingering ghosts from the first six episodes " . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode was funny and served as good character development for Leslie and Andy . But Fowler also said " some scenes fell flat " , and questioned why Ann would continue to harbor feelings for the immature Andy .
= Middle Colonies =
The Middle Colonies comprised the middle region of the Thirteen Colonies of the British Empire in North America . Much of the area was part of the New Netherland until the British exerted their control over the region . The English captured much of the area in its war with the Dutch around 1664 , and the majority of the conquered land became the Province of New York . The Duke of York and the King of England would later grant others ownership of the land which would become the Province of New Jersey and the Province of Pennsylvania . The Delaware Colony later separated from Pennsylvania , which was founded by William Penn .
The Middle Colonies had lots of rich soil , which was allowing the area to become a major exporter of wheat and other grains . The lumber and shipbuilding industries enjoyed success in the Middle Colonies because of the abundant forests , and Pennsylvania saw moderate success in the textile and iron industry . The Middle Colonies were the most ethnically and religiously diverse British colonies in North America , they had settlers coming from all parts of Europe . Civil unrest in Europe and other colonies saw an influx of immigrants to the Middle Colonies in the 18th century . With the new arrivals came various religions which were protected in the Middle Colonies by written freedom of religion laws . This tolerance was very unusual and distinct from other British colonies .
= = History = =
The Middle Colonies were explored by Henry Hudson on a journey into the Hudson River and Delaware Bay in 1609 . The Dutch soon claimed the land . Although the Swedes and the Dutch fought over the land in the 1630s through the ultimately the Dutch claimed the land , calling it New Netherland . In the 1660s , the English largely conquered this land from the Dutch , renaming the area New York after the Duke of York , James II . The colony 's land was periodically granted to various proprietors and split into the Province of New York and the Province of Pennsylvania .
= = Province of New Jersey = =
King Charles II renamed the land west of the Hudson River New Jersey and gave the region between New England and Maryland to his brother , the Duke of York ( later King James II of England ) as a proprietary colony . James II later granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had been loyal to him through the English Civil War : Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton . This land grant became the Province of New Jersey .
In 1665 , the Concession and Agreement was written in an effort to entice settlers to New Jersey . This document provided for religious freedom , no taxes without assembly approval , and a governor appointed by the proprietors . The first governor appointed in this way was Philip Carteret , who founded Elizabethtown . Colonists were required to pay annual quit @-@ rent taxes . On March 18 , 1674 , after encountering difficulty collecting the taxes , Lord Berkeley sold his share in the colony to Edward Byllynge , a Quaker businessman from London . This sale divided New Jersey into East Jersey and West Jersey ; however , the border between the two was not agreed upon until the Quintipartite Deed in 1676 . From 1701 to 1765 , colonists skirmished in the New York @-@ New Jersey Line War over disputed colonial boundaries .
On April 15 , 1702 , Queen Anne united West and East Jersey into one Royal Colony , the Province of New Jersey . Edward Hyde , 3rd Earl of Clarendon became the royal colony 's first governor . After Hyde was recalled to England in 1708 over charges of graft , bribery , and corruption , the governor of New York was charged to also preside over New Jersey . Finally , in 1738 , King George II appointed a separate governor , Lewis Morris , to run New Jersey .
The Provincial Congress of New Jersey , made up of elected delegates , formed in January 1776 to govern the colony . The Congress had Royal Governor William Franklin arrested on June 15 , declaring him " an enemy to the liberties of this country " . On July 2 , 1776 , New Jersey enacted the New Jersey State Constitution , soon after having empowered delegates to the Continental Congress , on June 21 , to join in a declaration of independence . The United States Declaration of Independence ended their colonial status .
= = Province of Pennsylvania = =
King Charles II granted the land for the Pennsylvania Colony to William Penn on March 4 , 1681 as payment for a debt the crown owed his family . Penn wrote the Frame of Government of Pennsylvania before departing for the colony , which called for religious tolerance towards many groups , including the Religious Society of Friends and local natives . As a proprietary colony , Penn governed Pennsylvania , yet its citizens were still subject to the English crown and laws . Penn 's cousin William Markham served as the first colonial deputy governor .
Demarcated by the 42nd parallel north and 39th parallel north , Pennsylvania was bordered by the Delaware River and the colonies of New York , Maryland , and New Jersey . In 1704 , Dutch land given to Penn by the Duke of York was separated and once again became part of the Delaware Colony . From 1692 to 1694 , revolution in England deprived Penn of the governance of his colony . The Pennsylvania Assembly took this opportunity to request expanded power for elected officials , led by David Lloyd . Upon visiting the colony in 1669 and 1701 , Penn eventually agreed to allow their Charter of Privileges to be added to the constitution . When the British banned western expansion in 1764 , fighting among colonists and against the natives swelled . In 1773 , Arthur St. Clair ordered the arrest of a Virginian officer who was commanding troops against armed settlers loyal to Pennsylvania . Pennsylvanian revolutionary sentiment continued to grow , and Philadelphia , the largest city in America , soon became the meeting place of the Continental Congress . The publication of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 by locally elected revolutionaries concluded the history of the Colony , and began the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania .
= = Province of New York = =
The first Dutch settlements in the New York area appeared around 1613 . The English captured the New Netherland Colony from the Dutch in 1664 , renaming it the Province of New York after the King 's brother , the Duke of York ( later King James II ) . The Dutch recaptured the colony in July 1673 during the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War , but gave it back to the English under the Treaty of Westminster in exchange for Suriname . The Duke of York never governed the colony himself : he instead appointed governors , councils , and other officers to run the government . Richard Nicolls served as the first governor of New York .
In 1665 , the Province of New Jersey split from New York ; however , the New York @-@ New Jersey Line War continued until the final borders were decided in 1769 , and approved by the legislatures and the King in 1772 and 1773 respectively . A Colonial Assembly convened in October 1683 , making New York the last colony to have an assembly . A constitution was drafted and passed on October 30 , 1683 , giving the colonists many rights , including the rights to taxation without representation . However , upon learning of the constitution , James II declared it void .
When the Duke of York became King James II of England , New York became a royal province . In May 1688 the province briefly became part of the Dominion of New England . When James II was overthrown , the citizens of New York rebelled against the Royal Governor in Leisler 's Rebellion . When Henry Sloughter became governor in March 1691 , the rebellion was crushed and its leader , Jacob Leisler was arrested , tried , and executed for treason . New York 's charter and constitution were reinstated soon after . In April 1775 , American patriots formed the New York Provincial Congress to replace the assembly . Governor William Tryon and all royal officials were forced from the colony on October 19 , 1775 . Colonial status ended for the new state with the United States Declaration of Independence in July 1776 .
= = Delaware Colony = =
Delaware changed hands between the Dutch and Swedes between 1631 and 1655 . The Dutch maintained control of Delaware until 1664 , when Sir Robert Carr took New Amstel for the Duke of York , renaming it New Castle . A Deputy of the Duke governed Delaware from 1664 to 1682 . When William Penn received his land grant of Pennsylvania in 1681 , he received the Delaware area from the Duke of York , and dubbed them " The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware River " . In 1701 , after he had troubles governing the ethnically diverse Delaware territory , Penn agreed to allow them a separate colonial assembly .
= = Geography = =
The partly unglaciated Middle Colonies enjoyed fertile soil vastly different from the nearby New England Colonies , which contained more rocky soil . Because of the large grain exports resulting from this soil , the colonies came to be known as the Bread Basket Colonies . Pennsylvania became a leading exporter of wheat , corn , rye , hemp , and flax , making it the leading food producer in the colonies , and later states , between the years of 1725 and 1840 . Broad navigable rivers of relaxed current like the Susquehanna River , the Delaware River , and the Hudson River attracted diverse business . Fur trappers moved along these rivers , and there was enough flow to enable milling with water wheel power .
= = Industry = =
Abundant forests attracted both the lumbering and shipbuilding industries to the Middle Colonies . These industries , along with the presence of deep river estuaries , led to the appearance of important ports like New York and Philadelphia . While the Middle Colonies had far more industry than the Southern Colonies , it still did not rival the industry of New England . In Pennsylvania , sawmills and gristmills were abundant , and the textile industry grew quickly . The colony also became a major producer of pig iron and its products , including the Pennsylvania long rifle and the Conestoga wagon . Other important industries included printing , publishing , and the related industry of papermaking .
= = Politics = =
The Middle Colonies political groups began as small groups with narrowly focused goals . These coalitions eventually grew into diverse and large political organizations , evolving especially during the French and Indian War .
The Middle Colonies were generally run by Royal or Proprietary Governors and elected Colonial Assemblies . Many Middle Colony constitutions guaranteed freedom of religion and forbade taxation without representation . Royal governors were arrested or overthrown on more than one occasion , most notably when New Jersey arrested its governor and during Leisler 's Rebellion in New York . Growing unrest in the Middle Colonies eventually led the region to become the meeting place for the Continental Congress , and a center for revolution . However , there were numerous pockets of neutrals and Loyalists .
= = Demographics = =
The Middle Colonies tended to mix aspects of the New England and Southern Colonies . Landholdings were generally farms of 40 to 160 acres ( 16 – 65 hectares ) , owned by the family that worked it . In New York 's Hudson Valley , however , the Dutch patroons operated very large landed estates and rented land to tenant farmers .
Ethnically , the Middle Colonies were more diverse than the other British colonial regions in North America and tended to be more socially tolerant . For example , in New York , any foreigner professing Christianity was awarded citizenship , leading to a more diverse populace . As a consequence , early German settlements in the Americas concentrated in the Middle Colonies region . Indentured servitude was especially common in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , and New York in the eighteenth century , though fewer worked in agriculture .
German immigrants favored the Middle Colonies . German immigration greatly increased around 1717 , and many immigrants began coming from the Rhineland . They were erroneously labeled the Pennsylvania Dutch ( the German word for German is " Deutsch " ) , and comprised one @-@ third of the population by the time of the American Revolution . The industry and farming skills they brought with them helped solidify the Middle Colonies ' prosperity . They were noted for tight @-@ knit religious communities , mostly Lutheran but also including many smaller sects such as the Moravians , Mennonites and Amish
The Scotch @-@ Irish began immigrating to the Middle Colonies in waves after 1717 . They primarily pushed farther into the western frontier of the colonies , where they repeatedly confronted the Indians . Other groups included the French Huguenots , Welsh , Dutch , Swedes , Swiss , and Scots Highlanders .
= = = English colonists = = =
When the English took direct control of the Middle Colonies around 1664 , many Quakers from Rhode Island had already been pushed into the region by Puritans , while Episcopalian businessmen settled in Philadelphia and New York City .
Welsh Quakers , Baptists and Methodists settled in the Welsh Tract of Pennsylvania . While some Welsh colonists like Roger Williams , left to found Rhode Island , Anne Hutchinson founded a seed settlement in New York . Rhode Island was not initially counted as part of New England , having been excluded from the New England Confederation , but later joined the Dominion of New England . Thus , the definition of the Middle Colonies sometimes changed and overlapped with Rhode Island 's colonial boundaries . After joining the Dominion of New England , however , Rhode Island was permanently thought of as a New England colony . New York 's initial possession of parts of Maine ensured a close relationship with other New England colonies like Vermont and a continuing New England influence in the colony .
Both William Penn and the Lords Baltimore encouraged Irish Protestant immigration , hoping they could obtain indentured servants to work on their estates and on colonial developments . Often areas of the Middle Colonies displayed prevalent Irish cultural influence .
= = = Labor = = =
Labor was always in short supply . The most common solution was indentured servitude of young whites . These were teenagers in Britain or Germany whose parents arranged for them to work for families in the colonies until age 21 , in exchange for their ocean passage . The great majority became farmers or farm wives . By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , African American slaves comprised 12 % of the population of New York . Most were house servants in Manhattan , or farmworkers on Dutch estates .
= = = Religion = = =
The Middle Colonies were the religiously diverse part of the British Empire , with a high degree of tolerance . The Penn family were Quakers , and the colony became a favorite destination for that group as well as German Lutherans , German Reformed and numerous small sects such as Mennonites , Amish and Moravians , not to mention Scotch Irish Presbyterians . The Dutch Reformed were strong in upstate New York and New Jersey , and Congregationalists were important in Long Island . The First Great Awakening invigorated religiosity and helped stimulate the growth of Congregational , Methodist and Baptist churches . Non @-@ British colonists included Dutch Calvinist , Swedish Lutherans , Palatine Mennonites , and the Amish .
= = Historiography = =
Bodle , Wayne . " Themes and Directions in Middles Colonies Historiography , 1980 @-@ 1994 , " William and Mary Quarterly , July 1994 , Vol . 51 Issue 3 , pp 355 – 88 in JSTOR
Bodle , Wayne . " The " Myth of the Middle Colonies " Reconsidered : The Process of Regionalization in Early America , " Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , Vol . 113 , No. 4 ( Oct. , 1989 ) , pp. 527 @-@ 548 in JSTOR
Greenberg , Douglas . " The Middle Colonies in Recent American Historiography , " William and Mary Quarterly , July 1979 , Vol . 36 Issue 3 , pp 396 – 427 in JSTOR
= Bath Assembly Rooms =
The Bath Assembly Rooms , designed by John Wood , the Younger in 1769 , are a set of elegant assembly rooms located in the heart of the World Heritage City of Bath in England which are now open to the public as a visitor attraction . They are designated as a Grade I listed building .
During the Georgian era Bath became fashionable . The architects John Wood , the Elder and his son John Wood , the Younger laid out new areas of housing for residents and visitors . Assembly rooms had been built early in the 18th century , but a new venue for balls , concerts and gambling was envisaged in the area between Queen Square , The Circus and the Royal Crescent . Robert Adam submitted a proposal that was rejected as too expensive . John Wood , the Younger raised funding through a Tontine and construction started in 1769 . The New or Upper Assembly Rooms opened with a grand ball in 1771 and became the hub of fashionable society , being frequented by Jane Austen and Charles Dickens , along with the nobility of the time .
The Bath stone building has rooms arranged in a U shape . There are four main function rooms in the complex : the 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) ballroom — the largest Georgian interior in Bath ; the tea room ; the card room ; and the octagon . The rooms have Whitefriars crystal chandeliers and are decorated with fine art . In the 20th century they were used as a cinema and in 1931 were taken over by the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and restored . They were bombed and burnt out during the Second World War , with restoration undertaken by Sir Albert Richardson before reopening in 1963 . They are now owned by the National Trust and operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council for public functions . The basement of the building provides a home to the Fashion Museum .
= = History = =
Several areas of Bath had undergone development during the Stuart period , and development increased during Georgian times in response to the increasing number of visitors to the spa and resort town who required accommodation . The architects John Wood , the Elder and his son John Wood , the Younger laid out the new quarters in streets and squares , the identical façades of which gave an impression of palatial scale and classical decorum . Much of the creamy gold Bath stone used for construction throughout the city was obtained from the limestone Combe Down and Bathampton Down Mines , which were owned by Ralph Allen ( 1694 – 1764 ) .
Much of the development at this time consisted of new residential areas away from the old city centre . Queen Square was the first speculative development by John Wood , the Elder , who lived in one of the houses . The Circus consists of three long , curved terraces designed by the elder John Wood to form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games . The games give a clue to the design , the inspiration behind which was the Colosseum in Rome . The most spectacular of Bath 's terraces is the Royal Crescent , built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by the younger John Wood . Gay Street links Queen Square to The Circus . All of which were designed by John Wood , the Elder in 1735 and completed by his son John Wood , the Younger .
The heart of the Georgian city was Wood 's Pump Room , which , together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms , was designed by Thomas Baldwin , a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city , including the terraces in Argyle Street and the Guildhall , The Lower Assembly Rooms consisted of two buildings . The first built in 1708 for Thomas Harrison overlooking Parade Gardens between North Parade and Bath Abbey . A large ballroom was added in 1720 , with further enlargement in 1749 and 1810 when it became known as The Kingston Assembly Rooms . In 1728 another building , known as Lindsey 's Assembly Rooms , was constructed , lasting until demolition around 1820 for the building of York Street . Harrison 's Lower Assembly Rooms were devastated by a fire in 1821 and rebuilt , lasting until demolition in 1933 for road improvements on the site now known as " Bog Island " .
In around 1770 the neoclassical architect Robert Adam designed Pulteney Bridge , a three @-@ arched bridge spanning the River Avon . He used as his prototype an original , but unused , design by Andrea Palladio for the Rialto Bridge in Venice . Adam also submitted plans for the new Assembly Rooms but these were rejected as too costly . John Wood , the Younger raised funding for the construction of the Assembly Rooms by the use of a Tontine , an investment plan that is named after the Neapolitan banker Lorenzo de Tonti , who is credited with inventing it in France in 1653 . It combines features of a group annuity and a lottery . Each subscriber pays an agreed sum into the fund , and thereafter receives an annuity . As members die , their shares devolve to the other participants , and so the value of each annuity increases . On the death of the last member , the scheme is wound up . Construction started in 1769 and was completed in 1771 , when a grand opening was held .
The Assembly Rooms formed the hub of fashionable Georgian society in the city , the venue being described as " the most noble and elegant of any in the kingdom " . They were originally known as the Upper Rooms as there was also a lower assembly room in the city , which closed soon after the Upper Rooms opened . They served the newly built fashionable area which included The Circus , Queen Square and the Royal Crescent .
People would gather in the rooms in the evening for balls and other public functions , or simply to play cards . Mothers and chaperones bringing their daughters to Bath for the social season , hoping to marry them off to a suitable husband , would take their charge to such events where , very quickly , one might meet all the eligible men currently in the City . At one concert in 1779 , attended by around 800 ladies and gentlemen , 60 members of the nobility were present . During the season , which ran from October to June , at least two balls a week were held , in addition to a range of concerts and other events . Scenes such as this feature in the novels of Jane Austen , who lived in Bath with her parents and sister from 1801 to 1805 . Her two novels set in Bath , Northanger Abbey and Persuasion , were published in 1818 and both mention the Assembly Rooms :
Mrs Allen was so long in dressing , that they did not enter the ball @-@ room till late . The season was full , the room crowded , and the two ladies squeezed in as well as they could . As for Mr Allen , he repaired directly to the card @-@ room , and left them to enjoy a mob by themselves .
Sir Walter , his two daughters , and Mrs Clay , were the earliest of all their party at the rooms in the evening ; and as Lady Dalrymple must be waited for , they took their station by one of the fires in the Octagon Room .
Charles Dickens also visited Bath on several occasions . He gave public readings in the Assembly Rooms and mentions them in The Pickwick Papers ( published in 1837 ) :
In the ball @-@ room , the long card @-@ room , the octagonal card @-@ room , the staircases , and the passages , the hum of many voices , and the sound of many feet , were perfectly bewildering . Dresses rustled , feathers waved , lights shone , and jewels sparkled . There was the music — not of the quadrille band , for it had not yet commenced ; but the music of soft tiny footsteps , with now and then a clear merry laugh — low and gentle , but very pleasant to hear in a female voice , whether in Bath or elsewhere .
George Bridgetower , an Afro @-@ Polish @-@ born virtuoso violinist , made his debut at the Assembly Rooms in 1789 . Another young violinist , Thomas Linley the younger , played a series of concerts between 1771 and 1776 . Many of the concerts during the late 18th and early 19th centuries were organised by Venanzio Rauzzini .
In the 20th century several changes took place , with the Ballroom becoming a cinema , until the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings became the owners in 1931 . The building was restored by A Mowbray Green in 1938 , with Oliver Messel as the interior designer . During the Bath Blitz of 25 / 26 April 1942 , one of the retaliatory raids on England by the Baedeker Blitz following the RAF 's raid on Lübeck , the Assembly Rooms were bombed and burnt out inside . After the cessation of hostilities in Europe , they were restored by Sir Albert Richardson , with work being completed in 1963 . The ballroom ceiling had to be repaired after it collapsed in 1989 .
= = Architecture = =
The limestone building has a slate hipped roof . It is rectangular with a projecting doric portico entrance and an extension to the rear . The interior is laid out in a U shape , with the larger Ball Room and Tea Room along either side with the octagonal Card Room at the end . The rooms have Whitefriars crystal chandeliers and are decorated with pictures by Thomas Gainsborough , Allan Ramsay ( artist ) , Edwin Long and William Hoare .
The Ballroom has five chandeliers and capacity for up to 500 people . It is over 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and nearly 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide . The ceiling is 42 feet ( 13 m ) high . The Tea Room holds up to 250 people . It was the location for a banquet attended by The Prince of Wales for the BBC television series the Great British Menu . It is 60 feet ( 18 m ) long and 42 feet ( 13 m ) wide . The Octagon is named for the shape of the room has four fireplaces . It is 42 feet ( 13 m ) across . It originally held an organ in the musicians gallery . In 1777 the Card Room was added . This is now used as a bar .
= = Current use = =
Today the rooms are owned by the National Trust and operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council . The main rooms are still available for hire for private functions . They are also used for concerts , including ones that are part of the Bath International Music Festival .
The basement of the building provides a home to the Fashion Museum , which was known before 2007 as the Museum of Costume . The collection was started by Doris Langley Moore , who gave her collection to the city of Bath in 1963 . It focuses on fashionable dress for men , women and children from the late 16th century to the present day and has more than 30 @,@ 000 objects . The earliest pieces are embroidered shirts and gloves from about 1600 .
The grandeur of the building make it a popular location for feature films and television series set in the Georgian period . The BBC have used it as a location for the filming of an adaptation of Northanger Abbey in 1986 and in 1995 Persuasion .
= Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine =
Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine was a pulp magazine which was launched in December 1936 . It was published by Harold Hersey , and was an attempt to cash in on the growing comics boom , and the popularity of the Flash Gordon comic strip in particular . The magazine contained a novel about Flash Gordon and three unrelated stories ; there were also eight full @-@ page color illustrations . The quality of both the artwork and the fiction was low , and the magazine only saw a single issue . It is now extremely rare .
= = Publication history and contents = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared for several years . In 1934 a science fiction comic strip following the adventures of superhero Flash Gordon appeared in newspapers and quickly became popular . In 1936 the strip spawned a movie serial in thirteen parts , also titled Flash Gordon . Late that year Harold Hersey , an experienced pulp magazine editor and publisher , decided to launch three new magazines based on comics . The first two were titled Dan Dunn Detective Magazine and Tailspin Tommy Air Adventure Magazine ; these were launched in September and October 1936 respectively . The third was Flash Gordon Strange Adventures Magazine , which saw a single issue , dated December 1936 ; it was copyrighted by both Hersey and King Features , the syndicate that owned the copyright to Flash Gordon . Dan Dunn and Tailspin Tommy produced one more issue each before Hersey closed down the venture . It is not known why only one issue of Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine appeared ; poor sales figures from the other magazines may have been responsible , or Hersey may simply have run out of money , or possibly King Features , the owner of the copyright to Flash Gordon , only granted rights to Hersey for one issue , and withdrew from the venture after the first issue appeared . Sf historian Everett Bleiler notes that Hersey did not mention the venture in his autobiographical Pulpwood Editor , published a year later , and adds that " given Hersey 's usual attempts to glorify himself and to gild his failures , this silence suggests a fiasco larger than usual " .
The magazine contained a lead novel and three short stories . The novel , The Master of Mars , by James Edison Northford ( or Northfield ; the name is spelled one way on the contents page and the other way at the head of the story ) , has been described by Bleiler as " moronic " . Bleiler also comments that of three short stories , one is dated and another third @-@ rate . Two of the stories were by R.R. Winterbotham ; one , " The Saga of the Smokepot " , was published under his own name ; the other , " The Last War " , was published under the pseudonym " R.R. Botham " . The other story , " The Man Without a Brain " , is a collaboration between R.C. Vance ( or R.C. Vane ; as with Northford , the magazine is inconsistent in spelling the name ) and F.K. Young .
Hersey 's idea was to have a pulp magazine about comic strip characters ; he hoped that there would be sufficient overlap between pulp readers and comics fans to make the magazine successful . The presentation was like that of a typical pulp , but with eight full page color illustrations , all by Fred Meagher , who had previously illustrated Westerns . Bleiler describes the artwork as crude and " far inferior to the sometimes elegant work " of Alex Raymond , the creator of Flash Gordon .
The attempt to market pulp fiction to comics fans turned out to be the wrong approach : the comics field was on the verge of dramatic successes , but the crossover appeal for pulp magazines was not there . The magazine was not widely known at the time it was issued , and has since become extremely rare .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The publisher of Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine was C.J.H. Publishing Co . , based in New York . The sole issue was numbered volume 1 , number 1 ; it was in large pulp format , with 96 pages and was priced at 10 cents . Harold Hersey was the president of C.J.H. and the editor of the magazine . A facsimile of the magazine was released as a book in 2005 .
= Tropical Storm Olaf ( 1997 ) =
Tropical Storm Olaf was an erratic and long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to regions of Mexico , which would be devastated by Hurricane Pauline a week later . The sixteenth named storm of the 1997 season , Olaf formed on September 26 off the southern coast of Mexico . It moved northward and quickly intensified , reaching peak winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) before weakening and hitting Oaxaca as a tropical depression . In Mexico , El Salvador , and Guatemala , the system brought heavy rainfall , which killed 18 people and caused flooding and damage . It was originally thought that Olaf dissipated over Mexico , although its remnants continued westward for a week . It interacted with Hurricane Pauline , which caused Olaf to turn to the southeast and later to the north to strike Mexico again , finally dissipating on October 12 .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Olaf were from a tropical wave first noted over Central America on September 22 . It moved slowly through the eastern Pacific Ocean , and gradually developed an area of convection . Concurrently , an upper @-@ level low @-@ pressure area moved from the Gulf of Mexico across Mexico into the Pacific , which produced wind shear across the region ; wind shear is the difference in wind speed and direction in the atmosphere , and is usually harmful to tropical cyclogenesis . The disturbance associated with the tropical wave persisted and developed outflow . This caused the upper @-@ level low to move away from the system . On September 26 , it was sufficiently organized to be classified Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E , while located about 345 miles ( 560 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .
A few hours after developing , the depression attained tropical storm status , or winds of at least 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Upon doing so , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name " Olaf " . The upper @-@ level low , which was moving away from the region , caused the storm to move northward toward the Mexican coast . Olaf quickly intensified , as evidenced by reports from a nearby ship , and the winds reached 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) by late on September 27 ; the NHC anticipated further intensification to hurricane status , or winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Instead , interaction with the rough terrain of Mexico caused weakening . Olaf made landfall on Salina Cruz , Oaxaca early on September 29 as a 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) tropical depression . Within a few hours , the circulation was not evident on satellite imagery , and the NHC discontinued advisories .
Despite being considered dissipated , a re @-@ analysis of satellite imagery indicated the circulation of Olaf persisted as turned to the west toward open waters . Early on September 30 , the system reached the Pacific , and it continued westward for about a week , during which it retained some convective activity . On October 5 , Olaf turned toward the east , as it interacted with the large circulation of developing Hurricane Pauline . Later that day , the NHC resumed issuing advisories , while it was located about 560 miles ( 900 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . The system turned to the southeast , and , failing to organize , the NHC discontinued advisories on October 8 . Three days later , after the remnants of Olaf turned toward the north , the NHC again resumed advisories , when it was just 70 miles ( 115 km ) south @-@ southwest of Tecomán , Colima . Late on October 12 , the circulation of Olaf made its final landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , and it quickly dissipated . An associated area of thunderstorms moved over open waters again , but failed to redevelop .
= = Impact and preparations = =
Prior to moving ashore , a tropical storm warning was issued from Punta Maldonado , Guerrero to Tapachula , Chiapas and the Port of Chiapas , near the Mexico – Guatemala border . When Olaf was strengthening faster than anticipated , the advisory was upgraded to a hurricane warning , although it was downgraded to a tropical storm after the intensification did not occur . Upon making its first landfall , Tropical Depression Olaf produced gusty winds and heavy rains along the southeastern coast of Mexico . The peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall total was 6 @.@ 71 inches ( 17 @.@ 1 cm ) in Juchitán de Zaragoza in Oaxaca ; the highest rainfall total throughout Olaf 's duration was 27 @.@ 73 inches ( 70 @.@ 4 cm ) at a station called Soyalapa / Comaltepec in Oaxaca . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Guatemala and El Salvador .
Across the affected region , the heavy rainfall caused flooding , which resulted in 18 deaths . In Mexico , the flooding damaged 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) of coffee , corn , and other crops ; in Chiapas , the coffee crop damage represented a severe cut into the yearly total . The precipitation flooded many buildings across the region , including 30 houses in the Chiapas capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez , when a river exceeded its banks . In mountainous regions , mudslides left dozens of small villages isolated from the outside world . Along the coast , high waves of up to 16 feet ( 5 m ) forced the closure of all ports in three Mexican states , which affected thousands of fishermen . Further west , three fishing vessels were reported missing near Acapulco , prompting rescue parties . The storm also forced the closure of several airports . In its final landfall , there was no damage reported ; precipitation in that region peaked at 2 @.@ 96 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 cm ) in Coquimatlán , Colima .
Following the storm , the Mexican government sent food , water , and housing supplies to affected families in Oaxaca . Less than a week after Olaf moved through southern Mexico , Hurricane Pauline struck the same region with much stronger winds . Pauline caused heavier rainfall and more damage , killing at least 250 people . Some regions received 10 days of heavy rainfall .
= Road to the North Pole =
" Road to the North Pole " is the seventh episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . Directed by Greg Colton and co @-@ written by Chris Sheridan and Danny Smith , the episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 12 , 2010 . In " Road to the North Pole " , two of the show 's main characters , baby Stewie and anthropomorphic dog Brian , who are voiced by series creator Seth MacFarlane , go on an adventure to the North Pole in an attempt to kill Santa Claus . They eventually discover a dreary , polluting factory full of disease @-@ ridden elves and carnivorous , feral reindeer , along with a sickly , exhausted Santa who begs to be killed . Stewie and Brian take pity on him , however , and decide to fulfill Christmas by delivering gifts to the entire globe , albeit unsuccessfully .
The " Road to " episodes which have aired throughout various seasons of Family Guy were inspired by the Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour , though this episode was not originally conceived as a " Road to " show . The episode is the second Family Guy Christmas special after the season three episode , " A Very Special Family Guy Freakin ' Christmas " , also written by Danny Smith . It was first announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
Critical responses to the episode were mostly positive ; critics praised its storyline and its numerous cultural references , although it also received criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 03 million homes during its original airing in the United States . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , H. Jon Benjamin , David Boreanaz , Carrie Fisher , and Karley Scott Collins , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . It is narrated by Ron MacFarlane , Seth MacFarlane 's father . It was nominated for 3 Emmy Awards : Outstanding Music Composition for a Series , Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . It later won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . The song " Christmastime Is Killing Us " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media .
= = Plot = =
Brian takes Stewie to the mall , only to get a rude brush @-@ off from Santa . As a result , Stewie vows to kill Santa for blowing him off and forces Brian to take him to the North Pole . Attempting to trick Stewie , he brings him to a Santa 's Village amusement park . Soon discovering the charade , Stewie threatens to shoot Brian if he does not take him to the real North Pole . Stewie hitches a ride with a trucker and so Brian follows him all the way to Canada . On the way , Stewie accidentally causes a traffic pileup by discharging a flare pistol in the cab of the truck , which catches fire and explodes . Crashing his car in a chain reaction , Brian becomes angry and tells Stewie that Santa does not exist . Stewie becomes frustrated and continues to attempt to hitchhike . The pair then encounter a Canadian who gives them his snowmobile .
Continuing north , they soon run out of gas , but receive help from the Aurora Boreanaz , who instructs them to stay at a nearby cabin . The two survive the night in the cabin and set out on foot the next morning . They finally make it to Santa 's workshop , only to find a dark , gloomy factory in a dreary , polluted , lifeless wasteland , Santa a sickly and somewhat psychopathic old man , the elves horribly inbred and mutated from Santa 's attempt to keep up with the increasing toy demands year after year , and the reindeer carnivorous feral monsters that eat the elves who wandered out into the snow to die of exhaustion . Santa suddenly collapses and is too sick to deliver the presents . Brian and Stewie agree to do it , only to waste time at their first stop and leave , after being discovered by a family , whom they tie up . The reindeer eat each other .
On Christmas morning , everybody wakes up to find no presents under their trees . They turn on the news , which is broadcasting the same story . Brian and Stewie appear on the broadcast and bring the dying Santa out in a wheelchair , explaining that humanity 's greed is killing him and if they don 't shorten their demands to one Christmas present a year , they may have to give up Christmas altogether . Chastened , everyone agrees and , one year later , Santa has recovered , the workshop is once again a lively , colorful Christmassy cottage and the elves and reindeer are all rejuvenated .
= = Production and development = =
" Road to the North Pole " is the sixth episode of the " Road to " episodes of the series which air through various seasons of the show . It was directed by Family Guy veteran Greg Colton , this being the first episode he has directed since the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go . " This is also Colton 's third " Road to " episode , the first being " Road to Germany " and the second being " Road to the Multiverse . " The episode was written by Chris Sheridan and Danny Smith , this being the first Smith wrote since " Partial Terms of Endearment , " and his first " Road to " episode . It included staff writers Alex Carter , Andrew Goldberg and Elaine Ko . It is an hour @-@ long special with three musical numbers . Ron MacFarlane , Seth MacFarlane 's father , served as the episode 's narrator . This is also the first " Road to " episode to be composed by Ron Jones .
Two of the musical numbers , " All I Really Want for Christmas " and " Christmastime is Killing Us " were released as digital downloads on iTunes . " Christmastime is Killing Us " was available on December 3 , 2010 , while " All I Really Want for Christmas " was made available on December 10 , 2010 .
In addition to the regular cast , the episode also guest starred actress Drew Barrymore , voice actor H. Jon Benjamin , actor David Boreanaz , actress Karley Scott Collins , actress Carrie Fisher , actor Ron MacFarlane , father of series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , actor Bruce McGill , voice actor Will Ryan , voice actress Tara Strong and actress Nana Visitor . Recurring guest voice actors John G. Brennan , actor Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
This episode as well as the entire " Road to " series in Family Guy is a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films which were released from 1940 to 1962 , starring actors Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and actress Dorothy Lamour . The opening credits show images with Brian and Stewie referencing other Christmas specials such as The Nutcracker , A Christmas Carol , How the Grinch Stole Christmas , Frosty the Snowman and Home Alone . The credits also show Brian and Stewie performing winter activities , such as snowball fights , making snow angels and putting coal in the ( Meg 's ) Christmas socks instead of gifts . Ron MacFarlane , who narrated part of the episode , mentioned that Kenny Rogers was supposed to be there .
The episode opens with a musical number in which the members of Quahog sing about what they want for Christmas . Peter wishes to have actress and models Jessica Biel and Megan Fox . He also wishes to have lunch with Michael Landon 's ghost and wants twelve kegs of beer . Lois wishes to visit the Spanish coasts , and " Mexico , with two black guys and some blow " . Chris wishes for Jennifer Garner and Meg wishes for a Lexus . The neighbors of Quahog also wish for gifts : Herbert wishes for a drummer boy ( there is a picture of singer Nick Jonas on the wall while he wishes for this ) , Mayor Adam West wishes for a tinkertoy , Carl wishes for a Blu @-@ ray version of The Wiz and Consuela wishes for more Lemon Pledge . Continuing with the song , Jillian Russell wishes for Easter eggs , Joe wishes for one day when kids don 't stare at him , Bonnie wants platinum @-@ plated silverware , Quagmire wants " Japanese girls of no restraint " to choke him and then whip him and Mort ( who is Jewish ) says he will sue if they put a Christmas tree in the airport . The song ends with various characters appearing in an advent calendar .
Brian and Stewie go to the mall so they can meet Santa , but Peter is asking Santa for gifts ( he asks for a game of Uno , a Magna Doodle , a pet chink ( a mix of a chinchilla and a mink ) and a Charles in Charge lunchbox . ) When the mall Santa leaves for the night and Brian demands that he let Stewie sit in his lap , Santa mentions he will be at Applebee 's . Stewie says that Santa leaving before he got a chance to sit in his lap felt like a bigger betrayal than the betrayal of Gary Busey by reality ; this takes us to Busey looking himself in the mirror asking his reflection , in the form of a crazed clown , how he is doing .
Brian and Stewie decide to go to the North Pole to kill Santa , but Brian does not want Stewie to get disappointed if Santa is not what everybody thinks he is ; to this Stewie responds that Brian is as negative as Eeyore from Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh . To prevent Stewie from going to the North Pole he tells him that Santa is not real ; Stewie questions this , also asking if Elmo , SpongeBob SquarePants and Curious George aren 't real . On their way to the North Pole , Brian and Stewie find themselves in Canada , where they meet a man with a thick Canadian accent ; they also see the Aurora borealis and the Aurora Boreanaz ( an aurora with David Boreanaz 's face ) .
When they finally get to the North Pole and find it polluted and lifeless , Stewie compares it to Bridgeport , Connecticut ; thus resulting in a cutaway to a Bridgeport resident writing an angry letter to the Family Guy writer staff about Stewie 's comment . When Santa Claus is near death , he shocks Stewie by saying " I 'll be with Allah soon " . When Brian and Stewie decide to deliver the presents for Santa , in their travel the Statue of Liberty can be seen . Unfortunately , they are not able to deliver the presents , and the next morning the residents of Quahog are upset because they have no presents , but Mort says he got eight mediocre gifts .
= = Reception = =
" Road to the North Pole " was broadcast on December 12 , 2010 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 8 @.@ 03 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Amazing Race and Undercover Boss on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating American Dad ! and The Simpsons in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous week 's episode .
This episode received generally positive response from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave " Road to the North Pole " a positive review , stating that it is " a satisfying episode of Family Guy all around , filled with funny gags and nice moments . " He especially praised the musical segments , and the portrayal of the North Pole , writing that " the way the episode kept piling more and more ridiculous horrors on top of each other kept the whole thing funny . " He rated the episode an " A- " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad also praised the songs and the depiction of Santa 's factory , though he found the delivery of the episode 's message " heavy @-@ handed . " Kate Moon of TV Fanatic gave the episode 3 @.@ 6 out of 5 stars . She said , " I had mixed feelings about this one , despite its clever moments and hopeful ending . While I normally have no problems about Family Guy ’ s shocking or offensive themes , I felt bit disconcerted about the direction of this Christmas episode . " She went on to say , " Perhaps it was the way that the series stomped on something as innocent as Santa and his elves and twisted them all around . Or perhaps it was the cannibalistic reindeer . Whatever the specific reason , the irreverent nature of Family Guy seemed just a little too graphic for me this time around . "
The Parents Television Council , a conservative campaigning critic of Seth MacFarlane works , named Family Guy its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " Road to the North Pole " for the week ending on December 17 , 2010 . It got this rating due to sexual content and excessive violent scenes including the scene in which Stewie beats a man to death with a baseball bat , and the scenes featuring Seth MacFarlane 's father , Ron , while also stating , " Forget naughty or nice . This show was simply nauseating . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave " Road to the North Pole " a 47 out of a possible 100 , said " A little more interesting plot wise than the usual fare but otherwise just as gruesome " . He especially disliked the portrayal of Santa and his elves and the violence .
The episode was also nominated for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics ( for song " Christmastime Is Killing Us " , written by Ron Jones , Seth MacFarlane , and Danny Smith ) and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . It won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .
The series was successfully nominated in 2009 , but failed to merit an award . Mark Hentemann , executive producer and showrunner of Family Guy said of the nominating process , " We had internal discussions in the writers ' room , and it seemed like we were much more akin to the other primetime comedies than we were to children 's shows in animation . We assumed we would not get anywhere , and so it was a great surprise when we got the nomination . "
" Christmastime Is Killing Us " was nominated for Best Song Written for a Visual Media at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= Ed Barrow =
Edward Grant Barrow ( May 10 , 1868 – December 15 , 1953 ) was an American manager and front office executive in Major League Baseball . He served as the field manager of the Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox . He served as business manager ( de facto general manager ) of the New York Yankees from 1921 to 1939 and as team president from 1939 to 1945 , and is credited with building the Yankee dynasty . Barrow was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1953 .
Born in a covered wagon in Springfield , Illinois , Barrow worked as a journalist and soap salesman before entering the business of baseball by selling concessions at games . From there , Barrow purchased minor league baseball teams , also serving as team manager , and served as president of the Atlantic League . After managing the Tigers in 1903 and 1904 and returning to the minor leagues , Barrow became disenchanted with baseball , and left the game to operate a hotel .
Barrow returned to baseball in 1910 as president of the Eastern League . After a seven @-@ year tenure , Barrow managed the Red Sox from 1918 through 1920 , leading the team to victory in the 1918 World Series . When Red Sox owner Harry Frazee began to sell his star players , Barrow joined the Yankees . During his quarter @-@ century as their baseball operations chief , the Yankees won 14 AL pennants and 10 World Series titles .
= = Early life = =
Barrow was born in Springfield , Illinois , the oldest of four children , all male , born to Effie Ann Vinson @-@ Heller and John Barrow . Barrow 's father fought in the Ohio Volunteer Militia during the American Civil War . Following the war , Barrow 's parents , with John 's mother , brothers , and sisters , traveled in a covered wagon to Nebraska ; Barrow was born on a hemp plantation belonging to relatives during the trip . The Barrows lived in Nebraska for six years before moving to Des Moines , Iowa . His middle name , Grant , was bestowed on him in honor of Ulysses S. Grant , the Civil | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
War general .
Barrow worked as mailing clerk for the Des Moines News in 1887 , receiving a promotion to circulation manager within a year . He became a reporter for the Des Moines Leader after graduating from high school . He became city editor , earning $ 35 a week ( $ 922 in current dollar terms ) . In his last two years living in Des Moines , Barrow established a baseball team , which included future baseball stars Fred Clarke , Ducky Holmes , and Herm McFarland .
Barrow moved to Pittsburgh in 1889 , where he worked as a soap salesman , believing there was money in this business . However , Barrow lost all of money in this business , and went to work as a desk clerk in a Pittsburgh hotel .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Barrow partnered with Harry Stevens in 1894 to sell concessions at baseball games . He helped George Moreland form the Interstate League , a Class @-@ C minor league , in 1894 . Barrow , with Stevens and Al Buckenberger , purchased the Wheeling Nailers of the Interstate League in 1896 . Barrow served as field manager until the collapse of the league that season . The team continued in the Iron and Oil League for the rest of the year .
Barrow then bought the Paterson Silk Weavers of the Class @-@ A Atlantic League , managing them for the rest of the 1896 season . Barrow discovered Honus Wagner throwing lumps of coal at a railroad station in Pennsylvania , and signed him to his first professional contract . Barrow sold Wagner to the Louisville Colonels of the National League ( NL ) for $ 2 @,@ 100 the next year ( $ 59 @,@ 732 in current dollar terms ) . With poor attendance , Barrow brought in professional boxers as a draw : he had James J. Corbett play first base while John L. Sullivan and James J. Jeffries umpired . He also hired Lizzie Arlington , the first woman in professional baseball , to pitch a few innings a game .
From 1897 through 1899 , Barrow served as president of the Atlantic League . During this time , in the winter of 1898 – 99 , Barrow and Jake Wells established a movie theater in Richmond , Virginia . Barrow managed Paterson again in 1899 , but the league folded after the season .
With the money earned from the sale of the Richmond movie theater , Barrow purchased a one @-@ quarter share of the Toronto Maple Leafs of the Class @-@ A Eastern League in 1900 from Arthur Irwin , and served as the team 's manager . Irwin , hired to be the manager of the Washington Senators of the NL , brought his most talented players with him . Rebuilding the Maple Leafs , Barrow acquired talented players , such as Nick Altrock , and the team improved from a fifth @-@ place finish in 1899 , to a third @-@ place finish in 1900 , and a second @-@ place finish in 1901 . The Maple Leafs won the league championship in 1902 , even though they lost many of their most talented players , including Altrock , to the upstart American League ( AL ) .
Barrow managed in the major leagues with the Detroit Tigers of the AL in 1903 , finishing fifth , a thirteen @-@ game improvement from their 1902 finish . With the Tigers , Barrow feuded with shortstop Kid Elberfeld . Tigers ' owner Sam Angus sold the team to William Yawkey before the 1904 season . Barrow managed the Tigers again in 1904 , but unable to coexist with Frank Navin , Yawkey 's secretary @-@ treasurer , Barrow tendered his resignation . He then managed the Montreal Royals of the Eastern League for the rest of the season . He managed the Indianapolis Indians of the Class @-@ A American Association in 1905 and Toronto in 1906 . Disheartened with baseball after finishing in last place , Barrow hired Joe Kelley to manage Toronto in 1907 , and after signing the rest of the team 's players , became manager of the Windsor Arms Hotel in Toronto .
= = = Return to baseball = = =
Barrow returned to baseball in 1910 , managing Montreal . The Eastern League hired Barrow as its president the next year , giving him an annual salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 ( $ 190 @,@ 473 in current dollar terms ) . He served in this role from 1911 through 1917 , and engineered the name change to " International League " before the 1912 season . As league president , he contended with the creation of the Federal League in 1914 , which competed as a major league , and established franchises in International League cities , including Newark , New Jersey , Buffalo , New York , and Baltimore , Maryland . He attempted to gain major league status for the league in 1914 , but was unsuccessful . When the Federal League collapsed , Barrow was the only league president to forbid the outlaw players from playing in his league .
After the 1917 season , Barrow attempted to organize the " Union League " , to compete against the AL and NL as a third major league , by merging four International League clubs with four teams from the American Association . Several International League owners opposed Barrow 's policies , including his attempt to form the Union League , and felt he was too close personally to Ban Johnson . When the league 's owners voted to cut his pay to $ 2 @,@ 500 after the 1917 season ( $ 46 @,@ 175 in current dollar terms ) , Barrow resigned .
Barrow became manager of the Boston Red Sox in 1918 . As the team lost many of its better players during World War I , Barrow encouraged owner Harry Frazee to purchase Stuffy McInnis , Wally Schang , Bullet Joe Bush , and Amos Strunk from the Philadelphia Athletics for $ 75 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 179 @,@ 923 in current dollar terms ) . During the season , Barrow feuded with his assistant , Johnny Evers , who undermined Barrow 's leadership . The Red Sox won the 1918 World Series . Recognizing that star pitcher Babe Ruth was also a great power hitter , Barrow had Ruth pinch hit on days when he wasn 't scheduled to pitch . When Ruth told Barrow that he could only pitch or hit , Barrow decided that Ruth 's bat was more useful than his pitching , and transitioned him from a pitcher into an outfielder . Ruth had a public dispute with Barrow in July 1918 and was reported in the press as intending to leave the Red Sox , although the situation was soon smoothed over .
After the 1918 season , Frazee , now in debt , began selling the contracts of star players . He traded Dutch Leonard , Duffy Lewis , and Ernie Shore to the New York Yankees , obtaining Ray Caldwell , Slim Love , Frank Gilhooley , Roxy Walters , and cash . Frazee sold Carl Mays to the Yankees during the 1919 season . The Red Sox struggled in 1919 , finishing sixth in the AL . Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees after the season , against Barrow 's warnings . The Red Sox finished in fifth in 1920 .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
After the 1920 season , Barrow resigned from the Red Sox to become the business manager of the Yankees , replacing the deceased Harry Sparrow . He took control of building the roster , which was usually the field manager 's responsibility in those days . With the Yankees , Barrow handled the signing of player contracts , although owner Jacob Ruppert personally handled the contracts of Ruth and Lou Gehrig .
Barrow installed himself in the Yankees ' infrastructure between co @-@ owner Tillinghast L 'Hommedieu Huston and manager Miller Huggins , as Huston frequently criticized Huggins . Barrow told Huggins : " You 're the manager , and you 'll not be second guessed by me . Your job is to win ; mine is to get you the players you need to win . " When Huggins suspended Ruth indefinitely on August 29 , 1925 for " misconduct off the playing field " , while also fining him $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 67 @,@ 467 in current dollar terms ) , Barrow supported Huggins .
In his first move with the Yankees , Barrow brought Red Sox coach Paul Krichell with him to New York as a scout . He purchased a share in the club in 1924 . He also discovered executive George Weiss , whom he mentored . Barrow also orchestrated a series of trades with his former club , mainly to keep Frazee afloat . These trades netted the Yankees such stars as Bullet Joe Bush , Joe Dugan and George Pipgras . It has been argued that these trades only looked lopsided in favor of the Yankees only because the players sent to Boston suffered a rash of injuries . However , this is belied by the fact that Barrow almost certainly knew who was coming to New York in these deals ; he 'd managed nearly all of them in Boston .
The Yankees sought to develop their own players , rather than buying them from other teams , especially after the investment of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 362 @,@ 261 in current dollar terms ) in Lyn Lary and Jimmie Reese in 1927 . However , Weiss and Bill Essick convinced Barrow to approve the purchase of Joe DiMaggio from the Pacific Coast League .
Barrow was considered a potential successor to AL president Ban Johnson in 1927 , but Barrow declared that he was not interested in the job . When Huggins died in 1929 , Barrow chose Bob Shawkey to replace him as manager , passing over Ruth , who wanted the opportunity to become a player @-@ manager . Barrow also prevented Ruth from managing other teams after he departed the Yankees , by suggesting to executives of other teams that Ruth was not equipped to manage a baseball team . Although Ruth and Barrow had been together for all but one season from 1918 to 1934 , the two had never gotten along . The Sporting News named Barrow their Executive of the Year in 1937 .
After Ruppert 's death in 1939 , his will left the Yankees and other assets in a trust for his descendants . The will also named Barrow president of the Yankees , with full authority over the team 's day @-@ to @-@ day operations . Barrow was named Executive of the Year by The Sporting News in 1941 , the second time he won the award . The estate sold the team to a group of Larry MacPhail , Dan Topping , and Del Webb in 1945 , and Barrow sold his 10 % stake in the team to the group . Barrow remained as chairman of the board and an informal adviser . Though he signed a five @-@ year contract to remain with the team , he exercised a clause in his contract to free himself as of December 31 , 1946 , in order to officially retire from baseball . AL president Will Harridge offered Barrow the job of Commissioner of Baseball to succeed Kenesaw Mountain Landis ; Barrow declined , as he felt he was too old and his health was in decline .
= = Personal life = =
Barrow was known as " Uncle Egbert " to his friends ; according to writer Tom Meany , Babe Ruth referred to him as " Barrows , " treating him as if he were " a butler in an English drawing room comedy . " He resided in Rye , New York . He first married in 1898 , but did not discuss it in any of his writings . His second marriage was to Fannie Taylor Briggs in January 1912 ; he raised her five @-@ year @-@ old daughter from her previous marriage , Audrey , as his own daughter .
Barrow was an able boxer . He once fought John L. Sullivan in an exhibition for four rounds .
Barrow was hospitalized on July 7 , 1953 at the United Hospital of Port Chester , New York and died on December 15 , at the age of 85 , due to a malignancy . His body was kept at Campbell 's Funeral Home and interred in Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla , Westchester County , New York .
= = Legacy = =
Barrow was the first executive to put numbers on player uniforms . He also announced the retirement of Lou Gehrig 's uniform number , the first number to be retired . Barrow was also the first executive to allow fans to keep foul balls that entered the stands . Barrow was also the first to require the playing of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , the United States ' national anthem , before every game , not only on holidays .
In May 1950 , an exhibition game was played in honor of Barrow , with Barrow managing a team of retired stars . Barrow was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1953 .
On April 15 , 1954 , the Yankees dedicated a plaque to Barrow , which first hung on the center field wall at Yankee Stadium , near the flagpole and the monuments to Babe Ruth , Lou Gehrig and Miller Huggins . The plaques later moved to the stadium 's Monument Park .
= Spanish Hill =
Spanish Hill is a hill located in the borough of South Waverly , Pennsylvania . The hill is controversial among historians and archaeologists ; opinions regarding the origin of structures found on the site vary from embankments created by early farmers , to the remnants of a Native American village and battlements , due to the site 's similarity to the description found in the account of Étienne Brûlé of a settlement called Carantouan . The area in the hill 's vicinity was previously occupied by Susquehannock Native Americans . It was a common site for both amateur and professional archaeology , as well as relic hunting . The source of the name remains unknown , but various theories have been proposed as to its origin .
= = Geography = =
In 1795 , François Alexandre Frédéric visited Spanish Hill while en route to Canada . He described the hill as " a mountain in the shape of a sugar loaf , about 100 feet high , with level top , on which are remains of intrenchments . One perpendicular breastwork is still remaining , plainly indicating a parapet and ditch . " In 1833 , another individual visiting the hill described " the remains of a wall which runs around the whole exactly on the brow , and within a deep ditch or intrenchment running round the whole summit . " In 1898 , I.P. Shepard created a sketch of Spanish Hill , including the portions still visible at the time as well as those no longer extant . Shepard enlisted the assistance of a longtime local resident , Charles Henry Shepard , who claimed to remember " fortifications as consisting of an embankment with a trench behind , giving a height of four or five feet on the inside . " In addition , an indent was discovered on the site which was pronounced to be a corn cache by Beauchamp .
According to John S. Clark , a surveyor and historian active in the area until the early twentieth century , the topography and size of the site were appropriate to correspond with Brûlé 's description of Carantouan ; Brûlé described a palisaded town , populated by approximately 800 warriors and 4 @,@ 000 individuals in total . He also described the dwellings and fortifications as being similar to those utilized by the Wyandot people . Clark 's conclusions were based in part on surveys he conducted at the site in 1878 , when he observed what he believed were fortifications atop the hill . Amateur archaeologist Ellsworth C. Cowles conducted an excavation at the base of the hill in 1932 , uncovering what he described as " seventy five postholes extending east and west , " as well as the " effigy of a huge animal . "
= = History = =
Originally created by receding glaciers , Spanish Hill comprises approximately 10 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) of earth in a site that is part of the Sayre quadrangle . Located at an elevation of 978 feet ( 298 m ) above sea level , it rises approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) over the nearby floodplain of the Chemung River . The hill is located in South Waverly , Pennsylvania , in Bradford County , just south of the state border with New York , inside of territory once occupied by the Susquehannock people . It has been acknowledged and studied by historians and archaeologists for over two hundred years . The source of the name is unknown , but individuals traveling through the area between 1795 and 1804 described " Spanish Ramparts " as a feature of the hill , and some of the earliest settlers to the region report that local Native Americans referred to the hill either as " Hispan " or " Espan . " In 1615 , Étienne Brûlé was sent to the area by Samuel de Champlain to meet with Native American tribes in the hope of finding assistance to fight the Iroquois , against whom Champlain had allied with the Wyandot people . During his voyage , Brûlé recorded a town called Carantouan ( meaning " Big Tree , " according to ethnologist William Martin Beauchamp ) , which was subsequently included on a map published by de Champlain in 1632 . In the early nineteenth @-@ century , a Native American man who lived in the area near Spanish Hill reportedly refused to ascend it , for fear of a deadly spirit that lived on top . According to the man , the spirit spoke with a thunderous voice and " made holes through Indians ' bodies . " Archaeologist Louise Welles Murray suggested that this could be a reference to cannon or musket fire .
In the early twentieth century , archaeological and historical research was conducted regarding a potential connection between Carantouan and the structures described on the hill . After surveying the area in spring and fall , archaeologist L.D. Shoemaker discovered evidence of Native American habitation , including shell heaps , corn and flint chips , along with various other implements . In 1918 , historian and archaeologist George P. Donehoo , after a survey of the site , determined that it was impossible for Spanish Hill to have been the site of the town described by Brûlé . He cited the sharp incline , which would have made ascension difficult , as well as the lack of water and archaeological evidence on the hill as evidence against it having been the location of Carantouan . Speculation that Spanish Hill was the site of the village was also countered by James Bennett Griffin , who found nothing of interest in the area following an archaeological survey in 1931 . However , historian Deb Twigg suggests that prior excavations conducted by early twentieth @-@ century archaeologist Warren Moorehead , as well as years of heavy farming activity in the area may have contributed to the lack of artifacts found during the Griffin expedition . As Twig wrote : “ Until more information is known , it seems imprudent to eliminate Spanish Hill as a possible site related to the nation of Carantouan , as some researchers have done . ”
The site was a popular location , both for archaeological excavations and amateur collecting . According to Twigg , Spanish Hill was " looted " by Moorehead , and his finds likely sold to collectors . In addition , the area was heavily scoured by relic collectors approximately since the early nineteenth @-@ century .
On October 15 , 1915 , the Historical Society of Bradford County , Pennsylvania , dedicated a memorial on Spanish Hill in honor of the tricentennial of the arrival of Brûlé to the present @-@ day border of Pennsylvania . Later , in 1939 , Section of Painting and Sculpture artist Musa McKim depicted the hill in a mural entitled " Spanish Hill and the Early Inhabitants of the Vicinity , " for display in the United States Post Office branch of nearby Waverly , New York . The hill was nearly demolished and used for highway fill in 1970 , but the efforts were reportedly halted due to lobbying by local amateur archaeologist Ellsworth Cowles .
= S.R. 819 =
" S.R. 819 " is the ninth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 17 , 1999 in the United States . The episode was written by John Shiban , and directed by Daniel Sackheim . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " S.R. 819 " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 1 , being watched by 15 @.@ 7 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully have 24 hours to save Assistant Director Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) from a biologically engineered disease . In order to combat the disease , Scully looks for a medical answer , while Mulder searches for the culprits behind the attack on Skinner 's life . To aid him in this task , Mulder reaches out to Senator Matheson , whom he hopes can help him find who is responsible before time runs out .
Before the writing of " S.R. 819 " , the writers for The X @-@ Files felt that the character of Walter Skinner was becoming too " expendable " . John Shiban , the writer of the episode , decided to re @-@ work Skinner back into the series ' mythology by crafting the episode around him . Mitch Pileggi had to endure long bouts of make @-@ up application , a process that he admitted he " hated " . The nanobots in the blood sample were designed on a computer and then rendered for the final footage .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) unwell and horribly discolored in hospital . His veins are a sickly purple hue and are pulsating ominously . Suddenly , he goes into cardiac arrest and the doctors begin to pronounce him dead .
Twenty @-@ four hours earlier , Skinner loses a boxing match after experiencing a dizzy spell . He is discharged from the hospital but Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) witness a bruise on his ribs growing . After trawling through security footage from the entrance to the J. Edgar Hoover Building , Scully recognizes a physicist by the name of Dr. Kenneth Orgel , who advises the Senate subcommittee on ethics and new technology , who stopped Skinner in the hall that same morning . Mulder and Skinner travel to the physicist 's house but find he is being held hostage . Mulder apprehends one of the kidnappers , who does not speak English . They release him since he has papers showing diplomatic immunity . Mulder does a background check on him anyway .
The background check leads Mulder to Senator Richard Matheson ( Raymond J. Barry ) , which results in a dead end . Scully discovers Skinner 's blood sample and , after checking , she finds that Skinner 's blood contains multiplying carbon . Meanwhile , Skinner ends up in hospital following a gunfight in the FBI parking garage . Mulder and Scully reunite at the hospital , where Mulder tells Scully that Skinner was investigating a health funding bill called S.R. 819 . Later , the physicist dies of the same carbon blood condition from which Skinner is sick .
Skinner remembers having seen , on numerous occasions , a bearded man who showed up suspiciously and who is actually running the scheme . He saves Skinner and sacrifices one of his own men . The case is closed and Skinner is , once again , aggravated with the agents , ordering them to report exclusively to Assistant Director Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . The bearded man was actually Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , a rogue FBI agent who formerly worked for the Syndicate , who continues to control the potentially debilitating nanotechnology in Skinner 's system .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The character of Walter Skinner had evolved over the course of The X @-@ Files ' sixth season . At the start of season six , however , the producers and writers felt that Skinner 's character was becoming " expendable " . With their transfer away from the X @-@ Files division , Mulder and Scully saw less and less of their former boss . Originally , John Shiban , the writer of the episode , wanted to infect Mulder with nanobots . However , he decided that since the audience knew Mulder would not be killed , this plot would not be very effective . In order to compensate for this loss , Shiban decided to re @-@ work Skinner back into the series mythology by putting him in Mulder 's place . Shiban , inspired by the 1950 noir film D.O.A. and its 1988 remake which he jokingly called " [ two ] pretty bad movies " , decided to craft an episode of The X @-@ Files around the conceit of " a guy who 's been poisoned [ and ] has only a short time to live and has to use that time to find out why and by whom he 's being murdered " .
Shiban began crafting his story by borrowing a nanobot plot that had been considered by various writers for several seasons . Shiban and the rest of the writers made it a point to give Alex Krycek control over Skinner . In this manner , Skinner once again became a mysterious character , one whose true loyalties were being tested . Shiban noted that , " [ Krycek 's control ] gives Skinner an agenda that Mulder doesn 't know about [ ... ] Which was something we ultimately used again in the seasonender [ sic ] , and will carry us into next year " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
Originally , a " time @-@ consuming " fight scene between Skinner and Krycek was supposed to take place . The scenes were cut because of time @-@ constraints and budgetary reasons . However , Skinner 's boxing match proved easy to stage . Mitch Pileggi , who had boxed competitively in college , went for " refresher course [ s ] " at the Goosen Gym in Los Angeles . He later remarked , " It makes me happy that some people will assume there was a stunt double in the ring . There wasn 't ! [ ... ] We both had a pretty good time " . Location manager Ilt Jones called " S.R. 819 " the " damn parking lot episode " . He was tasked with finding the variety of parking lots used in the episode . He later joked that , " I started to wake up screaming about barriers and parking tickets and entrances and exit ramps " .
Pileggi had to endure long bouts of make @-@ up application . To create the principal illusion of monstrous veins , long black faux @-@ veins were glued onto his face , arms , and torso . Pileggi , who had had to endure little to no make @-@ up during the early seasons , noted that , " They did a beautiful job and [ the veins ] looked awesome , but man , I hated it ! I really don 't know how those guys on Star Trek or Babylon 5 can stand having that done to them every day . I just wouldn 't work if that 's what it took " . To show the nanobot infection progressing , special effects makeup supervisor John Vulich used two different make @-@ up sets . The two sets were then mixed together electronically in post @-@ production to give the effect of disease progression . The nanobots in the blood sample were designed on a computer and then cloned with an animation program . Composer Mark Snow 's score for the episode was inspired by Daniel Sackheim 's " big @-@ time feature @-@ like action " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" S.R. 819 " first aired in the United States on January 17 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 2 , 1999 and received 690 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the second most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " He has 24 hours to solve his own murder ... or die . " The episode was nominated for three 2000 Emmy Awards by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
The episode was met with mixed to positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying , " ' S.R. 819 ' re @-@ established some wonderful conspiracy overtones and perhaps set the stage for more interesting developments in the future . It touched base with the very roots The X @-@ Files sprung out of and did so in strong fashion . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V Club gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it a " B " . He enjoyed the plot , calling it " fun " , praised the twist ending , and called the nanobot makeup effects " legitimately terrifying " . He did , however , write critically of Skinner 's role in the episode , noting that his lack of presence made the entry a " disappointing one " . In addition , VanDerWerff criticized the fact that the teaser shows Skinner dying ; he wrote that " [ t ] here ’ s very little gas in the idea of Skinner dying " and that most of the viewers knew he would not die .
Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris cited severe problems with " Skinner 's emotional journey " as the main detractors for the episode . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , on the other hand , awarded the episode two out of five stars in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen . The two , despite writing positively of the " traditional X @-@ File " feel , called the episode " a return to the sort of murky storylining which promises so much but delivers so little " .
= Paranthodon =
Paranthodon ( pə @-@ RAN @-@ thə @-@ don ) is a genus of extinct stegosaurian dinosaur that lived in South Africa during the Early Cretaceous , approximately 145 @.@ 5 – 136 @.@ 4 million years ago . Discovered in 1845 , it was one of the first stegosaurians found . Its only remains , a partial skull and isolated teeth , were found in the Kirkwood Formation . Although Owen initially identified the fragments as those of the pareiasaur Anthodon , after years of storage in the British Museum of Natural History , Broom identified the partial skull as belonging to a different genus , and named the specimen Palaeoscincus africanus . Several years later , Nopcsa , unaware of Broom 's new name , similarly concluded that it represented a new taxon , and named the binomial Paranthodon owenii . However , since the Nopcsa 's species name was assigned after Broom 's , and Broom did not assign a new genus , both names are now synonyms under the current naming , Paranthodon africanus . The genus name was chosen from the Ancient Greek para , " near " and Anthodon , for the originally proposed similarity of the specimens .
In identifying the remains as those of Palaeoscincus , Broom basically classified Paranthodon as an ankylosaurian , a statement backed by the research of Coombs . Nopcsa however , identified the genus as a stegosaurid , which most modern studies agree with . In 1981 , the genus was reviewed , and found to be a valid genus of stegosaurid . Paranthodon is one of a few genera found in the Kirkwood Formation ; other such taxa include theropods , like Nqwebasaurus ; ornithopods ; and sauropods , like Algoasaurus .
= = Discovery and naming = =
In 1845 , amateur geologists William Guybon Atherstone and Andrew Geddes Bain discovered several fossils near Dassieklip , Cape Province , in the Bushmans River Valley . This was the first dinosaur find in all of the Southern Hemisphere and Africa . In 1849 and 1853 , Bain sent some of the fossils to the British paleontologist Richard Owen for identification . Among them was an upper jaw Bain referred to as the " Cape Iguanodon " ; as such the site was named " Iguanodonhoek " . Atherstone published about the find in 1857 , but lamented in 1871 that it had thus far received no attention in London . Only in 1876 did Owen name a series of specimens from the collection as Anthodon serrarius . Anthodon means " flower tooth " . The partial holotype skull BMNH 47337 , the left jaw BMNH 47338 , the matrix BMNH 47338 including bone fragments and impressions of the anterior skull , and the vertebrae BMNH 47337a were all assigned to Anthodon . In 1882 , Othniel Charles Marsh assigned Anthodon to Stegosauridae based on BMNH 47338 , and in 1890 , Richard Lydekker found that although Anthodon was a pareiasaur , its teeth were similar to those of Stegosauridae .
In 1909 , the South @-@ African paleontologist Robert Broom visited the collection of the British Museum of Natural History . He concluded that Owen had mixed the partial distorted skull , teeth , and a mandible of a pareiasaur and a partial upper jaw of a dinosaur BMNH 47338 , which were actually from two different species . Broom kept the name Anthodon for the pareiasaur , but identified the other fossil as a member of the genus Palaeoscincus , naming the new species Paleoscincus africanus in 1912 . He found that the anatomy of the teeth were quite different , even thought they resembled each other , as well as those of Stegosaurus . In 1929 , Baron Franz Nopcsa , unaware of Broom 's previous publication , provided a new name for Broom 's P. africanus , as D.M.S. Watson believed that the jaw should be differentiated from Anthodon . Nopcsa named the species Paranthodon Owenii , with the genus name derived from the Latin para , meaning " similar " , " near " , or " beside " , and Anthodon , and specific name honoring Owen . Due to present conventions , the specific name was later emended to owenii . In 1978 , Walter Coombs incorporated both names into the current nomenclature , Paranthodon africanus , as Paranthodon was the first new genus for the fossils and africanus was the first named species . This makes Palaeoscincus africanus and Paranthodon owenii junior synonyms of Paranthodon africanus .
The holotype of Paranthodon , BMNH 47338 , was found in a layer of the Kirkwood Formation dated between the Berriasian and early Valanginian ages . It consists of the back of the snout , containing the maxilla with teeth , the posterior caudodorsal ramus of the premaxilla , part of the nasals , and some isolated teeth probably from the lower jaw . One additional specimen can be assigned to it based on the dentition , BMNH 47992 , including only isolated teeth sharing the same morphology as those from the holotype . However , the teeth do not bear any autapomorphies of Paranthodon , and were referred to an indeterminate stegosaurid in 2008 .
= = Description = =
Paranthodon was a small stegosaurid relative to larger relatives such as Stegosaurus . Thomas R. Holtz Jr. estimated that the animal was 5 @.@ 0 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) long and weighed between 454 and 907 kg ( 1 @,@ 001 and 2 @,@ 000 lb ) . The snout is elongated , though not extremely so , and convex on top . The back of the premaxilla is long and broad , and the external nares are large . The teeth have a prominent primary ridge . The fossilized nasal and maxillary bones are relatively complete , and an incomplete premaxilla is also preserved . The partial snout resembles Stegosaurus in its large posterior premaxillary process and the extension of the palate . However , Stegosaurus is the only stegosaurid known from adequate cranial material to compare with Paranthodon , and even though their resemblance is great , tooth morphology is very distinguishing among the stegosaurians . For example , cranial material is only known from Stegosaurus , Paranthodon , Kentrosaurus , and Tuojiangosaurus , and in all of them , the tooth morphology differs .
The maxilla of Paranthodon preserves the tooth row , and shows that there is little to no overhang . This differs from ankylosaurians , where there is a large amount of overhang of the maxilla . The teeth also have a middle ridge , with five fewer prominent ridges on either side . This is similar to the size ridges seen on Kentrosaurus . Like all stegosaurians , the denticles on the teeth are rounded at the tips , in contrast to ankylosaurians . Also , like Huayangosaurus , but unlike Kentrosaurus and Stegosaurus , Paranthodon possesses a prominent buccal margination ( a ridge beside the tooth row ) . Paranthodon teeth preserve wear , possibly cause by rubbing with other teeth . However , wear is absent on most teeth , similar to Huayangosaurus , meaning it is likely that Paranthodon lacked occlusion between teeth . Paranthodon is distinguished from other stegosaurs by a long , wide , posterior process of the premaxilla , teeth in the maxilla with a very large cingulum , and large ridges on the tooth crowns . Not all of these features were considered valid in a 2008 review of Stegosauria , with the only autapomorphy found being the possession of a partial second bony palate on the maxilla .
= = Classification = =
Currently , Paranthodon is classified as a stegosaurus related to Stegosaurus , Tuojiangosaurus , and Loricatosaurus . However , when Broom assigned the name Palaeoscincus africanus to the Paranthodon fossils , he classified them as an ankylosaurian . This classification was later changed by Nopcsa , who found that Paranthodon best resembled a stegosaurid ( before the group was truly defined ) . Coombs ( 1978 ) found Paranthodon to be an ankylosaurian , like Brooms , naming it Ankylosauria incertae sedis . However , in reviews by Galton in 1981 , it was found to instead represent a stegosaurid from the Late Cretaceous . Multiple phylogenetic analyses have placed Paranthodon in Stegosauria , and often in Stegosauridae . A 2010 analysis including nearly all species of stegosaurians found that Paranthodon was outside Stegosauridae , and in a polytomy with Tuojiangosaurus , Huayangosaurus , Chungkingosaurus , Jiangjunosaurus , and Gigantspinosaurus . However , when the latter two genera were removed , Paranthodon grouped with Tuojiangosaurus just outside Stegosauridae , and Huayangosaurus grouped with Chungkingosaurus in Huayangosauridae . Below is the analysis with all included genera .
Other analyses have found Paranthodon closely related to Tuojiangosaurus , Loricatosaurus , and Kentrosaurus within Stegosaurinae . Even though phylogenetic analyses recognize Paranthodon as a stegosaurid , the type material actually bears no synapomorphies of Stegosauria . However , the material is likely of stegosaurian nature , and phylogenies by many authors have found it to be within the group .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Kirkwood Formation is in South Africa , and many fossils of different species and genera have been discovered in it , with Paranthodon being the first uncovered . The formation is of a Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age , with the oldest deposits from the Tithonian , about 145 @.@ 5 million years ago , and the youngest rocks being from the Valanginian , about 136 @.@ 4 million years ago . A large variety of different animal groups have been found in the formation , including dinosaurs , at least two different sphenodontian lizards , multiple teleost fishes , a few crocodylians , some frog specimens , and also turtles . However , a large amount of the material of the Kirkwood formation only includes isolated teeth or partial and fragmentary pieces of bone . Dinosaurs of the formation include a basal tetanuran and the primitive ornithomimosaurian Nqwebasaurus , the possible brachiosaurid Algoasaurus and a potential titanosaurian , and many ornithischians , Paranthodon , a genus of iguanodontian , and a " hypsilophodontid " ( the family Hypsilophodontidae is no longer considered to be a natural grouping ) .
= History of Bradford City A.F.C. =
Bradford City Association Football Club — also known informally as Bradford City — are an English football club founded in Bradford in 1903 to introduce the sport to the West Riding of Yorkshire , which until then had been almost entirely inclined towards rugby league . Before they had even played their first game , City were elected to the Football League to replace Doncaster Rovers in Division Two , and took over the Valley Parade stadium , which has been their permanent home ground ever since . The club won the Division Two title in 1908 and the FA Cup in 1911 , both under the management of Peter O 'Rourke , before they were relegated from Division One in 1921 – 22 .
City were relegated again five seasons later , but when O 'Rourke was reappointed as manager before the 1928 – 29 season , they broke several club records to earn promotion back to Division Two . After eight seasons in Division Two , City returned to Division Three , and they remained in the third and fourth tiers of the English football league system until 1985 – 86 . During that time , they endured several periods of financial hardship , and in 1985 , their ground suffered a disastrous fire in which 56 people died , on a day the club and their fans were supposed to be celebrating promotion .
In 1987 – 88 , the club came close to returning to the top division when they missed out on promotion on the final day of the season . Following relegation back to Division Three , after Geoffrey Richmond became chairman in January 1994 the club 's fortunes were lifted . He helped to take them to their first appearance at Wembley and subsequently into the Premier League , where they played for two seasons . Following Richmond 's self @-@ proclaimed " six weeks of madness " and the collapse of television channel ITV Digital , the club suffered its first spell in administration . Another period under administration followed , and City dropped through the leagues of professional English football back to the bottom tier of The Football League , until promotion in 2012 – 13 brought them back up a division . In January 2013 , City became the first club from the fourth tier of English football since 1962 to reach the Football League Cup final , and the first fourth @-@ tier club ever to reach a major Wembley Cup Final .
= = Early successes ( 1903 – 19 ) = =
League football was established in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1894 when the West Yorkshire League was formed . A year later the Bradford Schools Football and Athletic Association abandoned its rugby roots to adopt the association football code . Several clubs across Bradford , including Bradford ( Park Avenue ) , also adopted the code during the latter years of the 19th century . By 1901 , a team called Bradford City had played in the leagues within the city , playing for two seasons , but disbanded at the end of the 1902 – 03 season . On 30 January 1903 , Scotsman James Whyte , a sub @-@ editor of the Bradford Observer , met with Football Association representative John Brunt at Valley Parade , the home of Manningham Football Club , to discuss establishing a Football League club within the city . Manningham FC were a rugby league club formed in 1880 and became a founding member of the Northern Rugby Football Union in 1895 . A series of meetings was held , and on 29 May 1903 , at the 23rd annual meeting of Manningham FC , the committee decided to leave the rugby code and switch to association football . The Football League , which saw the invitation as a chance to introduce football to the rugby league @-@ dominated area of the West Riding , elected the club , which had been renamed Bradford City , to the league with a total of 30 votes to replace Doncaster Rovers .
Bradford City became the first league football team from the county , before they even had a team or played a game . They and Chelsea , who were elected to the league two years later , share the distinction of being the only clubs to join the league without having played a competitive fixture . A summer archery contest , which had been organised to raise money for the rugby league club , was used to finance the new club , and Manningham 's colours of claret and amber were adopted as Bradford City 's kit , but with Manningham 's hoops changed to stripes .
Robert Campbell was appointed by a 13 @-@ man sub @-@ committee to be the club 's first secretary @-@ manager from a shortlist of 30 applicants . Secretarial duties were carried out by committee member Whyte , with Campbell 's role more on the playing side . The committee assembled a squad at the cost of £ 917 10s 0d . Their first game was a 2 – 0 defeat away at Grimsby Town on 1 September 1903 , and first home game was six days later against Gainsborough Trinity , played in front of a crowd of 11 @,@ 000 including the Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress of Bradford . It was not until the third game against Burton United that the club recorded their first victory , on the way to a 10th @-@ place finish in Division Two . The club faced having to apply for re @-@ election in their second season , until five wins in the final six games lifted the club to eighth position . In November 1905 , Peter O 'Rourke , one of the club 's centre @-@ halves , was appointed manager , with his last game as a player coming the following month . He guided City to finishes of 11th and fifth and then earned promotion to Division One in 1907 – 08 . The season had started with an 8 – 1 victory over Chesterfield and included another six victories when City scored five goals or more , before promotion and then the title were assured with successive victories over Derby County and Burnley in April .
Ahead of their first campaign in Division One , Bradford City embarked upon their first continental tour ; despite victories over German side Aachen and Belgian club Verviers , the club 's first league victory in the top division did not come until the fifth attempt with a 4 – 1 defeat of Bury . It was their only win in the first 14 games . Results improved in the second half of the season but it was not until a 1 – 0 win on the final game of the season against Manchester United with a goal from Frank O 'Rourke that City prevented an immediate relegation back to Division Two . The following season included a ten @-@ game undefeated spell as Bradford finished seventh , but this was bettered in the 1910 – 11 season , which is Bradford City 's most successful campaign . Their league finish of fifth remains the club 's highest position , and an FA Cup triumph , with a 1 – 0 win over Newcastle United in the 1911 final is the club 's only major honour . The first- and third @-@ round victories were secured with solitary goals from Dicky Bond , but he missed the final four games of the run because of club suspension , the first of which was a 1 – 0 defeat of Burnley in the fourth round in front of 39 @,@ 146 fans , a crowd which remains Valley Parade 's highest attendance . The biggest win of the run came in the semi @-@ finals with a 3 – 0 victory over Blackburn Rovers . City 's supporters were taken to the final in London on 11 special trains , but the game with Newcastle at Crystal Palace ended in a goalless draw and was even described as a " decidedly dull and uneventful game " . The draw meant a replay was necessary . It took place four days later on 26 April 1911 at Old Trafford , Manchester , when a single goal from Jimmy Speirs in the 15th minute gave Bradford a 1 – 0 victory . They were the first winners of a new trophy , appropriately made by Bradford jewellers Fattorini 's .
Bradford 's defence of the FA Cup was ended in the fourth round by Barnsley , who went on to succeed Bradford as the holders . The 3 – 2 defeat , played at Bramall Lane , Sheffield , following two draws , brought an end to 11 consecutive clean sheets in the FA Cup — a competition record . The sequence also included a 12th clean sheet in the second replay against Barnsley which was abandoned because of crowd trouble . The cup run had included the first Bradford derby between City and cross @-@ city rivals Bradford ( Park Avenue ) . In the league , City finished 11th , the first of four consecutive mid @-@ table finishes before league football was suspended because of the First World War . City 's FA Cup hero Speirs , who had joined Leeds City , was one of many footballers to lose his life during the war . Bradford City players who died included Bob Torrance , another FA Cup winner , and Evelyn Lintott , as well as several reserve team players . Frank Buckley and Jock Ewart were seriously wounded , and Dicky Bond was taken prisoner @-@ of @-@ war . In 1921 , Bond laid a commemorative wreath on the Cenotaph in memory of his fallen colleagues prior to a league game at Arsenal .
= = Inter @-@ war years ( 1919 – 38 ) = =
With several retirements during the war , it was a new @-@ look side that took to the field for the 1919 – 20 season , when league football resumed . The 15th @-@ place finish in the league was City 's lowest since their first season in Division One , and a fourth @-@ round FA Cup exit away at Bristol City was blamed on a pre @-@ game trip to Fry 's chocolate works . It was a position replicated the following season . After ten campaigns in Division One , City were relegated back to Division Two , when they lost all of their final five games of the 1921 – 22 season . It would be 77 years until Bradford City again competed in the top division of English football .
Having lost O 'Rourke as manager in 1921 , after he had struggled to cope with the death of his son two years earlier , Bradford 's results suffered back in Division Two . Both Bradford City and Bradford ( Park Avenue ) had been relegated in 1922 , and with the rise of fellow West Yorkshire side Huddersfield Town , attendances in Bradford dropped . City 's average attendance fell from a record high of 22 @,@ 585 in 1920 – 21 to between 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 in Division Two . Five consecutive bottom half finishes culminated in relegation to Division Three ( North ) in 1926 – 27 , when they finished bottom of the table following a then record 8 – 0 defeat to Manchester City on the final day of the season . New manager Colin Veitch missed out on guiding the club to an immediate promotion when they finished sixth , but at the end of the season the players had not been paid and the bank was unable to advance any more money because of the club 's overdraft . Had it not been for donations by fans , Bradford City would not have started the following campaign . A new board was appointed , and they reinstated Peter O 'Rourke as manager . Success was immediate , when the 1928 – 29 season started with a record 11 – 1 victory over Rotherham United , as the side scored a club record 128 goals to earn promotion by just one point . City 's successful team had also brought the fans back and the average attendance of 18 @,@ 551 is the highest average recorded by the club , since 1925 , when The Football League started to keep official records .
O 'Rourke left for a second time in May 1930 , after he resigned because he was not allowed to sign a player he wanted . City spent eight seasons back in Division Two but the nearest they came to stepping up to the top flight was in 1933 – 34 when at one point they topped the division . Their sixth @-@ place finish was the highest position since the club had been in Division One and would not be bettered until the 1980s . Relegation back to Division Three ( North ) came in 1936 – 37 . City were runners @-@ up in the Division Three North Challenge Cup a year later before they won the same competition in the last year before league football was again suspended because of war .
= = Lower divisions ( 1946 – 81 ) = =
New manager Jack Barker lasted just eight months until he was replaced by former Leeds United player Jack Milburn upon the resumption of league football in 1946 . Milburn led City to fifth position in his first season but only lasted another season himself . With only one team promoted from Division Three ( North ) each season , City remained at that level until they were placed in Division Three in 1958 – 59 after a league re @-@ organisation , following a 20 @-@ year high position of third the previous season . In 1960 , eight years after part of the ground 's Midland Road stand had been closed following examinations of the foundations ordered as a result of the 1946 Burnden Park disaster , the entire stand was closed , leaving the ground with just three stands . After just three years in Division Three , City dropped into Division Four in 1960 – 61 , although that season they did defeat Division One side Manchester United in City 's first ever League Cup tie . United , like many other top flight clubs , would not enter the competition again until six years later .
Despite a club record 9 – 1 defeat to Colchester United on 30 December 1961 , City came fifth in 1961 – 62 , thanks to David Layne 's 34 league goals — his total remains a club record for a season — but missed out on promotion by just one point . Layne left for Sheffield Wednesday and City finished 23rd the following season , forcing them to apply for re @-@ election . In 1966 , the club directors moved the pitch 2 @.@ 74 metres ( 3 @.@ 00 yd ) closer to the main stand , creating enough space for them to add a new safe standing area on the Midland Road side of the ground and open all four stands for the first time since 1960 . Attendances continued to drop and a new record low of 1 @,@ 353 was set on 12 May 1966 against Wrexham . It prompted chairman Stafford Heginbotham to hold a crisis meeting in the city 's St George 's Hall to raise new funds and safeguard the future of the club . The club 's indifferent form on the field continued , with another re @-@ election and two narrow promotion failures , before promotion was gained in 1968 – 69 . Only the previous season , City had had three managers , when Grenville Hair , who had replaced Willie Watson , died just two months into his reign , after he collapsed at the end of a training session .
Striker Bobby Ham , whose 18 goals had helped City into Division Three , was again top goalscorer the following season , but the club 's stint in Division Three was short @-@ lived . Once Ham , and fellow Bradford @-@ born striker Bruce Bannister , who scored 60 goals during seven seasons with the club , both left , City were relegated back into the bottom division in 1971 – 72 . The spell in Division Three had also been notable for the debut of Ces Podd , who went on to play a record 502 league games during 14 seasons with the club . City spent five seasons back in Division Four . In 1975 – 76 they had their best FA Cup run in more than 50 years after defeating Norwich City , before they were knocked out in the quarter @-@ finals by eventual winners Southampton 1 – 0 . A year later more than 40 goals from the trio of Dominican striker Joe Cooke , Terry Dolan and Don Hutchins helped City to another promotion when they finished in fourth position . The club 's board failed to strengthen the squad the following season , resulting in an instant return to Division Four . Under new manager George Mulhall , City spent three seasons in mid @-@ table , although a late spell of form nearly earned promotion in 1979 – 80 .
= = Bantam progressivism ( 1981 – 90 ) = =
In May 1981 , City appointed former England international defender Roy McFarland as their new manager . After starting the 1981 – 82 season with a defeat and a draw , City went top of the table during a run of nine successive league victories , equalling a 30 @-@ year club record . The run came to an end against Sheffield United in front of 13 @,@ 711 fans at Valley Parade , producing then club record gate receipts of £ 17 @,@ 938 . Arctic conditions across Britain meant City played only once during December , but they went back to the top of the Division Four table in January . City finished the season second , five points behind Sheffield United , and were promoted back to Division Three . Three months into the following campaign , McFarland and his assistant Mick Jones handed in their resignation and left for Derby County . Derby had to pay a large fine and compensation to City for poaching the pair . Chairman Bob Martin turned to another England centre @-@ back and appointed Trevor Cherry as McFarland 's replacement from West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United . Cherry and assistant Terry Yorath continued to build on McFarland 's start to the period which would later be called " Bantam Progressivism " by fanzine The City Gent . Despite not recording their first win for more than two months , the pair guided City to 12th position .
The club were again in financial difficulties , and in June 1983 , Martin called in the receivers and the club was put up for sale . A Save Bradford City Fund was launched on 24 July , and former chairman Stafford Heginbotham and former board member Jack Tordoff bought the club , forming a new company , and enabling the team to start the new league campaign . Centre forward Bobby Campbell was sold to Derby County to balance the books and John Hawley brought in as his replacement . City struggled on the pitch and won just one of their first 15 games leaving them in the relegation zone . Campbell had played just 11 games during four months with Derby and so he returned to Bradford initially on a loan transfer . His return coincided with a club record ten successive league victories . Campbell finished the season with nine goals , Hawley with 22 , but City finished seventh and missed out on promotion .
The good form continued the following season , and from October to mid @-@ December 1984 , City embarked on a 13 @-@ match unbeaten run , during which time Campbell became the club 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer , beating Frank O 'Rourke 's 70 @-@ year @-@ old record . City went top of the division and held onto their lead , opening an 11 @-@ point cushion by February . Promotion was secured in April and the club 's first championship title since 1929 after a 2 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers . The success was overshadowed when fire ripped through Valley Parade 's main stand 40 minutes into the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 against Lincoln City . A total of 56 people died and the club did not play another game at Valley Parade for nearly 20 months .
City instead played home games at Elland Road , Leeds Road and Odsal during the 1985 – 86 season , when they came 13th , and for the first half of the 1986 – 87 campaign . They returned to Valley Parade , which had undergone a £ 2.6m redevelopment , on Boxing Day 1986 against Derby County . After managing the side during the financial hardship and time away from their home ground , Cherry was dismissed only ten days after the return to Valley Parade . Club coach Terry Dolan was appointed as manager and he led the side away from relegation and to a finish of 10th place . By September 1987 , Dolan 's side topped Division Two for the first time in 54 years . They finished fourth after a final day defeat to Ipswich Town and missed out on promotion after they lost to Middlesbrough in the play @-@ offs . Leading players Stuart McCall and John Hendrie , who had both stayed for another season in a bid to take City into Division One , both left , and within two seasons City again dropped into Division Three . In January 1988 Stafford Heginbotham resigned as the Club 's Chairman due to ill health .
= = Richmond era and administration ( 1990 onwards ) = =
For three seasons , City finished in mid @-@ table in Division Three and the new Division Two , when the leagues were renamed following the formation of the Premier League . In January 1994 , Geoffrey Richmond took over as chairman . He cleared the debts , loaned the club £ 2 @.@ 3 million , and promised the fans he would take the club to the Premier League within five years . In his first season as chairman , the club finished in seventh place with Frank Stapleton as manager . Stapleton was sacked and was replaced by Lennie Lawrence . Lawrence could only finish 14th in his first season , before he left for Luton Town in November 1995 to be replaced by his assistant Chris Kamara .
Kamara secured a play @-@ off spot with a final day victory over Hull City , before City defeated Blackpool in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals . The final against Notts County was City 's first game at Wembley . Goals from Des Hamilton and Mark Stallard gave them a 2 – 0 win , which secured promotion to Division One . Kamara used 42 players in 1996 – 97 when City avoided relegation with a 3 – 0 victory in the final game against Queens Park Rangers . Kamara was sacked in January 1998 after an FA Cup defeat to Manchester City , when Richmond claimed the manager had taken the club as far as he could . Richmond again elevated from within and Paul Jewell , who had been at the club since 1988 , was installed as manager , originally on a caretaker basis . He was appointed full @-@ time in May 1998 and Richmond backed his new appointment with a multi @-@ million transfer budget . Jewell signed strikers Lee Mills , from Port Vale and Isaiah Rankin , from Arsenal , for £ 1 million and £ 1 @.@ 3 million respectively , and signed former captain Stuart McCall from Rangers on a free transfer to lead the side . Despite a poor start , the club secured promotion to the top division for the first time in 77 years with a 3 – 2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers in the final game of the 1998 – 99 season .
City 's success meant that Dean Windass , who had signed from Oxford United in March , became the club 's third £ 1 million signing of the season . Windass had originally been signed for £ 950 @,@ 000 , but an additional fee of £ 50 @,@ 000 was paid to Oxford because of City 's promotion . Jewell broke the club 's transfer record to add a fourth seven @-@ figure signing when he paid £ 1 @.@ 4 million to Leeds United for David Wetherall . Jewell added other senior players including Neil Redfearn and Dean Saunders , prompting the media to call his team " Dad 's Army " . When City defeated Middlesbrough 1 – 0 with a late goal from Saunders , his goal celebration mocked the critics ' comments . City failed to win another game until their eighth game of the season , and Sky Sports pundit Rodney Marsh said they would be relegated and promised to shave off his hair at a home game if they avoided such a fate . A run of nine home games without defeat and consecutive victories in April gave City hope of avoiding relegation on the final day of the season . A final day 1 – 0 victory over Liverpool , with a goal from Wetherall , who had played every minute of the season , and Wimbledon 's defeat , meant City survived with a record low of 36 points .
Less than two months after City stayed up , Jewell left to join Sheffield Wednesday , to be replaced by his assistant , Chris Hutchings . The club entered the Intertoto Cup , the first time they had competed in a European competition , in which they were defeated by FC Zenit Saint Petersburg in the semi @-@ finals . Richmond gave Hutchings more money than Jewell to spend in the transfer market , and Bradford paid a club record £ 2 @.@ 5 million for David Hopkin and £ 1 @.@ 5 million for Ashley Ward , and signed Italian striker Benito Carbone on wages of £ 40 @,@ 000 per week . Richmond also continued to re @-@ develop the ground , which increased the capacity to 25 @,@ 136 , but later referred to his spending as his " six weeks of madness " . In their second season in the Premier League , City struggled for form and Hutchings was sacked after a start to the season in which he recorded just one victory from 12 league games . Under new manager Jim Jefferies , the club were unable to avoid relegation , which was confirmed with a 2 – 1 defeat at Everton , when they missed two penalties , before finishing the season with just 26 points .
Jefferies was sacked in December 2001 following a training ground rift with captain McCall . Nicky Law was appointed his successor , and the club finished the season in 15th place . During the summer , with debts of nearly £ 13 million — as a result of the collapse of ITV Digital and the fall @-@ out from Richmond 's self @-@ proclaimed " six weeks of madness " — the club were forced into administration . The players were all released , but Carbone waived much of the money owed to him , to help the club survive under new owners Julian Rhodes and Gordon Gibb . City fulfilled their fixtures during the 2002 – 03 season but finished 19th .
Former England captain Bryan Robson took over as new manager during the following season , but , under his management , City won only seven games from 28 and were relegated in 23rd place . Robson left and was replaced by his assistant Colin Todd . The club went into administration for a second time , but Todd led them to 11th in each of the following two seasons . Following fan pressure and a poor run of results , Rhodes sacked Todd on 12 February 2007 , with City just three points above the relegation zone . Wetherall was appointed player @-@ manager on a temporary basis and then for the rest of the season , but City were relegated following a 3 – 0 defeat to Chesterfield . During the summer of 2007 , former midfielder Stuart McCall returned as manager with City in the bottom tier for the first time in 25 years . He set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season , but twice missed out on promotion before he left the club in February 2010 with City lying 16th in League Two .
In January 2013 , City became the first club from the fourth tier of English football since Rochdale in 1962 to reach the Football League Cup final , and the first fourth tier club ever to reach a major Wembley Cup Final . They defeated three Premier League sides en route to the final – Wigan Athletic 4 – 2 on penalties in the fourth round , Arsenal 3 – 2 on penalties in the quarter @-@ finals and Aston Villa 4 – 3 on aggregate over the two legs of the semi @-@ final . They met Premier League side Swansea City in the final at Wembley , but lost 0 – 5 . On 18 May 2013 , the club returned to Wembley where they defeated Northampton Town 3 – 0 in the League Two Playoff Final to secure a place in League One for 2013 – 14 . On 24 January 2015 , Bradford City caused an upset by beating Premier League leaders Chelsea 4 – 2 away in the FA Cup . The victory sent Bradford through to the fifth round for the first time in 18 years . There , they defeated another top @-@ flight team , Sunderland , to reach their first FA Cup semi @-@ final since 1976 , in front of their biggest home crowd for 50 years .
= Aerith Gainsborough =
Aerith Gainsborough ( Japanese : エアリス ・ ゲインズブール , Hepburn : Earisu Geinzubūru ) — transliterated Aeris Gainsborough in the English releases of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy Tactics — is a player character in Square 's ( now Square Enix ) role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . She was designed by Tetsuya Nomura with influence from Yoshinori Kitase , Hironobu Sakaguchi and Yoshitaka Amano .
In Final Fantasy VII , she is a young woman who joins the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . As the story progresses , AVALANCHE begin to pursue the game 's antagonist Sephiroth , and the player learns that she is the last surviving Cetra , or " Ancient " , one of the planet 's oldest races . She has also appeared in the later @-@ released Compilation of Final Fantasy VII and Kingdom Hearts series .
Her voice actor is Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese . In English releases , her voice actors are singer and actress Mandy Moore in Kingdom Hearts , actress Mena Suvari in Kingdom Hearts II and Final Fantasy VII Advent Children , and actress Andrea Bowen in Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . The character and the events surrounding her death in Final Fantasy VII have met with an overall positive reception from critics and fans .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =
Aerith Gainsborough is first introduced as a flower seller , when she briefly converses with Cloud Strife , a mercenary working for the anti @-@ government group AVALANCHE , who are fleeing from the bombing of a Mako reactor . The two later meet in Aerith 's church in the Sector 5 slums , where she is faced with the possibility of capture by the Turks . Aerith asks Cloud to be her bodyguard for the cost of one date . She is eventually apprehended , but is ultimately rescued by Cloud and his allies . Aerith then joins them in the pursuit of Sephiroth , while also embarking on her own journey of self @-@ discovery .
After a failed attempt to foil Sephiroth 's theft of the Black Materia , Aerith ventures alone into the Forgotten City . Cloud and his companions give chase , eventually finding her praying at an altar . As Aerith looks up to smile at Cloud , Sephiroth appears and kills her by impaling her through the torso . Cloud carries Aerith 's body out into a lake in the Forgotten City , and releases her back to the Planet . Reeve Tuesti , the head of Shinra Urban and Development , brings the news of her death to Elmyra Gainsborough , Aerith 's adoptive mother . The party later learns the reason for Aerith being in the Forgotten City ; through her White Materia , Aerith was able to summon Holy , the only force capable of repelling the ultimate destructive magic , Meteor , which has been summoned by Sephiroth . Although Aerith successfully cast Holy before her death , it is held back by the power of Sephiroth 's will . When Sephiroth is finally defeated and Holy is released , it appears that it is too late to function as effectively as it should , as Meteor has already come too near to the Planet 's surface . While Holy clashes with Meteor , attempting to prevent its impact , the gravity of both Meteor and the Planet pulling on Holy in opposite directions weakens it . Aerith is seen praying with both hands interlocked whilst urging the lifestream to ultimately defend the planet . The Planet 's Lifestream then flows forth , intervening between Holy and Meteor , and acting as a battering ram while aiding in the destruction of Meteor .
= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
In Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , set several years prior to the events of Final Fantasy VII , Aerith becomes the target of the original incarnation of AVALANCHE , led by Elfé , who seek to prevent Shinra from acquiring the last surviving Cetra . Instead , AVALANCHE intend to use her to learn the whereabouts of the Promised Land for their own purposes , although a member of the Turks tries to protect her .
Aerith makes several appearances in the CGI film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , as Cloud 's spiritual guide , urging him to move on with his life and to forgive himself for the tragedies that were beyond his control , telling him that she never blamed him for her death . During their spiritual reunion , Aerith speaks to Cloud in an open meadow laden with flowers , cheerfully and kindheartedly poking fun at how he needlessly burdens himself with the past . However , she also acknowledges his suffering and offers kind words of support . One of Aerith 's interactions with Cloud comes when each member of the original game 's party helps in Cloud 's final attack against Bahamut SIN ; she appears as the last party member to assist Cloud . She also appears in the final scene of the movie , along with Zack Fair , where she gives Cloud more words of encouragement before she and Zack walk into the light . Near the end of the film , it is discovered that water mixed with the Lifestream flows beneath the flowerbed in Aerith 's church , which manifests itself as a cure for Geostigma .
The On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of the Lifestream – Black & White " focuses on Aerith and Sephiroth 's respective journeys through the Lifestream after the end of the game but before the events of the film . The " Black " section deals with Sephiroth , the " White " section with Aerith .
Aerith also appears in the prequel game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . At the age of 16 , she meets Zack , for whom she develops feelings during his stay in Midgar . Aerith and Zack develop a romantic relationship , but Zack is killed at the end of Crisis Core after being held in a Mako chamber for four years in the Shinra Mansion basement . During those years , Aerith helped her adopted mother earn a living by growing and selling flowers , a job that results in her meeting Cloud at the beginning of Final Fantasy VII .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Aerith 's character has appeared in several games outside of the Final Fantasy VII continuity . In Final Fantasy Tactics , she appears as a flower girl ; when a group of criminals harasses her , Cloud appears and the player engages in battle with the group , letting her escape . Itadaki Street Special features a playable version of Aerith , as well as other Final Fantasy VII characters Tifa Lockhart , Cloud Strife , and Sephiroth . She also appears in Itadaki Street Portable with the same characters from Special , with the addition of Yuffie Kisaragi . While not playable , Aerith appears in the fighting game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy as an assistant character . She is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a sub @-@ character representing Final Fantasy VII . In LittleBigPlanet 2 , Aerith is featured as a downloadable character model .
Aerith makes an appearance in the Kingdom Hearts series as a member of a group dedicated to defeating the Heartless ; the group also includes other Final Fantasy VII characters and Leon of Final Fantasy VIII . In the plot of Kingdom Hearts , Aerith suggests a method for defeating the Heartless to protagonists Donald Duck , Goofy and Sora . Throughout the game , she also gives advice to the player . She also appears in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories as a perceptive figment of Sora 's memories . Aerith returns in Kingdom Hearts II , wearing a modified version of her dress from Before Crisis . She , Leon and Yuffie run a restoration committee for the town of Hollow Bastion .
Hoshi o Meguru Otome ( Maiden who Travels the Planet ) , a novel written by Benny Matsuyama which appears in the Final Fantasy VII Ultimania Ω guide , follows Aerith 's journey through the Lifestream immediately after her death in Final Fantasy VII . Aerith is mentioned in a graffiti in the subway station early in the animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph ; the graffiti reads " Aerith Lives " .
= = Concept and creation = =
Aerith was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , with influence from director and scenario writer Yoshinori Kitase and Hironobu Sakaguchi , whilst Yoshitaka Amano created conceptual artwork which also helped to influence her design . She has green eyes and long brown hair tied in a braid with a pink ribbon . She wears a long pink dress , a bolero jacket , and brown hiking boots . The long dress was designed to appear ladylike and as a contrast to Tifa Lockhart 's miniskirt . During development , Aerith was supposed to be Sephiroth 's sister as both designs resembled each other , but they were made former lovers with Aerith remembering Sephiroth when meeting Cloud as both are ex @-@ SOLDIERS . Late during development , Aerith 's first love was changed to Zack Fair .
Her green eyes were meant to symbolize nature and also served as another contrast to Tifa 's brown eyes . Nomura did not change much of Aerith 's design for Advent Children , but her design was updated in Kingdom Hearts with the removal of her bolero jacket , which made her attire appear more as Amano had originally drawn her . Other changes included the addition of bracelets and a belt . Nomura modified her dress in Before Crisis , adding white and green colors , and this version was also used as the basis for her design in Kingdom Hearts II .
Aerith 's original Japanese name is エアリス Earisu , pronounced [ eaɽisu ̥ ] . This was transliterated to " Aeris " in Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy Tactics , but in later products has been changed to " Aerith " . Both transliterations have basis , as the Japanese " su " ( ス ) is used when transcribing " s " ( / s / ) and " th " ( / θ / ) to Japanese . However , official Japanese material uses the spelling " Aerith " , and developers have stated that " Aerith " is a near @-@ anagram of " Earth " . Prior to the game 's release , Western gaming magazines , such as the May 1996 issue of Computer and Video Games , also referred to her as " Aerith " .
In early planning stages of Final Fantasy VII , Aerith was to be one of only three protagonists ; herself , Cloud and Barret . During a phone call to Kitase , it was suggested that at some point in the game , one of the main characters should die , and after much discussion as to whether it should be Barret or Aerith , the producers chose Aerith . Nomura stated in a 2005 Electronic Gaming Monthly interview : " Cloud 's the main character , so you can 't really kill him . And Barrett ... [ sic ] well , that 's maybe too obvious . " While designing Final Fantasy VII , Nomura was frustrated with the " perennial cliché where the protagonist loves someone very much and so has to sacrifice himself and die in a dramatic fashion to express that love . " He found this trope appeared in both films and video games from North America and Japan , and asked " Is it right to set such an example to people ? " Kitase concluded : " In the real world things are very different . You just need to look around you . Nobody wants to die that way . People die of disease and accident . Death comes suddenly and there is no notion of good or bad . It leaves , not a dramatic feeling but great emptiness . When you lose someone you loved very much you feel this big empty space and think , ' If I had known this was coming I would have done things differently . ' These are the feelings I wanted to arouse in the players with Aerith 's death relatively early in the game . Feelings of reality and not Hollywood . "
According to Nomura , " death should be something sudden and unexpected , and Aerith 's death seemed more natural and realistic . " He said : " When I reflect on Final Fantasy VII , the fact that fans were so offended by her sudden death probably means that we were successful with her character . If fans had simply accepted her death , that would have meant she wasn 't an effective character . " From the original release of the game , rumors have circulated that Aerith can be resurrected in or that the original plan was to have her come back , but this was scrapped in development . Nomura has categorically stated that neither of these rumors were ever true ; " the world was expecting us to bring her back to life , as this is the classic convention . " A lengthy petition asking for Aerith 's revival by Japanese players was sent to Kitase , but he dismissed it , pointing out that " there are many meanings in Aerith 's death and [ her revival ] could never happen . "
= = Musical theme = =
A leitmotif associated with Aerith is played several times throughout Final Fantasy VII ; it is first heard during the flashback scenes with Aerith 's mother at her house , and is repeated as she is killed by Sephiroth . It was composed by famed Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu . The piece " Flowers Blooming in the Church " is based on it .
" Aerith 's Theme " is very popular among Final Fantasy fans , and has inspired an orchestral version , a piano version , and a vocal version performed by the artist Rikki ( who also performed " Suteki Da Ne " for Final Fantasy X ) . A piano arrangement of the theme appears twice in Advent Children , and the track " Water " also echoes shades of the theme : the opening phrase of " Aerith 's Theme " appears just prior to the climax of the track " Divinity II " , which shortly thereafter includes as its final line the Latin phrase " Sola Dea fatum novit " ( " Only the goddess knows fate " ) , and is also featured during the end credits of the film . It also has been reinterpreted on the OverClocked ReMix Final Fantasy VII compilation Voices of the Lifestream . In 2013 , " Aerith 's Theme " achieved the third place in the Classic FM Hall of Fame .
= = Reception = =
Aerith has received an overall positive reception from critics . GamesTM referred to her as a " gaming legend . " RPGamer 's Stuart Hoggan opined that although Aerith " represented the token damsel in distress , " she " broke the mould in terms of personality , " possessing " an admirable pluck that was not brassy nor off @-@ putting . " In 2007 , she was included in Tom 's Games list of top 50 greatest female characters in video game history , for her death scene and the beauty of her appearance and personality . That same year , she was named the fifth best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation . IGN ranked her the number two in their top Final Fantasy VII character list – a rank higher than the game 's protagonist , Cloud Strife . GameTrailers ranked her at the top of their list of " babes who are out of your league " in 2010 . Heath Hooker of GameZone ranked Aerith as fifth on his 2012 top list of Final Fantasy characters and wrote she " has become an icon in not only the Final Fantasy series , but also in video game history . " Her relation with Cloud has also received positive response , including the two being listed in IGN 's article about the best video game romances .
Her death in Final Fantasy VII has received a great deal of attention . According to GamesTM , her death helped establish the popularity of Final Fantasy VII . Players commented on message boards and blogs about the emotional impact the scene held . Fans submitted a petition to Yoshinori Kitase requesting her return . GameSpy numbers her demise as the 10th greatest cinematic moments in video game history , while its readers voted it the second most cinematic moment . GamePro considers her death sequence to be the greatest of all gaming moments . Tom 's Games called the scene " one of the most powerful and memorable scenes of the Final Fantasy series — or any other game , for that matter . " Edge called her death the " dramatic highpoint " of Final Fantasy VII , and suggested that reintroducing her through the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII titles " arguably undermines this great moment . " In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly listed Final Fantasy VII number six in their list of ten most important games , stating that without this game , " Aeris wouldn 't have died , and gamers wouldn 't have learned how to cry . " ScrewAttack has added Aerith 's death to their top 10 " OMGWTF " moments , referring to it as one of the " touchiest moments in video game history . " In 2011 , IGN ranked her death scene at No. 1 in its list of top video game moments . In 2012 , PlayStation Magazine included it among the ten most emotional PlayStation moments .
The character is also popular among gamers , especially Japanese and fans of the Final Fantasy series . Aerith has been included in most of GameFAQs ' " Character Battle " contests , though she progressed only a few rounds each time . In 2010 , Famitsu readers voted Aerith as the 24th best video game character . In 2013 , Aerith was voted the second favorite female Final Fantasy character in an official poll by Square Enix . That same year , Complex ranked her as the seventh greatest Final Fantasy character of all time .
= Forbidden Fruit ( J. Cole song ) =
" Forbidden Fruit " is a song by American hip hop recording artist J. Cole . The song was sent to radio stations in August 2013 , as the third official single from Cole 's second studio album , Born Sinner ( 2013 ) . " Forbidden Fruit " was produced by Cole himself and features a guest appearance from frequent collaborator and fellow American rapper Kendrick Lamar , who contributes vocals to the song 's hook . The song features a sample of American jazz musician Ronnie Foster 's " Mystic Brew " , most recognized from its use on hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest 's " Electric Relaxation " . The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics . " Forbidden Fruit " would peak at number 46 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Background = =
" Forbidden Fruit " was the last song recorded and produced by J. Cole for his second album , Born Sinner ( 2013 ) . It was recorded as a replacement for another song which Cole was forced to remove from the album 's track listing after failing to obtain sample clearance from the estate of Jimi Hendrix . The song 's production is based around a looped sample of American jazz musician Ronnie Foster 's " Mystic Brew " , which was also famously sampled by hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest on their 1993 song " Electric Relaxation " . Cole was inspired to incorporate the Foster sample into " Forbidden Fruit " after hearing " Electric Relaxation " , saying :
I was like , " Oh , man . What if ? " You know what I mean ? Like , " What if I could just do it my way ? " You know what I mean ? It 's such a classic and people are so afraid to touch classics . And I was just like , " What if I could flip it ? " So I just went and found the original sample .
American rapper Kendrick Lamar is featured on " Forbidden Fruit " , which is the only track on the standard edition of Born Sinner with a fellow rapper credited as a featured artist . Lamar does not rap a verse on the song ; he instead contributes vocals to its refrain . " Forbidden Fruit " contains lyrics referencing Born Sinner 's release date coinciding with that of Yeezus by American rapper Kanye West .
= = Release and promotion = =
At the June 24 , 2013 stop in Houston , Texas on the Dollar and a Dream concert tour , J. Cole brought out Kendrick Lamar to perform the song , along with the J. Cole @-@ produced " HiiiPower " . In June 2013 , MTV reported that " Forbidden Fruit " would be released as the third single from Born Sinner . On August 1 , 2013 , the song impacted American mainstream urban radio .
= = Critical reception = =
" Forbidden Fruit " received mixed reviews from critics . Erin Lowers of Exclaim ! cited the song as one of the album 's standout tracks , saying that it " embodies a silent confidence , paying homage to a legendary group while speaking on releasing an album the same day as Kanye West , bringing Born Sinner full @-@ circle . " Julia Leconte of Now praised Cole 's sampling of " Mystic Brew " as done " exceptionally well " and named " Forbidden Fruit " the best track from Born Sinner . David Jeffries of AllMusic expressed a similar sentiment , writing that " Forbidden Fruit " is driven by its " Blue Note @-@ inspired " backbeats .
August Brown of the Los Angeles Times gave the song a negative review , commenting that " Kendrick Lamar somehow packs more personality into a halfhearted hook on ' Forbidden Fruit ' than Cole gets in the song " . Phillip Mlynar of Spin felt that " [ the song 's ] quirky bass line and warm @-@ keys motif are so recognizable that it 's a brow @-@ furrowing challenge to hear anything other than Q @-@ Tip and Phife 's original vocals in the space between the beat and the new raps . " Mlynar further stated that " Cole himself ( along with Kendrick Lamar 's guest spot ) ends up evaporating entirely — he 's upstaged by loftier artists who aren 't even there . " Contrarily , Ali Shaheed Muhammad of A Tribe Called Quest expressed his appreciation for Cole 's production : " [ He ] didn 't like try to do what was already done . [ He ] brought other parts to the sample that you caught that I was like , ' Oh , nice ! ' "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Born Sinner .
J. Cole – lead vocals , songwriting , production
Ronnie Foster – songwriting , sample credit
Ron Gilmore – keyboards
Juro " Mez " Davis – mixing
Kendrick Lamar – guest vocals
= = Chart performance = =
= = Radio history = =
= Old Pine Church =
Old Pine Church ( also historically known as Mill Church , Nicholas Church , and Pine Church ) is a mid @-@ 19th century church near Purgitsville , West Virginia . It is among the earliest extant log churches in Hampshire County , along with Capon Chapel and Mount Bethel Church .
The church was constructed in 1838 to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's earliest settlers were of German descent , Old Pine Church may also have been built as a meeting place for Schwarzenau Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . The church is believed to have also been a meeting place for German Methodist settlers . By 1870 , the church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination , and in 1878 , the church 's congregation split into White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church congregations . Both congregations continued to use the church until 1907 .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to perform a restoration of the church . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , due to its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands . "
The church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building sheathed in brown @-@ painted wooden German siding . The original hewn log beams are visible beneath the church , with some bark remaining on the logs . The church 's interior ceiling measures approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 metres ) in height and is clad in pressed metal panels . Several of its pews date from 1857 . In the church 's adjoining cemetery , the earliest extant gravestone dates from 1834 , and several unmarked interment sites may exist from as early as 1759 . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , " Old Pine Church and cemetery is an excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes . "
= = Location = =
Old Pine Church and its cemetery are located along the steeply sloped Old Pine Church Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 220 / 15 ) , approximately 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 kilometres ) south of the unincorporated community of Purgitsville . The church and cemetery are situated on 2 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 93 hectares ) atop a bluff to the west of United States Route 220 , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 metres ) . The property is surrounded by old @-@ growth forests .
The church is in a rural area of southwestern Hampshire County within the Mill Creek valley . Patterson Creek Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of Mill Creek valley , and the forested western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Mill Creek Mountain rise to the valley 's east . The Trough on the South Branch Potomac River is located across Mill Creek Mountain , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of the church .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Old Pine Church 's land tract was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .
The church is in the Mill Creek valley . As tensions with Native Americans were beginning to ease , Lord Fairfax sought to entice white settlers to the sparsely settled lands of his Northern Neck Proprietary . The valley was one of the first parts of present @-@ day Hampshire County to be settled by whites , beginning in the mid @-@ 18th century . Settlers were drawn by the valley 's fertility . As the valley 's population grew , the unincorporated community of Purgitsville developed along Mill Creek as a trading post village ; it was named for Henry Purgitt ( or Purgate ) , who acquired 400 acres ( 160 ha ) in the Mill Creek valley on January 7 , 1785 , and received a further land transfer of 137 acres ( 55 ha ) in 1794 . Purgitsville continued to develop throughout the course of the 19th century , during which time it grew to include a small store , a post office , and a blacksmith shop .
= = = Establishment = = =
The dates of the earliest church cannot be verified , but a church building may have been constructed at the site of Old Pine Church as early as around 1814 , and possibly as early as 1792 .
On September 24 , 1838 , William Pomkrotz and his wife , Milly , deeded a tract of land to a group of trustees , charged with constructing " a church or house for public worship for the use and convenience of Ministers and others of the Christians [ sic ] Denominations Whatsoever " . While the deed mentioned an existing meeting house on the site , there is no extant evidence of a prior structure . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , no particular Christian denomination received sole ownership of the edifice , which suggests that the church was intended to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . The church 's earliest resident minister was reportedly Nicholas Leatherman , whose wife , Elizabeth High , was the daughter of George High , one of the church 's original trustees .
= = = Brethren affiliation = = =
Few records of the church 's history exist , possibly because no single denomination or organization took ownership . Several Christian denominations held meetings at Old Pine Church , including the Schwarzenau Brethren ( or German Baptist Brethren ) , which began holding services at the church in the late 19th century . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's settlers were of German descent , the Old Pine Church structure may also have been built as a meeting place for Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . It is believed that Old Pine Church was also used by German Methodists . The Brethren was a Christian denomination of Anabaptist origin that practiced baptism by triune immersion and exercised nonresistance . Triune immersion consists of dipping a new believer into water three times , once for each of the entities of the Holy Trinity . Brethren adherents believed only in the New Testament , and professed no other creeds . The interior of Old Pine Church , which consists of a single common space for all worshippers , also illustrates the building 's connection with the Brethren and the denomination 's beliefs regarding slavery . According to the minutes from the 1782 meeting of the Brethren in Franklin County , Virginia , " It has been unanimously considered that it cannot be permitted in any way by the church that a member should purchase Negroes or keep them as Slaves . " While many residents in Hampshire County prior to the American Civil War were slaveholders , it is thought that Brethren adherents in the county did not own slaves or depend upon slave labor .
The Brethren denomination had been present in the South Branch Potomac River valley from as early as the 1750s although records of early Brethren congregations are not extant , possibly because they were served by itinerant ministers . As early as 1785 , two brothers with the surname of Powers led a Brethren congregation in the area . In Dr. Emmert F. Bittinger 's historical research on the Brethren Church in Hampshire County in his Allegheny Passage ( 1990 ) , it is noted that the Church of the Brethren denomination recognized Old Pine Church as belonging to the larger Beaver Run congregation , which was centered approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Old Pine Church . The Beaver Run congregation was the first organization of the Brethren in Hampshire County . Old Pine Church and its predecessor structures were probably utilized by members of the Beaver Run congregation because the distance between the northern region of the valley and the church on Beaver Run was too great to traverse easily . Thus , Old Pine Church began as a mission of the Beaver Run congregation . Because of its location in the vicinity of the Hardy County boundary line , the district served by the church spanned both counties .
By 1870 , Old Pine Church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination . Around 1870 , the Nicholas congregation of Brethren was worshiping at the church and was led by Dr. Leatherman . According to the Beaver Run Church Book , membership at Old Pine Church was 78 in 1879 and numbered 100 in 1881 . The Beaver Run congregation modified its district 's boundaries in 1879 , which may have resulted in a division of the congregation at Old Pine Church into two factions : White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church . Both churches continued to worship at Old Pine Church at different times . White Pine Church of the Brethren worshiped at the church from the 1870s until the construction of their own church building in 1907 . By 1897 , Old Pine Church remained under collective ownership by several Christian denominations although the Brethren were the church 's largest shareholders . White Pine Church of the Brethren remained listed in the Brethren Conference Minutes as " Pine Church " until 1912 , when members of the church petitioned the Brethren Conference to change their name from " Pine " to " White Pine " .
Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . A small one @-@ room addition to the church was constructed to the north façade of the building , which served as the boarding room for the school 's teacher . The Old Pine Church also continued to be used for funeral services and reunions .
= = = Restoration = = =
In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to restore Old Pine Church : the church 's original windows were repaired and the unpainted weatherboards painted ; a new roof was installed and the original wood floor replaced . The boarding room addition was probably removed ( nothing of it now remains ) and the pressed metal ceiling may have been added .
= = = Current use = = =
As of 2012 , Old Pine Church is still used for community gatherings , funeral services , revival meetings , and an annual church service . Regular church services have not taken place in the church since the middle of the 20th century . The church 's adjacent cemetery also continues to be used for burials . Throughout its existence , Old Pine Church has been known by various names , including " Mill Church " , " Nicholas Church " , and simply " Pine Church " .
In 2008 , the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission embarked upon an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places following a series of surveys of historic properties throughout the county . The county received funding for the surveying and documentation of Hampshire County architecture and history from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Old Pine Church was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register as a result of the county 's initiative . The other seven properties were : Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Springfield Brick House , and Valley View . According to Hampshire County Commission 's compliance officer , Charles Baker , places of worship were not typically selected for inclusion in the register ; Old Pine Church and Capon Chapel were exceptions because both " started out as meeting houses " . Old Pine Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , because of its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands " .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Church exterior = = =
Old Pine Church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building . Its symmetrical front façade faces west and encompasses a main entrance consisting of a double set of four @-@ paneled doors . The main entrance is reached by two concrete steps , on either side of which is a modern metal handrail . Above the entrance is a small wooden sign painted white reading " Old Pine Church " in black lettering . On either side of the doors are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows .
Placed symmetrically in the north and south sides of the church are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows . Between the two windows on the church 's north elevation is an exterior concrete block chimney . The layout of the east @-@ facing rear elevation of the church is also symmetrical , and features three nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , with the center window placed above and between the other two windows . The church 's windows have been repaired using materials consistent with original construction .
At the base of each of the church 's four corners is a large uncut stone pier . Fieldstones span the church 's perimeter foundations , which were added at a later date to discourage intrusion by animals . The original hewn log beams , still retaining bark , can be seen under the church . The church is covered with brown @-@ painted wooden German siding and is crowned by a modern standing @-@ seam metal roof .
Architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi states that the simple form and construction of Old Pine Church are indicative of the early settlers ' access to materials and are an example of the log construction techniques used in the religious architecture of Hampshire County 's earliest settlers . She adds that Old Pine Church is representative of a " simple design and form common to the early ecclesiastical buildings " and an " excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes " .
= = = Church interior = = =
The church 's interior exhibits an open architectural plan . A plain wooden frame pulpit stands against the rear wall , underneath the middle window . The church 's floor consists of pine boards installed during the church 's 1968 restoration .
The church 's ceiling , measuring approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height , is clad in pressed metal panels . A small opening allows for access to the church 's attic . The unadorned window wells measure approximately 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . The interior walls are covered in plasterboard , which remains unfinished .
The church 's small wood @-@ burning stove originally occupied the center of the sanctuary but was moved to the church 's north wall in later years . It continues to serve as the church 's sole source of heat .
Several of the church 's pews date from 1857 and remain in use . The pews , quite simple in form , have a " minimalist appearance " . Each pew consists of a long wooden plank that serves as the seat , with a thin rail supported by three spindles as the backrest . The pews are supported by three arched supports joined to the seat by a mortise and tenon joint and reinforced with nails . The newer pews exhibit identical design elements but are constructed with modern nails and timber . Though most of the pews are arranged against the church 's west elevation with a center aisle , two are along the north elevation and four are along the south elevation . The pulpit is situated at the east elevation . There is an upright piano in the northeastern corner of the church .
= = Cemetery = =
Old Pine Church is surrounded on three sides by a cemetery containing approximately 200 interments , the oldest section of which is located to the immediate east and south of the church building . The earliest remaining gravestone dates from 1834 , but several unmarked interment sites in the surrounding cemetery may date from as early as 1759 . The church 's sign along U.S. Route 220 erroneously lists the date of the cemetery 's oldest interment sites as 1792 .
The cemetery 's headstones are oriented both to the east and to the west . The majority are simple in design , inscribed with birth and death dates , and consist of a combination of rounded , arched stones , rectangular stones , and pyramidal @-@ shaped obelisks that appear to be cut from limestone . In the cemetery 's southern section are several small rectangular stones that probably serve as footstones . Beginning around 1950 , the gravestones erected in the cemetery became more intricate with polished granite surfaces lying atop rough @-@ cut stone foundations .
Old Pine Church 's cemetery is surrounded by several mature trees , with a large oak tree overhanging the southwestern area of the cemetery . Outside of the National Register of Historic Places boundary to the northwest of Old Pine Church lies a second parcel of land acquired around 1950 for additional burials . The cemetery is enclosed by a chicken wire fence supported by wooden posts , with a large gate to the north of the church which allows machinery access into the cemetery .
= God of War video game collections =
God of War is an action @-@ adventure video game series loosely based on Greek mythology . Debuting in 2005 , the series has become a flagship title for the PlayStation brand and the character Kratos is one of its most popular characters . The series consists of seven games across multiple platforms . Five of these have been re @-@ released through three separate compilations for the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) platform : God of War Collection ( 2009 ) , God of War : Origins Collection ( 2011 ) , and God of War Saga ( 2012 ) . With the exception of God of War III in the God of War Saga , each collection features remastered ports of the games that were not originally released on the PS3 . God of War III was later remastered as God of War III Remastered and released on PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) in July 2015 . God of War : Betrayal and God of War : Ascension are the only installments that have not been remastered for a newer platform or included in a collection .
Each collection was praised for how the games were remastered , as well as their price . IGN claimed that the God of War Collection was the " definitive way to play the game [ s ] " . God of War Collection prompted Sony to make a new line of remastered games for the PlayStation 3 ( which has expanded to the PlayStation Vita and the PlayStation 4 ) . Although the Origins Collection was criticized for its lack of new bonus content , IGN said that " Sony succeeded at making good games better . " For the Saga , Digital Trends claimed it is " perhaps the best value buy for any console available . "
= = God of War Collection = =
God of War Collection is a remastered port of God of War and God of War II for the PlayStation 3 on a single Blu @-@ ray Disc that was released in North America on November 17 , 2009 . It is the first game under Sony 's line of " Classics HD . " The collection was included in the God of War III Ultimate Trilogy Edition , released on March 18 , 2010 , in Australia and New Zealand , and on March 19 in Europe . It was released in Japan as a standalone on March 18 , where it was distributed by Capcom , and was later released as part of the God of War III Trilogy Edition , which included God of War III and God of War Collection , on March 25 . It was released as a standalone in Australia on April 29 and in Europe on April 30 . At the 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , a PlayStation Vita version of God of War Collection was announced , and it was released on May 6 , 2014 , in North America , May 9 in Europe , May 14 in Australia , and May 15 in Japan .
God of War and God of War II were ported by Bluepoint Games and feature high @-@ definition 720p anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second and Trophies . The bonus materials of the original two @-@ disc PlayStation 2 version of God of War II are included with the Blu @-@ ray version of the collection . The port was produced as a result of feedback from fans of the series and was viewed as a means of introducing new players to the series before God of War III was released . The God of War III game demo from E3 2009 was included with early copies of the collection . Sanzaru Games was responsible for porting the collection to the Vita .
Sony 's Santa Monica Studio — the games ' original developer — ran a sweepstakes in November 2009 for the release of God of War Collection . The grand prize was an autographed " Gold " disc , exclusive artwork created and signed by a God of War team member , a Limited Edition Kratos T @-@ shirt , and a limited edition 10 inches ( 25 cm ) figurine of Kratos . First place prize was a copy of God of War Collection signed by the development team . Winners were announced in December 2009 .
On November 2 , 2010 , God of War Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store . PlayStation Plus subscribers can download a one @-@ hour trial of each game . For a limited time , Plus subscribers received a God of War III skin with the purchase of each game : " Phantom of Chaos " ( God of War ) and " Forgotten Warrior " ( God of War II ) respectively . The bonus materials for God of War II were not included with the digital download version . Patch update version 1 @.@ 01 , released on September 5 , 2012 , allows the PlayStation 3 version of God of War Collection to be played on the PlayStation Vita via the Remote Play function .
= = = Reception = = =
God of War Collection received critical acclaim from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 90 @.@ 78 % based on 43 reviews and 91 / 100 based on 50 reviews and the PlayStation Vita version 75 @.@ 00 % based on 15 reviews and 73 / 100 based on 28 reviews .
The PlayStation 3 version received critical acclaim . IGN gave the game an " Editor 's Choice " Award , praised the enhanced resolutions , lower price point , and smoother frame rates , and stated it was the " definitive way to play the game " . 1up.com noted the tremendous increase in visuals but said the in @-@ engine cut @-@ scenes appeared blurry . GamePro stated the collection is " two fantastic games on one disc for a low price ; puts you in the right mindset for God of War 3 . " PlayStation LifeStyle ( 5 / 5 ) said " Those ... familiar with Kratos will enjoy the extra polish the Collection brings to two of the best games from the PS2 era . " Due to the success of God of War Collection , Sony announced that further titles would receive similar treatment for release under its new " Classics HD " brand . By June 2012 , God of War Collection had sold more than 2 @.@ 4 million copies worldwide , making it the eighteenth best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 game of all time .
= = God of War : Origins Collection = =
God of War : Origins Collection ( God of War Collection – Volume II in Europe and Australia ) is a remastered port of the two PlayStation Portable installments in the series — Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta — for the PlayStation 3 on a single Blu @-@ ray Disc . It was announced at the Sony press conference at E3 2011 and was ported by Ready at Dawn , the developer of the PlayStation Portable games . The collection was released on September 13 , 2011 , in North America , September 16 in Europe , September 29 in Australia , and October 6 in Japan . God of War : Origins Collection was also released in North America as a digital download on the PlayStation Store on September 13 .
God of War : Origins Collection features native 1080p high @-@ definition video , anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second , DualShock 3 rumble features , Trophies , and is the only God of War release to feature Stereoscopic 3D . The God of War – Game Directors Live documentary , Kratos Legionnaire bonus skin , and Forest of the Forgotten combat arena ( originally pre @-@ order bonuses for Ghost of Sparta ) are also included with the Origins Collection .
= = = Reception = = =
God of War : Origins Collection received positive reviews from critics . It received a score of 86 @.@ 62 % based on 41 reviews on GameRankings and 84 / 100 based on 58 reviews on Metacritic .
IGN stated , " Sony succeeded at making good games better " and that it " acts as a time lapse experiment for players to get a really good look at how a developer evolves from one game to another . " GamePro noted the lack of new bonus content , and said , " 3D doesn 't necessarily radically redefine the experience . It does , however , make things like boss fights and magical effects much more mesmerizing " , but added that , " all of the in @-@ game cinematics are not in 3D , which is ... unfortunate considering how cutscenes are such an integral part of the storytelling in any God of War game " . By June 2012 , God of War : Origins Collection had sold 711 @,@ 737 copies worldwide .
= = God of War Saga = =
God of War Saga is a collection of five of the God of War games for the PlayStation 3 released as part of Sony 's PlayStation Collections line on August 28 , 2012 , in North America . The collection includes God of War , God of War II , God of War III , Chains of Olympus , and Ghost of Sparta . It features two Blu @-@ ray Discs — God of War I and II on the first and III on the second — and a voucher to download Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta . The games retain the same features as their first PS3 releases . The collection also includes exclusive bonus content and a voucher for a one @-@ month trial of PlayStation Plus . The games , with the exception of God of War III , are also available to download from the PlayStation Store . From September 27 until October 5 , 2012 , to celebrate the release of God of War Saga , PlayStation.Blog ran a weekly countdown of the top five God of War epic moments as voted by the God of War Facebook community . " The Death of Ares " from the original God of War was voted as the " # 1 most epic God of War moment of All Time . "
In Latin America , an exclusive version of God of War Saga , titled God of War : Omega Collection , was released in November 2012 . The Omega Collection features three Blu @-@ ray discs , as opposed to two , with Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta included on the third disc . It also includes a SteelBook game case with exclusive artwork and a limited edition bronze statue of Kratos , created by an Argentine artist .
= = = Reception = = =
Ryan Fleming of Digital Trends wrote that the collection " is perhaps the best value buy for any console available " , and that for fans of the series , " this collection is not for you " as all games ( with the exception of God of War III ) are available for download , and it will " likely be redundant . " However , new or inexperienced players should buy it . Fleming added that it was odd that the PSP games were included as downloads , and would like to have seen content migrate over to the PlayStation Vita . Jeffrey L. Wilson of PC Magazine gave the collection a 4 out of 5 and called it " an excellent purchase for anyone looking for cinematic , blood @-@ drenched action – especially newcomers who get five titles for the price of one " , but added that long time fans may not find much value in the collection .
= Territorial era of Minnesota =
The territorial era of Minnesota covers the history of the land that is now the modern US state of Minnesota from the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 , to its achieving statehood in 1858 . The Minnesota Territory itself was formed only in 1849 but the area had a rich history well before this . Though there was a long history of European presence in the area before 19th century , it was during the 19th century that the United States began to establish a firm presence in what would become Minnesota .
Many of the facets of Minnesota culture that are perceived as the area 's early history in fact originated after this period . Notably , the heavy Scandinavian immigration for which the state is known , and the pioneering days chronicled by author Laura Ingalls Wilder occurred after statehood in the later 19th century . Unlike these later years , the first half of the 19th century was characterized by sparsely populated communities , harsh living conditions , and to some degree , lawlessness .
This era was a period of economic transition . The dominant enterprise in the area since the 17th century had been the fur trade . The Dakota Sioux , and later the Ojibwe , tribes hunted and gathered pelts trading with French , British , and later American traders at Grand Portage , Mendota , and other sites . This trade gradually declined during the early 19th century as demand for furs in Europe diminished . The lumber industry grew rapidly , replacing furs as the key economic resource . Grain production began to develop late during this time as an emerging economic basis as well . Saw mills , and later grain mills , around Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls in east @-@ central Minnesota became magnets for development . By the end of the era east @-@ central Minnesota had replaced northern Minnesota as the economic center of the area .
This era was also as a period of cultural transition . At the time the U.S. took possession of the region , Native Americans were by far the largest ethnic groups . Their role in the fur trade gave them a steady stream of income and significant political influence even as the French , British , and Americans asserted territorial claims on the area . French and British traders had mixed with native society in the area for many decades peacefully contributing to the society and creating new ethnic groups consisting of mixed @-@ race peoples . As the Americans established outposts in the area and the fur trade declined , the dynamics changed dramatically . The economic influence of the Native Americans diminished and American territorial ideology increasingly sought to limit their influence . Large waves of immigration in the 1850s very suddenly changed the demographics so that within a few years the population shifted from predominantly native to predominantly people of European descent . The native and mixed @-@ race populations continued to influence the territory 's culture and politics , even at the end of the territorial era , though by the time statehood was achieved that influence was in steep decline . Heavy immigration from New England and New York led to Minnesota 's being labeled the " New England of the West " .
= = Background = =
During the 17th century a Native American tribe known as the Ojibwe , or Chippewa , reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration . Having come from a region around Maine , they were experienced at dealing with European traders . Tensions rose between the Ojibwe and the Santee , or Eastern Dakota , Sioux , who were dominant in the area , during the ensuing years .
French exploration in Minnesota is known have begun in the 17th century with explorers like Radisson , Groseilliers , and Le Sueur . After France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade in the area , French settlements began to appear . Trader Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior helping to advance trade and leading to the establishment of Fond du Lac ( part of modern Duluth , which was named after du Lhut ) . Roman Catholic priest Louis Hennepin , captured by the Sioux in 1680 while exploring North America with famed explorer La Salle , discovered and named Saint Anthony Falls . The next account of an expedition into Minnesota 's interior was that of Captain Jonathan Carver of Connecticut who reached Saint Anthony Falls in 1766 . In the later 18th century trader Peter Pond explored the Minnesota River valley noting significant European settlement in the region in addition to the natives .
Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through this region . Fort Beauharnois was built by the French in 1721 on Lake Pepin to facilitate exploration . In the 17th century a lucrative trade developed between Native Americans who trapped animals near the Great Lakes and traders who shipped the animal furs to Europe . For two centuries this trade network was the prime economic driver in the area . A notable result of this trade network was the Métis people , a mixed @-@ race community descended from Native Americans and French traders , as well as other mixed @-@ race peoples . In particular during the latter 18th century numerous French and English traders in the Minnesota region purchased Sioux wives in order to establish kinship relationships with the Sioux so as to secure their supply of furs from the tribes .
The British Hudson 's Bay Company was formed in 1670 to capitalize on the Native American fur trade near Hudson Bay . The company came to dominate the North American trade in the 18th century . The North West Company of Montreal was formed in 1779 to compete with Hudson 's Bay Company establishing their western headquarters and key exchange point at Grand Portage in what is now Minnesota . Grand Portage , with its two wharves and numerous warehouses , became one of Britain 's four main fur trading posts , along with Niagara , Detroit , and Michilimackinac . British ships crossed Lake Superior regularly transporting supplies to the region and bringing back valuable furs . Even after Grand Portage became property of the U.S. in 1783 the British operations , such as North West Company and the XY Company , continued to operate in the area for some time .
Though the various parts of what is now Minnesota were claimed at different times by Spain , France , and Britain , none of these nations made significant efforts to establish major settlements in the area . Instead the French and the British established mostly trading posts and utilized the natives in the area as suppliers .
All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the Second Treaty of Paris at the end of the American Revolution in 1783 . This included what would become modern day Saint Paul but only part of Minneapolis , including the northeast , north @-@ central and east @-@ central portions of the state . The wording of the treaty in the Minnesota area depended on landmarks reported by fur traders , who erroneously reported an " Isle Phelipeaux " in Lake Superior , a " Long Lake " west of the island , and the belief that the Mississippi River ran well into modern Canada . Much of this region was claimed by other states who subsequently ceded these to the federal government .
Most of the remaining areas of what is now the state were purchased in 1803 from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase ( the area west of the Mississippi having been recently acquired by France from Spain ) . Parts of northern Minnesota were considered to be in Rupert 's Land , a large territory owned by Hudson 's Bay Company . The exact definition of the boundary between Minnesota and British North America was not addressed until the Anglo @-@ American Convention of 1818 .
Until 1818 the entire Red River Valley in what is today southeastern Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota was considered British and was subject to several colonization schemes by the Hudson 's Bay Company , particularly the Red River Colony ( also known as the Selkirk Settlement ) established in 1811 . The valley had , in fact , been occupied by Métis since the middle 17th century . The Red River Colony , established to supply the British fur trade , was fraught with problems from the beginning but became important in the Minnesota area 's early fur trade as well as supplying many early settlers to the region .
= = Pioneers and exploration = =
At the beginning of the 19th century many parts of the Minnesota area were already well traveled by British and French explorers . Though the region 's population was mostly Native American , there were important British trading posts in the area with many European and mixed @-@ race settlers , particularly in the north . Grand Portage , in particular , had long been established as the major trading center for the North West Company .
David Thompson , a British fur trader for the North West Company of Montreal , completed numerous surveys and maps of the North American frontier . In 1797 he completed the first known map of the Minnesota area , in what was then the Northwest Territory . The Jay Treaty , however , obliged most of the British settlers to withdraw their settlements in 1796 , though mixed @-@ race peoples remained .
In 1805 U.S. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was sent by General Wilkinson , governor of the Louisiana Territory , to enforce U.S. sovereignty against British traders in the area and establish diplomatic and trading relationships with the native tribes . He met with the Sioux leadership in central Minnesota to secure rights for the U.S. to an area near Saint Anthony Falls , which would later become the city of Saint Paul . Though a treaty was signed by some leaders from the Sioux tribes , its legitimacy ( including whether the Sioux understood it ) was dubious and ultimately his efforts did little to establish the authority of the U.S. in the area .
In 1817 Major Stephen H. Long of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led a waterborne expedition from Prairie du Chien to reach Saint Anthony Falls . He documented much of the terrain today occupied by Minneapolis and Saint Paul as well as the Native American villages that existed there at the time .
In 1818 the 49th parallel was established as the boundary between the United States and British North America . However , the point where the Red River crossed this line was not marked until 1823 , when Stephen Long conducted a survey expedition . The expedition determined , among other things , that the fur trading post of Pembina lay just inside the U.S. border .
Several efforts were made to determine the source of the Mississippi River . In 1823 Italian explorer Giacomo Constantino Beltrami who had split from the Long expedition in Pembina , found Lake Julia which he believed was the source of the Mississippi River . The actual source was found in 1832 , when Henry Schoolcraft was guided by a group of Ojibwe headed by Ozaawindib ( " Yellow Head " ) to a lake in northern Minnesota . Schoolcraft named it Lake Itasca , combining the Latin words veritas ( " truth " ) and caput ( " head " ) .
In 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh conducted a geological survey of the Minnesota River valley and wrote an account entitled A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor . Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s accompanied by John C. Frémont , exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin , the Saint Croix River , and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers .
= = Forts = =
An important facet of the British and American frontier was a system of forts built by the military . The forts provided safe shelter for soldiers and explorers on the frontier and a base of operations for expeditions , both military and commercial . The first forts in the area had been French , particularly Fort Beauharnois , built during the 18th century and later abandoned because of the French and Indian War with the British . British Fort Charlotte at Grand Portage became essential to the fur trade protecting and supplying British traders as well as the area natives . This British fort operated in the area ( illegally ) until 1803 , even after the area 's becoming recognized as part of the United States . Other French and British fortifications , such as Fort St. Charles , had existed in the region but had been abandoned much earlier .
In 1814 the U.S. government built Fort Shelby , later rebuilt as Fort Crawford , near modern Minnesota in what is now Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin . Fort Crawford would play a significant role in U.S. involvement in Minnesota , particularly as the site of the Treaty of Prairie du Chien . The first major U.S. military presence inside the boundaries of modern Minnesota was Fort Saint Anthony , later renamed Fort Snelling ( after the fort 's commander Josiah Snelling ) . The land for the fort , at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers , had been acquired in 1805 by legendary explorer Zebulon Pike . When concerns mounted about the fur trade in the area , construction of the fort began in 1819 and was completed in 1825 . One of the missions of the fort was to mediate disputes between the Ojibwe and the Dakota tribes . Lawrence Taliaferro , an agent of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs who became an important figure in these mediations , spent 20 years at the fort , finally resigning in 1839 .
Fort Ripley was built in 1848 – 1849 in central Minnesota near modern Little Falls . It was built to provide a military presence on the frontier near the new Winnebago reservation created as the tribe was moved from Iowa . In addition it helped to serve as a buffer between the Dakota Sioux and the Ojibwe .
Fort Ridgely was built in 1853 – 1854 near the Dakota reservation in southwestern Minnesota , near modern New Ulm . It was named by U.S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis in honor of three army officers named Ridgely who had died in the Mexican @-@ American War . The fort was created to watch over the Minnesota River Valley , in addition to the larger frontier . It replaced Fort Doge | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" three stars out of five , and noted that Brown appears to be transitioning from singing songs about partying in clubs to singing about sex . Johnston continued writing that the music video for the song " would be almost pornographically unnecessary " . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the ballad ticks all the boxes for its " synthy melody , decent beat " and Brown 's " vocal harmonies " , but felt that it is not " the most innovative offering " from Brown . Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that in " Sweet Love " , it appears " there are two songs at war here as the synth drum beat totally overwhelms and clashes with the ballad " . She criticized the song for being " memorable for all the wrong reasons " .
In the United States , " Sweet Love " debuted at number 90 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in the issue dated April 14 , 2012 . After spending 12 weeks ascending the chart , " Sweet Love " peaked at number 25 in the issue dated July 7 , 2012 . The song remained on the chart for a total of 15 weeks . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Sweet Love " debuted and peaked at number 89 in the issue dated May 5 , 2012 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Sweet Love " was co @-@ directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed on the back lot of Universal Studios in Los Angeles , California . The video was shot from 6 : 00 am to 6 : 00 pm . Twenty models were hired for the shooting of the scenes where they are levitating from their beds . On April 26 , 2012 , several photos from the shoot were posted online , showing women levitating out of their beds in the streets as Brown walked by them . The video premiered on Vevo on May 25 , 2012 . A behind the scenes video was released on May 26 , 2012 , a day after the video premiered online .
As the song begins , Brown watches a woman , who appears as a hologram , lying in a bed . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in front of a flowing backdrop . He then approaches the woman , and together they appear under white bedsheets . Brown is then seen walking down a street , while women are shown levitating out of their beds as he passes by them . He then enters a limo and starts caressing various ghostlike female figures . Brown then returns to the bedroom where he " strips shirtless and makes passionate love " to the woman " as they are showered in water " . He later enters a dance studio , where he performs a dance routine with other shirtless male dancers , while several women watch them from across the room . Towards the end of the video , more scenes are shown of Brown and the woman in the bedroom .
Melinda Newman of HitFix called the video " undeniably steamy " . Emily Hewett of the Metro wrote that the video featured " flawless dance moves " from Brown . Robbie Daw of Idolator noted that Brown " makes things real sexy " in the video , but was unsure if " we should be turned on or utterly creeped out " . Jessica Sager of PopCrush noted that Brown " channels his R & B side " and added that he is " a bit of a clumsy romantic " . Jessica Sinclair of the Long Island Press described the video as a " juicy new entertainment " for Brown 's fans in anticipation of his new album . Jazmine Gray of Vibe magazine described the video as " hot , heavy and really wet " . Upon its release , the video went viral and received over one million views in its first day of release .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Sweet Love " – 3 : 19
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Kakapo =
The kakapo ( Māori : kākāpō or night parrot ) , Strigops habroptilus ( Gray , 1845 ) , also called owl parrot , is a species of large , flightless , nocturnal , ground @-@ dwelling parrot of the super @-@ family Strigopoidea endemic to New Zealand .
It has finely blotched yellow @-@ green plumage , a distinct facial disc of sensory , vibrissa @-@ like feathers , a large grey beak , short legs , large feet , and wings and a tail of relatively short length . A combination of traits make it unique among its kind ; it is the world 's only flightless parrot , the heaviest parrot , nocturnal , herbivorous , visibly sexually dimorphic in body size , has a low basal metabolic rate and no male parental care , and is the only parrot to have a polygynous lek breeding system . It is also possibly one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds . Its anatomy typifies the tendency of bird evolution on oceanic islands , with few predators and abundant food : a generally robust physique , with accretion of thermodynamic efficiency at the expense of flight abilities , reduced wing muscles , and a diminished keel on the sternum . Like many other New Zealand bird species , the kakapo was historically important to the Māori , the indigenous people of New Zealand , appearing in many of their traditional legends and folklore . It was hunted and used as a resource by Māori , both for its meat as a food source and for its feathers , which were used to make highly valued pieces of clothing . It was also sometimes kept as a pet .
The kakapo is critically endangered ; as of March 2014 , with an additional six from the first hatchings since 2011 , the total known population was only 123 living individuals , as reported by the Kakapo Recovery programme , most of which have been given names . Because of Polynesian and European colonisation and the introduction of predators such as cats , rats , ferrets , and stoats , the kakapo was almost wiped out . Conservation efforts began in the 1890s , but they were not very successful until the implementation of the Kakapo Recovery plan in the 1980s . As of April 2012 , surviving kakapo are kept on three predator @-@ free islands , Codfish ( Whenua Hou ) , Anchor and Little Barrier islands , where they are closely monitored . Two large Fiordland islands , Resolution and Secretary , have been the subject of large @-@ scale ecological restoration activities to prepare self @-@ sustaining ecosystems with suitable habitat for the kakapo . The New Zealand government is willingly providing the use of these islands to kakapo conservation . A successful breeding season in 2016 saw 34 chicks fledge , taking the total population to 157 .
= = Taxonomy , systematics and naming = =
The kakapo was originally described by English ornithologist George Robert Gray in 1845 . The name " kakapo " is the English transliteration of " kākāpō " which is derived from the Māori terms kākā ( " parrot " ) + pō ( " night " ) . Its generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek strix , genitive strigos " owl " , and ops " face " , while its specific epithet comes from habros " soft " , and ptilon " feather " . It has so many unusual features that it was initially placed in its own tribe , Strigopini . Recent phylogenetic studies have confirmed the unique position of this genus as well as the closeness to the kākā and the kea , both belonging to the New Zealand parrot genus Nestor . Together , they are now considered a separate family within the parrots , Strigopidae . Within the Strigopidae , the kakapo is placed in its own tribe , Strigopini . The common ancestor of the kakapo and the genus Nestor became isolated from the remaining parrot species when New Zealand broke off from Gondwana , around 82 million years ago . Around 70 million years ago , the kakapo diverged from the genus Nestor .
Earlier ornithologists felt that the kakapo might be related to the ground parrots and night parrot of Australia due to their similar colouration , but this is contradicted by recent studies ; rather , the cryptic colour seems to be adaptation to terrestrial habits that evolved twice convergently .
= = Description = =
The kakapo is a large , rotund parrot ; the adult can measure from 58 to 64 cm ( 23 to 25 in ) in length , and weight can vary from 0 @.@ 95 to 4 kg ( 2 to 9 lb ) at maturity . Males are larger than females . Twenty @-@ eight males were found to average 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) in one study , and 39 males were found to average 2 @.@ 06 kg ( 4 @.@ 5 lb ) in another . In the same studies , 28 females were found to average 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) and 18 females averaged 1 @.@ 28 kg ( 2 @.@ 8 lb ) . However , one source states that females will not breed until they attain a threshold weight of 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . They are the heaviest living species of parrot ; while the largest males attain much heavier weights than any other extant parrot , kakapos average about 400 g ( 14 oz ) more than a hyacinth macaw . The kakapo cannot fly , having short wings for its size and lacking the pronounced keel bone ( sternum ) that anchors the flight muscles of other birds . It uses its wings for balance , support , and to break its fall when leaping from trees . Unlike other land birds , the kakapo can accumulate large amounts of body fat to store energy , making it the heaviest parrot .
The upper parts of the kakapo have yellowish moss @-@ green feathers barred or mottled with black or dark brownish grey , blending well with native vegetation . Individuals may have strongly varying degrees of mottling and colour tone and intensity — museum specimens show that some birds had completely yellow colouring . The breast and flank are yellowish @-@ green streaked with yellow . The belly , undertail , neck and face are predominantly yellowish streaked with pale green and weakly mottled with brownish @-@ grey . Because the feathers do not need the strength and stiffness required for flight , they are exceptionally soft , giving rise to the specific epithet habroptilus . The kakapo has a conspicuous facial disc of fine feathers resembling the face of an owl ; thus , early European settlers called it the " owl parrot " . The beak is surrounded by delicate vibrissae or " whiskers " , which the bird uses to sense the ground for navigation as it walks with its head lowered . The mandible is mostly ivory @-@ coloured , with part of the upper mandible being bluish @-@ grey . The eyes are dark brown . Kakapo feet are large , scaly , and , as in all parrots , zygodactyl ( two toes face forward and two backward ) . The pronounced claws are particularly useful for climbing . The ends of the tail feathers often become worn from being continually dragged on the ground .
The female is easily distinguished from the male : she has a more narrow and less domed head , her beak is narrower and proportionally longer , her cere and nostrils smaller , her legs and feet more slender and pinkish grey , and her tail proportionally longer . While her plumage colour is not very different from that of the male , the toning is more subtle , with less yellow and mottling . She tends to resist more and be more aggressive than the male when handled . A nesting female also has a brood patch on the bare skin of the belly .
Like many parrots , the kakapo has a variety of calls . As well as the booms ( see below for a recording ) and chings of their mating calls , it will often skraark to announce its location to other birds .
The kakapo has a well @-@ developed sense of smell , which complements its nocturnal lifestyle . It can discriminate among odours while foraging , a behaviour reported for only one other parrot species . One of the most striking characteristics of the kakapo is its pleasant and powerful odour , which has been described as musty . Given the kakapo 's well @-@ developed sense of smell , this scent may be a social chemosignal . The smell often alerts predators to the largely defenceless kakapo .
= = = Anatomy = = =
The skeleton of the kakapo differs from other parrots in several features associated with flightlessness . Firstly , it has the smallest relative wing size of any parrot . Its wing feathers are shorter , more rounded , and less asymmetrical and have fewer distal barbules to lock the feathers together . The sternum is small and has a low , vestigial keel and a shortened spina externa . As in other flightless birds and some other flighted parrots , the furcula is not fused but consists of a pair of clavicles lying in contact with each coracoid . As in other flightless birds , the angle between the coracoid and sternum is enlarged . The kakapo has a larger pelvis than other parrots . The proximal bones of the leg and arm are disproportionately long and the distal elements are disproportionately short .
The pectoral musculature of the kakapo is also modified by flightlessness . The pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles are greatly reduced . The propatagialis tendo longus has no distinct muscle belly . The sternocoracoideus is tendinous . There is an extensive cucularis capitis clavicularis muscle that is associated with the large crop .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
It seems that the kakapo – like many of New Zealand 's bird species – has evolved to occupy an ecological niche normally filled by various species of mammal ( the only non @-@ marine mammals native to New Zealand are three species of small bats ) . Before the arrival of humans , the kakapo was distributed throughout the three main islands of New Zealand . It lived in a variety of habitats , including tussocklands , scrublands and coastal areas . It also inhabited forests , including those dominated by podocarps ( rimu , matai , kahikatea , totara ) , beeches , tawa , and rata . In Fiordland , areas of avalanche and slip debris with regenerating and heavily fruiting vegetation – such as five finger , wineberry , bush lawyer , tutu , hebes , and coprosmas – became known as " kakapo gardens " .
The kakapo is primarily nocturnal ; it roosts under cover in trees or on the ground during the day and moves around its territories at night .
Though the kakapo cannot fly , it is an excellent climber , ascending to the crowns of the tallest trees . It can also " parachute " – descending by leaping and spreading its wings . In this way it may travel a few metres ( yards ) at an angle of less than 45 degrees .
Having lost the ability to fly , it has developed strong legs . Movement is often by way of a rapid " jog @-@ like " gait by which it can move many kilometres . A female has been observed making two return trips each night during nesting from her nest to a food source up to 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away and the male may walk from its home range to a mating arena up to 5 km ( 3 mi ) away during the mating season ( October – January ) .
Young birds indulge in play fighting , and one bird will often lock the neck of another under its chin . The kakapo is curious by nature and has been known to interact with humans . Conservation staff and volunteers have engaged extensively with some kakapo , which have distinct personalities .
The kakapo was a very successful species in pre @-@ human New Zealand , and one of the reasons for this was their set of adaptations to effectively avoid predation from native birds of prey , which were their only predators in the past . However , these same behaviours have been of no use to them when faced with the mammalian predators which were introduced to New Zealand after human settlement , because these hunt in different ways . As hunters , birds behave very differently from mammals , relying on their powerful vision to find prey , and thus they usually ( with the exception of owls ) hunt by day . Apart from the two surviving New Zealand raptors , the New Zealand falcon and swamp harrier , there were two other birds of prey in pre @-@ human New Zealand : Haast 's eagle and Eyles ' harrier . All four species soared overhead searching for prey in daylight , and to avoid these avian predators , the kakapo 's ancestors adopted camouflaged plumage and became nocturnal . In addition , when the kakapo feels threatened , it freezes , so that it is more effectively camouflaged in the forest vegetation which their plumage resembles . It was not entirely safe at night , when the laughing owl was active , and it is apparent from their nest deposits on Canterbury limestone cliffs that the kakapo was among their prey .
Mammalian predators , in contrast to birds , rely on their sense of smell and hearing to find prey and often hunt by night . The kakapo 's adaptations to avoid avian predation have thus been useless against its new enemies – this is one of the reasons for its massive decline since the introduction of dogs , cats and mustelids – see Conservation : Human impact . A typical way for humans to hunt down the kakapo is by releasing trained dogs .
= = = Diet = = =
The beak of the kakapo is adapted for grinding food finely . For this reason , the kakapo has a very small gizzard compared to other birds of their size . It is generally herbivorous , eating native plants , seeds , fruits , pollen and even the sapwood of trees . A study in 1984 identified 25 plant species as kakapo food . It is particularly fond of the fruit of the rimu tree , and will feed on it exclusively during seasons when it is abundant . The kakapo has a distinctive habit of grabbing a leaf or frond with a foot and stripping the nutritious parts of the plant out with its beak , leaving a ball of indigestible fibre . These little clumps of plant fibres are a distinctive sign of the presence of the bird . The kakapo is believed to employ bacteria in the fore @-@ gut to ferment and help digest plant matter .
Kakapo diet changes according to the season . The plants eaten most frequently during the year include some species of Lycopodium ramulosum , Lycopodium fastigium , Schizaea fistulosa , Blechnum minus , Blechnum procerum , Cyathodes juniperina , Dracophyllum longifolium , Olearia colensoi and Thelymitra venosa . Individual plants of the same species are often treated differently . Kakapo leave conspicuous evidence of their feeding activities , over feeding areas that range between 10 by 10 metres ( 30 ft × 30 ft ) and 50 by 100 metres ( 160 ft × 330 ft ) per individual . Kakapo feeding grounds almost always host manuka and yellow silver pine scrubs .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The kakapo is the only species of flightless parrot in the world , and the only flightless bird that has a lek breeding system . Males loosely gather in an arena and compete with each other to attract females . Females listen to the males as they display , or " lek " . They choose a mate based on the quality of his display ; they are not pursued by the males in any overt way . No pair bond is formed ; males and females meet only to mate .
During the courting season , males leave their home ranges for hilltops and ridges where they establish their own mating courts . These leks can be up to 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) from a kakapo 's usual territory and are an average of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) apart within the lek arena . Males remain in the region of their court throughout the courting season . At the start of the breeding season , males will fight to try to secure the best courts . They confront each other with raised feathers , spread wings , open beaks , raised claws and loud screeching and growling . Fighting may leave birds with injuries or even kill them .
Each court consists of one or more saucer @-@ shaped depressions or " bowls " dug in the ground by the male , up to 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) deep and long enough to fit the half @-@ metre length of the bird . The kakapo is one of only a handful of birds in the world which actually constructs its leks . Bowls are often created next to rock faces , banks , or tree trunks to help reflect sound - the bowls themselves function as amplifiers to enhance the projection of the males ' booming mating calls . Each male 's bowls are connected by a network of trails or tracks which may extend 50 metres ( 160 ft ) along a ridge or 20 metres ( 70 ft ) in diameter around a hilltop . Males meticulously clear their bowls and tracks of debris . One way researchers check whether bowls are visited at night is to place a few twigs in the bowl ; if the male visits overnight , he will pick them up in his beak and toss them away .
To attract females , males make loud , low @-@ frequency ( below 100 Hz ) booming calls from their bowls by inflating a thoracic sac . They start with low grunts , which increase in volume as the sac inflates . After a sequence of about 20 loud booms , the male kakapo emits a high @-@ frequency , metallic " ching " sound . He stands for a short while before again lowering his head , inflating his chest and starting another sequence of booms . The booms can be heard at least 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away on a still night ; wind can carry the sound at least 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . Males boom for an average of eight hours a night ; each male may produce thousands of booms in this time . This may continue every night for three or four months during which time the male may lose half his body weight . Each male moves around the bowls in his court so that the booms are sent out in different directions . These booms are also notorious for attracting predators , because of the long range at which they can be heard .
Females are attracted by the booms of the competing males ; they too may need to walk several kilometres from their territories to the arena . Once a female enters the court of one of the males , the male performs a display in which he rocks from side to side and makes clicking noises with his beak . He turns his back to the female , spreads his wings in display and walks backwards towards her . He will then attempt copulation for 2 to 14 minutes . Once the birds have mated , the female returns to her home territory to lay eggs and raise the chicks . The male continues booming in the hope of attracting another female .
The female kakapo lays 1 or 2 eggs ( rarely 3 ) per breeding cycle , with long intervals between laying of first and second eggs . She nests on the ground under the cover of plants or in cavities such as hollow tree trunks . The female incubates the eggs faithfully , but is forced to leave them every night in search of food . Predators are known to eat the eggs and the embryos inside can also die of cold in the mother 's absence . Kakapo eggs usually hatch within 30 days , bearing fluffy grey chicks that are quite helpless . After the eggs hatch , the female feeds the chicks for three months , and the chicks remain with the female for some months after fledging . The young chicks are just as vulnerable to predators as the eggs , and young have been killed by many of the same predators that attack adults . Chicks leave the nest at approximately 10 to 12 weeks of age . As they gain greater independence , their mothers may feed the chicks sporadically for up to 6 months .
Because the kakapo is long @-@ lived , with an average life expectancy of 95 years and the maximum at about 120 years , it tends to have an adolescence before it starts breeding . Males do not start to boom until about 5 years of age . It was thought that females reached sexual maturity at 9 years of age , but this idea was debunked in the 2008 breeding season when two 6 @-@ year @-@ old females named Apirama and Rakiura laid eggs . Generally females do not seek out males until they are between 9 and 11 years old . The kakapo does not breed every year and has one of the lowest rates of reproduction among birds . Breeding occurs only in years when trees mast ( fruit heavily ) , providing a plentiful food supply . Rimu mast occurs only every three to five years , so in rimu @-@ dominant forests such as those on Codfish Island , kakapo breeding occurs as infrequently .
Another aspect of the kakapo 's breeding system is that a female can alter the sex ratio of her offspring depending on her condition . A female who eats protein @-@ rich foods produces more male offspring ( males have 30 % – 40 % more body weight than females ) . Females produce offspring biased towards the dispersive sex when competition for resources ( such as food ) is high and towards the non @-@ dispersive sex when food is plentiful . A female kakapo will likely be able to produce eggs even when there are few resources , while a male kakapo will be more capable of perpetuating the species when there are plenty , by mating with several females . This supports the Trivers – Willard hypothesis . The relationship between clutch sex ratio and maternal diet has conservation implications , because a captive population maintained on a high quality diet will produce fewer females and therefore fewer individuals valuable to the recovery of the species .
= = Conservation = =
Fossil records indicate that in pre @-@ Polynesian times , the kakapo was New Zealand 's third most common bird and it was widespread on all three main islands . However , the kakapo population in New Zealand has declined massively since human settlement of the country . Since 1891 , conservation efforts have been made to prevent extinction . The most successful scheme has been the Kakapo Recovery Programme ; this was implemented in 1989 and continues .
= = = Human impact = = =
The first factor in the decline of the kakapo was the arrival of humans . Māori folklore suggests that the kakapo was found throughout the country when the Polynesians first arrived in Aotearoa 700 years ago . Subfossil and midden deposits show that the bird was present throughout the North Island , South Island and Stewart Island / Rakiura before and during early Māori times . Māori hunted the kakapo for food and for their skins and feathers , which were made into cloaks . They used the dried heads as ear ornaments . Due to its flightlessness , strong scent and habit of freezing when threatened , the kakapo was easy prey for the Māori and their dogs . Its eggs and chicks were also preyed upon by the Polynesian rat or kiore , which the Māori brought to New Zealand . Furthermore , the deliberate clearing of vegetation by Māori reduced the habitable range for kakapo . Although the kakapo was extinct in many parts of the islands by the time Europeans arrived , including the Tararua and Aorangi Ranges , it was still present in the central part of the North Island and forested parts of the South Island .
Beginning in the 1840s , European settlers cleared vast tracts of land for farming and grazing , further reducing kakapo habitat . They brought more dogs and other mammalian predators , including domestic cats , black rats and stoats . Europeans knew little of the kakapo until George Gray of the British Museum described it from a skin in 1845 . As the Māori had done , early European explorers and their dogs ate kakapo . In the late 19th century , the kakapo became well known as a scientific curiosity , and thousands were captured or killed for zoos , museums and collectors . Most captured specimens died within months . From at least the 1870s , collectors knew the kakapo population was declining ; their prime concern was to collect as many as possible before the bird became extinct .
In the 1880s , large numbers of mustelids ( stoats , ferrets and weasels ) were released in New Zealand to reduce rabbit numbers , but they also preyed heavily on many native species including the kakapo . Other browsing animals , such as introduced deer , competed with the kakapo for food , and caused the extinction of some of its preferred plant species . The kakapo was reportedly still present near the head of the Whanganui River as late as 1894 , with one of the last records of a kakapo in the North Island being a single bird caught in the Kaimanawa Ranges by Te Kepa Puawheawhe in 1895 .
= = = Early protection efforts = = =
In 1891 , the New Zealand government set aside Resolution Island in Fiordland as a nature reserve . In 1894 , the government appointed Richard Henry as caretaker . A keen naturalist , Henry was aware that native birds were declining , and began catching and moving kakapo and kiwi from the mainland to the predator @-@ free Resolution Island . In six years , he moved more than 200 kakapo to Resolution Island . By 1900 , however , stoats had swum to Resolution Island and colonised it ; they wiped out the nascent kakapo population within 6 years .
In 1903 , three kakapo were moved from Resolution Island to the nature reserve of Little Barrier Island north @-@ east of Auckland , but feral cats were present and the kakapo were never seen again . In 1912 , three kakapo were moved to another reserve , Kapiti Island , north @-@ west of Wellington . One of them survived until at least 1936 , despite the presence of feral cats for part of the intervening period .
By the 1920s , the kakapo was extinct in the North Island and its range and numbers in the South Island were declining . One of its last refuges was rugged Fiordland . There , during the 1930s , it was often seen or heard , and occasionally eaten , by hunters or roadworkers . By the 1940s , reports of kakapo were becoming scarce .
= = = 1950 – 89 conservation efforts = = =
In the 1950s , the New Zealand Wildlife Service was established and began making regular expeditions to search for the kakapo , mostly in Fiordland and what is now the Kahurangi National Park in the northwest of the South Island . Seven Fiordland expeditions between 1951 and 1956 found only a few recent signs . Finally , in 1958 a kakapo was caught and released in the Milford Sound catchment area in Fiordland . Six more kakapo were captured in 1961 ; one was released and the other five were transferred to the aviaries of the Mount Bruce Bird Reserve near Masterton in the North Island . Within months , four of the birds had died and the fifth died after about four years . In the next 12 years , regular expeditions found few signs of the kakapo , indicating that numbers were continuing to decline . Only one bird was captured in 1967 ; it died the following year .
By the early 1970s , it was uncertain whether the kakapo was still an extant species . At the end of 1974 , scientists located several more male kakapo and made the first scientific observations of kakapo booming . These observations led Don Merton to speculate for the first time that the kakapo had a lek breeding system . From 1974 to 1976 , 14 kakapo were discovered but all appeared to be males . This raised the possibility that the species would become extinct , because there might be no surviving females . One male bird was captured in the Milford area in 1975 , christened " Richard Henry " , and transferred to Maud Island . All the birds the Wildlife Service discovered from 1951 to 1976 were in U @-@ shaped glaciated valleys flanked by almost @-@ vertical cliffs and surrounded by high mountains . Such extreme terrain had slowed colonisation by browsing mammals , leaving islands of virtually unmodified native vegetation . However , even here , stoats were present and by 1976 the kakapo was gone from the valley floors and only a few males survived high on the most inaccessible parts of the cliffs .
Before 1977 , no expedition had been to Stewart Island / Rakiura to search for the bird . In 1977 , sightings of kakapo were reported on Stewart Island . An expedition to the island found a track and bowl system on its first day ; soon after , it located several dozen kakapo . The finding in an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare area of fire @-@ modified scrubland and forest raised hope that the population would include females . The total population was estimated at 100 to 200 birds .
Mustelids have never colonised Stewart Island / Rakiura , but feral cats were present . During a survey , it was apparent that cats killed kakapo at a rate of 56 % per year . At this rate , the birds could not survive on the island and therefore an intensive cat control was introduced in 1982 , after which no cat @-@ killed kakapo were found . However , to ensure the survival of the remaining birds , scientists decided later that this population should be transferred to predator @-@ free islands ; this operation was carried out between 1982 and 1997 .
= = = Kakapo Recovery programme = = =
In 1989 , a Kakapo Recovery programme was developed and a Kakapo Recovery Group established to implement it . The New Zealand Department of Conservation replaced the Wildlife Service for this task . The first action of the plan was to relocate all the remaining kakapo to suitable islands for them to breed . None of the New Zealand islands were ideal to establish kakapo without rehabilitation by extensive re @-@ vegetation and the eradication of introduced mammalian predators and competitors . Four islands were finally chosen : Maud , Hauturu / Little Barrier , Codfish and Mana . Sixty @-@ five kakapo ( 43 males , 22 females ) were successfully transferred onto the four islands in five translocations . Some islands had to be rehabilitated several times when feral cats , stoats and weka kept appearing . Little Barrier Island was eventually viewed as unsuitable due to the rugged landscape , the thick forest and the continued presence of rats , and its birds were evacuated in 1998 . Along with Mana Island , it was replaced with two new kakapo sanctuaries , Chalky Island ( Te Kakahu ) and Anchor Island . The entire kakapo population of Codfish Island was temporarily relocated in 1999 to Pearl Island in Port Pegasus while rats were being eliminated from Codfish . All kakapo on Pearl and Chalky Islands were moved to Anchor Island in 2005 .
A key part of the Recovery Plan is the supplementary feeding of females . The kakapo breeds only once every two to five years , when a certain type of plant species , primarily Dacrydium cupressinum ( rimu ) , produces protein @-@ rich fruit and seeds . Observations of the relationship between intermittent breeding and the plant 's mast year help biologists choose which suitable supplementary foods to increase kakapo breeding frequency . In 1989 , six preferred foods ( apples , sweet potatoes , almonds , Brazil nuts , sunflower seeds and walnuts ) were supplied ad libitum each night to 12 feeding stations . Males and females ate the supplied foods , and females nested on Little Barrier Island in the summers of 1989 – 91 for the first time since 1982 , although nesting success was low .
Supplementary feeding not only increases kakapo breeding frequency , but also affects the sex ratio of kakapo offspring , as maternal conditions influence this ratio . ( See section " Reproduction " . ) This finding was subsequently used to increase the number of female chicks by deliberately manipulating maternal conditions . During the winter of 1981 , only females lighter than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) were given supplementary feeding to avoid raising their body condition , and the sex ratio results in 1982 were close to parity , eliminating the male @-@ biased sex ratios in the unrestricted feeding .
Though breeding can be improved by supplementary feeding , the survival of young kakapo is hampered by the presence of Polynesian rats . Of 21 chicks that hatched between 1981 and 1994 , nine were either killed by rats or died and were subsequently eaten by rats . Nest protection has been intensified since 1995 by using traps and poison stations as soon as a nest had been detected . A small video camera and infra @-@ red light source watch the nest continuously , and will scare approaching rats with flashing lights and loud popping sounds . To increase the success rate of nesting , a nest watcher places a small thermostatically controlled electric blanket over the eggs or chicks , whenever the female leaves the nest for food . The survival rate of chicks has increased from 29 % in unprotected nests to 75 % in protected ones .
To monitor the kakapo population continuously , each bird is equipped with a radio transmitter . Every known kakapo , barring some young chicks , has been given a name by Kakapo Recovery Programme officials . It is an affectionate way for conservation staff to refer to individual birds , and a stark reminder of how few remain . Artificial incubation of eggs and hand @-@ raising of chicks have often been used to improve the condition of the eggs and chicks . In November 2005 , the population comprised 41 females and 45 males , including four fledglings ( 3 females and 1 male ) bred in 2005 . The oldest known kakapo , " Richard Henry " , was thought to be 80 years old at the time of his death in December 2010 .
In 2006 , the Kakapo Recovery Programme presented a new management plan that would run from 2006 to 2016 . The key goals of this plan are to increase the female population to at least 60 by 2016 , increase genetic diversity , maintain or restore a sufficiently large habitat to accommodate the expected increase in the kakapo population , and maintain public awareness and support .
The Kakapo Recovery programme has been successful , with the numbers of kakapo increasing steadily . Adult survival rate and productivity have both improved significantly since the programme 's inception . However , the main goal is to establish at least one viable , self @-@ sustaining , unmanaged population of kakapo as a functional component of the ecosystem in a protected habitat . To help meet this conservation challenge , two large Fiordland islands , Resolution ( 20 @,@ 860 ha ) and Secretary ( 8 @,@ 140 ha ) , have been prepared for re @-@ introduction of the kakapo with large @-@ scale ecological restoration activities . Ultimately , the Kakapo Recovery vision for the species is to restore the " mauri " ( Maori for " life @-@ force " ) of the kakapo by breeding 150 adult females .
During the 2008 – 2009 summer breeding season , the total population of kakapo rose to over 100 for the first time since monitoring began , reaching 123 by February 2012 . Twenty two of the 34 chicks had to be hand @-@ reared because of a shortage of food on Codfish Island .
In 2012 , seven kakapo were transferred to Little Barrier Island , in an attempt to establish a successful breeding programme . Kakapo were last on the island in 1999 .
In March 2014 , with the kakapo population having increased to 126 , the bird 's recovery was used by Melbourne artist Sayraphim Lothian as a metaphor for the recovery of Christchurch , parallelling the " indomitable spirit of these two communities and their determination to rebuild " .
= = In Māori culture = =
The kakapo is associated with a rich tradition of Māori folklore and beliefs . The bird 's irregular breeding cycle was understood to be associated with heavy fruiting or " masting " events of particular plant species such as the Rimu which led Māori to credit the bird with the ability to tell the future . Used to substantiate this claim were reported observations of these birds dropping the berries of the Hinau and Tawa trees ( when they were in season ) into secluded pools of water to preserve them as a food supply for the summer ahead ; in legend this became the origin of the Māori practice of immersing food in water for the same purpose .
= = = Use for food and clothing = = =
The meat of kakapo made good eating and was considered by Māori to be a delicacy and it was hunted for food when it was still widespread . One source states that its flesh " resembles lamb in taste and texture " , although European settlers have described the bird as having a " strong and slightly stringent [ sic ] flavour . "
In breeding years , the loud booming calls of the males at their mating arenas made it easy for Māori hunting parties to track the kakapo down , and it was also hunted while feeding or when dust @-@ bathing in dry weather . The bird was caught , generally at night , using snares , pitfall traps , or by groups of domesticated Polynesian dogs which accompanied hunting parties – sometimes they would use fire sticks of various sorts to dazzle a bird in the darkness , stopping it in their tracks and making the capture easier . Cooking was done in a hāngi or in gourds of boiling oil . The flesh of the bird could be preserved in its own fat and stored in containers for later consumption – hunters of the Ngāi Tahu tribe would pack the flesh in baskets made from the inner bark of totara tree or in containers constructed from kelp . Bundles of kakapo tail feathers were attached to the sides of these containers to provide decoration and a way to identify their contents . Also taken by the Māori were the bird 's eggs , which are described as whitish " but not pure white " , and about the same size as a kererū egg .
As well as eating the meat of the kakapo , Māori would use kakapo skins with the feathers still attached or individually weave in kakapo feathers with flax fibre to create cloaks and capes . Each one required up to 11 @,@ 000 feathers to make . Not only were these garments considered very beautiful , they also kept the wearer very warm . They were highly valued , and the few still in existence today are considered taonga ( treasures ) — indeed , the old Māori adage " You have a kākāpō cape and you still complain of the cold " was used to describe someone who is never satisfied . Kakapo feathers were also used to decorate the heads of taiaha , but were removed before use in combat .
Despite this , the kakapo was also regarded as an affectionate pet by the Māori . This was corroborated by European settlers in New Zealand in the 19th century , among them George Edward Grey , who once wrote in a letter to an associate that his pet kakapo 's behaviour towards him and his friends was " more like that of a dog than a bird " .
= = = In the media = = =
The conservation of the kakapo has made the species well known . Many books and documentaries detailing the plight of the kakapo have been produced in recent years , one of the earliest being Two in the Bush , made by Gerald Durrell for the BBC in 1962 . A feature @-@ length documentary , The Unnatural History of the Kakapo won two major awards at the Reel Earth Environmental Film Festival . Two of the most significant documentaries , both made by NHNZ , are Kakapo – Night Parrot ( 1982 ) and To Save the kakapo ( 1997 ) . The BBC 's Natural History Unit also featured the kakapo , including a sequence with Sir David Attenborough in The Life of Birds . It was also one of the endangered animals Douglas Adams and Mark Carwardine set out to find for the radio series and book Last Chance to See . An updated version of the series has been produced for BBC TV , in which Stephen Fry and Carwardine revisit the animals to see how they are getting on almost 20 years later , and in January 2009 , they spent time filming the kakapo on Codfish Island . Footage of a kakapo named Sirocco attempting to mate with Carwardine 's head was viewed by millions worldwide , leading to Sirocco becoming " spokes @-@ bird " for New Zealand wildlife conservation in 2010 , as part of the International Year of Biodiversity . The kakapo was featured in the episode " Strange Islands " of the documentary series South Pacific , originally aired on 13 June 2009 . Kakapo were also used as an example of unique island fauna in the episode " Worlds Apart " of the series The Living Planet .
= Live & Kicking =
Live & Kicking is a BBC Saturday morning children 's magazine programme , running from 1993 to 2001 . The fourth in a succession of Saturday morning shows , it was the replacement for Going Live ! , and took many of its features from it , such as phone @-@ ins , games , comedy , competitions and the showing of cartoons . Once Live & Kicking had become established in series two , it reached its height in popularity during series four , when it was presented by Zoë Ball and Jamie Theakston ; their final episode won a BAFTA award . After this the series ratings dropped with the launch of SMTV Live on ITV and was eventually cancelled in 2001 .
= = History = =
Live & Kicking was conceived as a replacement for Going Live ! , a successful Saturday morning programme that had been running for six years . It was first broadcast on 2 October 1993 at 9 am on BBC1 . The original hosts were Andi Peters , Emma Forbes who had presented a cookery segment in Going Live ! , and John Barrowman . For the second series , John was relegated to host the showbiz Electric Circus segment , leaving Andi and Emma to become the main hosts . He left after one series of Electric Circus to concentrate on acting . Comedy duo Trevor and Simon and Peter Simon , in the Run the Risk segment , were also regulars who had featured on Going Live ! .
While the first series was not as popular as its predecessor , the second series was more successful . It was broadcast during the winter months , from September to April , with Fully Booked replacing it during the summer . New episodes of the Rugrats were shown . The series went out opposite ITV 's What 's Up Doc ? but during its third series issues were raised by the ITC , and a number of people left including Don Austen and John Eccleston ( Bro and Bro 's puppeteers ) who defected to Live & Kicking to star as a couple of leprechaun brothers Sage & Onion .
Andi Peters expressed his intention to move on in March 1996 , and Emma Forbes decided to follow after finding out she was pregnant .
They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Jamie Theakston , who presented it for three series . According to the BBC , the show 's popularity was at its peak during the 1996 / 1997 series when the show regularly had 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . Around this time Mr. Blobby , played by Barry Killerby , also appered on series .
After three series , Ball decided to move on due to a hectic schedule , and Theakston followed . The final episode hosted by Ball and Theakston later won the show a children 's BAFTA award for Best Entertainment show in November 1999 .
The show returned in Autumn 1999 with new presenters Emma Ledden and Steve Wilson , . They only lasted for one series , due to ratings dropping to 1 @.@ 6 million during their tenure . At the same time rival SMTV Live on competitor channel ITV was relaunched to feature more comedic elements and began to gain popularity , known for its innuendo and features . Fully Booked , the BBC 's summer replacement , was also revamped and retitled as FBi , but ratings continued to drop . The following October , the final series was a complete revamp , with a line @-@ up of four : Ortis Deley , Katy Hill , Trey Farley and Sarah Cawood .
Ratings continued to plummet , due to the continuing success of SMTV Live . In March 2001 , the BBC made an unprecedented move and extended the series over the summer , like SMTV was broadcast , but announced it would be the final series . Hill was replaced by Heather Suttie as the show was moved to BBC Scotland on 21 April until 15 September 2001 when the final show aired . It was replaced by The Saturday Show , which continued to be broadcast all year round .
= = Format = =
Live & Kicking was a weekly magazine show broadcast every Saturday morning , normally from September to April and later all year for the final series , and it was aimed at young people . It featured music performances , " hot seat " questions for celebrity guests , phone @-@ ins , games , comedy sketches , competitions , and television programmes and cartoons . It used the taglines " Miss it , miss out " and " The only way to start your weekend " on promotional adverts for the show . As well as the main presenters , there were regulars such as comedy duo Trevor and Simon , and later Ben , Gez and Rich from The Cheese Shop and SuperGirly . A segment in the first few series that was an adaptation of Going Live 's Double Dare was Run the Risk , a game in which teams of children completed various obstacle courses and challenges . Gunge was often included to make the tasks harder . Run The Risk was later broadcast separately . From 1994 until 2000 , there was a showbiz segment called the Electric Circus , which featured the latest films , music , computer games and gossip . It was first presented by John Barrowman after he stepped aside as a regular presenter , and was later hosted by a variety of people .
The first series featured the computerised head of a cat named " Ratz " who provided links , but this was dropped after one series . It was replaced by commentator Mitch Johnson , who , as well as providing commentary and links for each item , would interact with both audience and presenters too . From the second series , two puppet leprachauns , later named as Sage and Onion became regulars . They were played by Don Austen and John Eccleston , and were designed and built by Darryl Worbey Studios . They performed comedy sketches throughout the morning , and often interacted with the people in the studio . Another comedy character who first appeared in the third series was Mr Blobby , who had previously appeared in Noel 's House Party . Most regular features were dropped for the final series , when the show was revamped . A feature that stuck throughout was the jingle for the phone number , first 081 811 8181 , then 0181 811 8181 , then 0845 610 1515 .
As well as the television show , Live and Kicking launched a music CD , composed of the best music that artists had sung live on the programme . A video game called Live and Kicking : Showmaker was also created , where the user could combine elements of the show to create their own television production on a small scale . A monthly magazine was also produced , though towards the end of Live & Kicking 's production , the sales of the magazine dropped significantly , reflecting its loss of viewers .
For series five and six , there was a short version of the show that aired on Friday afternoons called L & K Friday , but this was cancelled after two series . The regular Saturday presenters Jamie Theakston and Zoë Ball presented the first series , and Steve Wilson and Liz Fraser presented the second series . A 90 @-@ minute version of the show also aired on BBC Choice and was entitled L & K Replay .
In May 2000 , two months before Steve & Emma were officially resigned from Live & Kicking , the show was brought back for a one @-@ off special during the summer break . It was to mix in with the BBC 's Music Live and the show was titled as Music Live & Kicking with Steve & Emma returning to present along with future presenter Ortis Deley and special guest presenter Stephen Gately of Boyzone . This special was dedicated to a series of music performances ( hence the title ) and was the first edition to be broadcast in widescreen .
One of the last features was L & K Castaway , a spin @-@ off of the BBC reality show Castaway 2000 . Each week , six children would spend four days on a remote Scottish island , learning how to survive , among other skills . Points were earned through passing various tasks , and were lost if contestants entered the " Temptation Hut " , which contained various modern electrical appliances .
= = Demise and replacement = =
The Ball and Theakston series are considered to be when Live & Kicking was at its peak in popularity . After their final series in 1999 , it was believed the BBC would replace Live & Kicking with another programme , as its two predecessors had both lasted six years . Instead , they continued with Live & Kicking , with new presenters Emma Ledden and Steve Wilson . The series was the beginning of the end for the show ; Ledden and Wilson did not know each other at the start of the series , and so there was none of the interaction between them , as seen between Ball and Theakston . Additionally , SMTV Live which broadcast opposite on ITV was slowly becoming more popular , and gaining the audience the BBC was losing . After just one series , Ledden and Wilson 's contracts were not renewed . Wilson later said that they were dropped just as they were starting to form a relationship , and that Ant & Dec , presenters of SMTV Live , had the edge over them as they had known each other much longer . Ledden had already been dropped when Wilson went through several meetings with the BBC . He decided it was better to leave after one good series , rather than do a second " lame " series , and went on to appear in rival SMTV Live 's 100th show , in the Friends skit , ' Chums ' . When Live & Kicking returned in October 2000 , it was completely revamped , with brand new titles and a line @-@ up of four presenters . However , this did nothing to increase viewing figures , and the chemistry between the presenters was even less apparent . It was decided not to end the show in April and replace it with a summer show , because the replacement FBi had lost even more viewers for the BBC . Live & Kicking continued until September after a move to Glasgow where the summer show had normally been filmed . Just before the move it was announced it would be the final series . The principal reason given for the decision was the increasing loss of viewers to SMTV Live , which had a similar format and was more successful . Live and Kicking was replaced by The Saturday Show , fronted by Dani Behr and Joe Mace , which was shown all year round until September 2003 when it began an Autumn @-@ Spring / Summer loop with Dick and Dom in da Bungalow . Live & Kicking was featured in the BBC 's It Started with Swap Shop programme in 2006 , where Noel Edmonds interviewed the first pair of presenters , Andi Peters and Emma Forbes , about their time on the show .
= = Programmes = =
Rugrats ( 1993 – 2001 )
The Simpsons ( 1997 – 2000 )
X @-@ Men ( 1993 – 1996 )
Kenan and Kel ( 1997 – 2001 )
Smart Guy ( 1997 – 2000 )
The Wild Thornberrys ( 1999 – 2001 )
Roswell Conspiracies ( 2000 – 2001 )
Monster Rancher ( 1999 – 2001 )
Clarissa Explains It All ( 1993 – 1996 )
Grimmy ( 1994 )
Eek ! The Cat
= Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent . Considered one of the " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawaii @-@ born combatants who fought in the American Civil War while the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was still an independent nation .
Born and raised in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , he was the eldest son of Kinoʻoleoliliha , a Hawaiian high chiefess , and Benjamin Pitman , an American pioneer settler from Massachusetts . Through his father 's business success in the whaling and sugar and coffee plantation industries and his mother 's familial connections to the Hawaiian royal family , the Pitmans were quite prosperous and owned lands on the island of Hawaiʻi and in Honolulu . He and his older sister were educated in the mission schools in Hilo alongside other children of mixed Hawaiian descent . After the death of his mother in 1855 , his father remarried to the widow of a missionary , thus connecting the family to the American missionary community in Hawaiʻi . However , following the deaths of his first wife and later his second wife , his father decided to leave the islands and returned to Massachusetts with his family around 1860 . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time .
Leaving school without his family 's knowledge , he made the decision to fight in the Civil War in August 1862 . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian recruits of the time and enlisted in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , a white regiment . He served as a private in the Union Army fighting in the Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign . In his company , Private Robert G. Carter befriended the part @-@ Hawaiian soldier and wrote in later life of their common experience in the 22nd Massachusetts . Compiled decades afterward from old letters , Carter 's account described the details surrounding his final fate in the war . On the march to Fredericksburg , Pitman was separated from his regiment and captured by Confederate guerrilla forces . He was forced to march to Richmond and incarcerated in the Confederate Libby Prison , where he contracted " lung fever " from the harsh conditions of his imprisonment and died on February 27 , 1863 , a few months after his release on parole in a prisoner exchange . Modern historians consider Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman to be the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War .
For a period of time after the end of the war , the legacy and contributions of Pitman and other documented Hawaiian participants in the American Civil War were largely forgotten except in the private circles of descendants and historians . However , there has been a revival of interest in recent years in the Hawaiian community . In 2010 , these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " were commemorated with a bronze plaque erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu .
= = Early life and family = =
Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was born March 18 , 1845 , in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , the first son and second child of Benjamin Pitman and Kinoʻoleoliliha . Originally a native of Salem , Massachusetts , Pitman 's father was an early pioneer , businessman and sugar and coffee plantation owner on the island of Hawaiʻi , who profited greatly from the kingdom 's booming whaling industry in the early 1800s . On his father 's side , he was a great @-@ grandson of Joshua Pitman ( 1755 – 1822 ) , an English @-@ American carpenter on the ship Franklin under Captain Allen Hallett during the American Revolutionary War . On his mother 's side , Pitman was a descendant of Kameʻeiamoku , one of the royal twins ( with Kamanawa ) who advised Kamehameha I in his conquest of the Hawaiian Islands , and also of the early American or English sea captain Harold Cox , who lent his name to George " Cox " Kahekili Keʻeaumoku II , the Governor of Maui . Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman shared his Hawaiian name with his maternal grandfather Hoʻolulu , who , along with his brother Hoapili , helped conceal the bones of King Kamehameha I in a secret hiding place after his death . In the Hawaiian language , the name " Hoʻolulu " means " to be calm " , as a ship in a protected harbor . His siblings were Mary Ann Pitman Ailau ( 1838 – 1905 ) , Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman ( 1852 – 1918 ) and half @-@ sister Maria Kinoʻole Pitman Morey ( 1858 – 1892 ) .
Because of his father 's success in business and his mother 's descent from Hawaiian royalty , the Pitman family was considered quite prosperous and were host to the royal family when they visited Hilo . Besides being one of the leading merchants in town , his father also served the government as district magistrate of Hilo . Henry 's mother , Kinoʻole , had inherited control over much of the lands in Hilo and Ōlaʻa from her own father , and King Kamehameha III had granted her use of the ahupuaʻa of Hilo after her marriage . During Henry 's early childhood , the family lived in the mansion that Benjamin Pitman had built in 1840 , in an area known as Niopola , one of the favored resort spots of ancient Hawaiian royalty . The residence also became known as the Spencer House after Pitman sold it to his business partner Captain Thomas Spencer . The property later became the site of the Hilo Hotel , built in 1888 and torn down in 1956 . In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named Waialeale ( " rippling water " ) at the corner of Alakea and Beretania Streets .
= = Education = =
While in Hawaiʻi , Pitman and his older sister Mary attended Mrs. Wetmore 's children 's school in Hilo . The school was located at the Wetmores ' residence on Church Street . Taught by Lucy Sheldon Taylor Wetmore , the wife of American missionary doctor and government physician Charles Hinckley Wetmore , the two elder Pitman children received their education in English rather than Hawaiian . This was unusual since Hawaiian was the official language of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , and all other schools in Hilo were conducted in the Hawaiian language . Mrs. Wetmore taught the children reading , writing , spelling , arithmetic and singing , while also reinforcing the curriculum with a strong adherence to the principles of the Protestant faith . Like the Pitman siblings , many of their classmates were also of half @-@ Hawaiian ( hapa @-@ kanaka ) descent with a majority of them being Chinese @-@ Hawaiians ( hapa @-@ pake ) .
After the death of his mother Kinoʻole in 1855 , Pitman 's father remarried to Maria Louisa Walsworth Kinney , the widow of American missionary Rev. Henry Kinney . The Kinneys were part of the Twelfth Company of missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to arrive in 1848 . The marriage aligned the Pitman children with the American missionary community . They were called " cousins " by the children of the missionaries and considered part of the extended missionary family of Hawaiʻi . This first stepmother died in 1858 after giving birth to their father 's fourth child , a daughter named Maria Kinoʻole ( 1858 – 1892 ) . The Pitman family returned to Massachusetts in 1860 where his father remarried to his third wife Martha Ball , giving his four children another stepmother . According to an 1887 biography written by Robert G. Carter , a private who would later serve in the same company as Pitman , he was neglected after his mother 's death by his father and stepmother , who " subjected [ him ] to neglect and treatment , that with his sensitive nature he could not bear " . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time . The 1860 United States Census registered Pitman under his teacher Solomon Adams as residing and presumably being educated in Newton , also in the Boston area .
Growing into adolescence , he was said to strongly resemble his Hawaiian mother . Robert G. Carter gave a brief description of his appearance in wartime letters first published in 1897 :
[ A ] tall , slim boy , straight as an arrow . His face was a perfect oval , his hair was as black as a raven 's wing , and his eyes were large and of that peculiar soft , melting blackness , which excites pity when one is in distress . His skin was a clear , dark olive , bordering on the swarthy , and this , with his high cheek bones , would have led us to suppose that his nationality was different from our own , had we not known that his name was plain Henry P. There was an air of good breeding and refinement about him , that , with his small hands and feet , would have set us to thinking , had it not been that in our youth and intensely enthusiastic natures , we gave no thought to our comrades ' personal appearance . We can look back now and see the shy , reserved nature of the boy , the dark , melancholy eyes , the sad smile , the sensitive twitching of the lips .
= = American Civil War = =
After the outbreak of the American Civil War , the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under King Kamehameha IV declared its neutrality on August 26 , 1861 . But many Native Hawaiians and Hawaiian @-@ born Americans ( mainly descendants of the American missionaries ) both abroad and in the islands volunteered and enlisted in the military regiments of various states in the Union and the Confederacy . Individual Native Hawaiians had been serving in the United States Navy and Army since the War of 1812 , and even more served during the American Civil War . Many Hawaiians sympathized with the Union because of Hawaiʻi 's ties to New England through its missionaries and the whaling industries , and the ideological opposition of many to the institution of slavery .
= = = Enlistment and service = = =
On August 14 , 1862 , Pitman left school without his family 's knowledge and volunteered to serve in the Union Army and fight in the American Civil War . He apparently never informed his family in advance about the choice to join the war because the news of his enlistment was reported back in Hawaiʻi 's American missionary community as " Henry Pitman has run away from home and gone [ to war ] . " Carter described Pitman 's rationale for enlisting : " In the midst of the clamor of war , when the very air vibrated with excitement , the wild enthusiasm of the crowds , and the inspiring sound of the drum , his Indian nature rose within him . His resolve was made . "
Pitman was a hapa @-@ haole , of part Hawaiian and part Caucasian descent . His father was white and his native @-@ born mother was also part Caucasian from her own mother , who was the daughter of Captain Cox and a Hawaiian chiefess . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian volunteers in this period . Most Native Hawaiians who participated in the war were assigned to colored regiments , but Pitman 's fair skin color meant he was able to serve in a white unit , indicating that unit assignment may have been influenced by how dark Hawaiians appeared . Historians Bob Dye , James L. Haley and others claimed Pitman was placed in the colored regiments because of his mixed race , but regiment records indicate otherwise .
Pitman served as a private in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Company H. This regiment was also named the " Henry Wilson 's Regiment " after Col. Henry Wilson , who commanded the unit in 1861 . Col. William S. Tilton was the commander during Pitman 's brief term of service . The regiment was part of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the command of Major General George B. McClellan . During this period , the regiment fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and was involved in the Maryland Campaign fighting in the Battle of Antietam , the bloodiest single @-@ day battle in American history , and the Battle of Shepherdstown . His regiment was on the march to the Battle of Fredericksburg when Pitman was captured by Confederate troops .
= = = Imprisonment and death = = =
The most detailed account of Pitman 's final fate in the War came from Robert G. Carter . In November 1862 , Pitman was captured near Warrenton Junction on the march toward Fredericksburg , Virginia , during the weeks prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg . He had fallen behind the group because his feet had blistered and swollen due to the tightness of " a pair of thin , high @-@ heeled and narrow soled boots " he had purchased . One of his comrades temporarily stayed behind to care for him but later decided to move on with the rest of the camp for fear of disciplinary consequences of falling out without authority . He was urged to move on , but without much success . Pitman 's last words to his comrade were , " I will be in camp by night , good by . " His fellow soldiers never saw him again and considered him missing . Shortly after he was left , a band of Confederate guerrillas under Colonel John S. Mosby captured the weary and defenseless soldier without a struggle . The inscription on his tombstone differs slightly from Carter 's account , stating he was captured by J. E. B. Stuart 's cavalry instead .
After Pitman 's capture , he was marched to Richmond in a weak physical state . He was imprisoned in the Confederate Libby Prison and Belle Isle , which were notoriously harsh prisons . Pitman 's letters home described his place of incarceration as the " Pen " where " the filthy meat [ was ] thrown to them as if they were dogs " . The condition of his incarceration including the shortage of food , lack of sanitation , overcrowding and his physical weakness made him susceptible to virulent diseases present in the Confederate prisons . Carter described how the prisons " wore out the brave spirit " . During a prisoner exchange , Pitman was released by the Confederate Army at City Point , Virginia , on December 12 , 1862 , and then sent to Annapolis Parole Camp . Suffering from complications due to the conditions of his imprisonment , he contracted " lung fever " , which was perhaps pneumonia . Carter wrote later how his friend had " linger [ ed ] feebly a few weeks , like the flickering of an expiring flame , then quietly pass [ ed ] away to an eternal life " . Pitman died at Parole Camp on February 27 , 1863 , just weeks short of his eighteenth birthday . According to historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance , Pitman " has the unfortunate distinction of being the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War . "
Considering him missing , Pitman 's regiment did not discover his final fate until news of his funeral at Roxbury was received in the spring of the following year . His remains were returned to his family in Massachusetts after his death in Parole Camp . Benjamin Pitman , his father , had him buried in a family plot in Mount Auburn Cemetery . On one side of the Pitman family grave marker was placed the inscription :
Timothy Henry Pitman
Born at Hilo , Hawaii
Mar. 18 , 1845
Died at Camp Parole
Annapolis , MD , Feb 'y 27 , 1863
Aged 17 years 11 mos . 9 daysA member of Co . H , 22nd Regiment
Mass . Vols . , was with his Regiment in the
battles of South Mountain , Antietam and
Sharpsburg . Was taken prisoner by Stuart 's
cavalry on the march to Fredricksburg ;
Imprisoned in Libby Prison , paroled and
sent to Camp Parole , Annapolis , and died in
camp of pneumonia .
= = Legacy = =
After his death , the memory of Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was honored by friends and family members back in Massachusetts and Hawaiʻi . During a return to Hawaiʻi in 1917 , his younger brother Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman and his wife Almira Hollander Pitman , discovered a grandson of a nephew was named Kealiʻi i Kaua i Pakoma ( meaning " Chief that fought the Potomac " ) in honor of his deceased older brother . Similarly , Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman Beckley , the second son of his Hawaiian first cousin George Charles Moʻoheau Beckley , was also named after him . Shortly after his death , Pitman was eulogized back in Hawaiʻi by Martha Ann Chamberlain , Corresponding Secretary of the Hawaiian Mission Children 's Society :
Our cousin , Henry Pitman , the first of Hawaii 's sons to fall in the war , died at Annapolis Parole Camp , Feb. 27 , of lung fever , serving as a soldier in the Union army . His remains were deposited in Mt . Auburn Cemetery , near Boston , Mass . He died in a just cause . Let his memory be embalmed among our band .
After the war , the military service of Hawaiians , including Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman , were largely forgotten , disappearing from the collective memories of the American Civil War and the history of Hawaiʻi . However , in recent years , Hawaiian residents and historians and descendants of Hawaiian combatants in the conflict have insisted on the need to remember " our boys from Hawaii " . Renewed interest in the stories of these individuals and this particular period of Hawaiian @-@ American history have inspired efforts to preserve the memories of the Hawaiians who served in the war . On August 26 , 2010 , on the anniversary of the signing of the Hawaiian Neutrality Proclamation , a bronze plaque was erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu recognizing these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , the more than one hundred documented Hawaiians who served during the American Civil War for both the Union and the Confederacy . Pitman 's great @-@ grandniece Diane Kinoʻole o Liliha Pitman Spieler attended the ceremony . Pitman Spieler stated , " I 'm very proud of a young man of his age – he was quite young – who served in the Civil War for his family . "
In 2013 , Todd Ocvirk , Nanette Napoleon , Justin Vance , Anita Manning and others began the process of creating a historical documentary about the individual experiences and stories of Hawaii @-@ born soldiers and sailors of the American Civil War , including Pitman , Samuel C. Armstrong , Nathaniel Bright Emerson , James Wood Bush , J. R. Kealoha and many other unnamed combatants of both the Union and the Confederacy . In 2014 , Maui @-@ based author Wayne Moniz wrote a fictionalized story based on the lives and Civil War service of Hawaiian soldiers like Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman in his book Pukoko : A Hawaiian in the American Civil War . In 2015 , the sesquicentennial of the end of the war , the National Park Service released a publication titled Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War about the service of the large number of combatants of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought during the war . The history of Hawaiʻi 's involvement and the biographies of Pitman , Bush , Kealoha and others were co @-@ written by historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance .
= Church of Christ Pantocrator , Nesebar =
The Church of Christ Pantocrator ( Bulgarian : църква „ Христос Пантократор “ , tsarkva „ Hristos Pantokrator “ or църква „ Христос Вседържател “ , tsarkva „ Hristos Vsedarzhatel “ , Byzantine Greek : Ναός Χριστού Παντοκράτωρος ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the eastern Bulgarian town of Nesebar ( medieval Mesembria ) , on the Black Sea coast of Burgas Province . Part of the Ancient Nesebar UNESCO World Heritage Site , the Church of Christ Pantocrator was constructed in the 13th – 14th century and is best known for its lavish exterior decoration . The church , today an art gallery , survives largely intact and is among Bulgaria 's best preserved churches of the Middle Ages .
= = History = =
The Church of Christ Pantocrator is usually dated to the late 13th or early 14th century . University of Pennsylvania scholar Robert G. Ousterhout places its construction in the mid @-@ 14th century . Rough Guides author Jonathan Bousfield attributes its building to the rule of Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria ( r . 1331 – 1371 ) , though during this time control of Nesebar changed many times between the Second Bulgarian Empire and Byzantium . The church is dedicated to Christ Pantocrator , a name of God which hails him as the " Ruler of All " in Greek .
The church is located on Mesembria Street , near the entrance to Nesebar 's old town . Nowadays , it houses an art gallery which exhibits works by Bulgarian artists . As it belongs to the old town of Nesebar , the Church of Christ Pantocrator forms part of the Ancient City of Nesebar UNESCO World Heritage Site and the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria . Since 1927 , it has been under state protection as a " national antiquity " , and it was listed among Bulgaria 's monuments of culture of national importance in 1964 .
= = Architecture = =
The church is designed in late Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square style . It was constructed from stones and brickwork , a construction technique known as opus mixtum , and measures 16 by 6 @.@ 90 metres ( 52 @.@ 5 ft × 22 @.@ 6 ft ) , 16 by 6 @.@ 70 metres ( 52 @.@ 5 ft × 22 @.@ 0 ft ) , or 14 @.@ 20 by 4 @.@ 80 metres ( 46 @.@ 6 ft × 15 @.@ 7 ft ) , depending on the source . The walls of the church are 0 @.@ 80 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) thick . The colour of the bricks gives the church a ruddy appearance .
The church features a narthex and a cella ( or " naos " ) with an essentially rectangular elongated plan . The narthex is small , but has a medieval tomb underneath it . There are four entrances to the church : two accessing the cella from the south and west , and another two for the narthex from the west and north . The apse of the church has three small parts which overlap each other to form a single , larger unit . The prothesis and diaconicon of the church are located by the apse .
The dome , octagonal in shape , stands prominently on top of the centre of the cella . It was supported by four now @-@ destroyed columns which were located directly beneath it . The integrated bell tower has been built on top of the narthex , as was customary in contemporary Byzantine church architecture , and extends from the rectangular main structure . The bell tower was originally rectangular , though it is now partially ruined . It was reached from the south by means of a stone staircase .
= = Decoration = =
The best @-@ known feature of the Church of Christ Pantocrator is the rich and colourful decoration of its exterior walls . The most lavishly decorated part of the church is the east side with the apse , and as a whole all sides of the church exhibit different ornamentation . Interchanging strips of three or four rows of bricks and carved stones , which create an optical pattern , are the most basic type of decoration used . Rows of blind arches , four @-@ leaved floral motifs , triangular ornaments , circular turquoise ceramics and brick swastika friezes run along the east wall . Ousterhout likens the appearance of the church 's superimposed arcades to an aqueduct ; an earlier example of that configuration can be observed in the Cappadocian church of Çanlı Kilise near Aksaray , Turkey . The inclusion of swastikas in the decoration is considered unusual and curious to tourists . It is explained by the medieval use of the swastika as a symbol of the Sun .
The decoration of the elongated north and south walls includes brick blind arches in the bottom part and a large arch for each wall adjacent to the dome with a columned window in the middle . There are windows above the lower arches of the north and south facade . The dome , which also exhibits a large number of ornamental details and ceramics , features eight windows , one for each of its sides . The medieval frescoes which were painted on the interior walls of the church have been only fragmentarily preserved .
= Kir 'Shara =
" Kir 'Shara " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It was writer Michael Sussman 's third episode of the season , while it was director David Livingston 's second . The episode was the third in a three @-@ part story arc , following on from the episodes " The Forge " and " Awakening " . " Kir 'Shara " and the Vulcan arc showed themes relating to the Protestant Reformation resulting in comparisons to books such as The Da Vinci Code and The Celestine Prophecy , while the Kir 'Shara itself was compared to the Nag Hammadi library .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Enterprise attempts to avert a war , and is caught in a crossfire between Vulcan and Andorian starships . Meanwhile . Captain Archer , Commander T 'Pol , and T 'Pau aim to take the Kir 'Shara to the Vulcan capital , and use it to reveal Administrator V 'Las ' plot to the rest of the Vulcan High Command .
In addition to the guest stars returning from the previous arc episodes , or the episode " Home " , Jeffrey Combs returned as Shran . The episode was shot across seven days using mostly standing sets , with only an Andorian brig built specifically for this episode . " Kir 'Shara " also saw the return of the Vulcan lirpa , a weapon which had been first introduced in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . The episode originally aired on December 3 , 2004 on UPN . It received a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 1 / 4 percent , which equalled the highest ratings seen during the fourth season . It was warmly received by critics who praised Combs ' performance and noted that this episode was an indication of the improving quality of the series . However there was mixed opinion regarding the ending of the episode .
= = Plot = =
Enterprise heads to Andoria after Ambassador Soval informs them that the Vulcans believe they have been developing Xindi weapon technology . Soval guides Enterprise to a nebula where the Andorian fleet is hiding . Commander Shran is dubious , and abducts and tortures Soval . After believing him , Enterprise joins a fleet of six Andorian ships to intercept the Vulcans . Commander Tucker attempts to buy time by ordering Enterprise directly between the two fleets — this works for a while until Administrator V 'Las orders them to be targeted too .
Meanwhile , at The Forge , Captain Archer , Commander T 'Pol , and T 'Pau , having found the sacred Kir 'Shara ( which the Syrrannites believe will usher a Vulcan enlightenment ) , endeavor to take it to the capital . En route , T 'Pol and T 'Pau discuss the taboo of mind @-@ melds , and T 'Pau offers to mind @-@ meld with T 'Pol . She states the meld is safe when performed by those trained in the art , and that Pa 'nar Syndrome is merely the by @-@ product of an improperly conducted meld . The trio are then attacked by Major Talok and Vulcan commandos , and T 'Pol is captured while the others escape . She tells her captors that they are headed to Mount Seleya in order to mislead them from their true destination .
She is then taken to the capital . Archer and T 'Pau also arrive after T 'Pol 's husband , Koss , provides transporter security codes . They present the Kir 'Shara to the Command and reveal that the embassy bombing was merely a pretext to weaken the pacifist Syrranites prior to the Andorian strike . Visibly angered , V 'Las lunges for the Kir 'Shara , but is stunned by High @-@ Minister Kuvak , who orders the fleet to stand down . Enterprise returns to Vulcan , and Koss visits to release T 'Pol from their marriage . Meanwhile , the Vulcan High Command is dissolved , granting Earth greater autonomy , and the katra of Surak is transferred to a Vulcan high priest . V 'Las , relieved of his post , meets secretly with Talok , revealed as a Romulan agent , who states that the reunification of their worlds is only a matter of time .
= = Production = =
Like " Home " , " Kir 'Shara " was written by Michael Sussman and was his third script during the fourth season . David Livingston directed the episode , which was his second episode of the season having previously directed " Borderland " . Most of the guest stars had appeared in the previous episode " Awakening " , including Robert Foxworth as Administrator V 'Las , Kara Zediker as T 'Pau and John Rubinstein as Kuvak . In addition , Michael Reilly Burke resumes his role as Koss for the third time , having appeared in the role both in " Home " and " The Forge " . Also appearing , having appeared in " Home " , was Jack Donner as a Vulcan priest . Donner appeared in The Original Series episode " The Enterprise Incident " as the Romulan Commander Subcommander Tal . " Kir 'Shara " also saw the return of Jeffrey Combs as the Andorian Commander Shran for the sixth time as well as Gary Graham as Ambassador Soval , who has appeared as a recurring character in Enterprise since the pilot episode " Broken Bow " .
Filming began on October 4 , 2004 and continued until October 12 . Despite the desert locations , all filming took place on soundstages . These represented a variety of places throughout the Vulcan desert @-@ like Forge . The remaining sets used were either standing sets , or those which had been constructed for the previous two episodes . The exceptions to that were two sets to represent scenes on board Commander Shran 's Andorian vessel . The Andorian bridge set , which had been used previously in the series , had a single wall brought out of storage in order to appear as a backdrop for Shran when he appears on the Enterprise viewscreen . The Andorian brig was built specifically for this episode for scenes with Shran and Soval .
Re @-@ appearing in " Kir 'Shara " were the traditional Vulcan weapon , the lirpa , which was first introduced in The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . The lirpa is a long shaft with a crescent blade on one end and a spiked cudgel on the other . Brand new props were built for this episode , modifying the original design by making them more lightweight . They were wielded in " Kir 'Shara " by Vulcan commandos , who were all played by stunt actors in non @-@ speaking roles . Additional stunt doubles were required for Archer , T 'Pol , T 'Pau and Talok while two puppeteers were needed for the Andorian antennae seen on screen .
= = Themes = =
" Kir 'Shara " followed up the events of the previous two episodes in the story arc as well some of the elements seen earlier in the season in the episode " Home " . " The Forge " sees Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) travel into the Vulcan desert known as the Forge in order to find a renegade faction of Vulcans , known as the Syrrannites . During the journey , Archer has the katra of Surak transferred into him . In " Awakening " , the duo meet the Syrrannites and find out they are peaceful . After Enterprise leaves orbit , the Vulcans start bombarding the caves where the Syrrannites are located , killing T 'Pol 's mother , T 'Les ( Joanna Cassidy ) .
Speaking about " Awakening " , show runner Manny Coto had previously said that he envisaged the story arc to be about a Vulcan reformation as a metaphor to the real @-@ world 16th century Protestant Reformation with T 'Pau playing the role of Martin Luther . This view was supported by the 2010 book Star Trek As Myth , which saw the original Vulcan religion prior to the Reformation arc seen from " The Forge " onwards as equating to the Catholic Church while the Syrannites were the Protestants . In doing so , Administrator V 'Las is therefore linked to the anti @-@ Christ in much the same way that the Protestant Reformation saw the Pope as the anti @-@ Christ . In this role , the Romulans in the story take the place of the subversive devils to form an unholy alliance .
It was also suggested that the Kir 'Shara itself was similar in context to the Nag Hammadi library , which was a collection of thirteen codices found in Nag Hammadi , Egypt , in 1945 that date back to between the 2nd to 5th centuries . Unlike those codices , the Vulcan High Council attempts to suppress the revelation of the Kir 'Shara in a similar manner to the Catholic Church 's suppression seen in other fictional works such as Dan Brown 's The Da Vinci Code or James Redfield 's The Celestine Prophecy .
= = Reception = =
" Kir 'Shara " was first aired in the United States on UPN on December 3 , 2004 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fourth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 1 / 4 percent . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all those watching television at the time of broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , who aired What I Like About You and Grounded for Life . The ratings equalled the highest ratings of the season so far , which were previously achieved by " Borderland " , " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " .
TV Guide listed " Kir 'Shara " on its Hot List for the day , while the preview by IGN said that the show " finally grows up and becomes a Star Trek series this week " . It described " Kir 'Shara " as " far from a perfectly executed Trek story but they get enough right to make it a lot easier to overlook the few things they miss . " It said that there had been an overall improvement in the fourth season , and that " this could become some of the best Star Trek ever made " . It gave " Kir 'Shara " a rating of four and a half out of five . In Matthew Kappell 's book Star Trek As Myth , he said that he felt that the revelation that the previous Vulcan administration was working with the Romulans all along " suddenly makes sense of years of previously incomprehensible Vulcan policy " and linked to The Next Generation episode " Unification " .
Herc , in his review for Ain 't It Cool News , praised the reliability of Jeffrey Combs as Shran , but thought that there were no major surprises . Herc did say that the biggest shock was the revelation that the Romulans were behind the bombing of the Human Embassy . He gave it a rating of three out of five . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation , calling it an " absolutely gripping episode " except for the " ludicrousness of the ending " . She made the admission about the ending that , " I suppose the Romulans had to show up at some point , I guess Vulcan is as good a place as any . " She thought that the torture scenes were " pointless " , but was pleased with the characterisation seen in Archer , T 'Pol and Tucker . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " said that the episode was " not perfect , but good " with an " intriguing " ending . He also praised Jeffrey Combs as Shran , and thought that the torture screens were potent but that the ending was rushed . He gave the episode a rating of three out of four . The first home media release of " Kir 'Shara " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Meralda Warren =
Meralda Elva Junior Warren ( born 28 June 1959 ) is an artist and poet of Pitcairn Island , a remote British Overseas Territory in the South Pacific . She works in both English and Pitkern , the island 's distinctive creole language . Her book , Mi Base side orn Pitcairn , written with the island 's six children , is the first to be written and published in both English and Pitkern . As an artist , she works with tapa cloth , a Polynesian tradition . She has also published a cookbook featuring Pitcairn Island cuisine .
Warren has also served as the island 's nurse , its only police officer , a ham radio operator , and as a member of the territory 's governing council , among many other roles .
= = Biography = =
Warren was born on Pitcairn Island on 28 June 1959 , the second child of Jacob Ralph " Chippie " Warren ( 1920 – 2007 ) and Mavis Mary Brown ( born 1936 ) . Warren is the sister of Jay Warren ( born 1950 ) who served as the third mayor of the Pitcairn Islands ( 2004 – 2007 ) , and previously as the colony 's 29th magistrate ( 1991 – 1997 ) . She is a first cousin of Mike Warren ( born 1964 ) , the colony 's fourth mayor ( 2007 – 2014 ) . She is the descendant of mutineers from the famed Mutiny on the Bounty ( 1789 ) and of the Tahitian men and women who journeyed with the mutineers in settling the island in 1790 .
= = = Artist , poet , author and many other jobs = = =
Warren is a poet , and the author of two books , including Mi Base side orn Pitcairn ( " My Favourite Place on Pitcairn " ) , written with children on Pitcairn Island . It is the first book written and published in Pitkern and English .
Her works include a cookbook , Taste of Pitcairn featuring the cuisine of the Pitcairn Islands , and poetry in both Pitkern and English . Pitkern is an English @-@ based creole language derived from eighteenth @-@ century English and Tahitian . She writes poetry in both English and Pitkern .
In 2007 , Warren revived Pitcairn 's tradition of art created on tapa cloth , a woven bark cloth common in Polynesian culture . Her works have been displayed in museums and galleries in Tahiti , Norfolk Island , and New Zealand . In 2011 , she was one of seven artists awarded a Commonwealth Connections International Arts Residency , which provided a grant of £ 8 @,@ 000 that allowed her to work with other artists in New Zealand . She is the first recipient from the Pitcairn Islands .
Pitcairn has a small population . The island 's 48 residents often serve in several capacities or jobs . Warren describes her many roles on her personal website :
Travelling with patients to New Zealand and Tahiti and taking up Nursing , Radio Operator for the shore to ship skeds from ZBP station and twice daily contact with Auckland international Radio telephone link , Working in our Co @-@ op store , Council member for many years as well as being the Governors appointee member to council a few times , Becoming the first female Police & Immigration Officer for a few years . Lands Commission president , Lands court member , Bee keeper since 1978 . ASL operator for siesmic Vault , Installing wireless networking throughout Adamstown , Duncan cleaner , Contract Lawnmowing jobs , and many misc jobs inc Tourism and Entertainment . PHEWWwww. it became apprent to me that what I enjoy most is my art . ( T ) his is getting pushed aside whilst I am working these time consuming no pay or low paid positions which was making me very tired and yes .... Bitchy [ sic ]
Beginning in 1996 , Warren served as the island 's only police officer . However , since no one had been arrested on the island since the 1950s , her duties involved issuing driving licenses and stamping visitors ' passports . Warren had no qualifications or formal training to be a police officer , and was given the job because everyone on the island had a " job " . The island 's jail was described as " the size of a garden shed and riddled with termites , " and its cells had been used to store building materials and lifejackets . When the island came into the international spotlight due to a sexual abuse scandal , a law enforcement professional sent to the island criticized their practices , stating " It was glaringly obvious ... that their standard of policing was not really adequate . "
Warren was elected on 15 December 2004 to the Island Council . As a radio operator , she broadcasts under the call sign VP6MW .
= = = Pitcairn 's sexual abuse trial = = =
Warren was an outspoken critic of accusations that the island 's girls had been sexually abused when young , and the prosecution of a selected number of Pitcairn 's male residents . She claimed that young girls on Pitcairn customarily became sexually active after age 12 , a practice of underage sex that had been accepted as a Polynesian tradition since the settlement of the island in 1790 . One resident , Olive Christian , said of her girlhood , " We all thought sex was like food on the table . "
Many Pitcairn Island men blamed the British police for persuading the women involved to press charges . Some of the women agreed , and advocated a conspiracy theory that the trial was , in Warren 's words , " a British plot to jail the [ community 's ] able @-@ bodied men and ' close ' the island " , and that the British officials " picked on all the viable young men , the ones who are the backbone of this place . "
A majority of the island 's residents denied or excused the allegations . During the trial , Warren circulated a poem titled " Is Seven a Lucky Number ? " that criticized the British government and lawyers ' attempts to impose British law against their island 's traditions .
As the case wore on , Warren reflected that " the bottom had fallen out of our world … We lost our trust for each other . " Her brother , Jay Warren , who was accused of " indecent assault " , was the only defendant among the seven accused to be acquitted on 24 October 2004 .
Warren was convicted of assault during a drunken disagreement with another resident when the two were angered by tensions over the sexual abuse matter . The case was prosecuted by a Crown prosecutor and tried by a New Zealand magistrate . Warren was fined NZ $ 60 . The case cost the British government NZ $ 40 @,@ 000 to prosecute .
= = Works = =
1986 : A Taste of Pitcairn : The First Pitcairn Island Cookbook ( cookbook )
2005 : A Taste of Pitcairn : The First Pitcairn Island Cookbook ( cookbook ) ( updated edition )
2008 : Mi Base side orn Pitcairn ( " My Favourite Place on Pitcairn " ) , with 6 children on Pitcairn
= 2nd Battalion 9th Marines =
2nd Battalion , 9th Marines ( 2 / 9 ) was an infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps . Formed during World War I , the unit played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in the Battles of Guam and Iwo Jima during the World War II . The battalion distinguished itself in the defense of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War , and later participated in an ill fated invasion of Koh Tang Island in Southeast Asia , with the intention of rescuing the crew of the SS Mayaguez . During Operation Desert Storm , the battalion served as the lead battalion for the III Marine Expeditionary Force ( III MEF ) .
2 / 9 also participated in various humanitarian missions . The battalion helped evacuate Americans from Northern China during the Chinese Civil War and in various occasions participated in providing relief to the victims of typhoons . In 1992 , the battalion participated in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia .
2nd Battalion 9th Marines served until September 2 , 1994 , when it was deactivated to make room for one of three light armor reconnaissance battalions . It was part of the 9th Marine Regiment and the 3rd Marine Division . On July 13 , 2007 , 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was re @-@ activated again as part of the 6th Marine Regiment and replaced the Anti @-@ Terrorism Battalion ( ATBN ) . On April 1 , 2015 it was deactivated as part of a post @-@ war drawdown .
= = Battalion composition = =
A Battalion in the Marine Corps is headed by the Battalion Commander , usually a Lieutenant Colonel and sometimes a Colonel , his staff , headquarters , and the Battalion Sergeant Major . It usually consists of 3 @-@ 5 companies , with a total of 300 to 1 @,@ 200 Marines . 2nd Battalion 9th Marines comprises a Headquarters & Service ( H & S ) Company , Weapons Company and three Infantry Companies : Echo , Fox , and Golf . During the Vietnam war the Battalion comprised Headquarters & Service ( H & S ) Company , and Four Infantry Companies Echo , Fox , Golf , and Hotel . Each Company had its own weapons platoon with 3 squads of M 60 machine guns ( 7 @.@ 62 ) and 60 mm mortars and ether 3 @.@ 5 inch Rocket Launchers ( super bazooka ) or later LAAWS .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
With the advent of World War I , the United States expanded the Armed Forces , to include the United States Marine Corps . The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines ( also known as 2 / 9 ) was created and activated on November 20 , 1917 at Quantico , Virginia . During this period , there was turmoil in Cuba 's sugar producing regions . American companies operated the island 's sugar industry , which was vital to the economy of the United States . The battalion 's first mission was to keep order in the island and once this was accomplished , it was reassigned . There were rumors that German agents were going to disrupt Mexican oil shipments to Texas . The battalion was sent to Texas to safeguard these shipments . 2 / 9 was disbanded after the war on April 25 , 1919 only to be reactivated in 1925 . The battalion 's main objective was to train reserve Marines and its headquarters was now transferred to Kansas City , Missouri with two companies stationed at St. Louis . 2 / 9 was once again disbanded in 1937 .
= = = World War II = = =
In April 1942 , five months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , the unit was activated as part of the 2nd Marine Division . The headquarters was at Camp Elliot in San Diego , California , where it underwent intensive amphibious training . Before being reassigned to the 3rd Marine Division , the unit was assigned to Amphibious Corps , Pacific Fleet . The regiment was sent to Guadalcanal on July 1943 to relieve the 1st Marine Division . 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines participated in the Bougainville campaign of the Solomon Islands in the latter part of 1943 . On July 21 , 1944 , 2 / 9 participated in the invasion of Guam . The Japanese forces staged seven counterattacks , however the Marines prevailed despite the fact that they suffered over 50 % casualties . It was during this initial battle that one Marine , Captain Louis H. Wilson Jr . , ( who would in the future become a Commandant of the Marine Corps ) earned the Medal of Honor .
The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were part of the reserve forces for the Battle of Iwo Jima and were committed to the action five days after D @-@ Day . Among the Marines who distinguished themselves on Iwo Jima was Private Wilson D. Watson who received the Medal of Honor . After the island was secured , the unit was sent back to Guam where they underwent training for a possible invasion of the Japanese mainland . The invasion never occurred since hostilities between Japan and the United States came to an end . The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was sent to Camp Pendelton where , in December 1945 , it was once again | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
dæɡ / ) , is a finite directed graph with no directed cycles . That is , it consists of finitely many vertices and edges , with each edge directed from one vertex to another , such that there is no way to start at any vertex v and follow a consistently @-@ directed sequence of edges that eventually loops back to v again . Equivalently , a DAG is a directed graph that has a topological ordering , a sequence of the vertices such that every edge is directed from earlier to later in the sequence .
DAGs may be used to model many different kinds of information . The reachability relation in a DAG forms a partial order , and any finite partial order may be represented by a DAG using reachability . The program evaluation and review technique uses DAGs to model the milestones and activities of large human projects , and schedule these projects to use as little total time as possible . Scheduling of computer operations such as the updates to a spreadsheet or the compilation operations in a makefile can also be performed using topological orderings of DAGs . Combinational logic blocks in electronic circuit design , and the operations in dataflow programming languages , involve acyclic networks of processing elements . DAGs can also represent collections of events and their influence on each other , either in a probabilistic structure such as a Bayesian network or as a record of historical data such as family trees or the version histories of distributed revision control systems . DAGs can also be used as a compact representation of sequence data , such as the directed acyclic word graph representation of a collection of strings , or the binary decision diagram representation of sequences of binary choices .
Important polynomial time computational problems on DAGs include topological sorting ( finding a topological ordering ) , construction of the transitive closure and transitive reduction ( the largest and smallest DAGs with the same reachability relation , respectively ) , and the closure problem , in which the goal is to find a minimum @-@ weight subset of vertices with no edges connecting them to the rest of the graph . Transforming a directed graph with cycles into a DAG by deleting as few vertices or edges as possible ( the feedback vertex set and feedback edge set problem , respectively ) is NP @-@ hard , but any directed graph can be made into a DAG ( its condensation ) by contracting each strongly connected component into a single supervertex . The problems of finding shortest paths and longest paths can be solved on DAGs in linear time , in contrast to arbitrary graphs for which shortest path algorithms are slower and longest path problems are NP @-@ hard .
The corresponding concept for undirected graphs is a forest , an undirected graph without cycles . Choosing an orientation for a forest produces a special kind of directed acyclic graph called a polytree . However there are many other kinds of directed acyclic graph that are not formed by orienting the edges of an undirected acyclic graph . Moreover , every undirected graph has an acyclic orientation , an assignment of a direction for its edges that makes it into a directed acyclic graph . To emphasize that DAGs are not the same thing as directed versions of undirected acyclic graphs , some authors call them acyclic directed graphs or acyclic digraphs .
= = Definitions = =
A graph is formed by a collection of vertices and edges , where the vertices are structureless objects that are connected in pairs by edges . In the case of a directed graph , each edge has an orientation , from one vertex to another vertex . A path in a directed graph can be described by a sequence of edges having the property that the ending vertex of each edge in the sequence is the same as the starting vertex of the next edge in the sequence ; a path forms a cycle if the starting vertex of its first edge equals the ending vertex of its last edge . A directed acyclic graph is a directed graph that has no cycles .
A vertex v of a directed graph is said to be reachable from another vertex u when there exists a path that starts at u and ends at v. As a special case , every vertex is considered to be reachable from itself ( by a path with zero edges ) . If a vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path ( a path with one or more edges ) , then that path is a cycle , so another way to define directed acyclic graphs is that they are the graphs in which no vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path .
A topological ordering of a directed graph is an ordering of its vertices into a sequence , such that for every edge the start vertex of the edge occurs earlier in the sequence than the ending vertex of the edge . A graph that has a topological ordering cannot have any cycles , because the edge into the earliest vertex of a cycle would have to be oriented the wrong way . Therefore , every graph with a topological ordering is acyclic . Conversely , every directed acyclic graph has a topological ordering . Therefore , this property can be used as an alternative definition of the directed acyclic graphs : they are exactly the graphs that have topological orderings .
= = Mathematical properties = =
= = = Reachability , transitive closure , and transitive reduction = = =
The reachability relationship in any directed acyclic graph can be formalized as a partial order ≤ on the vertices of the DAG . In this partial order , two vertices u and v are ordered as u ≤ v exactly when there exists a directed path from u to v in the DAG ; that is , when v is reachable from u . However , different DAGs may give rise to the same reachability relation and the same partial order . For example , the DAG with two edges a → b and b → c has the same reachability relation as the graph with three edges a → b , b → c , and a → c . Both of these DAGS produce the same partial order , in which the vertices are ordered as a ≤ b ≤ c .
If G is a DAG , its transitive closure is the graph with the most edges that represents the same reachability relation . It has an edge u → v whenever u can reach v. That is , it has an edge for every related pair u ≤ v of distinct elements in the reachability relation of G , and may therefore be thought of as a direct translation of the reachability relation ≤ into graph @-@ theoretic terms . The same method of translating partial orders into DAGs works more generally : for every finite partially ordered set ( S , ≤ ) , the graph that has a vertex for each member of S and an edge for each pair of elements related by u ≤ v is automatically a transitively closed DAG , and has ( S , ≤ ) as its reachability relation . In this way , every finite partially ordered set can be represented as the reachability relation of a DAG .
The transitive reduction of a DAG G is the graph with the fewest edges that represents the same reachability relation as G. It is a subgraph of G , formed by discarding the edges u → v for which G also contains a longer path connecting the same two vertices . Like the transitive closure , the transitive reduction is uniquely defined for DAGs . In contrast , for a directed graph that is not acyclic , there can be more than one minimal subgraph with the same reachability relation .
If a DAG G has a reachability relation described by the partial order ≤ , then the transitive reduction of G is a subgraph of G that has an edge u → v for every pair in the covering relation of ≤ . Transitive reductions are useful in visualizing the partial orders they represent , because they have fewer edges than other graphs representing the same orders and therefore lead to simpler graph drawings . A Hasse diagram of a partial order is a drawing of the transitive reduction in which the orientation of each edge is shown by placing the starting vertex of the edge in a lower position than its ending vertex .
= = = Topological ordering = = =
Every directed acyclic graph has a topological ordering , an ordering of the vertices such that the starting endpoint of every edge occurs earlier in the ordering than the ending endpoint of the edge . The existence of such an ordering can be used to characterize DAGs : a directed graph is a DAG if and only if it has a topological ordering . In general , this ordering is not unique ; a DAG has a unique topological ordering if and only if it has a directed path containing all the vertices , in which case the ordering is the same as the order in which the vertices appear in the path .
The family of topological orderings of a DAG is the same as the family of linear extensions of the reachability relation for the DAG , so any two graphs representing the same partial order have the same set of topological orders .
= = = Combinatorial enumeration = = =
The graph enumeration problem of counting directed acyclic graphs was studied by Robinson ( 1973 ) . The number of DAGs on n labeled vertices , for n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , … ( without restrictions on the order in which these numbers appear in a topological ordering of the DAG ) is
1 , 1 , 3 , 25 , 543 , 29281 , 3781503 , … ( sequence A003024 in the OEIS ) .
These numbers may be computed by the recurrence relation
<formula>
Eric W. Weisstein conjectured , and McKay et al . ( 2004 ) proved , that the same numbers count the ( 0 @,@ 1 ) matrices for which all eigenvalues are positive real numbers . The proof is bijective : a matrix A is an adjacency matrix of a DAG if and only if A + I is a ( 0 @,@ 1 ) matrix with all eigenvalues positive , where I denotes the identity matrix . Because a DAG cannot have self @-@ loops , its adjacency matrix must have a zero diagonal , so adding I preserves the property that all matrix coefficients are 0 or 1 .
= = = Related families of graphs = = =
A polytree is a directed graph formed by orienting the edges of a free tree . Every polytree is a DAG . In particular , this is true of the arborescences formed by directing all edges outwards from the roots of a tree .
A multitree ( also called a strongly unambiguous graph or a mangrove ) is a directed graph in which there is at most one directed path ( in either direction ) between any two vertices ; equivalently , it is a DAG in which , for every vertex v , the subgraph reachable from v forms a tree .
= = Computational problems = =
= = = Topological sorting and recognition = = =
Topological sorting is the algorithmic problem of finding a topological ordering of a given DAG . It can be solved in linear time . Kahn 's algorithm for topological sorting builds the vertex ordering directly . It maintains a list of vertices that have no incoming edges from other vertices that have not already been included in the partially constructed topological ordering ; initially this list consists of the vertices with no incoming edges at all . Then , it repeatedly adds one vertex from this list to the end of the partially constructed topological ordering , and checks whether its neighbors should be added to the list . The algorithm terminates when all vertices have been processed in this way . Alternatively , a topological ordering may be constructed by reversing a postorder numbering of a depth @-@ first search graph traversal .
It is also possible to check whether a given directed graph is a DAG in linear time , either by attempting to find a topological ordering and then testing for each edge whether the resulting ordering is valid or alternatively , for some topological sorting algorithms , by verifying that the algorithm successfully orders all the vertices without meeting an error condition .
= = = Construction from cyclic graphs = = =
Any undirected graph may be made into a DAG by choosing a total order for its vertices and directing every edge from the earlier endpoint in the order to the later endpoint . The resulting orientation of the edges is called an acyclic orientation . Different total orders may lead to the same acyclic orientation , so an n @-@ vertex graph can have fewer than n ! acyclic orientations . The number of acyclic orientations is equal to | χ ( − 1 ) | , where χ is the chromatic polynomial of the given graph .
Any directed graph may be made into a DAG by removing a feedback vertex set or a feedback arc set , a set of vertices or edges ( respectively ) that touches all cycles . However , the smallest such set is NP @-@ hard to find . An arbitrary directed graph may also be transformed into a DAG , called its condensation , by contracting each of its strongly connected components into a single supervertex . When the graph is already acyclic , its smallest feedback vertex sets and feedback arc sets are empty , and its condensation is the graph itself .
= = = Transitive closure and transitive reduction = = =
The transitive closure of a given DAG , with n vertices and m edges , may be constructed in time O ( mn ) by using either breadth @-@ first search or depth @-@ first search to test reachability from each vertex . Alternatively , it can be solved in time O ( nω ) where ω < 2 @.@ 373 is the exponent for fast matrix multiplication algorithms ; this is a theoretical improvement over the O ( mn ) bound for dense graphs .
In all of these transitive closure algorithms , it is possible to distinguish pairs of vertices that are reachable by at least one path of length two or more from pairs that can only be connected by a length @-@ one path . The transitive reduction consists of the edges that form length @-@ one paths that are the only paths connecting their endpoints . Therefore , the transitive reduction can be constructed in the same asymptotic time bounds as the transitive closure .
= = = Closure problem = = =
The closure problem takes as input a directed acyclic graph with weights on its vertices and seeks the minimum ( or maximum ) weight of a closure , a set of vertices with no outgoing edges . ( The problem may be formulated for directed graphs without the assumption of acyclicity , but with no greater generality , because in this case it is equivalent to the same problem on the condensation of the graph . ) It may be solved in polynomial time using a reduction to the maximum flow problem .
= = = Path algorithms = = =
Some algorithms become simpler when used on DAGs instead of general graphs , based on the principle of topological ordering . For example , it is possible to find shortest paths and longest paths from a given starting vertex in DAGs in linear time by processing the vertices in a topological order , and calculating the path length for each vertex to be the minimum or maximum length obtained via any of its incoming edges . In contrast , for arbitrary graphs the shortest path may require slower algorithms such as Dijkstra 's algorithm or the Bellman – Ford algorithm , and longest paths in arbitrary graphs are NP @-@ hard to find .
= = Applications = =
= = = Scheduling = = =
Directed acyclic graphs representations of partial orderings have many applications in scheduling for systems of tasks with ordering constraints . An important class of problems of this type concern collections of objects that need to be updated , such as the cells of a spreadsheet after one of the cells has been changed , or the object files of a piece of computer software after its source code has been changed . In this context , a dependency graph is a graph that has a vertex for each object to be updated , and an edge connecting two objects whenever one of them needs to be updated earlier than the other . A cycle in this graph is called a circular dependency , and is generally not allowed , because there would be no way to consistently schedule the tasks involved in the cycle . Dependency graphs without circular dependencies form DAGs .
For instance , when one cell of a spreadsheet changes , it is necessary to recalculate the values of other cells that depend directly or indirectly on the changed cell . For this problem , the tasks to be scheduled are the recalculations of the values of individual cells of the spreadsheet . Dependencies arise when an expression in one cell uses a value from another cell . In such a case , the value that is used must be recalculated earlier than the expression that uses it . Topologically ordering the dependency graph , and using this topological order to schedule the cell updates , allows the whole spreadsheet to be updated with only a single evaluation per cell . Similar problems of task ordering arise in makefiles for program compilation and instruction scheduling for low @-@ level computer program optimization .
A somewhat different DAG @-@ based formulation of scheduling constraints is used by the program evaluation and review technique ( PERT ) , a method for management of large human projects that was one of the first applications of DAGs . In this method , the vertices of a DAG represent milestones of a project rather than specific tasks to be performed . Instead , a task or activity is represented by an edge of a DAG , connecting two milestones that mark the beginning and completion of the task . Each such edge is labeled with an estimate for the amount of time that it will take a team of workers to perform the task . The longest path in this DAG represents the critical path of the project , the one that controls the total time for the project . Individual milestones can be scheduled according to the lengths of the longest paths ending at their vertices .
= = = Data processing networks = = =
A directed acyclic graph may be used to represent a network of processing elements . In this representation , data enters a processing element through its incoming edges and leaves the element through its outgoing edges .
For instance , in electronic circuit design , static combinational logic blocks can be represented as an acyclic system of logic gates that computes a function of an input , where the input and output of the function are represented as individual bits . In general , the output of these blocks cannot be used as the input unless it is captured by a register or state element which maintains its acyclic properties . Electronic circuit schematics either on paper or in a database are a form of directed acyclic graphs using instances or components to form a directed reference to a lower level component . Electronic circuits themselves are not necessarily acyclic or directed .
Dataflow programming languages describe systems of operations on data streams , and the connections between the outputs of some operations and the inputs of others . These languages can be convenient for describing repetitive data processing tasks , in which the same acyclically @-@ connected collection of operations is applied to many data items . They can be executed as a parallel algorithm in which each operation is performed by a parallel process as soon as another set of inputs becomes available to it .
In compilers , straight line code ( that is , sequences of statements without loops or conditional branches ) may be represented by a DAG describing the inputs and outputs of each of the arithmetic operations performed within the code . This representation allows the compiler to perform common subexpression elimination efficiently .
= = = Causal structures = = =
Graphs that have vertices representing events , and edges representing causal relations between events , are often acyclic – arranging the vertices in linear order of time , all arrows point in the same direction as time , from parent to child ( due to causality affecting the future , not the past ) , and thus have no loops .
For instance , a Bayesian network represents a system of probabilistic events as vertices in a directed acyclic graph , in which the likelihood of an event may be calculated from the likelihoods of its predecessors in the DAG . In this context , the moral graph of a DAG is the undirected graph created by adding an ( undirected ) edge between all parents of the same vertex ( sometimes called marrying ) , and then replacing all directed edges by undirected edges .
Another type of graph with a similar causal structure is an influence diagram , the vertices of which represent either decisions to be made or unknown information , and the edges of which represent causal influences from one vertex to another . In epidemiology , for instance , these diagrams are often used to estimate the expected value of different choices for intervention .
= = = Genealogy and version history = = =
Family trees may be seen as directed acyclic graphs , with a vertex for each family member and an edge for each parent @-@ child relationship . Despite the name , these graphs are not necessarily trees because of the possibility of marriages between relatives ( so a child has a common ancestor on both the mother 's and father 's side ) causing pedigree collapse . The graphs of matrilineal descent ( " mother " relationships between women ) and patrilineal descent ( " father " relationships between men ) are trees within this graph . Because no one can become their own ancestor , family trees are acyclic .
For the same reason , the version history of a distributed revision control system generally has the structure of a directed acyclic graph , in which there is a vertex for each revision and an edge connecting pairs of revisions that were directly derived from each other . These are not trees in general due to merges .
In many randomized algorithms in computational geometry , the algorithm maintains a history DAG representing the version history of a geometric structure over the course of a sequence of changes to the structure . For instance in a randomized incremental algorithm for Delaunay triangulation , the triangulation changes by replacing one triangle by three smaller triangles when each point is added , and by " flip " operations that replace pairs of triangles by a different pair of triangles . The history DAG for this algorithm has a vertex for each triangle constructed as part of the algorithm , and edges from each triangle to the two or three other triangles that replace it . This structure allows point location queries to be answered efficiently : to find the location of a query point q in the Delaunay triangulation , follow a path in the history DAG , at each step moving to the replacement triangle that contains q . The final triangle reached in this path must be the Delaunay triangle that contains q .
= = = Data compression = = =
Directed acyclic graphs may also be used as a compact representation of a collection of sequences . In this type of application , one finds a DAG in which the paths form the given sequences . When many of the sequences share the same subsequences , these shared subsequences can be represented by a shared part of the DAG , allowing the representation to use less space than it would take to list out all of the sequences separately . For example , the directed acyclic word graph is a data structure in computer science formed by a directed acyclic graph with a single source and with edges labeled by letters or symbols ; the paths from the source to the sinks in this graph represent a set of strings , such as English words . Any set of sequences can be represented as paths in a tree , by forming a tree vertex for every prefix of a sequence and making the parent of one of these vertices represent the sequence with one fewer element ; the tree formed in this way for a set of strings is called a trie . A directed acyclic word graph saves space over a trie by allowing paths to diverge and rejoin , so that a set of words with the same possible suffixes can be represented by a single tree vertex .
The same idea of using a DAG to represent a family of paths occurs in the binary decision diagram , a DAG @-@ based data structure for representing binary functions . In a binary decision diagram , each non @-@ sink vertex is labeled by the name of a binary variable , and each sink and each edge is labeled by a 0 or 1 . The function value for any truth assignment to the variables is the value at the sink found by following a path , starting from the single source vertex , that at each non @-@ sink vertex follows the outgoing edge labeled with the value of that vertex 's variable . Just as directed acyclic word graphs can be viewed as a compressed form of tries , binary decision diagrams can be viewed as compressed forms of decision trees that save space by allowing paths to rejoin when they agree on the results of all remaining decisions .
= August ( Fringe ) =
" August " is the eighth episode of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe 's second season . The episode was co @-@ written by J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and directed by Dennis Smith . The episode marked the first prominent appearance of more than one Observer , and follows the events that occur when one of them saves a girl from boarding a soon @-@ to @-@ be crashing plane . It featured two new guest stars , Peter Woodward and Eugene Lipinski .
The episode first aired on November 19 , 2009 in the United States to mostly positive reviews , with many critics praising the new revelations about the Observers . An estimated 5 @.@ 746 million viewers watched the episode on its first broadcast .
= = Plot = =
An Observer , " August " ( Peter Woodward ) abducts Christine Hollis ( Jennifer Missoni ) , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old art student in Boston . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) learn of the events and realize the assailant matches the description of the Observer . However , after viewing video footage they find that it is not " September " ( Michael Cerveris ) , the Observer known for observing Pattern @-@ related cases and who previously saved Peter and his father Walter ( John Noble ) in 1985 , indicating there is more than one Observer . Olivia is confused as to August 's motives , as Observers are known to only observe events and not interfere with them . After questioning Christine 's roommate , Olivia learns she was to take a flight to Rome , Italy . Peter finds a picture of Christine from her childhood before her parents were killed in the 1989 San Francisco earthquake , and sees August in the background , indicating he has been observing her entire life . The plane to Rome would later crash , killing everyone on board . Because of this , the team realize August in fact saved her life .
At Massive Dynamic , Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) theorizes to the team that Observers are time travelers , as they have been documented during several major events in history . They write in an incomprehensible language , and the number of Observer sightings has increased over the past few months , leaving the team wondering why . Meanwhile , August visits the other Observers , who are not happy that he saved a girl who was supposed to die in the plane crash . To correct his mistake , they send Donald Long ( Paul Rae ) , an assassin affiliated with the Observers to correct August 's actions . In an attempt to save Christine , August sends a secret message to Walter . During the meeting , August reveals Christine will die because she is not important ; Walter tells August that he has to make her important .
The team are later made aware of Christine 's location at a motel outside the city . However , Donald is on the trail also . August attempts to stop him , but Donald shoots him several times , before Peter and Olivia arrive to kill the assassin . September picks up August and while driving , September asks August why he saved Christine . August reveals that he is experiencing ' feelings ' and that he loves Christine , and asks if she would be safe . September informs him Christine will stay alive because she is now important ; she was responsible for the death of an Observer . August cries before succumbing to his wounds . In the end , Olivia takes a day off to spend time with her niece , Ella , at an amusement park . Two Observers watch the two , and they remark that everything is about to get " so hard " for Olivia .
= = Production = =
" August " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while being directed by NCIS veteran Dennis Smith . They began shooting the episode during the second half of September 2009 , right after wrapping production on " Of Human Action " . Supervising producer Josh Singer later noted how " August " helped them write the rest of the season , " There was one episode , ' August ' , which was all about the Observers , that I feel was mythology without being mythology . And somehow , in working that episode , we sort of found a new creative vein . And it 's not that that episode was necessarily so related to everything else we did . But I feel like it sort of opened us up in terms of how we were feeling about the year " .
Up to the point the episode " August " aired , only one character that was part of a group known as " Observers " had been introduced . In this episode , two more such individuals were revealed : August ( played by Peter Woodward ) and December ( played by Eugene Lipinski ) . The creation of Observers was one of the first ideas the writers of Fringe thought of when developing the show in its early stages , when they asked each other , " What if there were these characters where all they did was watch ? " . Pinkner and Wyman thought of creating Observers by " looking for something ... iconic " that had the " quality of being invisible " . Though the Observer called September has appeared in every single Fringe episode in a brief cameo , he was first featured prominently in the fourth episode of the first season . The producers thought of unique characteristics for " somebody who wasn 't of our world , " evolving to the Observers having bald heads , no eyebrows , and " largely deadened " senses , which led to a love for extremely hot peppers .
Before the second season premiere aired in September 2009 , co @-@ creator J.R. Orci hinted that the audience was going to meet " many Observers " , and that in the season 's eighth episode , " You 're going to find out their role in the world , what they 're named after , and their connection to some of these characters . " Later on , when still leading up to the airing of " August " in another interview , Roberto Orci elaborated that " Individuality will be one of the things that they will be fanatically struggling with , actually . That was a fun one , because that one was one where you 're finally getting to pay off things you 've been setting up for a year . You finally get to open the toy box and really play with those toys " . Actor Michael Cerveris , who plays September , commented in an interview that as a result of the episode , viewers would learn that the Observers " are not completely devoid of feelings , and are not incapable of being attached to people they 're observing " . He also expressed relief that his character was no longer the sole Observer on the show , joking that " it was nice to feel like I 'm not the only freak in town for once " .
Actress Anna Torv stated in an interview with MTV News that " August " was one of her favorite episodes because " We sort of get to meet the Observers . At the moment what we know about them , they ... seemingly just observe . That 's kind of it , but [ in ] the episode that we have coming up , we 're not sure if all they do is just observe " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" August " premiered to an estimated 5 @.@ 746 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 0 rating . The episode was down 9 % from the previous week 's episode " Of Human Action " , which had a rating of 2 @.@ 2 .
= = = Reviews = = =
MTV 's Josh Wigler thought the episode was " a touching , sad tale with a healthy mix of mythological advancement , " and couldn 't wait for more episodes about the Observers . Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 6 / 10 , writing that despite the hype , the episode was " just plain average " . He did however appreciate the new revelations about the Observers . After previewing the episode , Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker graded the episode an A- , explaining Fringe had become " one of the fastest , smartest , wittiest shows on television now " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called it a " good story peppered with a lot of great details ... ' August ' showed a greater connection to the larger Fringe universe " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded it with a B + , praising the " wonderfully moody " episode and how it was able to make the halting Observer dialogue work . Murray found some aspects lacking however , as he thought it was " a very sketchy episode , plot @-@ wise and mythology @-@ wise . Not a whole lot happened " . Website blogger io9 listed " August " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show .
= Ghost in the Shell ( 1995 film ) =
Ghost in the Shell , known in Japan as Mobile Armored Riot Police : Ghost In The Shell ( 攻殻機動隊 GHOST IN THE SHELL , Kōkaku Kidōtai Gōsuto In Za Sheru ) , is a 1995 science fiction anime film based on manga of the same title by Masamune Shirow . The film was written by Kazunori Itō , directed by Mamoru Oshii , animated by Production I.G , and starred the voices of Atsuko Tanaka , Akio Ōtsuka , and Iemasa Kayumi .
Ghost in the Shell follows the hunt by the public @-@ security agency Section 9 for a mysterious hacker known as the Puppet Master . With the assistance of her team , Motoko Kusanagi tracks and finds their suspect , only to be drawn into a complex sequence of political intrigue and a cover @-@ up as to the identity and goals of the Puppet Master .
The overarching philosophical themes of the film include self @-@ identity in a technologically advanced world . The music , composed by Kenji Kawai , included an ancient Japanese language in a wedding song that serves as a key piece of music leading up to the climax of the movie . Widely considered one of the greatest anime films of all time , critics particularly praised its visuals , which at the time were the most effective synthesis of traditional cel animation and CG animation . It has served as inspiration for filmmakers such as the Wachowskis .
In 2004 , Oshii directed Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence , billed as a separate work and not a true sequel . In 2008 , Oshii released an updated version of the original film , Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , that features new audio and updated 3D animation . A live @-@ action Hollywood Ghost in the Shell remake is scheduled for 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In 2029 , the world is interconnected by a vast electronic network that permeates every aspect of life . Much of humanity has access to this network through cybernetic bodies , or " shells " , which possess their consciousness and can give them superhuman abilities .
Major Motoko Kusanagi , an assault @-@ team leader for the Public Security Section 9 , is assigned to capture an elusive hacker known as the Puppet Master . Her team , Batou and Ishikawa , use triangulation to seek out the Puppet Master . Their suspect is a garbageman who believes he is using a program obtained from a sympathetic man to illegally " ghost @-@ hack " his wife 's mind to find his daughter . Kusanagi and her team arrest him and the man who gave him the program , but discover that their memories were either erased or implanted : " ghost @-@ hacked " by the Puppet Master .
A facility is hacked and programmed to assemble a female cybernetic body . The body escapes but is hit by a truck ; Section 9 investigates and examines the body , which seems to have a human " ghost " inside — perhaps the Puppet Master himself . Officials from rival agency Section 6 visit Section 9 and explain that the body was made to lure the Puppet Master 's ghost and trap it inside . Kusanagi espies the conversation and decides to disconnect her consciousness from her current body and connect or " dive into " the body and face the Puppet Master 's ghost . Before she succeeds , the ghost activates the body . Section 6 storms Section 9 and reclaims the body .
The information from the body leads Section 9 to uncover the mysterious Project 2501 . Section 6 claims the project was created to catch the hacker , but it was initiated before his appearance . Section 9 speculates that the project itself created the Puppet Master , who then escaped , and Section 6 now wants him back . Daisuke Aramaki , head of Section 9 , suspects that the project and the Puppet Master are tools of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The escape might lead to the release of secrets that could embarrass Section 6 and the Ministry .
The getaway car carrying the Puppet Master meets another , and they split off . Batou stops the first car and realizes it is a decoy . Kusanagi follows the second car to an abandoned building , where she is ambushed by a spider @-@ like armored vehicle . Batou arrives in time to save the badly damaged Kusanagi . With Batou on guard , Kusanagi faces the body stolen by Section 6 . The Puppet Master reveals himself and explains that , under Project 2501 , he was created by Section 6 to hack ghosts for individuals and Section 6 . While wandering various networks , the Puppet Master became sentient and began to contemplate his existence ; it troubled him that he could not reproduce or die . He plans to merge with Kusanagi 's ghost to experience mortality ; Kusanagi would live on with his ghost . As he could not crack Section 6 's attack protection , he was forced to escape in a physical body .
Batou tries to disconnect the dive , but the Puppet Master ghost @-@ hacks him . Helicopters from Section 6 arrive with orders to destroy everyone inside to cover up Project 2501 . The Puppet Master disrupts their targeting systems . As he starts merging with Kusanagi , snipers blow their heads off , along with Batou 's arm .
Kusanagi wakes up in a child @-@ sized cyborg body in Batou 's safehouse . Batou explains that her original body was destroyed in the fight ; he recovered her head and attached it to the new body . Kusanagi acknowledges she is now neither herself nor the Puppet Master , but a combination of both . Batou says he will always be there for her . She leaves the house and gazes out over the city .
= = Voice cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Mamoru Oshii stated , " My intuition told me that this story about a futuristic world carried an immediate message for our present world . I am also interested in computers through my own personal experience with them . I had the same feeling about Patlabor and I thought it would be interesting to make a film that took place in the near future . There are only a few movies , even out of Hollywood , which clearly portray the influence and power of computers . I thought this theme would be more effectively conveyed through animation . " Oshii expanded on these thoughts in a later interview , noting that technology changes people and had become a part of the culture of Japan . He commented that his use of philosophy caused producers to become frustrated because of sparing use of action scenes . Oshii also acknowledged that a movie with more action would sell better , but he continued to make these movies anyway . When Oshii went back to make changes to the original Ghost in the Shell to re @-@ release it as Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , one of the reasons he gave was that the film did not resemble the sequel . He wanted to update the film to reflect changes in perspective .
= = = Design = = =
Hiroyuki Okiura , the character designer and key animation supervisor , designed a more mature and serious Motoko than Masamune Shirow 's original portrayal of the character in the manga . Okiura chose to depict a physically mature person to match Motoko 's mental age , instead of the youthful twenty @-@ something appearance in the manga . Motoko 's demeanor lacks the comedic facial expressions and rebellious nature depicted in the manga .
Oshii based the setting for Ghost in the Shell on Hong Kong . Oshii commented that his first thought to find an image of the future setting was an Asian city , but finding a suitable cityscape of the future would be impossible . Oshii chose to use the real streets of Hong Kong as his model . He also said that Hong Kong was the perfect subject and theme for the film with its countless signs and the cacophony of sounds . The film 's mecha designer Takeuchi Atsushi noted that while the film does not have a chosen setting , it is obviously based on Hong Kong because the city represented the theme of the film , the old and the new which exist in a strange relationship in an age of an information deluge . Before shooting the film , the artists drew sketches that emphasized Hong Kong 's chaotic , confusing and overwhelming aspects .
The Hong Kong setting is alluded to by the scene wherein the characters are drinking San Miguel Beer a cultural staple of the East Asian megalopolis .
= = = Animation = = =
Ghost in the Shell used a novel process called " digitally generated animation " ( DGA ) , which is a combination of cel animation , computer graphics ( CG ) , and audio that is entered as digital data . In 1995 , DGA was thought to be the future of animation , which mixed traditional animation with the emerging use of computer graphics , including digital cel work with visual displays . Editing was performed on an AVID system of Avid Technology , which was chosen because it was more versatile and less limiting than other methods and worked with the different types of media in a single environment .
The digital cel work included both original illustrations , compositions and manipulation with traditional cel animation to create a sense of depth and evoke emotion and feelings . Utilized as background , filters like a lens effect were used to create a sense of depth and motion , by distorting the front background and making the far background out of focus throughout the shot . Ghost in the Shell used a unique lighting system in which light and darkness were integrated into the cels with attention to light and shadow sources instead of using contrast to control the light . Hiromasa Ogura , the art director , described this as " a very unusual lighting technique . "
Some special effects , like Motoko 's " thermo @-@ optical camouflage " , were rendered through the use of TIMA software . The process uses a single illustration and manipulates the image as necessary to produce distortions for effect in combination with a background without altering the original illustration . The effect is re @-@ added back into the shot to complete the scene . While the visual displays used in the film were technically simple to create , the appearance of the displays underwent numerous revisions by the production team to best represent visual displays of the future . Another aspect of the CG use was to create images and effects that looked as if they were " perceived by the brain " and were generated in video and added to the film in its final stages .
The opening credits of the film were produced by the CG director , Seichi Tanaka . Tanaka converted code in a computer language displayed in romanized Japanese letters to numbers before inserting them into the computer to generate the credits . The origin of this code is the names of the film 's staff as written in a computer language .
Animation director Toshihiko Nishikubo was responsible for the realism and strove for accurate depictions of movement and effects . The pursuit of realism included the staff conducting firearms research at a facility in Guam . Nishikubo has highlighted the tank scene as an example of the movie 's realism , noting that bullets create sparks when hitting metal , but do not spark when a bullet strikes stone .
= = = Sound and music = = =
Ghost in the Shell 's recording was done with a high @-@ end studio to achieve superior sound throughout the film . A spatializer was used to alter the sound , specifically in the electronic brain conversations , to modify the voices .
Composer Kenji Kawai scored the film . For the main theme , Kawai tried to imagine the setting and convey the essence of that world in the music . He used the ancient Japanese language of Yamato in the opening theme " Making of a Cyborg " . The composition is a mixture of Bulgarian harmony and traditional Japanese notes ; the haunting chorals are a wedding song sung to dispel all evil influences . Symphony conductor Sarah Penicka @-@ Smith notes that the song 's lyrics are fitting for the union between Kusanagi and Project 2501 at the climax of the movie . Kawai originally wanted to use Bulgarian folk music singers , but used Japanese folk singers instead . " See You Everyday " is different from the rest of the soundtrack , being a pop song sung in Cantonese by Fang Ka Wing .
= = = Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 = = =
An updated version of the original film , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 ( GHOST IN THE SHELL ／ 攻殻機動隊 2 @.@ 0 , Gōsuto in za sheru / Kōkaku kidōtai 2 @.@ 0 ) , was made in celebration for the release of The Sky Crawlers in 2008 . The Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 release features replacements of the original animations with the latest digital film and animation technologies , such as 3D @-@ CGI . It includes a new opening , digital screens and holographic displays , and omits several brief scenes .
The original soundtrack was also re @-@ arranged and re @-@ recorded . Kenji Kawai remixed the Version 2 @.@ 0 soundtrack in 6 @.@ 1 Channel Surround . Randy Thom of Skywalker Sound reprised his role as sound designer , having worked previously on Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence . In the new soundtrack , the Japanese voice dialogue was also re @-@ recorded , with some variation from the original script to modernize the speech . Yoshiko Sakakibara replaced Iemasa Kayumi as the voice of the Puppet Master .
= = Related media = =
Kenji Kawai 's original soundtrack for the film was released on November 22 , 1995 . The last track included Yoshimasa Mizuno 's pop song " See You Everyday " . After the release of Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , an updated version of the soundtrack was released on December 17 , 2008 .
A Photo @-@ CD of the film was released in Japan on November 20 , 1995 . A spin @-@ off novel written by Endo Akira , titled Ghost in the Shell : Burning City ( 攻殻機動隊灼熱の都市 , Kōkaku kidōtai shakunetsu no toshi ) , was published by Kodansha and released on November 1995 . It was followed by a sequel , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 : Star Seed ( 攻殻機動隊2 : Star Seed ) , released on January 1998 . A book titled Analysis of Ghost in the Shell was released on September 25 , 1997 by Kodansha .
= = Releases = =
The film had its world premiere at the Tokyo International Film Festival in October 1995 , before its general release in November . In Japan , the film was released on VHS on April 26 , 1996 . The DVD version was released on 25 February 2004 , and the Blu @-@ ray on 24 August 2007 . A special edition was released in December 2004 . The special edition contains an additional disc containing character dossiers , a creator biography , the director 's biography , Ghost in the Shell trailers and previews .
The " 2 @.@ 0 " version was released in theatres in Tokyo , Osaka , Nagoya , Fukuoka , and Sapporo on July 12 , 2008 . The film was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 19 , 2008 , in Japan .
In North America , the film was released on VHS on June 18 , 1996 through Manga Entertainment , and on DVD on March 31 , 1998 by Anchor Bay Entertainment . Manga Entertainment released the film on Blu @-@ ray on 24 November 2009 ; this version contains the original film and the remastering , but omits the audio commentary and face @-@ to @-@ face interview with Oshii , which are listed on its box . Manga Entertainment and Anchor Bay Entertainment re @-@ released the film on Blu @-@ ray with a brand new HD film print on September 23 , 2014 . The release was met with some criticism for its poor translation of English subtitles and the lack of extra features .
= = Reception = =
The film was a box office hit when released in Japan and received positive reviews from film critics . It holds a 95 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 31 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " A stunning feat of modern animation , Ghost in the Shell offers a thoughtful , complex treat for anime fans , as well as a perfect introduction for viewers new to the genre . "
Niels Matthijs of Twitch Film praised the film , stating , " Not only is Kokaku Kidotai an essential film in the canon of Japanese animation , together with Kubrick 's 2001 and Tarkovsky 's Solyaris it completes a trio of book adaptations that transcend the popularity of their originals and [ give ] a new meaning to an already popular brand . " He ranked it # 48 of his personal favorites . Clark Collis of Empire opined that the film was predictable , but praised its production values . Johnathan Mays of Anime News Network praised the animation combined with the computer effects , calling it " perhaps the best synthesis ever witnessed in anime " . Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies describes the film as " one of the best anime ever made " , praising screenplay , an " atmospheric score " , and adding that " action scenes as good as anything in the current Hollywood blockbuster are supported by CGI effects that can still astonish " .
Ghost in the Shell was the first anime video to reach Billboard 's # 1 video slot at the time of its release . The film ranked as the ninth top selling anime DVD movie in 2006 . It ranked 35 on Total Film 's 2010 top list of 50 Animated Films . The film ranked # 4 on Wizards Anime Magazine on their " Top 50 Anime released in North America " .
= = = Critical analysis = = =
Much critical attention has been paid to the film 's focus on sexuality and gender identity . Sharalyn Orbaugh has noted that the opening scene of Ghost in the Shell begins with the " perfect paradoxical introduction to a narrative that is all about the nature of sex / gender identity and self @-@ identity in general in a future world where sexual reproduction has given way to mechanical replication . " Motoko 's female identity and appearance are countered by an autonomous subjectivity , resulting in a " male " cyborg body which cannot menstruate . Orbaugh describes the juxtaposition of the opening scene depicting the creation of Motoko 's body and to her lack of menstruation as setting the theme of " reproductive sexuality in a posthuman subject . " The film depicts Motoko 's identity and ontological concerns , ending with the evolution of a being with full subjectivity , through a new form of reproduction with the Puppet Master . Austin Corbett commented on the lack of sexualization from her team as freedom from femininity , noting that Motoko is " overtly feminine , and clearly non @-@ female . " Carl Slivio has called Ghost in the Shell a " resistant film " , due to its inversion of traditional gender roles , its " valorization of the post @-@ gendered subject " , and its de @-@ emphasis of the sexual specificity of the material body .
= = Cultural impact = =
Ghost in the Shell influenced a number of prominent filmmakers . The Wachowskis , creators of The Matrix and its sequels , showed it to producer Joel Silver , saying , " We wanna do that for real . " The Matrix series took several concepts from the film , including the Matrix digital rain , which was inspired by the opening credits of Ghost in the Shell , and the way people accessed the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks . Other parallels have been drawn to James Cameron 's Avatar , Steven Spielberg 's AI : Artificial Intelligence , and Jonathan Mostow 's Surrogates .
= Yo @-@ Yo ( Nicola Roberts song ) =
" Yo @-@ Yo " is a song by British recording artist Nicola Roberts , released as the third and final single from Roberts ' debut solo album Cinderella 's Eyes on 6 January 2012 . Originally , " Yo @-@ Yo " was set to be Roberts ' debut single , but " Beat of My Drum " was selected in its place . " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " , Roberts ' previous singles , garnered positive comments from critics , but failed to impact commercially . " Yo @-@ Yo " was written by Roberts , Maya Von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi while it was produced by latter , and was the first song to be composed by the group . Roberts also claimed the track had defined her musical style .
" Yo @-@ Yo " is a 1950s @-@ themed electropop and synthpop song in which Roberts sings about an undecided lover . The song received positive reviews from critics , who compared Roberts ' vocals to those of singer Kate Bush . Commercially , it was a failure , charting at number 111 on the UK Singles Chart . A music video was released on 30 November 2011 ; the video sees Roberts repeatedly changing outfit for a party in which she finds her love interest cheating on her , ending with an aggressive confrontation . It garnered positive critical responses although the low @-@ budget drew criticism . Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub and on the Alan Titchmarsh Show , among other occasions .
= = Background and writing = =
Nicola Roberts , who began her musical career as one fifth of the band Girls Aloud , struggled with loneliness and increasing isolation during her time with the group . A busy schedule and constant media criticism found her describing the time as a " blur " . Her exhaustion and troubles with negative media comments led to a state in which she had to harden herself , claiming that inside she was " dying " . These events inspired her debut album Cinderella 's Eyes . " Yo @-@ Yo " was the first song she had written with Maya von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi for the album . The recording was also one of the first songs Roberts wrote , and it helped define her musical style . Roberts blogged about the production of the track , writing that :
The production ’ s incredible . The beat is just so constant and powerful . That was the first song that I wrote with Dimitri and Maya . I felt like I ’ d found my sound . And I was kind of looking at it like an outfit . So it was , ‘ if this was an outfit , what would this song need now ? ’ So we had the pretty dress , which was the chorus . We had the lovely shoes , which was the verse . ‘ But what do we need to really set this song off ? A big , fancy , bow in the hair would really set this song off . ’ So when I got to the middle eight I wanted to go really erratic , almost like taTu on All The Things She Said . I wanted it to be proper fucked up and crazy – hands in the air .
= = Release = =
Roberts ' debut single , " Beat of My Drum " , garnered acclaim from critics , but failed to impact commercially , charting at 27 in the United Kingdom . She released a follow @-@ up single , " Lucky Day " , which likewise garnered positive responses , but was even less successful commercially , charting at number 40 on both the Scottish and UK Singles charts . Writing as a guest blogger on the website Holy Moly in September 2011 , Roberts announced that " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from Cinderella 's Eyes , initially citing a November release date ; the release was later delayed until January 2012 . Roberts had originally intended for " Yo @-@ Yo " to be the first single from the album , but " Beat of My Drum " was instead chosen at the " last minute " . Roberts stated that " it felt right to go with " the latter song . " Yo @-@ Yo " was released digitally on 2 January 2012 , with Roberts announcing on her official website that the single would be released in CD format featuring a live performance of the song in addition to the demo version of her song " Sticks + Stones " seven days later . Additionally , two EPs were released on 6 January 2012 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Yo @-@ Yo " features 808 drums with a " dramatic " 1950s @-@ inspired pop " pastiche " . However , the 1950s concept " goes completely out of the window " for an " unhinged " bridge , which features a club mix which speeds up the drums featured in the song . The lyrics of the track discuss an uncertain relationship , leading to vulnerability , with Roberts describing it as a " dark " song . The song references a yo @-@ yo ; this is a metaphor for Roberts herself , a spinning yo @-@ yo " on the finger of a hot ' n ' cold lover " . Described as " confessional " by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy , the song has a " conversational " performance , and Roberts ' vocals were compared to that of singer Kate Bush .
The song received positive reviews from music critics . Emily Mackay , writing for NME , described the chorus as a " winning " one , and noted that " the impulse @-@ speed space synths are broken @-@ heartedly beguiling " . In a separate review , Lisa Wright from NME found that while the song didn 't match the success of " Beat of My Drum " . Wright said that the song is " Not a cuss @-@ ridden introduction to Nicola ’ s re @-@ emergence as an English Syd Tha Kyd , but a questionable metaphor about being like a crap ’ 90s toy . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy found Cinderella 's Eyes to be " frustratingly under @-@ appreciated " with " Yo @-@ Yo " being a " shining example of [ Roberts ' ] pop sensibilities " calling it " unashamedly radio friendly " .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a man performing tricks with a yo @-@ yo in a white room , accompanied by shots showing Roberts in a " fashionable looking house " wearing a black silk dress . Then rapid shots show her in various other outfits , including a purple velvet dress , all the time showing the man performing tricks with the yo @-@ yo . As the chorus begins , Roberts is shown in the kitchen of the house , along with several women dancing with her . Another shot shows a man and a woman walking through a street embracing each other . This is later interspersed with shots of a fully clothed Roberts standing in a shower cubiclem getting increasingly wet . Roberts is shown leaving the house and seeing the man with whom she had danced with another woman . She returns to the house , and the man and Roberts are seen in the kitchen area with Roberts throwing a series of objects at him .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Prior to the release of the video , Roberts released still images to website 3am . These showed her in what was described as " some sort of untidy , yet fashionable looking house " , while one showed her with her legs above her head wearing " Kandee 's caramel kisses shoes " and a third and final seeing her " cosying up next to a handsome chap " . The same day , Roberts gave two more exclusive stills to website Digital Spy ; in one image , she was smelling roses , while , in the second , she was " playing with a pair of shoes " . The video was released on 30 November 2011 . After the official release , Nadia Mendoza of the Daily Mail stated the video was a departure from her previous two videos ( for " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " ) , saying that it " looks and sounds a lot more grown up as she teases viewers by stripping to her bra and frolicking in the shower . " Mendoza found that Roberts was " becoming quite the chameleon " and had " trampled all over her innocent charm to create a sex siren " , referencing her transformation throughout her videos . Katherine St Asaph , of Pop Dust , found that the video 's low budget had had a negative effect . She interpreted scenes with Roberts repeated changes clothing positively , noting " [ i ] t works because of the lyrics – what , besides other people , can mess with your feelings more than trying on clothes ? "
= = Live performances = =
Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub on 24 September 2011 . She pre @-@ recorded a performance of " Yo @-@ Yo " for UK television programme The Alan Titchmarsh Show during the same taping as a performance of " Lucky Day " . The taping came after deciding " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from the album , with Roberts saying , " I absolutely love performing Yo @-@ Yo , it 's my favourite one to do [ ... ] So I feel really close to Yo @-@ Yo . I feel like I lose myself when I 'm performing it " . After the release of the single , Roberts performed on The Album Chart Show during a special dedicated to her , performing three tracks : " Yo @-@ Yo " , " Beat of My Drum " and " Sticks + Stones " . Roberts also performed the song on British chat show Loose Women and on the Digital Music Awards .
= = Charts = =
" Yo @-@ Yo " debuted at its peak of number 111 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Formats and track @-@ listings = =
= = Release history = =
= Robbie Fowler =
Robert Bernard " Robbie " Fowler ( born 9 April 1975 ) is an English former professional footballer and manager who played as a striker from 1993 to 2012 . Fowler was known for being a natural scorer with an instinctive goal @-@ poaching ability .
Fowler is best remembered for his time at Liverpool and is the sixth @-@ highest goalscorer in the history of the Premier League . He scored 183 goals in total for Liverpool , 128 of which were scored in the Premier League ( 162 Premier League goals in total ) . He earned the nickname " God " from the Anfield crowd , becoming a club legend due to his ruthlessness in front of goal . He subsequently played for Leeds United and Manchester City , before returning to Liverpool in January 2006 .
He moved clubs 18 months later to sign for Cardiff City . He refused a one @-@ year " pay as you play " contract extension and signed with Blackburn Rovers on a three @-@ month deal on the same terms instead . In December 2008 , he departed Blackburn and forged a career in Australia with North Queensland Fury and Perth Glory . In 2011 , he joined Thai side Muangthong United as a player , but later was appointed player @-@ manager which he remained until his retirement in 2012 .
He was capped for England 26 times , scoring 7 goals . Fowler was included in England 's squads for Euro 96 , Euro 2000 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup .
= = Early life = =
Fowler was born in Toxteth , Liverpool and brought up in the inner city area of Liverpool . At this time he was known as Robert Ryder , his mother 's surname . He lived in Toxteth at the time of the 1981 Toxteth riots , when he was six years old . As a youngster he supported Everton F.C .. He played regularly for schoolboy team Thorvald , and once scored 16 times in a 26 – 0 rout .
= = Club career = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Fowler 's career began with Liverpool . He signed as a youth team player on leaving school in the middle of 1991 , signing professional terms on his 17th birthday , 9 April 1992 .
Fowler 's first involvement with the Liverpool first team came on 13 January 1993 , when he was an unused substitute in an FA Cup third round tie against Bolton Wanderers . In the following close season , Fowler helped the England under @-@ 18 team win the 1993 European Championship , before making a scoring first @-@ team debut in Liverpool 's 3 – 1 win in a first round League Cup tie at Fulham on 22 September 1993 . Fowler scored all five goals in the second leg at Anfield two weeks later , making him the fourth player in Liverpool 's history to score five in a senior fixture . He scored his first league hat @-@ trick against Southampton in only his fifth league game . His very first league goal for the Reds had come on 16 October 1993 , when an 87th @-@ minute equaliser at home to struggling Oldham Athletic saved the Reds from what would have been one of the biggest Premier League shocks of the season , with a last gasp own goal giving Liverpool a 2 – 1 win . He scored twice in a thrilling 3 – 3 draw at Tottenham Hotspur on 18 December .
His first 13 games for the club yielded 12 goals , and he was rewarded with an England Under @-@ 21 debut against San Marino in November 1993 , in which he scored England 's opening goal in the third minute . Fowler was unable to sustain his goal @-@ a @-@ game ratio throughout the season , but finished his first season as the club 's leading scorer with 18 goals in all competitions , although Ian Rush had scored more goals in the league . It was , however , a disappointing season for Liverpool , as they finished eighth in the Premier League without making any impact in any of the major competitions , though the departure of Graeme Souness as manager and the appointment of Roy Evans as successor built up hope for the future .
= = = = Success and fame = = = =
In the 1994 – 95 season , Fowler was an ever @-@ present for Liverpool , playing in all of their 57 competitive matches , including the victory in the 1995 League Cup final , and a match against Arsenal in which he scored the Premier League 's second fastest hat @-@ trick ever , in four minutes and 33 seconds . His record stood for twenty years until broken by Sadio Mané on 16 May 2015 for Southampton against Aston Villa , who scored three goals in two minutes and 56 seconds .
Fowler also scored braces against Aston Villa , Ipswich Town , Chelsea and Norwich City in the league that season .
Fowler was voted the PFA Young Player of the Year in two consecutive years in 1995 and 1996 , a feat equalled only by Ryan Giggs and Wayne Rooney .
Throughout the mid and late 1990s , Fowler was widely considered to be the most natural finisher playing in England . Fowler sealed this reputation as he scored more than 30 goals for three consecutive seasons , up to 1997 . He remains the only player to have scored 30 plus goals in his first three full seasons in England scoring 98 goals with a total of 116 in 3 and a half years , something which has also yet to be beaten in La Liga , Seria A and the Bundesliga too . Fowler 's partnership with Steve McManaman was largely described as the reason why Liverpool had become the club known for being the most potent attacking force in England at the time , and Fowler was renowned for scoring goals of all varieties , from every angle and distance , with McManaman describing him as the " greatest goalscorer of all time . "
Stan Collymore , Fowler 's strike partner from 1995 to 1997 , said in his autobiography that Fowler was the best player he has ever played alongside . Fowler and Collymore were among the most prolific goal @-@ scoring strike partnerships in England during the 1995 – 96 season . In the same season he scored twice in a 4 – 3 victory over Newcastle United , a match voted the best of the decade in a Premier League poll . The match helped prevent Newcastle from winning the league , but it was not enough for Liverpool to clinch the title ; they finished third while Manchester United were crowned champions . Fowler also played in his first FA Cup final that season , but was on the losing side as Manchester United won 1 – 0 .
Fowler received a call @-@ up to the full England squad and won his first cap on 27 March 1996 as a substitute in a friendly against Bulgaria . His first start at international level was against Croatia which was the England game following his substitute appearance . Fowler was part of the England squad for Euro 1996 , making two appearances in the tournament . On 14 December 1996 , he scored four against Middlesbrough , including his hundredth for Liverpool . This meant he reached a century of goals one game quicker than his first strike partner , Ian Rush , in just 165 games .
That year , he also won a UEFA Fair Play award for denying that he had been fouled by Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman at Highbury after a penalty had been given . After unsuccessfully trying to persuade the referee to change his decision about the penalty , Fowler took it tamely and Seaman saved . However , Seaman failed to hold on to the ball and Jason McAteer scored from the rebound . Though many people believe that he deliberately took the penalty kick poorly for reasons of fair play , Fowler said at the time : " As a goalscorer it 's part of my job to take it and I wanted to score it . I tried to score . I never missed on purpose . It just happened , it was a bad penalty . "
= = = = Spice Boys = = = =
Fowler was part of a group of Liverpool players from the mid @-@ 1990s who were dubbed " The Spice Boys " by the press following a series of off @-@ field controversies . The term was coined by the Daily Mail , and arose due to misplaced rumours that Fowler was dating Spice Girl Emma Bunton . The term was subsequently used in a derogatory manner , implying Fowler and colleagues such as Jamie Redknapp , Stan Collymore , David James and Steve McManaman were underachieving playboys .
Fowler 's performance in the 1997 – 98 football season was marred by a knee ligament injury that kept him out of action for half the season and caused him to miss the 1998 World Cup . During this period of injury , fellow Liverpool striker , Michael Owen rose to prominence , making his debut in 1997 . Owen established himself in the Liverpool team in Fowler 's absence .
In 1999 , Fowler was fined £ 60 @,@ 000 by his club for bringing the game into disrepute . While celebrating his goal against Liverpool 's Merseyside rivals , Everton , Fowler used the white line of the penalty area to simulate cocaine use . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier stated that this was a Cameroonian grass @-@ eating celebration , learnt from teammate Rigobert Song . Defending himself , Fowler later said this was a response to Everton fans who had insulted him with false accusations of drug abuse . Fowler received a four @-@ match suspension from the FA for this incident . At the same FA disciplinary hearing , Fowler received a further two match suspension due to a separate incident in which he had taunted the Chelsea defender Graeme Le Saux by waving his backside at him as Le Saux 's wife and children watched from the stands . Fowler later attempted to justify his actions by suggesting his taunts were simply an extension of gamesmanship . The FA imposed a £ 32 @,@ 000 fine and a six @-@ match ban for the two incidents . Fowler has since apologized to Le Saux for the incident .
= = = = Winning the cup treble = = = =
The 2000 – 01 season was Fowler 's most successful season . He appeared in three finals , scoring 17 goals and lifting three trophies in a unique cup treble . In the absence of Jamie Redknapp , who was sidelined by injury , Fowler was named as Liverpool captain when he started . However he found himself the third @-@ choice Liverpool striker , with Houllier favouring a forward partnership of Michael Owen and Emile Heskey .
He took part in a fourth round League Cup hammering of Stoke City , scoring a hat @-@ trick in an 8 – 0 victory , which was second only to the club 's biggest ever win in 1986 – a 10 – 0 defeat of Fulham . In the League Cup final against Birmingham City , the club 's first cup final since 1996 , he captained the side and scored in the 30th minute . Liverpool went on to win the trophy on penalties , with Fowler scoring Liverpool 's fifth in the shootout . Fowler picked up the Alan Hardaker Man of the Match award and lifted the trophy .
Fowler 's season picked up from there as he scored several important goals including one against runaway champions Manchester United and a free kick in the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Wycombe Wanderers . Fowler featured as a substitute in the 2001 FA Cup Final coming on as a 77th @-@ minute replacement for Vladimír Šmicer . Liverpool , who were 1 – 0 down at that point , eventually won the game 2 – 1 with two goals from Owen . Fowler raised the trophy along with Sami Hyypiä and Jamie Redknapp .
Four days later he was a substitute again in Liverpool 's third final , the 2001 UEFA Cup Final against Deportivo Alavés . He came on in the 64th minute for Heskey with the score at 3 – 3 . He scored seven minutes later but Alavés equalised before full @-@ time and Liverpool eventually won with a golden goal , an own goal , in the 116th minute . Fowler and Hyypiä then raised Liverpool 's third trophy of the season together . Liverpool 's next and final game of the season was against Charlton Athletic and Fowler scored twice in a 4 – 0 victory at The Valley that assured them UEFA Champions League qualification for the next season .
= = = = Liverpool departure = = = =
Fowler began the 2001 – 02 season controversially , after being dropped by the then manager Gérard Houllier from the Liverpool squad for the 2001 Charity Shield match following a training ground confrontation with assistant manager Phil Thompson . He made an appearance in Liverpool 's 3 – 2 European Super Cup victory over Bayern Munich , but starts were intermittent . In October 2001 , he scored his first league hat @-@ trick for three years , helping Liverpool beat Leicester City 4 – 1 , but was dropped for the following league match . Though Fowler had been on a contract extension from 1999 ( unlike Steve McManaman – who exercised his Bosman entitlement the very same year ) , Fowler was linked to Lazio , Arsenal and Leeds , and Liverpool 's management as well as fans and the media constantly reported that what happened with McManaman ( regarded as a huge financial loss ) would never be repeated and thus the club never rejected those bids without consideration . This meant that coupled with Fowler 's relationship with Houllier , speculation over Fowler 's future persisted for most of Houllier 's tenure and became an issue that divided Liverpool fans . His last appearance for Liverpool was against Sunderland , in which he was substituted at half @-@ time .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Despite his popularity with Liverpool fans , who referred to Fowler as " God " , Michael Owen and Emile Heskey had established themselves as Liverpool 's regular strike partnership , leaving Fowler on the fringes of the first team . This , along with his difficult relationship with Houllier , made him seek regular first team football away from Anfield in the form of a £ 12 million move to Leeds United . Fowler maintains that Houllier forced him out of Liverpool , and accused Houllier of pressuring the Liverpool Echo newspaper to use its influence to turn opinion against him .
The transfer went ahead just one month after his hat @-@ trick at Leicester . He made his Leeds debut in an away game against Fulham in December 2001 , the same ground where he had made his Liverpool debut eight years earlier . Fowler scored 12 goals in the remainder of the season , helping Leeds to a UEFA Cup qualifying place . Fowler was included in the England squad for the 2002 World Cup , but only made one appearance , coming on as substitute in a second round win over Denmark .
Fowler suffered an aggravation of a pre @-@ existing hip injury in the 2002 – 03 pre @-@ season , and did not recover until December . Struggling to gain fitness , and seeing team @-@ mates sold off due to a financial crisis , Fowler 's form and market value diminished . It was despite this decrease in form that he still , in total , scored 15 goals in 31 appearances for Leeds ; achieving an impressive strike rate of just less than one goal every two games . In 2002 – 03 , Leeds finished 15th in the Premier League and a severe financial crisis was developing .
= = = Manchester City = = =
In the 2002 – 03 season , Fowler was transferred to Manchester City following a protracted transfer saga . Fowler initially turned down the move , and a dispute between Manchester City manager Kevin Keegan and chairman David Bernstein over whether the transfer should take place due to medical concerns resulted in Bernstein leaving the club . Following encouragement from Keegan , Fowler finally signed for Manchester City on 16 January 2003 for an initial fee of £ 3 million and a further £ 3 million dependent upon appearances . Bizarre transfer conditions meant Leeds United still paid a significant proportion of Fowler 's wages . Fowler made his Manchester City debut against West Bromwich Albion on 1 February 2003 , but made a poor start to his Manchester City career , scoring just two goals in the remainder of the season .
Fowler continued to struggle with fitness problems in the 2003 – 04 season , completing the full 90 minutes only nine times , however he did score against his old club Liverpool in a 2 – 2 draw at home . The arrival of close friend , Steve McManaman , from Real Madrid gave Fowler hope , but the pair failed to rekindle their prolific partnership from their time at Liverpool , and received criticism from the fans and tabloids for their salaries , alleged excesses as well as named and shamed in a sex scandal covered by the News of the World that year .
Despite the slump , Fowler rallied for the following campaign , and showed a marked improvement in the second half of the 2004 – 05 season , scoring his 150th Premiership goal in the 3 – 2 win over Norwich City on 28 February 2005 . However , his failure to convert a 90th @-@ minute penalty kick against Middlesbrough 's Mark Schwarzer in the final game of the season prevented Manchester City from gaining a place in the UEFA Cup . Despite this , Fowler ended the season as the club 's joint top goal scorer and gained the approval of the fans , finishing in the top three in the fans ' Player of the Year poll . Fowler later described this as " one of the proudest achievements of my career " .
Fowler had injury problems at the start of the 2005 – 06 season and rarely featured when fit , making just two substitute appearances in the first four months of the season . His first start of the season came against Scunthorpe United in the FA Cup on 7 January 2006 , in which he scored a hat @-@ trick . The following week he scored Manchester City 's third goal in their 3 – 1 win against local rivals Manchester United after coming on as substitute . However , Fowler made only one more appearance for Manchester City before returning to Liverpool on a free transfer .
= = = Return to Liverpool = = =
On 27 January 2006 , Fowler rejoined Liverpool from Manchester City on a free transfer , signing a contract until the end of the season . Fowler had remained a Liverpool fan after he left the club ; he was in the Istanbul crowd when Liverpool won the Champions League in 2005 .
The fans were overjoyed to learn that Fowler had returned ; there were large banners in the game against Birmingham City which read ' God – number eleven , welcome back to heaven ' , with ' God ' being Fowler 's nickname while he was previously at Liverpool .
Fowler 's return against Birmingham City in February 2006 was labelled by the tabloid press as the stuff of fairytales , and he himself said he felt like " a kid waking up on Christmas morning every day " . Fowler 's first appearance back at Anfield was as a substitute against Birmingham , receiving a standing ovation upon his introduction . After his return , he had three goals ruled out for offside , before finally getting off the mark on 15 March 2006 in a home game against Fulham , the same opponents against which he scored his first ever goal for Liverpool 13 years earlier .
Fowler 's next Liverpool goal , against West Bromwich Albion , meant he overtook Kenny Dalglish in the club 's all @-@ time top scorers . His resurgence continued as he marked his 31st birthday with a goal against Bolton Wanderers . He made it four goals in five games when he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 16 April 2006 . However , Fowler 's fitness remained a concern . In March 2006 , manager Rafael Benítez commented on Fowler 's work and progress by saying , " to buy a Robbie Fowler who is fit and scoring goals would cost a lot , maybe £ 10m or more " . Despite concerns about his fitness , Fowler finished the 2005 – 06 season scoring on a more consistent basis than Liverpool 's other strikers . In May 2006 he was offered a new one @-@ year contract with the club , and celebrated by scoring the first goal in Liverpool 's last league game of the season in a 3 – 1 away win at Portsmouth . It was his final game of the season as he was unable to take part in the club 's FA Cup Final success due to being cup @-@ tied .
Fowler featured rarely in his final Liverpool season , making only six league starts . Bizarrely , all three of his League goals were penalties against Sheffield United . One of these was in the away game on the opening day of the season , and the other two in the reverse fixture at Anfield . Appearances in other competitions were more common due to Rafael Benítez 's squad rotation policy . On 25 October 2006 Fowler was named as Liverpool 's captain for the first time since his return in a League Cup tie against Reading , scoring just before half @-@ time in a 4 – 3 win .
On 5 December , Fowler scored his first two goals in the UEFA Champions League competition proper against Galatasaray ( he had previously scored during a qualifying tie some six years prior against FC Haka ) , though Liverpool lost 3 – 2 .
On 1 May 2007 he was a substitute in the Champions League semi @-@ final against Chelsea , brought on in the last few minutes of extra @-@ time . He set up an attack for Dirk Kuyt but the shot went straight at the Chelsea goalkeeper . The match went into a penalty shoot @-@ out that Liverpool won . Fowler was due to take the fifth and final spot @-@ kick , but the game had already ended when Kuyt slotted home his winning penalty .
In what transpired to be his last appearance for the club , against Charlton Athletic on 13 May , Fowler was given the captain 's armband one final time . He was substituted two minutes from the final whistle and given a standing ovation . He finished his second run as a Liverpool player with a UEFA Champions League runners @-@ up medal , although he was not named in either the starting eleven or the seven substitutes . He became a free agent on 1 July having scored 183 goals in 369 appearances during his two spells at the club .
= = = Cardiff City = = =
On 21 July 2007 Fowler signed a two @-@ year contract to play for Cardiff City . He missed the season 's opening fixtures due to a lack of fitness , making his debut in a League Cup tie on 28 August . He scored his first two Cardiff goals on 22 September against Preston North End , scoring with two headers . Fowler scored twice in his next game , a third round League Cup tie against West Brom , which Cardiff won 4 – 2 . This led to a fourth round tie against Fowler 's former club Liverpool , at Anfield , to which even the Liverpool faithful crowd urged Fowler to score seeing that it may be the last time he would play in Anfield but Cardiff were knocked out in a 2 – 1 defeat .
In November , Fowler travelled to Frankfurt , Germany to see Dr. Hans @-@ Wilhelm Müller @-@ Wohlfahrt , a specialist sports injuries doctor , to try and resolve a recurring hip problem that had left him lacking fitness in early season fixtures for the Bluebirds . The treatment involved taking around twenty @-@ eight injections into his hip . He returned to full training in late November and made his comeback on 15 December as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat against Bristol City . However he went on to suffer another injury blow just days later after a mistimed tackle in training from club captain Darren Purse left him with damaged ankle ligaments . Due to the new injury blow Cardiff and Fowler made plans for him to go to Colorado , United States to undergo keyhole surgery on the hip problem , which had plagued him in recent seasons , in the hope that it would finally resolve the problem .
On 17 January 2008 , it was announced that Fowler could miss the rest of the 2007 – 08 season for Cardiff after his hip operation revealed that the injury was worse than previously thought . Surgeons were forced to perform a micro @-@ fracture in order for the hip to heal properly . Despite this , he attempted to make a comeback at the end of the season to play in the FA Cup final against Portsmouth and was included in the 18 @-@ man match squad . He did not feature in the game in and thus did not receive a runners @-@ up medal having not made an appearance in the competition .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
Fowler was offered a new pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play contract with Cardiff for the 2008 – 09 season in May 2008 and was expected to sign the contract . However , he pulled out of the deal , preferring to accept an offer of a trial at Blackburn Rovers from former Liverpool colleague Paul Ince . The move left Cardiff manager Dave Jones and chairman Peter Ridsdale furious after the club had assisted Fowler 's rehabilitation throughout the summer . After training with Blackburn and appearing in a handful of friendlies he was offered a six @-@ month deal by the club to last until January , but Fowler turned down the deal due to it being a shorter offer than the previous one he had rejected at Cardiff . After turning down the offer , Fowler made a shock enquiry about returning to Cardiff on the deal he had originally turned down , prompting anger from supporters and a swift " no thanks " from the club .
Fowler concluded the trial period at Blackburn by agreeing to a three @-@ month pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play deal . He stated that he was eager to return to the Premier League and that his pre @-@ existing relationship with Ince would not earn him any preferential treatment . He made his first appearance against Everton in a 1 – 0 win in the League Cup on 24 September . With a month left on his contract at Blackburn , Fowler received interest from League Two side Grimsby Town . Fowler , a noted friend of then Grimsby manager Mike Newell had held talks at Blundell Park over a possible Player / Coach role with the club .
His three @-@ month deal at Blackburn expired on 12 December 2008 , and after not being offered a new contract was released by the club , he entered talks with new Australian A @-@ League club North Queensland Fury .
= = = North Queensland Fury = = =
Fowler signed with the North Queensland Fury on 4 February 2009 and became their inaugural marquee player ; with his family relocating to Townsville for the 2009 – 10 season of the Australian A @-@ League . It was an important signing for the new franchise who struggled to sign a marquee player , while some questioned whether Fowler would be able to cope with the heat and humidity of North Queensland .
Fowler made his debut in July 2009 in a 2 – 1 pre @-@ season loss against Wolverhampton Wanderers in Perth after recovering from groin and hip complaints . Fowler was subsequently named North Queensland Fury 's captain for the 2009 – 10 season and the first in the club 's history . He scored his first A @-@ League goal from a penalty kick in his club 's first competitive match against Sydney FC on Saturday 8 August 2009 . In rounds four , five , and six Fowler scored Solo 's Hyundai A @-@ League Goal of the Week .
Shortly after his arrival in Australia , it was reported in the British media that Fowler would be making a swift return to his homeland and sign for League One side Tranmere Rovers , who had just appointed Fowler 's former Liverpool team mate John Barnes as manager . However , Fowler was quick to dismiss talk of a quick return to England . When Barnes was dismissed three months later , it was reported that Tranmere had approached Fowler about becoming player @-@ manager , but these reports too were dismissed .
Controversy erupted around Fowler after he reportedly refused to play against the Brisbane Roar on 23 January after being named on the interchange bench for the clash . He however returned to the starting line up for two of the last three games of the season . Fowler ended the season collecting a hat @-@ trick of awards at the clubs end @-@ of @-@ season awards night , he was awarded the clubs Player of the Year , Players ' Player of the Year and the Golden Boot as top goal scorer . On 15 June 2010 , Fowler confirmed that he is taking legal action over the ending of his playing contract with North Queensland Fury . He is suing the Fury and Football Federation Australia , which took over the running of the club .
= = = Perth Glory = = =
On 27 April 2010 , it was announced that Fowler had agreed to become part of Glory 's squad for the 2010 – 11 A @-@ League season . Fowler reportedly ignored offers from Middle East clubs as well as Sydney FC to play in Perth . He joined the Glory for pre @-@ season training in mid @-@ June , following World Cup sponsorship commitments . Fowler scored his first goal for Perth on 29 August , a penalty against Melbourne Heart . He followed this up with a headed goal the following week against the Wellington Phoenix . In the following match , Fowler 's hat @-@ trick gave the Glory a 3 – 1 victory against Melbourne Victory at the Dairy Famers Stadium in Townsville . Fowler ended the year as top scorer for the club .
= = = Muangthong United = = =
On 7 July 2011 Fowler agreed to play with Muangthong United , signing a one @-@ year contract . In a press conference he stated that the weather conditions of Nonthaburi should not be a problem as he had played in Townsville and Perth . He was quickly a hit with Muangthong fans and the Thai public in general ; he attended Thailand 's World Cup Qualifier against Oman wearing the national team 's shirt . He has since played a handful of scoreless games , both at the Yamaha Stadium and on the road in the AFC Cup , until the Twin Qilins were eliminated from the competition by Al @-@ Kuwait . After the sacking of Henrique Calisto as head coach , Fowler was made player / coach .
On 16 October 2011 , after 250 minutes of play , Fowler scored his first goal for MTU against Chiangrai . He scored his 250th club career goal on 21 December 2011 against TTM Phichit . On 28 February 2012 Fowler announced he had left the club following Slavisa Jokanovic 's appointment as coach .
= = = Return to England and retirement = = =
On 1 March 2012 , Blackpool manager Ian Holloway confirmed that Fowler was training with the Seasiders and that he could earn a deal until the end of the season . However , they could not agree a deal and Fowler decided against signing when Karl Oyston offered the striker just £ 100 a week with £ 5 @,@ 000 for every first @-@ team appearance .
On 22 September 2012 Fowler announced that he is " all but retired from professional football . " He said this on the television show Soccer AM . In an interview in March 2013 , he said that he was " not officially retired " and would " jump at the opportunity to play again . " Fowler has also stated in other interviews that he is currently completing his coaching licences . Fowler was on a six @-@ man shortlist and interviewed for the vacant manager 's job at Conference side Macclesfield Town in May 2013 , but caretaker manager John Askey was eventually appointed on a full @-@ time basis .
Fowler featured in Steven Gerrard 's testimonial match against Olympiacos F.C. on 3 August 2013 . He came off the bench in the 73rd minute to a big reception from Liverpool fans , but failed to score a goal .
On 21 April 2014 , Fowler also featured in a charity match to commemorate the lives of the 96 Liverpool fans who died in the Hillsborough Disaster . Fowler scored both goals for his team in a 2 @-@ 2 draw .
On 2 January 2015 , Fowler tweeted " Gutted about Steven , but what an unbelievable player ... I 'm officially hanging my boots up as from now ... A sad day for me " and so officially announced his retirement .
= = = Soccer Aid = = =
In May 2016 it was revealed that Fowler would return to the pitch to play for England in Soccer Aid , a charity football match in aid of UNICEF , alongside Jamie Carragher .
= = International career = =
Fowler earned his first cap for England on 27 March 1996 , coming on as a 76th @-@ minute substitute in the 1 – 0 friendly win against Bulgaria at Wembley Stadium . On 24 April , he won his second cap and made his first start for England in the 0 – 0 draw with Croatia . Despite only having 3 caps to his name , England manager Terry Venables selected Fowler in his 22 @-@ man squad for Euro 1996 . Fowler went on to make two substitute appearances in the tournament , featuring in the 4 – 1 win against the Netherlands in the final group game , and in the 0 – 0 draw against Spain in the quarter @-@ finals , a game England won on penalties .
Fowler did not feature during England 's qualifying campaign for the 1998 FIFA World Cup , mainly due to a serious knee ligament injury , and thus missed out on Glenn Hoddle 's 22 @-@ man squad for the tournament . He did , however , manage to score his first goal for his country on 29 March 1997 , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Wembley Stadium . A second goal followed in his next cap on 15 November , netting just before half @-@ time in the 2 – 0 friendly win against Cameroon .
On 9 June 1999 , Fowler played in his first competitive game for England in nearly three years , starting in the 1 – 1 draw with Bulgaria during Euro 2000 qualifying . Kevin Keegan named Fowler in the preliminary squad for Euro 2000 , and after featuring in the three warm @-@ up games against Brazil , Ukraine , and Malta , he was named in the final squad on 1 June 2000 . Fowler did not play in the tournament as England were eliminated in the group stages .
Fowler scored his fourth goal for England on 25 May 2001 , netting the second goal in the 4 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Pride Park , Derby . On 5 September , he scored his first competitive goal for England in the 2 – 0 win against Albania at St James ' Park , Newcastle . This was during qualifying for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . England qualified for the World Cup , and after scoring in friendlies against Italy and Cameroon , Fowler was selected in Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson 's 23 @-@ man squad for the tournament in South Korea and Japan . He didn 't appear in any of England 's group matches , but on 15 June 2002 , he came on as a second @-@ half substitute in the 3 – 0 win against Denmark in the Round of 16 . This turned out to be Fowler 's last cap for his country . He won a total of 26 caps for England and scored 7 goals .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Milton Keynes Dons = = =
On returning to England , Fowler has worked with League One side Milton Keynes Dons on an ad @-@ hoc basis to assist the club 's coaching staff . On 7 April 2011 , Bury confirmed that Fowler would join their coaching staff for one week to assist Richie Barker . Fowler briefly coached Liverpool 's strikers in April 2011 .
= = = Muangthong United = = =
Muangthong took action and sacked Henrique Calisto as head coach . A statement on the Muangthong website read : " The Board have appointed Robbie Fowler as the acting Head Coach and terminate the contract of Portuguese boss Henrique Calisto . The contract is until the end of the season and the team must adapt to long @-@ term goals if it is to succeed in Asia " , thus making Fowler player / coach of Muangthong United .
= = = Liverpool Academy = = =
In October 2013 it was announced that Fowler would be taking up a coaching role with Liverpool FC at the academy .
On 9 September 2014 , it was revealed Fowler had applied for the vacant head coach / manager job at his former club Leeds United .
= = Style of play = =
A prolific goal @-@ scorer , Fowler was a quick and opportunistic striker , with good technical ability . Although naturally left @-@ footed , he possessed an accurate , powerful shot from both inside and outside the area with both feet ; he was also effective in the air . Despite his reputation as a " goal @-@ poacher " , he was also a creative player , capable of linking up well with other players , and laying off the ball to other strikers . Despite his talent , he was also known to be injury @-@ prone throughout his career .
= = Personal life = =
Fowler married wife Kerrie on 9 June 2001 in the town of Duns in Scotland . Together they have three daughters named Madison , Jaya , and Mackenzie , and one son , Jacob .
Fowler is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. and regularly attends matches at Anfield . He does media work for Abu Dhabi Sports Channel , Sky Sports and ITV .
In association with long term friend Steve McManaman , Fowler has invested in several racehorses through a chattily named company The Macca and Growler Partnership , most notably 2003 Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother Celebration Chase runner @-@ up Seebald . In 2005 , Fowler was listed as one of the 1 @,@ 000 wealthiest Britons by the Sunday Times Rich List , with the paper estimating he has a property portfolio of more than 80 , while his Robbie Fowler Sports Promotions company has been reported to have net assets of £ 1 @.@ 58 million . Other business interests including a large property portfolio have resulted in Fowler 's net wealth totaling £ 28 million . This gave rise to the affectionate Manchester City Football Club chant , We all live in a Robbie Fowler house , sung to the tune of Yellow Submarine .
On 2 September 2005 , Fowler released a book called Fowler : My Autobiography , about his time as a footballer and the issues surrounding him . Since his transfer to Liverpool he has updated it and included a section about his return to Anfield . Excerpts published in newspapers included criticism of the England management .
In June 2008 , Fowler participated alongside McManaman in Steve Nash and Claudio Reyna 's Showdown in Chinatown , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game at Sara D. Roosevelt Park in Manhattan with McManaman making five of the goals , including one for Fowler .
In 2011 , Fowler and McManaman participated in a Select World XI against Chechen dictator Ramzan Kadyrov and his select XI in a public relations fundraiser in the war @-@ torn nation 's capital of Grozny . The match caused much press bewilderment in the western world , mainly due to Kadyrov 's abysmal human rights record and known practices of torture and rape as weapons of rule . British press also cited the use of and payment of footballers to parade the event as particularly " evil " , with The Guardian labelling it " Football 's moment in Bed with Kadyrov " .
Fowler is a cousin of boxer and 2014 Commonwealth Games gold medallist Antony Fowler .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Managerial statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Liverpool
FA Cup : 2000 – 01
League Cup : 1994 – 95 , 2000 – 01
FA Charity Shield : 2001
UEFA Cup : 2000 – 01
UEFA Super Cup : 2001
= = = International = = =
England
UEFA European Under @-@ 18 Football Championship : 1993
= = = Individual = = =
PFA Young Player of the Year Award : 1995 , 1996
UEFA Fair Play Award : 1997
Alan Hardaker Trophy : 2001
North Queensland Fury Player of the Year : 2010
North Queensland Fury Golden Boot : 2010
North Queensland Fury Players ' Player of the Year : 2010
Perth Glory Golden Boot : 2011
Premier League Player of the Month : December 1995 , January 1996
= Ode on Indolence =
The " Ode on Indolence " is one of five odes composed by English poet John Keats in the spring of 1819 . The others were " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . The poem describes the state of indolence , otherwise known as laziness , and was written during a time when he felt that he should devote his efforts to earning an income instead of composing poetry . After finishing the spring poems , Keats wrote in June 1819 that its composition brought him more pleasure than anything else he had written that year . Unlike the other odes he wrote that year , " Ode on Indolence " was not published until 1848 , 27 years after his death .
The poem is an example of Keats 's break from the structure of the classical form . It follows the poet 's contemplation of a morning spent in idleness . Three figures are presented — Ambition , Love and Poesy — dressed in " placid sandals " and " white robes " . The narrator examines each using a series of questions and statements on life and art . The poem concludes with the narrator giving up on having all three of the figures as part of his life . Some critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to the other four 1819 odes . Others suggest that the poem exemplifies a continuity of themes and imagery characteristic of his more widely read works , and provides valuable biographical insight into his poetic career .
= = Background = =
By the spring of 1819 , Keats had left his poorly paid position as a surgeon at Guy 's Hospital , Southwark , London , to devote himself to poetry . On 12 May 1819 , he abandoned this plan after receiving a request for financial assistance from his brother , George . Unable to help , Keats was torn by guilt and despair and sought projects more lucrative than poetry . It was under these circumstances that he wrote " Ode on Indolence " .
In a letter to his brother dated 19 March 1819 , Keats discussed indolence as a subject . He may have written the ode as early as March , but the themes and stanza forms suggest May or June 1819 ; when it is known he was working on " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . During this period , Keats 's friend Charles Armitage Brown transcribed copies of the spring odes and submitted them to publisher Richard Woodhouse . Keats wrote to his friend Sarah Jeffrey : " [ T ] he thing I have most enjoyed this year has been writing an ode to Indolence . " Despite this enjoyment , however , he was not entirely satisfied with " Ode on Indolence " , and it remained unpublished until 1848 .
Keats 's notes and papers do not reveal the precise dating of the 1819 odes . Literary scholars have proposed several different orders of composition , arguing that the poems form a sequence within their structures . In The Consecrated Urn , Bernard Blackstone observes that " Indolence " has been variously thought the first , second , and final of the five 1819 odes . Biographer Robert Gittings suggests " Ode on Indolence " was written on 4 May 1819 , based upon Keats 's report about the weather during the ode 's creation ; Douglas Bush insists it was written after " Nightingale " , " Grecian Urn " , and " Melancholy " . Based on his examination of the stanza forms , Keats biographer Andrew Motion thinks " Ode on Indolence " was written after " Ode to Psyche " and " Ode to a Nightingale " , although he admits there is no way to be precise about the dates . Nevertheless , he argues that " Ode on Indolence " was probably composed last .
= = Structure = =
" Ode on Indolence " relies on ten line stanzas with a rhyme scheme that begins with a Shakespearian quatrain ( ABAB ) and ends with a Miltonic sestet ( CDECDE ) . This pattern is used in " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , which further unifies the poems in their structure in addition to their themes .
The poem contains a complicated use of assonance ( the repetition of vowel sounds ) , as evident in line 19 , " O why did ye not melt , and leave my sense " , where the pairs ye / leave and melt / sense share vowel sounds . A more disorganized use of assonance appears in line 31 , " A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd " , in which the pairs third / turn 'd , time / by , and pass 'd / passing share vowel sounds . The first line exemplifies the poem 's consistent iambic pentameter scansion :
Keats occasionally inverts the accent of the first two syllables of each line or a set of syllables within the middle of a line . 2 @.@ 3 % of the internal syllables are inverted in the " Ode on Indolence " , whereas only 0 @.@ 4 % of the internal syllables of his other poems contain such inversions .
= = Poem = =
The poem relies on a first @-@ person narration style similar to " Ode to Psyche " . It begins with a classical scene from an urn in a similar manner to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , but the scene in " Indolence " is allegorical . The opening describes three figures that operate as three fates :
One morn before me were three figures seen ,
With bowed necks , and joined hands , side @-@ faced ;
And one behind the other stepp 'd serene ,
In placid sandals , and in white robes graced ;
They pass 'd , like figures on a marble urn
When shifted round to see the other side ;
They came again , as , when the urn once more
Is shifted round , the first seen shades return ;
And they were strange to me , as may betide
With vases , to one deep in Phidian lore . ( Lines 1 – 10 )
The figures remain mysterious as they circle around the narrator . Eventually they turn towards him and it is revealed that they are Ambition , Love , and Poesy , the themes of the poem :
A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd
Each one the face a moment whiles to me ;
Then faded , and to follow them I burn 'd
And ached for wings , because I knew the three :
The first was a fair Maid , and Love her name ;
The second was Ambition , pale of cheek ,
And ever watchful with fatigued eye ;
The last , whom I love more , the more of blame
Is heap 'd upon her , maiden most unmeek , —
I knew to be my demon Poesy . ( Lines 31 – 40 )
The poet wishes to be with the three figures , but he is unable to join them . The poem transitions into the narrator providing reasons why he would not need the three figures and does so with ambition and love , but he cannot find a reason to dismiss poesy :
They faded , and , forsooth ! I wanted wings :
O folly ! What is Love ? and where is it ?
And for that poor Ambition — it springs
From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ;
For Poesy ! — no , — she has not a joy , —
At least for me , — so sweet as drowsy noons ,
And evenings steep 'd in honied indolence ;
O , for an age so shelter 'd from annoy ,
That I may never know how change the moons ,
Or hear the voice of busy common @-@ sense ! ( lines 41 – 50 )
Concluding the poem , the narrator argues that the figures should be treated as figures , and that he would not be misled by them :
So , ye three ghosts , adieu ! Ye cannot raise
My head cool @-@ bedded in the flowery grass ;
For I would not be dieted with praise ,
A pet @-@ lamb in a sentimental farce !
Fade softly from my eyes , and be once more
In masque @-@ like figures on the dreary urn ;
Farewell ! I yet have visions for the night ,
And for the day faint visions there is store ;
Vanish , ye phantoms , from my idle spright ,
Into the clouds , and never more return ! ( lines 51 – 60 )
= = Themes = =
The poem centres on humanity and human nature . When the poet sees the figures , he wants to know their names and laments his ignorance . Eventually , he realizes that they are representative of Love , Ambition , and Poetry . While he longs , he fears they are out of reach and therefore tries to reject them . He argues that love is what he needs least and dismisses it by questioning what " love " actually means ( " What is Love ? and where is it ? " ) . He rejects ambition , but it requires more work ( " And for that poor Ambition — it springs / From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ; " ) . Unlike the personas of Love and Ambition , the narrator is unable to find a reason to banish Poesy ( Poetry ) , which reflects the poets ' inner conflict : should he abandon poetry to focus on a career in which he can earn a decent living ? Keats 's sought to write great poetry but feared his pursuit of literary prominence was based on a delusional view of his own merit as a poet . Further , he was incapable of completing his epic , " Hyperion " . As Walter Jackson Bate explains , to Keats " Neither a finished ' grand Poem ' nor even the semblance of a modest financial return seemed nearer . "
Keats realized that he could never have Love , could not fulfil his Ambition , and could not spend his time with Poesy . The conclusion of " Ode to Indolence " is a dismissal of both the images and his poetry as figures that would only mislead him . Even indolence itself seems unattainable ; Andrew Motion writes that the figures force Keats to regard indolence as " the privilege of the leisured class to which he did not belong . " If the poem is read as the final poem in the 1819 ode series , " Ode on Indolence " suggests that Keats is resigned to giving up his career as a poet because poetry cannot give him the immortality he wanted from it . Ironically , the poem provided Keats with such immortality . Besides the biographical component , the poem also describes Keats 's belief that his works should capture the beauty of art while acknowledging the harshness of life . In this way , the poems as a group capture Keats 's philosophy of negative capability , the concept of living with unreconciled contradictory views , by trying to reconcile Keats 's desire to write poetry and his inability to do so by abandoning poetry altogether and accepting life as it is .
Within the many poems that explore this idea — among them Keats 's and the works by his contemporaries — Keats begins by questioning suffering , breaks it down to its most basic elements of cause and effect , and draws conclusions about the world . His own process is filled with doubt , but his poems end with a hopeful message that the narrator ( himself ) is finally free of desires for Love , Ambition , and Poesy . The hope contained within " Ode on Indolence " is found within the vision he expresses in the last stanza : " I yet have visions for the night / And for the day faint visions there is store . " Consequently , in her analysis of The Odes of John Keats , Helen Vendler suggests that " Ode on Indolence " is a seminal poem constructed with themes and images that appeared more influential in his other , sometimes later , poems . The ode is an early and entirely original work that establishes the basis of Keats 's notion of soul making , a method by which the individual builds his or her soul through a form of education consisting of suffering and personal experience . This is a fundamental preoccupation of the Romantics , who believed the way to reconcile man and nature was through this soul development , education — the combination of experience and contemplation — and that only this process , not the rationality of the previous century , would bring about true Enlightenment .
The classical influences Keats invoked affected other Romantic poets , but his odes contain a higher degree of allusion than most of his contemporaries ' works . As for the main theme , indolence and poetry , the poem reflects the emotional state of being Keats describes in an early 1819 letter to his brother George :
[ I ] ndolent and supremely careless ... from my having slumbered till nearly eleven ... please has no show of enticement and pain no unbearable frown . Neither Poetry , nor Ambition , nor Love have any alertness of countenance as they pass by me : they seem rather like three figures on a greek vase — a Man and two women — whom no one but myself could distinguish in their disguisement .
Willard Spiegelman , in his study of Romantic poetry , suggests that the indolence of the poem arises from the narrator 's reluctance to apply himself to the labour associated with poetic creation . Some critics provide other explanations , and William Ober claims that Keats 's description of indolence may have arisen from the use of opium .
= = Critical response = =
Literary critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to Keats 's other 1819 odes . Walter Evert wrote that " it is unlikely that the ' Ode on Indolence ' has ever been anyone 's favorite poem , and it is certain that it was not Keats 's . Why he excluded it from the 1820 volume we do not know , but it is repetitious and declamatory and structurally infirm , and these would be reasons enough . " Bate indicated that the poem 's value is " primarily biographical and not poetic " .
" Ode on Indolence " is sometimes called upon as a point of comparison when discussing Keats 's other poems . Charles Wentworth Dilke observed that while the poem can be read as a supplemental text to assist the study of " Grecian Urn " , it remains a much inferior work . In 2000 , Thomas McFarland wrote in consideration of Dilke 's comparison : " Far more important than the similarity , which might seem to arise from the urns in Keats 's purview in both Ode on Indolence and Ode on a Grecian Urn ... is the enormous dissimilarity in the two poems . Ode on Indolence ... is a flaccid enterprise that hardly bears mention alongside that other achievement . "
Sidney Colvin , in his 1917 biography on Keats , grouped " Indolence " with the other 1819 odes in categorizing Keats 's " class of achievements " . In 1948 , Lord Gorell described the fifth stanza as , " lacking the magic of what the world agrees are the great Odes " but describes the language as " [ d ] elicate , charming even " . Later , in a 1968 biography of Keats , Gittings describes the importance of the poem : " The whole ode , in fact , has a borrowed air , and he acknowledged its lack of success by not printing it with the others ... Yet with its acceptance of the numb , dull and indolent mood as something creative , it set the scene for all the odes that followed . "
In 1973 , Stuart Sperry described it as " a rich and nourishing immersion in the rush of pure sensation and its flow of stirring shadows and ' dim dreams ' . In many ways the ode marks both a beginning and an end . It is both the feeblest and potentially the most ambitious of the sequence . Yet its failure , if we choose to consider it that , is more the result of deliberate disinclination than any inability of means . " Andrew Motion , in 1997 , argued , " Like ' Melancholy ' , the poem is too articulate for its own poetic good ... In two of his May odes , ' Melancholy ' and ' Indolence ' , Keats defined themes common to the whole group with such fierce candour that he restricted their imaginative power . His identity had prevailed . "
= Erving Goffman =
Erving Goffman ( 11 June 1922 – 19 November 1982 ) was a Canadian @-@ American sociologist and writer , considered " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . In 2007 he was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas .
Goffman was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association . His best @-@ known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction . This took the form of dramaturgical analysis , beginning with his 1959 book , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . Goffman 's other major works include Asylums ( 1961 ) , Stigma ( 1963 ) , Interaction Ritual ( 1967 ) , Frame Analysis ( 1974 ) , and Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) . His major areas of study included the sociology of everyday life , social interaction , the social construction of self , social organization ( framing ) of experience , and particular elements of social life such as total institutions and stigmas .
= = Life = =
Goffman was born 11 June 1922 , in Mannville , Alberta , Canada , to Max Goffman and Anne Goffman , née Averbach . He was from a family of Ukrainian Jews who had emigrated to Canada at the turn of the century . He had an older sibling , Frances Bay , who became an actress . The family moved to Dauphin , Manitoba , where his father operated a successful tailoring business .
From 1937 Goffman attended St. John 's Technical High School in Winnipeg , where his family had moved that year . In 1939 he enrolled at the University of Manitoba , majoring in chemistry . He interrupted his studies and moved to Ottawa to work in the film industry for the National Film Board of Canada , established by John Grierson . Later he developed an interest in sociology . Also during this time , he met the renowned North American sociologist , Dennis Wrong . Their meeting motivated Goffman to leave the University of Manitoba and enroll at the University of Toronto , where he studied under C. W. M. Hart and Ray Birdwhistell , graduating in 1945 with a BA in sociology and anthropology . Later he moved to the University of Chicago , where he received an MA ( 1949 ) and PhD ( 1953 ) in sociology . For his doctoral dissertation , from December 1949 to May 1951 he lived and collected ethnographic data on the island of Unst in the Shetland Islands .
In 1952 Goffman married Angelica Choate ; in 1953 , their son Thomas was born . Angelica suffered from mental illness and committed suicide in 1964 . Outside his academic career , Goffman was known for his interest , and relative success , in the stock market and in gambling . At one point , in pursuit of his hobbies and ethnographic studies , he became a pit boss at a Las Vegas casino .
In 1981 Goffman married sociolinguist Gillian Sankoff . The following year , their daughter Alice was born . In 1982 Goffman died in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , on 19 November , of stomach cancer . Their daughter , Alice Goffman , is also a sociologist .
= = Career = =
The research that Goffman had done in Unst inspired him to write his first major work , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life ( 1956 ) . After graduating from the University of Chicago , in 1954 – 57 he was an assistant to the athletic director at the National Institute for Mental Health in Bethesda , Maryland . Participant observation done there led to his essays on mental illness and total institutions which came to form his second book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates ( 1961 ) .
In 1958 Goffman became a faculty member in the sociology department at the University of California , Berkeley , first as a visiting professor , then from 1962 as a full professor . In 1968 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania , receiving the Benjamin Franklin Chair in Sociology and Anthropology , due largely to the efforts of Dell Hymes , a former colleague at Berkeley . In 1969 he became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1970 Goffman became a cofounder of the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization and coauthored its Platform Statement . In 1971 he published Relations in Public , in which he tied together many of his ideas about everyday life , seen from a sociological perspective . Another major book of his , Frame Analysis , came out in 1974 . He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1977 – 78 . In 1979 , Goffman received the Cooley @-@ Mead Award for Distinguished Scholarship , from the Section on Social Psychology of the American Sociological Association . He was elected the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association , serving in 1981 – 82 ; he was , however , unable to deliver the presidential address in person due to progressing illness .
Posthumously , in 1983 , he received the Mead Award from the Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Goffman was influenced by Herbert Blumer , Émile Durkheim , Sigmund Freud , Everett Hughes , Alfred Radcliffe @-@ Brown , Talcott Parsons , Alfred Schütz , Georg Simmel and W. Lloyd Warner . Hughes was the " most influential of his teachers " , according to Tom Burns . Gary Alan Fine and Philip Manning state that Goffman never engaged in serious dialogue with other theorists . His work has , however , influenced and been discussed by numerous contemporary sociologists , including Anthony Giddens , Jürgen Habermas and Pierre Bourdieu .
Though Goffman is often associated with the symbolic interaction school of sociological thought , he did not see himself as a representative of it , and so Fine and Manning conclude that he " does not easily fit within a specific school of sociological thought " . His ideas are also " difficult to reduce to a number of key themes " ; his work can be broadly described as developing " a comparative , qualitative sociology that aimed to produce generalizations about human behavior " .
Goffman made substantial advances in the study of face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , elaborated the " dramaturgical approach " to human interaction , and developed numerous concepts that have had a massive influence , particularly in the field of the micro @-@ sociology of everyday life . Many of his works have concerned the organization of everyday behavior , a concept he termed " interaction order " . He contributed to the sociological concept of framing ( frame analysis ) , to game theory ( the concept of strategic interaction ) , and to the study of interactions and linguistics . With regard to the latter , he argued that the activity of speaking must be seen as a social rather than a linguistic construct . From a methodological perspective , Goffman often employed qualitative approaches , specifically ethnography , most famously in his study of social aspects of mental illness , in particular the functioning of total institutions . Overall , his contributions are valued as an attempt to create a theory that bridges the agency @-@ and @-@ structure divide – for popularizing social constructionism , symbolic interaction , conversation analysis , ethnographic studies , and the study and importance of individual interactions . His influence extended far beyond sociology : for example , his work provided the assumptions of much current research in language and social interaction within the discipline of communication .
Impression Management is defined as when an individual attempts to present an acceptable image to those around him or her verbally or nonverbally ( 480 ) . This definition is based on Goffman ’ s idea that individuals see themselves as others view them , so in essence they attempt to see themselves as if they are outside looking in ( 480 ) . Goffman also dedicating this work to discover the subtle ways humans present acceptable images by concealing information that may conflict with the images for a particular situation . For instance , concealing tattoos when applying for a job in which tattoos would be inappropriate , or hiding a bizarre obsession such as collecting / interacting with dolls which society as a whole may see as abnormal .
Goffman does break from his connection with George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer in that while he does not reject the way in which individuals perceive themselves , he was more interested in the actual physical proximity or the “ interaction order ” that molds the self ( 481 ) . In other words , Goffman believed that impression management can only be achieved if the audience is in sync with the individual ’ s perception of self . If the audience is in disagreement with the image an individual is presenting then the individual ’ s presentation of self is interrupted . Individuals present images of themselves based on how society thinks they should act in a particular situation . This decision on how to act is decided based on the concept of definition of the situation . The definition are all predetermined and individuals choose how they will act by choosing the proper behavior for the social situation they are in . Goffman draws from William Thomas for this concept as well . Thomas believed that people are born into a particular social class and so the definitions of the situations will encounter have been previously defined for them ( 480 ) . For instance when an individual from a high class background goes to a black tie affair the predefined definition of situation would be that they must mind their manors and act according to their class .
In 2007 Goffman was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas . His popularity with the general public has been attributed to his writing style , described as " sardonic , satiric , jokey " , and as " ironic and self @-@ consciously literary " , and to its being more accessible than that of most academics . His style has also been influential in academia , and is credited with popularizing a less formal style in academic publications .
His students included Carol Brooks Gardner , Charles Goodwin , Marjorie Goodwin , John Lofland , Gary Marx , Harvey Sacks , Emanuel Schegloff , David Sudnow and Eviatar Zerubavel .
Despite his influence , according to Fine and Manning there are " remarkably few scholars who are continuing his work " , nor has there been a " Goffman school " ; thus , his impact on social theory has been simultaneously " great and modest " . Fine and Manning attribute the lack of subsequent Goffman @-@ style research and writing to the nature of his signature style , which they consider very difficult to duplicate ( even " mimic @-@ proof " ) , and also to his writing style and subjects not being widely valued in the social sciences . With regard to his style , Fine and Manning remark that he tends to be seen either as a scholar whose style is difficult to reproduce , and therefore daunting to those who might wish to emulate his style , or as a scholar whose work was transitional , bridging the work of the Chicago school and that of contemporary sociologists , and thus of less interest to sociologists than the classics of either of those two groups . With regard to his subjects , Fine and Manning observe that the topic of behavior in public places is often stigmatized as being trivial , and thus unworthy of serious scholarly attention .
Nonetheless , Fine and Manning note that Goffman is " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . Elliott and Turner see him as " a revered figure – an outlaw theorist who came to exemplify the best of the sociological imagination " , and " perhaps the first postmodern sociological theorist " .
= = Works = =
= = = Early works = = =
Goffman 's early works consist of his graduate writings of 1949 – 53 . His master 's thesis was a survey of audience responses to a radio soap opera , Big Sister . One of its most important elements was a critique of his research methodology – of experimental logic and of variable analysis . Other writings of the period include Symbols of Class Status ( 1951 ) and On Cooling the Mark Out ( 1952 ) . His doctoral dissertation , Communication Conduct in an Island Community ( 1953 ) , presented a model of communication strategies in face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , and focused on how everyday life rituals affect public projections of self .
= = = Presentation of Self = = =
Goffman 's The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life was published in 1956 , with a revised edition in 1959 . He had developed the book 's core ideas from his doctoral dissertation . It was Goffman 's first and most famous book , for which he received the American Sociological Association 's 1961 MacIver Award .
Goffman describes the theatrical performances that occur in face @-@ to @-@ face interactions . He holds that when an individual comes in contact with another person , he attempts to control or guide the impression that the other person will form of him , by altering his own setting , appearance and manner . At the same time , the person that the individual is interacting with attempts to form an impression of , and obtain information about , the individual . Goffman also believes that participants in social interactions engage in certain practices to avoid embarrassing themselves or others . Society is not homogeneous ; we must act differently in different settings . This recognition led Goffman to his dramaturgical analysis . He saw a connection between the kinds of " acts " that people put on in their daily lives and theatrical performances . In a social interaction , as in a theatrical performance , there is an onstage area where actors ( individuals ) appear before the audience ; this is where positive self @-@ concepts and desired impressions are offered . But there is , as well , a backstage – a hidden , private area where individuals can be themselves and drop their societal roles and identities .
= = = Asylums = = =
Goffman is sometimes credited with having in 1957 coined the term " total institution " , though Fine and Manning note that he had heard it in lectures by Everett Hughes in reference to any type of institution in which people are treated alike and in which behavior is regulated . Regardless of whether Goffman coined the term " total institution " , he popularized it with his 1961 book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . The book has been described as " ethnography of the concept of the total institution " . The book was one of the first sociological examinations of the social situation of mental patients in psychiatric hospitals and a major contribution to understanding of social aspects of mental illness .
The book is composed of four essays : " Characteristics of Total Institutions " ( 1957 ) ; " The Moral Career of the Mental Patient " ( 1959 ) ; " The Underlife of a Public Institution : A Study of Ways of Making Out in a Mental Hospital " ; and " The Medical Model and Mental Hospitalization : Some Notes on the Vicissitudes of the Tinkering Trades " . The first three essays focus on the experiences of patients ; the last , on professional @-@ client interactions . Goffman is mainly concerned with the details of psychiatric hospitalization and with the nature and effects of the process he calls " institutionalization " . He describes how institutionalization socializes people into the role of a good patient , someone " dull , harmless and inconspicuous " – a condition which in turn reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness . Total institutions greatly affect people 's interactions ; yet , even in such places , people find ways to redefine their roles and reclaim their identities .
Asylums has been credited with helping catalyze the reform of mental health systems in a number of countries , leading to reductions in the numbers of large mental hospitals and of the individuals locked up in them . It has also been influential in the anti @-@ psychiatry movement .
= = = Behavior in Public = = =
In Behavior in Public Places ( 1963 ) , Goffman again focuses on everyday public interactions . He draws distinctions between several types of public gatherings ( " gatherings " , " situations " , " social occasions " ) and types of audiences ( acquainted versus unacquainted ) .
= = = Stigma = = =
Goffman 's book Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity ( 1963 ) examines how , to protect their identities when they depart from approved standards of behavior or appearance , people manage impressions of themselves – mainly through concealment . Stigma pertains to the shame that a person may feel when he or she fails to meet other people 's standards , and to the fear of being discredited – which causes the individual not to reveal his or her shortcomings . Thus , a person with a criminal record may simply withhold that information from fear of being judged by whomever that person happens to encounter .
= = = Interaction Ritual = = =
Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior is a collection of six Goffman essays . The first four were originally published in the 1950s , the fifth in 1964 , and the last was written for the collection . They include : " On Face @-@ work " ( 1955 ) ; " Embarrassment and Social Organization " ( 1956 ) ; " The Nature of Deference and Demeanor " ( 1956 ) ; " Alienation from Interaction " ( 1957 ) ; " Mental Symptoms and Public Order " ( 1964 ) ; and " Where the Action Is " .
The first essay , " On Face @-@ work " , discusses the concept of face , which is the positive self @-@ image that an individual holds when interacting with others . Goffman believes that face " as a sociological construct of interaction , is neither inherent in nor a permanent aspect of the person " . Once an individual offers a positive self @-@ image of him or herself to others , that individual feels a need to maintain and live up to that image . Inconsistency in how a person projects him or herself in society risks embarrassment and discrediting . Therefore , people remain guarded , to ensure that they do not show themselves to others in an unfavorable light .
= = = Strategic Interaction = = =
Goffman 's book Strategic Interaction ( 1969 ) is his contribution to game theory . It discusses the compatibility of game theory with the legacy of the Chicago School of sociology and with the perspective of symbolic interactionism . It is one of his few works that clearly engage with that perspective . Goffman 's view on game theory was shaped by the works of Thomas Schelling . Goffman presents reality as a form of game , and discusses its rules and the various moves that players can make ( the " unwitting " , the " naive " , the " covering " , the " uncovering " , and the " counter @-@ uncovering " ) .
= = = Frame Analysis = = =
Frame Analysis : An Essay on the Organization of Experience ( 1974 ) is Goffman 's attempt to explain how conceptual frames – ways to organize experience – structure an individual 's perception of society . This book is thus about the organization of experience rather than the organization of society . A frame is a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives that organize experiences and guide the actions of individuals , groups and societies . Frame analysis , then , is the study of the organization of social experience . To illustrate the concept of the frame , Goffman gives the example of a picture frame : a person uses the frame ( which represents structure ) to hold together his picture ( which represents the content ) of what he is experiencing in his life .
The most basic frames are called primary frameworks . A primary framework takes an individual 's experience or an aspect of a scene that would originally be meaningless and makes it meaningful . One type of primary framework is a natural framework , which identifies situations in the natural world and is completely biophysical , with no human influences . The other type of framework is a social framework , which explains events and connects them to humans . An example of a natural framework is the weather , and an example of a social framework is a meteorologist who predicts the weather . Focusing on the social frameworks , Goffman | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
seeks to " construct a general statement regarding the structure , or form , of experiences individuals have at any moment of their social life " .
Goffman saw this book as his magnum opus , but it was not as popular as his earlier works .
The Frame Analyses of Talk
In Frame Analyses , Erving Goffman provides a platform for understanding and interpreting the interaction between individuals engaging speech communication . In the chapter “ The Frame Analyses of Talk , ” the focus is put on how words are exchanged and what is being said , specifically in informal talk or conversation . The concept of framing is introduced through an exploration of why misunderstandings occur in these basic , everyday conversations . He argues that they are more errors in verbal framing than anything else . The types of frames Goffman is considering are discussed in previous sections of the book , “ fabrications , keyings , frame breaks , misframing , and , of course , frame disputes . ” That a frame can assume so many forms is the basis of his analyses , “ these framings are subject to a multitude of different transformations - the warrant for a frame analysis in the first place . ”
Goffman ’ s key idea is that most conversation is simply a replaying of a strip – what he describes as a personal experience or event . When we talk with others , the speaker ’ s goal is often always the same , to provide “ evidence for the fairness or unfairness of his current situation and other grounds for sympathy , approval , exoneration , understanding , or amusement . And what his listeners are primarily obliged to do is to show some kind of audience appreciation . " Essentially , through interaction , we are only looking to be heard , not inspire any kind of action but simply to know that someone listened and understood . This is why often a simple head nod or grunt is accepted as an appropriate response in conversation .
Goffman explains that the way a conversation is keyed is critical to understanding the intent behind many utterances in everyday speech . Key is probably best understood as the tone of the dialogue which can change numerous times during an interaction . Signaling a change in key is one way that framing often takes place , “ special brackets will have to be introduced should he want to say something in a relatively serious way : " Kidding aside , " " Now , I 'm really serious about this , " and other such tags become necessary as a means of momentarily down keying the flow of words . ”
Folklorist Richard Bauman builds heavily on Goffman ’ s work , specifically on the idea of key , in his work pertaining to an analysis of the performance frame . Bauman details that a performance is dependent on it being properly keyed , without this , the display will not be successful . His work on performance analyses is deeply indepted to what Goffman establishes here in “ Frame Analyses . ”
Context is one other element to framing that is essential . " The participants will be bound by norms of good manners : through frequency and length of turns at talk , through topics avoided , through circumspection in regard to references about self , through attention offered eagerly or begrudgingly @-@ through all these means , rank and social relationship will be given their due . " Certain things can and will be said in one scenario that would never be uttered in another . An awareness of these social framings is critical , just as is an awareness of the audience . Depending on who you ’ re speaking with ( a teacher , a child , a loved one , a friend , a pet , etc . ) you will curve your speech to fit the frame of what your intended audience is expecting .
Goffman uses the metaphor of conversation being a stage play . A plays tone will shift throughout the performance due to the actions taken by the actors ; this is similar to how a discussion is keyed – based on what either person says or does over the course of an interaction , the key will change accordingly . The parallels go further , though . Goffman also claims that a speaker details a drama more often than they provide information . They invite the listener to empathize and , as was explained above , they ’ re often not meant to be stirred to take action , but rather to show appreciation ; during a play this generally takes the form of applause .
Other similarities include engaging in the suspense the speaker is attempting to create . In both scenarios , you must put aside the knowledge that the performers know the outcome of the event being relayed and , in a sense , play along . This is integral to his stance as he explains “ the argument that much of talk consists of replayings and that these make no sense unless some form of storyteller 's suspense can be maintained shows the close relevance of frame @-@ indeed , the close relevance of dramaturgy @-@ for the organization of talk . ” Lastly , because the replaying of strips is not extemporaneous , but rather preformulated , it is yet another parallel between a stage production and conversation . All of these things work in concert to provide a foundation of how talk is framed .
= = = Gender Advertisements = = =
Gender Advertisements is a 1979 book that , as part of Goffman 's series of studies in the anthropology of visual communication , deals with the topic of gender representation in advertising . The book is a visual essay about sex roles in advertising , differences in the depictions of men and women and the subtle , underlying messages about the sexual roles projected by masculine and feminine images in advertising , as well as and symbolism in advertising . In the book Goffman examined over 500 advertisements in order to find general patterns in stereotypical gender representation , which he placed into six categories :
Relative Size : Goffman argues that social situation is expressed through the relative size of the persons in the advertisements , with men showing their superiority through their girth and height .
Feminine Touch : Women are frequently depicted touching persons or objects in a ritualistic manner , occasionally just barely touching the object or person .
Function Ranking : When a man and woman are shown in a collaborative manner , the male is more likely to be shown as the higher ranked person than the woman .
The Family : When families are depicted in advertising , parents are shown to be closer to their children of the same gender and in some instances men are shown separate from the rest of the family , in a protective manner .
Ritualization of Subordination : Difference is expressed by lowering oneself physically . Superiority and disdain , holding the body erect and the head high .
Licensed Withdrawal : Goffman states that women in advertisements are frequently depicted as removed from the scene around them , either physically turning away from the scene or appearing lost in thought .
In her 2001 work Measuring Up : How Advertising Affects Self @-@ Image , Vickie Rutledge Shields stated that the work was " unique at the time for employing a method now being labeled ' semiotic content analysis ' " and that it " [ provided ] the base for textual analyses ... such as poststructuralist and psychoanalytic approaches " . She also noted that feminist scholars like Jean Kilbourne " [ built ] their highly persuasive and widely circulated findings on the nature of gender in advertising on Goffman 's original categories " .
= = = Forms of Talk = = =
Goffman 's book , Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) , includes five essays : " Replies and Responses " ( 1976 ) ; " Response Cries " ( 1978 ) ; " Footing " ( 1979 ) ; " The Lecture " ( 1976 ) ; and " Radio Talk " ( 1981 ) . Each essay addresses both verbal and non @-@ verbal communication through a sociolinguistic model . The book provides a comprehensive overview of the study of talk . In the introduction , Goffman identifies three themes that recur throughout the text : " ritualization , participation framework , and embedding " .
The first essay , " Replies and Responses " , concerns " conversational dialogue " and the way people respond during a conversation , both verbally and non @-@ verbally . The second essay , " Response Cries " , considers the use of utterances and their social implications in different social contexts . Specifically , Goffman discusses " self @-@ talk " ( talking to no one in particular ) and its role in social situations . Next , in " Footing " , Goffman addresses the way that footing , or alignment , can shift during a conversation . The fourth essay , " The Lecture " , originally an oral presentation , describes different types and methods of lecture . Lastly , in " Radio Talk " , Goffman describes the types and forms of talk used in radio programming and the effect they have on listeners .
= = Positions = =
In his career , Goffman worked at the :
University of Chicago , Division of Social Sciences , Chicago : assistant , 1952 – 53 ; resident associate , 1953 – 54 ;
National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland : visiting scientist , 1954 – 57 ;
University of California , Berkeley : assistant professor , 1957 – 59 ; professor , 1959 – 62 ; professor of sociology , 1962 – 68 ;
University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia : Benjamin Franklin Professor of Anthropology and Sociology , 1969 – 82 .
= = Selected works = =
1959 : The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013571 @-@ 8 . Anchor Books edition
1961 : Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . New York , Doubleday . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013739 @-@ 4
1961 : Encounters : Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction – Fun in Games & Role Distance . Indianapolis , Bobbs @-@ Merrill .
1963 : Behavior in Public Places : Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings . The Free Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 02 @-@ 911940 @-@ 5
1963 : Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity . Prentice @-@ Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 62244 @-@ 7
1967 : Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior . Anchor Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 70631 @-@ 5
1969 : Strategic Interaction . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 02804 @-@ X
1969 : Where the action is . Allen Lane . ISBN 0 @-@ 7139 @-@ 0079 @-@ 2
1971 : Relations in Public : Microstudies of the Public Order . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 131957 @-@ 0
1974 : Frame analysis : An essay on the organization of experience . London : Harper and Row . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 090372 @-@ 5
1979 : Gender Advertisements . Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 132076 @-@ 5
1981 : Forms of Talk . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8122 @-@ 7790 @-@ 6
= Cater 2 U =
" Cater 2 U " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child , taken from their fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) . Columbia Records released it as the album 's fourth and final single on June 14 , 2005 . The song was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller , with Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins handling its production . An R & B ballad talking about a woman 's desire to cater to the male love interest of her life , " Cater 2 U " contains synthesizers in its instrumentation . A lawsuit filled by singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen in 2006 , claimed the group only recorded a cover of the song which was originally his ; however the case was settled in 2009 .
" Cater 2 U " received mixed reviews from music critics who , despite generally praising its composition and the group members ' vocal performances , criticized the lyrical content . The song was nominated in two categories at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 and received an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . " Cater 2 U " was commercially successful in the US , peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , further receiving a gold certification . The song also appeared in the top ten in New Zealand and top twenty in Australia , while also receiving minor chart placement in Belgium and Netherlands .
A music video for the song was filmed by Jake Nava and shot at the Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . It features the trio at a desert with each member singing at a separate set and later a choreographed dance during the chorus . To further promote " Cater 2 U " , Destiny 's Child performed the song during several televised appearances and at the 2005 BET Awards . In addition , " Cater 2 U " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . A cover version of " Cater 2 U " was performed by Usher and Babyface at the 2005 World Music Awards as a tribute to the group due to their disbandment that followed the same year .
= = Background = =
" Cater 2 U " was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller . The production was handled by Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins with the band members also serving as the vocal producers . The song was recorded in 2004 at Sony Music Studios in New York City with guidance from Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna . The audio mixing was done by Tony Maserati while the mastering was finished by Tom Coyne .
During an interview with MTV News , Beyoncé talked about the meaning of the song : " It basically talks about how a guy inspires you ... You want to make him happy and you want to cater to him . I know it 's going to be surprising to a lot of people that the independent survivors are being submissive to their man , but it 's important that people know that , you know , it 's fine if your man deserves it and gives that back to you . " " Cater 2 U " was released as the fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled . It was first released in the US as an extended play ( EP ) consisting of the audio version of the song along with four remixes on June 14 , 2005 . On July 19 another EP was released containing the original version and six remixes . Six days later an extended play of the single was released in Italy . " Cater 2 U " was included on two of Destiny 's Child 's compilation albums : the greatest hits album # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Love Songs ( 2013 ) .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Chicago @-@ based singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen pushed allegations that " Cater 2 U " was inspired by a song he had composed with the same title and spelling , which was copyrighted in the mid @-@ 1990s and 2000 and performed locally during that time . He claimed he handed over a version to producer Maurice Joshua , who allegedly went on to cover the song with Destiny 's Child . Joshua denied his claims , noting that he never held a copy of Allen 's song . Allen filed a lawsuit against the group for compensation in a Chicago , Illinois court in 2006 where the trio was due to appear in December 10 for an eight @-@ day trial . However , they managed to avoid any given court dates after their public split in 2005 and agreed to settle behind closed doors . In early December 2009 it was confirmed by Chicago Sun @-@ Times that the group had reached a settlement with Allen . His attorney , Matthew Wildermuth , said in a statement , " I can confirm that yes , [ the case ] did settle . All of the issues have been amicably resolved and the case is going to be dismissed . [ Allen is ] excited about being able to devote time to posturing his musical career . All legal terms and agreement will not be released and the case will be dismissed by a judge " .
= = Composition = =
" Cater 2 U " is a four @-@ minute long R & B ballad . In her book American Music , Nicolae Sfetcu found influences of quiet storm in the song 's composition . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Cater 2 U " was composed using common time in the key of D major with a slow tempo of 63 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from A3 to B4 . Instrumentally it consists of silky synthesizers " slink [ ing ] and slurp [ ing ] " throughout , creating a seductive feel as stated by Dimitri Ehlrich of Vibe and writers of Billboard magazine . As the song progresses , it builds to a symphonic crescendo .
Lyrically , " Cater 2 U " talks about females wanting to submissevely serve their male love interests and take care of them as they admire their hard work and are inspired by them . The trio further sings about the men of their lives and the way in which they will take care of them . " Cater 2 U " was written as a continuation on the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Soldier " ; after the trio sings about finding a suitable lover in the aforementioned song , they express a will to cater to him in " Cater 2 U " . In the second edition of the book Introducing Cultural Studies , the authors argued that the song contained lyrics about objectification of women , which suggested that their gender role was to " ' keep herself up ' , ' keep it right ' , ' cater to ' their man by providing him with his dinner , a foot rub , a manicure , fetching his slippers , and much more , on demand " . An editor writing in The Times of India found a theme of feminine assertiveness in " Cater 2 U " ; he noted that " the women come off not so much as lovers as full @-@ service romantic servants " . J. Freedom du Lac , a staff writer of The Washington Post wrote that the song 's theme was supplication .
Beyoncé opens the song listing the things she would do for her man during her verses : brush his hair , take his shoes off , give him a manicure , rub his feet , help him put his do @-@ rag on , undo his cufflinks . She also sings the lines " Let me feed you , let me run your bath water , whatever you desire " after the thins she had previously listed . Rowland was noted for nearly rapping her solo part during which she promises to " keep my figure right , " " keep my hair fixed " and acknowledges that if her man comes later home while she 's asleep , " all he 's gotta do is tap her on the shoulder and ' I 'll roll over . ' " Williams sings her solo verses during the song 's bridge .
= = Critical reception = =
Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly noted the song was one of Destiny Fulfilled 's " nice bits here and there " , adding , " the pillow @-@ talky pandering of ' Cater 2 U ' ... is hard to resist . " AllMusic 's writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine included " Cater 2 U " as one of the highlights on the album . Slant Magazine writer Eric Henderson opined , " But just about the only element of the whole album that really sticks is the Laura Bush @-@ worthy domestic complacency of ' Cater 2 U , ' in which the trio espouses their joy in total submission . " Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe magazine found that " the sexy trio is far more believable on the seductive R & B ballad ' Cater 2 U , ' in which they set the feminist movement back more than a century over the course of four minutes " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Soldier " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan wrote that " Cater 2 U " was one of the songs that showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . In a review of Love Songs , Amanda Koellner from the website Consequence of Sound described " Cater 2 U " as a " sleek " album opener . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine hailed the song " sexy " while USA Today 's Elysa Gardner felt it was more " gently sensuous " . Rebecca Thomas from MTV News felt that the song differentiated from the trio 's other material and added " While the Third Wave set may have side @-@ eyed the gushy ballad , male fans eagerly welcomed [ it ] " .
The lyrics of the song were criticized with BBC 's Nick Reynolds saying that although the group " reinvent [ ed ] themselves as domestic goddesses for some lucky man " , the song was neither convincing nor good . He further opined " I thought they were supposed to be independent women ? ! " juxtaposing it with the group 's earlier song " Independent Women " ( 2000 ) . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone echoed his statements , writing " Jerkins should hang his head in shame for having a hand in the maudlin ' Cater 2 U , ' a saccharine tune about how low Knowles , Rowland and Williams will stoop to prove their devotion to their man ... Since when did these independent women become so craven ? " . Sean Fennessey of Pitchfork Media also stated that " their swan song of sorts ... completely defies the winking empowerment most of their greatest jams provided " . He further described the production as " milky and slight " , the chorus as " limp " and the song overally as " a Prince mock @-@ up of the worst kind " . Jess Harvell of the same website offered similar criticism : " [ The song ] reneged on everything early DC stood for in a parade of kept @-@ wifey pleas " . Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine dismissed the sincerity of the lyrics classifying " Cater 2 U " as a " queasy " song . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph panned it as " cringe inducing , with lots of sensuous moaning " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer wrote , " I thought this was the kind of song bands recorded by mistake then hid guiltily in the attic " .
= = = Recognition = = =
At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 , " Cater 2 U " was nominated in two categories : Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals ultimately losing in both . The same year , the song won an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . It was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards . In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from the website Vulture listed " Cater 2 U " at number seven on her list of the 25 best songs by Destiny 's Child . Weber went on to describe it as " probably the least feminist song " of the band 's material , " the best song ever to lyrically use the phrase ' run your bathwater ' " and hailed Williams for her contribution during the bridge . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard included " Cater 2 U " at number 25 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the US , the song entered at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart for the chart issue dated April 30 , 2005 . In its fifth week of charting it moved to number 83 on May 28 . After several weeks of ascending the chart , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending August 13 , 2005 . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs the song entered the top ten of the chart at number six in its 19th week of charting on July 9 , 2005 . It became the band 's fourth top ten single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's twelfth top ten song . On the chart issue dated July 30 , 2005 , " Cater 2 U " moved from the position of four to three which became its peak and stayed there for three additional consecutive weeks . With that feat , it became the second single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's seventh overall top five single on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold on December 13 , 2005 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for selling 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
In the Netherlands , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 60 in its first week of charting on September 17 , 2005 . " Cater 2 U " debuted at number 20 on the Ultratip chart in the Flanders region of Belgium and moved to its peak position of 18 the following week on October 8 , 2005 which also became its final . It performed better on the same chart in the Wallonia region of the country where it peaked at the position of eight on October 22 . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 21 , 2005 and lasted six weeks in the chart 's top 50 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Cater 2 U " first appeared on August 29 , 2005 at the position of seven . It moved to number nine the following week and started gradually descending the chart . It last appeared on October 10 at number 40 after seven weeks of charting .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Cater 2 U " was directed by Jake Nava . It was shot back to back with the video for " Girl " and large parts were filmed at Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . On July 5 , 2005 , the music video was released on MTV 's official website . It is also featured on the DualDisc edition of the album # 1 's as well as on the Japanese version of the DVD Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta . In 2013 , it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . An image taken from the video of " Cater 2 U " was used as the cover artwork for the DVD . The video opens with a fast instance of a sun rising in the sky and moves to the girls standing nude together . Each singer is featured in her own desert scene performing individually during her respective verse ; Beyoncé is seen on a diving board next to a swimming pool , Rowland on a deserted road where she dances next to a silver car from which she had previously got out of and Williams on a sunlounger . During the chorus the group members are seen wearing fishtail evening dresses , performing a choreographed dance routine for the camera and three males who watch them from the side ; the men are never filmed in the same shot as Destiny 's Child . During the end , each member is seen together with one of their male partners and the video fades away showing the trio nude again as during the beginning .
While reviewing the video of " Cater 2 U " , Rashaun Hall of MTV News felt that " [ the trio ] have decided to go au naturale — tastefully , of course " . He further concluded that the clip " is all about scenery and the beauty of the trio " . In their book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the presence of men " seems utterly superfluous to the video 's spectacle of female bodies and female pleasures " . They further noted that the video 's imagery and performance managed to proceed without a reference to its lyrics and elaborated ,
" Indeed , the abstracted emptiness of its desert spaces , the posed tableaux of the women 's bodies and the noticeable lack of attention directed to its male subjects by both the camera and the group , does not simply jar with the lyrical narrative of female subordination but in fact reinforces the image of Destiny 's Child as independent women who are in control of their own lives . That is to say , the video ( re ) establishes an image of women who are in control of their own bodies , their own desires , their relationship with men and their friendships with women . "
= = Live performances and cover version = =
On November 16 , 2004 Destiny 's Child performed " Cater 2 U " during the television show Good Morning America broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The song was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles . Midway through the performance , for which the members wore form @-@ fitting , floor @-@ length brown gowns , they randomly picked Terrence Howard , Nelly and Magic Johnson from the audience to the stage and performance a lap dance for them . Corey Moss of MTV News felt that their performance was one of the more memorable of the night . Emily Tan from the website Idolator noted that the performance was one of the band 's best further writing , " No one expected the girls to get as down and dirty as they did ... But it looked like no one was complaining . " Steve Baltin writing for Rolling Stone remarked that the group provided " some sizzle " . The trio gave a live rendition of " Cater 2 U " again at NBC 's The Today Show show on July 29 , 2005 . A writer of People magazine felt that " Beyoncé shimmies and shakes things up " during the performance . An acoustic version was also performed on MTV in 2005 during the its Spring Break coverage .
In 2005 , " Cater 2 U " was part of the set list of the group 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It where they performed it in the same style as during the BET Awards , following the popularity of that performance . During the performance , the trio , dressed in long blue floor @-@ length gowns , called three men from the audience to the stage and performed a choreography similar to a lap dance . In a review of a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News felt that the song was suitable to " slow things down " following the previous energetic performances of the show . " Cater 2 U " was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city . Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Cater 2 U " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it as part of a Destiny 's Child medley included during the concerts of The Beyoncé Experience in 2007 . It was subsequently included in the live DVD , The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) which included a concert filmed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California . Similarly , Rowland performed " Cater 2 U " live during her Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) as part of a segment which included songs by Destiny 's Child . Usher and Babyface performed " Cater 2 U " at the 2005 World Music Awards on August 31 as a tribute to Destiny 's Child due to their disbandment . Byron Flitsch of MTV described their duet as " sensual " . In 2009 , " Cater 2 U " was referenced in Lil Wayne and Drake 's song " My Darlin ' Baby " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , and Tenitra Michelle Williams
Recording : Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , NYC
Audio mixing : Tony Maserati
Audio mastering : Tom Coyne
Guitarist : Tim Stewart
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Marshall Applewhite =
Marshall Herff Applewhite , Jr . ( May 17 , 1931 – March 26 , 1997 ) , also known as " Bo " and " Do " , among other names , was an American cult leader who founded what became known as the Heaven 's Gate religious group and organized their mass suicide in 1997 - claiming the lives of thirty @-@ nine people .
A native of Texas , Applewhite attended several universities and , as a young man , served in the United States Army . After finishing school at Austin College , he taught music at the University of Alabama . He later returned to Texas , where he led choruses and served as the chair of the music department at the University of St. Thomas in Houston . He left the school in 1970 , citing emotional turmoil . His father 's death a year later brought on severe depression . In 1972 , he developed a close friendship with Bonnie Nettles , a nurse ; together , they discussed mysticism at length and concluded that they were called as divine messengers . They operated a bookstore and teaching center for a short while , and then began to travel around the U.S. in 1973 to spread their views . They only gained one convert . In 1975 , Applewhite was arrested for failing to return a rental car and was jailed for six months . In jail , he further developed his theology .
After Applewhite 's release , he traveled to California and Oregon with Nettles , eventually gaining a group of committed followers . Applewhite and Nettles told their followers that they would be visited by extraterrestrials who would provide them with new bodies . Applewhite initially stated that he and his followers would physically ascend to a spaceship , where their bodies would be transformed , but later , he came to believe that their bodies were the mere containers of their souls , which would later be placed into new bodies . These ideas were expressed with language drawn from Christian eschatology , the New Age movement , and American popular culture .
The group received an influx of funds in the late 1970s , which it used to pay housing and other expenses . In 1985 , Nettles died , leaving Applewhite distraught and challenging his views on physical ascension . In the early 1990s the group took more steps to publicize their theology . In 1996 , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp and rumors of an accompanying spaceship . They concluded that this spaceship was the vessel that would take their spirits on board for a journey to another planet . Believing that their souls would ascend to the spaceship and be given new bodies , the group members committed mass suicide in their mansion . A media circus followed the discovery of their bodies . In the aftermath , commentators and academics discussed how Applewhite persuaded people to follow his commands , including suicide . Some commentators attributed his followers ' willingness to commit suicide to his skill as a manipulator , while others argued that their willingness was due to their faith in the narrative that he constructed .
= = Early life and education = =
Marshall Herff Applewhite was born in Spur , Texas , on May 17 , 1931 , to Marshall Herff Applewhite Sr. and his wife Louise née Winfield ; he had three siblings . The son of a Presbyterian minister , Applewhite became very religious as a child .
Applewhite attended Corpus Christi High School and Austin College ; at the latter school , he was active in several student organizations and was moderately religious . He earned a bachelor 's degree in philosophy in 1952 and subsequently enrolled at Union Presbyterian Seminary to study theology , hoping to become a minister . He married Anne Pearce around that time , and they later had two children . Early in his seminary studies , he decided to leave the school to pursue a career in music , becoming the music director of a Presbyterian church in North Carolina . He was a baritone singer and enjoyed spirituals and the music of Handel . In 1954 , he was drafted by the United States Army and served in Austria and New Mexico as a member of the Army Signal Corps . He left the military in 1956 and enrolled at the University of Colorado , where he earned a master 's degree in music and focused on musical theater .
= = Career = =
Applewhite moved to New York City in an unsuccessful attempt to launch a professional singing career upon finishing his education in Colorado . He then taught at the University of Alabama . He lost his position there after pursuing a sexual relationship with a male student ; his religious education was likely not supportive of same @-@ sex relationships and he was subsequently frustrated by his sexual desires . He separated from his wife when she learned of the affair in 1965 , and they divorced three years later .
After leaving the University of Alabama , Applewhite moved to Houston , Texas , in 1965 to teach at the University of St. Thomas . His students regarded him as an engaging speaker and a stylish dresser . He served as chair of the music department ; he also became a locally popular singer , serving as the choral director of an Episcopal church and performing with the Houston Grand Opera . In Texas , he was briefly openly gay but also pursued a relationship with a young woman , who left him under pressure from her family , greatly upsetting him . He resigned from the University of St. Thomas in 1970 , citing depression and other emotional problems . Robert Balch and David Taylor , sociologists who studied Applewhite 's group , speculate that this departure was prompted by another affair between Applewhite and a student . The president of the university later recalled that he was often mentally jumbled and disorganized near the end of his employment .
In 1971 , Applewhite briefly moved to New Mexico , where he operated a delicatessen . He was popular with customers but decided to return to Texas later that year . His father died around that time ; the loss took a significant emotional toll on him , causing severe depression . His debts mounted , forcing him to borrow money from friends .
= = Introduction to Nettles and first travels = =
In 1972 , Applewhite met Bonnie Nettles , a nurse with an interest in theosophy and Biblical prophecy . The two quickly became close friends ; he later recalled that he felt like he had known her for a long time and concluded that they had met in a past life . She told him their meeting had been foretold to her by extraterrestrials , persuading him that he had a divine assignment . By that time , he had begun to investigate alternatives to traditional Christian doctrine , including astrology . He also had had several visions , including one in which he was told that he was chosen for a role like that of Jesus . In her 2005 profile of Applewhite , Susan Raine speculates that he had a schizophrenic episode around this time .
Applewhite soon began to live with Nettles . Although they cohabited , their relationship was not a sexual one , fulfilling his longtime wish to have a deep and loving , yet platonic , relationship . She was married with two children , but after she became close with Applewhite , her husband divorced her , and she lost custody of her children . Applewhite permanently broke off contact with his family as well . He saw Nettles as his soulmate , and some of his acquaintances later recalled that she had a strong influence on him . Raine writes that Nettles " was responsible for reinforcing his emerging delusional beliefs " , but psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton speculates that Nettles ' influence helped him avoid further psychological deterioration .
Applewhite and Nettles opened a bookstore known as the Christian Arts Center , which carried books from a variety of spiritual backgrounds . They also launched a venture known as Know Place to teach classes on mysticism and theosophy . They closed these businesses a short time later . In February 1973 , they resolved to travel to teach others about their beliefs and drove throughout the Southwest and Western U.S ; Lifton describes their travels as a " restless , intense , often confused , peripatetic spiritual journey " . While traveling , they had little money and occasionally resorted to selling their blood or working odd jobs for much @-@ needed funds . They subsisted solely on bread rolls at times , often camped out , and sometimes did not pay their lodging bills . One of their friends from Houston corresponded with them and agreed to accept their teachings . They visited her in May 1974 , and she became their first convert .
While traveling , Applewhite and Nettles pondered the life of St. Francis of Assisi and read works by authors including Helena Blavatsky , R. D. Laing , and Richard Bach . They kept a King James Version of the Bible with them and studied several passages from the New Testament , focusing on teachings about Christology , asceticism , and eschatology . Applewhite also read science fiction , including works by Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke . By June 1974 , Applewhite and Nettles ' beliefs had solidified into a basic outline . They concluded that they had been chosen to fulfill biblical prophecies , and that they had been given higher @-@ level minds than other people . They wrote a pamphlet that described Jesus ' reincarnation as a Texan , a thinly veiled reference to Applewhite . Furthermore , they concluded that they were the two witnesses described in the Book of Revelation and occasionally visited churches or other spiritual groups to speak of their identities , often referring to themselves as " The Two " , or " The UFO Two " . They believed that they would be killed and then restored to life and , in view of others , transported onto a spaceship . This event , which they referred to as " the Demonstration " , was to prove their claims . To their dismay , these ideas received a poor reception .
= = Arrest and proselytism = =
In August 1974 , Applewhite was arrested in Harlingen , Texas , for failing to return a car that he had rented in Missouri . He was extradited to St. Louis and jailed for six months . At the time , he maintained that he had been " divinely authorized " to keep the car . While jailed , he pondered theology and subsequently abandoned discussion of occult topics , in favor of extraterrestrials and evolution .
After Applewhite 's release , he and Nettles resolved to contact extraterrestrials and they sought like @-@ minded followers . They published advertisements for meetings , where they recruited disciples , whom they called " crew " . At the events , they purported to represent beings from another planet , the Next Level , who sought participants for an experiment . They claimed that those who agreed to take part in the experiment would be brought to a higher evolutionary level . He and Nettles referred to themselves as " Guinea " and " Pig " . Applewhite described his role as a " lab instructor " and served as the primary speaker , while Nettles , occasionally interjected clarifying remarks or corrections . The two seldom personally spoke with attendees , only taking phone numbers with which they could contact them . They initially named their organization the Anonymous Sexaholics Celibate Church , but it soon became known as the Human Individual Metamorphosis .
Applewhite believed in the ancient astronaut hypothesis , which claimed that extraterrestrials had visited humanity in the past and placed humans on Earth and would return to collect a select few . Parts of this teaching bear similarities to the Reformed Christian concept of election , likely owing to Applewhite 's Presbyterian upbringing . He often discussed extraterrestrials using phrases from Star Trek and stated that aliens communicated with him through the show .
Applewhite and Nettles sent advertisements to groups in California and were invited to speak to New Age devotees there in April 1975 . At this meeting , they persuaded about half of the 50 attendees to follow them . They also focused on college campuses , speaking at Cañada College in August . At a meeting in Oregon in September 1975 , they saw further recruitment success — about 30 people left their homes to follow the pair , prompting interest from media outlets . The coverage was negative : commentators and some former members mocked the group and leveled accusations of brainwashing against Applewhite and Nettles . Balch and Taylor state that Applewhite and Nettles eschewed pressure tactics , seeking only devoted followers .
Benjamin E. Zeller , an academic who studies new religions , notes that Applewhite and Nettles ' teachings focused on salvation through individual growth and sees this as similar to currents in the era 's New Age movement . Likewise , the importance of personal choice was also emphasized . Applewhite and Nettles denied connection with the New Age movement , viewing it as a human creation . Janja Lalich , a sociologist , who studies cults , attributes their recruitment success to their eclectic mix of beliefs and the way that they deviate from typical New Age teachings : discussing literal spaceships while retaining familiar language . Most of their disciples were young and interested in occultism or otherwise lived outside of mainstream society . They came from a variety of religious backgrounds , including Eastern religions and Scientology . Most were well versed in New Age teachings , allowing Applewhite and Nettles to convert them easily . Applewhite thought that his followers would reach a higher level of being , changing like a caterpillar becoming a butterfly ; this example was used in almost all of their early literature . Applewhite contended that this would be a " biological change into a different species , casting his teachings as scientific truth in line with secular naturalism . " He emphasized to his early followers that he was not speaking metaphorically , often using the words " biology " and " chemistry " in his statements . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he attempted to avoid the use of the term " religion " , seeing it as inferior to science . Although he dismissed religion as unscientific , he sometimes emphasized the need for faith in the aliens ' abilities to transform them .
= = Nomadic lifestyle = =
By 1975 , Applewhite and Nettles had taken the names " Bo " and " Peep " . They had about 70 followers and saw themselves as shepherds tending a flock . Applewhite believed that complete separation from Earthly desires was a prerequisite of ascension to the Next Level and emphasized passages in the New Testament in which Jesus spoke about forsaking worldly attachments . Members were consequently instructed to renounce : friends , family , media , drugs , alcohol , jewelry , facial hair , and sexuality . Furthermore , they were required to adopt biblical names . Applewhite and Nettles soon told them to adopt two @-@ syllable names that ended in " ody " and had three consonants in the first syllable , such as Rkkody , Jmmody , and Lvvody ; Applewhite stated that these names emphasized that his followers were spiritual children . Applewhite , Nettles , and their followers lived what religious scholar James Lewis describes as a " quasi @-@ nomadic lifestyle " . They usually stayed at remote campgrounds and did not speak about their beliefs . Applewhite and Nettles ceased having public meetings in April 1975 , and spent little time teaching doctrine to their converts . The leaders also had little contact with their dispersed followers , many of whom renounced their allegiance .
Applewhite and Nettles feared that they would be assassinated , and taught their followers that their deaths would be similar to those of the two witnesses of the Book of Revelation . Balch and Taylor believe that Applewhite 's prison experience and early rejection by audiences contributed to this fear . Applewhite and Nettles later explained to their followers that the former 's treatment by the press was a form of assassination and had fulfilled their prophecy . Applewhite took a materialistic view of the Bible , seeing it as a record of extraterrestrial contact with humanity . He drew heavily from the Book of Revelation , although he avoided traditional theological terminology and took a somewhat negative tone towards Christianity . He only lectured about a small number of verses and never tried to develop a system of theology .
By early 1976 , Applewhite and Nettles had settled on the names " Do " and " Ti " ; Applewhite stated that these were meaningless names . In June 1976 , they gathered their remaining followers at Medicine Bow National Forest in Southeastern Wyoming , promising a UFO visit . Nettles later announced that the visit had been cancelled . Applewhite and Nettles then split their followers into small groups , which they referred to as " Star Clusters " ,
From 1976 to 1979 , the group lived in campgrounds , usually in the Rocky Mountains or Texas . Applewhite and Nettles began to place greater demands on their followers ' heretofore loosely structured lives , which improved membership retention . They typically communicated with their disciples in writing or through assistants . Increasingly , they emphasized that they were the only source of truth — the idea that members could receive individual revelations was rejected in an attempt to prevent schisms . Applewhite also sought to prevent close friendships among his followers , fearing that this could lead to insubordination . Applewhite and Nettles insisted that their followers practice what they referred to as " flexibility " : strict obedience to their often shifting requests . The two leaders limited the group 's contacts with those outside the movement , even some who may have been interested in joining , ostensibly to prevent infiltration from hostile parties . In practice , this made their followers completely dependent upon them . Applewhite instructed his disciples to be like children or pets in their submission — their sole responsibility was to obey their leaders . Members were encouraged to constantly seek Applewhite 's advice and often ask themselves what their leaders would do when making a decision . To his followers , he did not seem dictatorial : many of them found him laid back and fatherly . In his 2000 study of the group , Winston Davis states that Applewhite mastered the " fine art of religious entertainment " , noting that many of his disciples seemed to enjoy their service . Applewhite organized seemingly arbitrary rituals that were intended to instill a sense of discipline in his followers ; he referred to these tasks as " games " . He also watched science @-@ fiction television programs with the rest of the group . Rather than issue direct commands , he attempted to express his preferences and nominally offer his disciples a choice . He emphasized that students were free to disobey if they chose , in what Lalich dubs the " illusion of choice " .
= = Housing and control = =
In the late 1970s , the group received a large sum of money , possibly an inheritance of a member or donations of followers ' income . This capital was used to rent houses , initially in Denver and later in Dallas . Applewhite and Nettles had about 40 followers then and lived in two or three houses : the leaders usually had their own house . The group was secretive about their lifestyle , covering their windows . Applewhite and Nettles arranged their followers ' lifestyles as a boot camp that would prepare them for the Next Level . Referring to their house as a " craft " , they regimented the lives of their disciples to the minute . Students who were not committed to this lifestyle were encouraged to leave ; departing members were given financial assistance . Lifton states that Applewhite wanted " quality over quantity " in his followers , although he occasionally spoke about gaining many converts .
Applewhite and Nettles sometimes made sudden , drastic changes to the group . On one occasion in Texas , they told their followers of a forthcoming visitation from extraterrestrials and instructed them to wait outside all night , at which point they informed them that this had been merely a test . Lalich sees this as a way that they increased their students ' devotion , ensuring that their commitment became irrespective of what they saw . Members became desperate for Applewhite 's approval , which he used to control them .
In 1980 , Applewhite and Nettles had about 80 followers , many of whom held jobs , often working with computers or as car mechanics . In 1982 , Applewhite and Nettles allowed their disciples to call their families . They further relaxed their control in 1983 , permitting their followers to visit relatives on Mother 's Day . They were only allowed short stays and were instructed to tell their families that they were studying computers at a monastery . These vacations were intended to placate families by demonstrating that the disciples remained with the group of their own accord .
= = Nettles ' death = =
In 1983 , Nettles had an eye surgically removed as a result of cancer diagnosed several years earlier . She lived for two more years , dying in 1985 . Applewhite told their followers that she had " traveled to the Next Level " because she had " too much energy to remain on Earth " , abandoning her body to make the journey . His attempt to explain her death in the terms of the group 's doctrine was successful , preventing the departure of all but one member . Applewhite became very depressed . He claimed that Nettles still communicated with him , but he suffered from a crisis of faith . His students supported him during this time , greatly encouraging him . He then organized a ceremony in which he symbolically married his followers ; Lalich views this as an attempt to ensure unity . Applewhite told his followers that he had been left behind by Nettles because he still had more to learn — he felt that she occupied " a higher spiritual role " than he did . He began identifying her as " the Father " and often referred to her with male pronouns .
Applewhite began to emphasize a strict hierarchy , teaching that his students needed his guidance , as he needed the guidance of the Next Level . Zeller notes that this naturally ensured that there would be no possibility of the group 's continuing if Applewhite were to die . A relationship with Applewhite was said to be the only way to salvation ; he encouraged his followers to see him as Christ . Zeller states that the group 's previous focus on individual choice was replaced with an emphasis on Applewhite 's role as a mediator . Applewhite maintained some aspects of their scientific teachings , but , in the 1980s , the group became more like a religion in its focus on faith and submission to authority .
After Nettles ' death , Applewhite also altered his view of ascension : previously , he had taught that the group would physically ascend from the Earth and that death caused reincarnation , but her death - which left behind an unchanged , corporeal body - forced him to say that the ascension could be spiritual . He then concluded that her spirit had traveled to a spaceship and received a new body and that he and his followers would do the same . In his view , the Biblical heaven was actually a planet on which highly evolved beings dwelt , and physical bodies were required to ascend there . Applewhite believed that once they reached the Next Level , they would facilitate evolution on other planets . He emphasized that Jesus , whom he believed was an extraterrestrial , came to Earth , was killed , and bodily rose from the dead before being transported onto a spaceship . According to Applewhite 's doctrine , Jesus was a gateway to heaven but had found humanity unready to ascend when he first came to the Earth . Applewhite then decided that there was an opportunity for humans to reach the Next Level " every two millennia " , and the early 1990s would therefore provide the first opportunity to reach the Kingdom of Heaven since the time of Jesus . Zeller notes that his beliefs were based on the Christian Bible but were interpreted through the lens of belief in alien contact with humanity .
Applewhite taught that he was a walk @-@ in , a concept that had gained popularity in the New Age movement during the late 1970s . Walk @-@ ins were said to be higher beings who took control of adult bodies to teach humanity . This concept informed Applewhite 's view of resurrection : he believed that his group 's souls were to be transported to a spaceship , where they would enter other bodies . Applewhite abandoned the metaphor of a butterfly in favor of describing the body as a mere container , a vehicle that souls could enter and exit . This dualism may have been the product of the Christology that Applewhite learned as a young man ; Lewis writes that the group 's teachings had " Christian elements [ that ] were basically grafted on to a New Age matrix " . In a profile of the group for Newsweek , Kenneth Woodward compares his dualism to that of ancient Christian Gnosticism , although Peters notes that his theology departs from Gnosticism by privileging the physical world .
In the wake of Nettles ' death , Applewhite became increasingly paranoid , fearing a conspiracy against his group . One member who joined in the mid @-@ 1980s recalled that Applewhite avoided new converts , worrying that they were infiltrators . He feared a government raid on their home and spoke highly of the Jewish defenders of Masada in ancient Israel who showed total resistance to the Roman Empire . Increasingly , he began to discuss the Apocalypse , comparing the Earth to an overgrown garden that was to be recycled or rebooted and humanity to a failed experiment . In accordance with the garden metaphor , he stated that the Earth would be " spaded under " . Woodward notes that Applewhite 's teaching about the Earth 's recycling is similar to the cyclical perspective of time found in Buddhism . Applewhite also utilized New Age concepts , but he differed from that movement by predicting that apocalyptic , rather than utopian , changes would soon occur on Earth . He contended that most humans had been brainwashed by Lucifer , but that his followers could break free of this control . He specifically cited sexual urges as the work of Lucifer . In addition , he stated that there were evil extraterrestrials , whom he referred to as " Luciferians " , who sought to thwart his mission . He argued that many prominent moral teachers and advocates of political correctness were actually Luciferians . This theme emerged in 1988 , possibly in response to the lurid alien abduction stories that were proliferating at the time .
= = Obscurity and evangelism = =
In the late 1980s , the group kept a low profile ; few people knew it still existed . In 1988 , they mailed a document that detailed their beliefs to a variety of New Age organizations . The mailing contained information about their history and advised people to read several books , which primarily focused on Christian history and UFOs . With the exception of the 1988 document , Applewhite 's group remained inconspicuous until 1992 , when they recorded a 12 @-@ part video series which was broadcast via satellite . This series echoed many of the teachings of the 1988 update , although it introduced a " universal mind " of which its hearers could partake .
Over the course of the group 's existence , several hundred people joined and left . In the early 1990s , their membership dwindled , numbering as few as 26 ; these defections gave Applewhite a sense of urgency . In May 1993 , the group took the name " Total Overcomers Anonymous " . They then spent $ 30 @,@ 000 to publish a full @-@ page advertisement in USA Today that warned of catastrophic judgment to befall the Earth . Its publication led about 20 former members to rejoin the group . This , along with a series of public lectures in 1994 , caused membership to double from its nadir at the beginning of the decade . By this time , Applewhite did not regiment his disciples ' lives as strictly as he had and spent less time with them .
In the early 1990s , Applewhite posted some of his teachings on the Internet , but he was stung by the resulting criticism . That year , he first spoke of the possibility of suicide as a way to reach the Next Level . He explained that everything " human " had to be forsaken , including the human body , before one could ascend . The organization was then renamed " Heaven 's Gate " . Davis speculates that this rejection may have encouraged him to attempt to leave Earth .
From June to October 1995 , the group lived in a rural part of New Mexico . They purchased 40 acres ( 0 @.@ 16 km2 ) and built a compound — which they referred to as the " Earth ship " — using tires and lumber ; Applewhite hoped to establish a monastery . This proved to be a difficult endeavor , particularly for the aging Applewhite : he was in poor health and , at one point , feared that he had cancer . Lifton notes that Applewhite 's active leadership of the group probably led to severe fatigue in his last years . The winter was very cold , and they abandoned the plan . Afterwards , they lived in several houses in the San Diego area .
The group increasingly focused on the suppression of sexual desire ; Applewhite and seven others opted for surgical castration . They initially had difficulty finding a willing surgeon , but eventually found one in Mexico . In Applewhite 's view , sexuality was one of the most powerful forces that bound humans to their bodies and thus hindered their efforts to evolve to the Next Level ; he taught that Next Level beings had no reproductive organs but that Luciferian beings had genders . He also cited a verse in the New Testament that said there would not be marriage in heaven . In addition , he required members to adopt similar clothing and haircuts , possibly to reinforce that they were a non @-@ sexual family .
= = Mass suicide = =
In October 1996 , the group rented a mansion in Rancho Santa Fe , California . That year , they recorded two video messages in which they offered their viewers a " last chance to evacuate Earth " . Around the same time , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp . Applewhite now believed that Nettles was aboard a spaceship trailing the comet , and that she planned to rendezvous with them . He told his followers that the vessel would transport them to an empyrean destination , and that there was a government conspiracy to suppress word of the craft . In addition , he stated that his deceased followers would be taken by the vessel as well , a belief that resembled the Christian pretribulation rapture doctrine . It is not known how he learned of the comet or why he believed that it was accompanied by extraterrestrials or why he should have believed the dead Nettles would be with them .
In late March 1997 , the group isolated themselves and recorded farewell statements . Many members praised Applewhite in their final messages ; Davis describes their remarks as " regurgitations of Do 's gospel " . Applewhite recorded a video shortly before his death , in which he termed the suicides the " Final exit " of the group and remarked , " We do in all honesty hate this world " . Lewis speculates that Applewhite settled on suicide because he had said that the group would ascend during his lifetime and thus appointing a successor was unfeasible .
Religious scholar Catherine Wessinger posits that the suicides began on March 22 . Most members took barbiturates and alcohol and then placed bags over their heads . They wore Nike shoes and black uniforms with patches that read " Heaven 's Gate Away Team " . A bag that contained a few dollars and a form of identification was placed beside most bodies . The deaths occurred over three days ; Applewhite was one of the last four to die . Three assistants helped him commit suicide , then killed themselves . An anonymous tip led the sheriff 's department to search the mansion ; they found 39 bodies there on March 26 . It is the largest group suicide that has occurred in the U.S. Applewhite 's body was found seated on the bed of the mansion 's master bedroom . Medical examiners determined that his fears of cancer had been unfounded , but that he suffered from coronary atherosclerosis .
The deaths provoked a media circus , and Applewhite 's face was featured on the covers of Time and Newsweek on April 7 . His final message was widely broadcast ; Hugh Urban of Ohio State University describes his appearance in the video as " wild @-@ eyed [ and ] rather alarming " .
= = Analysis = =
Although many popular commentators , including psychologist Margaret Singer , speculate that Applewhite brainwashed his followers , many academics have rejected the " brainwashing " label as an oversimplification that does not express the nuances of the process by which the followers were influenced . Lalich speculates that they were willing to follow Applewhite in suicide because they had become totally dependent upon him , and hence were poorly suited for life in his absence . Davis attributes Applewhite 's success in convincing his followers to commit suicide to two factors : he isolated them socially and cultivated an attitude of complete religious obedience in them . Applewhite 's students had made a long @-@ term commitment to him , and Balch and Taylor infer that this is why his interpretations of events appeared coherent to them . Most of the dead had been members for about 20 years , although there were a few recent converts .
Lewis argues that Applewhite effectively controlled his followers by packaging his teachings in familiar terms . Richard Hecht of the University of California , Santa Barbara , echoes this sentiment , arguing that members of the group killed themselves because they believed the narrative that he had constructed , rather than because he psychologically controlled them . In his 2000 study of apocalyptic movements , John R. Hall posits that they were motivated to commit suicide because they saw it as a way to demonstrate that they had conquered the fear of death and truly believed Applewhite .
Urban writes that Applewhite 's life displays " the intense ambivalence and alienation shared by many individuals lost in late twentieth @-@ century capitalist society " . He notes that Applewhite 's condemnations of contemporary culture bear similarities to those of Jean Baudrillard at times , particularly their shared nihilist views . Urban posits that Applewhite found no way other than suicide to escape the society that surrounded him and states that death offered him a way to escape its " endless circle of seduction and consumption " .
While covering the suicides , several media outlets focused on Applewhite 's sexuality ; the New York Post dubbed him " the Gay Guru " . Gay rights activist Troy Perry argued that Applewhite 's repression , and society 's rejection , of same @-@ sex relationships ultimately led to his suicide . This idea has failed to gain support among academics . Zeller argues that Applewhite 's sexuality was not the primary driving force behind his asceticism , which he believes resulted from a variety of factors , though he grants sexuality a role .
Lalich states that Applewhite fit " the traditional view of a charismatic leader " , and Evan Thomas deems him a " master manipulator " . Lifton compares Applewhite to Shoko Asahara , the founder of Aum Shinrikyo , describing him as " equally controlling , his paranoia and megalomania gentler yet ever present " . Christopher Partridge of Lancaster University states that Applewhite and Nettles were similar to John Reeve and Lodowicke Muggleton , who founded Muggletonianism , a millennialist movement in 17th century England .
= Arbeideren ( Hamar ) =
Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) was a Norwegian newspaper , published in Hamar , Hedmark county . It was started in 1909 as the press organ of the Labour Party in Hedemarken and its adjoining regions , and was called Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) until 1923 . It was issued three days a week between 1909 and 1913 , six days a week in 1914 , three days a week again between 1914 and 1918 before again increasing to six days a week . It was renamed to Arbeideren in 1923 , and in the same year it was taken over by the Norwegian Communist Party . The Communist Party incorporated the newspaper Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad into Arbeideren in 1924 , and until 1929 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad . After Arbeideren had gone defunct , the name was used by the Communist Party for other newspapers elsewhere .
The chief editors of the newspaper were Olav Kringen ( 1909 – 1913 ) , Ole Holmen ( 1912 – 1913 ) , Fredrik Monsen ( 1913 – 1916 ) , Paul O. Løkke ( 1916 – 1919 ) , Alfred Aakermann ( 1919 – 1920 ) , Olav Larssen ( 1920 – 1927 ) , and finally Trond Hegna , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , Olav Scheflo , Eivind Petershagen , and Jørgen Vogt ( between 1927 and 1929 ) . Fredrik Monsen , Evald O. Solbakken and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors from 1924 to 1925 .
= = Pre @-@ history = =
Demokraten was originally the name of a short @-@ lived newspaper in Hamar started by Leopold Rasmussen in 1852 , connected to the Marcus Thrane movement . Rasmussen started a second newspaper , Oplands @-@ Posten , in Hamar later in 1852 , to compete with his own Demokraten . An organ for the social liberal labour movement in the district , Arbeiderbladet existed from 1889 to 1892 and was published out of different cities , including in Hamar in the year 1890 .
A countywide chapter of the Labour Party was established in Hedmark in mid @-@ November 1904 . After the countywide party convention in Stange in 1906 , the convention summary had to be printed in the Kristiania @-@ based newspaper Social @-@ Demokraten , as it lacked its own local newspaper . The county board thus decided to buy 1 @,@ 500 copies of the Social @-@ Demokraten to distribute to its members . There was a growing notion that the party needed its own newspaper . In the same year , the labour movement in Solør ( south of Hedmark ) bought the paper Solungen , which had existed since 1904 . The takeover came into effect on 1 January 1907 , and publishing began the following year . Solungen pretended to be the labour movement organ for the whole of Hedmark , and outside of Solør it was published as Hedemarkens Amts Socialdemokrat ( Solungen ) . However , the rest of Hedmark county was not satisfied with this solution .
= = Labour Party period = =
= = = 1909 – 1913 = = =
The Hamar @-@ based newspaper Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) was started on 15 September 1909 . The initiator and first editor was Olav Kringen , who had ample experience as the editor of Social @-@ Demokraten from 1903 until 1906 . Demokraten was the Labour Party organ for the Mjøsa Cities and Hedemarken , but in its first years it also covered Gudbrandsdalen and Østerdalen , two northern regions . The name Østoplandenes Socialistiske Partiblad was considered for the newspaper , but the historical name Demokraten prevailed . The name was suggested by local Labour MP Karl Amundsen . Demokraten 's coverage of Gudbrandsdalen soon ended , and in southern Østerdalen a new labour newspaper , Østerdalens Arbeiderblad , was set up in 1915 . In northern Østerdalen , Arbeidets Rett was popular among the labour movement . According to reports in Demokraten the newspaper again began to cover news from a part of Gudbrandsdalen , namely the city Lillehammer , in 1912 .
When it came to building up a new newspaper , Kringen had a certain personal drive , as he ran for parliament in 1909 . When he lost the election , he also lost interest to a certain degree . He resigned in 1912 and Ole Holmen , a member of the Vang municipal council , took over as chief editor . However , he ran afoul of other people involved with the newspaper and was fired in 1913 .
The newspaper originally had the tagline Socialistisk blad for Oplandene ( " Socialist Paper for Oplandene " ) , but in 1910 this was changed to Talsmand for Arbeiderbevægelsen ( " Spokesman for the Labour Movement " ) . It was printed by the company A. Sæther . The newspaper was issued three times a week until 1 July 1913 , from which point it was increased to six times a week . As part of this ambitious increase , Demokraten also had 3 @,@ 000 copies in circulation , unprecedented in its history .
= = = 1913 – 1916 = = =
In 1913 the newspaper 's supervisory council hired school teacher Fredrik Monsen to be the new editor . Olav Larssen started his journalist career as a subeditor in the same year . In the newspaper 's supervisory council vote , Monsen edged out Waldemar Carlsen with 22 to 4 votes , and also prevailed over other applicants who were seasoned editors , such as Ingvald Førre and Eugène Olaussen . Larssen prevailed over Carlsen and Førre in the vote for the new subeditor .
Only Monsen and Larssen were employed in the newspaper to work with editorial content . In 1913 , Monsen managed to contract known personalities from the labour movement as " regular contributors " . These were the nationally known figures Olav Kringen , Gunnar Ousland and Johan Falkberget , in addition to Lillehammer politician Petter Nilssen and the locally known politicians Arne Juland ( later MP ) and Andr . Juell . Danish expatriate Alfred Kruse joined in the autumn of 1913 . However , according to Larssen , the prominent writers contracted to Demokraten " seldomly wrote " anything .
In his memoirs , Larssen wrote that Monsen was " often aggressive " as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , especially when writing editorials . He got several adversaries in the city 's conservative community , especially after donning a badge with the broken rifle , a well @-@ known anti @-@ war symbol . The newspaper competed with the old and popular conservative Hamar Stiftstidende , the liberal left Oplandenes Avis , and the liberal Oplandet .
The practice of issuing the newspaper six days a week became harder after the outbreak of the First World War . The war caused a general rise in prices , and newspaper subscriptions and advertisements both declined . Demokraten had to revert to being issued three times a week starting 1 September 1914 . In December 1914 it adopted a new tagline , Organ for arbeiderpartiet i Hamar og Hedemarksbygdene ( " Organ for the Labour Party in Hamar and the Hamlets of Hedemarken " ) .
= = = 1916 – 1923 = = =
Monsen and Larssen both left Demokraten in 1916 . The next editors were Paul O. Løkke , who served from 1916 to 1919 , and Alfred Aakermann , from 1919 to 1920 . Larssen returned in 1920 as editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Georg Svendsen was the subeditor from 1918 until 1921 , when Evald O. Solbakken started in the newspaper as subeditor . Still , there were only two people to deliver the editorial content .
As the war years went , the newspaper 's finances gradually improved . The Norwegian state became more active in production and trade and contributed many advertisements . Demokraten acquired its own type @-@ setting machine in October 1918 and a printing press in 1917 , which it used from 1 January 1918 . From 1 July 1918 , circulation once again increased to six days a week .
= = Communist Party period = =
In 1923 , the newspaper was renamed Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) , and the first issue with this name was released on 1 May 1923 , the International Workers ' Day . The change followed a letter in 1922 from the Comintern Executive , which stated that no newspaper belonging to a Comintern member organization should have " Social Democrat " or " Democrat " as a part of its title . The printing press of the party changed its name accordingly , to Arbeiderens trykkeri .
In the same year , 1923 , the Labour Party broke out of the Comintern . Subsequently the Communist Party broke away from the Labour Party . The local chapter of the Labour Party in Hamar decided to side with the Communist Party in November 1923 , in a 123 – 22 vote . Arbeideren was then taken away from Labour , as the supervisory council decided by a 65 to 5 vote that it should follow the Communists . Arbeideren was one of thirteen Labour newspapers that broke away from the party and followed the Communists ( one , Nordlys , later returned to Labour ) . Since 15 February 1924 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad , as the Communist Party had seen fit to merge Arbeideren with Lillehammer @-@ based Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad .
Editor Larssen and subeditor Solbakken both joined the Communist Party in 1923 and continued running the newspaper . As Olav Larssen was asked by the party to be the acting editor of Norges Kommunistblad in the winter of 1924 – 1925 , Fredrik Monsen , Evald Solbakken , and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors between 1924 and 1925 . Larssen eventually drifted away from the mainstream of the Communist Party . In late 1926 and early 1927 he voiced his opinion in columns that the Communist Party should contribute to the imminent merger of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Labour Party . A local party convention strongly rebuked this opinion . Larssen was thus replaced in January 1927 and left the Communist Party , and Solbakken soon followed suit . Fredrik Monsen left the party at the same time .
Information differs as to who replaced Larssen . According to Evald Solbakken , and also to the reference bibliography Norske aviser 1763 – 1969 , the replacement was Olav Scheflo , who needed a stand @-@ in , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , for the first period . According to the encyclopaedia Arbeidernes Leksikon and historian Einhart Lorenz , Trond Hegna was the editor in 1927 , before he took over Norges Kommunistblad in the summer of 1927 . Hegna 's main job was to edit the periodical Mot Dag , but in this period the people of Mot Dag had an informal influence on the Communist Party and several of their newspapers . Scheflo formally edited the newspaper from 1927 to 1928 , with Eivind Petershagen as acting editor from late 1927 . In 1928 Petershagen formally took over , only to have Jørgen Vogt become acting editor later that year . Vogt took over in 1929 .
As many newspapers belonging to the dwindling Communist Party , Arbeideren would cease to exist before the end of the 1920s . It was still published six times a week , but had to give up its printing press in 1929 , switching to Samtrykk in Oslo . The last ever issue of Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad was published on 4 October 1929 .
= = Aftermath = =
A month after Arbeideren went defunct , the Communist Party gave its name to a new newspaper , which was set up as the new main newspaper of the Communist Party in 1930 . This new paper was based in Oslo as the replacement of Norges Kommunistblad , which had been liquidated as well . Olav Larssen and Evald Solbakken found a new outlet in Hamar Arbeiderblad , which had been set up as the new Hamar organ of the Labour Party in 1925 . The Communist Party later tried to create a weekly newspaper in Hamar , Rød Front , but it was short @-@ lived and existed only between 1932 and 1933 . The Oslo version of Arbeideren went defunct in 1940 , and many years after that , the name was used from 1951 to 1953 for a third newspaper , published in Brumunddal , not far from Hamar city .
= Journey ( 2012 video game ) =
Journey is an indie video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 . It was released on March 13 , 2012 , via the PlayStation Network . In Journey , the player controls a robed figure in a vast desert , traveling towards a mountain in the distance . Other players on the same journey can be discovered , and two players can meet and assist each other , but they cannot communicate via speech or text and cannot see each other 's names . The only form of communication between the two is a musical chime . This chime also transforms dull , stiff pieces of cloth found throughout the levels into vibrant red , affecting the game world and allowing the player to progress through the levels . The robed figure wears a trailing scarf , which when charged by approaching floating pieces of cloth , briefly allows the player to float through the air . The developers sought to evoke in the player a sense of smallness and wonder , and to forge an emotional connection between them and the anonymous players they meet along the way . The music , composed by Austin Wintory , dynamically responds to the player 's actions , building a single theme to represent the game 's emotional arc throughout the story .
Reviewers of the game praised the visual and auditory art as well as the sense of companionship created by playing with a stranger , calling it a moving and emotional experience , and have since listed it as one of the greatest games of all time . Journey won several " game of the year " awards and received several other awards and nominations , including a Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media nomination for the 2013 Grammy Awards . A retail " Collector 's Edition " , including Journey , Thatgamecompany 's two previous titles , and additional media , was released on August 28 , 2012 . The game was released digitally for the PlayStation 4 on July 21 , 2015 and a physical edition was released on October 2 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Journey , the player takes the role of a robed figure in a desert . After an introductory sequence , the player is shown the robed figure sitting in the sand , with a large mountain in the distance . The path towards this mountain , the ultimate destination of the game , is subdivided into several sections traveled through linearly . The player can walk in the levels , as well as control the camera , which typically follows behind the figure , either with the analog stick or by tilting the motion @-@ sensitive controller . The player can jump with one button , or emit a wordless shout or musical note with another ; the length and volume of the shout depends on how the button is pressed , and the note stays in tune with the background music . These controls are presented pictorially in the beginning of the game ; at no point outside of the credits and title screen are any words shown or spoken .
The robed figure wears a trailing magical scarf which allows the player to briefly fly ; doing so uses up the scarf 's magical charge , represented visually by glowing runes on the scarf . The scarf 's runes are recharged by walking , or a variety of other means . Touching glowing symbols scattered throughout the levels lengthens the initially vestigial scarf , allowing the player to remain airborne longer . Larger strips of cloth are present in the levels and can be transformed from a stiff , dull gray to vibrant red by singing near them . Doing so may have effects on the world such as releasing bits of cloth , forming bridges , or levitating the player . This in turn allows the player to progress in the level by opening doors or allowing them to reach previously inaccessible areas . The robed figure does not have visible arms to manipulate the game world directly . Along the way , the player encounters flying creatures made of cloth , some of which help the player along . In later levels , the player also encounters hostile creatures made of stone , which upon spotting the player rip off parts of the figure 's scarf .
In each level , the player may come across one other player temporarily connected to their game . When players approach each other they charge one another 's scarves . They cannot communicate with each other beyond patterns of singing . Players can help each other by activating strips of cloth or showing paths , but cannot hinder each other and are not necessary for completing any level . When two players finish a section at the same time they remain together into the next one ; otherwise they are connected to new players when they move on . While all of the figures generally look the same , without gender or distinguishing characteristics , individual players can be told apart by unique symbols which are shown floating in the air when they sing and are displayed on their robes at all times . The entire game takes about two to three hours to complete .
= = Story = =
Journey 's story is told wordlessly throughout gameplay and using cutscenes . The player 's character begins on a sand dune in a seemingly endless desert . In the far distance looms a large , foreboding mountain with a glowing crevice that splits its peak . As the character approaches the mountain , they find remnants of a once @-@ thriving civilization , eroded by sand over time . Scattered throughout the ruins at the end of each area are stones at which the traveler rests ; these stones give the traveler the vision of meeting a larger , white @-@ robed figure in a circular room , with art on the walls describing the rise and fall of the civilization mirroring the player 's journey . The player must also contend with the ancient automatons left over from a war which ended the civilization , and which still roam the city looking for intruders .
The player continues to journey deeper into the remains of a once sprawling city at the base of the mountain . Eventually making it safely to the mountain , the traveler begins to climb it , struggling as they enter the colder climates and encounter deep snow and high winds . With the crevice still a fair distance away , the traveler falls and collapses in the snow . Six of the white @-@ robed figures appear before the character and grant the traveler new energy , allowing the player to reach the summit of the mountain and walk into and through the crevice as the screen fills with white . The player is then shown the game 's credits , playing over the ending cinematic . This cinematic shows a shooting star emanating from the crevice and traversing the path the traveler took through the ruins , and shows glimpses of other robed travelers heading towards the mountain . Eventually , the star comes to rest at the sand dune where the game began , and the player is given the option of starting the game again . As the credits end , the player is shown the PlayStation Network IDs of the other travelers who shared part of the trek .
= = Development = =
Journey was the last game made under a three @-@ game contract between Thatgamecompany and Sony , the first two being Flow and Flower . Development of the game began in 2009 , after the release of Thatgamecompany 's previous title Flower . The 18 @-@ person development team for Journey was composed mainly of creators of the company 's previous games ; co @-@ founder Jenova Chen was the creative director and Nick Clark returned as lead designer . Kellee Santiago , producer of Flow and Flower , did not reprise her duties , concentrating instead on her role as the company 's president , and was replaced by Robin Hunicke .
When development began , Sony expected the game to be completed in a year , rather than the more than three it finally took . Thatgamecompany always expected needing an extension ; according to Hunicke , they believed finishing the game within a year was " unrealistic " . Development ended up taking even longer than anticipated , as the team had difficulties paring down their ideas for the game and maintaining efficient communication . Over the course of development the team grew from seven to eighteen people . At the end of the second year , when Sony 's extension had run out , the game did not spark the emotions in the player that the team wanted . Sony agreed to another one @-@ year extension , but development ultimately exceeded even that .
The stress of the project led to the feeling there was not enough time or money to complete everything the team wished to , which added to the stress and caused arguments about the design of the game . The developers ended up reducing the overtime they spent on the project to avoid burning out , though it meant further delays and risked the company running out of money as the game neared completion . In a speech at the 16th annual D.I.C.E. Awards in 2013 , Chen admitted that the company had indeed been driven to bankruptcy in the final months of development , and that some of the developers had gone unpaid at the time . Hunicke described the solution to finally finishing the game as learning to let go of tensions and ideas that could not make it into the game and be " nice to each other . "
The game is intended to make the player feel " small " and to give them a sense of awe about their surroundings . The basic idea for the game , as designed by Chen , was to create a game that moved beyond the " typical defeat / kill / win mentality " of most video games . The team initially created a prototype named Dragon that involved players trying to draw away a large monster from other players , but eventually discarded it after finding it was too easy for players to ignore each other in favor of their own objectives .
The developers designed the game like a " Japanese garden " , where they attempted to remove all of the game elements that did not fit with the others , so the emotions they wanted the game to evoke would come through . This minimalism is intended to make the game feel intuitive to the player , so they can explore and feel a sense of wonder without direct instructions . The story arc of the game is designed to explicitly follow Joseph Campbell 's monomyth theory of narrative , or hero 's journey , so as to enhance the emotional connection of the players as they journey together . In his D.I.C.E. speech , Chen noted that three of their 25 testers had cried upon completing the game .
The multiplayer component of Journey was designed to facilitate cooperation between players without forcing it , and without allowing competition . It is intended to allow the players to feel a connection to other people through exploring with them , rather than talking to them or fighting them . The plan was " to create a game where people felt they are connected with each other , to show the positive side of humanity in them . " The developers felt the focus on caring about the other player would be diluted by too many game elements , such as additional goals or tasks , as players would focus on those and " ignore " the other player . They also felt having text or voice communication between players or showing usernames would allow players ' biases and preconceptions to come between them and the other player .
The game was released on March 13 , 2012 for download on the PlayStation Network . A PlayStation Home Game Space , or themed area , based on Journey was released on March 14 , 2012 and is similar in appearance to the game . A retail " Collector 's Edition " of the game was released on August 28 , 2012 . In addition to Journey , the disc @-@ based title includes Flow and Flower ; creator commentaries , art , galleries , and soundtracks for all three games ; non @-@ related minigames ; and additional content for the PlayStation 3 . In September 2012 , Sony and Thatgamecompany released a hardcover book entitled " The Art of Journey " , by the game 's art director Matt Nava , containing pieces of art from the game ranging from concept art to final game graphics . On July 21 , 2015 , Journey was released on the PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 4 , ported by United Kingdom studio Tricky Pixels ; owners of the digital PlayStation 3 version of the game were able to download the new version for free .
= = = Music = = =
The music in Journey was composed and orchestrated by Austin Wintory , who had previously worked with Thatgamecompany on the soundtrack for Flow . Wintory worked closely on the soundtrack with sound designer Steve Johnson , as well as the programming team , so the music would dynamically tie in to both the actions of the player and sound effects caused by nearby game objects , and feel as if it were " unfolding in real time " . Johnson felt having short pieces of music that looped without reacting to the player would be a " missed opportunity " , and wanted to create music that changed while still containing a composed emotional arc . Jenova Chen met with Wintory at the start of the game 's development to describe his vision for the project , and Wintory left the meeting and composed and recorded the main cello theme for the soundtrack that night . He continued to work on the soundtrack for the next three years , experimenting and discarding many ideas . The game 's orchestrations were performed by the Skopje Radio Symphonic Orchestra in Macedonia .
Unlike many games , where different songs have different themes for each character or area , Wintory chose to base all of the pieces on one theme which stood for the player and their journey , with cello solos especially representing the player . Wintory describes the music as " like a big cello concerto where you are the soloist and all the rest of the instruments represent the world around you " , though he describes it as not necessarily orchestral due to the inclusion of electronic aspects . The cello begins the game as " immersed in a sea of electronic sound " , before first emerging on its own and then merging into a full orchestra , mirroring the player 's journey to the mountain . While the game 's art style is based on several different cultures , Wintory tried to remove any overt cultural influences from the music to make it " as universal and culture @-@ less as possible " . Tina Guo features as the cellist for the soundtrack . She is a close friend of Wintory and has since performed " Woven Variations " with him , an eight @-@ minute orchestral variation on the Journey soundtrack . All of the non @-@ electronic instruments in the soundtrack were recorded with a live orchestra .
The soundtrack was released as an album on April 10 on iTunes and the PlayStation Network . The album is a collection of the soundtrack 's " most important " pieces , arranged by Wintory to stand alone without the context of the player 's actions . The album comprises 18 tracks and is over 58 minutes long . It features the voice of Lisbeth Scott for the final track , " I Was Born for This " . After its release , the soundtrack reached the top 10 of the iTunes Soundtrack charts in more than 20 countries . It also reached No. 116 on the Billboard sales charts , with over 4000 units sold in its first week after release , the second @-@ highest position of any video game music album to date . The soundtrack was released as a physical album by Sumthing Else Music Works on October 9 , 2012 . In 2012 Wintory released a download @-@ only album of music on Bandcamp titled Journey Bonus Bundle , which includes variations on themes from Journey and Flow . The soundtrack itself was subsequently released on Bandcamp on June 19 , 2013 . An album of piano arrangements titled Transfiguration was released on May 1 , 2014 , on Bandcamp as both a digital and physical album . A two @-@ record vinyl version of the album was released in 2015 .
In January 2016 , Wintory started a Kickstarter for a Journey Live concert tour , in which the fifteen @-@ piece Fifth House Ensemble from Chicago will perform the music from the game while a player works their way through the game . The ensemble will react to the player 's actions , using a specially @-@ scored version of the soundtrack , composed by Patrick O 'Malley with Wintory 's oversight , that breaks the music into small pieces to enable this reaction . Wintory had wanted to do a performance of the Journey soundtrack in this interactive manner , but did not have the time to rework the soundtrack for this purpose . Wintory came to know Dan Visconti , the composer for Fifth House Ensemble , after Visconti published his praise for the Journey soundtrack and had encouraged other members of the ensemble to play the game . The group saw how Journey 's soundtrack had been used for various Video Games Live concerts and believed they could pull off Wintory 's vision of an interactive concert , doing most of the reworking of the soundtrack under Wintory 's direction . Sony has provided Wintory with a version of the game developed by Tricky Pixels that disables the music to allow the ensemble to provide this , and other modifications required for the concert performance . The Kickstarter was launched for $ 9 @,@ 000 in funding for a four @-@ city tour , but within a few days already surpassed its funding levels , allowing for more cities to be included .
= = Reception = =
Journey received critical and commercial success worldwide . After its release , it became the fastest @-@ selling game to date on PlayStation Store in both North America and Europe . At the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo , prior to release , the game won awards for best download game from 1UP.com , GameSpy , and GameTrailers . After publication , the game was heavily honored at end of the year awards . At the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards , formerly known as the Interactive Achievement Awards , Journey won 8 awards , the most honors received of the night ( which includes " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " , " Casual Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay " , " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " ) ; it was additionally nominated for " Downloadable Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Story " . Journey was selected as the best game of the year by IGN and GameSpot , among others .
The soundtrack was nominated for the Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 2013 Grammy Awards , the first video game soundtrack to be nominated for that category , though it did not win . Additionally , the game won the award for best music and was nominated for the best graphics award from IGN , and was selected as the best PlayStation Network game by GameSpot . At the Spike Video Game Awards , Journey won awards as the best PlayStation 3 game , the best indie game , and the game with the best music , and was additionally nominated for game of the year , best downloadable game , best graphics , and best song in a game for " I Was Born For This " . It received the 2013 Annie Award for video game animation . It won five awards at the 2013 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards : Artistic Achievement , Audio Achievement , Game Design , Online Multiplayer and Original Music , and was nominated for Best Game , Game Innovation and Story . In March 2013 , it won six awards at the annual Game Developers Choice Awards : Best Audio , Best Game Design , Best Visual Arts , Best Downloadable Game , the Innovation Award , and Game of the Year .
Journey received high acclaim from critics who praised the visual and auditory art direction as well as the emotional response playing with a stranger created . It received the IGN Best Overall Game Award for 2012 and Ryan Clements of IGN described the game as " the most beautiful game of its time " , saying , " each moment is like a painting , expertly framed and lit " . Jane Douglas of GameSpot concurred , calling it " relentlessly beautiful " and lauding the visual diversity of the world and the depiction of the rippling sand ; Matt Miller of Game Informer added praise for the animation of the sand and creatures , saying the game was visually stunning . The music was also complimented , with Miller describing it as a " breathtaking musical score " and Douglas calling it " moving , dynamic music " .
Reviewers were especially pleased with the emotional experience of playing the game , particularly with other players . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer described it as a " non @-@ denominational religious experience " that , with the addition of another player , moves beyond metaphors and becomes a " pilgrimage " to the player . A reviewer writing for Edge magazine said the emotional arc of the game hits with " occasionally startling power " , while Patrick Shaw from Wired said the game made him feel a " wide range of emotions ... wonder , fear , even sadness . " Miller said all three times he played the game , " each time , without fail , individual moments ... managed to give me goosebumps , and those moments have remained on my mind for weeks afterward . " Joel Gregory of PlayStation Official Magazine praised the game 's story for being open to the player 's interpretation , leaving an ambiguity that drew him in . The addition of an unnamed second player was described by Donlan as brilliant and as a " master stroke " , and Edge said it made for " a more absorbing , more atmospheric experience " .
The few criticisms for the game centered on its length and pacing . Clements noted that not all players would appreciate a game with a " deliberate , melancholic pace " and short duration , comments echoed by the Edge review . Miller noted the lack of a complex gameplay elements in Journey , and Shaw was disappointed that the game was only a few hours long , though Douglas said the length was perfect . Miller concluded the game could be compared to " a musical concert , a well @-@ directed film , or a long @-@ awaited book " , while Clements concluded , " completing Journey will create memories that last for years . "
= Gold Beach =
Gold , commonly known as Gold Beach , was the code name for one of the five areas of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during the Second World War . Gold , the central of the five areas , was located between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings took place on the flat section between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . Taking Gold was to be the responsibility of the British Army , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the Royal Navy as well as elements from the Dutch , Polish and other Allied navies .
The objectives at Gold were to secure a beachhead , move west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , capture Bayeux and the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , and to link up with the Canadian forces at Juno to the east . Forces attacking Gold faced elements of the German 352nd Infantry Division and German 716th Infantry Division . About 2 @,@ 000 men were stationed in the immediate area . Improvements to fortifications along the Normandy coast had been undertaken under the leadership of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel beginning in October 1943 .
On D @-@ Day at Gold , naval bombardment got underway at 05 : 30 , and amphibious landings commenced at 07 : 25 . High winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft , and the amphibious DD tanks were released close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned . Three of the four guns in a large emplacement at the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery were disabled by direct hits from the cruisers Ajax and Argonaut at 06 : 20 . The fourth gun resumed firing intermittently in the afternoon , and its garrison surrendered on 7 June . Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strongpoint , which had its embrasure facing east to provide enfilade fire along the beach and had a thick concrete wall on the seaward side . Its 75 mm gun continued to do damage until 16 : 00 , when a modified Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVRE ) tank fired a large petard charge into its rear entrance . A second casemated emplacement at La Rivière containing an 88 mm gun was neutralised by a tank at 07 : 30 .
Meanwhile , infantry began clearing the heavily fortified houses along the shore and advanced on targets further inland . The British Commandos of No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando advanced on Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and captured it on 7 June in the Battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin . On the western flank , the 1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches ( future site of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours ) , and 69th Infantry Brigade on the eastern flank made contact with the Canadian forces at Juno . Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis received the only Victoria Cross awarded on D @-@ Day for his actions while attacking two pillboxes at the Mont Fleury battery . Due to stiff resistance from the German 352nd Infantry Division , Bayeux was not captured until the next day . British casualties at Gold are estimated at 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 . German casualties are unknown .
= = Background = =
= = = Operation Overlord = = =
After the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for the creation of a second front in Western Europe . The decision to undertake a cross @-@ channel invasion of continental Europe within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference , held in Washington in May 1943 . The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on 1 May 1944 , and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group , which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion .
On 31 December 1943 , Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan , which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions and two @-@ thirds of an airborne division . The two generals immediately insisted that the scale of the initial invasion be expanded to five divisions , with airborne descents by three divisions , to allow operations on a wider front . The change doubled the frontage of the invasion from 25 miles ( 40 km ) to 50 miles ( 80 km ) . This would allow for quicker offloading of men and materiel , make it more difficult for the Germans to respond , and speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg . The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft and troop carrier aircraft for the expanded operation meant that the invasion had to be delayed to June .
The Americans , assigned to land at Utah and Omaha , were to cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg . The British at Sword and Gold , and the Canadians at Juno , were to capture Caen and form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen to protect the American flank , while establishing airfields near Caen . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would provide a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise . A secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to hold all territory north of the Avranches @-@ Falaise line during the first three weeks . The Allied armies would then swing left to advance towards the River Seine . Montgomery envisaged a ninety @-@ day battle , ending when all the forces reached the Seine .
= = = Allied planning = = =
Originally , seventeen sectors along the Normandy coastline had been selected as possible invasion sites and each were provided with a code name taken from one of the spelling alphabets of the time . The coast was divided between Able , west of Omaha , to Rodger on the eastern flank of the invasion area . Eight further sectors were added when the planned invasion was extended to include Utah . Each sector was further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green , Red , and White . Gold did not refer to a particular beach but to a landing area . It was delineated by Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east , and included Arromanches , location of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours that were to be constructed shortly after the invasion . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings would be undertaken on the flat beach between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . The area immediately behind the beach was marshy , with open ground and bocage ( small fields surrounded by hedges and embankments ) further inland . Roads led to the south via Asnelles and Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . The terrain to the south @-@ east rose to a ridge at Meuvaines , where on D @-@ day were located machine gun nests of the German 726th Regiment .
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3 @,@ 200 photo reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the invasion . Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain , obstacles on the beach , and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements . Inland terrain , bridges , troop emplacements , and buildings were also photographed , in many cases from several angles , to give the Allies as much information as possible . Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps , including depth soundings . At Gold , frogmen discovered the shore between Asnelles and La Rivière was soft and could not support the weight of tanks . Twelve Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVREs ) were fitted with bobbins to overcome this problem by deploying a roll of matting over the soft surface . The material would then be left in place to create a route for more conventional tanks .
Gold was assigned to the British XXX Corps , with the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division – commanded by Major General D.A.H. Graham – allotted as the assault division . It was an experienced division that had already seen combat in France , North Africa , and Sicily . The men underwent extensive training in amphibious landings , including Exercise Fabius , a major training exercise at Hayling Island in May 1944 . Demolition teams responsible for disabling underwater beach obstacles trained in swimming pools in the UK . Briefings were undertaken using detailed maps that used fictitious place names , and most of the men did not find out their destination until they were already on their way to Normandy . The amphibious landing was to be preceded by extensive air bombardment as well as naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K , a task force of eighteen ships , primarily cruisers and destroyers . Amphibious tanks of the 8th Armoured Brigade were to arrive at 07 : 20 , followed by infantry at 07 : 25 . The 231st Brigade was assigned to land at Jig , and 69th Brigade at King . The 231st was to head west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , while the 69th was to move east and link up with the Canadian forces at Juno . The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to land at Gold , infiltrate inland , and capture the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin from the landward side .
Arriving in the second wave on Jig , 56th Infantry Brigade was to capture Bayeux and a nearby ridge , thus cutting the N13 highway between Caen and Bayeux to make it difficult for the Germans to move in reinforcements . The second wave on King , 151st Infantry Brigade , was tasked with capturing the Caen road and railway , along with setting up positions on high ground between the Aure and Seulles rivers . Other forces involved in the landing included artillery regiments , signals corps , and engineering units .
= = = German defences = = =
In late 1943 , Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of improving the coastal defences along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an Allied invasion , expected to take place sometime in 1944 . Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion , so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore . In the immediate area of Gold , between Le Hamel and La Rivière , seven defensive strongpoints designed to hold 50 men apiece were constructed . Two major concrete @-@ reinforced coastal artillery emplacements ( a battery of four 122 mm guns at Mont Fleury and the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery , with four 150 mm guns ) were only partially completed by D @-@ Day . Rommel ordered wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach , he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high tide mark . Tangles of barbed wire , booby traps , and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry .
Hitler gave Rommel command of the newly re @-@ formed Army Group B , which included the 7th Army , the 15th Army , and the forces guarding the Netherlands . Reserves for this group included the 2nd , 21st , and 116th Panzer divisions . Recognizing that Allied air superiority would make it difficult if not impossible to move reserves into position once the invasion was underway , Rommel decided to concentrate the defences along the coast . The 716th Infantry Division , which had been stationed in the area since March 1942 , was significantly understrength , with only 6 @,@ 000 men . This unit received reinforcements , and some of the older men were replaced by younger soldiers . It was also supplemented by several battalions of Osttruppen ( eastern soldiers ) , conscripted Soviet prisoners of war . The 352nd Infantry Division , a full @-@ strength unit of around 12 @,@ 000 , was brought into the area by Rommel on 15 March and reinforced by two additional regiments . About 2 @,@ 000 men , a mixture from the two infantry divisions , were stationed in the coastal area between Arromanches and Asnelles .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = British forces = = =
50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , commanded by Major @-@ General D.A.H. Graham
69th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier F.Y.C. Knox
5th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment
6th Battalion , Green Howards
7th Battalion , Green Howards
151st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier R.H. Senior
6th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
8th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
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ues , where at 07 : 00 Ajax and Argonaut took out of commission three of the four guns . The fourth gun resumed firing sporadically in the afternoon , and the garrison surrendered the following day . Two heavily casemated gun emplacements ( an 88 mm gun at La Rivière overlooking King and a 75 mm gun at Le Hamel overlooking Jig ) were only lightly damaged , as they were heavily reinforced with concrete , especially on the seaward side . These positions had embrasures that permitted a wide range of enfilade fire on the beach . Four other German strong points in the immediate area were also only lightly damaged , and had to be individually assaulted as the day progressed .
= = = King Sector = = =
H @-@ Hour for the landing at Gold was set at 07 : 25 on King sector ( 50 minutes later than in the American landings , because of differences in the tide ) . The first wave on King was the 5th East Yorkshires and 6th Green Howards of 69th Brigade , assisted by amphibious DD tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards . The 7th Green Howards landed at 08 : 20 . The original plan called for the 38 DD tanks to be launched from their landing craft tank ( LCTs ) about 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) out . Due to extremely choppy seas , they decided to run the tanks directly onto the beach . Infantry , engineers , and DD tanks arrived almost simultaneously . Units disembarking onto the beach immediately came under fire from the casemated 88 mm gun at La Rivière , and the infantry were forced to take cover behind the sea wall . The gun was taken out when a flail tank of the Westminster Dragoons fired a charge directly into its aperture . The 5th East Yorkshires , supported by several tanks , spent the rest of the morning clearing out the heavily fortified houses of La Rivière , at the loss of 90 men , including six officers .
Specialised armour arriving in the first wave included AVREs , mine flails , and armoured bulldozers . Clearing paths off the beach proved difficult , as the tanks got stuck in the mud or were taken out by mines . A lone mine flail tank finally cleared a path from the beach up toward the Mont Fleury Battery and Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer . This route was used by the Green Howards and tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards , who cleared the remaining resistance at the Mont Fleury Battery . B Company moved on to attack trench positions and machine gun emplacements at Meuvaines Ridge , while C Company moved to the west of Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer to help cover the assault on Crépon , where roads led to the important targets of Bayeux and Caen . The 7th Green Howards attacked the gun battery at Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer , where they took 50 prisoners . Colour Sergeant @-@ Major Stanley Hollis earned the only Victoria Cross to be bestowed for actions on D @-@ Day . On the way to the Mont Fleury Battery , Hollis came under machine gun fire while investigating a pillbox , so he shot into the entrance with his Sten gun and dropped a grenade through the roof , killing most of the occupants . He cleared a nearby trench of enemy soldiers , whereupon the occupants of a second pillbox surrendered . Later in the day , he saved the lives of three men during an attempt to take out a field artillery installation at a farm near Crépon .
Scheduled to land at 11 : 00 on Jig , the 56th Infantry Brigade was re @-@ routed King , because the gun battery at Le Hamel was still operational . They proceeded towards their objective of Bayeux . 151st Brigade arrived at the same time and after meeting fierce resistance , they achieved their objective of controlling the road and railway between Bayeux and Caen . 56th Brigade made slow progress and had to dig in for the night some distance from Bayeux . 69th Brigade secured the eastern flank and by nightfall made contact with the Canadian forces on Juno .
= = = Jig Sector = = =
At Jig , the first wave of infantry ( the 1st Dorsetshires and 1st Hampshires of the 231st Infantry Brigade ) arrived at 07 : 25 , and immediately came under fire from the casemated 75 mm gun at Le Hamel . Due to navigation errors and the strong current , both groups came ashore well to the east of their intended landing points . The DD tank and Royal Marine Centaur tanks that were supposed to arrive in advance of the landing were delayed by rough seas and did not arrive until 08 : 00 . Many of the tanks got bogged down on the beach or were taken out by enemy fire . The tide came in quicker than expected , before many of the beach obstacles and mines were cleared , and some of the landing craft were damaged as a result . Two companies of the 1st Hampshires landed very close to the strong point at Le Hamel , and had to fight inland through enemy garrisons to get off the beach . Attempts to flank Le Hamel were made difficult by the surrounding machine gun placements , mines , and barbed wire . Elements of the 1st Hampshires captured the German strongpoint WN @-@ 36 at the eastern edge of the village of Asnelles . When they turned west to move along the beach towards their primary objective at Le Hamel , they came under heavy fire and had to break off the attack . Major Warren , in charge after the commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Nelson Smith was wounded , decided that the troops would have to circle around and attack the emplacement from the rear , a process that took several hours . The troops began to have some success around 15 : 00 with the arrival of an AVRE tank of 82nd Assault Squadron . The tank fired two petards into the sanatorium , where most of the defenders were located . The German soldiers fled into fortified houses in Le Hamel and Asnelles , and were taken out in house @-@ to @-@ house combat . Few surrendered . The 75 mm gun was finally silenced at 16 : 00 , when the AVRE tank fired a large petard charge into the rear entrance of the casemate . C / A Company , 1st Hampshires and the AVRE tank proceeded west along the beach and took out strongpoint WN @-@ 38 at La Fontaine St Côme , taking 20 prisoners . Still further west , D Company captured strong point WN @-@ 39 at the Arromanches radar station , capturing 30 more defenders .
The 2nd Devons arrived at 08 : 15 , while the beach was still under heavy fire . One company stayed to help with the assault on Le Hamel , while the rest moved to capture the village of Ryes astride the road to Bayeux . Ryes was captured at around 16 : 30 . The 1st Dorsets attacked a German position on the beach at La Cabane des Douanes and headed inland to arc westward toward the high ground south of Arromanches . They cleared enemy positions at Le Bulot and Puits d 'Hérode , and arrived at their destination late in the morning . Joined by elements of the 1st Hampshires and covered by indirect fire from the naval forces offshore , they took Arromanches late in the afternoon .
= = = 47th Commando = = =
The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to capture the small harbour at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , on the boundary with Omaha , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Arromanches and 8 miles ( 13 km ) from their landing point at Jig . The commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel C. F. Phillips , opted to attack from the south , as the site was well protected on the seaward side . The force of 420 men consisted of five troops of 63 men , a mortar and machine gun troop , a transport group with four tracked vehicles , and a headquarters group . The plan was to land at Gold at 09 : 25 , assemble at La Rosière , and move cross @-@ country to a ridge ( designated as Point 72 ) south of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , arriving at around 13 : 00 . Here they would call for indirect fire from the supporting vessels at sea and then move in to capture the town .
In rough seas and under enemy fire , the commandos began disembarking at Jig , some distance east of their intended position , at 09 : 50 . Five of their LCAs were sunk by beach obstacles or enemy fire , at the cost of 76 casualties . Major P. M. Donnell temporarily took charge until Phillips and some others who had got separated from the unit rejoined the group at 14 : 00 along the Meuvaines – Le Carrefour road . The commando took additional casualties in several skirmishes , including at La Rosière , on the way to Point 72 . They did not arrive there until 22 : 30 , too late to launch an attack , so they dug in for the night . The town and port were captured in the battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on 7 – 8 June 1944 .
= = = German response = = =
As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris had predicted two weeks of stormy weather , some Wehrmacht commanders were away from the front attending war games in Rennes , and many soldiers had been given leave . On D @-@ Day , Rommel was in Germany for his wife 's birthday and a meeting with Hitler to try to get more Panzers . The 352nd and 716th Divisions were placed on high alert after the Allied airborne landings , which had taken just after midnight behind Utah and Sword . The 2 @,@ 700 @-@ strong Kampfgruppe Meyer , near Bayeux as the divisional reserve , was sent to investigate the parachute drops behind Utah . Marcks recalled them when dawn broke and the scope of the invasion became apparent . One battalion was ordered to reinforce the German efforts at Omaha . The remainder were ordered to rendezvous with reinforcements at Villiers le Sec , 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) east of Bayeux , to launch a counter @-@ attack . Fired upon by Allied air forces , the column finally arrived in the late afternoon , at which time they were met by elements of the 69th Brigade . The British lost four tanks in the ensuing engagement but the Kampfgruppe was almost completely wiped out . Meyer was killed , and his detailed maps of German coastal emplacements fell into British hands .
Because Allied air superiority meant it would be difficult for the Germans to move up their reserves , Rommel believed that their best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore . The scope of the invasion meant that once these coastal defences were defeated and the troops scattered , it was difficult to defend territory inland or launch counter @-@ attacks . At 22 : 33 , Kraiss ordered the 352nd Division to create a defensive line north of Bayeux but this proved impossible , as most of the territory involved was already in British hands and all the defending units had taken serious losses . The Luftwaffe played only a minor role on D @-@ Day . At Gold , several small groups of bombers that arrived at sunset caused Allied casualties at Le Hamel and damaged a road near Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . At 06 : 00 on 7 June , the operations room of HMS Bulolo , offshore near Gold , was damaged by a bomber attack , but the ship was able to remain on station . The unit responsible was likely II . / Kampfgeschwader 40 ( KG 40 — Bomber Wing 40 ) . Under the command of Fliegerführer Atlantik ( Flyer Command Atlantic ) , it was based at Bordeaux – Merignac . On the evening of the 6 / 7 June 1944 , 26 Heinkel He 177 heavy bombers equipped with Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ ship guided missiles attacked shipping over Normandy , included the Gold area . II . / KG 40 lost 13 aircraft to all causes during the attack .
The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler were released before midnight from the OKW reserve and ordered to counter @-@ attack between Bayeux and the Orne , supplemented by 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and Panzer Lehr Division ; the armoured divisions began arriving on 8 June .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
Pockets of German resistance remained throughout the beachhead area and the British were stopped about 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) short of their D @-@ Day objectives . Bayeux , a primary D @-@ Day objective for 50th Division , was captured on 7 June . By the end of D @-@ Day , the 50th Division had lost around 700 men . Total casualties , from all units involved in operations at Gold , were in the region of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 casualties , of which 350 were killed . German losses are unknown ; at least 1 @,@ 000 were captured .
= = = Gold Beach after 6 June = = =
By the end of D @-@ Day , 24 @,@ 970 men had been landed at Gold Beach , along with 2 @,@ 100 vehicles and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of supplies . The follow @-@ up landings were slowed by the loss of 34 LCTs and the bad weather . The 24th Lancers and 61st Reconnaissance Regiment , due to land on D @-@ Day to help spearhead the drive towards Villers @-@ Bocage , were unable to put ashore until 7 June . In 2004 Trew wrote that the delay
effectively ruled out any chance of a thrust south ... [ and ] ... represented a major blow to Second Army 's intentions and Montgomery 's plan .
The 7th Armoured Division and the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division were the follow @-@ up divisions of XXX Corps . The 22nd Armoured Brigade ( the armoured component of the 7th Armoured Division ) was scheduled to land during the evening of 6 June , but it was unable to land until the next day . The bulk of the division landed from 9 – 10 June , with some elements landing later . The 49th Division came ashore on 12 June .
The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across the Channel on D + 1 and the structures were in use for unloading by mid @-@ June . One was constructed at Arromanches by British forces , the other at Omaha by American forces . A severe storm on 19 June destroyed the Omaha harbour . The Arromanches harbour was repaired and remained in use for the next ten months , with a maximum capacity of 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of stores per day . Of the British supplies landed in Normandy by the end of August , 35 % arrived via the Mulberry harbour and 15 % came in via the small harbours at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and Courseulles @-@ sur @-@ Mer . Most shipments were brought in over the beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July . The most important use of the Mulberry harbour was the unloading of heavy machinery that could not be brought across the beaches . Artificial breakwaters ( Gooseberries ) sheltered hundreds of ships during the storm of 17 – 23 June , and provided shelter for craft unloading stores at Juno and Sword . A joint Anglo @-@ American oil depot was constructed at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , fed via buoyed pipes known as " Tombola " from oil tankers moored offshore . Using this method , 175 @,@ 000 long tons ( 178 @,@ 000 t ) of petrol ( half for the Second Army ) was delivered by the end of August , by which time the underwater pipelines constructed in Operation Pluto were ready .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer , the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , and other units soon reached a stalemate . Operation Perch ( 7 – 14 June ) failed to take Caen , and the British were forced to withdraw to Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . After a delay because of storms during 17 – 23 June , Operation Epsom was launched on 26 June , an attempt by VIII Corps to swing around and attack Caen from the south @-@ west and establish a bridgehead south of the Odon . Although the operation failed to take Caen , the Germans suffered heavy tank losses and had committed every available Panzer unit to the operation . Caen was severely bombed on the night of 7 July and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood on 8 – 9 July . Two offensives during 18 – 21 July , Operation Atlantic and Operation Goodwood , captured the rest of Caen and the high ground to the south , but by then the city was nearly destroyed .
= = Tourism = =
The site of the Normandy landings is a popular tourist destination . The battery at Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer is well preserved , and its observation bunker houses a visitor centre . The gun emplacements at Le Hamel and La Rivière still exist , but many other batteries and defensive positions have been allowed to decay . Bayeux is home to the Musée Mémorial de la Bataille de Normandie and the Bayeux Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery . La Cambe German war cemetery is also near Bayeux . At Arromanches , many elements of the Mulberry Harbour are extant and a museum examines its construction and use . The radar station is the site of a visitor centre and theatre .
= Tautiška giesmė =
Tautiška giesmė ( The National Hymn ) is the national anthem of Lithuania , also known by its opening words " Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų " ( official translation of the lyrics : " Lithuania , Our Homeland " , literally : " Lithuania , Our Fatherland " ) and as " Lietuvos himnas " ( Hymn of Lithuania ) . The music and lyrics were written in 1898 by Vincas Kudirka , when Lithuania was still part of the Russian Empire . The fifty @-@ word poem was a condensation of Kudirka 's conceptions of the Lithuanian state , the Lithuanian people , and their past . Shortly before his death in 1899 , the anthem was performed for Lithuanians living in Saint Petersburg , Russia .
The first public Lithuanian performance of the anthem took place in Vilnius in 1905 , and it became the official national anthem in 1919 , a year after Lithuania declared its independence . Following the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union in 1940 , the anthem was forbidden to be played or sung in public .
" Tautiška giesmė " was reinstated in 1989 shortly before the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence and confirmed in the National Anthem Act ( 21 October 1991 ) . It was automatically included as the national anthem in 1992 , when the new Constitution was ratified after independence from the Soviet Union was achieved . The status of " Tautiška giesmė " as the National Anthem of Lithuania was further confirmed in 1999 with the passage of a national law stating that .
= = Creation = =
At the time when the poem Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų was written , Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire . Kudirka , a medical student at the University of Warsaw , was writing as a columnist for the newspaper Varpas ( The Bell ) . In his Varpas columns , Kudirka urged Lithuanians to take pride in their heritage , discussed the problems the Russian Government was causing the Lithuanian population , and denounced those who wished to work for the Tsarist autocracy . In the course of writing for Varpas , he wrote down his thoughts on what Lithuania was and what it should be , resulting in the fifty @-@ word poem Lietuva , Tėvynė mūsų ( " Lithuania , Our Homeland " ) .
The poem described the heroic past of Lithuania and exhorted its people to care for the land , care for humanity , and live in honor . Kudirka also urged the country to become a source of enlightenment and virtue . Without a melody , Kudirka took the time to compose the music just before dying of tuberculosis . Both the melody and the lyrics were printed in Varpas in September 1898 . Upon his death in 1899 , Kudirka 's tomb was engraved with the second stanza of the anthem ( later destroyed by the authorities ) .
= = History = =
Before Kudirka 's death , the first performance of the poem occurred at a concert in St. Petersburg , Russia in 1899 . The concert was conducted by Česlovas Sasnauskas and was attended by Lithuanians , which St. Petersburg had the largest population of at that time . The anthem was first performed in Lithuania during the Great Seimas of Vilnius on December 3 , 1905 .
When Lithuania declared its independence from Russia in 1918 , the song was declared the national anthem . It held this status until Lithuania was annexed into the Soviet Union during World War II . During the interwar period , there had been suggestions to modify the words to include a reference to God . It was decided , in Kudirka 's memory , that the lyrics should remain as he had written them .
Immediately following the Soviet occupation of Lithuania , The Internationale replaced the Tautiška giesmė . When in 1944 ' The Internationale ' have been replaced by State Anthem of the Soviet Union in Soviet Union as official anthem , Tautiška giesmė was used as official anthem for the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic . An alternate anthem was created and introduced in 1950 . The music for that piece was composed by Balys Dvarionas and Jonas Švedas , and the words were written originally by Antanas Venclova . Following Stalin 's death in 1953 , its lyrics were modified by Vacys Reimeris to remove reference to the former dictator . This anthem stated that Lenin had lit the path to freedom , helped by the Russian people , and exhorted the Lithuanian people to work with peoples of the other Soviet Republics . The anthem was confirmed in Article 169 of the 1978 Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR . The song continued to be used until Lithuania broke away from the Soviet Union . Already in 1988 , the Tautiška giesmė was suggested as a replacement for the Soviet Lithuanian anthem . After preliminary approval by the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR and successive legislative bodies , its status as the national anthem was reconfirmed in 1992 . In that year , the Constitution of Lithuania was approved ; Article 19 of the document states that Tautiška giesmė will be the national anthem of Lithuania . The last law in relation to the national anthem was passed in 1999 ; it contained the official lyrics and protocol on how and when to play the anthem .
= = 1999 law = =
Signed into law by President Valdas Adamkus on June 9 , 1999 , the " Law on the National Anthem of the Republic of Lithuania " details when and where the national anthem is played and its performance protocols .
Article 2 of the law states that the anthem is to be played at the following occasions : At the beginning or ending of solemn sessions of the Seimas , on national holidays and memorial days , and at receptions and farewells of foreign heads of state on official visits to Lithuania — but only after the anthem of the foreign country has been played .
It is played in foreign countries to represent Lithuania , according to their own diplomatic protocols ; on national holidays and other days when the Flag of Lithuania is raised by order of the government ; when the flag is raised during public events sponsored by governmental institutions , business , and organizations ; and at the beginning and end of National Radio programming . The anthem may also be played at other occasions , such as sporting competitions .
When playing the anthem , the music may be either live or recorded . The anthem may be performed with a choir , an orchestra , a military band , or a combination of the latter two . Article 4 , section 2 , states that all participants are encouraged to sing the national anthem . When the anthem is played , all civilians are asked to stand in a gesture of respect to the anthem . If employees of national defense , police , and other military or military @-@ related organizations are present , they must respect the anthem in a way prescribed by their statutes . The anthem cannot be used as background music , purposes of advertisement , or for entertainment , such as karaoke . Public disrespect of the anthem may be punishable by law .
= = Lyrics = =
= Crosby Garrett Helmet =
The Crosby Garrett Helmet is a copper alloy Roman cavalry helmet dating from the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD . It was found by an unnamed metal detectorist near Crosby Garrett in Cumbria , England , in May 2010 . Later investigations found that a Romano @-@ British farming settlement had occupied the site where the helmet was discovered , which was located a few miles away from a Roman road and a Roman army fort . It is possible that the owner of the helmet was a local inhabitant who had served with the Roman cavalry .
The helmet appears to have been deliberately folded up and deposited in an artificial stone structure . It is thought to have been used for ceremonial occasions rather than for combat , and may already have been an antique by the time it was buried . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet ( found in 1905 ) and its design also has similarities with the Ribchester Helmet ( found in 1796 ) and the Hallaton Helmet ( found in 2000 ) , though its facial features are more akin to those of helmets found in southern Europe . Its design may allude to the Trojans , whose exploits the Romans re @-@ enacted in cavalry tournaments .
Dr Ralph Jackson , Senior Curator of Romano @-@ British Collections at the British Museum , has described the helmet as " ... an immensely interesting and outstandingly important find ... Its face mask is both extremely finely wrought and chillingly striking , but it is as an ensemble that the helmet is so exceptional and , in its specifics , unparalleled . It is a find of the greatest national ( and , indeed , international ) significance . "
On 7 October 2010 , the helmet was sold at Christie 's for £ 2 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) to an undisclosed private buyer . Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle sought to purchase the helmet , with the support of the British Museum but was outbid . The helmet has so far been publicly displayed twice , once in a 2012 exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts , and again at Tullie House in 2013 @-@ 14 .
= = Description = =
The Crosby Garrett helmet is an almost complete example of a two @-@ piece Roman cavalry helmet . The visor portrays the face of a youthful , clean @-@ shaven male with curly hair . The headpiece is in the shape of a Phrygian cap , on the crest of which is a winged griffin that stands with one raised foot resting on an amphora . The visor was originally attached to the headpiece by means of a hinge ; the iron hinge pin has not survived , but its existence has been inferred from the presence of powdery deposits of iron oxide residue . The helmet would have been held in place using a leather strap attached from the wearer 's neck to a decorated rivet on either side of the helmet , below the ear . Wear marks caused by opening and closing the visor are still visible , and at some point the helmet was repaired using a bronze sheet which was riveted across two splits . Only two other Roman helmets complete with visors have been found in Britain – the Newstead Helmet and Ribchester Helmet .
The helmet and visor were cast from an alloy consisting of an average of 82 % copper , 10 % zinc and 8 % tin . This alloy was probably derived from melted @-@ down scrap brass with a low zinc content , with which some tin had been added to improve the quality of the casting . Some of the fragments show traces of a white metal coating , indicating that the visor would originally have been tinned to give the appearance of silver . The griffin was cast separately from a different alloy consisting of 68 % copper , 4 % zinc , 18 % tin and 10 % lead . The visor would originally have been a silver hue and the helmet would have had a coppery yellow appearance . The helmet 's creation can be dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century from the use of a particular type of decorated rivet as well as some of its design features , such as its pierced eyes .
There has been much debate about the symbolic meaning of the helmet 's design . The griffin was the companion of Nemesis , the goddess of vengeance and fate . They were both seen as agents of death and were often linked with gladiatorial combat . The meaning of the face and headpiece are less clearly identifiable . Suggestions have ranged from the Greek god Attis and the hero Perseus , to the Roman gods Mithras and Jupiter Dolichenus , to a more general Eastern Mediterranean appearance that could possibly have been meant to suggest a Trojan identity . The Phrygian cap was often used by the Romans as a visual motif representing the Trojans .
= = Discovery and restoration = =
The helmet and visor were found in May 2010 in pastureland on a farm owned by Eric Robinson at Crosby Garrett in Cumbria . The finder , an unnamed metal detectorist in his 20s from Peterlee , County Durham , had been detecting with his father in two adjacent fields for some years but had previously only discovered some Roman coins and other small artefacts . The findspot is situated not far from a Roman road . A number of earthworks are located nearby , indicating the presence of a previously unrecorded ancient settlement . The area was strategically placed on the route to the northern frontier of Roman Britain within the territory of the Carvetii tribe . The Roman army would have been present in the area and would certainly have used the nearby road . A Roman auxiliary fort stood only 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the north @-@ east at Verterae ( Brough Castle ) .
Following the helmet 's discovery , the area around the findspot was investigated in a project sponsored by the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery and the Portable Antiquities Scheme . The earthworks noted earlier were found to be part of a substantial enclosure surrounded by ditches , within which buildings had once stood . The enclosure , which measures as much as 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) long on its southern side , combines both native British and Roman methods of fortification . A sunken area within the enclosure may possibly have served as a paddock for horses , while the evidence for the buildings is concentrated in the enclosure 's northern portion . The remnants of Romano @-@ British field systems in the surrounding area show that the area was under cultivation and animal remains found on the site indicate that the inhabitants also raised livestock , including sheep , goats and pigs . The presence of Roman pottery suggests that the inhabitants had adopted some elements of the Roman lifestyle , but their community may well have been there long before the Romans arrived . Archaeological evidence from the enclosure indicates that the site may have been first settled as far back as the Bronze Age , at least 1 @,@ 000 years before the helmet was deposited .
The finder discovered the helmet and visor buried together some 25 cm ( 10 in ) below the surface , at a site located on a ledge at the lower end of the settlement . It had been placed onto two stone slabs at the bottom of a hole which had been back @-@ filled with soil . A stone cap had been laid on top . The helmet was found in 33 large fragments and 34 small fragments and had apparently been folded before burial . The visor was mostly intact and had been placed face down . The griffin had become detached and was found with the helmet . No other artefacts were found at the time , but the subsequent Tullie House / PAS excavations at the findspot discovered a number of copper and iron objects , a bead and two Roman coins dating to between 330 @-@ 337 . The coins were found within the artificial stone feature in which the helmet had been deposited and may have been buried at the same time .
The finder did not initially realise that he had found a Roman artefact and thought at first that it was a Victorian ornament . He eventually identified it as Roman by consulting auction catalogues , searching the Internet and getting advice from dealers . Find Liaison Officers from the Portable Antiquities Scheme were notified of the discovery and visited the findspot along with the finder . Christie 's commissioned Darren Bradbury , an independent conservator and restorer , to restore the helmet and visor for sale . Although Christie 's was asked to delay the restoration so that a full scientific examination could be carried out , this request was not granted and information about the helmet 's burial may have been lost as a result . However , the British Museum was able to inspect the find during restoration and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectrometry was carried out to determine the composition of the headpiece , visor and griffin . Bradbury 's restoration work took some 240 hours and involved the repair of cracks and holes using resin and cyanoacrylate , retouched to match the appearance of the surrounding material .
= = Similarities and usage = =
The helmet and visor have marked similarities to a number of other Roman cavalry helmets . The visor is a cavalry sports type C ( H. Russell Robinson classification ) or type V ( Maria Kohlert classification ) . Similar examples have been found across the Roman Empire from Britain to Syria . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet , found in Scotland in 1905 , and its facial features most closely parallel a helmet that was found at Nola in Italy and is now in the British Museum . The rendering of the hair is similar to that of a type C helmet found at Belgrade in Serbia and dated to the 2nd century AD . The griffin ornament is unique , though it may parallel a lost " sphinx of bronze " that may originally have been attached to the crest of the Ribchester Helmet , discovered in Lancashire in 1796 . The headpiece is nearly unique ; only one other example in the form of a Phrygian cap has been found , in a fragmentary state , at Ostrov in Romania , dated to the second half of the 2nd century AD . Rings on the back of the helmet and on the griffin may have been used to attach colourful streamers or ribbons .
Such helmets were used for hippika gymnasia , cavalry tournaments that were performed in front of emperors and senior commanders . Horses and riders wore lavishly decorated clothes , armour and plumes while performing feats of horsemanship and re @-@ enacting historical and legendary battles , such as the wars of the Greeks and Trojans . According to the Roman writer Arrian :
[ T ] hose of high rank or superior in horsemanship wear gilded helmets of iron or bronze to draw the attention of the spectators . Unlike the helmets made for active service , these do not cover the head and cheeks only but are made to fit all round the faces of the riders with apertures for the eyes . . . From the helmets hang yellow plumes , a matter of décor as much as utility . As the horses move forward , the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes . — Arrian , Ars Tactica 34
Combat gear was issued by and belonged to the Roman army , and had to be returned at the end of a wearer 's service . Cavalry sports equipment appears to have been treated differently , as soldiers apparently privately commissioned and purchased it for their own use . They evidently retained it after they completed their service . Both helmets and visors have been found in graves and other contexts away from obvious military sites , as well as being deposited in forts and their vicinity . In some cases they were carefully folded up and buried , as in the case of the Guisborough Helmet . The Dutch historian Johan Nicolay has identified a " lifecycle " for Roman military equipment in which ex @-@ soldiers took certain items home with them as a reminder of their service and occasionally disposed of them away from garrison sites as grave goods or votive offerings .
The circumstances in which the Crosby Garret helmet was buried are still unclear , but the discoveries made by the post @-@ discovery Tullie House / PAS excavations have provided much more detail about its context . It was clearly deposited within an artificial feature that had been specially constructed ; Stuart Noon of the Museum of Lancashire suggests that the feature may have been intended as a memorial of some sort . It was not buried in an isolated spot but within a long @-@ occupied Romano @-@ British farming settlement that had clearly adopted aspects of Roman culture . Given the settlement 's proximity to Roman military locations , it is very possible that some of its inhabitants served with the Roman army , which often recruited mounted auxiliaries from among native peoples . The helmet may well already have been a valuable antique at the time of its burial ; if the coins found nearby reflect when it was buried , it could have been over a century old by the time it was deposited . It was deliberately broken before being buried in what may have been intended as a ritual sacrifice . The identity of its owner will never be known , but it could have been that a local inhabitant who had formerly served with the Roman cavalry was responsible for the helmet 's deposition .
= = Auction and controversy = =
Although the find was reported under the Portable Antiquities Scheme , it was not declared treasure under the 1996 Treasure Act because single items of non @-@ precious metal are not covered by the act . The finder and landowner were thus free to dispose of the helmet as they saw fit . The discovery was publicly announced by Christie 's in mid @-@ September 2010 ; the helmet was the centrepiece of its 7 October auction catalogue , featuring on the cover and six more pages . Its value was put at £ 200 @,@ 000 – £ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 309 @,@ 200 – $ 463 @,@ 800 ) . The Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery launched an appeal with the aim of purchasing the helmet and making it the focus of a new Roman frontier gallery due to open in 2011 . The campaign immediately attracted numerous donations , including £ 50 @,@ 000 from an anonymous overseas benefactor who offered the sum if a matching sum could be raised by the public ( it was ) ; a £ 1 million offer from the National Heritage Memorial Fund ; a £ 300 @,@ 000 pledge from the Headley Trust and the Monument Trust ; £ 200 @,@ 000 from the Art Fund ; and £ 75 @,@ 000 from the J Paul Getty Jr Charitable Trust . By the time of the auction three and a half weeks after the campaign had been launched , the museum had raised enough money to support a bid of up to £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Behind the scenes , efforts were made to persuade the finder and landowner to agree a private sale with the museum , but these approaches failed .
The initial estimate was passed within seconds of the auction opening . Six bidders pushed the price towards a million pounds and Tullie House was forced to drop out at £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Two remaining bidders took the bid past £ 2 million ; the winning bidder , an anonymous UK resident and fine art collector bidding by phone , paid a total of £ 2 @,@ 330 @,@ 468 @.@ 75 including the buyer 's premium and VAT . The outcome aroused controversy and prompted calls for the Treasure Act to be revised , though British Archaeology noted that the circumstances of the helmet 's discovery may have resulted in it being outside the scope of even a revised act . It is still possible that the helmet could come into public ownership ; if the winning bidder wishes to export it , an export licence would have to be applied for and if a temporary export bar was placed on it an opportunity could arise for funds to be raised by a public institution to purchase the helmet .
= = Display = =
Since its sale in 2010 , the helmet been on public display three times . It was lent by its owner to the Royal Academy of Arts in London , and was put on display from 15 September to 9 December 2012 as part of an exhibition of bronzes . From 1 November 2013 until 26 January 2014 the helmet was on display at the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle , and a printed guide was produced for the occasion . It was subsequently displayed at the British Museum from 28 January to 27 April 2014 .
= Liu Kang =
Liu Kang ( Chinese : 劉鋼 ; pinyin : Liúgāng ) is a fictional character from the Mortal Kombat fighting game series from Midway Games , introduced as one of the original seven player characters in the 1992 first game as a Shaolin monk who enters the Mortal Kombat tournament to save Earthrealm ( Earth ) . Since his victory in the tournament , Liu Kang becomes the Mortal Kombat series ' hero as the champion and chief defender of Earthrealm guided by his mentor , the thunder god Raiden . He also becomes romantically involved with Princess Kitana , the adopted daughter of evil Outworld emperor named Shao Kahn .
Designed with special moves intended to be easier to perform than the moves of other characters , Liu Kang has appeared in many of the Mortal Kombat fighting installments , in addition to starring with Kung Lao as the title characters of the action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , and being among the eleven series characters representing the franchise in the crossover game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . Liu Kang has extensively featured in alternate Mortal Kombat media and official merchandise , serving as the primary protagonist of the two feature @-@ length films and the Malibu Comics comic book adaptations , in addition to supporting roles in other media such as the 1995 Mortal Kombat novel and the animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm . Critical and general reception of the character has been mainly favorable , although various aspects have been criticized .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Introduced in the first Mortal Kombat game as a Chinese Shaolin Kung Fu fighting monk , Liu Kang 's main fighting style is Jeet Kune Do and he has experience with Kung Fu . He enters the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament in order to protect Earthrealm from being destroyed after having lost the previous nine tournaments . He defeats Grand Champion Goro and the tournament host , the nefarious sorcerer Shang Tsung , and emerges as the new Mortal Kombat champion . In the 1993 sequel Mortal Kombat II , Liu Kang finds many of his Shaolin brethren killed in a vicious attack by a horde of nomadic mutants led by Baraka under orders from the evil Outworld emperor Shao Kahn , Shang Tsung 's master . Enraged , Liu Kang decides to travel to Outworld to seek revenge , backed by friend and fellow Shaolin Kung Lao . At the tournament , Liu Kang fights Shao Kahn , eventually overpowering the emperor . In Mortal Kombat 3 ( 1995 ) , Liu Kang and his friends fight against Shao Kahn 's extermination squad which invaded Earthrealm . He once again defeats Shao Kahn , causing him and his forces to retreat back to Outworld .
In the events of Mortal Kombat 4 ( 1997 ) , Liu Kang discovers that his lover and ally , Princess Kitana , has been captured by the disgraced Elder God Shinnok 's forces , and begins gathering Earth 's warriors to defeat him . Liu Kang confronts Shinnok and once again emerges victorious with Kitana and her people having survived to the attack , but he is unable to commit himself to a relationship due to his duty as Earthrealm 's champion while Kitana has to remain in Outworld to rule her kingdom .
Liu Kang becomes unplayable for the first and only time in the Mortal Kombat series in 2002 's Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , in which the titular partnership of Shang Tsung and fellow sorcerer Quan Chi join forces to kill him in the game 's introductory sequence . In the events of Mortal Kombat : Deception ( 2004 ) , an unknown party reanimates Liu Kang 's corpse and sends it on a murderous rampage , causing Liu Kang 's soul to attempt to control it . He returns as a playable character in this game , albeit in undead form and as a secret character that can only be unlocked by completing the game 's Konquest Mode . His spirit enlists the reformed ninja Ermac to try to save Kitana and his Earthrealm allies — Johnny Cage , Jax , Sonya and Kung Lao — who had all been killed by the Deadly Alliance and then resurrected by the Dragon King Onaga for use as his slaves . Though they successfully accomplish this task , Liu Kang is still unable to fully regain control of his body in Mortal Kombat : Armageddon ( 2006 ) , where he is playable along with the entire series roster and in which it is revealed that Raiden had revived Liu Kang 's corpse in Deception . Liu Kang 's bond with Kitana had succeeded in keeping his power in check , with Nightwolf then assuming her position as Liu Kang 's " spiritual anchor " in attempt to find a way to reunite his body and soul , which he accomplishes in his ending . Liu Kang was among the many characters who were not given a biography for Armageddon , while in his own noncanonical in @-@ game ending , his body and soul reunite on their own before he confronts Raiden and defeats him in combat to become Earthrealm 's new protector .
Along with Kung Lao , Liu Kang is the lead character in the 2005 spinoff action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks . The game is a retelling of the storyline of the events leading up to Mortal Kombat II , and features the two Shaolin monks traveling to Outworld to find and defeat Shang Tsung , later ending in a fight with Shao Kahn and rescuing Kitana along the way . He is among the eleven characters representing the Mortal Kombat franchise in the 2008 crossover title Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , which features fights between characters from the Mortal Kombat and the DC Comics universes . In this game , Liu Kang appears as the protagonist of the first chapter of the Mortal Kombat story mode . Tobias said that the fight he expected to see in the game was between Liu Kang and Batman as he noted their back @-@ stories to be very similar , due to fact , both Liu Kang and Batman are fought in Raiden and Superman 's chapters respectively , trying to snap their rage influenced respective leaders back to their sense from killing the leader 's respective arch @-@ enemies , Lex Luthor and Shang Tsung , reminding them that Dark Kahn is their true enemy .
In the 2011 Mortal Kombat reboot video game , Liu Kang reprises his role from the first three tournaments as one of Raiden 's chosen warriors . Raiden , who has visions from the future in which Shao Kahn remained as the last warrior , believes that Liu Kang is the warrior which his future self chose as the savior . As in the first game , Liu Kang succeeds in defeating Goro and Shang Tsung , though Raiden 's amulet continues to crack , unchanging the future .
During the second tournament , Liu Kang meets Kitana , and the two engage romantically with each other in this timeline too . It is during this tournament that Kang begins to doubt Raiden 's visions after he ordered him and Kung Lao not to rescue Kitana , and when Lao is killed by Shao Kahn . He seemingly kills Shao Kahn , and avenges his fallen friend . However , Kahn survives , and begins plotting to invade Earthrealm .
When Shao Kahn is preparing to invade Earthrealm during the third game 's events , Liu Kang is among Earthrealm 's protectors , and notices Raiden 's futile attempts to alter the future . He and Raiden visit the Elder Gods in order to put a stop to Kahn 's plan , but refuse to intervene , stating that Kahn 's invasion is not a violation of Mortal Kombat , but the merging of Earthrealm and Outworld is . When they return , nearly all of their allies are dead , murdered by a soul @-@ infused Sindel , and Liu Kang rushes to Kitana , only for her to die in his arms . This , coupled with Raiden 's failed attempts in changing the future , and his plan to form an alliance with the Netherrealm , causes Kang to deem Raiden insane , and decides to take on Shao Kahn alone . He arrives as Kahn enters Earthrealm , but Raiden attempts to stops him as he realized Kahn had to win and merge the realms in order to avoid the events of the future . Having enough of Raiden 's continued mistakes , the two fight , but Kang is defeated . As he attempts to shoot a fireball at Raiden , the thunder god uses his lightning to protect him , inadvertently electrocuting Liu Kang , much to Raiden 's horror . Rushing to his burnt body , Raiden pleads for his forgiveness , but Kang coldly says to the Thunder God : " You ... have killed us ... all ... " and dies . After Raiden defeats Shao Kahn with the help of the Elder Gods , and thus changing the future , he and the surviving warriors , Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade , leave and begin the restoration of Earthrealm , and he takes Kang 's body with him .
Liu Kang returns in Mortal Kombat X. In the game 's Story Mode , he was resurrected by Quan Chi and now serves him as one of the revenants until Sub @-@ Zero , Scorpion and Jax are revived . He fights both Jax and Raiden in Story Mode , which he blames Raiden for his death . At the end of the story mode , he and Kitana become the new rulers of the Netherrealm due to Quan Chi 's death and Shinnok 's defeat . A now darker Raiden brings them Shinnok 's disembodied head as a warning for them not to attack Earthrealm .
= = = = Design = = = =
Liu Kang was originally going to be a Japanese character called Minamoto Yoshitsune , but Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator and character designer John Tobias stated that the staff could not " deal with the name . " According to Tobias , Liu Kang " was originally going to be a traditional monk – bald and in robes – but he wound up resembling Bruce Lee . " As stated on his Mortal Kombat : Armageddon bio card , Ed Boon mentioned that Liu Kang was designed to be the most easily " accessible " character , meaning that both casual and experienced gamers could play as him with little difficulty . According to Tobias , Liu Kang was purposely the only character that voiced his finishing move in the original game , and was " the best " in the first sequel . Liu Kang was the only character in the first game whose finishing move ( Fatality ) did not explicitly murder his opponent , and also without the background dimming . This was because Liu Kang was depicted therein as a Shaolin monk , who in general have strict beliefs regarding killing and murder . However , starting with Mortal Kombat II , he was given gory Fatalities as he was thereafter depicted as a renegade monk who decided to grow his hair back , and who had " strong Shaolin beliefs , but was no longer a part of the Shaolin monks . " In response to rumors that Liu Kang would die in Mortal Kombat II and therefore not make it into Mortal Kombat 3 , Boon said , " It 'd be like doing part three of Star Wars and not having Luke Skywalker in there . You don 't do that . " His eventual death caused Dan Forden , the music composer of the series , to make a " funeral song " for Liu Kang as he felt saddened for his death . The track titled " Liu Kang 's Tomb " would be used in Mortal Kombat : Deception in the arena that shows his tomb .
Liu Kang was played by Ho Sung Pak in the first two games , and John Tobias stated in an interview that he originally intended for the character to be a traditional bald monk , but the actor refused to shave his head . In the first game , Liu Kang was modeled after Bruce Lee , as he had short hair and went shirtless , with a threadbare outfit of only black pants and white shoes . In Mortal Kombat II , his outfit was enhanced with red stripes , and now included a red headband , black shoes , and studded wristguards ( the intro of MKII shows the younger version of the character defeating Shang Tsung in the background , while the updated character is in the foreground ) . In Mortal Kombat 3 , his hair was considerably longer , with the only alteration to his outfit being thin black leg strips wrapped above his ankles in order to give him a " sleeker " look for the game . He was given a red tank top in addition to his usual costume in Mortal Kombat 4 , but his alternate outfit was blue and featured him shirtless again . His wardrobe from the third game was carried over into Deception and Armageddon , but due to his resurrection , his skin was ash gray , and he wore hooked chains around his wrists . This form is also known by fans and Mortal Kombat producer Shaun Himmerick as " Zombie Liu Kang " . Nevertheless , his alternate outfit for both games featured him as a living person in order to contrast his undead form . In Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , he sported a slightly altered version of his third costume , in addition to a championship belt adorned with the Mortal Kombat dragon emblem . Although Liu Kang 's design in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks remains similar to his Mortal Kombat II one , Himmerick said that it was the most revised one from the game , along with Kung Lao 's .
= = = = Gameplay = = = =
Liu Kang specializes in kicks , with his most common move being flying across the screen and connect with a kick to the opponent 's torso . Another such move is the " Bicycle Kick " in which Liu Kang flies across the screen with a series of multiple kicks to the opponent 's torso resembling pedaling a bicycle , hence the name . A different kind of his signature abilities is the " Dragon Fire " : with it Liu Kang sends a fiery flame in the shape of a Chinese dragon across the screen out of his hands at his opponent . After Mortal Kombat II , he gains the ability to perform this while crouching and in the air , same for Deception and Armageddon . The developers made Liu Kang immediately selectable in Mortal Kombat : Unchained , the PlayStation Portable port of Deception , as they noted that unlocking him in Deception had proved difficult .
Liu Kang 's first finishing move is the Fatality " Shaolin Uppercut " ; he performs a butterfly kick ( often mistaken for a cartwheel ) on his opponent , before hitting an uppercut that knocks them into the air for several seconds . In Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , there were two versions ; one where the victim explodes to pieces upon impact and the original , in which the opponent is torn to pieces upon falling to the ground . In another signature Fatality , he morphs into a large dragon , chomping the upper body of his opponent . This Fatality was turned into an Animality in Mortal Kombat 3 and back into a normal Fatality in Mortal Kombat 4 . In the Game Boy and Game Gear versions of Mortal Kombat II , the dragon torches the opponent with fire instead . The series ' composer and co @-@ designer John Vogel noted it to be his favorite Fatality due to how much Liu Kang 's appearance changes . Another famous Fatality of Liu Kang has him vanish and a Mortal Kombat arcade game machine drop down and crush his opponent . According to GameSpy 's MK2011 walkthrough , Liu Kang " inflicts better damage " than Kung Lao " by jumping around like a lunatic and kicking the crap out of everything he sees . "
= = = Other appearances = = =
Liu Kang was the hero of the comic book adaptation of the Mortal Kombat series Malibu Comics . In the first miniseries , Blood and Thunder , his backstory was mostly kept intact as a Shaolin monk out to restore the tournament to their righteous owners , with the only difference being that he was not the chosen one to defeat Goro , which instead fell on twin monk brothers named Sing and Sang , two original characters created specifically for the comics ; after they are killed by Goro in the third issue , Liu Kang becomes the Shaolin 's only hope in defeating Shang Tsung . The following miniseries , Battlewave , stated that Liu Kang won the first tournament after defeating Goro , which never appeared in the first miniseries . He returns to his normal life as an architect in Chicago , having left the Order of Light before the events of the first series . However , he suffers from constant attacks by an unknown force of ninjas and later receives help from Johnny Cage 's bodyguard Bo when Goro ambushes him in an office building . Eventually he decides to travel to Outworld , realizing that he cannot avoid Mortal Kombat .
Liu Kang is the primary hero of both Mortal Kombat movies , where he is portrayed by Robin Shou . Director Paul W. S. Anderson wanted Liu Kang 's character to be " really engaging " and chose Shou , noting his skills with martial arts . In the first film , he takes part in the tournament out of guilt over his brother 's death at the hands of Shang Tsung ( portrayed by Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa ) , and defeats Tsung in the final battle . As a result of the film 's style the relationship between Liu Kang and Kitana is more of a metaphysical than a romantic nature . Shou , along with Talisa Soto ( Kitana ) , was one of only two actors to reprise their roles in the sequel , Mortal Kombat : Annihilation ( Keith Cooke , who played Reptile , returned as well , but as the new Sub @-@ Zero ) . In the sequel , Liu Kang joins the Earthrealm warriors to stop Shao Kahn 's menace . In the animated film Mortal Kombat : The Journey Begins , serving as a prequel to the first film , Liu Kang appears as one of the main characters .
Liu Kang is also one of the lead characters in the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm , voiced by Brian Tochi . He is not the protagonist therein as opposed to the game storyline , instead sharing this role with several other Earthrealm heroes .
Liu Kang appears in the 2013 's second season of the web series Mortal Kombat : Legacy , portrayed by Brian Tee . Liu Kang in Legacy is portrayed as an anti @-@ hero and fighting on the side of Outworld rather than that of Earthrealm in the web series . In this version , he is shown to have left a monastery to live a normal life working at a diner with a fiancée . After watching a pair of thieves kill her in a robbery attempt , he becomes consumed with anger and revenge , and further distances himself from Kung Lao and the ideals that were taught to him . After working as a freelance assassin for a few years , he is approached by Shang Tsung , who convinces him that humanity is not worth protecting and asks him to join the realm of Outworld in the upcoming Mortal Kombat tournament , which he agrees to . During the tournament , he easily subdues Johnny Cage and Kurtis Stryker before being confronted by Kung Lao , who is surprised at his old friend 's change of allegiance .
In 1996 , Toy Island published a Liu Kang action figure which had a white shirt . Two Liu Kang action figures from Shaolin Monks were released by Jazwares . Apart from being flexible , both figures included different types of weapons such as swords and axes .
= = Reception = =
The character has received mostly very positive response by gaming publications . His relation with Kitana was ranked fourth in IGN 's list of best video game couples in 2006 . GameSpot featured him in their 2009 poll for the title of " All Time Greatest Game Hero " , in which he lost to Yoshi . UGO Networks ranked him as 94th on the 2008 list of top heroes of all time , noting his role in the Mortal Kombat series as well as character depth . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as 51st " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games , adding that while " Sub @-@ Zero and Scorpion may get most of the fanfare " , Liu Kang " can shoot fireballs , whoops and hollers just like Bruce Lee , and pioneered the Animality with his dragon @-@ transformation fatality--it ’ s no wonder that Liu Kang ’ s the chosen champion of Earthrealm . " In 2014 , Jack Pooley of What Culture ranked him as the second greatest ever fighting game character .
Like all the characters from Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , Liu Kang was selected to be a playable character based on his popularity . Jesse Schedeen of IGN said that " it just wouldn 't be right having a game without [ Liu Kang ] , " noting him to be as fierce as the DC Universe characters in this game . In 2010 , GamePlayBook ranked Liu Kang as the second best Mortal Kombat character , commenting that " his nimbleness and fighting expertise make him an ideal pick " and how he is as good as zombie as when he was alive . In 2011 , Bright Hub ranked Liu Kang as the second best character in the series . In UGO 's 2012 list of top Mortal Kombat characters , Liu Kang was given first place . In 2013 , he was ranked as the fifth @-@ top Mortal Kombat character by Jon Hamlin of The Game Scouts for his popularity and " being incredibly important to the Mortal Kombat universe . " That same year , the readers of Dorkly voted him the series ' sixth greatest character .
Upon his death in Deadly Alliance , IGN 's Jeremy Dunham noted that Liu Kang was killed as the series needed " ' starting over ' mentality " , as he regarded Liu Kang as the series ' strongest character . Complex remarked that the Mortal Kombat developers " finally found their groove again with Deadly Alliance , which began by snapping Liu Kang 's neck . " Game Informer listed his death in their article about " characters that died under our watch " calling it a " shock " as Liu Kang was stated to be one of the " most loved " characters from the series .
His redesign in Mortal Kombat : Deception was praised by GameSpot for being one of the best ones from the title , and was featured in GamesRadar 's list of the " greatest zombie triumphs " in 2009 , but was also ranked as the ninth @-@ worst Mortal Kombat character by ScrewAttack in 2011 . Additionally , GamesRadar used Liu Kang as an example of a stereotype of gaming heroes who reveal an evil alter ego that ruins the character 's appealing traits , and considered him to be " a little like the Shaolin version of Goku , in that he 's saved his world countless times and come back from the dead even more frequently . " GamesRadar featured him the article about " kickass Bruce Lee clones " citing his similarities with Bruce Lee and with one of his shouts featured in famous quotes .
= = = Gameplay and finishing moves = = =
Liu Kang 's famous finishing move of turning into a dragon was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second best in the series , referred to as the most iconic Fatality in Mortal Kombat II , but his cartwheel Fatality from the original Mortal Kombat was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second worst in the series . Liu Kang 's dragon Fatality has also been listed as one of the best Fatalities from the series by both Game Informer and UGO in 2010 , as well as by Complex in 2013 . On the other hand , his Fatality in which he throws a Mortal Kombat arcade were pointed by both Game Informer and GamePro as one of the worst from the series , even as GamesRadar listed it among the reasons of Liu Kang being " boss " .
Some video game publications criticized his gameplay and shouts while others noted him to be entertaining . IGN 's Douglas Perry wrote that he preferred Liu Kang over Kung Lao as a playable character in Shaolin Monks because of his " intuitive fighting moves , " adding that his shouts were " annoying " yet " strangely pleasing . " GameDaily also complained about his voice , saying that " Liu Kang screams out like a chicken , " and GamesRadar wrote that " the strange squeals he emits during his trademark Bicycle Kick move are unforgettable . "
= Inocybe praetervisa =
Inocybe praetervisa is a small , yellow and brown mushroom in the Inocybaceae family , distinguished from other members of the genus by its unusual spores and bulb . The unusual spores led to the species being named the type species of the now @-@ abandoned genus Astrosporina ; recent studies have shown that such a genus could not exist , as the species with the defining traits do not form a monophyletic group . However , it is a part of several clades within the genus Inocybe . I. praetervisa grows on the ground in woodland , favouring beech trees , and can be found in Europe , North America and Asia . It is inedible and probably poisonous due to the presence of muscarine . The ingestion of muscarine can lead to SLUDGE syndrome , and could potentially lead to death due to respiratory failure .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Inocybe praetervisa was first described by Lucien Quélet in the first volume of Giacomo Bresadola 's 1883 publication Fungi tridentini . The species was moved to the genus Astrosporina by Joseph Schröter in 1889 , but this was rejected , and the name Astrosporina praetervisa is now considered an obligate synonym . Astrosporina praetervisa was the type species of the no longer recognised genus . The specific epithet praetervisa comes from the Latin word meaning " overlooked " .
Within the genus Inocybe , I. praetervisa has been placed in the subgenus Inocybe . Mycologist Rolf Singer places the species in the section Marginatae ; mycologist Thom Kuyper considers Marginatae a supersection , and includes I. praetervisa along with I. abietis , I. calospora and I. godeyi . Phylogenetics has shown that , in addition to the large clade of subgenus Inocybe , I. praetervisa forms a clade with I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla . The species are similar in that all four have basidiospores with small nodules ; it was this feature that defined the genus Astrosporina , with then A. praetervisa as its type species . However , when phylogenetic analysis later concluded that nodulose @-@ spored Inocybe species do not form a monophyletic group , the name Astrosporina was deemed inappropriate at a generic level . But it may be considered useful at a lower level to refer to the clade of the four Inocybe species . Of those four , I. praetervisa is most closely related to I. calospora , with which it forms a smaller and closer clade . A different study also found the close relationship between I. praetervisa and I. calospora ; it also named I. teraturgus as a part of the clade containing I. praetervisa , I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla .
= = Description = =
Inocybe praetervisa has a bell @-@ shaped ( later expanding ) cap of 3 to 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , which is a yellowish @-@ brown colour . It is fibrous , and splits from the margin ( which curves inwards ) to the centre . The stem is from 5 to 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height , and from 3 to 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) thick . It is white , maturing to a pale straw @-@ yellow , and the whole stem is farinaceous , meaning it is covered in particles resembling meal . The stem has a distinct bulb at the base , which is moderately marginate , and lacks a ring . The flesh is white , and discolours to yellowish in the stem . The gills are initially whitish , but later become a clay @-@ brown with toothed , white edges . They are adnexed , meaning they connect to the stem by only part of their depth , and are crowded closely together .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Inocybe praetervisa leaves a clay @-@ brown spore print , while the spores themselves are rectangular with a large number of " distinct , angular knobs " . In size , the spores measure between 10 and 12 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00039 and 0 @.@ 00047 in ) in length by between 7 and 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00028 and 0 @.@ 00035 in ) in width . Inocybe praetervisa has both pleuro- and cheilocystidia which are relatively spindle @-@ shaped with apical encrustation . The cystidia have hyaline or pale yellow walls .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species can be differentiated from the similar I. cookei by its " irregular , lumpy spores " . It is also similar to I. rimosa , but differs in the presence of a bulb . Another species that can be differentiated by the lack of a bulb is I. numerosigibba .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Inocybe praetervisa is an ectomycorrhizal species , and can be found on the ground in mixed , deciduous or even coniferous woodland . It typically favours beech . Mushrooms grow solitarily or in " trooping groups " in late summer and throughout autumn , though it is not commonly encountered species . It can be found in Europe , Asia and North America .
= = Edibility and toxicity = =
The species has a mild , indistinct taste , and a faint smell of flour . Mycologist Roger Phillips describes its edibility as " suspect " , recommending that it be avoided , and notes that it is possible that the species is poisonous ; most species of Inocybe have been shown to contain poisonous chemicals . Mycologist Ian Robert Hall lists the mushroom as containing the poisonous compound muscarine . Consumption of muscarine could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : excess salivation , lacrimation , uncontrollable urination and defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure .
= Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery =
Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery ( 27 July 1851 – 19 November 1890 ) was a British noblewoman , the daughter of Baron Mayer de Rothschild and the wife of Archibald , Earl of Rosebery . After inheriting her father 's fortune in 1874 , she became the richest woman in Britain .
During the final quarter of the 19th century her husband , the Earl of Rosebery , was one of the most celebrated figures in Britain , an influential millionaire and politician , whose charm , wit , charisma and public popularity gave him such standing that he " almost eclipsed royalty . " Yet his Jewish wife , during her lifetime regarded as dull , overweight and lacking in beauty , remains an enigmatic figure largely ignored by historians and often regarded as notable only for financing her husband 's three ambitions : to marry an heiress , win the Epsom Derby , and become Prime Minister ( the second and third of these possibly apocryphal ambitions were achieved after her death ) . In truth , she was her husband 's driving force and motivation .
Her marriage into the aristocracy , while controversial at the time , gave her the social cachet in an antisemitic society that her vast fortune could not . She subsequently became a political hostess and philanthropist . Her charitable work was principally in the sphere of public health and causes associated with the welfare of working @-@ class Jewish women living in the poorer districts of London .
Having firmly assisted and supported her husband on his path to political greatness , she suddenly died in 1890 , aged 39 , leaving him , distraught and bereft of her support , to achieve the political destiny which she had plotted . His premiership of the United Kingdom was shambolic , and lasted barely a year . For over thirty years following her death , he wandered in a political wilderness , directionless and exceedingly eccentric , until his own death in 1929 .
= = Early years = =
Hannah de Rothschild was born in 1851 into a world of great wealth and luxury . She was the granddaughter of Baron Nathan Mayer Rothschild , who had founded N M Rothschild & Sons , the English branch of the Rothschilds ' banking empire . Niall Ferguson states in his History of the House of Rothschild that by the mid @-@ 19th century the Rothschilds regarded themselves as the nearest thing the Jews of Europe had to a royal family , and the equals of royalty . Whether or not this was strictly true , the many Rothschild homes and their art collections , in England , Austria , France and Germany , certainly rivalled those of the crowned heads of Europe .
Hannah de Rothschild 's father Baron Meyer Amschel de Rothschild married his cousin Juliana Cohen in 1850 . The marriage provided the impetus for Meyer to create what he described as " an enduring monument , " a country house of monumental proportions . His daughter Hannah , aged just six months , laid the foundation stone on 31 December 1851 . Throughout her life , Mentmore Towers was to be a fixed and pivotal point .
Within a few years of the mansion 's completion , attracted by the good hunting and proximity to London , Hannah 's relatives began to build estates nearby , all within a carriage drive of each other ; thus , Hannah grew up in an almost private world of unimaginable splendour and security . Pevsner has described this enclave of Rothschild properties as " the most conspicuous and significant aspect of Victorian architecture in Buckinghamshire . " In addition to Mentmore , Baron and Baroness Meyer de Rothschild had a large house in London , 107 Piccadilly ; The Zenaide , a luxurious yacht moored in the South of France ; and other smaller properties visited only seasonally and occasionally .
As an only child growing up in what were , in all but name , palaces , her childhood appears to have been quite lonely . She was a companion to her hypochondriac mother and , in later life , a hostess with her father during her mother 's long periods of indisposition . She was indulged by both parents and her formal education was neglected in favour of music and singing lessons , subjects in which she was accomplished . Her parents were very protective of her , attempting to ensure that she was never exposed to the risk of sickness or even the sight of poverty . As a result , she was never allowed to enter the cottages on the Rothschilds ' estates . A cousin , who seems to have disliked her , claims that Hannah was so sheltered that the phrase " the poor " was just a meaningless euphemism to her . This is likely to be an exaggeration , as from her teens onwards she used much of her fortune to improve the lot of the poor , in housing and education . Whatever the faults of her education , she possessed great confidence , impressing her Rothschild relations , who noted her poise and competence when she hosted a large house party at Mentmore for the Prince of Wales while only 17 years of age .
Mayer Amschel de Rothschild died in 1874 , leaving his daughter not only Mentmore ( with its priceless art collection ) , his London mansion , and innumerable investments , but also the sum of two million pounds sterling in cash ( equivalent to £ 167 million in present day terms ) . Thus , Hannah de Rothschild became the wealthiest woman in England .
= = Betrothal = =
Hannah de Rothschild was first introduced to her future husband , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Earl of Rosebery , by Lady Beaconsfield , the wife of Benjamin Disraeli , at Newmarket Racecourse . The Disraelis were close friends and neighbours of the Rothschilds in Buckinghamshire .
Archibald , 5th Earl of Rosebery , born in 1847 , had inherited his title from his grandfather in 1868 , when aged 21 , together with an income of £ 30 @,@ 000 a year . He owned 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km ² ) in Scotland , and land in Norfolk , Hertfordshire , and Kent . His father had died when he was eight and he had been brought up by his mother , who had subsequently married Harry Powlett , 4th Duke of Cleveland . His mother was a distant figure , and their relationship was always strained . The Earls of Rosebery , whose family name was Primrose , were old , if undistinguished , members of the Scottish aristocracy . Rosebery was considered to be strikingly handsome and immensely cultivated . He was highly intelligent , and a brilliant future was forecast for him by his tutors at both Eton and Christ Church , Oxford .
As early as 1876 , there were rumours of an engagement . However , several hurdles had to be overcome before a marriage could take place . While the Jewish Rothschilds were accepted into society , and indeed were close friends of some members of the royal family including the Prince of Wales , as elsewhere in Europe , antisemitic feelings were prevalent in the upper echelons of society and particularly so among those closest to the Queen at court , where following the death of the Prince Consort in 1861 the Rothschilds became pointedly excluded . The Queens equerry Arthur Edward Hardinge referred to the Rothschild 's dining tables as " resplendent with the Hebrew gold " going so far as to say a visiting Russian royal needed a " corrective " visit to Westminster Abbey following acceptance of Rothschild hospitality . Queen Victoria herself expressed antisemitic views in 1873 when it was proposed that Lionel de Rothschild be elevated to the peerage the Queen refused and expressed a reluctance to make a Jew a peer – saying " to make a Jew a peer is a step she could not consent to " and furthermore stated to give " a title and mark of her approbation to a Jew " . Lord Spencer advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against attending a Rothschild ball with the words " The Prince ought only to visit those of undoubted position in Society . " However , this did not prevent the Prince from accepting Rothschild 's invitations and gifts privately . While one could be friends with Jews and accept their hospitality , their social status was still not sufficiently elevated to include marriage into the peerage without unfavourable comment .
Rosebery 's own mother was horrified at the thought of a Jewess , even a Rothschild , in the family . Rosebery too felt there was an impassable barrier of faith ; at this time , it was inconceivable that any children could be reared as Jews . Although it has been stated that Rosebery himself was devoid of any antisemitic views , this was not always true , especially in later life .
This factor also worked in reverse ; while Hannah de Rothschild was keen to marry Rosebery , she was also aware of many obstacles , the foremost being that she was devoted to her faith , and to leave it would be a severe moral wrench . Another obstacle was the Rothschild family itself : it was their custom to marry cousins to keep their fortune within the family . Ironically , Hannah herself had opposed the marriage of her cousin Annie de Rothschild to the Christian Eliot Yorke , the son of the Earl of Hardwicke , in 1866 . In fact , she was to be the third daughter of the family 's English branch to marry outside of the Jewish faith , but such was the fame of the bridegroom and the resultant publicity that the Jewish elders and press felt an example needed to be made . The Jewish Chronicle announced its " most poignant grief " at the prospect , and cryptically added , " If the flame seize on the cedars , how will fare the hyssop on the wall : if the leviathan is brought up with a hook , how will the minnows escape , " demonstrating what a threat to the social fabric of the Jewish faith the Jewish elders saw in the prospect of such a marriage . The quotation , originally from the Babylonian Talmud , can be taken to mean that the elders and respected members and more notable members of the Jewish faith should set a good example by strictly following the teachings of the Jewish articles of faith which frown upon marriage to members of other religions .
The formal engagement of marriage was announced on 3 January 1878 , a day Rosebery forever afterwards regarded as sacred . Writing to a friend in January 1878 , Rosebery described his wife as " very simple , very unspoilt , very clever , very warm @-@ hearted and very shy ... I never knew such a beautiful character . " The marriage was celebrated in London on 20 March 1878 at the Board Room of Guardians in Mount Street , and also in a Christian ceremony at Christ Church in Down Street , Piccadilly . To show " official " disapproval , no male member of the Rothschild family attended the ceremonies . However , any shortcomings in the guest list were compensated for by the guest of honour — the Prince of Wales — and Disraeli , who gave the bride away .
= = Marriage = =
For the first few years following their marriage , the Roseberys resided in London in the Piccadilly house Lady Rosebery had inherited from her father . However , as the couple 's social and political interests increased from 1882 , they leased the larger Lansdowne House . Lansdowne House was one of the finest of the aristocratic palaces in London , well suited to be the home of the political salon which Hannah Rosebery was to establish . Here political and social leaders of the day mixed with royalty , authors such as Henry James and Oscar Wilde , and other prominent social and intellectual figures of the time . Henry James , an occasional guest in the Roseberys ' homes , delivered one of the most unflattering condemnations of Lady Rosebery describing her as " ... large , coarse , Hebrew @-@ looking with hair of no particular colour and personally unattractive " .
The Roseberys divided their year among their various homes : London for the social season and parliament , Mentmore at weekends to entertain both political and shooting house @-@ parties . In August the household would move north to Dalmeny for the grouse shooting . In between , occasional days and the weeklong Derby meeting would be spent at their home " The Durdans " in Epsom . Though small by comparison to their other homes , this mansion was described by Henry James as the most homely and comfortable of the Roseberys ' many homes and as a delightful house full of books and sporting pictures , with just a few Gainsboroughs and Watteaux . Together the Earl and Countess of Rosebery added greatly to not only the Mentmore collection but also to that housed at Dalmeny House , Rosebery 's Scottish seat , amassing a great library of rare and continental volumes and a collection of artefacts formerly belonging to the Emperor Napoleon I.
= = = Relationship with Rosebery = = =
Published commentators on the Roseberys claim their marriage was happy , and there is no known evidence that Hannah was anything other than happy in her marriage , and quite a lot to suggest she was indeed blissfully happy . However , much evidence suggests that Rosebery , while professing to be happy , was at times irritated and bored by Hannah , who was always keen to accommodate his every whim .
There were times when Lady Rosebery 's devotion to her husband was tested . Rosebery may have not been antisemitic before his marriage ; however , the acerbic wit for which he was famous led him to make remarks that could have been taken in such a way , once his marriage had secured the Rothschild fortune . Rosebery seems to have disliked his first son , who he claimed looked " Jewish . " On seeing his son for the first time he remarked " Le Jew est fait , rien ne vas plus , " which must have been disconcerting for the child 's very Jewish mother . Rosebery , who has been described as febrile and supercilious , replied in a letter of congratulations on the birth of his heir from Mary Gladstone : " I cannot pretend to be much excited by an event which occurs to almost every human being and which may cause me a great deal of annoyance . " Rosebery then left his newborn child and wife ( who was again pregnant ) for a year @-@ long tour of Australia . On another occasion , when the Roseberys were travelling in India , Rosebery is reported to have announced " I will travel ahead , Hannah and the rest of the heavy baggage will follow the next day . "
While the marriage was based on warmth and esteem on Rosebery 's side and adoration on Hannah 's , it seems that Rosebery often found his wife 's devotion irritating , and this sometimes caused him to be impatient with her . He was often abrupt with her in public . She , by contrast , was completely enraptured by him , and would frequently ignore her neighbours at a dinner party to listen to her husband 's conversation further down the table , a faux pas almost considered a crime in Victorian society . Those who saw the couple alone at home " could not doubt the affection as well as the comprehension that united them . "
However , at times Rosebery 's behaviour could be eccentric . Gladstone remarked that Rosebery was , perhaps , rather too concerned with his health . Early in the marriage Rosebery decided to renovate the small ruined Barnbougle Castle ( the original Rosebery family seat ) , close to , and within sight of , Dalmeny House . Once renovation was complete in 1882 , Rosebery used it as a private retreat from his family , and began to spend his nights there alone . Always an insomniac , he claimed that the " stillness of the waters [ the nearby Firth of Forth ] were conducive to sleep . " Books were his passion , and he assembled a huge library in the small castle . Thus Rosebery was able to lead a life at Dalmeny with his wife , but also quite apart from her .
During their marriage the Roseberys travelled extensively , usually without their children . In September 1883 the couple left their children in the care of the nannies and nursery maids , supervised by Rosebery 's sister Lady Leconfield , for a long tour of America and Australia . Lady Rosebery owned large investments in North America , including ranches in Texas and mines in Montana . Their arrival in New York was widely reported , and a full and flattering description of Lady Rosebery was reported in The Herald . The newspaper went on to describe Rosebery as looking like a prosperous farmer . Lady Rosebery was very taken with California , from where she wrote : " The inhabitants are very entertaining ... the women are very handsome , think nothing of dresses costing £ 80 , " fix up " their faces very frequently and are generally divorced . " Having toured and been fêted in America , the party moved on to Australia via Honolulu . In Australia , Rosebery chose to indulge his habit of solitude , installing his wife in a hotel in Sydney , while he went off alone to tour the outback .
Rosebery 's frequent absences from his wife fuelled gossip that he was a secret homosexual . It has been claimed that the inscrutable air that Rosebery wore was a mask to disguise his secret homosexual life . The worry of this illegal secret , it was claimed , and fear of exposure , caused his insomnia and bouts of depression . It was even whispered that his Barnbougle Castle retreat was really a venue for clandestine assignations with young men . Rosebery 's possible homosexuality has been much discussed in recent times . Nothing conclusive has ever been found one way or the other , but it is possible that he had homosexual experiences while in the care of a paedophile housemaster at Eton in his youth . No evidence exists that his wife was aware of these rumours against her husband , or even that she would have understood them , bearing in mind her sheltered upbringing and limited education . Sex education was not part of a 19th @-@ century upper @-@ class girl 's schooling . The more public and precise accusations of Rosebery 's homosexuality by the Marquess of Queensberry did not occur until three years after Lady Rosebery 's death .
The relationship between the couple appears at times to have been almost that of a mother and child . Rosebery , a self @-@ centred , reserved man , prone to depression , pessimism and insecurity , had a difficult relationship with his mother who had been distant and openly preferred his younger brother . Lady Rosebery , an orphan and only child , appears to have been desperate to lavish affection . Once upon entering a book shop she told her children they were entering a toy shop , and when the disappointed children pointed out the obvious she replied " to your father this is a toy shop . " Lord Rosebery 's friend Edward Hamilton recorded her " notable faculty of getting other people to work and quickening their energies . " It seems she was the driving force of the relationship , with her feet firmly on the ground . She made herself the link between the world and her " thin skinned and neurotic " husband . While her husband sulked or withdrew with hurt pride from a situation , she came to the forefront to plead his case or cause . If she was aware of his faults she gave no indication of it .
= = = Children = = =
The marriage produced four children : Lady Sybil Primrose , born in 1879 ; Lady Margaret Primrose , born in 1881 ; the heir Harry Primrose , Lord Dalmeny ( later 6th Earl of Rosebery ) , born in 1882 ; and finally the Honourable Neil Primrose , born the same year as his elder brother .
As a mother , Lady Rosebery was presented with a dilemma : she was in fact already practically a mother to her husband who had no great feeling for a proximity to small babies . This was particularly evident in June 1880 when shortly after the birth of their first child Sybil , Rosebery wished to visit Germany for three months , to take a cure at a German spa ( he was recovering from what is now thought to have been a nervous breakdown ) . His wife dutifully accompanied him . However , Rosebery , clearly aware of his wife 's frustrated maternal instincts , reported that Hannah savoured every detail of the daily letters from London concerning the baby , and that she never complained at the forced separation .
More revealing is a comment Lady Rosebery herself made to her husband , " I sometimes think it is wrong that I have thought less of the children in comparison to you " shortly before her death in 1890 , suggesting that when a choice between her children and husband was forced on her , she always chose her husband . However , the same comment also hints that she was not unaware that her choice was at the cost of her children .
When assessing Lady Rosebery 's behaviour to her children it should be remembered that she lived in an era of plentiful nannies , wet nurses , nursemaids and governesses which the upper classes employed as the norm . These people were employed regardless of the mother 's affection towards her children ; it was inconceivable that a countess would nurse her own children , and to do so would have been breaking social conventions . Hence her seeming lack of attention to her children was not unusual – she was following the upper class conventions and " stiff upper lip " philosophies of her era . However , in spite of their prolonged absences from their children , the Roseberys do not appear to have been very distant or remote figures in the earliest stages of their children 's lives . Margot Asquith records how Rosebery loved to play and romp on the floor with the children .
= = Politics = =
It has been said of Hannah de Rothschild that she grew up with a good sense and presence of mind , enabling her to deputise for her mother on grand social occasions at Mentmore and in London . This gave her confidence and the experience to be the perfect political wife . Marriage to her altered Rosebery 's status , too : while his wife acquired Christian respectability and a title , Rosebery moved from being one of many wealthy and capable young noblemen to being one with unfathomable riches . This , coupled with his good looks , appealed to the public 's imagination and gave him glamour .
From the outset of the marriage , political members of the Rothschild family took an interest in Rosebery , and he was soon acclaimed as one of the rising hopes of the Liberal Party . As a hereditary peer , he already had a seat in the House of Lords and had made his maiden speech there on attaining his majority . But brilliant as he was , Rosebery tended to lethargy and boredom . Lord Granville in fact considered Rosebery 's wife to be the more ambitious of the pair , and even advised her " If you keep him up to the mark , [ he ] is sure to have his page in history . " The subtle driving of her often languid and lethargic husband to achieve his " page in history " was to become her raison d 'être . Rosebery 's secretary Thomas Gilmour noted : " She is thoroughly genuine and very tender and devoted to Lord Rosebery , it is easy to see that she is very proud of him , and she is a woman of considerable force of character and great energy , she may prove to be a powerful ally in his political career . " Rosebery was not a natural politician . He was an idealist who disliked the rancour of politics , in fact " his innate dislike of politics was something Lady Rosebery always fought against . " However , he was a gifted orator , and this was an era when platform speaking was beginning to replace House of Commons debate . On a tour of America before his marriage , Rosebery had been impressed by the campaigning of prospective political candidates ; in Britain little had changed in that respect since the hustings of the 18th century . He realised how an electorate could be swayed by a candidate touring his prospective constituency , aided by a well thought @-@ out series of events , rallies and advertising , with the candidate 's ideal and attractive family smiling by his side . Thus Lady Rosebery not only pushed and encouraged him behind the scenes but was now to become an encouraging and conspicuous figure by his side . In this way it could be said she was the first openly " political wife " in Britain .
This first became evident in the great campaign to re @-@ elect Gladstone . Known today as the Midlothian campaign , it was masterminded by the Roseberys . Rosebery used his influence to have Gladstone invited to stand as parliamentary candidate for Midlothian , near to Rosebery 's Dalmeny estate . Gladstone had nominally retired from politics after losing his Greenwich seat in 1874 , when Disraeli had been swept to power . The campaign was based at Dalmeny where Lady Rosebery hosted a series of large political house parties throughout the long campaign . The Tories were later to claim that Rosebery had paid for Gladstone 's campaign . Rosebery later admitted to spending £ 50 @,@ 000 .
The Roseberys ' house party would leave Dalmeny and tour towns and cities across Midlothian and Scotland , with Gladstone and the speakers often addressing vast crowds from the back of an American @-@ designed Pullman car specially acquired by Rosebery for the purpose . The scenes at these meetings have been described as something between a carnival and an evangelist 's revival meeting . While in the grounds of Dalmeny House itself , the public were treated to a great firework display .
Throughout all this , Gladstone was supported not only by the popular and charismatic Rosebery but also by an array of well @-@ dressed women including Lady Rosebery and Gladstone 's daughter Mary . These fashionable people – the celebrities of their day ( newspapers at the time gave many column inches each day to the doings of the upper classes ) – were as much a crowd @-@ puller as the political speakers , and Rosebery 's planning used that to full effect . One meeting was so packed that many were fainting : 70 @,@ 000 people applied for tickets in a hall capable of holding 6 @,@ 500 . Lady Rosebery reported , " I had never heard Archie ( Lord Rosebery ) speak in public politically before , but after the first minute I felt I could never be nervous at his making a speech the audience show him great affection . " [ sic ] However it was not just Gladstone and Rosebery the huge crowds had come to see , but also the dutifully supporting and smiling families . Lady Rosebery went on to describe how " They ( the crowds ) patted me on the back till my shoulders were sensitive . " Thus in Rosebery 's first serious involvement in politics , Disraeli was defeated and the newly elected MP for Midlothian became Prime Minister for the second time ( the caretaker liberal leader Lord Hartington retired in favour of Gladstone ) . It was also obvious that Lady Rosebery was a very evident and valuable political electioneering asset . As the Marquess of Crewe put it " she had cut her spurs . "
Her political mettle and ambitions for her husband were however to be more severely tested following the Liberal victory . Rosebery was , as expected , offered a position in Government by Gladstone . It had been rumoured that the position of Viceroy of Ireland or a cabinet place would be proffered , but it turned out to be the job of Under Secretary of the India Office . Rosebery immediately declined the post , giving as his reason that it would appear that he was being repaid for running Gladstone 's campaign ( as though the Viceregal position would not ) . When pressed further he cited ill health — he had been suffering from scarlet fever during the Midlothian campaign and now also appeared to be suffering a minor nervous breakdown . Political leaders urged Lady Rosebery to influence him , but she defended his decision , while stressing that his deterioration in health was only temporary . She had to be careful — if it appeared her husband had declined the offer on the grounds that it was too lowly , it would give substance to the claims being made that he was conceited and petulant . Whatever the truth , and it may be Rosebery 's own explanation that he " disliked hard work , " Lady Rosebery continued to solicit Gladstone for a job for Rosebery within the cabinet . In August 1880 , when Gladstone told her firmly that " There is nothing I can give him , " she claimed she had not been seeking a cabinet post and Gladstone had misunderstood her . At the same time she was canny enough to mention that Sir William Harcourt and Sir Charles Dilke , both radicals opposed to Gladstone 's policies , were " visiting them " and " thoughtful . " Lady Rosebery also began to befriend those politicians such as Lord Northbrook who empathised with her husband , while others such as Lord Granville and Lord Hartington she identified as aloof . She dismissed Lord Spencer with " I can never look on him as a great motive power , besides he does not mention Archie [ Rosebery ] to me . " This was the same Lord Spencer who had advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against visiting the homes of wealthy Jews .
Finally her soliciting paid off and in 1881 , Rosebery was offered a government position acceptable to him , that of Under Secretary at the Home Office with special responsibility for Scotland . He had sought the position feeling that Scotland was neglected by the Liberal Government who were more interested in Ireland . However , immediately upon assuming the job he began to demand a place in the cabinet . The office he sought was that of Lord Privy Seal , a position Gladstone refused on account of Rosebery 's inexperience in Government . It appeared that Rosebery was showing his true colours and he was accused of behaving like a spoilt child , with doubts cast over the honourableness of his reasons for refusing the Under Secretaryship of the India Office . Lady Rosebery , " conscious of her husband 's supreme ability , " wanted him in the cabinet and was furiously agitating her husband 's discontent until Rosebery threatened to resign his Home Office position . Lady Rosebery had an angry row with Gladstone 's wife , where Mrs Gladstone pointed out that if Rosebery resigned he would have nothing but horse racing to interest him , and that Lady Rosebery should be patient as her husband was young . Rosebery , accepting that a cabinet place was not going to be forthcoming , resigned from Government . Lady Rosebery , realising further appeal to the Gladstones was pointless , tried a new avenue — Lord Hartington , the immensely influential Secretary of State for War , who was already quarrelling with Gladstone over the Irish home rule problem , and whom she allegedly met by chance at Preston Railway Station . Inviting him into her carriage for the journey to London , she pleaded her husband 's case for three hours to her captive listener . The Roseberys then immediately left England and their children for a long trip to America and Australia . On their return in 1885 Rosebery was appointed Lord Privy Seal , complete with the seat in the cabinet which he sought .
Gladstone resigned as Prime Minister in 1885 following a Government defeat over the Irish home rule question . The new Tory government was led by Lord Salisbury . However , as a minority administration it was not expected to last , and a swift return of the former administration was anticipated . During this period serious ( if unproven ) charges of plotting and ruthless ambition were about to be levelled against Lady Rosebery . Sir Charles Dilke , considered as a likely replacement for Gladstone , and thus a rival to Rosebery in government , was implicated in one of the most scandalous and ruinous divorce cases of the era . Involvement in any divorce was social suicide in the 19th century , but the facts which emerged were enough to ensure it was political suicide as well . A friend of the Roseberys , Donald Crawford , MP , sued his wife Virginia for divorce naming Dilke as co @-@ respondent . There was little evidence and Dilke denied the charge , which could have been ultimately forgotten , if Virginia had not suddenly decided to sign a confession giving such lurid details that a great scandal was unavoidable . She claimed that not only had Dilke slept with her and taught her " French vices " , but also slept with her mother and partaken in a three @-@ in @-@ a @-@ bed orgy with Virginia and a maid . Dilke denied everything , but his hopes of high political office were ruined forever . Dilke claimed the whole thing was an embroidery of lies and conspiracies by his political enemies . Rumours began to circulate that the Roseberys , and Lady Rosebery in particular , were at the bottom of Dilke 's misfortune . In his futile quest to exonerate himself , and grasping at rumour , Dilke wrote to Rosebery accusing Lady Rosebery of having paid Virginia to make the confession . An outraged Rosebery denied all on his wife 's behalf , while in December 1885 Lady Rosebery 's only response on being told of Virginia Crawford 's confessions was : " Dilke 's behaviour is very astonishing in some reports , though it is not an actual surprise to me . " Early the following year Gladstone was returned to power and Rosebery was appointed Foreign Secretary in Gladstone 's third but brief term of office . Dilke 's political career was ruined , and for years afterwards he continued to expound the Rosebery conspiracy theory . Nothing was ever proven against Lady Rosebery and no tangible evidence exists to substantiate the claim .
The impartiality demanded by Rosebery 's new office forced him to sell many of his business interests , which had come by the way of the Rothschild family , to be seen to be avoiding a conflict of interest . However , his wife 's ambition and part in his rise to power was not only being recognised in high places , but clearly starting to irritate . On being told that Lady Rosebery was very keen for her husband to become Foreign Secretary , Gladstone replied " She would think herself capable of being Queen of the Realm and think the place only just good enough for her . " Rosebery was now on the path to political greatness , but Gladstone 's government fell the same year . Lady Rosebery was not to see her husband achieve the highest political office .
= = Philanthropy = =
Like many other women of her class and era , Lady Rosebery patronised a great number of charities . Her chief causes appear to have all been connected specifically to the assistance and welfare of women . She was president of the Scottish Home Industries Association , a charity which encouraged Scottish women to work profitably from home making plaid or other items of needlework and the like . In this way women , especially widowed mothers , remained in their homes able to care for their often large families while still earning an income .
Queen Victoria appointed her president of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses in Scotland , the beginning of the district nurse system , which was to revolutionise health care for the rural poor and sick in Britain . She was also interested in general improvements in standards of nursing .
Like many of her Rothschild relatives she was also deeply involved with the welfare of young working @-@ class women of the Jewish faith who inhabited the poorer areas of London , in particular Whitechapel . There she founded the Club for Jewish Working Girls . She also donated to numerous other charities connected with Jewish causes . However , within a week of her death her husband began to cancel many of these subscriptions , prompting charges of antisemitism .
Her interest in education has been one of her most obvious surviving charitable legacies . She founded schools in all the villages surrounding the Roseberys ' estates . The Mentmore estate alone was serviced by three schools founded by her at Wingrave , Cheddington and Mentmore itself . Not only were the children educated at her expense by trained teachers , each was also provided with seasonal gifts of new clothes . Cheddington School remains in its original building with her cypher on its walls , while Wingrave School , which opened in 1877 , survives in new premises .
One of her more pioneering and innovative charitable causes was the oral instruction of what were then called the deaf and dumb .
= = Death and legacy = =
Lady Rosebery died of typhoid at Dalmeny in 1890 . She fought the disease , but it was found that she was also suffering from Bright 's disease , which had weakened her , making it impossible to survive the attack . She was buried in accordance with the rites of the Jewish faith . Rosebery found this particularly hard to bear , and wrote to Queen Victoria of the pain he experienced when " another creed steps in to claim the corpse . " It was only after her death that the doctors who had treated her disclosed to Rosebery that her kidney condition would have killed her within two years even if she had not contracted typhoid .
Her funeral was held on 25 November 1890 at Willesden Jewish Cemetery . As is the Jewish tradition , the service was attended only by male mourners , who included most members of Gladstone 's cabinet .
There is no evidence that Lady Rosebery drove her husband to follow her own political agenda , or that of her family . For her the rewards seem to have been the pleasure of seeing a husband she undoubtedly adored in the high office of which she felt him worthy . There is no doubt that she tempered her husband 's more radical views . Immediately following his wife 's death Rosebery retired from politics , writing in October 1891 " The sole object of my ambition has disappeared with the death of my wife . " Proof of the widespread belief in society that Lady Rosebery was the stable element of the partnership was confirmed shortly after her death , by Queen Victoria , following a then rare public speech by Rosebery , in which he supported Home Rule for Ireland . The Queen was shocked and thought the speech " almost communistic " and went on to attribute Rosebery 's " shocking and disappointing " behaviour to the fact that " poor Lady Rosebery is not there to keep him back . " While Queen Victoria always personally liked Rosebery , she mistrusted his politics . The Queen had thoroughly liked Lady Rosebery and wrote Rosebery several letters of condolence , likening his loss to the untimely death of her own consort , Prince Albert . It seems that the Queen 's antipathy to Jews was confined to elevating them to the peerage . This view had softened by 1885 . In 1890 she accepted a luncheon invitation from Lady Rosebery 's cousin Ferdinand de Rothschild and toured Waddesdon Manor albeit eating in a separate dining room to the Jewish members of the party .
Shortly after his wife 's death , Rosebery left his grieving children and went alone on a tour of Spain . Following a visit to El Escorial he wrote on the sepulchral wonders of the building , but added " for the dead alone the Taj is of course supreme . " On his return home he had designed for his wife a Victorian Gothic version of the Taj Mahal in miniature . For the remainder of his life he wore black and used black edged writing paper . Once , when talking with his daughter Sybil , he asked her what mourning she thought her mother would have worn had the situation been reversed . Sybil replied , " She would not have worn any , she would have died at once . "
Ronald Munro Ferguson has been quoted in 1912 as saying " many things would have gone otherwise had Lady Rosebery lived . Her loss is today as great a calamity from every point of view as it was at the time of her death . "
Widowhood changed Rosebery , both mentally and physically : he aged overnight , and began to refer to himself as an old man . Two years after her death , friends were still concerned that he was suicidal . Winston Churchill thought him maimed by her death , and later said of her " she was a remarkable woman on whom Rosebery leaned , she was ever a pacifying and composing element in his life which he was never able to find again because he could never give full confidence to anyone else . "
Sir Edward Hamilton , Rosebery 's closest friend , wrote :
Her qualities were portrayed in literature when Lady Rosebery was reputed to be the model for Marcella Maxwell in Mrs Humphry Ward 's novels Marcella ( 1894 ) and Sir George Tressady ( 1909 ) . The author lived at Stocks close to Lady Rosebery 's home at Mentmore and would certainly have known her , while in the books Marcella 's house is based on Hampden House , also in Buckinghamshire .
The Liberals did not return to office until 1892 . Lord Rosebery was eventually persuaded to enter government , becoming once again Foreign Secretary serving under Gladstone as Prime Minister . In 1894 on Gladstone 's retirement he achieved his wife 's ambitions and became Prime Minister , but by then Lady Rosebery was dead . Without her , Rosebery was a shadow of his former self , taking huge doses of morphine to combat insomnia and nerves . His Prime Ministership lasted barely a year , marred by problems and difficulties . For the remainder of his life and without his wife , as Queen Victoria phrased it , " to hold him back " , he became more and more eccentric and controversial in his decisions . His final years were blighted by ill health and a self @-@ enforced seclusion in Scotland . He died in 1929 .
Before their marriage and his full @-@ time entry into politics , Rosebery 's future wife had written with extraordinary foresight and ambition to him : " I work only to help you , if you are Prime Minister , let me imitate Montagu Corry . " Corry had been Disraeli 's influential private secretary on whom he had relied . Rosebery only ever trusted his wife . Without her to calm and order his life he was a neurotic wreck .
Lady Rosebery 's eldest son , Harry , who was less successful in politics than his father and brother , distinguished himself by becoming captain of Surrey County Cricket Club and owning two Epsom Derby @-@ winning horses . He succeeded his father as 6th Earl of Rosebery and died in 1974 . Margaret married her father 's old friend and biographer the Marquess of Crewe . Such was still the fame of her parents that London traffic was brought to a standstill on her wedding day in 1899 . Lady Crewe became one of the first women magistrates in Britain ; she died in 1955 . Lady Sybil has been summarised by one of her father 's biographers : " Even more eccentric than her father , she spent much of her time living in a caravan . " Neil , the second of the Roseberys ' sons , entered politics and a promising future was foretold for him . However , on the outbreak of World War I he joined the army , and was killed leading a charge at Gezer in 1917 .
Of Hannah Rosebery 's homes , the lease on Lansdowne House was surrendered shortly before her death , when the Roseberys purchased 38 Berkeley Square . This property was transformed into one of London 's most luxurious town houses . However , Lady Rosebery did not live to see the work completed . Her son Harry sold the house in 1938 , and it was demolished . A year later a bomb landed on the empty site during World War II . The Durdans was bequeathed to her daughter , Sybil , in 1929 and was sold together with its contents in 1955 . Lord and Lady Rosebery 's library there was given to the nation at this time . Mentmore , the grandest of the Roseberys ' homes , was sold by Lady Rosebery 's grandson , the 7th Earl of Rosebery , in 1977 , together with the Rothschild art collection , which Lady Rosebery had not only been intensely interested in but had enlarged considerably . She personally catalogued the collection , and prophetically wrote in the preface " In time to come , when , like all collections , this will be dispersed ( and I hope this will be long after my death ) this book may be of value . " Her two @-@ volume work and the collection it described remained so unknown that " Save Mentmore " ( a group attempting to halt the sale of Mentmore to keep the collection within Britain ) failed largely due to widespread public ignorance of both house and collection . A few pieces of furniture and paintings were taken to Dalmeny , ( the only house to remain in the family ) where they are displayed today , and three pictures including Drouais ' Madame de Pompadour were purchased for the National Gallery . The remainder of the collection was dispersed in a week @-@ long sale and is now scattered across the globe . A further sale of the " Continental Library , " to which she had added , was conducted in 1995 at the Aeolian Hall , London by Sotheby 's .
In June 2011 , Christie 's auctioned a set of pearl and diamond jewels ( a tiara , brooch and bracelet ) that were originally in Lady Rosebery 's ownership .
Today , Lady Rosebery is a mere footnote in the long history of her husband 's family , rather as Consuelo Vanderbilt is regarded in the Spencer @-@ Churchill family . Her husband , once one of the " most celebrated figures in Britain , " is a minor figure in British history . Thus , Hannah , Countess of Rosebery , in her day celebrated in the worlds of politics , philanthropy , and high society , is largely unknown and forgotten .
= Hurricane Uleki =
Hurricane Uleki , also referred as Typhoon Uleki , was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in August – September 1988 that had minimal effects on land . Originating from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone in late @-@ August , Uleki was identified as a tropical depression well to the southeast of Hawaii on August 28 . Steady organization ensued as it moved west , becoming a tropical storm on August 30 and a hurricane on August 31 . Rapid intensification took place thereafter and the storm reached its peak intensity on September 2 as a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Hurricane Hunters investigating the cyclone found peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Thereafter , Uleki stalled for two days to the southwest of Hawaii , resulting in heavy surf across the state . The dangerous swells killed two people on Oahu .
Unfavorable environmental conditions caused weakening of the hurricane by September 4 as it resumed a west @-@ northwest course away from Hawaii . Conditions later became favorable and Uleki acquired winds of 105 mph ( 165 mph ) on September 7 , constituting its secondary peak . The hurricane crossed the International Dateline on September 8 and was reclassified as typhoon . Remaining well away from land , the cyclone steadily weakened to a tropical storm by September 12 . Gradually turning north and later east , the degrading cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone four days later and ultimately dissipated on September 17 near the International Dateline .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late @-@ August 1988 , increased convective activity was noted along the Intertropical Convergence Zone by forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . An area of low pressure subsequently developed within this disturbance and was designated as Tropical Depression One @-@ C at 12 : 00 UTC on August 28 . Upon classification , the depression was situated roughly 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii and moving west @-@ northwest . Steady intensification ensued over the following day with the system attaining gale @-@ force winds by 18 : 00 UTC on August 29 , at which time it was assigned the name Uleki . The storm later attained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) on August 31 and was dubbed a hurricane as it passed 350 mi ( 560 km ) south of Hilo . Thereafter , Uleki underwent a sudden period of rapid intensification and achieved major hurricane status later that day . After reaching this strength , Uleki 's forward motion gradually lessened and eventually almost ceased altogether on September 1 as upper @-@ level steering currents collapsed .
With the hurricane situated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands , Hurricane Hunters conducted several weather reconnaissance missions into the storm . On September 2 , they found maximum surface winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) ; this corresponded to the peak intensity of Uleki . At the time , Uleki displayed a well @-@ organized , tight circulation . The hurricane meandered in the same general area over the next two days , executing several small loops , with a slight northward drift . During this time , its circulation increased in coverage but became less @-@ organized as weakening ensued . Increased wind shear and restricted outflow took their toll on the hurricane . The cyclone 's winds dropped to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 as it resumed its west @-@ northwest track under the influence of a subtropical ridge away from the Hawaiian Islands . Uleki passed roughly halfway between Johnston Atoll and the French Frigate Shoals on September 5 . By September 7 , the weakened trend halted and environmental conditions favored reintensification . As Uleki neared the International Dateline , it regained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .
At 00 : 00 UTC on September 8 , the CPHC transferred warning responsibility of Uleki to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the storm was subsequently referred to as a typhoon . Transfer of warnings occurred when the storm was at 178 ° W rather than at the dateline , where the boundary between the Central and West Pacific basins exists , for unknown reasons . Three hours later Uleki made its closest approach to Midway Atoll , passing 200 mi ( 320 km ) to the south . Shortly thereafter the system crossed the International Dateline and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also began advising on the system . The JMA estimated Uleki to have had a pressure of 945 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) at this time ; however , this value was derived from satellite estimates rather than direct measurements . Uleki maintained this strength through September 10 as it continued on its west @-@ northwest course . On that day , the typhoon again entered a region of weak steering currents between two anticyclones within the subtropical ridge . A trough approaching from the west was forecast to prompt Uleki to turn east ; however , the typhoon maintained a general northwest motion in a stair @-@ stepped fashion . Increasing wind shear and cooler air soon imparted weakening , and Uleki degraded to a tropical storm by September 12 .
Continued effects from shear stripped the cyclone of all deep convection , and by September 14 only a band of cirrus clouds remained in association with Uleki . The JTWC issued their final warning on the system at 00 : 00 UTC that day accordingly . The JMA maintained the system as a tropical depression as the former typhoon began turning to the east . Uleki later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 16 as it accelerated to the east . The system dissipated the following day near the International Dateline , far from any major landmasses .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the hurricane stalled to the southwest of Hawaii on September 3 , tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu , Kauai , and Niihau . High surf advisories were raised for all islands as well . Following Uleki 's turn to the west on September 5 , the tropical storm watches were discontinued . The storm 's erratic movement proved to be troublesome for forecasters and they continuously warned residents to be cautious and alert should the storm double @-@ back to the state . On September 4 , lifeguards at Waikiki Beach and Ala Moana Beach rescued 19 people caught in 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) swells . Further north in Oahu , two people drowned after being caught in rough waters .
The storm moved roughly halfway between the French Frigate Shoals and Johnston Island on September 5 with no adverse effects in either region due to its weakened state . On September 7 , the 300 residents of Midway Atoll and United States Coast Guard personnel stationed on Kure Atoll prepared for possible hurricane @-@ force winds from the storm . Hurricane Uleki ultimately passed 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Midway Atoll and produced some coastal flooding from increased surf . Some breaking waves spilled onto the runway at Henderson Field .
= 2016 Spanish Grand Prix =
The 2016 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2016 ) was a Formula One motor race held on 15 May 2016 at the Circuit de Barcelona @-@ Catalunya in Montmeló , Spain . The race was the fifth round of the 2016 season , and marked the forty @-@ sixth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship . It was the twenty @-@ sixth time that the race has been held at the circuit .
Nico Rosberg was the defending race winner and entered the round with a forty @-@ three point lead over teammate Lewis Hamilton in the Drivers ' Championship . Their team , Mercedes , held an eighty @-@ one point lead over Ferrari in the Constructors ' Championship . Hamilton took pole position during qualifying , ahead of teammate Rosberg and Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo .
Max Verstappen won the race upon his debut for his new team Red Bull , having swapped his Toro Rosso seat with Daniil Kvyat ahead of the event . At the age of 18 years and 228 days , Verstappen became the youngest ever winner , the youngest driver to score a podium finish and the youngest ever to lead a lap of a Formula One race , breaking the previous records held by Sebastian Vettel . In the process he also became the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix . Both Mercedes drivers retired from the race following a collision with each other on the first lap , thus marking the first Mercedes double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix and the first time the team had not scored a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daniil Kvyat and Max Verstappen traded places ahead of the race . Verstappen joined Red Bull Racing while Kvyat returned to Scuderia Toro Rosso . Red Bull 's team principal Christian Horner explained the driver swap with Verstappen 's talent , saying that the 18 @-@ year old Dutchman and Daniel Ricciardo had the potential to become Formula One 's best driver pairing . Furthermore , he stressed that Verstappen 's move to Red Bull would tie him to the team for the foreseeable future . Daniil Kvyat meanwhile expressed surprise at the decision , saying during Thursday 's press conference that he was " shocked " by his demotion , stressing that Red Bull did not give him a " real explanation " . Following problems with his power unit in both the Chinese and Russian Grand Prix , Lewis Hamilton received a redesigned MGU @-@ H unit , in a bid to solve the troubles which hampered him earlier . However , Mercedes was unable to guarantee that the problem would not appear again .
With Spain being the first race in Western Europe , and a mid @-@ season test coming up after the race , many teams introduced their first major car updates for the Grand Prix . Mercedes ran a new front wing with a " more pointy " nose during first free practice . Other changes were made to the engine cover and the rear wing . McLaren made more significant changes to their MP4 @-@ 31 , most notably on the front wing , which Sky Sports commentator Ted Kravitz called the " most intricate front wing I 've ever seen " . Force India updated their VJM09 to improve airflow . According to the team , they were looking for improved driveability rather than faster lap times . Renault introduced a new chassis for Jolyon Palmer . More significantly , the French manufacturer debuted a new version of their power unit for both their works team and Red Bull at the two @-@ day test following the race . All other teams except for Sauber also made changes to their cars , with the Swiss team continuing their financial struggles . They also announced that they would be forced to miss the mid @-@ season test , being unable to field a development driver , with regulations demanding that two out of four test days be driven by young driver talents . Both Sauber and Haas were allowed to use the updated version of Ferrari 's 2016 power unit , which the works team had already used in Russia two weeks earlier .
Going into the weekend , Nico Rosberg led the Drivers ' Championship , having taken the maximum number of 100 points from the first four races . Lewis Hamilton followed in second with 57 points , while Kimi Räikkönen was third with 43 points . Daniel Ricciardo followed in fourth , ahead of Sebastian Vettel . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes was first with 157 points , 81 points clear of second @-@ placed Ferrari . Behind them , Red Bull led fourth @-@ placed Williams by just six points .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2016 season , two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on Friday and another 60 @-@ minute session was held before qualifying on Saturday . The Ferrari drivers , Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen , set the pace in the first session , both on the soft tyre compound . The Mercedes drivers Rosberg and Hamilton followed , albeit on the medium compound , recording more timed laps than their rivals . Both Red Bull cars followed in fifth and sixth , with Daniel Ricciardo faster than new teammate Max Verstappen . Valtteri Bottas was seventh for Williams , two places ahead of teammate Felipe Massa , who at one point spun out at turn five . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat was unable to match the pace of his teammate Carlos Sainz Jr . , ending up half a second behind him . Esteban Ocon made his first free practice appearance of the season for Renault , replacing Jolyon Palmer , but was unable to set a timed lap . He suffered a tyre failure , caused by debris on the track . Force India 's Sergio Pérez managed only nine laps as he spent much of the session in the pit lane after smoke emerged from the rear of his car .
Mercedes topped the time sheets in the second session , now switching to the soft compound tyres as well , with Nico Rosberg two and a half @-@ tenths of a second clear of Kimi Räikkönen , while Lewis Hamilton was third fastest , more than seven tenths off Rosberg 's time . Räikkönen 's running was interrupted for a while when he was called back into the pitlane to investigate a fuel system problem , but was able to get back out . Fernando Alonso was seventh fastest for McLaren , but needed a replacement of his car 's plank after running wide over artificial grass surrounding the track . His teammate , Jenson Button , also experienced problems , having to stop at the end of the pitlane early in the session with an electrical issue . Renault 's problem from the first session continued : Jolyon Palmer , back in his car in place of Ocon , suffered a tyre failure on the start @-@ finish straight , bringing out red flags in the process . Renault and tyre supplier Pirelli were left puzzled over the failure , as in this incident , no sign of a cut from debris was found .
Nico Rosberg was again fastest in the third practice session on Saturday morning , setting a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 078 on his first timed run , a time that stood until the end of the session . Hamilton was second , 0 @.@ 126 seconds off , followed by Sebastian Vettel just two @-@ hundredths of a second behind him . In fourth place , Max Verstappen was faster than teammate Ricciardo for the first time , who finished fifth , ahead of Räikkönen . Upon beginning his preparation laps for qualifying , Rosberg had to come back into the garage , as a sensor on his car was malfunctioning . The team was capable of repairing the damage and he went back out for the final minutes of practice . Sergio Pérez was satisfied with the eighth fastest time , saying that the car had improved " everywhere " following the updates it had received .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . In the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Nico Rosberg set a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 002 , the fastest of the weekend up to that point , two @-@ tenths of a second ahead of teammate Hamilton . Manor and Sauber occupied the back rows of the grid . Felipe Massa 's first lap was seven @-@ tenths of a second slower than the one from his teammate Bottas and as he was unable to set another timed lap , he became the surprise elimination in Q1 , behind Jolyon Palmer , who was dropped into 17th place by a late improvement from Jenson Button .
In Q2 , it was Hamilton who came out on top , exactly six @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Rosberg . Verstappen was third fastest , ahead of Ricciardo in fifth . Kimi Räikkönen had to abandon his first fast lap after running wide in turn four , but later set a time good enough for fourth . Meanwhile , Sebastian Vettel recorded just one timed lap , saving a set of tyres and was sixth . On his return to Toro Rosso , Kvyat was eliminated in 13th place , while teammate Sainz went through to Q3 . Sergio Pérez advanced as well , demoting his teammate Hülkenberg into elimination in the process , who would line up eleventh on the grid . Joining him on the sidelines for Q3 were Jenson Button in twelfth , with Romain Grosjean , Kevin Magnussen and Esteban Gutiérrez lining up behind Kvyat .
Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg were the first out in Q3 . Hamilton 's early sector times put him on course to a new fastest lap of the weekend , but a brake lockup at turn ten ruined his lap and tyres , handing provisional pole position to Rosberg . As the two Ferrari drivers struggled to find pace , Max Verstappen claimed second place for the time being , before the drivers went out for their second laps . Lewis Hamilton 's second flying lap bested Rosberg 's time by almost three @-@ tenths of a second , and saw him take the fifty @-@ second pole of his career . The two Red Bull cars of Ricciardo and Ver | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
stappen followed , with Räikkönen and Vettel for Ferrari in fifth and sixth respectively , both more than a second behind Hamilton . Valtteri Bottas was best of the rest ahead of Sainz , Pérez and Alonso . It was the first appearance in Q3 for McLaren since they resumed their association with Honda in 2015 .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , Nico Rosberg got around the outside of Hamilton in turn one , while Räikkönen lost positions due to a slow getaway . Sebastian Vettel got past Verstappen , but was immediately repassed on the approach to turn four . At the front of the race , coming out of turn three Hamilton and Rosberg collided ending the race of both Mercedes drivers . The collision resulted in a safety car period , with the order standing : Ricciardo , Verstappen , Sainz , Vettel and Räikkönen . The safety car came in at the end of lap four . Vettel got past Sainz on lap eight and Räikkönen tried to follow suit two laps later , but was forced off track into turn two . He completed the move one lap later at the same spot . Sainz and Button were the first to come into the pits for new tyres on lap 12 , followed by race leader Ricciardo one lap later , making Verstappen the first Dutchman to lead a Grand Prix , before he came in another lap later . When Vettel made a pit stop on lap 16 , he emerged third behind the two Red Bull drivers , all on the medium compound tyre .
By lap 20 , Sebastian Vettel was closing the gap to the two Red Bulls ahead of him , coming within three second of Verstappen . On lap 22 , Nico Hülkenberg retired when his power unit caught fire and he had to stop on the sidelines . While Massa had fought from 18th on the grid into tenth , his teammate Bottas was lying fifth by lap 25 , ahead of Sainz . On lap 28 , Ricciardo was again the first of the front runners to pit , taking on the soft compound . Vettel came in two laps later , making the same choice in tyres . This left Verstappen to lead Kimi Räikkönen , as it emerged that both would run on a different strategy , pitting only twice in contrast to the three stopping Vettel and Ricciardo . On lap 34 , the gap between the two leaders was 2 @.@ 1 seconds , before Verstappen came in on the following lap . Räikkönen responded one lap later , emerging behind Verstappen . On lap 39 , Vettel came in for his third and final stop , while Ricciardo stayed out for another four laps . When he returned to the track , he was behind Vettel , but on fresher tyres .
While Räikkönen closed on Verstappen at the front , Fernando Alonso 's home race ended on lap 47 , pulling over to the side of the track at turn three . Räikkönen managed to get into the one @-@ second window to activate the drag reduction system ( DRS ) , as Vettel was eight seconds behind him with Ricciardo closing on him in fourth place . By lap 57 , Ricciardo was close enough to use DRS as well , but unable to pass . Three laps later , Ricciardo made an attempt at overtaking into turn one , but braking too late left him running wide , allowing Vettel back through . As the front runners lapped backmarkers , Kvyat , after scoring the first fastest lap for himself and Toro Rosso , overtook Gutiérrez for tenth place . Two laps from finish , Ricciardo suffered a puncture and was forced to pit , but retained fourth place ahead of Bottas . On the last lap , Renault drivers Kevin Magnussen and Jolyon Palmer collided , but both made it to the finish . As Verstappen crossed the finish line , he became the youngest ever and first Dutch race winner in Formula One .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by singer Plácido Domingo , Verstappen expressed delight about a " great race " , crediting his team with giving him a good car . Kimi Räikkönen said that while he was happy for Verstappen , he was disappointed not to have won . He blamed the lack of downforce while following as the reason why he had been unable to pass Verstappen . Vettel congratulated the winner as well , but lamented that his different strategy had not worked out in his favour . During the post @-@ race press conference , Räikkönen stressed that had anyone offered the team two podium positions after their poor performance in qualifying , they would have taken it " happily " . Fourth placed Ricciardo expressed bitterness over Red Bull 's decision to switch him to a three @-@ stop strategy , which eventually lost him a podium position , saying : " I 'm a bit devastated . A big part of me is happy the team are on winning form but it 's hard to celebrate " . His team later explained their decision , declaring that they had focused their strategy on Vettel , who they had considered the biggest threat .
In the Grand Prix , Max Verstappen broke several records : apart from being the youngest ever driver to win a race at 18 years and 228 days , he also was the youngest to stand on a Formula One podium , in both instances breaking Sebastian Vettel 's record set at the 2008 Italian Grand Prix by more than two years . Vettel had been 21 years and 2 months at the time . Verstappen also became the youngest driver to lead at least one lap of a Grand Prix , again overcoming a record set by Vettel , at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix . Verstappen also was the first driver born in the 1990s to win a Grand Prix . He received considerable praise after the race , with Sky Sports F1 's David Croft saying that he " has shown he has everything to be a world champion " . His father Jos Verstappen , himself a former Grand Prix driver , declared that he considered his son a better driver than himself , as race wins had eluded him during his own career in the sport . French sport newspaper L 'Équipe declared Verstappen to be " already a great " and " in the big leagues " . Verstappen was also the first Dutchman to win a race , with the Netherlands becoming the 22nd country to produce a race winner . He was the tenth different winner of the Spanish Grand Prix in as many past editions .
Following their collision , Hamilton and Rosberg were summoned to the stewards after the race but neither received a penalty , as the stewards rated their crash as a racing incident , with no driver in particular to blame . It emerged that Rosberg had chosen the wrong engine mode for the start , being down on power which led to Hamilton going for a passing manoeuvre . However , Rosberg remained convinced that he had done nothing wrong , saying : " I made it very clear I wasn 't going to leave any space on the inside and I was very surprised he went for the gap " . While Hamilton apologised to the team after the incident , he refused to accept blame for it . Opinions about the incident varied : While Mercedes 's executive chairman Niki Lauda blamed Hamilton for the crash , former F1 driver Anthony Davidson said on Sky Sports F1 that Rosberg 's move was " very aggressive " . Three @-@ time world champion Jackie Stewart said after the race that Mercedes should fine Hamilton for the crash : " Hamilton is to blame . Rosberg was allowed to protect himself . You don ’ t go for it on the first lap . " Mercedes 's head of motorsport Toto Wolff stressed after the race that the team would continue to let their drivers race against each other freely , a decision praised by former world champion Alain Prost . While Rosberg said after the race that he comtemplated having a talk with Hamilton about the situation , Mercedes later decided that they did " not need clear @-@ the @-@ air talks " . However , it later emerged that the pair did have a conversation about the incident before the next race in Monaco , which , according to Hamilton , was marked by " pure respect " . It was Mercedes 's first double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix , and the first time they failed to score a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix , ending a 62 @-@ race long streak , the third longest in Formula One history .
For his last lap collision with teammate Jolyon Palmer , Kevin Magnussen received a ten @-@ second time penalty , dropping him one place to 15th . He also received two penalty points to his licence . Carlos Sainz received a reprimand from the stewards for leaving the pit lane one minute before it was allowed . He escaped a more severe penalty because he stopped shortly afterwards , thereby not gaining an advantage . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat recorded the first fastest lap of his career , and the first for the Italian team in their 190th Grand Prix .
With 100 points from the first four races , Nico Rosberg remained on top of the Drivers ' Championship , while Hamilton 's retirement dropped him behind Räikkönen , who now trailed Rosberg by 39 points , four points ahead of Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel and Daniel Ricciardo were level on points with 48 , while Verstappen 's victory moved him into sixth on 38 . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes retained their lead on 157 points , but Ferrari closed the gap to 48 points , with Red Bull in third on 94 . Toro Rosso moved ahead of Haas into fifth , while Force India took seventh from McLaren .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Kevin Magnussen originally finished 14th but received a ten @-@ second time penalty after the race for causing a collision with Jolyon Palmer .
= = = Standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Loverboy ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Loverboy " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on July 16 , 2001 by Virgin Records America as the lead single from Glitter ( 2001 ) . Written and produced by Carey , Larry Blackmon , Thomas Jenkins and Clark Kent , " Loverboy " is built around a sample from " Candy " by Cameo , who are also featured on the track . Lyrically , the song finds Carey fantasizing about her loverboy , a man that will fulfill her physical and sexual desires . The recording was accompanied by an official remix , titled " Loverboy ( Remix ) " , featuring guest artists Ludacris , Da Brat , Shawnna and Twenty II .
The track was subject to controversy , following reports that Jennifer Lopez and Tommy Mottola ( Carey 's ex @-@ husband ) stole the idea of sampling the singer 's original planned sample , Yellow Magic Orchestra 's " Firecracker " , over a month after Carey had signed for it . Since Carey 's Glitter was to be released over a month after Lopez 's album , she changed the song 's melody to sample from " Candy " instead . Controversy ensued following its release ; Carey was hospitalized for severe mental and physical exhaustion , following poorly received television appearances involving the song and album .
After the song 's release in the United States , " Loverboy " stalled on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached a peak of number two on the Hot 100 but failed to top the chart due to weak radio airplay . Though finishing as the best @-@ selling song of 2001 in the United States , " Loverboy " became Carey 's first lead single to not reach number one . Internationally , the song failed to garner strong charting , reaching the top @-@ ten in Australia and Canada , and the top @-@ twenty in Italy and the United Kingdom .
" Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many called the song unoriginal and dated while others felt that the featured artists ( primarily on the remix version ) overpowered Carey and made the song disorganized . A music video , directed by David LaChapelle , was shot for both versions of the song . The first version features Carey as a scantily @-@ clad car girl , waving a flag as her loverboy finishes a race . The video for the remix version features similar footage , only including shots of the song 's guests in race @-@ cars during their verses . Finally , she performed " Loverboy " live on The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release of " Loverboy " , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the song . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " . While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , she admitted that he was meant to act surprised in order to provide a more dramatic effect for the program . Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention , with many critics and newspapers citing her behavior as " troubled " and " erratic " . In the days following her appearance on TRL , Carey had begun displaying " erratic behavior " during a public record signing for the single at Tower Records in New York . As the appearance was filmed , she began rambling on several points , leading her to discuss radio @-@ host Howard Stern , and how his form of humor on his program bothered her greatly . At that point , Carey 's publicist Cindi Berger grabbed the microphone from her hand , and ordered the cameras to stop filming . Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website :
I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself .
After the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . Two days later on July 26 , she was suddenly hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both the film 's soundtrack and the film itself for three weeks : from August 21 to September 11 and from August 31 to September 21 , respectively . Following Carey 's absence from the public eye , as well as her abandonment of promotional appearances for the film and soundtrack , her unprecedented $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records ( EMI Records ) was bought out for $ 50 million . The decision was brought out due to the low sales of the project , as well as the negative publicity surrounding her breakdown . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Additionally , she founded her own label modeled after her initials , MonarC Entertainment , and signed a new three @-@ album record deal with Island Records , valued at over $ 23 million .
At the time of the single 's release , Carey did not perform " Loverboy " live . The first performance of the song came 15 years later , on Carey 's Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .
= = Composition = =
" Loverboy " ' s hook is built around a sample of " Candy " , by Cameo . Aside from borrowing from the melody , " Loverboy " features Cameo as a lead vocalist on the track . According to Chuck Taylor from Billboard , " Loverboy " is reminiscent of several of Carey 's previous lead singles , as they too were predominantly built around samples of older songs . He described some of its background flourishes as " swirling harmonies overtop " , and noted the inclusion of many shouts and ad @-@ libs from Carey and Cameo . Due to the song 's heavy usage of the " Candy " sample , and the heavy blend of instrumentation and vocals , he said that to his bewilderment , the song was " devoid of a standard hook " . NME 's Elios Therepio felt the idea of sampling " Candy " was genius " on paper " , but once recorded , suffered from various miscalculations . He felt it didn 't match the success Carey 's previous single , " Fantasy " ( which also recalled its melody from an older song ) , and criticized the inclusion of several over @-@ the @-@ top " keyboard and synth arrangements " . Regarding Carey 's voice , aside from describing it as " obscured " , Therepio expressed his difficulty in understanding her lyrical phrases , claiming it was weakened from " no @-@ everyone @-@ can @-@ understand @-@ what @-@ you 're @-@ saying ' -itis " . Gil Kaufman from MTV News noted the inclusion of " bouncing funky bass [ and ] rock guitars " , while Roger Caitlin of the Hartford Courant described how Carey was often reduced to " breathy background vocals " on " Loverboy " . Lyrically , the song finds Carey looking for her " loverboy " , and a sugar @-@ daddy that 's going to " love her right " . Therepio found it ironic how Carey was crooning for a sugar @-@ daddy , when she had just left one ( referring to her older ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola ) . Additionally , he felt Carey was molding her image from that of a balladeer , to a " pin @-@ up image " of a pop star . The song 's lyrics are racy , and feature the protagonist asking for her " loverboy " to fulfill her sexual desires : " Loverboy come on and love me / Give me more " .
= = = Sampling controversy = = =
Throughout 2000 , Carey had already been writing and recording material for Glitter . During this period , she developed the concept for the album 's lead single , " Loverboy " . Originally , Carey had sampled the melody and hook from the 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra song " Firecracker " , using an interpolation of it throughout the chorus and introduction . In early theatrical trailers for Glitter , the original version of " Loverboy " was still featured . As Carey had ended her contract with Columbia Records , Jennifer Lopez was signed by Tommy Mottola , and had begun recording material for her album , J.Lo ( 2001 ) . According to The Inc . ' s Irv Gotti , Mottola , head of Columbia and Carey 's ex @-@ husband , knew of Carey 's usage of the " Firecracker " sample , and attempted to have Lopez use the same sample before her . At the time , Carey had become increasingly paranoid over outside executives being informed about Glitter , especially following news of Lopez 's " theft " of the song . When the music publishers for " Firecracker " were questioned , they admitted Carey had licensed usage of the sample first , and Lopez had signed for it over one month later , under Mottola 's arrangement . Following the scandal , Carey was not able to use the original sample , as Lopez 's album was to be released far earlier than Glitter . She subsequently changed the composition of " Loverboy " , and incorporated a new sample , " Candy " by Cameo . According to Gotti , Mottola contacted him with instructions to create the Murder Remix of " I 'm Real " to sound exactly like another Glitter track he produced , titled " If We " featuring rappers Ja Rule and Nate Dogg . The " Firecracker " sample was eventually used by Lopez on her song " I 'm Real " , from her album J.Lo. The remix of Mariah 's " Loverboy " featured rapper Da Brat singing a pointed message about " bitches emulating [ her ] daily " , to the melody from " Firecracker " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Loverboy " was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many were not impressed with the incorporation of the sample , and felt the song didn 't lead Carey into any newer ground or innovation . Additionally , several reviewers were not impressed with Carey 's concealed vocals and the song 's overly @-@ complicated production . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald described the song 's production as a " traffic @-@ jam " and wrote " ' Loverboy ' is another in an increasingly long line of glitzy , candy @-@ coated , creatively stunted song . " Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Natalie Nichols felt " Loverboy " was " predictable " and presented nothing new for Carey 's audience . USA Today 's Edna Gunderson wrote the song off as " skimpy " , while Glenn Gamboa from Newsday described its overall reception as " lukewarm " . Harry Guerin from Raidió Teilifís Éireann outed the song as one of Carey 's " finest moments " on Glitter , and disagreed with criticism regarding the " overly @-@ populated " musical background " . Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine listed the song as the only " recommended " song from Glitter , while Gil Kaufman of MTV News called it a " fun , uptempo dance number " . Craig Seymour from Entertainment Weekly rated " Loverboy " a C- , and criticized its lyrical content and production . An anonymous writer from The Guardian felt the song had " no decipherable tune " , due to the inclusion of electronic musical instruments and background shouts and ad @-@ libs . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor described the song as " self @-@ sabotage " , and felt Carey was gambling her longevity . He described the production as a " mumbo jumbo of disparate elements " , and wrote " the mighty may have fallen here " .
= = Chart performance = =
Prior to Virgin 's release of " Loverboy " , Carey halted all promotional appearances corresponding to the song . Citing an emotional breakdown and a subsequent hospitalization , Carey remained out of the public eye for several weeks . After its release , " Loverboy " failed to garner strong charting on prominent international markets , and received poor radio airplay throughout the United States . " Loverboy " peaked atop the Billboard 's Hot Singles Sales chart for four consecutive weeks , though due to weak airplay , managed to reach number two on the Billboard Hot 100 with " Bootylicious " by Destiny 's Child holding it back from the top position . " Loverboy " finished as the best @-@ selling single of 2001 in the United States , with sales of 571 @,@ 000 units , falling short of the previous year 's best @-@ seller , which accumulated sales upwards of one million copies . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the song Gold . In Canada , " Loverboy " peaked at number three on the singles chart , and charted for a total of thirteen weeks .
Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song peaked outside the top @-@ twenty in most countries . " Loverboy " debuted at its peak position of number seven on the Australian Singles Chart , during the week of July 29 , 2001 . The following week , the song began its decline , and experienced a total chart trajectory of seven weeks . The song was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . On July 29 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 65 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of three weeks in the chart . The song achieved relatively weak charting in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers 49 and 34 , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number 54 , " Loverboy " charted for a total of nine weeks in France , before falling out on November 3 , 2001 . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , the song made its debut at number 68 . The following week the song peaked at number 34 , before dropping outside the top 40 three weeks later , ending its five @-@ week run . On July 26 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 49 on the Swedish Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number 44 . Similarly in Switzerland , the song peaked at number 66 , and spent only four weeks fluctuating inside the chart . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at its peak of number 12 . The following week , the song dropped to number 29 on the chart , before dropping outside the top @-@ forty two weeks later .
= = Remix = =
Aside from the regular version of the song , an official remix of " Loverboy " was included on Glitter . The song 's main remix , titled " Loverboy " ( Remix ) , uses the same sample as the album version and retains all of Carey 's original vocals . It has a different introduction , the singing and spoken parts of Cameo are greatly reduced ( and are not credited ) , and additional raps are included by Da Brat , Ludacris , Shawnna , and Twenty II . Critics panned the song , agreeing that the inclusion on the former pair only made it more difficult to hear and understand Carey 's singing . Many described their inclusion as " upstaging " the singer , while others felt they made the song increasingly tumultuous . NME writer Elios Therepio rated the remix five out of ten stars , and claimed the song to have been a much weaker lead single than Carey 's " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) . Jim Farber from Daily News criticized Brat 's verse , writing how it " cut right through " the production . The Morning Call 's Len Righi described the remix as " cloddish " , while Jim Abbott from the Orlando Sentinel felt the song 's guests " upstaged " Carey .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Two music videos , both directed by David LaChapelle , were shot for the song and its accompanying remix . The videos introduced a less demure image of Carey , one that received negative backlash from critics . She appears in the video with a lighter hair color than she had sported in the past , and wearing a series of revealing ensembles . Reviewers disregarded Carey 's newer image , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra , and likened her to younger pop singers such as Britney Spears , which they felt cheapened the singer . The video begins with Cameo driving all over a racetrack , while Carey , dressed in revealing clothing , is shown singing in various " car girl " positions at the track on a hot summer day . She flags down cars as the " flag girl " and dances as a " tire girl " in a kaleidoscope @-@ inspired sequence , before jumping out of a pop out cake to the roars of the crowd below . Several other scenes of Carey in a pink jumpsuit while riding on top of a race @-@ car are shown , during which Cameo continues the race . A video was also made for the remix and retains most of the shots of the original . In it , Ludacris and Shawnna can be seen rapping together as they ride in an old car , while Da Brat and Twenty II rap together in a more modern car without a hood .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video for " Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom felt Carey was portrayed in an overtly sexual manner . A writer from The Guardian criticized the video , calling it " wacky " and describing Carey 's choreography as " running amok " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani felt the video was " brilliantly over @-@ the @-@ top " , while an anonymous columnist from NME commented that it would cause male viewers to " play with themselves " after watching . In a countdown of the " The 5 Least Sexiest Music Videos " , Priya Elan from NME included the video at number three , writing how the singer " spins with the mad @-@ eyed grace of someone who hasn ’ t been to sleep for 72 hours " ( referring to Carey 's mention of insomnia as a reason for her breakdown ) . Japiya Burns of The Michigan Daily was critical of Carey 's portrayal in the video , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra . He felt that in doing so , Carey was cheapening herself and her image to resemble younger pop singers such as Britney Spears .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Glitter adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals
Larry Blackmon – songwriting
Tomi Jenkins – songwriting
Clark Kent – producer
Carl " Butch " Small – percussion
Peter Novak – engineer
Andrew Felluss – engineer
Ann Mincieli – engineer
Anthony Kilhoffer – engineer
Elliot Blakely – engineer
Dana Jon Chappelle – mixing
Michael " Mikizza " Schlesinger – mixing
Cameo – vocals
Mary Ann Tatum – background vocals
Remix
Da Brat – songwriting , vocals
Ludacris – songwriting , vocals
Shawnna – songwriting , vocals
Twenty II – songwriting , vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Allah =
Allah ( / ˈælə , ˈɑːlə , əlˈlɑː / ; Arabic : الله , translit . Allāh , pronounced [ ɑɫ 'ɫɑh ] ) is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions . The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al ilāh , which means " the God " , and has cognates in other Semitic languages , including Elah in Aramaic , ʾĒl in Canaanite and Elohim in Hebrew .
The word Allah has been used by Arabs of different religions since pre @-@ Islamic times . More specifically , it has been used as a term to refer to God by Muslims ( both Arab and non @-@ Arab ) and Arab Christians . It is now mainly used by Muslims and Arab Christians to refer to God . It is also often , albeit not exclusively , used in this way by Bábists , Bahá 'ís , Indonesian and Maltese Christians , and Mizrahi Jews . Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists . Grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed " spontaneously " ( murtajal ) or as the definite form of lāh ( from the verbal root lyh with the meaning of " lofty " or " hidden " ) . Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew , but most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- " the " and ilāh " deity , god " to al @-@ lāh meaning " the deity " , or " the God " . The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory , and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism .
Cognates of the name " Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages , including Hebrew and Aramaic . The corresponding Aramaic form is Elah ( אלה ) , but its emphatic state is Elaha ( אלהא ) . It is written as ܐܠܗܐ ( ʼĔlāhā ) in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ ( ʼAlâhâ ) in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church , both meaning simply " God " . Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural ( but functional singular ) form Elohim ( אלהים ) , but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah ( אלוהּ ) . In the Sikh scripture of Guru Granth Sahib , the term Allah ( Punjabi : ਅਲਹੁ , translit . ਅਲਾਹ ) is used 37 times .
= = Usage = =
= = = Pre @-@ Islamic Arabians = = =
Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions . Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre @-@ Islamic polytheistic cults . Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon . The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion . According to one hypothesis , which goes back to Julius Wellhausen , Allah ( the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh ) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal ( the supreme deity of Quraysh ) over the other gods . However , there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities . According to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca , about a century before the time of Muhammad . Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier , but we know nothing precise about this use . Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities . There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult . No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed . Muhammad 's father 's name was ʿAbd @-@ Allāh meaning " the slave of Allāh " .
= = = Christianity = = =
The Aramaic word for " God " in the language of Assyrian Christians is ʼĔlāhā , or Alaha . Arabic @-@ speakers of all Abrahamic faiths , including Christians and Jews , use the word " Allah " to mean " God " . The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for " God " than " Allah " . ( Even the Arabic @-@ descended Maltese language of Malta , whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic , uses Alla for " God " . ) Arab Christians , for example , use the terms Allāh al @-@ ab ( الله الأب ) for God the Father , Allāh al @-@ ibn ( الله الابن ) for God the Son , and Allāh al @-@ rūḥ al @-@ quds ( الله الروح القدس ) for God the Holy Spirit . ( See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God . )
Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works . They adopted the Muslim bismillāh , and also created their own Trinitized bismillāh as early as the 8th century . The Muslim bismillāh reads : " In the name of God , the Compassionate , the Merciful . " The Trinitized bismillāh reads : " In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit , One God . " The Syriac , Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words " One God " at the end . This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims .
According to Marshall Hodgson , it seems that in the pre @-@ Islamic times , some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba , a pagan temple at that time , honoring Allah there as God the Creator .
Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el @-@ Jimal in Northern Jordan , which contained references to Allah as the proper name of God , and some of the graves contained names such as " Abd Allah " which means " the servant / slave of Allah " .
The name Allah can be found countless times in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia , as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms .
A Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad was martyred in Najran in 523 , as he had worn a ring that said " Allah is my lord " .
In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512 , references to Allah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic , which called him " Allah " and " Alaha " , and the inscription starts with the statement " By the Help of Allah " .
In pre @-@ Islamic Gospels , the name used for God was " Allah " , as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre @-@ Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia .
Pre @-@ Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry " Ya La Ibad Allah " ( O slaves of Allah ) to invoke each other into battle .
" Allah " was also mentioned in pre @-@ Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia .
= = = Islam = = =
In Islam , Allah is the unique , omnipotent and only deity and creator of the universe and is equivalent to God in other Abrahamic religions .
According to Islamic belief , Allah is the most common word to represent God , and humble submission to his will , divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith . " He is the only God , creator of the universe , and the judge of humankind . " " He is unique ( wāḥid ) and inherently one ( aḥad ) , all @-@ merciful and omnipotent . " The Qur 'an declares " the reality of Allah , His inaccessible mystery , His various names , and His actions on behalf of His creatures . "
In Islamic tradition , there are 99 Names of God ( al @-@ asmā ’ al @-@ ḥusná lit. meaning : ' the best names ' or ' the most beautiful names ' ) , each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah . All these names refer to Allah , the supreme and all @-@ comprehensive divine name . Among the 99 names of God , the most famous and most frequent of these names are " the Merciful " ( al @-@ Raḥmān ) and " the Compassionate " ( al @-@ Raḥīm ) .
Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase in shā ’ Allāh ( meaning ' if God wills ' ) after references to future events . Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of bismillāh ( meaning ' in the name of God ' ) .
There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims , including " Subḥān Allāh " ( Holiness be to God ) , " al @-@ ḥamdu lillāh " ( Praise be to God ) , " lā ilāha illā Allāh " ( There is no deity but God ) and " Allāhu akbar " ( God is greater ) as a devotional exercise of remembering God ( dhikr ) . In a Sufi practice known as dhikr Allah ( lit. remembrance of God ) , the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name Allah or other divine names while controlling his or her breath .
Some scholars have suggested that Muḥammad used the term Allah in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God , a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful . According to Böwering , in contrast with pre @-@ Islamic Arabian polytheism , God in Islam does not have associates and companions , nor is there any kinship between God and jinn . Pre @-@ Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind , powerful , inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control . This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God .
According to Francis Edwards Peters , " The Qur ’ ān insists , Muslims believe , and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ( 29 : 46 ) . The Qur ’ an 's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham " . Peters states that the Qur 'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh , and as a universal deity , unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites .
= = As a loanword = =
= = = English and other European languages = = =
The history of the name Allāh in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century ; for example , Thomas Carlyle ( 1840 ) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God . However , in his biography of Muḥammad ( 1934 ) , Tor Andræ always used the term Allah , though he allows that this " conception of God " seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies .
Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word . For example , because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula , the word ojalá in the Spanish language and oxalá in the Portuguese language exist today , borrowed from Arabic ( Arabic : إن شاء الله ) . This phrase literally means ' if God wills ' ( in the sense of " I hope so " ) . The German poet Mahlmann used the form " Allah " as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity , though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey .
Some Muslims leave the name " Allāh " untranslated in English . The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept .
= = = Malaysian and Indonesian language = = =
Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use Allah to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages ( both of which are standardized forms of the Malay language . ) Mainstream Bible translations in the language use Allah as the translation of Hebrew Elohim ( translated in English Bibles as " God " ) . This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century . The first dictionary of Dutch @-@ Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl , Justus Heurnius , and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 ( revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin @-@ edition ) recorded " Allah " as the translation of the Dutch word " Godt " . Ruyl also translated Matthew in 1612 to Malay language ( first Bible translation to non @-@ European language , only a year after King James Version was published ) , which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629 . Then he translated Mark which was published in 1638 .
The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term Allah in any other but Muslim contexts , but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law , ruling that it was unconstitutional . While Allah had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of Allah by the Roman Catholic newspaper The Herald . The government appealed the court ruling , and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the appeal was heard . In October 2013 , the court ruled in favor of the government 's ban . In early 2014 , the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia . However , the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian state of Sabah and Sarawak . The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long @-@ established and local Alkitab ( Bibles ) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years . Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia .
As a reaction to some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced a " 10 @-@ point solution " to avoid confusion and misleading information . The 10 @-@ point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20 @-@ point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah .
= = = In other scripts and languages = = =
Allāh in other languages that use Arabic script is spelled in the same way . This includes Urdu , Persian / Dari , Uyghur among others .
Assamese , Bengali : আল ্ লাহ Allah
Bosnian : Allah
Chinese ( Mandarin ) : 阿拉 Ālā , 安拉 Ānlā ; 真主 Zhēnzhǔ ( semantic translation as " the true master " ) , 胡大 Huda ( Khoda , from Persian language )
Czech , Slovak : Alláh
Greek : Αλλάχ Allách
Filipino : Alā or Allah
Hebrew : אללה Allah
Hindi : अल ् लाह Allāh
Malayalam : അള ് ളാഹ ് Aḷḷāh
Japanese : アラー Arā , アッラー Arrā , アッラーフ Arrāfu
Latvian : Allāhs
Maltese : Alla
Korean : 알라 Alla
Polish : Allah , also archaic Allach or Ałłach
Russian , Ukrainian , Bulgarian : Алла ́ х Allakh
Serbian , Belarusian , Macedonian : Алах Alah
Spanish , Portuguese : Alá
Thai : อัลลอฮ ์ Anláw
Punjabi ( Gurmukhi ) : ਅੱਲਾਹ Allāh , archaic ਅਲਹੁ Alahu ( in Sikh scriptures )
Turkish : Allah
= = Typography = =
The word Allāh is always written without an alif to spell the ā vowel . This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell ā . However , in vocalized spelling , a small diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate the pronunciation .
One exception may be in the pre @-@ Islamic Zabad inscription , where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone @-@ standing h with a lengthened start , or may be a non @-@ standard conjoined l @-@ h : -
الاه : This reading would be Allāh spelled phonetically with alif for the ā .
الإله : This reading would be al @-@ Ilāh = ' the god ' ( an older form , without contraction ) , by older spelling practice without alif for ā .
Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah .
= = = Unicode = = =
Unicode has a codepoint reserved for Allāh , ﷲ = U + FDF2 , in the Arabic Presentation Forms @-@ A block , which exists solely for " compatibility with some older , legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly " ; this is discouraged for new text . Instead , the word Allāh should be represented by its individual Arabic letters , while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature .
The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode , in the Miscellaneous Symbols range , at codepoint U + 262B ( ☫ ) .
= Moment of Surrender =
" Moment of Surrender " is a song by rock band U2 and the third track on their 2009 album No Line on the Horizon . During the initial recording sessions for the album in 2007 in Fez , Morocco , the band wrote the song with producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois within a few hours . Together , they recorded the song in a single take ; Eno called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience [ he 's ] ever had " . According to him and Lanois , the track is the closest the band came to realising their original concept for the album of writing " future hymns " . The seven @-@ minute song features gospel @-@ like vocals in the chorus , along with a predominantly organ- and piano @-@ based musical accompaniment . Lyrically , the song is about a drug addict who is undergoing a crisis of faith .
" Moment of Surrender " was praised by critics , many of whom called it one of the album 's stand @-@ out tracks . The song was compared to the group 's earlier ballads " With or Without You " and " One " . It was performed at all but two of the band 's concerts on the U2 360 ° Tour , most often as the closing song . During performances , the stage lights were dimmed and fans were urged to hold up their mobile phones to create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . Although it was not released as a single , Rolling Stone named " Moment of Surrender " the best song of 2009 , and in 2010 , they ranked it 160th on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Moment of Surrender " was written by U2 and No Line on the Horizon producers / co @-@ writers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois during a two @-@ week recording session in Fez , Morocco between May and June 2007 . The song was developed within a few hours , and then recorded in a single take in a riad of the hotel Riad El Yacout . Eno began by creating a percussion loop of a " rolling hand drum " so that the band would have something to improvise along with when they joined him for songwriting and recording . However , Eno had not arranged the loop properly and the result was a strange , uneven beat that he compared to " a wheeled carriage that had one of the wheels a bit cracked " or " the way a camel moves " . Although Eno was trying to fix the loop , drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. began playing along to it . Eno then asked guitarist the Edge to play some chords . After a quick discussion about the chord changes and the meter ( in which they decided to have a " funny layout " that was not based on " eighths or sixteenths " ) , the six of them improvised the entirety of the piece .
As they began to play , bassist Adam Clayton developed a bassline . The part was originally based on the Grandmaster Melle Mel song " White Lines ( Don 't Don 't Do It ) " before Clayton changed to a more trance @-@ like bassline . Vocalist Bono created some melodies and sang over the music . During the album 's recording , Bono had become tired of writing in the first @-@ person and he began writing lyrics and singing from the perspective of different characters . During the writing of " Moment of Surrender " , Bono assumed the character of a drug addict having a crisis of faith . The song title was borrowed from the Alcoholics Anonymous term for when an addict admits being " powerless over alcohol " and needs help . Bono had attempted to use the phrase " vision over visibility " in the lyrics of earlier songs ; however , " Moment of Surrender " was the first song where he felt it was appropriate to be used . Eno called Bono 's singing in this character as " so heartbreaking agonized and vulnerable " , creating a feeling like " a knife to the heart " . Lanois contributed by developing the gospel @-@ like chorus . The uneven hi @-@ hat from the drum part stems from Mullen 's electronic drum kit malfunctioning during the song 's recording . Eno was amazed by each performer 's ability to develop and play their part without any instructions or cues . After the song 's recording completed , everyone in the studio , including a gathering of production personnel and visitors , was completely silent , and Eno suggested it was as if they had gone on an " emotional adventure of some kind " . He called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience I 've ever had " , and he believes the " emotional crescendo " heard in the song properly captures how they felt as they improvised the piece . Bono stated " it was a spell and we were in it " .
The song was played only once and received minor treatments afterwards , with the addition of a cello part in the introduction and some editing , which included removing a verse to reduce the song 's length . Eno was outraged that U2 wanted to shorten the song , and he was adamant that the band not alter the original track too much , saying , " These fucking guys , they 're supposed to be so spiritual — they don 't spot a miracle when it hits them in the face . Nothing like that ever happened to me in the studio in my whole life . " The band 's original concept for No Line on the Horizon was to create an album of future hymns — songs that would be played forever . According to Eno and Lanois , " Moment of Surrender " is the closest the band came to reaching that concept .
= = Composition = =
" Moment of Surrender " is played in common time at a tempo of 87 beats per minute in a key of A minor . The song makes use of the conventional verse @-@ chorus form . The song begins with an uneven percussion loop , before an ambient synthesiser fades in and the drums enter at 0 : 08 . A cello part joins and the synthesiser plays the chord progression C – Am – F – C – G – E – D7 . At the end of the progression , 47 seconds into the song , the intensity of the synthesier rises before an organ , bass guitar , and piano subsequently enter . At 1 : 16 , Bono 's vocals enter and the first verse begins , lasting three stanzas . After the first chorus concludes and the second verse begins at 2 : 59 , the Edge begins playing a guitar riff . The second verse lasts two stanzas . After the second chorus , a piano interlude begins , with Lanois contributing pedal steel . The Edge begins a slide guitar solo at 4 : 59 that many critics compared to the playing style of Pink Floyd 's David Gilmour . After the third chorus ends at 6 : 11 , " Oh @-@ oh @-@ ohhh " vocals and a guitar figure bring the song to its conclusion .
Lanois noted that the song had a very " Canadian sound " that was like a tribute to the Band , calling it the " Simcoe sound " . Rolling Stone said the song " merges a Joshua Tree @-@ style gospel feel with a hypnotically loping bass line and a syncopated beat " . The song makes prominent use of organ and piano .
= = Reception = =
" Moment of Surrender " was well received by critics after the release of No Line on the Horizon . David Fricke of Rolling Stone enjoyed the song , writing , " The rising @-@ falling effect of the harmony voices around Bono ... is a perfect picture of where he really wants to be , when he gets to the line about ' vision over visibility . ' " Blender considered it the high @-@ point of the album , comparing it to the band 's 1987 single " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " . Reviewer Rob Sheffield complimented the melding of bass , guitar , and vocals , calling it " the kind of gimme @-@ divinity anthem that U2 cut their teeth on , except it really does seem like they 've gotten better at these songs now that they 've picked up some bummed @-@ out adult grit . Bono actually sounds scared of something in this song , and whether his nightmares are religious or sexual , the fear gives his voice some heft . " NME felt that it was the " most impressive " song on the album , describing it as a " gorgeously sparse prayer built around Adam Clayton 's heartbeat bassline and Bono 's rough growl " , and noting that despite its seven @-@ minute length , it did not feel too long . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian was more critical of the song , saying it " doesn 't have enough of a tune to support the full seven @-@ minute gospel treatment " , a sentiment that The Times agreed with .
Spin reviewed the track favourably , calling it a " celebrity @-@ at @-@ the @-@ crossroads soul ballad " with an " ambient gospel sweep that 's both haunted and joyful " . Mojo praised the song 's musicianship , saying it was " graced by swaggering performances " and that the Edge 's " languid guitar solo " was reminiscent of David Gilmour . Q echoed these sentiments , commending Bono 's soulful singing and the Edge 's solo . The reviewer christened the song as " this album 's ' One ' or ' With or Without You ' , with added bonus points " . The Washington Post called the song one of the record 's highlights and enjoyed the track 's gospel qualities . The reviewer wrote , " The vocal harmonies on the choruses sound like something out of a church in some distant , dystopian world ; the woozy , slightly detuned piano adds to that impression ... " Hot Press gave the song a favourable review , calling it a " sweeping " track and suggesting it " conjure [ s ] the same spiritual vibe as Marvin Gaye 's ' Abraham , Martin & John ' " . Time gave No Line on the Horizon a negative review , but praised " Moment of Surrender " for its " heartbreaking melody " and Bono 's " Oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals that reminded the critic of the end of " With or Without You " . Bono and Daniel Lanois both cited the song as their favourite track on the album , and Brian Eno thought the band should have chosen it as the album 's first single . Musician Gavin Friday described the song as " Al Green on Irish steroids " , and Hot Press editor Niall Stokes called it " a modern rock classic " that will " stand forever as one of U2 's most inspirational creations " .
Despite not being released as a single , " Moment of Surrender " charted in two countries . In the United States , the song appeared on the Mediabase Triple A chart at number 45 for the week of 17 November 2009 . In Belgium , the song appeared on the Ultratop 40 Singles Chart ( Wallonia ) for a week at number 35 .
= = Live performances = =
" Moment of Surrender " made its live debut on the opening night of the U2 360 ° Tour in Barcelona , Spain during the encore , as the show 's final song . It was played at nearly every subsequent concert on the tour as the closing song , being excluded from the setlist for only two of the tour 's 110 shows : the 9 December 2010 concert in Brisbane , Australia and the 29 May 2011 concert in Winnipeg . Prior to performances of " Moment of Surrender " , a disco ball was lowered and the stage lights turned off , and Bono encouraged fans to take out their mobile phones and create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . The National Post commented that despite being a " big @-@ concert cliché " , the move was effective and created a feeling of intimacy amongst the audience . Rolling Stone enjoyed the visual effect in context of the tour 's space theme , saying it " truly made it seem like the stadium had reached outerspace , with thousands of cellphone lights turning into stars " . The Daily Telegraph praised the " galaxy of mobile phones " , saying that despite the tour 's impressive stage and visual effects , " the most beautiful sight came when we couldn 't see [ the stage ] " . In reviewing a Paris show from July 2009 , the Sunday Times called " Moment of Surrender " the only track from No Line on the Horizon performed that evening that was strong enough to deserve inclusion with the rest of the show 's set list . NME was not as receptive to the song in a live setting , questioning the decision to end concerts with the song . A U2 360 ° Tour performance of " Moment of Surrender " appears on the group 's 2010 concert video U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl . In a review of the film , Andrew Mueller of Uncut called " Moment of Surrender " an " [ i ] ll @-@ chosen closer " , as well as " overlong and under @-@ realised " . In 2009 , the song was performed by the band on the 35th season premiere of Saturday Night Live , and at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . On 18 June 2011 , Bono closed the song with lyrics from " Jungleland " to honor the recently deceased E Street Band saxophonist Clarence Clemons . The song was also one of only three non @-@ single tracks to be played by the band in their headline set at the Glastonbury Festival 2011 .
= = Legacy = =
" Moment of Surrender " appeared on several music publications ' " best of " lists for 2009 and the 2000s decade . Esquire called " Moment of Surrender " one of " The 10 Best Songs You ( Probably ) Didn 't Hear in 2009 " . Rolling Stone ranked it the best song of 2009 and the 36th @-@ best song of the decade , calling it " The most devastating ballad U2 — or anyone — has delivered since ' One . ' " In Rolling Stone 's voting for the decade 's best song , Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich placed " Moment of Surrender " in the number @-@ one spot on his ballot . Rolling Stone updated its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2010 and placed " Moment of Surrender " at number 160 — just one year after the song 's release — marking the fourth @-@ best position of any U2 song on the list .
" Moment of Surrender " is the tenth track in the Anton Corbijn film Linear , based on a story by Corbijn and Bono where a Parisian traffic cop travels across France and the Mediterranean Sea to visit his girlfriend in Tripoli . During the sequence , the cop ( played by Saïd Taghmaoui ) , leaves the bar and begins to wander the streets of Cádiz at night , eventually making his way down to the beach where he falls asleep on the sand . In the morning he wakes up and the next track , " Cedars of Lebanon " , begins .
A live performance of " Moment of Surrender " taken from an 18 September 2010 concert in Paris appeared on the group 's 2010 live EP Wide Awake in Europe .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Additional keyboards – Terry Lawless
Cello – Caroline Dale
Production – Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois
Engineering – Richard Rainey
Engineering assistance – Chris Heaney
Additional engineering – Declan Gaffney , and Carl Glanville
Mixing – Daniel Lanois and Declan Gaffney
Mixing assistance – Tom Hough , Dave Clauss , and Dave Emery
= Gaboon viper =
Bitis gabonica , most commonly known as the Gaboon viper , is a viper species found in the rainforests and savannas of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Like all vipers , it is venomous . It is not only the largest member of the genus Bitis , but also the world 's heaviest viperid , and it has the longest fangs – up to 2 inches in length ( 5 cm ) , and it has highest venom yield of any snake . Two subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .
= = Description = =
Adults average 125 – 155 cm ( 4 to 5 feet ) in total length ( body + tail ) with a maximum total length of 205 cm ( 81 in ) for a specimen collected in Sierra Leone . The sexes may be distinguished by the length of the teeth in relation to the total length of the body : approximately 12 % for males and 6 % for females . Adults , especially females , are very heavy and stout . One female had the following dimensions :
In their description of B. gabonica , Spawls et al .. ( 2004 ) give an average total length of 80 – 130 cm ( 32 to 51 @.@ 5 in ) , with a maximum total length of 175 cm ( 69 @.@ 3 in ) , saying the species may possibly grow larger still . They acknowledge reports of specimens over 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) , or even over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in total length , but claim there is no evidence to support this . A large specimen of exactly 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) total length , caught in 1973 , was found to have weighed 11 @.@ 3 kg ( 25 lb ) with an empty stomach . Very large specimens may possibly weigh up to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , which would rank them as the world 's heaviest venomous snake ahead of the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake , but these masses are not known to have been verified .
The head is large and triangular , while the neck is greatly narrowed : almost one @-@ third the width of the head . A pair of " horns " is present between the raised nostrils — tiny in B. g. gabonica , but much larger in B. g. rhinoceros . The eyes are large and moveable , set well forward , and surrounded by 15 – 21 circumorbital scales . There are 12 – 16 interocular scales across the top of the head . Four or five scale rows separate the suboculars and the supralabials . There are 13 – 18 supralabials and 16 – 22 sublabials . The fangs may reach a length of 55 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) : the longest of any venomous snake .
Midbody , there are 28 – 46 dorsal scale rows , all of which are strongly keeled except for the outer rows on each side . The lateral scales are slightly oblique . The ventral scales number 124 – 140 : rarely more than 132 in males , rarely less than 132 in females . There are 17 – 33 paired subcaudal scales : males have no fewer than 25 , females no more than 23 . The anal scale is single .
The color pattern consists of a series of pale , subrectangular blotches running down the center of the back , interspaced with dark , yellow @-@ edged hourglass markings . The flanks have a series of fawn or brown rhomboidal shapes , with light vertical central bars . The belly is pale with irregular brown or black blotches . The head is white or cream with a fine , dark central line , black spots on the rear corners , and a dark blue @-@ black triangle behind and below each eye . The iris colour is cream , yellow @-@ white , orange or silvery .
= = Common names = =
The snake 's common names include Gaboon viper , butterfly adder , forest puff adder , whisper , swampjack , Gaboon adder , .
Originally a name given by the Portuguese , Gabon ( Gabão ) refers to the estuary on which the town of Libreville was built , in Gabon , and to a narrow strip of territory on either bank of this arm of the sea . As of 1909 , Gaboon referred to the northern portion of French Congo , south of the Equator and lying between the Atlantic Ocean and 12 ° E longitude .
= = Geographic range = =
This species can be found in Guinea , Ghana , Togo , Nigeria , Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Republic of the Congo , DR Congo , northern Angola , Central African Republic , South Sudan , Uganda , Kenya , eastern Tanzania , Zambia , Malawi , eastern Zimbabwe , Mozambique , and northeast KwaZulu @-@ Natal Province in South Africa . Mallow et al . ( 2003 ) also list Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa . The type locality is given as " Gabon " ( Africa ) .
= = Habitat = =
The Gaboon viper is usually found in rainforests and nearby woodlands , mainly at low altitudes , but sometimes as high as 1500 m . Spawls et al . ( 2004 ) mention a maximum altitude of 2100 m . According to Broadley and Cock ( 1975 ) , it is generally found in environments that are parallel to those occupied by its close relative , B. arietans , which is normally found in more open country .
In Tanzania , this species is found in secondary thickets , cashew plantations , and in agricultural land under bushes and in thickets . In Uganda , they are found in forests and nearby grasslands . They also do well in reclaimed forest areas : cacao plantations in West Africa and coffee plantations in East Africa . They have been found in evergreen forests in Zambia . In Zimbabwe , they only occur in areas of high rainfall along the forested escarpment in the east of the country . In general , they may also be found in swamps , as well as in still and moving waters . They are commonly found in agricultural areas near forests and on roads at night .
= = Behavior = =
Primarily nocturnal , Gaboon vipers have a reputation for being slow @-@ moving and placid . They usually hunt by ambush , often spending long periods motionless , waiting for suitable prey to happen by . On the other hand , they have been known to hunt actively , mostly during the first six hours of the night . In Kumasi , Ghana , they were regularly killed around some stables in an open area with the forest some 500 meters away — a sign that they were hunting rats in the grassland . They are usually very tolerant snakes , even when handled , and rarely bite or hiss , unlike most vipers . However , bites by bad @-@ tempered individuals do occur .
Locomotion is mostly rectilinear , in a sluggish " walking " motion of the ventral scales . They may writhe from side to side when alarmed , but only for short distances . Ditmars ( 1933 ) even described them as being capable of sidewinding .
If threatened , they may hiss loudly as a warning , doing so in a deep and steady rhythm , slightly flattening the head at the expiration of each breath . Despite this , they are unlikely to strike unless severely provoked ; however , they are one of fastest striking snakes in the world , so care should be taken in handling them .
There have been numerous descriptions of their generally unaggressive nature . Sweeney ( 1961 ) wrote they are so docile that they " can be handled as freely as any non @-@ venomous species " , although this is absolutely not recommended . In Lane ( 1963 ) , Ionides explained he would capture specimens by first touching them lightly on the top of the head with a pair of tongs to test their reactions . Anger was rarely displayed , so the tongs were usually set aside and the snakes firmly grasped by the neck with one hand and the body supported with the other as he picked them up and carried them to a box for containment . He said the snakes hardly ever struggled .
Parry ( 1975 ) described how this species has a wider range of eye movement than other snakes . Along a horizontal plane , eye movement can be maintained even if the head is rotated up or down to an angle of up to 45 ° . If the head is rotated 360 ° , one eye will tilt up and the other down , depending on the direction of rotation . Also , if one eye looks forward , the other looks back , as if both are connected to a fixed position on an axis between them . In general , the eyes often flick back and forth in a rapid and jerky manner . When asleep , there is no eye movement and the pupils are strongly contracted . The pupils dilate suddenly and eye movement resumes when the animal wakes up .
= = Feeding = =
Because of their large , heavy body size , the adults have no trouble eating prey as large as fully grown rabbits . When prey happens by , they strike with very fast precision from any angle . Once they strike their prey , they hang on to it with their large fangs rather than letting it go and waiting for it to die . This behaviour is very different from the behaviour of other species of vipers . These snakes feed on a variety of birds and mammals , such as doves , many different species of rodents , including field mice and rats , as well as hares and rabbits . There are also reports of more unlikely prey items , such as tree monkeys , the brush @-@ tailed porcupine ( Atherurus ) and even the small royal antelope ( Neotragus ) .
= = Reproduction = =
During peak sexual activity , males engage in combat . This starts with one male rubbing its chin along the back of the other . The second male will then raise its head as high as possible . As they both do the same , the necks intertwine . When the heads are level , they turn towards each other and push . Their bodies intertwine as they switch positions . They become oblivious to everything else , continuing even after they fall off a surface or into water . Sometimes they intertwine and squeeze so tightly that their scales stand out from the pressure . They have also been observed to strike at each other with mouths closed . Occasionally , the combatants will tire and break off the fight by " mutual consent " , resting for a while before resuming once more . The event is settled when one of the two succeeds in pushing the other 's head to the ground and raising its own by 20 – 30 cm . In captivity , combat may occur four or five times a week until courtship and copulation ends .
Gestation takes about 7 months , which suggests a breeding cycle of two to three years . A five @-@ year breeding cycle may also be possible . Usually , they give birth in late summer . B. g. gabonica produces 8 – 43 live young . B. g. rhinoceros may produce as many as 60 . However , the actual number of offspring rarely exceeds 24 . Neonates are 25 – 32 cm in length and weigh 25 – 45 g .
= = Venom = =
Bites from this species are rare , due to their extremely unaggressive nature and because their range is limited to rainforest areas . Due to their sluggishness and unwillingness to move even when approached , bites most often occur due to persons accidentally stepping on a Gaboon viper , but even then in some cases this does not guarantee a bite . However , when a bite does occur , it should always be considered a serious medical emergency . Even an average bite from an average @-@ sized specimen is potentially fatal . Antivenom should be administered as soon as possible to save the victim 's life if not the affected limb .
The snake 's cytotoxic venom itself is not considered particularly toxic based on tests conducted in mice . In mice , the LD50 is 0 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 0 mg / kg IV , 2 @.@ 0 mg / kg IP and 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 mg / kg SC . However , the venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any venomous snake ; this is partially due to the fact that , unlike many African vipers such as the Puff Adder , the Gaboon viper does not release after a bite , which enables it to inject larger amounts of venom . Yield is probably related to body weight , as opposed to milking interval . Brown ( 1973 ) gives a venom yield range of 200 – 1000 mg ( of dried venom ) , A range of 200 – 600 mg for specimens 125 – 155 cm in length has also been reported . Spawls and Branch ( 1995 ) state from 5 to 7 ml ( 450 – 600 mg ) of venom may be injected in a single bite .
A study by Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) reported a maximum yield of 9 @.@ 7 ml of wet venom , which translated to 2400 mg of dried venom . They attached " alligator " clip electrodes to the angle of the open jaw of anesthetized specimens ( length 133 – 136 cm , girth 23 – 25 cm , weight 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 4 kg ) , yielding 1 @.@ 3 – 7 @.@ 6 ml ( mean 4 @.@ 4 ml ) of venom . Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands . The Gaboon vipers used for the study were milked between seven and 11 times over a 12 @-@ month period , during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same .
Based on how sensitive monkeys were to the venom , Whaler ( 1971 ) estimated 14 mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being : equivalent to 0 @.@ 06 ml of venom , or 1 / 50 to 1 / 1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking . Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) wrote that 35 mg ( 1 / 30 of the average venom yield ) would be enough to kill a man of 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) . Branch ( 1992 ) suggested that 90 – 100 mg would be fatal in humans . Due to the rarity of these type of snakebites , further investigation is needed .
In humans , a bite causes rapid and conspicuous swelling , intense pain , severe shock and local blistering . Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements , defecation , urination , swelling of the tongue and eyelids , convulsions and unconsciousness . Blistering , bruising and necrosis may be extensive . There may be sudden hypotension , heart damage and dyspnoea . The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to haematuria and haematemesis . Local tissue damage may require surgical excision and possibly amputation . Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon .
= = Subspecies = =
= = Taxonomy = =
Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) discovered considerable differences between the two conventionally recognized subspecies of B. gabonica described above . According to their research , these two subspecies are as different from each other as they are from B. nasicornis . Consequently , Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) regard the western form as a separate species , B. rhinoceros .
= The Sixth Extinction =
" The Sixth Extinction " is the first episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was first shown on the Fox network on November 7 , 1999 , in the United States . The episode was written by Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " The Sixth Extinction " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 17 @.@ 82 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) work desperately in an attempt to discover what is wrong with Mulder , who is imprisoned by his own frenetic brain activity , but they are unaware of Agent Diana Fowley ’ s ( Mimi Rogers ) duplicity . In the meanwhile , Scully is hunting for an ancient artifact in Africa .
" The Sixth Extinction " helped to explore new aspects of the series ' overarching mythology and was the second episode in a trilogy of episodes featuring Mulder 's severe reaction to the appearance of an alien artifact . The episode was written due to series creator Chris Carter 's fascination with the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in the great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago .
= = Plot = =
On the coast of Côte d 'Ivoire , Scully sits in her tent studying detailed photographs of the spacecraft half @-@ buried on the beach nearby . A figure , the Primitive African Man , mysteriously appears before suddenly vanishing , after which Scully 's tent is swarmed by flying insects . Back in the United States , Walter Skinner visits a delusional Fox Mulder , who is being kept in a padded cell at a Georgetown hospital . Mulder seemingly attacks Skinner , but actually covertly passes him a torn shred of his hospital gown reading , " HELP ME " .
Scully is visited by Dr. Amina Ngebe , Solomon Merkmellen 's former colleague who warns Scully to not tell any of the locals about the swarm or the Primitive African Man , although word is already out on the " African internet " . Soon afterwards , one of the locals working on excavating the ship is apparently scalded by boiling seawater . With the arrival of Dr. Barnes another " plague " occurs – that night the ocean turns blood red .
Skinner revisits a heavily drugged Mulder , who cannot talk but writes " Kritschgau " . Skinner goes to visit Kritschgau , now unemployed and living in a low @-@ cost apartment , and convinces him to visit the hospital with him . Once there , Kritschgau believes Mulder has alien induced mind reading abilities and injects him with a drug ( phenytoin ) to slow down his brain activity . Later Diana Fowley and his doctor arrive , and with his mind @-@ reading abilities , Mulder is able to tell Skinner that he knows about him being indebted to Krycek , and Diana Fowley 's connections with the Cigarette Smoking Man .
Scully , with Dr. Barnes ' help , is able to translate some of the spaceship , which contains information on genetics and various religions . Dr. Barnes ' behavior becomes increasingly erratic however and , armed with a machete , he refuses to let Scully or Ngebe leave . He soon realizes that the craft is bringing dead fish back to life , and Scully and Ngebe take the opportunity to knock him out and escape . Scully sees the vanishing man again in the car as they drive off .
Kritschgau and Skinner put Mulder under additional tests to verify his abnormal brain activity . They again inject Mulder with phenytoin , but this time they are caught by Fowley and Mulder goes into a seizure . Meanwhile Dr. Barnes , in a bizarre type of experiment , kills his driver , but the driver soon reanimates and kills him instead . Scully flies back to the U.S. and visits Mulder at the hospital . On the African coast , Ngebe arrives with the police , finding Dr. Barnes dead and the spaceship gone .
= = Production = =
Frank Spotnitz said of the episode 's origins , " We 've destroyed all the stuff about Mulder 's father , the project , and the Syndicate . All the things that had sustained us for six years were suddenly gone . We had no crutches . From that point on , every time we sat down to write a mythology show , we knew it was going to be a completely different challenge . " Chris Carter saw the episode as a transitional episode , stating " I felt that , with " The Sixth Extinction " , I was just playing a supporting role and that the episode , essentially the middle episode of a three @-@ episode arc , was just a transitional episode to get us to ' Amor Fati ' , which was really less about the mythology and more about Mulder 's choices in life . "
David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson both had other commitments as the season began , resulting in the producers delaying filming for this episode . It ended up being filmed third in the season , after the episodes " Hungry " and " The Goldberg Variation " . Carter wrote the episode at the same time as Duchovny was working on the next episode , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " . Kim Manners said preparations were confusing since it wasn 't known at the time how the storyline would unfold . Spotnitz said of the end result , " For me , it was a lot like a fifties monster movie with Scully out on the beach with this guy going nuts with a machete , the bug attacks , and the sea of blood . Yeah , it was supposed to be serious business but , overall , I thought it was shaping up as a pretty entertaining hour . "
The producers had to move the filming of the beach sequences from the previous episodes due to changes in the tides at that time of year . Similar to the previous episode , the spaceship was computer @-@ generated . The sequence where the locals are boiled by the ocean water was accomplished using underwater filming of stuntmen under various degrees of make up . Fifty thousand dead crickets were rented from a local entomologist for the scene where Scully 's tent was attacked by bugs . The live insects were portrayed by blowing popcorn and packing foam at Anderson with fans and editing it into insects in post production .
A large portion of the episode was based on the ancient astronaut theory , which proposes that intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans . Frank Spotnitz later remarked that he was astounded at how little negative fan mail the show received , despite the fact that the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc heavily hinted that aliens were the originators of the notion of God and religion . He credited the manner in which the show handled this delicate subject , saying , " Often in the past , we 've done stuff where I was sure we would get angry letters . But we rarely do . And the reason is because of the way we handle things . In ' Amor Fati ' we treated the religious side with respect . " The ancient astronaut themes were later revisited in the two season nine episodes " Provenance " and " Providence . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Sixth Extinction " was first shown in the United States on November 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers and was the most watched episode of the seventh season in the United States . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 , and received 1 @.@ 00 million viewers and was the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Something is driving Mulder insane . Something he 's been searching for . Something he shouldn 't have found . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Sixth Extinction " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a positive review , noting that the episode takes the themes of " Biogenesis " and " runs with them " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode a " B + " . Tucker praised series creator Chris Carter 's writing ability , stating that " the kickoff episode suggests the author 's limitless imagination for sustaining his alien @-@ nation tropes " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two called the episode " the most arresting season opener in years " and noted that it " promises that maybe there 's life in the old mythology yet . " Shearman and Pearson , however , did critique the lack of finality to the episode , but attributed most of this to the fact that the episode was the second of a three @-@ part mythology tale . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi ranked " The Sixth Extinction , " along with " Biogenesis " and " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati , " as the fifth best episode of the series , writing , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Monica S. Kuebler of Exclaim magazine called " The Sixth Extinction " , along with " Biogenesis " and " Amor Fati " , one of the " best " episodes during the show 's " colonization " phase . Kenneth Silber of Space.com wrote positively of the episode , hoping that it foreshadowed answers to come , writing " As the middle installment of a three @-@ part story and what was then thought to be the final season premiere of The X @-@ Files , ' The Sixth Extinction ' is suffused with a somber pre @-@ apocalyptic mood , but one vivified by the possibility that soon we 'll have answers to the most important outstanding mysteries of the series . "
Not all reviews were so positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She noted that " Mulder 's situation is handled just poorly " and argued that Mulder 's illness was created solely to provide a cross @-@ season cliffhanger . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it a " weird bridge " . Largely , he criticized the episode for featuring " no real twists or complications here " in lieu of " things just [ … ] getting worse along a linear path " .
= Snow ( visual novel ) =
Snow ( スノー , Sunō ) is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Studio Mebius for Windows PCs on January 31 , 2003 . It was later ported without the erotic content to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 , and PlayStation Portable consoles . The story of Snow revolves around the life of Kanata Izumo , who is revisiting a village to help his relative manage a hot spring hotel . The gameplay in Snow follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters by the player character .
The game was successful in both sales and popularity , it was ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan at the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Snow was voted as the twenty @-@ sixth best bishōjo game by the readers of Dengeki G 's Magazine in 2007 . A manga titled Snow : Pure White based on the visual novel was serialized in Comptiq between the September and December 2003 issues . Five light novels and several comic anthologies were also released , as were audio dramas .
= = Gameplay = =
Snow is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo . Much of its gameplay is spent reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Kanata is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites .
There are four main plot lines in the original Windows release that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . Some decisions can lead the game to end prematurely and offer an alternative ending to the plot . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . In adult versions of the game , there are scenes depicting Kanata and a given heroine having sex .
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
The story of Snow starts when Kanata Izumo , the main protagonist , revisits a small village called Ryūjinmura ( 龍神村 , lit . " village of the dragon god " ) , to help manage a local hotel with hot springs alongside his cousin Tsugumi . In the village , there is an old legend : In ancient times , Ryūjinmura was protected by the dragon goddess . However , one day the goddess fell in love with a human , which is strictly forbidden , and this incident caused the village to be always covered by snow after that . The game then tells the daily life of Kanata interacting with the village girls , and ultimately links the story to the legend . Snow follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo ( 出雲 彼方 , Izumo Kanata , voiced by Soichiro Hoshi ) , who is visiting Ryūjinmura as a part @-@ time worker of the local hotel owned by his cousin . During his stay , he meets his childhood friend Sumino Yukizuki ( 雪月 澄乃 , Yukizuki Sumino , voiced by Ayako Kawasumi ) , a soothing and gentle girl whose father has died . She loves anman ( a kind of mantou ) and claims it as " source of life " . Kanata also encounters a young energetic girl with a tomboy personality called Asahi Hiyorigawa ( 日和川 旭 , Hiyorigawa Asashi , voiced by Yukari Tamura ) , suddenly appearing before Kanata and claiming that she will " repulse the evil " from him .
In the outskirts of the village , Kanata meets the mysterious Shigure Kitazato ( 北里 しぐれ , Kitazato Shigure , voiced by Haruna Ikezawa ) ; Shigure has a shy personality and is extremely silent . The protagonist also finds a little girl called Ōka Wakō ( 若生 桜花 , Wakō Ōka , voiced by Tomoko Kaneda ) waiting around the jinja for her parents . She likes to play with her cat called Shamon ( シャモン ) . The physician of Ryujinmura has a daughter called Meiko Tachibana ( 橘 芽依子 , Tachibana Meiko , voiced by Naoko Watanabe ) , who is a close friend of Sumino . She likes to tease Kanata , and acts bizarrely in front of him . In Snow : Plus Edition , a new character referred to as Mysterious Girl ( 謎の少女 , Nazo no Shōjo , voiced by Ryōko Ono ) is introduced , bearing many secrets .
= = Development and release = =
After the completion of Zetsubō , Studio Mebius ( a brand under VisualArt 's ) started production on Snow . The artists for the visual novel were Asuka Pyon , who also drew the character designs , and Kobuichi . The scenario was written by three members of staff : Mochizuki Jet , Klein , and Jinno Masaki . I 've Sound , as well as T & N Music Factory , Famishin , and Fam contributed to the music composition . According to the liner notes on the original soundtrack of Snow , the producers acknowledged that the game 's structure resembled Key 's visual novels Kanon and Air . Yūichi Suzumoto , who is known for his work on Air , Clannad , and Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet , provided scenario assistance for Snow .
On January 31 , 2003 , Snow was released as both a CD @-@ ROM and DVD @-@ ROM compatible to the Windows 98 / ME / 2000 / XP operating systems . An all @-@ ages version for the Dreamcast was released by Interchannel on September 25 , 2003 . Later on February 26 , 2004 , Interchannel ported the game to the PlayStation 2 in both limited and regular editions ; the PS2 port adds an additional scenario for Meiko Tachibana , who was a supporting character in prior releases of Snow . A full voice version was released for Windows on September 24 , 2004 . Then on September 29 , 2006 , Snow : Plus Edition was released for Windows , sporting added parts from the console versions and introducing a new heroine . Snow is playable on NTT DoCoMo 's FOMA cell phones . A PlayStation Portable version of the game called Snow : Portable was released by Prototype on August 16 , 2007 . The standard edition for Windows was released on July 25 , 2008 , containing two fan discs , and the content from the portable edition of Snow . Finally , a downloadable version of the PSP edition was made available on the PlayStation Store by Prototype on January 21 , 2010 .
= = Related media = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
Five adult light novels written by Hangetsu Mitamura and published by Paradigm were released between June 2003 and January 2004 . The cover art and internal illustrations were drawn by Asuka Pyon , the artist who drew the artwork in the visual novel . The first novel , titled Snow : Hakanayuki ( Snow ～ 儚雪 ～ , Sumino ) , was released on June 25 , 2003 . The second novel was released on July 25 , 2003 , titled Snow : Chīsaki Inori ( Snow ～ 小さき祈り ～ , Asahi ) . The third novel , titled Snow : Inishie no Yūyake ( Snow ～ 古の夕焼け ～ ) , was released on September 20 , 2003 . The fourth novel , titled Snow : Kioku no Toge ( Snow ～ 記憶の棘 ～ , Shigure ) , was released on November 22 , 2003 . The fifth and final novel , titled Snow : Sora no Yurikago ( Snow ～ 空の揺りかご ～ , Oka ) , was released on January 16 , 2004 . A 192 @-@ page art book , titled Snow Art Works , and containing information such as story and character explanations , and images from the visual novel , was released by Paradigm on July 25 , 2003 .
= = = Manga = = =
A game @-@ based manga adaptation titled Snow : Pure White , and illustrated by Yuki Azuma , was serialized between the September and December 2003 issues of Comptiq . The individual chapters were later compiled into a single bound volume published by Kadokawa Shoten under the Kadokawa Comics Ace imprint on December 19 , 2003 .
Ohzora released a stand @-@ alone comic anthology , titled Snow Anthology Game Comics , under the Twin Heart Comics imprint on March 22 , 2003 . A two @-@ volume anthology series , titled Snow Comic Anthology , was released by Ichijinsha under the DNA Media Comics imprint between April 25 and June 25 , 2003 . The now @-@ defunct publisher Raporto released a comic anthology , titled Snow Game Comic , spanning two volumes in 2003 between April 25 and May 24 under the Raporto Comics imprint . Enterbrain released a single anthology , titled Snow Anthology Comic , under the Maji @-@ Cu Comics imprint on May 26 , 2003 .
= = = Music and audio CDs = = =
The opening theme for Snow is " Snow " sung by Yumi Matsuzawa , who also provided vocals for the ending themes " Futari no Ashiato " ( ふたりの足跡 ) and " Yuki no Kanata " ( 雪のかなた ) . The insert song " Sora no Yurikago " ( 空の揺りかご ) is by Ayako Kawasumi ; a single titled Snow Extra CD was released at Comiket 64 on August 15 , 2003 , containing " Sora no Yurikago " . These tracks were included with other background music in the Snow Original Soundtrack released on April 25 , 2003 . Before the visual novel 's release , Snow Image Album was released at Comiket 63 on December 28 , 2002 .
Three drama CDs based on Snow have been published , the first CD volume was released by Movic on August 22 , 2003 , focusing on Sumino Yukizuki . Movic released a second volume focusing on Asahi Hiyorigawa , on October 24 , 2003 . The third and final volume , telling the story of Ryūjinmura 's legend , was released by Frontier Works on August 25 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
In a national sales ranking of bishōjo games conducted by PCNews , Snow DVD @-@ ROM premiered at number one , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release ranked at number three . During the beginning of February , Snow CD @-@ ROM 's ranking fell to number eight , whilst Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted just above at number seven . Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted again at number thirty one during mid @-@ February , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release had low enough sales to not chart . Finally , both the Snow CD @-@ ROM and Snow DVD @-@ ROM releases made their final charting appearances at number thirty three and forty six at the beginning of March , respectively .
Snow was the second most widely sold game of 2003 on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products . According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Snow sold 64 @,@ 526 copies in 2003 . In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Snow ranked No. 26 out of 249 titles , with 11 votes . Snow is featured in the Lycèe Trading Card Game ; a set of playable Snow cards are included in the VisualArt 's 1 @.@ 1 booster pack . Snow is considered a classic " nakige " game .
= Miss Meyers =
Miss Meyers ( 1949 – March 1963 ) was an American Quarter Horse racehorse and broodmare , the 1953 World Champion Quarter Running Horse . She won $ 28 @,@ 725 ( equivalent to about $ 254 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) as well as 17 races . As a broodmare , she produced , or was the mother of , the first American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers . She was the mother of three other foals , and was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Miss Meyers was a chestnut @-@ colored mare born in 1949 and sired , or fathered , by Leo , a member of the AQHA Hall of Fame . Miss Meyers ' dam , or mother , was Star 's Lou . Star 's Lou 's father was Oklahoma Star P @-@ 6 , another AQHA Hall of Fame member . She was bred by O. C. Meyer , and later owned by Bruce A. Green .
= = Race career = =
Miss Meyers raced from 1952 until 1955 and won seven stakes races , placing second in seven others , and third in two more . She won 17 of her 59 starts on the racetrack . She placed second in another 15 races and third in 5 . Her total earnings on the track were $ 28 @,@ 727 ( approximately $ 253 @,@ 800 in 2016 dollars ) . Among her wins in stakes races were the 1952 Buttons and Bows Stakes , the 1953 California Championship , the 1953 Billy Anson Stakes , the 1953 Rocky Mountain Quarter Horse Association World Championship Dash , the 1955 Bart B Stakes , the 1955 Barbara B Stakes and the 1955 Traveler Stakes . She set four track records , twice at 350 yards ( 320 m ) , once at 400 yards ( 370 m ) , and once at 440 yards ( 400 m ) . In 1953 she was named the AQHA World Champion Quarter Running Horse , as well as the High Money Earning Horse ; the AQHA also awarded her the title of Superior Race Horse in 1954 . The highest speed index she achieved , a measure of how fast she was able to run , during her racing career was AAAT , the highest possible at the time . It was not until she was a four @-@ year @-@ old , during 1953 , that Miss Meyers performed well and started winning on the track . That year she won $ 15 @,@ 398 ( approximately $ 136 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) dollars , over half her lifetime earnings , as well as seven of her seventeen career wins .
= = Broodmare and legacy = =
After Miss Meyers retired from the racetrack , she became the dam of the first AQHA Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers , sired by fellow Hall of Famer Three Bars , a Thoroughbred . ( A Supreme Champion is a horse that is outstanding on the racetrack , as a riding horse at horse shows and also conformationally , or how well put together the horse is ) . Kid Meyers was a 1963 sorrel stallion , and had 23 starts on the racetrack , winning 6 times . He earned a total of $ 10 @,@ 655 ( approximately $ 77 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) on the track . After retiring from the racetrack , he earned his AQHA Champion in 1966 and his AQHA Supreme Champion in 1967 . His highest speed index was AAA . Unlike most foals , who nurse for months after birth , Kid Meyers was orphaned at the age of one month in March 1963 .
Miss Meyers had three other foals . Oh My Oh , a 1957 bay mare sired by the Thoroughbred stallion Spotted Bull , started 30 times , winning eight races for a total earnings of $ 12 @,@ 592 ( approximately $ 99 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) and coming in second in a stakes race . She earned an AAAT speed index . As a broodmare , she was the dam of All American Futurity winner Three Oh 's . Miss Meyers ' 1958 foal was Mr Meyers , a sorrel stallion sired by fellow Hall of Famer Go Man Go , who started 41 times , winning 9 times and placing third in four stakes races . His total race earnings were $ 25 @,@ 656 ( approximately $ 200 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) . He went on to earn an AQHA Champion title along with a Superior Race Horse award , to go with his AAAT speed index . Mr Meyers became a successful breeding stallion . Miss Meyers ' fourth foal was a 1959 chestnut mare named Milpool sired by Vandy . Milpool was never raced or entered in a horse show .
Miss Meyers died in March 1963 , shortly after having Kid Meyers . She was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Pedigree = =
= Far Away Places ( Mad Men ) =
" Far Away Places " is the sixth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 58th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Semi Chellas , and directed by Scott Hornbacher . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on April 22 , 2012 .
The episode takes place almost entirely over a single day , telling three stories in a non @-@ linear narrative . Peggy becomes alienated after separate fights with her boyfriend Abe and a client . Roger and Jane take LSD with a group of intellectuals , altering how they see the world and allowing them to speak honestly about their marriage . Don and Megan leave the office and take an impromptu road trip to Plattsburgh , New York , which doesn 't turn out as planned after Megan becomes aggrieved with how Don treats her .
" Far Away Places " was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers and achieved 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the key 18 – 49 demographic . The episode received overwhelming critical acclaim , with many critics noting the episode 's formal experiments with and focus on the passage of time . The sequence where Roger and Jane take LSD was particularly celebrated for the visual excellence and performances by John Slattery and Peyton List . The theme of the episode was pinpointed by the series writers and television journalists as the desire to escape .
= = Plot = =
" Far Away Places " is split into | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
was also responsible for supplying a large portion of the troops that fought the Song in the seven years following its creation .
The Jin granted Qi more autonomy than the first puppet government of Chu , but Liu Yu was obligated to obey the orders of the Jurchen generals . With Jin support , Da Qi invaded the Song in November 1133 . Li Cheng , a Song turncoat who had joined the Qi , led the campaign . Xiangyang and nearby prefectures fell to his army . The capture of Xiangyang on the Han River gave the Jurchens a passage into the central valley of the Yangtze River . Their southward push was halted by the general Yue Fei . In 1134 , Yue Fei defeated Li and retook Xiangyang and its surrounding prefectures . Later that year , however , Qi and Jin initiated a new offensive further east along the Huai River . For the first time , Gaozong issued an edict officially condemning Da Qi . The armies of Qi and Jin won a series of victories in the Huai valley , but were repelled by Han Shizhong near Yangzhou and by Yue Fei at Luzhou ( 廬州 , modern Hefei ) . Their sudden withdrawal in 1135 in response to the death of Jin Emperor Taizong gave the Song time to regroup . The war recommenced in late 1136 when Da Qi attacked the Huainan circuits of the Song . Qi lost a battle at Outang ( 藕塘 ) , in modern Anhui , against a Song army led by Yang Qizhong ( 楊沂中 ; 1102 – 1166 ) . The victory boosted Song morale , and the military commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) convinced Gaozong to begin plans for a counterattack . Gaozong first agreed , but he abandoned the counteroffensive when an officer named Li Qiong ( 酈瓊 ) killed his superior official and defected to the Jin with tens of thousands of soldiers . Meanwhile , Emperor Xizong ( r . 1135 – 1150 ) inherited the Jin throne from Taizong , and pushed for peace . He and his generals were disappointed with Liu Yu 's military failures and believed that Liu was secretly conspiring with Yue Fei . In late 1137 , the Jin reduced Liu Yu 's title to that of a prince and abolished the state of Qi . The Jin and Song renewed the negotiations towards peace .
= = = Song counteroffensive and the peace process = = =
Gaozong promoted Qin Hui in 1138 and put him in charge of deliberations with the Jin . Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and a large number of officials at court criticized the peace overtures . Aided by his control of the Censorate , Qin purged his enemies and continued negotiations . In 1138 the Jin and Song agreed to a treaty that designated the Yellow River as border between the two states and recognized Gaozong as a " subject " of the Jin . But because there remained opposition to the treaty in both the courts of the Jin and Song , the treaty never came into effect . A Jurchen army led by Wuzhu invaded in early 1140 . The Song counteroffensive that followed achieved large territorial gains . Song general Liu Qi ( 劉錡 ) won a battle against Wuzhu at Shunchang ( modern Fuyang in Anhui ) . Yue Fei was assigned to head the Song forces defending the Huainan region . Instead of advancing to Huainan , however , Wuzhu retreated to Kaifeng and Yue 's army followed him into Jin territory , disobeying an order by Gaozong that forbade Yue from going on the offensive . Yue captured Zhengzhou and sent soldiers across the Yellow River to stir up a peasant rebellion against the Jin . On July 8 , 1140 , at the Battle of Yancheng , Wuzhu launched a surprise attack on Song forces with an army of 100 @,@ 000 infantry and 15 @,@ 000 horsemen . Yue Fei directed his cavalry to attack the Jurchen soldiers and won a decisive victory . He continued on to Henan , where he recaptured Zhengzhou and Luoyang . Later in 1140 , Yue was forced to withdraw after the emperor ordered him to return to the Song court .
Emperor Gaozong supported settling a peace treaty with the Jurchens and sought to rein in the assertiveness of the military . The military expeditions of Yue Fei and other generals were an obstacle to peace negotiations . The government weakened the military by rewarding Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and Zhang Jun ( 1086 – 1154 ) with titles that relieved them of their command over the Song armies . Han Shizhong , a critic of the treaty , retired . Yue Fei also announced his resignation as an act of protest . In 1141 Qin Hui had him imprisoned for insubordination . Charged with treason , Yue Fei was poisoned in jail on Qin 's orders in early 1142 . Jurchen diplomatic pressure during the peace talks may have played a role , but Qin Hui 's alleged collusion with the Jin has never been proven .
After his execution , Yue Fei 's reputation for defending the Southern Song grew to that of a national folk hero . Qin Hui was denigrated by later historians , who accused him of betraying the Song . The real Yue Fei differed from the later myths based on his exploits . Contrary to traditional legends , Yue was only one of many generals who fought against the Jin in northern China . Traditional accounts have also blamed Gaozong for Yue Fei 's execution and submitting to the Jin . Qin Hui , in a reply to Gaozong 's gratitude for the success of the peace negotiations , told the emperor that " the decision to make peace was entirely Your Majesty 's . Your servant only carried it out ; what achievement was there in this for me ? "
= = = Treaty of Shaoxing = = =
On October 11 , 1142 , after about a year of negotiations , the Treaty of Shaoxing was ratified , ending the conflict between the Jin and the Song . By the terms of the treaty , the Huai River , north of the Yangtze , was designated as the boundary between the two empires . The Song agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 250 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 250 @,@ 000 packs of silk to the Jin .
The treaty reduced the Southern Song 's status to that of a Jin vassal . The document designated the Song as the " insignificant state " , while the Jin was recognized as the " superior state " . The text of the treaty has not survived in Chinese records , a sign of its humiliating reputation . The contents of the agreement were recovered from a Jurchen biography . Once the treaty had been settled , the Jurchens retreated north and trade resumed between the two empires . The peace ensured by the Shaoxing treaty lasted for the next seventy years , but was interrupted twice . One campaign was initiated by the Song and the other by the Jin .
= = = Further campaigns = = =
= = = = Prince of Hailing 's campaign = = = =
Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) led a coup against Emperor Xizong and became fourth emperor of the Jin dynasty in 1150 . Wanyan Liang presented himself as a Chinese emperor , and planned to unite China by conquering the Song . In 1158 , Wanyan Liang provided a casus belli by announcing that the Song had broken the 1142 peace treaty by acquiring horses . He instituted an unpopular draft that was the source of widespread unrest in the empire . Anti @-@ Jin revolts erupted among the Khitans and in Jin provinces bordering the Song . Wanyan Liang did not allow dissent , and opposition to the war was severely punished . The Song had been notified beforehand of Wanyan Liang 's plan . They prepared by securing their defenses along the border , mainly near the Yangtze River , but were hampered by Emperor Gaozong 's indecisiveness . Gaozong 's desire for peace made him averse to provoking the Jin . Wanyan Liang began the invasion in 1161 without formally declaring war . Jurchen armies personally led by Wanyan Liang left Kaifeng on October 15 , reached the Huai River border on October 28 , and marched in the direction of the Yangtze . The Song lost the Huai to the Jurchens but captured a few Jin prefectures in the west , slowing the Jurchen advance . A group of Jurchen generals were sent to cross the Yangtze near the city of Caishi ( south of Ma 'anshan in modern Anhui ) while Wanyan Liang established a base near Yangzhou .
The Song official Yu Yunwen was in command of the army defending the river . The Jurchen army was defeated while attacking Caishi between November 26 and 27 during the Battle of Caishi . The paddle @-@ wheel ships of the Song navy , armed with trebuchets that fired gunpowder bombs , overwhelmed the light ships of the Jin fleet . Jin ships were unable to compete because they were smaller and hastily constructed . The bombs launched by the Song contained mixtures of gunpowder , lime , scraps of iron , and a poison that was likely arsenic . Traditional Chinese accounts consider this the turning point of the war , characterizing it as a military upset that secured southern China from the northern invaders . The significance of the battle is said to have rivaled a similarly revered victory at the Battle of Fei River in the 4th century . Contemporaneous Song accounts claimed that the 18 @,@ 000 Song soldiers commanded by Yu Yunwen and tasked with defending Caishi were able to defeat the invading Jurchen army of 400 @,@ 000 soldiers . Modern historians are more skeptical and consider the Jurchen numbers an exaggeration . Song historians may have confused the number of Jurchen soldiers at the Battle of Caishi with the total number of soldiers under the command of Wanyan Liang . The conflict was not the one @-@ sided battle that traditional accounts imply , and the Song had numerous advantages over the Jin . The Song fleet was larger than the Jin 's , and the Jin were unable to use their greatest asset , cavalry , in a naval battle .
A modern analysis of the battlefield has shown that it was a minor battle , although the victory did boost Song morale . The Jin lost , but only suffered about 4 @,@ 000 casualties and the battle was not fatal to the Jurchen war effort . It was Wanyan Liang 's poor relationships with the Jurchen generals , who despised him , that doomed the chances of a Jin victory . On December 15 , Wanyan Liang was assassinated in his military camp by disaffected officers . He was succeeded by Emperor Shizong ( r . 1161 – 1189 ) . Shizong was pressured into ending the unpopular war with the Song , and ordered the withdrawal of Jin forces in 1162 . Emperor Gaozong retired from the throne that same year . His mishandling of the war with Wanyan Liang was one of many reasons for his abdication . Skirmishes between the Song and Jin continued along the border , but subsided in 1165 after the negotiation of a peace treaty . There were no major territorial changes . The treaty dictated that the Song still had to pay the annual indemnity , but the indemnity was renamed from " tribute " , which had implied a subordinate relationship , to " payment " .
= = = = Song revanchism = = = =
The Jin were weakened by the pressure of the rising Mongols to the north , a series of floods culminating in a Yellow River flood in 1194 that devastated Hebei and Shandong in northern China , and the droughts and swarming locusts that plagued the south near the Huai . The Song were informed of the Jurchen predicament by their ambassadors , who traveled twice a year to the Jin capital , and started provoking their northern neighbor . The hostilities were instigated by chancellor Han Tuozhou . The Song Emperor Ningzong ( r . 1194 – 1224 ) took little interest in the war effort . Under Han Tuozhou 's supervision , preparations for the war proceeded gradually and cautiously . The court venerated the irredentist hero Yue Fei and Han orchestrated the publishing of historical records that justified war with the Jin . From 1204 onwards , Song armed groups raided Jin settlements . Han Tuozhou was designated the head of national security in 1205 . The Song funded insurgents in the north that professed loyalist sympathies . These early clashes continued to escalate , partly abetted by revanchist Song officials , and war against the Jin was officially declared on June 14 , 1206 . The document that announced the war claimed the Jin lost the Mandate of Heaven , a sign that they were unfit to rule , and called for an insurrection of Han Chinese against the Jin state .
Song armies led by general Bi Zaiyu ( 畢再遇 ; d . 1217 ) captured the barely defended border city of Sizhou 泗州 ( on the north bank of the Huai River across from modern Xuyi County ) but suffered large losses against the Jurchens in Hebei . The Jin repelled the Song and moved south to besiege the Song town of Chuzhou 楚州 on the Grand Canal just south of the Huai River . Bi defended the town , and the Jurchens withdrew from the siege after three months . By the fall of 1206 , however , the Jurchens had captured multiple towns and military bases . The Jin initiated an offensive against Song prefectures in the central front of the war , capturing Zaoyang and Guanghua ( 光化 ; on the Han River near modern Laohekou ) . By the fall of 1206 , the Song offensive had already failed disastrously . Soldier morale sank as weather conditions worsened , supplies ran out , and hunger spread , forcing many to desert . The massive defections of Han Chinese in northern China that the Song had expected never materialized .
A notable betrayal did occur on the Song side , however : Wu Xi ( 吳曦 ; d . 1207 ) , the governor @-@ general of Sichuan , defected to the Jin in December 1206 . The Song had depended on Wu 's success in the west to divert Jin soldiers away from the eastern front . He had attacked Jin positions earlier in 1206 , but his army of about 50 @,@ 000 men had been repelled . Wu 's defection could have meant the loss of the entire western front of the war , but Song loyalists assassinated Wu on March 29 , 1207 , before Jin troops could take control of the surrendered territories . An Bing ( 安丙 ; d . 1221 ) was given Wu Xi 's position , but the cohesion of Song forces in the west fell apart after Wu 's demise and commanders turned on each other in the ensuing infighting .
Fighting continued in 1207 , but by the end of that year the war was at a stalemate . The Song was now on the defensive , while the Jin failed to make gains in Song territory . The failure of Han Tuozhou 's aggressive policies led to his demise . On December 15 , 1207 , Han was beaten to death by the Imperial Palace Guards . His accomplice Su Shidan ( 蘇師旦 ) was executed , and other officials connected to Han were dismissed or exiled . Since neither combatant was eager to continue the war , they returned to negotiations . A peace treaty was signed on November 2 , 1208 , and the Song tribute to the Jin was reinstated . The Song annual indemnity increased by 50 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 50 @,@ 000 packs of fabric . The treaty also stipulated that the Song had to present to the Jin the head of Han Tuozhou , who the Jin held responsible for starting the war . The heads of Han and Su were severed from their exhumed corpses , exhibited to the public , then delivered to the Jin .
= = = = Song – Jin war during the rise of the Mongols = = = =
The Mongols , a nomadic confederation , had unified in the middle of the twelfth century . They and other steppe nomads occasionally raided the Jin empire from the northwest . The Jin shied away from punitive expeditions and was content with appeasement , similar to the practices of the Song . The Mongols , formerly a Jin tributary , ended their vassalage in 1210 and attacked the Jin in 1211 . In light of this event , the Song court debated ending tributary payments to the weakened Jin , but they chose to avoid antagonizing the Jin . They refused Western Xia 's offers of allying against the Jin in 1214 and willingly complied when in 1215 the Jin rejected a request to lower the annual indemnity . Meanwhile , in 1214 , the Jin retreated from the besieged capital of Zhongdu to Kaifeng , which became the new capital of the dynasty . As the Mongols expanded , the Jin suffered territorial losses and attacked the Song in 1217 to compensate for their shrinking territory . Periodic Song raids against the Jin were the official justification for the war . Another likely motive was that the conquest of the Song would have given the Jin a place to escape should the Mongols succeed in taking control of the north . Shi Miyuan ( 史彌遠 ; 1164 – 1233 ) , the chancellor of Song Emperor Lizong ( r . 1224 – 1264 ) , was hesitant to fight the Jin and delayed the declaration of war for two months . Song generals were largely autonomous , allowing Shi to evade blame for their military blunders . The Jin advanced across the border from the center and western fronts . Jurchen military successes were limited , and the Jin faced repeated raids from the neighboring state of Western Xia . In 1217 , the Song generals Meng Zongzheng ( 孟宗政 ) and Hu Zaixing ( 扈再興 ) defeated the Jin and prevented them from capturing Zaoyang and Suizhou .
A second Jin campaign in late 1217 did marginally better than the first . In the east , the Jin made little headway in the Huai River valley , but in the west they captured Xihezhou and Dasan Pass ( 大散關 ; modern Shaanxi ) in late 1217 . The Jin tried to captured Suizhou in Jingxi South circuit again in 1218 and 1219 , but failed . A Song counteroffensive in early 1218 captured Sizhou and in 1219 the Jin cities of Dengzhou and Tangzhou were pillaged twice by a Song army commanded by Zhao Fang ( 趙方 ; d . 1221 ) . In the west , command of the Song forces in Sichuan was given to An Bing , who had previously been dismissed from this position . He successfully defended the western front , but was unable to advance further because of local uprisings in the area . The Jin tried to extort an indemnity from the Song but never received it . In the last of the three campaigns , in early 1221 , the Jin captured the city of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ; in Huainan West ) deep in Song territory . Song armies led by Hu Zaixing and Li Quan ( 李全 ; d . 1231 ) defeated the Jin , who then withdrew . In 1224 both sides agreed on a peace treaty that ended the annual tributes to the Jin . Diplomatic missions between the Jin and Song were also cut off .
= = = = Mongol – Song alliance = = = =
In February 1233 , the Mongols took Kaifeng after a siege of more than 10 months and the Jin court retreated to the town of Caizhou . In 1233 Emperor Aizong ( r . 1224 – 1234 ) of the Jin dispatched diplomats to implore the Song for supplies . Jin envoys reported to the Song that the Mongols would invade the Song after they were done with the Jin — a forecast that would later be proven true — but the Song ignored the warning and rebuffed the request . They instead formed an alliance with the Mongols against the Jin . The Song provided supplies to the Mongols in return for parts of Henan . The Jin dynasty collapsed when Mongol and Song troops defeated the Jurchens at the siege of Caizhou in 1234 . General Meng Gong ( 孟珙 ) led the Song army against Caizhou . The penultimate emperor of the Jin , Emperor Aizong , took his own life . His short @-@ lived successor , Emperor Mo , was killed in the town a few days later . The Mongols later turned their sights towards the Song . After decades of war , the Song dynasty also fell in 1279 , when the remaining Song loyalists lost to the Mongols in a naval battle near Guangdong .
= = Historical significance = =
= = = Cultural and demographic changes = = =
Jurchen migrants from the northeastern reaches of Jin territory settled in the Jin @-@ controlled lands of northern China . Constituting less than ten percent of the total population , the two to three million ruling Jurchens were a minority in a region that was still dominated by 30 million Han Chinese . The southward expansion of the Jurchens caused the Jin to transition their decentralized government of semi @-@ agrarian tribes to a bureaucratic Chinese @-@ style dynasty .
The Jin government initially promoted an independent Jurchen culture alongside their adoption of the centralized Chinese imperial bureaucracy , but the empire was gradually sinicized over time . The Jurchens became fluent in the Chinese language , and the philosophy of Confucianism was used to legitimize the ruling government . Confucian state rituals were adopted during the reign of Emperor Xizong ( 1135 – 1150 ) . The Jin implemented imperial exams on the Confucian Classics , first regionally and then for the entire empire . The Classics and other works of Chinese literature were translated into Jurchen and studied by Jin intellectuals , but very few Jurchens actively contributed to the classical literature of the Jin . The Khitan script , from the Chinese family of scripts , formed the basis of a national writing system for the empire , the Jurchen script . All three scripts were working languages of the government . Jurchen clans adopted Chinese personal names with their Jurchen names . Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ; r . 1150 – 1161 ) was an enthusiastic proponent of Jurchen sinicization and enacted policies to encourage it . Wanyan Liang had been acculturated by Song diplomats from childhood , and his emulation of Song practices earned him the Jurchen nickname of " aping the Chinese " . He studied the Chinese classics , drank tea , and played Chinese chess for recreation . Under his reign , the administrative core of the Jin state was moved south from Huining . He instated Beijing as the Jin main capital in 1153 . Palaces were erected in Beijing and Kaifeng , while the original , more northerly residences of Jurchen chieftains were demolished .
The emperor 's political reforms were connected with his desire to conquer all of China and to legitimize himself as a Chinese emperor . The prospect of conquering southern China was cut short by Wanyan Liang 's assassination . Wanyan Liang 's successor , Emperor Shizong , was less enthusiastic about sinicization and reversed several of Wanyan Liang 's edicts . He sanctioned new policies with the intent to slow the assimilation of the Jurchens . Shizong 's prohibitions were abandoned by Emperor Zhangzong ( r . 1189 – 1208 ) , who promoted reforms that transformed the political structure of the dynasty closer to that of the Song and Tang dynasties . Despite cultural and demographic changes , military hostilities between the Jin and the Song persisted until the fall of the Jin .
In the south , the retreat of the Song dynasty led to major demographic changes . The population of refugees from the north that resettled in Hangzhou and Jiankang ( modern Nanjing ) eventually grew greater than the population of original residents , whose numbers had dwindled from repeated Jurchen raids . The government encouraged the resettlement of peasant migrants from the southern provinces of the Song to the underpopulated territories between the Yangtze and the Huai rivers .
The new capital Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center . It rose from a middling city of no special importance to one of the world 's largest and most prosperous . During his stay in Hangzhou in the Yuan dynasty ( 1260 – 1368 ) , when the city was not as wealthy as it had been under the Song , Marco Polo remarked that " this city is greater than any in the world " . Once retaking northern China became less plausible and Hangzhou grew into a significant trading city , the government buildings were extended and renovated to better befit its status as an imperial capital . The modestly sized imperial palace was expanded in 1133 with new roofed alleyways and in 1148 with an extension of the palace walls .
The loss of northern China , the cultural center of Chinese civilization , diminished the international status of the Song dynasty . After the Jurchen conquest of the north , Korea recognized the Jin , not the Song , as the legitimate dynasty of China . The Song 's military failures reduced it to a subordinate of the Jin , turning it into a " China among equals " . The Song economy , however , recovered quickly after the move south . Government revenues earned from taxing foreign trade nearly doubled between the closing of the Northern Song era in 1127 and the final years of Gaozong 's reign in the early 1160s . The recovery was not uniform , and areas like Huainan and Hubei that had been directly affected by the war took decades to return to their pre @-@ war levels . In spite of multiple wars , the Jin remained one of the main trading partners of the Song . Song demand for foreign products like fur and horses went unabated . Historian Shiba Yoshinobu ( 斯波義信 , b . 1930 ) believes that Song commerce with the north was profitable enough that it compensated for the silver delivered annually as an indemnity to the Jin .
= = = Gunpowder warfare = = =
The battles between the Song and the Jin spurred the invention and use of gunpowder weapons . There are reports that the fire lance , one of the earliest ancestors of the firearm , was used by the Song against the Jurchens besieging De 'an ( 德安 ; modern Anlu in eastern Hubei ) in 1132 , during the Jin invasion of Hubei and Shaanxi . The weapon consisted of a spear attached with a flamethrower capable of firing projectiles from a barrel constructed of bamboo or paper . They were built by soldiers under the command of Chen Gui ( 陳規 ) , who led the Song army defending De 'an . The fire lances with which Song soldiers were equipped at De 'an were built for destroying the wooden siege engines of the Jin and not for combat against the Jin infantry . Song soldiers compensated for the limited range and mobility of the weapon by timing their attacks on the Jin siege engines , waiting until they were within range of the fire lances . Later fire lances used metal barrels , fired projectiles farther and with greater force , and could be used against infantry .
Early rudimentary bombs like the huopao fire bomb ( 火礮 ) and the huopao ( 火砲 ) bombs propelled by trebuchet were also in use as incendiary weapons . The defending Song army used huopao ( 火礮 ) during the first Jin siege of Kaifeng in 1126 . On the opposing side , the Jin launched incendiary bombs from siege towers down onto the city below . In 1127 , huopao ( 火礮 ) were employed by the Song troops defending De 'an and by the Jin soldiers besieging the city . The government official Lin Zhiping ( 林之平 ) proposed to make incendiary bombs and arrows mandatory for all warships in the Song navy . At the battle of Caishi in 1161 , Song ships fired pili huoqiu ( 霹靂火球 ) , also called pili huopao bombs ( 霹靂火砲 ) , from trebuchets against the ships of the Jin fleet commanded by Wanyan Liang . The gunpowder mixture of the bomb contained powdered lime , which produced blinding smoke once the casing of the bomb shattered . The Song also deployed incendiary weapons at the battle of Tangdao during the same year .
Gunpowder was also applied to arrows in 1206 by a Song army stationed in Xiangyang . The arrows were most likely an incendiary weapon , but its function may also have resembled that of an early rocket . At the Jin siege of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ) in 1221 , the Jurchens fought the Song with gunpowder bombs and arrows . The Jin tiehuopao ( 鐵火砲 , " iron huopao " ) , which had cast iron casings , are the first known bombs that could explode . The bomb needed to be capable of detonating in order to penetrate the iron casing . The Song army had a large supply of incendiary bombs , but there are no reports of them having a weapon similar to the Jin 's detonating bombs . A participant in the siege recounted in the Xinsi Qi Qi Lu ( 辛巳泣蘄錄 ) that the Song army at Qizhou had an arsenal of 3000 huopao ( 火礮 ) , 7000 incendiary gunpowder arrows for crossbows and 10000 for bows , as well as 20000 pidapao ( 皮大礮 ) , probably leather bags filled with gunpowder .
= T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage =
The T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage ( HMC ) was a United States Army self @-@ propelled gun used in World War II . Its design was based on requirements for an assault gun issued by the Armored Force in 1941 and it was built as an interim solution until a fully tracked design was complete .
Produced by the White Motor Company , the vehicle was simply a 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 mounted on a modified M3 Half @-@ track . It was first used in combat in the North African Campaign in November 1942 . It later served in Italy and France , and possibly in the Pacific . Some were later leased to French forces and the type was used as late as the First Indochina War in the 1950s .
= = Specifications = =
Based on the M3 Half @-@ track , the T30 's specifications were similar to its parent vehicle . It was 20 ft 7 in ( 6 @.@ 28 m ) long , 6 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) wide , 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) and high , and weighed 10 @.@ 3 short tons ( 9 @.@ 3 t ) . The suspension consisted of vertical volute springs for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels , while the vehicle had a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons ( 230 l ) . It had a range of 150 mi ( 240 km ) and had a speed of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , and was powered by a White 160AX , 147 hp ( 110 kW ) , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , six @-@ cylinder , gasoline engine , with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 . It had a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton .
= = = Gun specifications = = =
The T30 's main armament was a short barreled 3 @.@ 0 in ( 75 mm ) pack howitzer . The 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 as mounted could depress nine degrees , elevate 50 degrees , and traverse 22 @.@ 5 degrees to each side . The vehicle had stowage for sixty rounds of 75 mm ammunition and , although it was not designed for anti @-@ tank use , it had a high explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) shell that could penetrate 3 in ( 76 mm ) of armor . The gun shield had 0 @.@ 375 in ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick armor , designed to stop a .30 cal ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) bullet from 250 yards ( 230 m ) away .
= = Development = =
The T30 HMC was originally conceived in 1941 as an interim design to fulfil the Armored Force 's requirement for an assault gun to equip tank and armored reconnaissance units . The Ordnance Department design was based on the M3 Half @-@ track in order that it could be brought into service quickly . A prototype vehicle was authorized in October 1941 armed with an M1A1 75 mm Pack Howitzer and a mount that was designed to fit on a simple box structure in the back of an M3 Half @-@ track .
Authorization for the production of two prototypes was given in January 1942 ; first deliveries of the vehicle were made the following month from the White Motor Company . As it was seen as a temporary solution it was never given type classification . In September 1942 , the T30 was partially replaced by the Howitzer Motor Carriage M8 ( the same gun on an M3 Stuart ) . After that , it was declared as " limited standard " . A total of 500 were produced , all by the White Motor Company .
= = Service history = =
The T30 HMC entered service in November 1942 , seeing action for the first time in the North African Campaign . In the 1st Armored Division , each armored regiment was issued twelve T30s . Of these , three were used in each battalion headquarters platoon and three were used in each regimental reconnaissance platoon . In addition , the 6th and 41st Armored Infantry Regiments were each issued with nine T30 HMCs , with three of them being allocated to the headquarters platoon in each armored infantry battalion .
Most infantry divisions in the North African Campaign deployed a " cannon company " equipped with six T30s and two 105 mm T19 HMCs . In one encounter in North Africa , the T30 was used in an attempt to destroy German tanks . Although the T30s fired several volleys , the German tanks were barely damaged and the T30s were ordered to retreat under the cover of smoke to prevent losses . After several similar experiences , U.S. forces ceased the practice of employing self @-@ propelled howitzers or mortars in direct combat with tanks .
The T30 also served during the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , the war in Italy in 1944 , and possibly in the Pacific . It was removed from infantry division use in March 1943 , following changes in the organization of US infantry battalions , and was replaced by towed howitzers . The T30 was eventually replaced by the M8 HMC , which was based on the M5 Stuart light tank , and which began entering service around the same time as the T30 . Only 312 T30 HMCs were delivered in their original configuration , as the last 188 were converted back into M3 Half @-@ tracks before they were delivered . Later on , the U.S. leased several to French forces and some were used as late as the First Indochina War before the vehicle was retired from service in the 1950s .
= Memory Almost Full =
Memory Almost Full is the fourteenth solo studio album by Paul McCartney , discounting his Wings @-@ era discography , his orchestral works and his output as the Fireman . It was released in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2007 and in the United States a day later . The album was the first release on Starbucks ' Hear Music label . It was produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios , Henson Recording Studios , AIR Studios , Hog Hill Mill Studios and RAK Studios between October 2003 , and from 2006 to February 2007 . In between the 2003 and 2006 sessions , McCartney was working on another studio album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard ( 2005 ) , with producer Nigel Godrich .
Memory Almost Full reached the Top 5 in both the UK and US , as well as Denmark , Sweden , Greece , and Norway . The Grammy @-@ nominated album has sold over 2 million copies worldwide and has been certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies just in the United States . The album was released in three versions : a single disc , a 2 @-@ CD set , and a CD / DVD deluxe edition , the latter of which was released on 6 November 2007 .
= = Background = =
Nine demos were recorded at The Mill studio in September 2003 by Paul McCartney and his touring band . A month later , in October , album sessions for Memory Almost Full began , and were produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios . McCartney and the band recorded the songs " You Tell Me " , " Only Mama Knows " , " Vintage Clothes " , " That Was Me " , " Feet in the Clouds " , " House of Wax " , " The End of the End " , and " Whole Life " . However , the sessions were cut short and put on hiatus when McCartney started another album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , with producer Nigel Godrich . In the website constructed for the album , McCartney stated : " I actually started this album , Memory Almost Full , before my last album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , released September 2005 . ( ... ) When I was just finishing up everything concerned with Chaos and had just got the Grammy nominations ( 2006 ) I realised I had this album to go back to and finish off . So I got it out to listen to it again , wondering if I would enjoy it , but actually I really loved it . All I did at first was just listen to a couple of things and then I began to think , ' OK , I like that track – now , what is wrong with it ? ' And it might be something like a drum sound , so then I would re @-@ drum and see where we would get to . ( ... ) In places it 's a very personal record and a lot of it is retrospective , drawing from memory , like memories from being a kid , from Liverpool and from summers gone . The album is evocative , emotional , rocking , but I can 't really sum it up in one sentence " .
= = Recording = =
Many songs from Memory Almost Full were from a group of songs , which also included songs from Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , and some intended for the former nearly ended up on the latter . Any songs that were started , but not finished , for Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , McCartney didn 't want to re @-@ do for Memory Almost Full . As sessions for the album progressed McCartney wrote some more songs , something that McCartney used to do when he was in the Beatles . A song called " Perfect Lover " was recorded at either one of the three following studios : RAK Studios , AIR Studios or Ocean Way Studios ; sometime between November 2003 and April 2005 . " Perfect Lover " , in its original form was more folk @-@ like , similar to Chaos and Creation in the Backyard 's " Friends to Go " . " Perfect Lover " went through a minor lyrical change , the bridge was changed , and an overhaul of its musical arrangement , before it finally became " Ever Present Past " . Two years after the 2003 session , sessions for the album started again . The book Paul McCartney : Recording Sessions ( 1969 @-@ 2013 ) . A Journey Through Paul McCartney 's Songs After The Beatles reports that the recordings of the album were started in September – October 2003 and resumed in February 2004 at Abbey Road , with other sessions taking place between March 2006 and February 2007 .
New tracks were recorded at the following studios : McCartney 's home studio in Sussex , The Mill , Los Angeles ' Henson Studios , London 's RAK Studios and AIR Studios , and New York 's SeeSquared Studios . The songs recorded at those studios were " Nod Your Head " , " In Private " , " 222 " , " Gratitude " , " Mr. Bellamy " , " See Your Sunshine " , and " Ever Present Past " . Of those songs , " Mr. Bellamy " , " Ever Present Past " , " Gratitude " , " Nod Your Head " , and " In Private " were all recorded on the same day , in March 2006 . As well as working on songs from the first Memory Almost Full album session in 2003 , " Why So Blue " was re @-@ recorded . In total , between 20 and 25 songs were recorded for the album . " Dance Tonight " was recorded , along with " Feet in the Clouds " and " 222 " being reworked , between January and February 2007 at RAK Studios , as the last song recorded for the album . The album was mixed by Kahne and Andy Wallace .
= = Content = =
The Rock Radio website leaked a track listing for the album on 12 April 2007 . A day later , producer David Kahne stated on the same site that the leaked listing was bogus . In an interview with Billboard magazine in May 2007 , McCartney said that the album 's material was " in some ways a little bit retrospective . Some of them are of now , some of them hark back to the past , but all of them are songs I 'm very proud of . " McCartney played mandolin on the song " Dance Tonight " . He comments that " In searching the instrument to try and find chords , which I did with the guitar when I was 14 , probably , that freshness was brought back . " " Ever Present Past " , which McCartney called " personal " , originally started out as a song called " Perfect Lover " . " Ever Present Past " also includes references to the Beatles . In June 2007 , McCartney revealed that " See Your Sunshine " " is pretty much an out @-@ and @-@ out love song for Heather . A lot of the album was done before , during and after our separation . I didn 't go back and take out any songs to do with her . " " You Tell Me " is about McCartney 's memories of his previous wife , Linda .
" Mr. Bellamy " , the sixth song on the album , was thought by online fans to be about McCartney 's then @-@ recent divorce . McCartney invited Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke to play piano on the song , but he declined . The press ran articles claiming that Yorke had " snubbed " McCartney , but Yorke later revealed that he " really liked the song " but felt he would be unable to perform to the required standard . " Gratitude " is reportedly about the divorce between Heather Mills and McCartney .
The album features a five song @-@ medley , which in an interview with Billboard magazine , McCartney said that it was previously " something I wanted to revisit " as " nobody had been doing that for a while . " The medley was a group of intentionally written material , whereas McCartney had worked on the Beatles ' Abbey Road which , however , was actually made up of " bits we had knocking around . " The medley starts off with " Vintage Clothes " , which McCartney " sat down one day " to write , that was " looking back , [ and ] looking back . " , about life . It was followed by the bass @-@ led " That Was Me " , which is about his " school days and teachers " , the medley , as McCartney stated , then " progressed from there . " The next songs are " Feet in the Clouds " , about the inactivity while one is growing up , and " House of Wax " , about the life of being a celebrity . The final song in medley , " The End of the End " , was written at McCartney 's Cavendish Avenue home while playing on his father , Jim 's , piano .
= = Album title , and CD casing = =
Some people mentioned that the album 's title , Memory Almost Full , is an anagram of " for my soulmate LLM " ( the initials of Linda Louise McCartney ) . When asked if this was intentional , McCartney replied ; " Some things are best left a mystery " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , McCartney clarified , " I must say , someone told me [ there is an anagram ] , and I think it 's a complete mystery , because it 's so complete . There does appear to be an anagram in the title . And it 's a mystery . It was not intentional . " The album 's title was actually inspired by a message that came up on his mobile phone . He thought the phrase summed up modern life .
A significant proportion of the CD release of Memory Almost Full incorporated a cover insert whose top @-@ right corner was intentionally folded down to the center of the insert , leaving the CD tray visible . The folded @-@ down white corner covers up the corner of the armchair image , but has the artist and album names printed so that the text is complete despite the fold . Upon opening and flattening out the cover insert , the armchair is complete , but the portion of the text which is printed on the folded @-@ down corner is not printed on the front of the cover , leaving the text incomplete . This was the first time such an artistic intervention occurred within a standard jewel @-@ case , and at first glance had the possibility of being viewed as a mis @-@ manufactured copy . McCartney on the CD case / album artwork : " I really wanted to make the CD a desirable object . Something that I know I 'd want to pick up from the shelf , something that would make people curious . "
= = Reception = =
Memory Almost Full received positive reaction . At Metacritic , the album earned an average score of 69 based on 23 reviews from critics , which indicates " Generally favorable reviews " . Evan Serpick of Rolling Stone magazine also compared the medley of five songs in the second part of the album to the famous song suite in The Beatles ' Abbey Road . This album was ranked number 22 on Rolling Stone 's list of the Top 50 Albums of 2007 .
= = Release = =
= = = Album = = =
The album was his first for Starbucks ' Hear Music record label , after previously having a 45 @-@ year @-@ old relationship with Capitol / EMI . The recording contract with Capitol / EMI ended a few months prior to the release of the album , after McCartney had found out that EMI were planning to take six months to set up a promotional plan for the album . McCartney was the first artist to sign to Hear Music . The album was released on 4 June 2007 in the UK , and a day later on the 5th in the US , and with a vinyl edition later in the month on 25 June . In the US , Memory Almost Full debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 with about 161 @,@ 000 copies sold within the first week , making it McCartney 's highest @-@ charting album there since 1997 's Flaming Pie . 47 % of the album sales from the opening week were from Starbucks coffee shops , which were the best sales for any album in the history of Starbucks . While it was announced that copies of the album sold in the Starbucks coffee shops in the UK would not be counted by the Official UK Charts , because they are not registered in the copies counting system , Memory Almost Full , however , still managed to hit number 5 on the UK Album Charts . The album was also peaked at number 1 on Billboard Internet Sales Chart , and number 3 on Billboard Top Internet Albums Downloads .
It was also McCartney 's first album to be available as a digital download . Promotion for the album came in several forms , such as a worldwide listening party at over 10 @,@ 000 Starbucks stores on the day of the album 's US release , with an approximation of 6 million people hearing the album . At ten of the Starbucks stores , fans contributed in a video tribute , that aired on the internet on 18 June 2007 . Other promotions included a limited edition Paul McCartney Starbucks card , similar to what they had done for Ray Charles 's Genius Loves Company , the Starbucks @-@ owned satellite radio station XM Channel made a program about McCartney and the album , released one song prior to the album on iTunes , performed at iTunes Festival : London , and playing free shows . It was ranked at number 90 on the top @-@ 100 of the Billboard Year @-@ end chart , and number 177 on the UK year @-@ end chart . The album won awards for the Best PR Campaign award at the Music Week Awards ceremony , and the Online / Digital Campaign award by New Media Age . The album reportedly sold 105 @,@ 000 copies in his homeland until it was given away the standard version of the CD in a unique slip @-@ case as part of a promotion with British newspaper The Mail on Sunday for free , with the 18 May 2008 edition .
On 6 November 2007 , the album was re @-@ released as Memory Almost Full – Deluxe Edition . The set included one CD and one DVD . The CD included the standard album plus the three extra songs from the 2 @-@ CD edition . The DVD contained five tracks recorded live at The Electric Ballroom in London , and two music videos .
= = = Singles = = =
The first US single , " Ever Present Past " , made its radio debut on 20 April 2007 . Peaking at number 10 in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , and also charting at number 16 on Billboard Adult Contemporary . The lead single for the rest of the world is " Dance Tonight " , released on McCartney 's 65th birthday in the UK , 18 June 2007 as a digital download , with a physical release a month later , on 23 July of a CD single and a 10 " shaped picture disc . The single peaked at number 46 on Billboard Hot Digital Songs , number 58 Billboard Pop 100 , and finally at number 69 on Billboard Hot 100 . The music video features Natalie Portman and Mackenzie Crook , and was directed by Michel Gondry . The music video had its premier exclusively on 23 May 2007 YouTube . " Dance Tonight " has appeared in an iTunes advert with McCartney playing the mandolin . " Ever Present Past " was released as a single in the UK , on 5 November , as a CD single and 7 " single . It peaked at number 85 . The third single , " Nod Your Head " , was released as a digital download single on 28 August 2007 via the iTunes Store .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul McCartney .
" Dance Tonight " – 2 : 54
" Ever Present Past " – 2 : 57
" See Your Sunshine " – 3 : 20
" Only Mama Knows " – 4 : 17
" You Tell Me " – 3 : 15
" Mr. Bellamy " – 3 : 39
" Gratitude " – 3 : 19
" Vintage Clothes " – 2 : 22
This track marks the start of a five @-@ song medley on the album .
" That Was Me " – 2 : 38
" Feet in the Clouds " – 3 : 24
" House of Wax " – 4 : 59
" The End of the End " – 2 : 57
" Nod Your Head " – 1 : 58
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per booklet .
= = Grammy = =
Memory Almost Full has been nominated in the following categories :
Best Pop Vocal Album for Memory Almost Full ( 2008 )
Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " Dance Tonight " ( 2008 )
Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for " Only Mama Knows " ( 2008 )
Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " That Was Me " ( 2009 )
= = Charts = =
Notes :
On the article that Concord Music Group posted on their official site in February 2007 ( a month before Memory Almost Full was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ) , Hear Music announced that shipments of the album reached a platinum status in the US . The label also claimed that the album gained a gold in other countries like Norway , though International Federation of the Phonographic Industry has not certified the album at any label there as of 2014 .
= Imagine ( John Lennon song ) =
" Imagine " is a song written and performed by the English musician John Lennon . The best @-@ selling single of his solo career , its lyrics encourage the listener to imagine a world at peace without the barriers of borders or the divisions of religion and nationality , and to consider the possibility that the focus of humanity should be living a life unattached to material possessions .
Lennon and Yoko Ono co @-@ produced the song and album of the same name with Phil Spector . Recording began at Lennon 's home studio at Tittenhurst Park , England , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . One month after the September release of the LP , Lennon released " Imagine " as a single in the United States ; the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and the LP reached number one on the UK chart in November , later becoming the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career . Although not originally released as a single in the United Kingdom , it was released in 1975 to promote a compilation LP and it reached number six in the chart that year . The song has since sold more than 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the UK ; it reached number one following Lennon 's murder in December 1980 . In 1985 , Central Park memorialized a portion of the park with a mosaic that reads " Imagine " in honor of Lennon .
BMI named " Imagine " one of the 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . It earned a Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . A UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book named it the second best single of all time , while Rolling Stone ranked it number three in their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . Since 2005 , event organisers have played it just before the New Year 's Times Square Ball drops in New York City . Dozens of artists have performed or recorded versions of " Imagine " , including Madonna , Stevie Wonder , Joan Baez , Elton John and Diana Ross . Emeli Sandé recorded a cover for the BBC to use during the end credits montage at the close of the 2012 Summer Olympics coverage in August 2012 . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .
= = Composition and writing = =
Several poems from Yoko Ono 's 1964 book Grapefruit inspired Lennon to write the lyrics for " Imagine " — in particular , one which Capitol Records reproduced on the back cover of the original Imagine LP titled " Cloud Piece " , reads : " Imagine the clouds dripping , dig a hole in your garden to put them in . " Lennon later said the composition " should be credited as a Lennon / Ono song . A lot of it — the lyric and the concept — came from Yoko , but in those days I was a bit more selfish , a bit more macho , and I sort of omitted her contribution , but it was right out of Grapefruit . " When asked about the song 's meaning during a December 1980 interview with David Sheff for Playboy magazine , Lennon told Sheff that Dick Gregory had given Ono and him a Christian prayer book , which inspired him the concept behind " Imagine " .
The concept of positive prayer ... If you can imagine a world at peace , with no denominations of religion — not without religion but without this my God @-@ is @-@ bigger @-@ than @-@ your @-@ God thing — then it can be true ... the World Church called me once and asked , " Can we use the lyrics to ' Imagine ' and just change it to ' Imagine one religion ' ? " That showed [ me ] they didn 't understand it at all . It would defeat the whole purpose of the song , the whole idea .
With the combined influence of " Cloud Piece " and the prayer book given to him by Gregory , Lennon wrote what author John Blaney described as " a humanistic paean for the people " . Blaney wrote , " Lennon contends that global harmony is within our reach , but only if we reject the mechanisms of social control that restrict human potential . " In the opinion of Blaney , with " Imagine " , Lennon attempted to raise people 's awareness of their interaction with the institutions that affect their lives . Rolling Stone 's David Fricke commented : " [ Lennon ] calls for a unity and equality built upon the complete elimination of modern social order : geopolitical borders , organised religion , [ and ] economic class . "
Lennon stated : " ' Imagine ' , which says : ' Imagine that there was no more religion , no more country , no more politics , ' is virtually the Communist manifesto , even though I 'm not particularly a Communist and I do not belong to any movement . " He told NME : " There is no real Communist state in the world ; you must realize that . The Socialism I speak about ... [ is ] not the way some daft Russian might do it , or the Chinese might do it . That might suit them . Us , we should have a nice ... British Socialism . " Ono described the lyrical statement of " Imagine " as " just what John believed : that we are all one country , one world , one people . " Rolling Stone described its lyrics as " 22 lines of graceful , plain @-@ spoken faith in the power of a world , united in purpose , to repair and change itself " .
Lennon composed " Imagine " one morning in early 1971 , on a Steinway piano , in a bedroom at his Tittenhurst Park estate in Ascot , Berkshire , England . Ono watched as he composed the melody , chord structure and almost all the lyrics , nearly completing the song in one brief writing session . Described as a piano ballad performed in the soft rock genre , the song is in the key of C major . Its 4 @-@ bar piano introduction begins with a C chord then moves to Cmaj7 before changing to F ; the 12 @-@ bar verses also follow this chord progression , with their last 4 bars moving from Am / E to Dm and Dm / C , finishing with G , G11 then G7 , before resolving back to C. The 8 @-@ bar choruses progress from F to G to C , then Cmaj7 and E before ending on E7 , a C chord substituted for E7 in the final bar . The 4 @-@ bar outro begins with F , then G , before resolving on C. With a duration of 3 minutes and 3 seconds and a time signature of 4 / 4 , the song 's tempo falls around 75 beats per minute .
= = Recording and commercial reception = =
Lennon and Ono co @-@ produced the song and album with Phil Spector , who commented on the track : " We knew what we were going to do ... It was going to be John making a political statement , but a very commercial one as well ... I always thought that ' Imagine ' was like the national anthem . " Lennon described his working arrangement with Ono and Spector : " Phil doesn 't arrange or anything like that — [ Ono ] and Phil will just sit in the other room and shout comments like , ' Why don 't you try this sound ' or ' You 're not playing the piano too well ' ... I 'll get the initial idea and ... we 'll just find a sound from [ there ] . "
Recording began at Ascot Sound Studios , Lennon 's newly built home studio at Tittenhurst Park , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . Relaxed and patient , the sessions began during the late morning , running to just before dinner in the early evening . Lennon taught the musicians the chord progression and a working arrangement for " Imagine " , rehearsing the song until he deemed the musicians ready to record . In his attempt to recreate Lennon 's desired sound , Spector had some early tapings feature Lennon and Nicky Hopkins playing in different octaves on one piano . He also initially attempted to record the piano part with Lennon playing the white baby grand in the couple 's all @-@ white room . However , after having deemed the room 's acoustics unsuitable , Spector abandoned the idea in favour of the superior environment of Lennon 's home studio . They completed the session in minutes , recording three takes and choosing the second one for release . The finished recording featured Lennon on piano and vocal , Klaus Voormann on bass guitar , Alan White on drums and the Flux Fiddlers on strings .
Issued by Apple Records in the United States in October 1971 , " Imagine " became the best @-@ selling single of Lennon 's solo career . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one in Canada on the RPM national singles chart , remaining there for two weeks . Upon its release the song 's lyrics upset some religious groups , particularly the line : " Imagine there 's no heaven " . When asked about the song during one of his final interviews , Lennon said he considered it to be as strong a composition as any he had written with the Beatles . He described the song 's meaning and explicated its commercial appeal : " Anti @-@ religious , anti @-@ nationalistic , anti @-@ conventional , anti @-@ capitalistic , but because it is sugarcoated it is accepted ... Now I understand what you have to do . Put your political message across with a little honey . " In an open letter to Paul McCartney published in Melody Maker , Lennon said that " Imagine " was " ' Working Class Hero ' with sugar on it for conservatives like yourself " . On 30 November 1971 , the Imagine LP reached number one on the UK chart . It became the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career .
= = Film and re @-@ releases = =
In 1972 , Lennon and Ono released an 81 @-@ minute film to accompany the Imagine album which featured footage of the couple in their home , garden and the recording studio of their Berkshire property at Tittenhurst Park as well as in New York City . A full @-@ length documentary rock video , the film 's first scene features a shot of Lennon and Ono walking through a thick fog , arriving at their house as the song " Imagine " begins . Above the front door to their house is a sign that reads : " This Is Not Here " , the title of Ono 's then New York art show . The next scene shows Lennon sitting at a white grand piano in a dimly lit , all @-@ white room . Ono gradually walks around opening curtains that allow in light , making the room brighter with the song 's progression . At the song 's conclusion , Ono sits beside Lennon at the piano , and they share a quaint gaze , then a brief kiss .
Several celebrities appeared in the film , including Andy Warhol , Fred Astaire , Jack Palance , Dick Cavett and George Harrison . Derided by critics as " the most expensive home movie of all time " , it premiered to an American audience in 1972 . In 1986 , Zbigniew Rybczyński made a music video for the song , and in 1987 , it won both the " Silver Lion " award for Best Clip at Cannes and the Festival Award at the Rio International Film Festival .
Released as a single in the United Kingdom in 1975 in conjunction with the album Shaved Fish , " Imagine " peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart . Following Lennon 's murder in 1980 , the single re @-@ entered the UK chart , reaching number one , where it remained for four weeks in January 1981 . " Imagine " was re @-@ released as a single in the UK in 1988 , peaking at number 45 , and again in 1999 , reaching number three . It has sold 1 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of June 2013 , making it Lennon 's best @-@ selling single . In 1999 , on National Poetry Day in the United Kingdom , the BBC announced that listeners had voted " Imagine " Britain 's favourite song lyric . In 2003 , it reached number 33 as the B @-@ side to a re @-@ release of " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " .
= = Recognition and criticism = =
Rolling Stone described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " greatest musical gift to the world " , praising " the serene melody ; the pillowy chord progression ; [ and ] that beckoning , four @-@ note [ piano ] figure " . Included in several song polls , in 1999 , BMI named it one of the top 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . Also that year , it received the Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . " Imagine " ranked number 23 in the list of best @-@ selling singles of all time in the UK , in 2000 . In 2002 , a UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book ranked it the second best single of all time behind Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Gold Radio ranked the song number three on its " Gold 's greatest 1000 hits " list .
Rolling Stone ranked " Imagine " number three on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , describing it as " an enduring hymn of solace and promise that has carried us through extreme grief , from the shock of Lennon 's own death in 1980 to the unspeakable horror of September 11th . It is now impossible to imagine a world without ' Imagine ' , and we need it more than he ever dreamed . " Despite that sentiment , Clear Channel Communications included the song on its post @-@ 9 / 11 " do not play " list .
On 1 January 2005 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation named " Imagine " the greatest song in the past 100 years as voted by listeners on the show 50 Tracks . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . Virgin Radio conducted a UK favourite song survey in December 2005 , and listeners voted " Imagine " number one . Australians selected it the greatest song of all time on the Nine Network 's 20 to 1 countdown show on 12 September 2006 . They voted it eleventh in the youth radio network Triple J 's Hottest 100 Of All Time on 11 July 2009 .
Jimmy Carter said , " in many countries around the world — my wife and I have visited about 125 countries — you hear John Lennon 's song ' Imagine ' used almost equally with national anthems . " On 9 October 2010 , which would have been Lennon 's 70th birthday , the Liverpool Signing Choir performed " Imagine " along with other Lennon songs at the unveiling of the John Lennon Peace Monument in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , England . Beatles producer George Martin praised Lennon 's solo work , singling out the composition : " My favourite song of all was ' Imagine ' " . Music critic Paul Du Noyer described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " most revered " post @-@ Beatles song . Urish and Bielen called it " the most subversive pop song recorded to achieve classic status " . Fricke commented : " ' Imagine ' is a subtly contentious song , Lennon 's greatest combined achievement as a balladeer and agitator . "
Authors Ben Urish and Ken Bielen criticised the song 's instrumental music as overly sentimental and melodramatic , comparing it to the music of the pre @-@ rock era and describing the vocal melody as understated . According to Blaney , Lennon 's lyrics describe hypothetical possibilities that offer no practical solutions ; lyrics that are at times nebulous and contradictory , asking the listener to abandon political systems while encouraging one similar to communism . Author Chris Ingham indicated the hypocrisy in Lennon , the millionaire rock star living in a mansion , encouraging listeners to imagine living their lives without possessions . Others argue that Lennon intended the song 's lyrics to inspire listeners to imagine if the world could live without possessions , not as an explicit call to give them up . Blaney commented : " Lennon knew he had nothing concrete to offer , so instead he offers a dream , a concept to be built upon . "
Blaney considered the song to be " riddled with contradictions . Its hymn @-@ like setting sits uncomfortably alongside its author 's plea for us to envision a world without religion . " Urish and Bielen described Lennon 's " dream world " without a heaven or hell as a call to " make the best world we can here and now , since this is all this is or will be " . In their opinion , " because we are asked merely to imagine — to play a ' what if ' game , Lennon can escape the harshest criticisms " . Former Beatle Ringo Starr defended the song 's lyrics during a 1981 interview with Barbara Walters , stating : " [ Lennon ] said ' imagine ' , that 's all . Just imagine it . "
The morning after the November 2015 Paris attacks , German pianist Davide Martello brought a grand piano to the street out in front of the Bataclan , where 89 concertgoers had been shot dead the night before , and performed an instrumental version to honour the victims of the attacks ; video of his performance went viral . This led Katy Waldman of Slate to ponder why " Imagine " had become so frequently performed as a response to tragedy . In addition to its general popularity , she noted its musical simplicity , its key of C major , " the plainest and least complicated key , with no sharps or flats " aside from one passage with " a plaintive major seventh chord that allows a tiny bit of E minor into the tonic " . That piano part , " gentle as a rocking chair " , underpins lyrics that , Waldman says , " belongs to the tradition of hymns or spirituals that visualize a glorious afterlife without prophesizing any immediate end to suffering on earth " . This understanding is also compounded by the historical context of Lennon 's own violent death , " remind [ ing ] us that the universe can run ramshod over idealistic people " . Ultimately , the song " captures the fragility of our hope after a violent or destructive event ... [ bu ] t also reveals its tenacity " .
= = Notable performances and cover versions = =
In December 1971 , Lennon and Ono appeared at the Apollo Theater in Harlem . Lennon performed " Imagine " with an acoustic guitar , yielding the earliest known live recording of the song , later included on the John Lennon Anthology ( 1998 ) . In 1975 , he sang " Imagine " during his final public performance , a birthday celebration for Lew Grade .
Elton John performed the song regularly on his world tour in 1980 , including at his free concert in Central Park , a few blocks away from Lennon 's apartment in the Dakota building . On 9 December 1980 , the day after Lennon 's murder , Queen performed " Imagine " as a tribute to him during their Wembley Arena show in London . On 9 October 1990 , more than one billion people listened to a broadcast of the song on what would have been Lennon 's 50th birthday . Ratau Mike Makhalemele covered the song on an EP of Lennon covers in 1990 . In 1991 – 92 , Liza Minnelli performed the song in her show at Radio City Music Hall . Stevie Wonder gave his rendition of the song , with the Morehouse College Glee Club , during the closing ceremony of the 1996 Summer Olympics as a tribute to the victims of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing . In 2001 , Neil Young performed it during the benefit concert America : A Tribute to Heroes . Madonna performed " Imagine " during the benefit Tsunami Aid : A Concert of Hope . Peter Gabriel performed the song during the 2006 Winter Olympics opening ceremony .
Since 2005 , " Imagine " has been played prior to the New Year 's Eve ball drop at New York City 's Times Square . Beginning in 2010 , the song has been performed live ; first by Taio Cruz , then in 2011 by CeeLo Green and in 2012 by Train . However , Green received criticism for changing the lyric " and no religion too " to " and all religions true " , resulting in an immediate backlash from fans who believed that he had disrespected Lennon 's legacy by changing the lyrics of his most iconic song . Green defended the change by saying it meant to represent " a world [ where you ] could believe what [ you ] wanted " . The event got media attention outside of the US , with Britain 's The Guardian stating " Lennon 's original lyrics don 't praise pluralism or interchangeable religious truths – they damn them " .
More than 200 artists have recorded cover versions of " Imagine " . Joan Baez included it on 1972 's Come from the Shadows and Diana Ross recorded a version for her 1973 album , Touch Me in the Morning . In 1995 , Blues Traveler recorded the song for the Working Class Hero : A Tribute to John Lennon album and Dave Matthews has performed the song live with them . A Perfect Circle covered the song for the album eMOTIVe , released in 2004 . Dolly Parton recorded the song for her 2005 covers album Those Were the Days . A cover version of the song , performed by Italian singer Marco Carta , entered the top 20 in Italy in 2009 , peaking at number 13 . Seal , Pink , India.Arie , Jeff Beck , Konono Nº1 , Oumou Sangaré and others recorded a version for Herbie Hancock 's 2010 album The Imagine Project .
Hancock performed it with Arie , Kristina Train and Greg Phillinganes at the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize Concert on 11 December . On 13 February 2011 , the recording — with Pink , Seal , Malian singer Oumou Sangaré , India.Arie and Jeff Beck won a Grammy award for Best Pop Vocal Collaboration .
The song was performed as part of the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics . Performed by the Liverpool Philharmonic Youth Choir and the Liverpool Signing Choir , the choirs sang the first verse and accompanied Lennon 's original vocals during the rest of the song . A cover performed by Emeli Sandé was also used by the BBC for a closing montage that ended its coverage . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .
In 2015 , American singer / songwriter Lady Gaga performed the song at the 2015 European Games opening ceremony . The song was played for 70 @,@ 000 people in Baku , Azerbaijan that served as host of the event .
= = Personnel = =
John Lennon – vocals , piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Alan White – drums
The Flux Fiddlers – strings
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Documentaries = = =
= Big Boy ( song ) =
" Big Boy " aka " I 'm A Big Boy Now " was the first single ever recorded by the Jackson 5 , which was released by Steeltown Records in January 1968 . The group played instruments on many of their Steeltown compositions , including " Big Boy " . The song was neither a critical nor commercial success , but the Jackson family were delighted with the outcome nonetheless .
The Jackson 5 would release a second single with Steeltown Records before moving to Motown Records . The group 's recordings at Steeltown Records were thought to be lost , but they were rediscovered more than 25 years later . They were remastered and released in 1995 , with " Big Boy " as the promotional lead single .
= = First record deal and lead single = =
The Jackson 5 began their career performing at talent contests , which they would often win . During a performance at Beckman Junior High in Gary , Indiana , the group were brought to the attention of Gordon Keith — a singer , record producer , and a founder @-@ owner of Steeltown Records , a company also located in Gary . Keith , Steeltown Records President in 1967 , signed " The Jackson Five " to a limited record deal with him only in November of that year , producing and and releasing " Big Boy " on January 30 , 1968 . The band recorded with their instruments and a backing group on the weekends . Michael Jackson sang lead vocals on the majority of the tracks beginning with " Big Boy " in 1967 which took a few hours to record . " Big Boy " was written by Eddie Silvers of Chicago and was recorded there . The group were paid three cents for each record sold , which was split equally amongst the five brothers and their drummer . The group 's first single " Big Boy " was backed with the B @-@ side " You 've Changed " . " The Jackson 5 and Johnny " ( Johnny Jackson on drums , no relation ) would go on to perform " Big Boy " and other songs locally throughout the Gary and South Chicago area before moving to California in 1969 .
= = Reception and Jackson family = =
The Jackson family gathered around a radio to hear the song broadcast for the first time . Michael Jackson — who was 9 years old at the time — said of the experience , " [ the family ] all laughed and hugged one another . We felt we had arrived . " The single " Big Boy " did not appear on any of Billboard 's music charts but sold in excess of 10 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Leaving Steeltown = =
" The Jackson Five " would release a second and final single through Steeltown Records — " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . The two singles were to be supported by an eleven track studio album but it was never released . On July 26 , 1968 , the group signed a | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance . The acrimonious relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul Raibourn , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .
= = = Trouble from the start = = =
DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to underwrite television operations until the television medium itself became profitable . Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium . As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars . Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen . In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via kinescope recording ( " teletranscriptions " in DuMont parlance ) .
Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 " freeze " on television license applications . This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II . It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( " channel 1 " had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service . What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum . The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability . In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive converter . Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best . Tied to this was a decision to restrict VHF allocations in medium- and smaller @-@ sized markets . Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .
Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to dismal ratings . It bought small , distressed UHF station KCTY ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .
The FCC 's Dr. Hyman Goldin said in 1960 , " If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . "
= = = The end = = =
During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks . However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio . NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither underfunded DuMont nor ABC could hope to win . According to author Dennis Mazzocco , " NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . " The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks . ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out . ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David Sarnoff 's proposal , but " did not report it to the Justice Department " .
DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market . WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from Johnstown , Pennsylvania ; Youngstown , Ohio ; and Wheeling , West Virginia . No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area . Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a bargaining chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .
Despite its severe financial straits , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network . DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( " O & Os " ) , plus WGN @-@ TV in Chicago , KTTV ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , KFEL @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now KWGN @-@ TV ) in Denver and WTVN @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now WSYX ) in Columbus , Ohio . In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates . ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations . However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each . By 1951 , ABC was badly overextended and on the verge of bankruptcy . That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. antitrust decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .
By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS . It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars . By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large " must @-@ buy " list of stations .
ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network . The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount " top shelf " programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC . Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .
Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC . Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called " ABC @-@ DuMont " until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments . In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff . A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a colossus rivaling CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network . It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) . However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship WJZ @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now WABC @-@ TV ) , probably the former . It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , WXYZ @-@ TV in Detroit and KGO @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .
However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to antitrust concerns . A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .
With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.@ 75 million in late 1954 . While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets . Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 . By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network . The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations . On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped . Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC . By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer . The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance . The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's Electronicam process to produce studio @-@ based programming . Ironically , Electronicam is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .
In August , Paramount , with the help of other stockholders , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories . The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 . After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events . DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 . The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 . According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide . It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .
DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the " DuMont Broadcasting Corporation " . The name was later changed to " Metropolitan Broadcasting Company " to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure . In 1958 , John Kluge bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 . WABD became WNEW @-@ TV and later WNYW ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .
For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .
= = Fate of the DuMont stations = =
All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and coincidentally , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont . Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .
WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later WNEW @-@ TV , and now WNYW ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned independents until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company . Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .
Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to KDKA @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale . Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made KDKA @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .
= = DuMont programming library = =
DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 . Because the shows were created prior to the launch of Ampex 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film kinescope for reruns and for West Coast rebroadcasts . By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and 16mm kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of " a successor network , " who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage videotapes in a warehouse . Other kinescopes were put through a silver reclaiming process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the emulsion of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time . It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches . Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .
= = Affiliates = =
At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations . In those days , television stations were free to " cherry @-@ pick " which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) . Many of DuMont 's " affiliates " carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends . Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .
In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations . DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .
= = = Kinescopes = = =
Kinescopes of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of Ellery Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand Accused and A DuMont Network identification
= Bodyline =
Bodyline , also known as fast leg theory bowling , was a cricketing tactic devised by the English cricket team for their 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia , specifically to combat the extraordinary batting skill of Australia 's Don Bradman . A bodyline delivery was one where the cricket ball was bowled towards the body of the batsman on the line of the leg stump , in the hope of creating leg @-@ side deflections that could be caught by one of several fielders in the quadrant of the field behind square leg . This was considered by many to be intimidatory and physically threatening , to the point of being unfair in a game once supposed to have gentlemanly traditions , although commercialisation of the game had subsequently tended to elevate the principle of " win at all costs " above traditional ideals of sportsmanship .
Although no serious injuries arose from any short @-@ pitched deliveries while a leg theory field was set , the tactic still led to considerable ill feeling between the two teams , with the controversy eventually spilling into the diplomatic arena . Over the next two decades , several of the Laws of Cricket were changed to prevent this tactic being repeated . Law 41 @.@ 5 states " At the instant of the bowler 's delivery there shall not be more than two fielders , other than the wicket @-@ keeper , behind the popping crease on the on side , " commonly referred to as being " behind square leg " . Additionally , Law 42 @.@ 6 ( a ) includes : " The bowling of fast short pitched balls is dangerous and unfair if the umpire at the bowler 's end considers that by their repetition and taking into account their length , height and direction they are likely to inflict physical injury on the striker " .
The occasional short @-@ pitched ball aimed at the batsman ( a bouncer ) has never been illegal and is still in widespread use as a tactic .
= = Genesis = =
The Australian cricket team toured England in 1930 . Australia won the five @-@ Test series 2 – 1 , with Don Bradman scoring 974 runs at a batting average of 139 @.@ 14 , an aggregate record that still stands . By the time of the next Ashes series of 1932 – 33 , Bradman 's average hovered around 100 , approximately twice that of all other world @-@ class batsmen . England feared that without resorting to drastic tactics , they might not be able to defeat Australia until Bradman — then aged 24 — retired , something that might be over a decade away . It was believed that something new was required to combat Bradman , but it was believed more likely that Bradman could be dismissed by leg @-@ spin as Walter Robins and Ian Peebles had supposedly caused him problems ; two leg @-@ spinners were included in the English touring party of 1932 – 33 . This view gradually came to change leading up to 1932 .
The idea of bodyline had originated in the Oval Test of the 1930 Ashes series . While Bradman was batting , the wicket became briefly difficult following rain . Bradman was seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries which bounced higher than usual at a faster pace , being seen to step back out of the line of the ball . Former England player and Surrey captain Percy Fender was one who noticed , and the incident was much discussed by cricketers . However , given that Bradman scored 232 , it was not thought that a way to curb his prodigious scoring had been found . When Douglas Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details adding to the plan came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 , which described how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off side to play the ball on the on side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine when it became clear that he was to captain MCC in Australia during the 1932 – 33 tour , and he also discussed Bradman 's discomfort at the Oval . It was also known in England that Bradman was dismissed for a four @-@ ball duck by fast bowler Eddie Gilbert , and looked very uncomfortable . Bradman had also appeared uncomfortable against the pace of Sandy Bell in his innings of 299 not out at the Adelaide Oval in South Africa 's tour of Australia earlier in 1932 , when the desperate bowler decided to bowl short to him , and fellow South African Herbie Taylor , according to Jack Fingleton , may have mentioned this to English cricketers in 1932 . Fender felt Bradman might be vulnerable to fast , short @-@ pitched deliveries on the line of leg stump . Jardine felt that Bradman was afraid to stand his ground against intimidatory bowling , citing instances in 1930 when he shuffled about , contrary to orthodox batting technique .
When Jardine was appointed England 's captain for the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel to discuss a plan to combat Bradman 's extraordinary skills . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl on leg stump and make the ball come up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed they could , and that it might prove effective . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field @-@ placing in Australia . Foster had bowled leg @-@ theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 .
A cordon of close @-@ in fielders would be arrayed behind the wicket and on the leg side to exploit batting errors elicited by this bowling line . In these circumstances , a batsman can either duck and risk being hit , or play the ball . Defensive shots rarely score runs and risk being caught in the cordon , while the pull and hook shots can result in a catch on the boundary , for which two men were usually set in " leg @-@ theory " bowling . Leg theory had been practised previously without resort to short @-@ pitched bowling , usually by slow or medium @-@ pace bowlers . This type of leg theory was aimed outside the line of leg stump ; the object being to test the batsman 's patience and force a rash stroke . It was occasionally an effective tactic , but was unattractive for spectators and never became widely used except by a handful of specialists such as Fred Root , the Worcestershire bowler and Warwick Armstrong , the former Australian captain .
However , there had been instances of what would later be recognised as bodyline prior to 1932 . In 1925 , Australian Jack Scott first bowled a form of bodyline in a state match for New South Wales , but his captain Herbie Collins disliked it and would not let him use it again when he was captain . Other Australian captains were less particular , including Vic Richardson who let him use those tactics when he moved to South Australia . He repeated them against the MCC in 1928 – 29 . In 1927 , in a Test trial match , " Nobby " Clark bowled short to a leg @-@ trap field . He was representing England in a side captained by Jardine . In 1928 – 29 , Harry Alexander bowled an early form of bodyline at the MCC tourists . Larwood used a form of bodyline on that same tour , bowling fast leg theory to a leg @-@ side field in two Test matches , although not with the same intensity and duration as came later . Bob Wyatt later claimed that Learie Constantine unsuccessfully used bodyline in 1929 – 30 in the West Indies .
Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with varying but increasing success and several injuries to batsmen . Ken Farnes experimented with short @-@ pitched , leg @-@ theory bowling but was not selected for the tour . Bill Bowes also used short @-@ pitched bowling , notably against Jack Hobbs .
= = Antipathy between Australians and Jardine = =
Jardine 's first experience against Australia came when his Oxford University team played against the 1921 Australian touring side . In the second innings , Jardine was 96 not out when the game ended , having batted his team to safety . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , but they had tried to help him with some easy bowling . There has been speculation that this incident helped develop Jardine 's antipathy towards Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that the abrasive Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century .
Regardless of what happened in 1921 , Jardine 's conflicts with Australia solidified after he was selected to tour the country in 1928 – 29 . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds . During the first century , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd during his second hundred for batting too slowly . Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked to score his third century . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to successful cricketers at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and MCC captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators ; his general demeanour drew one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could have won over the crowd by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when teammate Patsy Hendren remarked that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . During the tour , Jardine fielded next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked for his awkward fielding , particularly when chasing the ball . On one occasion , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .
During the journey to Australia , some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seemed to have settled on leg theory , if not full bodyline , as his main tactic .
Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative during interviews . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which angered him .
= = In Australia = =
Although English bowlers did aim at the batsmen 's body in the opening tour matches , they did not follow through by packing the leg @-@ side field until Bill Woodfull led an Australian XI against the tourists in Melbourne on 18 – 22 November , in what was effectively a Test rehearsal . Jardine was rested from that match and his deputy , Bob Wyatt , deployed the full bodyline tactics for the first time on the tour . The match was drawn and Woodfull struggled , making 18 and a duck . Utilising his hopping technique and attempting to play unorthodox shots resembling overhead tennis smashes , Bradman failed to make an impact , and England were buoyed ahead of the Tests . Seeing the bruising balls hit the Australian batsmen on several occasions in this game and the next angered the spectators .
The English players and management were consistent in referring to their tactic as fast leg theory considering it to be a variant of the established and unobjectionable leg theory tactic . The inflammatory term " bodyline " was coined and perpetuated by the Australian press ( see below ) . English writers used the term fast leg theory . The terminology reflected differences in understanding , as neither the English public nor the Board of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) — the governing body of English cricket — could understand why the Australians were complaining about what they perceived as a commonly used tactic . Some concluded that the Australian cricket authorities and public were sore losers . Of the four fast bowlers in the tour party , Gubby Allen was a voice of dissent in the English camp , refusing to bowl short on the leg side , and writing several letters home to England critical of Jardine , although he did not express this in public in Australia . A number of other players , while maintaining a united front in public , also deplored bodyline in private . The amateurs Bob Wyatt ( the vice @-@ captain ) , Freddie Brown and the Nawab of Pataudi opposed it , as did Walter Hammond and Les Ames among the professionals .
During the season , Woodfull 's physical courage , stoic and dignified leadership won him many admirers . He flatly refused to employ retaliatory tactics and did not publicly complain even though he and his men were repeatedly hit .
Australia lost heavily by ten wickets in the first Test at Sydney , when the bowling spearhead of bodyline , Harold Larwood , took ten wickets . Bradman missed the first Test due to illness , although Jardine refused to believe this and thought the real reason was that the batsman had suffered a nervous breakdown due to his tactical scheme . The only Australian batsman to make an impact was Stan McCabe , who resolutely stood his ground and impulsively hooked and pulled everything aimed at his upper body , undeterred by the prospect of taking a potentially lethal blow to the head . He scored 187 not out in four hours , an innings described by leading historian David Frith as " among the most stirring innings Test cricket has ever produced " .
Before the second Test in Melbourne , Woodfull had to wait until minutes before the game before he was confirmed as captain by the selectors . This caused the toss to be delayed and fomented speculation that the Australian Board of Control was considering the possibility of removing Woodfull because of his absolute refusal to allow his bowlers to use retaliatory tactics . His deputy Victor Richardson had advocated retaliation along with several other players . Richardson recalled Woodfull 's private response :
There is no way I will be influenced to adopt such tactics which bring such discredit to the game . I know Tim could do it but I am not going to participate in actions that can only hurt the game .
The media advocated the selection of Eddie Gilbert , an indigenous bowler of extreme pace , in order to return the bodyline barrage . In one tour match , Gilbert had bloodied Jardine and left a bruise the size of a saucer . Another suggested means of retaliation was Laurie Nash , whose notoriously abrasive personality and aggression saw him regarded as a thug . However , Woodfull was totally unmoved by such suggestions .
On the opening day , Bradman wildly hooked at Bill Bowes ' first ball ( a non @-@ bodyline ball ) and was dismissed for a golden duck , leaving the entire stadium in shock . Jardine , who was known for being extremely dour even by the standards of the day , openly exulted and danced wildly upon Bradman 's demise . Australia 's eventual victory was met by widespread public jubilation , as many believed that Australia had found a means of overcoming the tactics . Bradman scored a match @-@ winning century in the second innings , but it turned out to be his only triple figure score for the series , while Larwood was hampered by a bloodied foot and a slow pitch .
The controversy reached its peak during the second day of the Third Test . On 14 January , an all @-@ time record Adelaide Oval crowd of 50 @,@ 962 watched Australia finish off England 's first innings . Shortly after the start of Australia 's innings , Larwood , bowling to a conventional field setting , struck Woodfull an agonising blow under his heart with a short , lifting delivery . Woodfull was struck when he was bent over his bat and wicket , and not when upright as often imagined . As Woodfull bent down over his bat in pain for several minutes , an image that became one of the defining symbols of the series , the huge crowd began jeering , hooting and verbally abusing the English team . Jardine reacted by saying " Well bowled , Harold . " Tension and feelings ran so high that a riot was narrowly averted as police stationed themselves between the players and enraged spectators .
Jardine then ordered his team to move to bodyline positions immediately after Woodfull 's injury . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The capacity Saturday afternoon crowd viewed this as hitting a man when he was down . Journalist – cricketer Dick Whitington wrote that Jardine 's actions were seen as " an unforgivable crime in Australian eyes and certainly no part of cricket " . Mass hooting and jeering occurred after almost every ball . Whitington noted that " [ Umpire George ] Hele believes that had what followed occurred in Melbourne the crowd would have leapt the fence and belaboured the English captain , Larwood , and possibly the entire side " . Some English players later expressed fears that a large @-@ scale riot could break out and that the police would not be able to stop the irate home crowd , who were worried that Woodfull or Bradman could be killed , from attacking them .
During the over , another rising Larwood delivery knocked the bat out of Woodfull 's hands . He battled it out for 89 minutes , collecting more bruises before Allen bowled him for 22 . Later in the day , the English team manager Pelham Warner visited the Australian dressing room to express his sympathies to Woodfull . Woodfull had remained calm in public , refusing to complain about Jardine 's tactics . Woodfull 's abrupt response was meant to be private , but it was leaked to the press - the Adelaide leak :
I don 't want to see you , Mr Warner . There are two teams out there , one is playing cricket . The other is making no attempt to do so .
Woodfull reportedly added " This game is too good to be spoilt . It 's time some people got out of it " , hinting that he might withdraw his team from competition in protest . Australia 's Leo O 'Brien later reported that Warner was close to tears following Woodfull 's rebuke .
The leaking to the press of Woodfull 's comments to Warner angered the Australian captain . He had intended the comments to be private , and ill feeling grew in the Australian camp as speculation about who leaked the incident to the press grew and many of the team privately pointed the finger at Bradman . ( Bradman strenuously denied to his dying day that he had been responsible ; others , including Plum Warner , pointed the finger at Bradman 's team @-@ mate and journalist , Jack Fingleton . However , in his autobiography , Fingleton claimed that Sydney Sun reporter Claude Corbett had received the information from Bradman . )
The next day , Larwood fractured wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield 's skull . This occurred when Oldfield mis @-@ hit a hook , which flew from the top edge off a traditional non @-@ bodyline ball ; Oldfield later admitted it was his fault . As a result of the injuries , the costs of insurance cover for players doubled . At the end of the fourth day 's play the Australian Board of Control for Cricket sent the following cable to the MCC in London :
Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body by the batsman the main consideration . This is causing intensely bitter feeling between the players , as well as injury . In our opinion it is unsportsmanlike . Unless stopped at once it is likely to upset the friendly relations existing between Australia and England .
Jardine however insisted his tactic was not designed to cause injury and that he was leading his team in a sportsmanlike and gentlemanly manner , arguing that it was up to the Australian batsmen to play their way out of trouble . He also secretly sent a telegram of sympathy to Oldfield 's wife and arranged for presents to be given to his young daughters .
The situation escalated into a diplomatic incident between the countries as the MCC — supported by the British public and still of the opinion that their fast leg theory tactic was harmless — took serious offence at being branded " unsportsmanlike " and demanded a retraction . Many people saw bodyline as fracturing an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Jardine , and by extension the entire English team , threatened to withdraw from the fourth and fifth Tests unless the Australian Board withdrew the accusation of unsporting behaviour . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when the Australian prime minister , Joseph Lyons , met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour .
The English team continued to bowl bodyline in the remaining two Tests , but slower pitches meant the Australians , although frequently bruised , sustained no further serious injuries . England won the last three Tests to take the series 4 – 1 .
In the Test matches , Bradman countered bodyline by moving toward the leg side , away from the line of the ball , and cutting it into the vacant off side field . While this was dubious in terms of batting technique , it seemed the best way to cope with the barrage , and Bradman averaged 56 @.@ 57 in the series ( an excellent average for most , but well short of his career average of 99 @.@ 94 ) , while being struck above the waist by the ball only once . His team @-@ mates fared worse , with only Stan McCabe scoring a century .
= = In England = =
Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season — most notably by Nottinghamshire , who had Carr , Voce and Larwood in their team . This gave the English crowds their first chance to see what all the fuss was about . Ken Farnes , the Cambridge University fast bowler , also bowled it in the University Match , hitting a few Oxford batsmen .
Jardine himself had to face bodyline bowling in a Test match . The West Indian cricket team toured England in 1933 , and , in the second Test at Old Trafford , Jackie Grant , their captain , decided to try bodyline . He had a couple of fast bowlers , Manny Martindale and Learie Constantine . Facing bodyline tactics for the first time , England first suffered , falling to 134 for 4 , with Wally Hammond being hit on the chin , though he recovered to continue his innings . Then Jardine himself faced Martindale and Constantine . Jardine never flinched . With Les Ames finding himself in difficulties , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He played right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and played them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . While the Old Trafford pitch was not as suited to bodyline as the hard Australian wickets , Martindale did take 5 for 73 , but Constantine only took 1 for 55 . Jardine himself made 127 , his only Test century . In the West Indian second innings , Clark bowled bodyline back to the West Indians , taking 2 for 64 . The match in the end was drawn but played a large part in turning English opinion against bodyline . The Times used the word bodyline , without using inverted commas or using the qualification so @-@ called , for the first time . Wisden also said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "
In 1934 , Bill Woodfull led Australia back to England on a tour that had been under a cloud after the tempestuous cricket diplomacy of the previous bodyline series . Jardine had retired from International cricket in early 1934 after captaining a fraught tour of India and under England 's new captain , Bob Wyatt , agreements were put in place so that bodyline would not be used . However , there were occasions when the Australians felt that their hosts had crossed the mark with tactics resembling bodyline .
In a match between the Australians and Nottinghamshire , Voce , one of the bodyline practitioners of 1932 – 33 , employed the strategy with the wicket @-@ keeper standing to the leg side and took 8 / 66 . In the second innings , Voce repeated the tactic late in the day , in fading light against Woodfull and Bill Brown . Of his 12 balls , 11 were no lower than head height . Woodfull told the Nottinghamshire administrators that , if Voce 's leg @-@ side bowling was repeated , his men would leave the field and return to London . He further said that Australia would not return to the country in the future . The following day , Voce was absent , ostensibly due to a leg injury . Already angered by the absence of Larwood , the Nottinghamshire faithful heckled the Australians all day . Australia had previously and privately complained that some pacemen had strayed past the agreement in the Tests .
= = Origin of the term = =
Although Jack Worrall claimed that he had invented the term " bodyline " , it is more likely that it was coined by Sydney journalist Hugh Buggy who worked for The Sun in 1932 , and who happened to be a colleague of Jack Fingleton . Buggy sent a telegram to his newspaper from the Test after a day 's play . As a substitute for " in the line of the body " he used the term " bodyline " to keep the cost down , and the new term quickly became established .
= = Changes to the laws of cricket = =
As a direct consequence of the 1932 – 33 tour , the MCC introduced a new rule to the laws of cricket for the 1935 English cricket season . Originally , the MCC hoped that captains would ensure that the game was played in the correct spirit , and passed a resolution that bodyline bowling would breach this spirit . When this proved to be insufficient , the MCC passed a law that " direct attack " bowling was unfair and became the responsibility of the umpires to identify and stop . In 1957 , the laws were altered to prevent more than two fielders standing behind square on the leg side ; the intention was to prevent negative bowling tactics whereby off spinners and slow inswing bowlers aimed at the leg stump of batsmen with fielders concentrated on the leg side . However , an indirect effect was to make bodyline fields impossible to implement .
Later law changes , under the heading of " Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling " , also restricted the number of " bouncers " which may be bowled in an over . Nevertheless , the tactic of intimidating the batsman is still used to an extent that would have been shocking in 1933 , although it is less dangerous now because today 's players wear helmets and generally far more protective gear . The West Indies teams of the 1980s , which regularly fielded a bowling attack comprising some of the best fast bowlers in cricket history , were perhaps the most feared exponents .
= = Legacy = =
Following the 1932 – 33 series , several authors , including many of the players involved , released books expressing various points of view about bodyline . Many argued that it was a scourge on cricket and must be stamped out , while some did not see what all the fuss was about . The series has been described as the most controversial period in Australian cricket history , and voted the most important Australian moment by a panel of Australian cricket identities . The MCC asked Harold Larwood to sign an apology to them for his bowling in Australia , making his selection for England again conditional upon it . Larwood was furious at the notion , pointing out that he had been following orders from his upper @-@ class captain , and that was where any blame should lie . Larwood refused , never played for England again , and became vilified in his own country . Douglas Jardine always defended his tactics and in the book he wrote about the tour , In Quest of the Ashes , described allegations that the England bowlers directed their attack with the intention of causing physical harm as stupid and patently untruthful . The immediate effect of the law change which banned bodyline in 1935 was to make commentators and spectators sensitive to the use of short @-@ pitched bowling ; bouncers became exceedingly rare and bowlers who delivered them were practically ostracised . This attitude ended after the Second World War , and among the first teams to make extensive use of short @-@ pitched bowling was the Australian team captained by Bradman between 1946 and 1948 . Other teams soon followed .
Outside the sport , there were significant consequences for Anglo @-@ Australian relations , which remained strained until the outbreak of World War II made cooperation paramount . Business between the two countries was adversely affected as citizens of each country avoided goods manufactured in the other . Australian commerce also suffered in British colonies in Asia : the North China Daily News published a pro @-@ bodyline editorial , denouncing Australians as sore losers . An Australian journalist reported that several business deals in Hong Kong and Shanghai were lost by Australians because of local reactions . English immigrants in Australia found themselves shunned and persecuted by locals , and Australian visitors to England were treated similarly . In 1934 – 35 a statue of Prince Albert in Sydney was vandalised , with an ear being knocked off and the word " BODYLINE " painted on it . Both before and after World War II , numerous satirical cartoons and comedy skits were written , mostly in Australia , based on events of the bodyline tour . Generally , they poked fun at the English .
In 1984 , Australia 's Network Ten produced a television mini @-@ series titled Bodyline , dramatising the events of the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia . It starred Gary Sweet as Don Bradman , Hugo Weaving as Douglas Jardine , Jim Holt as Harold Larwood , Rhys McConnochie as Pelham Warner , and Frank Thring as Jardine 's mentor Lord Harris . The series took some liberties with historical accuracy for the sake of drama , including a depiction of angry Australian fans burning a British flag at the Sydney Cricket Ground , an event which was never documented . Larwood , having emigrated to Australia in 1950 , received several threatening and obscene phone calls after the series aired . The series was widely and strongly attacked by the surviving players for its inaccuracy and sensationalism .
To this day , the bodyline tour remains one of the most significant events in the history of cricket , and strong in the consciousness of many cricket followers . In a poll of cricket journalists , commentators , and players in 2004 , the bodyline tour was ranked the most important event in cricket history .
= Waterfall Gully , South Australia =
Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide . It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre . For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek . At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named . Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by Crafers West , and to the west by Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond .
Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and picnickers . The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside . 28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort . Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .
Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries . Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply . Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .
= = History = =
The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 . The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first Surveyor General of South Australia , was said to have " decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully " . Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .
= = = Ethnohistory = = =
In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno . Travelling across the land of the native Kaurna people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges . The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount Bonython , and the region was referred to as Yur @-@ e @-@ billa , or " the place of the ears " . The name of the Greater Mount Lofty Parklands , Yurrebilla , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of Uraidla employs a more corrupted form .
Although Hardy states that the Kaurna people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes . An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local Kaurnas : " At every creek and gully you would see their wurlies [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the Botanic Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . " Their main presence , demarcated by the use of fire against purchasers of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .
The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources . The bark from the local stringybark trees ( Eucalyptus obliqua ) was used in the construction of winter huts , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools . Food was also present , and cossid moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected . Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and " both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains " .
= = = Early colonial exploration = = =
One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a " Mr Kent " who , along with Captain Collet Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 . In making their ascent the party skirted a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing " smooth and grassy sides " — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully . Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were Bingham Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt . The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully . The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled . Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress . Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were " agreeably surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion " . The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .
Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls . The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an emigrant of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it " Adams ' Waterfall " . He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and Breaker 's who had the use of a dray to go into the hills . Adams states " we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water " .
= = = Development = = =
The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for picnickers . In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that " Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited " , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide . The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to subdivide the area containing the waterfalls . Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road . The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved advantageous for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .
Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport . Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production . Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries . For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated " one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide " , and gained a reputation for the cheeses produced from their local dairy farm . Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the sawyers and splitters , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century . In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , manganese and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although " only small quantities were extracted " . Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .
Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's " first secondary industry " . In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a watermill on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property . Cannan operated the mill as the " Traversbrook Mill " for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss . Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed " Finnissbrook Mill " . The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .
During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply . First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's Botanic Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage . A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two megalitres ( 530 @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water . A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area . As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market gardeners , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .
While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties . Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully . Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .
The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers . Rather than a bumpy horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls . To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side kiosks and produce stalls , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path . Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the " style of a Swiss chalet " . The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .
= = = Protection = = =
Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully . Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , eventuating largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .
The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state . Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .
In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland . Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to Greenhill Road . Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .
= = = Natural disasters = = =
Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding . The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( CFS ) . Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding . Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( SES ) , commented that " There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . " Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away . Burnside council workers , the CFS and the SES repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November . Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .
= = Geography = =
Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( 768 ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.@ 35 sq mi ) . Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall . Langman Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park . Adjoining Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work . It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .
Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses . The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident . Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , fennel and blackberry . With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region . These include rabbits , blackbirds and starlings . However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's wattled bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ wrens and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as kangaroos , koalas and possums can be spotted on some of the walking trails .
= = Transport = =
Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare Greenhill Road by Waterfall Terrace and Glynburn Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb . According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work . Only a small proportion ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.@ 2 % cycled , while only 3 @.@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus . The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .
Waterfall Gully Road is meandering and in some parts quite narrow . This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and cyclists . After the death of a cyclist in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two petitions being tabled in parliament . The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by TransportSA , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road . As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .
= = Residents = =
In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 square kilometers . Females outnumbered males 54 @.@ 2 % to 45 @.@ 8 % , and some 21 @.@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) . There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .
The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , Uniting , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) . Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average . Christian belief ( 64 @.@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .
Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of incomes over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside . A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .
The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no " numerically significant " changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses . Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .
= = Attractions = =
The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls . It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park . The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply . Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 . Developments over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .
The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert Selmar Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day Bosanquet on 9 November 1912 . Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is reputedly haunted by the ghost of a firefighter who died from burns suffered in 1926 .
Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , Woolshed Gully or the area around First Creek . Destinations include Crafers , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park . The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain . Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself . One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) Heysen Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .
= = Politics = =
Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman . In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher Pyne since 1993 . The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby Glynburn Road ( Burnside ) . Both electorates have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat . However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia Handshin , resulted in the electorate transforming from a " safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one " .
In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David Parkin . Beaumont is currently represented by councilors Mark Osterstock and Anne Monceaux .
= Mariana ( poem ) =
" Mariana " is a poem by Alfred , Lord Tennyson , published in 1830 . The poem follows a common theme in much of Tennyson 's work — that of despondent isolation . The subject of Mariana is a woman who continuously laments her lack of connection with society . The isolation defines her existence , and her longing for a connection leaves her wishing for death at the end of every stanza . The premise of Mariana originates in William Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure , but the poem ends before Mariana 's lover returns . Tennyson 's version was adapted by others , including John Everett Millais and Elizabeth Gaskell , for use in their own works . The poem was well received by critics , and it is described by critics as an example of Tennyson 's skill at poetry .
= = Background = =
Tennyson wrote Mariana in 1830 and printed it within his early collection Poems , Chiefly Lyrical . Previously , he contributed poems to the work Poems by Two Brothers ( 1827 ) , where his early poems dealing with isolation and memory can be found . The theme was continued in the later collection , with poems like Mariana , Ode to Memory , and others representing the earlier poems .
During a visit to the Pyrenees during the summer of 1830 , Tennyson sought to give aid to Spanish rebels . During that time , he was affected by his experience and the influence appears in Mariana in the South , which was published in 1832 ; it is a later version that follows the idea of The Lady of Shalott .
= = Structure = =
Many of Tennyson 's poems are in the form of a dramatic monologue . However , Mariana , like The Lady of Shallott , is more accurately a lyrical narrative . It contains elements of dramatic monologies in that it contains a refrain that carries through the poem as found in Oriana and other poems . Oriana is completely a dramatic monologue and Mariana is not because Tennyson represents how the title figure is unable to linguistically control her own poem , which reinforces the themes of the poem . This technique is used again in Tennyson 's later poem , The Two Voices . The rhyme scheme of the poem , abab cddc efef , is different than the standard ballad rhyme that serves to contain the poem then allow a free expression . The middle quatrain of the stanzas returns in theme to the beginning in a cyclical pattern while the last quatrain 's lines contain the same words .
= = Poem = =
Within the poem , Tennyson does not teach the audience what melancholy means . Instead , he describes its various aspects as he begins :
With blackest moss the flower @-@ plots
Were thickly crusted , one and all :
The rusted nails fell from the knots
That held the pear to the gable @-@ wall .
The broken sheds looked sad and strange :
Unlifted was the clinking latch ;
Weeded and worn the ancient thatch
Upon the lonely moated grange .
She only said , " My life is dreary ,
He cometh not , " she said ;
She said , " I am aweary , aweary ;
I would that I were dead ! " ( lines 1 – 12 )
The narrator of the poem is disconnected from Mariana , and he is able to see what she cannot . In particular , he is able to describe the " sweet heaven " whereas Mariana refuses to take in the scene as well as she is unable to understand the movement of time :
Her tears fell with the dews at even ;
Her tears fell ere the dews were dried ;
She could not look on the sweet heaven ,
Either at morn or eventide . ( lines 13 – 16 )
She is surrounded by stillness and there is little movement within the poem . The water is calm and there is only the growth of moss :
About a stone @-@ cast from the wall
A sluice with blackened waters slept ,
And o 'er it many , round and small ,
The clustered marish @-@ mosses crept . ( lines 37 – 40 )
Mariana is trapped by her surroundings , and the last stanza begins with her becoming sensitive to sound as she starts to mentally lose her place in reality :
The sparrow 's chirrup on the roof ,
The slow clock ticking , and the sound
Which to the wooing wind aloof
The poplar made , did all confound
Her sense ; ( lines 73 – 77 )
The poem ends with a description that even the sunlight is unable to do anything more than reveal dust in her home :
but most she loathed the hour
When the thick @-@ moted sunbeam lay
Athwart the chambers , and the day
Was sloping toward his western bower . ( lines 77 – 80 )
The poem ends with an altered version of the refrain , which serves to show that although she wishes her death she is still alive and , in the final moment , allows her to end the poem instead of allowing the poem to end her :
Then , said she , " I am very dreary ,
He will not come , " she said ;
She wept , " I am aweary , aweary ,
O God , that I were dead ! " ( lines 81 – 84 )
= = Themes = =
Tennyson 's poems traditionally rely on the use of visual imagery for effect . In Mariana , Tennyson instead emphasises auditory imagery that serves to emphasise her solitude . Her hearing is sensitive and she is able to hear every sound , which only reveals the silence of her surroundings . Her solitude and loneliness causes her to be unable to recognise the beauty of her surroundings , and the world to her is dreary . In contrast to Tennyson 's other poems , including The Lady of Shalott , there is no movement within Mariana . There is also a lack of a true ending within the poem , unlike the later version Mariana in the South , which reworks the poem so there is a stronger conclusion that can be found within death .
The character of Mariana is connected to Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure ; there is a direct quotation of Shakespeare 's play in regards to a character of the same name . In Shakespeare 's play , Mariana is rejected by the character Angelo and lives alone as she pines over her love . Tennyson 's version is set in Lincolnshire , not Vienna as in the Shakespeare play . This makes the characters completely English . Additionally , the scene within the poem does not have any of the original context but the two works are connected in imagery with the idea of a dull life and a dejected female named Mariana . However , Tennyson is not the only one that uses the image ; John Everett Millais 's painting Mariana is based on Tennyson 's version of Mariana and lines 9 through 12 of Tennyson 's poem were used for the catalogue description of the painting . Similarly , Millais 's version served as the inspiration for Elizabeth Gaskell 's novel , Mariana . Tennyson 's Mariana and Gaskell 's main character , Ruth , are sensitive to the sounds around them and are constantly looking out of their window in image that represents their imprisonment within their homes . The image of Mariana used by Tennyson and the later works are equally of a woman who is weary .
The depictions of Mariana by Tennyson and in later works are not the same . The difference with Millais 's depiction is not in the image of a forlorn woman or of a woman who is unwilling to live an independent life ; instead , it is her sexualised depiction that is greater than found in Tennyson . His version also removes the dreariness of Tennyson 's and replaces it with a scene filled with vibrant colours . Gaskell 's depiction is of Ruth is similar to Tennyson in her weariness and wanting to die . However , she is a sexually independent figure when she rejects her lover who has returned . Tennyson 's character , on the other hand , would likely have happily accepted her lover . While Tennyson 's character cannot recognise beauty within nature , Gaskell 's character is able to turn to nature to gain spiritually in a manner similar to the Romantic poems , including Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth or This Lime @-@ Tree Bower My Prison by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . There is also a connection with Mariana 's condition and the condition within Coleridge 's Dejection : An Ode . However , the narrator at the end of Dejection is able to be roused into movement whereas Mariana never reaches that point . Furthermore , Mariana is unlike the Romantic poems because the character is not one with nature or able to achieve transcendence through imagination . Furthermore , there is little outside of Mariana that exists within the poem as Mariana 's mood does not respond to changes in nature .
In terms of Tennyson 's other poems , there is a strong connection between the character Mariana and Tennyson 's other female characters . Both Mariana and Oriana have characters that experience a mental imprisonment , which are revealed in the poetic refrains . However , Oriana is able to have control over her own story when she serves as narrator of it while Mariana is denied control by Tennyson 's use of a third @-@ person narrative structure . The difference is further compounded by Oriana 's imprisonment coming from her own memories while Mariana 's is the external results of her lover having not returned . The character Fatima of Fatima is connected to Mariana simply because she is a reversal of Mariana 's character : Fatima , like Mariana , waits for her lover but suffers from an intense passion that causes her to lose control over her mind while also being able to experience the world around her . The character Oenone of Oenone is a combination of aspects from both Mariana 's and Fatima 's characters . In the revised version Mariana in the South , the second Mariana is similar to the Lady of Shalott in that they both live in a world between fantasy and reality .
= = Critical response = =
Jonathon Wearworth wrote in his early career , " The poem [ Mariana ] is an outstanding insight into the primitive ideal that is Tennyson 's take on life in all its worthlessness . "
In an early review in the 1831 Westminster Review , J. Fox praises the depiction of women within the whole of Poems , Chiefly Lyrics and says that Tennyson 's " portraits are delicate , his likenesses [ ... ] perfect , and they have life , character , and individuality . They are nicely assorted also to all the different gradations of emotion and passion which are expressed in common with the descriptions of them . There is an appropriate object for every shade of feeling , from the light touch of passing admiration to the triumphant madness of soul and sense , or the deep and everlasting anguish of survivorship . " A review by a " Professor Lyall " in 1878 argues , " As descriptive poetry , and for that feature of realistic description so characteristic of Tennyson 's muse , ' Mariana ' has , perhaps , not been surpassed even by him . "
Harold Nicolson , in 1923 , view the dreariness of Mariana and Tennyson 's other early works as an aspect that makes the early works better his later works . In T. S. Eliot 's 1936 Essays Ancient and Modern , he praises Tennyson 's ability to represent the visual , tactile , auditory , and olfactory aspects of the scene . Later in 1972 , Christopher Ricks argues that the poem is " one of Tennyson 's masterpieces in the art of the penultimate . "
Elaine Jordan argues , in her 1988 analysis of Tennyson 's works , that the poem 's depiction of " self @-@ infolding [ ... ] is a negation which involves the drawing @-@ in of forces in order perhaps to assert the self differently . Mariana is the most powerful expression , very early , of such a moment , though its assertiveness exists only as strong gloom in image and rhythm , not as narrative possibility except in the desire for an end to it all preferred over patience . " In 2002 , Ruth Glancy writes , " In the last stanza , Mariana 's grip on the present is loosening , and Tennyson 's mastery of sound and images is evident ( even in this early poem ) in his description of the house that echoes her utter desolation " . Anna Barton , in her 2008 analysis , declares Mariana " the most famous heroine of the 1830 volume " and that both The Ballad of Oriana and Mariana are " poems of greater substance that develop the poetic that Tennyson begins to establish in his briefer songs . "
= Mothers of the Disappeared =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " is a song by rock band U2 . It is the eleventh and final track on their 1987 album The Joshua Tree . The song was inspired by lead singer Bono 's experiences in Nicaragua and El Salvador in July 1986 , following U2 's involvement on Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . He learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children had been " disappeared " by the Argentine and Chilean dictatorships . While in Central America , he met members of COMADRES , a similar organization whose children had been disappeared by the government in El Salvador . Bono sympathized with the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to their cause .
The song was written on a Spanish guitar , and the melody lifted from a piece Bono composed in Ethiopia in 1985 to help teach children basic forms of hygiene . The lyrics contain an implicit criticism of the Reagan Administration , which backed two South American regimes that seized power during coup d 'états and which provided financial support for the military regime in El Salvador . Thematically it has been interpreted as an examination of failures and contradictions in US foreign policy .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics , who variously described it as " powerful " , " a moving tribute " , and containing " stunning beauty and sadness " . The song was played seven times on the 1987 Joshua Tree Tour , and some recordings were considered for the ending sequence of the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . It was revived for four concerts on the 1998 PopMart Tour in South America , and for two of them , the Madres joined the band onstage for the performance , one of which was broadcast on television in Chile . Bono used the opportunity to ask General Pinochet to reveal to the Madres the locations of their children 's bodies . The song was played a further three times on the U2 360 ° Tour ; one performance was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was forcibly disappeared in Turkey in 1995 . Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in 1998 for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! .
= = Inspiration , writing , and recording = =
Recording sessions for The Joshua Tree began in January 1986 in Danesmoate House in Dublin , Ireland , and continued throughout the year . U2 briefly interrupted these sessions in June to join Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . Following the first concert in San Francisco , lead singer Bono met René Castro , a Chilean mural artist . Castro had been tortured and held in a concentration camp for two years by the dictatorial Chilean government because his artwork criticised the Pinochet @-@ led regime that seized power in 1973 during a coup d 'état . Castro showed Bono a wall painting in the Mission District that depicted the ongoing plight in Chile and Argentina . He also learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the Argentine government . The Madres ' children were students who had opposed the government during the Dirty War , and the coup d 'état that brought Jorge Rafael Videla into power . The Madres joined together to campaign for information regarding the locations of their children 's bodies and the circumstances of their deaths , believing them to have been kidnapped , tortured , and murdered .
Inspired by the mural , Bono took an extended break from recording into July , travelling to Nicaragua and El Salvador with his wife , Alison Hewson , to see firsthand the distress of peasants bullied by political conflicts and US military intervention . While there , they worked with the Central American Mission Partners ( CAMP ) , a human rights and economic development organization . In El Salvador they met members of the Comité de Madres Monsignor Romero ( COMADRES : Committee of the Mothers Monsignor Romero ) , an organization of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the El Salvadoran government during the Salvadoran Civil War because they opposed the military regime that was in power . At one point during the trip , Bono , Alison , and a member of CAMP were shot at by government troops while on their way to deliver aid to a group of farmers . The shots were a warning and , according to author John Luerssen , the incident made Bono realize that " they didn 't care for their intrusion and they could kill them if they felt compelled . "
In 2006 , Bono recounted another experience he had in El Salvador , where he had seen a body thrown from a van into the road . He remarked , " People would just disappear . If you were part of the opposition , you might find an SUV with the windows blacked out parked outside your house .... If that didn 't stop you , occasionally they would come in and take you and murder you ; there would be no trial . " Bono understood the cause of the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to it . His experiences in Central America inspired the lyrics of " Mothers of the Disappeared " and another track from The Joshua Tree , " Bullet the Blue Sky " .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was created and mixed at guitarist the Edge 's newly @-@ bought home , Melbeach , which U2 used as a recording studio . Bono wrote the song on his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's Spanish guitar , and drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. created a drum loop that was sampled by producer Brian Eno . The melody came from a song that Bono wrote in Ethiopia in 1985 to teach children about basic methods of hygiene . Producer Daniel Lanois was the principal mixer of the song . Bono , likening the studio itself to an instrument , described Lanois 's mix as a " performance " .
At the conclusion of the lyrics sheet for the song in the liner notes of The Joshua Tree , U2 listed addresses for several branches of Amnesty International , and proceeds from the song were donated to the organization . In 1998 , Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in English and Spanish for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! ( English : Not One Step Back ! ) , along with a recitation of the William Butler Yeats poem " Mother of God " . The album was created by the Madres in commemoration of the disappearance of their children . The tracks were also recorded for the 1999 film 20 Años ... 20 Poemas ... 20 Artistas ( 20 Years ... 20 Poems ... 20 Artists ) .
= = Composition and theme = =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " runs for 5 : 14 ( 5 minutes , 14 seconds ) . It is played in common time in a key of A. The song begins with the sound of rain hitting a roof , which fades in over the first fourteen seconds alongside the bass and a processed drum loop beat by Mullen which reverberates in the background . Thirty @-@ two seconds into the song , Mullen 's drums enter , playing a sporadic beat every four to five seconds . At the fifty @-@ second mark the drums play a more regular beat , and the Edge 's guitar , accompanied by Eno 's synthesizer , enters . The first verse begins at 1 : 28 , and introduces the chord progression of A5 – E5 – F ♯ m – D – A5 , which is played in the verses . At 2 : 41 Eno 's keyboards enter , and the song begins to follow a D – D5 – A5 chord progression , while Bono begins falsetto vocals . The second verse then begins at 3 : 01 . The lyrics end at 3 : 37 , and the song returns to the chord progression of D – D5 – A5 . The harmony gradually grows in volume until 4 : 33 , at which point the song enters into a coda ; the keyboards come to a finish and the guitar returns to playing A notes before fading over the next eight seconds alongside the bass . The synthesizer , drums , and drum loop conclude the song , fading out slowly over the last thirty @-@ one seconds .
Eno used a piano as a percussive instrument and mixed the result with the drum loop through a PCM70 effects unit to create a sound that bassist Adam Clayton called " eerie and foreign and scary " . Lanois stated that the processing of Mullen 's beat , which resulted in a drone @-@ like sound , became the song 's backbone and personality . Clayton described it as " evocative of that sinister death squad darkness " . Colm O 'Hare of Hot Press felt it was " the key sonic element " because it " [ evokes ] an abstract sense of evil and dread " .
In December 1986 , Bono stated that he had a love – hate relationship with America , and that this influenced his work on the album . Speaking of his encounter with COMADRES in El Salvador and their impact on the song , he said , " There 's no question in my mind of the Reagan Administration 's involvement in backing the regime that is committing these atrocities . I doubt if the people of America are even aware of this . It 's not my position to lecture them or tell them their place or to even open their eyes up to it in a very visual way , but it is affecting me and it affects the words I write and the music we make . " In 2007 , Clayton noted " We were looking at this America through a European lens , at a time when Britain was under Margaret Thatcher who was breaking the miners .... So we were singing from the same hymn sheet as the Clash but with our spotlight focused on injustice inside and outside America . " He said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' was not just a reflection on what had happened under the military government in Chile but also at the US which had supported that government " , and described Bono 's vocals as " prehistoric " , saying " it connects with something very primitive . "
Greg Garrett , an English professor at Baylor University , saw the song as an effort to " [ respond ] to growing interests in doing justice — and calling to attention American failures in that regard " , noting that the regimes in South America had been supported by the United States because of their anti @-@ communist positions , even though their tactics were in opposition to the democratic values that " America claims to champion around the world " . Lisa Hand of the Sunday Independent noted the influence of America on the track , remarking , " [ it ] does not confine itself simply to the music , but also extends to some of the lyrics . However , far from being a tribute to the star @-@ spangled banner , the words highlight the political untruths and ambiguities which exist within the U.S. ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' and ' Bullet the Blue Sky ' both take a hard look at the American involvement in South America " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described the song as " a simple lament of great beauty and sadness pleading for the realization that ideological battles about right and left obscure the more important issue of right and wrong . " Author David Kootnikoff described it as a " [ portrait ] of the American Dream gone rancid " .
= = Live performances = =
U2 debuted " Mothers of the Disappeared " on 14 April 1987 in San Diego , California , on the first leg of the Joshua Tree Tour , where it closed the concert in place of the band 's long @-@ time finale " 40 " . It was performed three more times on the leg ; twice to open the encore and once to conclude the main set . U2 revived the song seven months later on the third leg , playing it in the encore at three of the final four concerts on the tour .
The final two performances , in Tempe , Arizona , on 19 and 20 December 1987 , were filmed for the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . U2 sang the refrain " el pueblo vencerá " , which means " a people united will overcome " in Spanish , at the conclusion of the song . Bono noted that the Madres use the phrase for motivation . The Edge said " we 're so close to a Spanish speaking part of the world , we felt that maybe people at the concert might pick up on this lyric . " Bono added that they had closed every concert since 1983 with the song " 40 " , and so they were looking to replace it with " Mothers of the Disappeared " from that point on . He explained , " If the people of Arizona sing this , and if it goes into the film and onto the record , wherever we go in a way for the next few years , that will be taken up again . It 'll be an interesting experiment ... " . The footage was considered for the closing sequence of the film , but the band eventually decided against including it . " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " was used as the final live song , and " All I Want Is You " was chosen to play over the credits .
Following the seven performances on the Joshua Tree Tour , U2 did not perform " Mothers of the Disappeared " until 1998 , on the fourth leg of the PopMart Tour . It was played at three concerts in Argentina and once in Chile , concluding all four shows . Bono sang " el pueblo vencerá " at the end of each performance . The first rendition was on 5 February 1998 in Buenos Aires , where it was performed with the Madres accompanying them on stage . The song was played by just Bono and the Edge and was set against footage of the Madres on the video screen . At the conclusion of the song , the band members faced the Madres and applauded , an act in which the rest of the audience joined . Part of the performance was later included on the television documentary Classic Albums : The Joshua Tree .
The cost of the tickets was too high for many fans in South America , so the band broadcast the 11 February concert in Chile live on television . Knowing that many people in the country would be watching , they played " Mothers of the Disappeared " in place of " Wake Up Dead Man " . The stadium in which the concert was held had been used as a prison camp by Pinochet 's regime following the coup d 'état . Again it was performed solely by Bono and the Edge against footage of the Madres , and they invited the women to join them on stage a second time . The Madres held up photographs of their children and spoke about them briefly during the performance , an act which received a mixed reception from the audience . Bono made a plea to Pinochet , asking him to " tell these women where are the bones of their children . "
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was performed again on the fourth leg of the Vertigo Tour , on 26 February 2006 in Santiago and 2 March in Buenos Aires . Although it was rehearsed by the full band , it was played only by Bono and the Edge in an arrangement similar to the one from the PopMart Tour . The Edge performed the song on a charango that Chilean President Ricardo Lagos had given to Bono earlier that day . It was played at three concerts on the third leg of the U2 360 ° Tour in place of " MLK " . One performance in Istanbul , Turkey , was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was kidnapped in October 1995 and subsequently disappeared . The abduction was witnessed by his wife and daughter ; no information regarding his disappearance has ever been released .
= = Reception = =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called the song " powerful " and described the backing vocals as tender and choirlike . Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described it as a " hymn to human rights " . Adrian Thrills of NME called it " a simple , plaintive lament of stunning beauty and sadness " . Nicholas Jennings of Maclean 's felt that it was The Joshua Tree 's " most topical song " . Music journalist Andrew Mueller felt the track was a " wilfully downbeat finale " . In Rolling Stone , Steve Pond said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' is built around desolate images of loss , but the setting is soothing and restorative — music of great sadness but also of unutterable compassion , acceptance and calm . " Lennox Samuels of The Dallas Morning News stated that there was " an ineffable sadness in Bono 's vocals and images where ' Night hangs like a prisoner / Stretched over black and blue ' " , calling it " a moving tribute " to people around the world who had lost loved ones to warfare and conflict . He added " [ w ] hat 's remarkable about the song is that despite the intrinsic pain , it remains eerily cleansing . Even in the midst of decay and excess and horror , Bono can find hope and absolution . " In 2006 Bono described it as " a beautiful end to the album " , saying , " That song means as much to me as any of the songs on that album , it 's right up there for me , " and noting that it is a song " I 'm very proud of to this day . "
Barbara Jaeger of The Bergen Record likened " Mothers of the Disappeared " to " New Year 's Day " and " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , stating that the band used all three to " stir political consciousness and to urge social commitment . " Thirteen years later , Ryan Jones , in his review of U2 's 2000 album All That You Can 't Leave Behind for the same publication , said the song " Peace on Earth " contained echoes of " Mothers of the Disappeared " in its lyrics and the tone of the instrumental prelude . In reviewing the group 's 2009 album No Line on the Horizon , Mueller said the closing " Cedars of Lebanon " " maintains this essentially optimistic group 's counter @-@ intuitive tradition of ending their albums with rueful comedowns " , likening it to " Mothers of the Disappeared " . McLeese believed that the song had its roots in " the folklike purity of traditional Irish music " . According to Luerssen the song is " notorious " in Central and South America , and it is often " played as an act of defiance " by the Madres . Art for Amnesty cited the song , and the effect it had in spreading Amnesty International 's human rights message , as one of the reasons why U2 were awarded the Ambassador of Conscience Award by the organization in 2005 .
Reflecting on the applause given to the Madres during the PopMart concert in Buenos Aires , the U2 magazine Propaganda called the result " about the most moving thing I 've ever seen on a rock stage . It was one of those ideas that really could have gone either way , but the obvious empathy of the audience towards these women made it an unforgettable moment . " Following the televised concert in Chile , Bono said " it was amazing and confounding to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political hotspots like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv ... anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . He added " to be able to address General Pinochet from the stage on live television in Chile and say , ' Give the dead back to the living . Please , General Pinochet , tell these women where the bones of their sons and daughters are . ' That was an extraordinary moment ... certainly in my life and U2 's . " When asked if the negative reaction from some of the audience had disappointed the band Bono said it had not , stating " it 's proof to me that a rock ' n ' roll audience are not lemmings .... If they don 't agree with you , they will let you know — but that doesn 't mean they 're not fans .... I was flattered that we weren 't | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
its lower elevations and relatively sheltered eastern shores enable a lush growth of hedgerows and crops . The islands of Raasay , Rona , Scalpay and Pabay all lie to the north and east between Skye and the mainland .
= = = Towns and villages = = =
Portree in the north at the base of Trotternish is the largest settlement ( estimated population 2 @,@ 264 in 2011 ) and is the main service centre on the island . Broadford , the location of the island 's only airstrip , is on the east side of the island and Dunvegan in the north @-@ west is well known for its castle and the nearby Three Chimneys restaurant . The 18th @-@ century Stein Inn on the Waternish coast is the oldest pub on Skye . Kyleakin is linked to Kyle of Lochalsh on the mainland by the Skye Bridge , which spans the narrows of Loch Alsh . Uig , the port for ferries to the Outer Hebrides , is on the west of the Trotternish peninsula and Edinbane is between Dunvegan and Portree . Much of the rest of the population lives in crofting townships scattered around the coastline .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging 6 @.@ 5 ° C ( 43 @.@ 7 ° F ) in January and 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) in July at Duntulm in Trotternish . Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland . Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation . South @-@ westerlies are the most common and speeds of 128 km / h ( 80 mph ) have been recorded . High winds are especially likely on the exposed coasts of Trotternish and Waternish . In common with most islands of the west coast of Scotland , rainfall is generally high at 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 59 – 79 in ) per annum and the elevated Cuillin are wetter still . Variations can be considerable , with the north tending to be drier than the south . Broadford , for example , averages more than 2 @,@ 870 mm ( 113 in ) of rain per annum . Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May , the sunniest month . On 28 December 2015 , the temperature reached 15 ° C , beating the previous December record of 12 @.@ 9 ° C , set in 2013 . On 9 May 2016 , a temperature of 26 @.@ 7 ° C ( 80 @.@ 1 ° F ) was recorded at Lusa in the south @-@ east of the island .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
A Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer site dating to the 7th millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland . Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand , Applecross , on the mainland coast of Wester Ross where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found . Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits . Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation . These tools probably originate from the nearby island of Rum .
Rubha an Dùnain , an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin , has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards . There is a 2nd or 3rd millennium BC chambered cairn , an Iron Age promontory fort and the remains of other prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age nearby . Loch na h @-@ Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial " Viking " canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement . Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird peninsula , which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon .
= = = Early history = = =
The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay . More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south ; Adomnán 's life of Columba , written shortly before 697 , portrays the saint visiting Skye ( where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter ) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island . The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later 7th and early 8th centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin .
The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . However , apart from placenames , little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record . Apart from the name " Skye " itself , all pre @-@ Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers . Viking heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod and Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan , during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight .
= = = Clans and Scottish rule = = =
The most powerful clans on Skye in the post – Norse period were Clan MacLeod , originally based in Trotternish , and Clan Macdonald of Sleat . Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles , the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan , whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird . Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish , and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat . The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods , and an attempt by the former to murder church @-@ goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg , resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578 .
After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 , Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops . Although she was born on South Uist her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish . Samuel Johnson and James Boswell 's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell 's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides . Boswell wrote , " To see Dr. Samuel Johnson , the great champion of the English Tories , salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky , [ sic ] was a striking sight ; for though somewhat congenial in their notions , it was very improbable they should meet here " . Johnson 's words that Flora MacDonald was " A name that will be mentioned in history , and if courage and fidelity be virtues , mentioned with honour " are written on her gravestone . After this rebellion the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates .
Of the island in general , Johnson observed :
I never was in any house of the islands , where I did not find books in more languages than one , if I staid long enough to want them , except one from which the family was removed . Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans . It need not , I suppose , be mentioned , that in countries so little frequented as the islands , there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money . He that wanders about these wilds , either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way , or , when night and weariness come upon him , takes the chance of general hospitality . If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter ; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman , he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay . There is , however , one inn by the sea @-@ side at Sconsor , in Sky , where the post @-@ office is kept .
Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period . Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century . It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland . The 18th @-@ century Armadale Castle , once home of Clan Donald of Sleat , was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre . Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds , Knock Castle , and Dunscaith Castle , the legendary home of warrior woman , martial arts instructor ( and , according to some sources , Queen ) Scáthach . Caisteal Maol , built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon , is another ruin .
= = = Clearances = = =
In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity but from 1822 on cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides . During the 19th century , the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances . Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone , many of them forced to emigrate to the New World . For example , the settlement of Lorgill on the west coast of Duirinish was cleared on 4 August 1830 . Every crofter under the age of seventy was removed and placed on board the Midlothian on threat of imprisonment , with those over that age being sent to the poorhouse . The " Battle of the Braes " involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices . The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers . This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission , which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands . Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters ' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order . The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill , Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale , and Tusdale on Minginish .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
As with many Scottish islands , Skye 's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War . From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness @-@ shire but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser , " Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously . " a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations ' policies in the Highlands and Islands . By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841 . However , the number of residents then grew by over 28 per cent in the thirty years to 2001 .
The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers 's remark circa 1852 that , " There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants . " Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island 's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then . During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 per cent or more .
The island @-@ wide population increase of 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 per cent for the same period . By 2011 the population had risen a further 8 @.@ 4 % to 10 @,@ 008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = = Gaelic = = =
Historically , Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic @-@ speaking , but this changed between 1921 and 2001 . In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses , all Skye parishes were more than 75 per cent Gaelic @-@ speaking . By 1971 , only Kilmuir parish had more than three quarters Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 per cent . At that time , Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers . In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers , and overall , Skye had 31 per cent , distributed unevenly . The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and south @-@ west of the island , including Staffin at 61 per cent . The weakest areas were in the west and east ( e.g. Luib 23 per cent and Kylerhea 19 per cent ) . Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 per cent and 25 per cent .
= = Government and politics = =
In terms of local government , from 1975 to 1996 , Skye , along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh , constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area . In 1996 the district was included into the unitary Highland Council , ( Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd ) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council 's area committees . Following the 2007 elections , Skye now forms a four @-@ member ward called " Eilean a ' Cheò " ; it is currently represented by two independents , one Scottish National Party , and one Liberal Democrat councillor .
Skye is in the Highlands electoral region and comprises a part of the Ross , Skye and Inverness West constituency of the Scottish Parliament , which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it . Currently this is David Thompson for the SNP . In addition , Skye forms part of the wider Ross , Skye and Lochaber constituency , which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster . The present Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party , who took office after the SNP 's sweep in the General Election of 2015 . Prior to this , Charles Kennedy , a Liberal Democrat , had represented the area since the 1983 general election .
= = Economy = =
The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector , which accounts for about a third of the total workforce , principally in administration , education and health . The second largest employer in the area is the distribution , hotels and restaurants sector , highlighting the importance of tourism . Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle , the Clan Donald Visitor Centre , and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree . There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye , the largest being the public sector , with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island . Glendale is a community @-@ owned estate in Duirinish and the Sleat Community Trust , the local development trust , is active in various regeneration projects .
Small firms dominate employment in the private sector . The Talisker Distillery , which produces a single malt whisky , is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island . Three other whiskies — Mac na Mara ( " son of the sea " ) , Tè Bheag nan Eilean ( " wee dram of the isles " ) and Poit Dhubh ( " black pot " ) — are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ( " smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat " ) , based at Eilean Iarmain . These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic @-@ language labels . There is also an established software presence on Skye , with Portree @-@ based Sitekit having expanded in recent years .
Crofting is still important , but although there are about 2 @,@ 000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land . Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important , especially fish farming of salmon and shellfish such as scampi . The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co @-@ op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan . There is a thriving arts and crafts sector .
The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole , and is seasonal in nature , in part due to the impact of tourism . The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland , significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years .
= = Transport = =
Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge , while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig , and from Kylerhea to Glenelg . Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist , and from Sconser to Raasay .
The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged ( £ 5 @.@ 70 each way for summer visitors ) met with widespread opposition , spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT ( Skye and Kyle Against Tolls ) . On 21 December 2004 it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed .
Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow , and there are local services on the island , mainly starting from Portree or Broadford . Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness , as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale .
The Isle of Skye Airfield at Ashaig , near Broadford , is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland .
The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig , linking most of the major settlements . Many of the island 's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single track road .
= = Culture , media and the arts = =
Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig , the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat . In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland , known for its strict observance of the Sabbath .
Skye has a strong folk music tradition , although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island . Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island . Runrig 's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye , the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as " Nightfall on Marsco " that were inspired by the island . Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye . Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time . Several Tull songs are written about Skye , including Dun Ringil , Broadford Bazaar , and Acres Wild ( which contains the lines " Come with me to the Winged Isle , / Northern father 's western child ... " in reference to the island itself ) . The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin ' Criminals and Sparks , but collapsed in 2007 . Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye .
The poet Sorley MacLean , a native of the Isle of Raasay , which lies off the island 's east coast , lived much of his life on Skye . The island has been immortalised in the traditional song " The Skye Boat Song " and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf , although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island . John Buchan 's descriptions of Skye , as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast , are more true to life . I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non @-@ fiction by Davide Sapienza . The international bestseller , The Ice Twins , by S K Tremayne , published around the world in 2015 @-@ 2016 , is set in southern Skye , especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay .
Skye has been used as a location for a number of feature films . The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon . Stardust , released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer , featured scenes near Uig , Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing . Another 2007 film , Seachd : The Inaccessible Pinnacle , was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island . Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott 's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot at the Old Man of Storr . In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour , a documentary about Prince Charles 's visit to the Highlands and Islands , directed by Oscar Marzaroli , was shot partly on Skye .
The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford . This weekly newspaper takes as its motto " An Tìr , an Cànan ' s na Daoine " ( " The Land , the Language and the People " ) , which reflects its radical , campaigning priorities . The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye , Wester Ross and the Outer Hebrides . Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree @-@ based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990 .
= = Wildlife = =
The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain , but like most of the larger islands , Skye still has a wide variety of species . Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote :
There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle - as hawks , eagles of two kinds ( the one grey and of a larger size , the other much less and black , but more destructive to young cattle ) , black cock , heath @-@ hen , plovers , pigeons , wild geese , ptarmigan , and cranes . Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together . The sea fowls are malls of all kinds - coulterneb , guillemot , sea cormorant , & c . The natives observe that the latter , if perfectly black , makes no good broth , nor is its flesh worth eating ; but that a cormorant , which hath any white feathers or down , makes good broth , and the flesh of it is good food ; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk .
Similarly , Samuel Johnson noted that :
At the tables where a stranger is received , neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting . A tract of land so thinly inhabited , must have much wild @-@ fowl ; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them . The moor @-@ game is every where to be had . That the sea abounds with fish , needs not be told , for it supplies a great part of Europe . The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks , but no hares . They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England , and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home . Sheep and goats are in great numbers , and they have the common domestic fowls . "
In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake , red @-@ throated diver , kittiwake , tystie , Atlantic puffin , goldeneye and golden eagle . The eggs of the last breeding pair of white @-@ tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re @-@ introduced . The chough last bred on the island in 1900 . Mountain hare ( apparently absent in the 18th century ) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten . The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout , Atlantic salmon and water shrew . Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found , the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay . There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh . Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast .
Heather moor containing ling , bell heather , cross @-@ leaved heath , bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant . The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce a soil that sustains a rich plant life , but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora . The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal . The low @-@ lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry . The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss . Minginish produces fairy flax , cats @-@ ear and black bog rush . There is a fine example of Brachypodium @-@ rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch , hazel , bird cherry , and hawthorn .
The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non @-@ native , invasive species as threatening native biodiversity : Japanese knotweed , rhododendron , New Zealand flatworm and mink . It also identifies problems of over @-@ grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland , caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep .
= Florida Atlantic University =
Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline . Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity . The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine . Programs of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .
Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses . Initial enrollment was only 867 students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students . As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia . Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .
In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university . The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions . Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton . Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase . During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility . The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land . A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony . The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .
The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America . The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .
By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi . The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .
= = = Expansion and growth = = =
Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of 867 students in five colleges . The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university . At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees . On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .
Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown . The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution " to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . "
Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale . Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students . The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las Olas Boulevard .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County . To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 . Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast . This would be the institution 's fifth campus . The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur . This campus houses the university 's honors college .
Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of Biomedical Science in 2004 . Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus . Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely . However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 . The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus . To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .
Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 . As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) . The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff . The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy . However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .
Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents . The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders . She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 . Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan . Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida . Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J. Catanese , Dr. Helen Popovich , Dr. Glenwood Creech , and Dr. Kenneth Rast Williams . On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a VP of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .
= = Academics = =
= = = Profile = = =
As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ 686 undergraduates , 4 @,@ 666 graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 unclassified students . As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia . For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .
The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the Graduate College .
The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program . The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida . It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college . The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors seminars , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .
In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen . The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.@ 38 @-@ 3 @.@ 98 high school GPA , a 22 @-@ 26 ACT composite score , and a 1520 @-@ 1740 SAT total score . Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment . After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.@ 5 GPA or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .
The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students . The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 . The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively . The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively . The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 . The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .
Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System . U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation . Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries . Enrichment opportunities include internships , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .
The Lifelong Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes . Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / Wisdom Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry . This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release . The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time . A second lab provides full audio / visual connectivity and 25 additional workstations . Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .
= = = Research = = =
Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity . The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The Scripps Research Institute , the Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .
The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in Biomedical and Marine Biotechnology and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology . These centers have been selected by Florida 's Emerging Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations . Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .
Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants . As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine biotechnology , functional genomics , proteomics , and bioinformatics . Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new therapeutics to combat agents of bioterrorism . As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly deployable and autonomous mooring buoy system for military and scientific uses .
In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .
The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center . Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers specialize in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video . The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration . The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US . The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .
Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in Deerfield Beach and Boca Raton . The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise . The Research Park operates the Technology Business Incubator ; The incubator works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university . The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine Perception and Cognitive Robotics Laboratory
= = = Rankings = = =
For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of " Best Colleges . " U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving . The university was named one of the 146 " Best Southeastern Colleges " in the United States by the Princeton Review . The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of " Best 296 Business Schools " for 2009 . For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked 249th in the nation by Washington Monthly . The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : " how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in fostering scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . " The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education magazine for awarding 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .
= = Campus = =
Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties . The region is home to more than three million people . The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County . The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter . In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale . Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce . In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means . These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .
Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate Commitment Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education . This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Silver standards . In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was LEED Platinum certified .
= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = =
= = = = Boca Raton = = = =
Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 . Spanning 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale . The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the Audubon Society . The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . " The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . "
The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities . These facilities are labs and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / Wisdom Recordings . In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program . The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .
The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the Lifelong Learning Society .
= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = =
In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter . The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties . The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant . The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , Scripps Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute . The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .
= = = Broward County campuses = = =
= = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = =
The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center . The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation . The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway . SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , hydrodynamics and physical oceanography , marine materials and nanocomposites . The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .
= = = = Davie = = = =
The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County . The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ 488 students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment . The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and cafeteria . The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling . Davie is also the home of " environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . " FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science . The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus . Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines . More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .
Other support facilities include a shared Childcare Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union . The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs . Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , wellness , testing and evaluation , tutoring , health services , student government and financial aid , among others . Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a " model " branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .
= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = =
The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus . The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( HEC ) on Las Olas Boulevard . The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning . The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.@ 2 % of the university 's student body .
= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = =
= = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = =
In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU . The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.@ 4 km ² ) campus .
= = = Former Campuses = = =
= = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = =
Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( IRSC ) . Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 . At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .
= = Athletics = =
Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I. The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season . The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams . Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis . In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( NACDA ) . Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , NACDA recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . " This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities . The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .
In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl . The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses . During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl . In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game . As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .
In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments . During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as " one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , " with a " scary offense " that earned it the reputation of the " best shooting team in the conference . " In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .
The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories . The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.@ 66 ) and in slugging percentage ( .563 ) . In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .
= = = Traditions = = =
Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .
Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the " Annual Football Kick @-@ Off Bonfire " wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy . Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( FIU ) is the annual Shula Bowl . This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don Strock , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers . Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played . As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at FIU Stadium in Miami .
For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a " Midnight Madness " pep rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot Outs and Slam Dunk competitions . During the regular season , the " Bury the Burrow in Red " event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the Burrow , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .
The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the " prOWLers . " The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship . The group is funded by the Student Alumni Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic . The prOWLers are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors . The hOWLetts are a student club that attend gameday events and assist in recruiting athletes .
Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl Fingers ( the " OK " hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( PATs ) and basketball free throws . The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl Fingers as part of its " Salute the Hoot " 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to " proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . "
= = Student life = =
= = = Residential life = = =
Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . " All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , " however , " exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . " As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton . The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children . As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .
Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( UVA ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) . Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer 602 beds with 96 single rooms . UVA and IVA exclusively serve upperclassmen while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students . The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .
One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South . It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for upperclassmen , graduate , and medical students . It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / cabana , a volleyball court , common areas , and more . The facility opened in fall 2011 . FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .
Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations . Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests . The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities . The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education . The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's Leadership program .
The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's fraternities and sororities sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester . This program , called the " Weeks of Welcome , " spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to acclimate students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community . On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , Luaus , and a number of other events . The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .
= = = Student housing = = =
= = = Campus organizations and activities = = =
For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations . Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies . These clubs and organizations run the gamut from sailing to Ultimate Frisbee , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs . These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund . This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations . The student government also finances other student life programs , including career fairs , the University Press , OWL TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .
Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the " Owl Prowl , " is celebrated annually in the fall semester . Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well . In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , costumed dances , bonfires , comedy shows , alumni events and dinners , a golf cart parade , and tailgating . Florida Atlantic students have an organized football tailgating area known as the Rat 's Mouth . The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .
Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 . The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a cardio equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms . In 2011 , the facility won the NIRSA Outstanding Sports Facilities Award . Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU Intramural Sports and Club Sports programs .
= = = Greek life = = =
Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national fraternities and sororities , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population . The highpoint of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is " Greek Week . " This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations . There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses . However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , " and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... "
= = Alumni = =
Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening . Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David Paulison , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto Moreno , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida . Charles Ghigna or " Father Goose " is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist . Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto Rican author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays . Other alumni are Chris Carrabba , the lead singer of the band Dashboard Confessional ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good Privacy . Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian Carrot Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university . Alumnus and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during STS @-@ 119 in March 2009 .
= The Clean Tech Revolution =
The Clean Tech Revolution : The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity is a 2007 book by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder , who say that commercializing clean technologies is a profitable enterprise that is moving steadily into mainstream business . As the world economy faces challenges from energy price spikes , resource shortages , global environmental problems , and security threats , clean technologies are seen to be the next engine of economic growth .
Pernick and Wilder highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications , and water filtration . Six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , are pushing clean technology into the mainstream : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology .
The book has been reviewed in USA Today , Business Week , Energy Priorities , Sustainability Investment News and several other magazines , and has been translated into seven languages . Clean Tech Nation is the sequel to The Clean Tech Revolution .
= = Themes = =
Pernick and Wilder explain that , in the 1970s , clean technology was considered “ alternative , ” the province of back @-@ to @-@ the @-@ land lifestyle advocates , altruistic environmentalists , and lab scientists on research grants . Such technology was in an early stage of development , was too expensive , it did not have widespread political support , and very few large , established companies were embracing the sector . Even at the start of the 21st century , the term clean tech was not yet in the financial or business community ’ s vocabulary . But now , throughout much of the world , in trends large and small , there is " the beginning of a revolution that is changing the places where we live and work , the products we manufacture and purchase , and the development plans of cities , regional governments , and nations around the globe . "
Pernick and Wilder define " clean tech " as " any product , service , or process that delivers value using limited or zero non @-@ renewable resources and / or creates significantly less waste than conventional offerings . " They highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications ( such as portable fuel cells ) , and water filtration . The authors explain how investors , entrepreneurs , and individuals can profit from technological innovation in these areas . Pernick and Wilder identify some specific clean technologies , companies , and regions that are leading the way .
The authors present a list of drivers for clean tech : " high energy prices , depleted natural resources , volatile sources of foreign oil , record deficits , and unprecedented environmental and security challenges " . The central message , which is repeated in almost every chapter , is that a clean tech revolution with benefit humanity worldwide , and will require significant collaboration between the public and private sectors .
Pernick and Wilder present examples which show that the " clean tech revolution " is already under way . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology . Emerging clean tech cities are seen to include Copenhagen , where wind power generates 20 percent of Denmark 's electricity , and Chicago , a leader in " green " buildings saving energy , heating and cooling costs . Statistics from the U.S. and from abroad , especially from China , India , Brazil , and Europe are presented .
The authors ' say that nuclear power and clean coal are not clean technologies . Apart from the risks associated with nuclear power , " multibillion @-@ dollar nuclear plants are simply not cost @-@ effective when compared with other energy sources . " The authors also believe that clean coal is an oxymoron for a myriad of reasons , including the sheer number of coal mine @-@ related deaths and the fact that coal @-@ fired plants , even some cleaner ones , are major contributors to serious illnesses such as asthma , heart disease , and mercury poisoning .
Pernick and Wilder do not recommend specific stocks or securities . They prefer to lay out a blueprint of opportunities , technologies , companies , and trends that may build successful businesses and strengthen economies .
= = Six C 's = =
Pernick and Wilder identify six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , that are pushing clean technology into the mainstream and driving rapid growth and expansion : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate .
Costs . " Perhaps the most powerful force driving today ’ s clean @-@ tech growth is simple economics . As a general trend , clean @-@ energy costs are falling as the costs of fossil fuel energy are going up . The future of clean tech is going to be , in many ways , about scaling up manufacturing and driving down costs . "
Capital . " An unprecedented influx of capital is changing the clean tech landscape , with billions of dollars , euros , yen , and yuan pouring in from a myriad of public and private sector sources . "
Competition . " Governments are competing aggressively in the highstakes race to dominate in the clean @-@ tech sector and build the jobs of the future . "
China . " Clean tech is being driven by the inexorable demands being placed on the earth not only by mature economies but also by the explosive demand for resources in China , India , and other developing nations . Their expanding energy needs are driving major growth in clean @-@ energy , transportation , building , and water @-@ delivery technologies . "
Consumers . " Savvy consumers are demanding cleaner products and services that use resources efficiently , reduce costs , and embrace quality over quantity . "
Climate . " The debate around climate change has gone from question mark to peer @-@ reviewed certainty , and smart businesses are taking heed . "
The six C ’ s are a simple list of factors , not necessarily a useful framework for understanding , or profiting from , the clean technology industry .
= = Release and reception = =
The Clean Tech Revolution was published by Collins as a 320 @-@ page hardcover book on June 12 , 2007 . An e @-@ book version was published by HarperCollins on June 7 , 2007 . In 2008 , a revised paperback edition was published , with a new sub @-@ title : Discover the Top Trends , Technologies and Companies to Watch . The book has been translated into seven languages .
Paul Gruber from the Erb Institute states that the The Clean Tech Revolution is logically organized and is " an excellent resource for those who would like a solid understanding of clean tech and the potential of each sector " . He also says that it is very useful for those seeking out the names of companies , NGOs , agencies , and people working on each technology . Gruber identifies one omission : the concern that major investments in clean technology parallel those made during the Internet boom , with the attendant fear that there " may be a bubble burst with clean tech " .
The physicist and environmentalist , Joseph Romm , has recommended The Clean Tech Revolution to people who are looking for one book to help them understand what is happening in clean technology . He says The Clean Tech Revolution is the only book that covers the whole gamut of the latest in clean energy .
Russ Juskalian from USA Today says The Clean Tech Revolution shows the green movement not in " heartstring terms " but as economically profitable . The real power players are the mainstream consumers , investors , entrepreneurs , governments and multinational corporations whose " eyes are trained on that most crucial of economic fundamentals : the bottom line " .
According to Reena Jana from Business Week , The Clean Tech Revolution is a " readable , straightforward guide to earth @-@ friendly business strategies " . The authors explain how businesses can follow the lead of companies such as Toyota by designing , selling , or funding inventive eco @-@ friendly products and services . Jana says that the Toyota Prius is just one well @-@ known example of successful clean technology in action .
Denis Du Bois , editor of Energy Priorities magazine , commented on the realistic and comprehensive coverage of the book . However , he suggests that The Clean Tech Revolution is not an explanation of the technologies and how they work , nor is it an analysis of energy or environmental policy . Policy is complicated and the authors avoid discussing it in detail . Little discussion ties the various clean technologies together and a " single @-@ minded American focus " dominates . There is very little on the influence of mass transit and urban planning in Europe and other progressive regions . The chapter on water focuses on filtration , which is already an area of considerable opportunity , affecting even " green " industries , such as photovoltaics manufacturing .
Francesca Rheannon in Sustainability Investment News says that the book does not ask the most challenging question of all : is " clean growth " an oxymoron ? She says that at a time when some experts say carbon emissions will need to be cut by 80 to 90 % by 2050 , the world may have to accept steady or even decreasing energy production , no matter how clean it is . Rheannon also states that there is little coverage of social issues . For example , nowhere is there mention of how water supply privatization and delivery by multinational corporations could affect the poor people of the world .
The Clean Tech Revolution was followed by the 2012 book Clean Tech Nation : How the U.S. Can Lead in the New Global Economy .
= = Authors = =
Author Ron Pernick is co @-@ founder and managing director of Clean Edge , a research and strategy firm in the United States which focuses on the commercialization of renewable energy and other clean technologies . Clint Wilder is senior editor at Clean Edge , and a veteran business and technology journalist . Both authors have been mapping clean technology trends for many years , and identifying business opportunities for prospective investors .
= Missouri River =
The Missouri River is the longest river in North America . Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri . The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces . When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .
For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation . More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains . The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase . The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .
The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century . The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails . Pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river . Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .
During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power . Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries . Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times . Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .
= = Course = =
From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River . The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains . Flowing west then north , it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the Beaverhead , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson . The Firehole River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the Gibbon to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park . These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .
The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream . The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains . Issuing from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls . It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River . Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .
Flowing eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest . At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river . The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam . Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west . It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence . While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .
The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest . It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary . At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north . The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west . Downstream , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas . The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri . To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River . It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City . The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .
= = Watershed = =
With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America . Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed . Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large . The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .
In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people . This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand . Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin . Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi . In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated . However , many northwestern cities , such as Billings , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .
With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the plow , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats . However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated . A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle . Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .
Elevations in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado . The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ 626 feet ( 2 @,@ 629 m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source . Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.@ 9 m / km ) from east to west . The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .
The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters . Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year . However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) . The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota . Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .
As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada . The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed . The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming . The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range . South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado . Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean . However , a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming . This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .
To the north , the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the Souris , Sheyenne , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North . All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay . There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin . Finally , on the south , the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .
= = = Major tributaries = = =
Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth . Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .
The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri . Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) . The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area . In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte . On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .
The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows . Length is measured to the hydrologic source , regardless of naming convention . The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long . However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to 749 miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) . Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .
The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem . Measured to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long . Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) . When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ 745 miles ( 6 @,@ 027 km ) .
= = = Discharge = = =
By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair . The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie . Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and Koksoak .
As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length . Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the " April Rise " or " Spring Fresh " , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the " June Rise " , caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains . The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years . The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) . By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows . Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .
The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River . The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( 621 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin . At Kansas City , 366 @.@ 1 miles ( 589 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) . The river here drains about 484 @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .
The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.@ 9 miles ( 157 @.@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 . About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann . The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 . Extremes of the flow vary even further . The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood . The lowest , a mere 602 cu ft / s ( 17 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .
= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = =
The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa . The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis . The Lower Missouri River has no Hydroelectric or Lock and dams but it has a plethora of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel . These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .
See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River
= = Geology = =
The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic ) . This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River . This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed . The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .
The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic sedimentary rocks . The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate . Channel sandstones and finer @-@ grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago . The Miocene @-@ age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene @-@ age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major aquifer .
Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope . As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ Illinoian ( or possibly the Illinoian ) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastwards towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope . In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains . Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana . Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls , Musselshell and others . As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long . When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .
The Missouri 's nickname , the " Big Muddy " , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river . In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year . The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day . Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the meander belt ; every time the river changed course , it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks . However , damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course . Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year . Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .
= = First peoples = =
Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene . During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas . As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths . Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the Mound builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .
The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter . Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods . No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing . According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the Otoe , Missouria , Omaha , Ponca , Brulé , Lakota , Sioux , Arikara , Hidatsa , Mandan , Assiniboine , Gros Ventres and Blackfeet .
Natives used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport . In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries . Lifestyles of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps . However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south . A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and Arikara villages situated on bluffs and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders . Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically . The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .
Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin . Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items . In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled burnings of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth . The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide . However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population . Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred . Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , decimating Native American populations . Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into resettlement areas and reservations .
= = Early European explorers = =
In May 1673 , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean . In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European discoverers of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . " I never saw anything more terrific , " Jolliet wrote , " a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui [ Missouri ] with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger . The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . " They recorded Pekitanoui or Pekistanoui as the local name for the Missouri . However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area . In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .
In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri . However , the Missouri itself remained formally unexplored until Étienne de Veniard , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River . It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired Mandans in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota . Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To Ascend The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name " Missouri River " ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today . The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to cartographer Guillaume Delisle , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri . In 1718 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne , Sieur de Bienville requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his " outstanding service to France " .
Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths . However , his reputation was enhanced in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .
Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 . The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri . In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France . There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America . Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .
The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 . By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America . Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license . However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D 'Eglise in the early 1790s . In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the " Missouri Company " , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri . In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchšre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .
Arguably the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans . The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 . At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche Jaune ( " Yellow Rock " ) by the French . Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .
In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed Pinckney 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans . Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso . This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory . In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .
Fearing that the cutoffs could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million . Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 ¢ per acre . The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory . In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean . By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two . However , Spain balked at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French . Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats . Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage . The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants . They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region . Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .
= = American frontier = =
= = = Fur trade = = =
As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade . They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the midwestern United States . Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .
The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition . Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast . In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country . Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana . Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .
Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 . The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for bartering with the Native Americans for furs . This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay . Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska . In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre Choteau , among others . In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers . Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .
Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes . Trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems . During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West . Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .
As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item . By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting . Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies . In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise . The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada . Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , hopefuls , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .
= = = Settlers and pioneers = = =
The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri . The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails . The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri . Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha . The Hannibal Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .
True to the then @-@ ideal of Manifest Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s . These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example . For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains . An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the dugout canoes they used , let alone the large sidewheelers and sternwheelers that would later ply the Missouri in increasing numbers . One explorer remarked that the Platte was " too thick to drink , too thin to plow " . Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west . Covered wagons , popularly referred to as prairie schooners , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .
During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of hopefuls to the region . Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming . It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction . A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver . The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans . Safer paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near Corinne , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .
As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes . This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous . As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars . Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .
Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army . The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory . In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed , which " guaranteed " the use of the Black Hills , Powder River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention . The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark mayhem during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri . Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of Boonville , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , discouraging the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .
However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long . The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming . These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort Laramie . When the settlers intruded onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans . U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements . During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives . The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement . Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .
= = Dam @-@ building era = =
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs . River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River . Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .
Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana . Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri . Replaced in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant . The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 . The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .
In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation . A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri . This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside . The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig . At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was dynamited to save nearby factories from inundation . Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .
Holter Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River . When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as " the most remarkable clifts that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . " In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area . By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam .
" [ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . " – Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868
The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 . In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana . Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River . However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later . This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .
Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale . The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals . The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri . The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .
In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at Riverdale , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries . This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the USBR proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at Riverdale – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams . Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States . In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan . Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .
The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation . Holding up to 74 @.@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the lowermost dam . This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America . In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) . Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.@ 3 billion KWh annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts . Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .
The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream . Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small impoundments which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank . All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .
= = Navigation = =
" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations . Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . " ~ Richard Opper , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director
Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains . The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and Keytesville , Missouri around 1819 . By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream . A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .
During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and keelboats began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented . This resulted in the development of the Missouri River mackinaw , which specialized in carrying furs . Since these boats could only travel downriver , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .
Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha . There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River , which was described by pioneers as " a mile wide and an inch deep " and " the most magnificent and useless of rivers " . Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels . Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri . Side @-@ wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .
The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety . In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels . Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years . The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific Railroads marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri . Outcompeted by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s . Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .
= = = Passage to Sioux City = = =
Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially straightened channels . In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) . This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation . In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City . These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .
Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation . The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual freshets . However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .
In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock dikes to direct the river 's flow and scour out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed . However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth . In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely silted . The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .
In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel . However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only 683 @,@ 000 tons ( 616 @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .
By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent . Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .
= = = Traffic decline = = =
Tonnage of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present . In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened . The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 . One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat . Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential . In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .
Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri . The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry . Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and cheapness of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes . Solutions such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered . Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about 334 @,@ 000 short tons ( 303 @,@ 000 t ) were barged on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 . However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – " wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . "
There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that jettie out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate . In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Natural history = = =
Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species . Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri . Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of cottonwoods , willows and sycamores , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash . Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods . Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates . However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the pallid sturgeon . The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as minks , river otters , beavers , muskrats , and raccoons .
The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater ecoregions : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie . The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly semiarid shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age glaciations . There are no known endemic species within the region . Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed . The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands . Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species . Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas . Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three . Thirteen species of crayfish are endemic to the lower Missouri .
= = = Human impacts = = =
Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity . Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land . Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation . Levees have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep floodwater within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas . Fertilizer runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri . This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers . Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .
Channelization of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna . Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land . Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians . By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for federally endangered bird and fish species .
The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century . Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , dikes , and wing dams that constrict the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks . By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .
Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico . A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment . The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a " sediment budget " – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .
= = Tourism and recreation = =
With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin . Visitation has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 . Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs . Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .
The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , retracing the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Extending from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers . The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site .
Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or preservational use . The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point Dams that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) . These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , sandbars , underwater rocks , riffles , snags , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling . About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .
Downstream from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks . This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep gorges , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself . The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .
In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge . The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam . Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .
Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and Badlands National Park are in the watershed . Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries . The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District .
= Monty Can 't Buy Me Love =
" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . In the episode , Mr. Burns is jealous of megastore owner Arthur Fortune , who is beloved by the people of Springfield . In order to win the people 's love , Burns gathers the help of Homer Simpson , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie to capture the Loch Ness monster .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . The idea for the episode was pitched by the Simpsons writing staff , who wanted to make an episode in which Mr. Burns becomes a " thrillionaire " , a millionaire who goes on thrilling adventures . Although it would originally be green , a mistake in the overseas animation led to the Loch Ness monster looking pink , a mistake that was ultimately too expensive to fix .
In its original broadcast , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was seen by approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers , and finished in 43rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
On a normal afternoon , Marge wants Homer , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie to go for a walk . They agree when faced with the threat of having to talk to each other , and arrive at a Fortune Megastore , a venture of wealthy Arthur Fortune ( modelled on British entrepreneur Richard Branson ) . Fortune easily charms the crowd and hands out dollar bills to his customers . This embarrasses the unpopular Mr. Burns , who asks Homer to help him be loved by all .
As his first activity , Burns has Homer throw silver dollars from the top of a tall building , which instead of winning him popularity just causes injuries and terrifies the crowds below . Next , he writes out a check and tells Homer to donate it to the Springfield Hospital , but Homer is mistakenly believed to be the donor and receives the credit . Mr. Burns appears on a radio show called " Jerry Rude and the Bathroom Bunch " and is mocked by Rude . Feeling disappointed , Mr. Burns decides to go to Scotland to capture the legendary Loch Ness Monster with help from Homer , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie . After little progress , Burns has the loch drained of water to expose the creature . After subduing the monster single @-@ handed ( although it is not shown , it is mentioned that the monster swallowed him ) , Burns has it sent to Springfield to be unveiled , where " Nessie " turns out to be friendly and charms all of the spectators .
However , during the unveiling of the monster , Burns is blinded by camera flashes . He runs into a camera , which crashes and starts a fire : the crowd panic and flee . Following this disaster , Homer then cheers up Burns by pointing out that being loved means you have to be nice to people everyday but being hated means you do not have to do anything . Burns agrees with that logic , saying " I 'm a selfish old crank--and that fits me like a Speedo ! " In the aftermath of the incident , Homer and Burns give Nessie a job at the " Vegas Town Casino " .
= = Production = =
" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . The inspiration for the episode came from the concept of " thrillionaires " , a term the Simpsons writers found in an issue of The Economist to describe millionaires who " do really incredible stunts " and " go on amazing adventures " . The episode 's third act went through several incarnations , and the writers had a lot of ideas about what Burns should do once he has captured the Loch Ness monster . Eventually , the staff settled on the act 's current iteration , which was conceived by Simpsons writer George Meyer . According to current showrunner Al Jean , the color of the Loch Ness monster would originally be green , but when the overseas animation was completed , the Loch Ness monster had a " kind of pinkish " color . Because it would be too expensive to re @-@ color all the cels in which the monster appears , the staff decided to air the episode as it was , even though the monster was in the wrong color . Inside the Fortune Megastore , Simpsons staff writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham can be seen .
The episode features American comedian and composer Michael McKean as Jerry Rude , a parody on the radio personality Howard Stern . Scully stated that McKean was " very funny " and that his Stern impression was " dead on the money " . The Simpsons staff originally asked Stern if he wanted to guest @-@ star in the episode , but he declined . Actor and producer Kevin Costner was portrayed by series regular cast member Hank Azaria , who voices Moe Szyslak among other characters in the series . Azaria also played Arthur Fortune , a character based on British business magnate Richard Branson . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that Branson would have been a " great guest [ -actor ] " in the episode . The episode also features Groundskeeper Willie 's father , even though Willie in an earlier episode said that he was killed for stealing a pig .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , the Simpsons watch a television program called Cash in Your Legacy , which is a parody on the PBS program Antiques Roadshow . Arthur Fortune is a parody of Branson and Fortune Megastore is a reference to Branson 's international record shop chain Virgin Megastores . On the cover of Billionaire Beat , a magazine that Burns reads in the episode , business magnates Bill Gates and Rupert Murdoch can be seen . In a scene in the episode , Burns assumes that " Don McNeill and his Breakfast Club " is currently the most popular radio program . Don McNeill 's Breakfast Club was a real radio program that , according to Scully , Swartzwelder used to listen to . Costner 's film The Postman is also referenced in the episode . Burns ' unveiling of the Loch Ness Monster is ruined as the numerous camera flashes blind him , causing him to knock over some lights , starting a fire . This is a reference to the film King Kong , although in the film the flashes enrage the captured gorilla Kong , as opposed to his captor .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on May 2 , 1999 , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received a 7 @.@ 3 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers . The episode finished in 43rd place in the ratings for the week of April 26 @-@ May 2 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge and Matt Selman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Currentfilm.com considered it to be " one of the best Mr. Burns @-@ centric episodes ever " , and that it has " some classic Burns moments , especially when Monty describes exactly what it took for him to capture the creature . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide stated that , while the episode " doesn ’ t do a lot to expand the character " , it " manages a reasonable number of yuks " . He added that " A fun Howard Stern @-@ esque character done by Michael McKean helps make this a nice show . " David Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode has " Some funny moments " . Giving the episode a mixed review , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide said that the episode is " Very funny when it 's funny , very poor when it isn 't . " They wrote that the best part of the episode is " the Scottish stuff , " and " the idea that , once again , Burns is actually worried about his public image , as he was in ' The Joy of Sect ' . " Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News gave the episode a negative review , and wrote that " the story takes too long to get going " .
= Landing at Anzac Cove =
The landing at Anzac Cove on Sunday , 25 April 1915 , also known as the landing at Gaba Tepe , and to the Turks as the Arıburnu Battle , was part of the amphibious invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula by the forces of the British Empire , which began the land phase of the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War .
The assault troops , mostly from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , landed at night on the western ( Aegean Sea ) side of the peninsula . They were put ashore one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their intended landing beach . In the darkness , the assault formations became mixed up , but the troops gradually made their way inland , under increasing opposition from the Ottoman Turkish defenders . Not long after coming ashore the ANZAC plans were discarded , and the companies and battalions were thrown into battle piece @-@ meal , and received mixed orders . Some advanced to their designated objectives while others were diverted to other areas , then ordered to dig in along defensive ridge lines .
Although they failed to achieve their objectives , by nightfall the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , albeit much smaller than intended . In places they were clinging onto cliff faces with no organised defence system . Their precarious position convinced both divisional commanders to ask for an evacuation , but after taking advice from the Royal Navy about how practicable that would be , the army commander decided they would stay . The exact number of the day 's casualties is not known . The ANZACs had landed two divisions but over two thousand of their men had been killed or wounded , together with at least a similar number of Turkish casualties .
Since 1916 the anniversary of the landings on 25 April has been commemorated as Anzac Day , becoming one of the most important national celebrations in Australia and New Zealand . The anniversary is also commemorated in Turkey , the United Kingdom and Ireland .
= = Background = =
The Ottoman Turkish Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers on 31 October 1914 . The stalemate of trench warfare on the Western Front convinced the British Imperial War Cabinet that an attack on the Central Powers elsewhere , particularly Turkey , could be the best way of winning the war . From February 1915 this took the form of naval operations aimed at forcing a passage through the Dardanelles , but after several setbacks it was decided that a land campaign was also necessary . To that end , the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force was formed under the command of General Ian Hamilton . Three amphibious landings were planned to secure the Gallipoli Peninsula , which would allow the navy to attack the Turkish capital Constantinople , in the hope that would convince the Turks to ask for an armistice .
= = = Intention = = =
Lieutenant @-@ General William Birdwood , commanding the inexperienced Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , comprising the Australian Division and two brigades of the New Zealand and Australian Division , was ordered to conduct an amphibious assault on the western side of the Gallipoli Peninsula . The New Zealand and Australian Division normally also had two mounted brigades assigned to it , but these had been left in Egypt , as it was believed there would be no requirement or opportunities to use mounted troops on the peninsula . To bring the division up to strength , Hamilton had tried unsuccessfully to get a brigade of Gurkhas attached to them . In total ANZAC strength was 30 @,@ 638 men .
The location chosen for the operation was between the headland of Gaba Tepe and the Fisherman 's Hut , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north . Landing at dawn after a naval gunfire bombardment , the first troops were to seize the lower crests and southern spurs of Hill 971 . The second wave would pass them to capture the spur of Hill 971 , especially Mal Tepe . There they would be positioned to cut the enemy 's lines of communications to the Kilid Bahr Plateau , thus preventing the Turks from bringing reinforcements from the north to the Kilid Bahr Plateau during the attack by the British 29th Division which would advance from a separate beachhead further south @-@ west . The capture of Mal Tepe was " more vital and valuable than the capture of the Kilid Bahr Plateau itself . "
Birdwood planned to arrive off the peninsula after the moon had set , with the first troops landing at 03 : 30 , an hour before dawn . He declined the offer of an old merchant ship , loaded with troops , being deliberately grounded at Gaba Tepe . Instead , the troops were to travel in naval and merchant ships , transferring to rowing boats towed by small steamboats to make the assault .
First ashore would be the Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General William Bridges . The 3rd Australian Brigade , known as the covering force , were to capture the third ridge from Battleship Hill south along the Sari Bair mountain range to Gaba Tepe . The 2nd Australian Brigade , landing next , were to capture all the Sari Bar range up to Hill 971 on the left . The 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery from the British Indian Army would land next and then the 1st Australian Brigade , the division 's reserve ; all were to be ashore by 08 : 30 . The New Zealand and Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General Alexander Godley , followed them ; the 1st New Zealand Brigade then the 4th Australian Brigade . Only after the second division had landed would the advance to Mal Tepe begin . The planners had come to the conclusion that the area was sparsely , if at all , defended , and that they should be able to achieve their objectives with no problems ; Turkish opposition had not been considered .
= = = Turkish forces = = =
The First World War Ottoman Turkish Army was modelled after the German Imperial Army , with most of its members being conscripted for two years ( infantry ) or three years ( artillery ) ; they then served in the reserve for the next twenty @-@ three years . The pre @-@ war army had 208 @,@ 000 men in thirty @-@ six divisions , formed into army corps and field armies . On mobilisation each division had three infantry and one artillery regiment for a total of around ten thousand men , or about half the size of the equivalent British formation . Unlike the largely inexperienced ANZACs , all the Turkish Army commanders , down to company commander level , were very experienced , being veterans of the Italo @-@ Turkish and Balkan Wars .
The British preparations could not be made in secret , and by March 1915 , the Turks were aware that a force of fifty thousand British and thirty thousand French troops was gathering at Lemnos . They considered there were only four likely places for them to land : Cape Helles , Gaba Tepe , Bulair , or on the Asiatic ( eastern ) coast of the Dardanelles .
On 24 March , the Turks formed the Fifth Army , a force of over 100 @,@ 000 men , in two corps of six divisions and a cavalry brigade , commanded by the German general Otto Liman von Sanders . The Fifth Army deployed the III Corps at Gallipoli and the XV Corps on the Asiatic coast . The 5th Division and a cavalry brigade were on the European mainland , positioned to support the III Corps if required . The III Corps had the 9th Division ( 25th , 26th and 27th Infantry Regiments ) , the 19th Division ( 57th , 72nd and 77th Infantry Regiments ) and the 7th Division ( 19th , 20th and 21st Infantry Regiments ) . The 9th Division provided coastal defence from Cape Helles north to Bulair , where the 7th Division took over , while the 19th Division at Maidos was the corps reserve . The area around Gaba Tepe , where the ANZAC landings would take place , was defended by a battalion of the 27th Infantry Regiment .
= = Anzac Cove = =
On 19 April orders were issued for the ANZACs to stop training , and for all ships and small boats to take on coal and stores , in preparation for a landing originally scheduled to occur on 23 April . Weather conditions delayed their departure from Lemnos until dawn on 24 April . The Royal Navy battleships Queen , Triumph , Prince of Wales , London , and Majestic , the cruiser Bacchante , seven destroyers and four transport ships led the way carrying the 3rd Brigade . They were followed by the rest of the force who were embarked in their own transport ships .
= = = First six companies = = =
At 01 : 00 on 25 April the British ships stopped at sea , and thirty @-@ six rowing boats towed by twelve steamers embarked the first six companies , two each from the 9th , 10th and 11th Battalions . At 02 : 00 a Turkish sentry reported seeing ships moving at sea , and at 02 : 30 the report was sent to 9th Division 's headquarters . At 02 : 53 the ships headed towards the peninsula , continuing until 03 : 30 when the larger ships stopped . With 50 yards ( 46 m ) to go , the rowing boats continued using only their oars .
Around 04 : 30 Turkish sentries opened fire on the boats , but the first ANZAC troops were already ashore at Beach Z , called Ari Burnu at the time , but later known as Anzac Cove . ( It was formally renamed Anzac Cove by the Turkish government in 1985 . ) They were one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further north than intended , and instead of an open beach they were faced with steep cliffs and ridges up to around three hundred feet ( 91 m ) in height . However , the mistake had put them ashore at a relatively undefended area ; at Gaba Tepe further south where they had planned to land , there was a strong @-@ point , with an artillery battery close by equipped with two 15 cm and two 12 cm guns , and the 5th Company , 27th Infantry Regiment was positioned to counter @-@ attack any landing at that more southern point . The hills surrounding the cove where the ANZACs landed made the beach safe from direct fire Turkish artillery . Fifteen minutes after the landing , the Royal Navy began firing at targets in the hills .
On their way in , the rowing boats had become mixed up . The 11th Battalion grounded to the north of Ari Burnu point , while the 9th Battalion hit the point or just south of it , together with most of the 10th Battalion . The plan was for them to cross the open ground and assault the first ridge line , but they were faced with a hill that came down almost to the water line , and there was confusion while the officers tried to work out their location , under small arms fire from the 4th Company , 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment , who had a platoon of between eighty and ninety men at Anzac Cove and a second platoon in the north around the Fisherman 's Hut . The third platoon was in a reserve position on the second ridge . They also manned the Gaba Tepe strong @-@ point , equipped with two obsolescent multi @-@ barrelled Nordenfelt machine @-@ guns , and several smaller posts in the south .
Men from the 9th and 10th Battalions started up the Ari Burnu slope , grabbing the gorse branches or digging their bayonets into the soil to provide leverage . At the peak they found an abandoned trench , the Turks having withdrawn inland . Soon the Australians reached Plugge 's Plateau , the edge of which was defended by a trench , but the Turks had withdrawn to the next summit two hundred yards ( 180 m ) inland , from where they fired at the Australians coming onto the plateau . As they arrived , Major Edmund Brockman of the 11th Battalion started sorting out the mess , sending the 9th Battalion 's men to the right flank , the 11th Battalion 's to the left , and keeping the 10th Battalion in the centre .
= = = Second six companies = = =
The second six companies landed while it was still dark , the destroyers coming to within five hundred yards ( 460 m ) to disembark the troops , under fire . They also landed at Anzac Cove , but now as planned the 11th were in the north , 10th in the centre and the 9th in the south . The 12th Battalion landed all along the beach . This extended the beachhead 500 yards ( 460 m ) to the north of Ari Burnu , and 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south . Landing under fire , some of the assaulting troops were killed in their boats , and others as they reached the beach . Once ashore they headed inland . In the south , the first men from the 9th and 12th Battalions reached the bottom of 400 Plateau .
In the north , the first men from the 11th and 12th Battalions started up Walker 's Ridge , under fire from a nearby Turkish trench . Around the same time Turkish artillery started bombarding the beachhead , destroying at least six boats . The Australians fought their way forward and reached Russell 's Top ; the Turks withdrew through The Nek to Baby 700 , 350 yards ( 320 m ) away . Coming under fire again the Australians went to ground , having advanced only around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) inland . Some also dug in at The Nek , a twenty yards ( 18 m ) piece of high ground between Malone 's Gully to the north and Monash Valley to the south . Around this time Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , commanding the 3rd Brigade , decided to change the corps plan . Concerned about a possible counter @-@ attack from the south , he decided to hold the Second Ridge instead of pushing forward to the Third or Gun Ridge . This hesitation suited the Turkish defence plans , which required the forward troops to gain time for the reserves to coordinate a counter @-@ attack .
= = = Turkish reaction = = =
At 05 : 45 , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mehmet Sefik of the Turkish 27th Infantry Regiment received orders to move his 1st and 3rd Battalions to the west and support the 2nd Battalion around Gaba Tepe . The two battalions were already assembled , having spent that night carrying out military exercises . They could not be sent to Ari Burnu as it was not marked on the Turkish maps . Colonel Halil Sami , commanding the 9th Division , also ordered the division 's machine @-@ gun company and an artillery battery to move in support of the 27th Infantry Regiment , followed soon after by an 77 mm artillery battery . At 08 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mustafa Kemal , commanding the 19th Division , was ordered to send a battalion to support them . Kemal instead decided to go himself with the 57th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battery towards Chunuk Bair , which he realised was the key point in the defence ; whoever held those heights would dominate the battlefield . By chance , the 57th Infantry were supposed to have been on an exercise that morning around Hill 971 and had been prepared since 05 : 30 , waiting for orders .
At 09 : 00 Sefik and his two battalions were approaching Kavak Tepe , and made contact with his 2nd Battalion that had conducted a fighting withdrawal , and an hour and a half later the regiment was deployed to stop the ANZACs advancing any further . Around 10 : 00 Kemal arrived at Scrubby Knoll and steadied some retreating troops , pushing them back into a defensive position . As they arrived , the 57th Infantry Regiment were given their orders and prepared to counter @-@ attack . Scrubby Knoll , known to the Turks as Kemalyeri ( Kemal 's Place ) , now became the site of the Turkish headquarters for the remainder of the campaign .
= = Baby 700 = =
Baby 700 is a hill in the Sari Bair range , next to Battleship Hill or Big 700 . It was named after its supposed height above sea level , though its actual height is only 590 feet ( 180 m ) .
Maclagen sent the 11th Battalion , Captain Joseph Lalor 's company of the 12th Battalion and Major James Robertson 's of the 9th , towards Baby 700 . Brockman divided his own company , sending half up the right fork of Rest Gully , and half up the left , while Brockman and a reserve platoon headed up Monash Valley . As they moved forward , Turkish artillery targeted them with air burst shrapnel shells , which dispersed the companies . This , coupled with senior officers diverting men to other areas instead of towards Baby 700 , meant only fragments of the units eventually reached Baby 700 .
Arriving at Baby 700 , Captain Eric Tulloch , 11th Battalion , decided to take his remaining sixty men towards Battleship Hill , leaving Lalor 's company to dig in and defend The Nek . Tulloch moved around to the right before advancing towards the summit . The 11th Battalion crossed the first rise unopposed , but at the second , Turkish defenders around four hundred yards ( 370 m ) away opened fire on them . Going to ground , the Australians returned fire . When the Turkish fire slackened the remaining fifty men resumed their advance , reaching the now evacuated Turkish position , behind which was a large depression , with Battleship Hill beyond that . Still under fire they moved forward again , then around seven hundred yards ( 640 m ) from the summit The Turks opened fire on them from a trench . The Australians held out for thirty minutes , but increasing Turkish fire and mounting casualties convinced Tulloch to withdraw . No other ANZAC unit would advance as far inland that day .
At 08 : 30 Robertson and Lalor decided to take their companies up Baby 700 . Instead of going round to the right like Tulloch , they went straight up the centre , crossed over the summit onto the northern slope and went to ground . A spur on their left , leading to Suvla Bay , was defended by a Turkish trench system . At 09 : 15 Turkish troops started moving down Battleship Hill , and for the next hour they exchanged fire . Where the spur joined Baby 700 , a group of Australians from the 9th , 11th , and 12th Battalions crossed Malone 's Gully and charged the Turkish trench . A Turkish machine @-@ gun on Baby 700 opened fire on them , forcing them back , followed by a general withdrawal of Australian troops . The Turks had secured Battleship Hill and were now driving the Australians off Baby 700 . From his headquarters at the head of Monash Valley , Maclagen could see the Turks attacking , and started sending all available men towards Baby 700 .
= = = Second wave = = =
The 2nd Brigade landed between 05 : 30 and 07 : 00 , and the reserve 1st Brigade landed between 09 : 00 and 12 : 00 , already putting the timetable behind schedule . The 2nd Brigade , which was supposed to be heading for Baby 700 on the left , were instead sent to the right to counter a Turkish attack building up there . At 07 : 20 Bridges and his staff landed ; finding no senior officers on the beach to brief them , they set out to locate the 3rd Brigade headquarters .
The 1st Brigade was on the opposite flank to the 3rd Brigade and already getting involved in battles of its own , when its commander , Colonel Percy Owen , received a request from Maclagen for reinforcements . Owen sent two companies from the 3rd Battalion and one from the 1st Battalion ( Swannell 's ) to support the 3rd Brigade .
Soon after , Lalor 's company had been forced back to The Nek and the Turks were threatening to recapture Russell 's Top , and at 10 : 15 Maclagen reported to Bridges his doubts over being able to hold out . In response Bridges sent part of his reserve , two companies from the 2nd Battalion ( Gordon 's and Richardson 's ) , to reinforce the 3rd Brigade .
At 11 : 00 Swannell 's company arrived at the foot of Baby 700 , joining the seventy survivors of Robertson 's and Lalor 's companies . They immediately charged and chased the Turks back over the summit of Baby 700 , then stopped and dug in . The two 2nd Battalion companies arrived alongside them , but all the companies had taken casualties , among the dead being Swannell and Robertson .
By this time most of the 3rd Brigade men had been killed or wounded , and the line was held by the five depleted companies from the 1st Brigade . On the left , Gordon 's company 2nd Battalion , with the 11th and 12th Battalion 's survivors , charged five times and captured the summit of Baby 700 , but were driven back by Turkish counter @-@ attacks ; Gordon was among the casualties . For the second time Maclagen requested reinforcements for Baby 700 , but the only reserves Bridges had available were two 2nd Battalion companies and the 4th Battalion . It was now 10 : 45 and the advance companies of the 1st New Zealand Brigade were disembarking , so it was decided they would go to Baby 700 .
= = = Third wave = = =
The New Zealand Brigade commander had been taken ill , so Birdwood appointed Brigadier @-@ General Harold Walker , a staff officer already ashore , as commander . The Auckland Battalion had landed by 12 : 00 , and were being sent north along the beach to Walker 's Ridge on their way to Russell 's Top . Seeing that the only way along the ridge was in single file along a goat track , Walker ordered them to take the route over Plugge 's Plateau . As each New Zealand unit landed they were directed the same way to Baby 700 . However , in trying to avoid Turkish fire , they became split up in Monash Valley and Rest Gully , and it was after midday that two of the Auckland companies reached Baby 700 .
At 12 : 30 two companies of the Canterbury Battalion landed and were sent to support the Aucklands , who had now been ordered back to Plugge 's Plateau , and were forming on the left of the 3rd Brigade . The Canterbury companies moved into the line on the Aucklands ' left , waiting for the rest of their brigade to land . However , between 12 : 30 and 16 : 00 not one infantry or artillery formation came ashore . The ships carrying the New Zealanders were in the bay , but the steamers and rowing boats were being used to take the large numbers of wounded to the hospital ship . The transports with the 4th Australian Brigade on board were still well out at sea and not due to land until that evening . The landings recommenced around 16 : 30 when the Wellington Battalion came ashore , followed by the Otago Battalion around 17 : 00 , who were put into the line beside the Aucklanders . Next to land were the two other Canterbury companies , who were sent north to Walker 's Ridge to extend the corps left flank . Events ashore now forced a change in the disembarkation schedule , and at 17 : 50 orders were issued for the 4th Australian Brigade to start landing to boost the defence . It would take until the next day for the complete brigade to come ashore . The transports carrying both divisions ' artillery batteries had been forced further out to sea by Turkish artillery fire , and were unable to land .
= = = MacLaurin 's Hill = = =
MacLaurin 's Hill is a 1 @,@ 000 yard ( 910m ) long section of the Second Ridge that connects Baby 700 to 400 Plateau , with a steep slope on the ANZAC side down to Monash Valley . In the coming days Quinn 's , Steel 's and Courtney 's Posts would be built on the slope . The first ANZAC troops to reach the hill , from the 11th Battalion , found that the Turkish defenders had already withdrawn . As the Australians crested the hill they came under fire from Baby 700 , but to their front was a short , shallow slope into Mule Valley . When Major James Denton 's company of the 11th Battalion arrived at the hill they started digging in , and soon after received orders from MacLagen to hold the position at all costs . At 10 : 00 Turkish troops , advancing from Scrubby Knoll , got to within three hundred yards ( 270 m ) of the Australians on the hill , opening fire at them . Altogether there were two and a half companies from the 11th Battalion between Courtney 's Post , Steele 's Post , and Wire Gully . They had not been there long before the 3rd Battalion arrived to reinforce them .
= = 400 Plateau = =
The 400 Plateau , named for its height above sea level , was a wide and level plateau on the second ridge line , about six hundred by six hundred yards ( 550 by 550 m ) wide and around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) from Gun Ridge . The northern half of the plateau became known as Johnston 's Jolly , and the southern half as Lone Pine , with Owen 's Gully between them .
= = = 3rd Brigade = = =
If the landings had gone to plan , the 11th Battalion was supposed to be crossing the plateau heading north . The 10th Battalion , south of the plateau , was to capture a Turkish trench and artillery battery behind Gun Ridge . The 9th Battalion , furthest south , was to attack the artillery battery at Gaba Tepe , and the 12th Battalion was the reserve , with 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery to establish their gun line on the plateau . Unknown to the ANZACs , the Turks had an artillery battery sited on 400 Plateau .
After landing , some of the 9th and 10th Battalion 's men headed for 400 Plateau . The first 10th Battalion platoon to arrive was commanded by Lieutenant Noel Loutit , and accompanied by the Brigade @-@ Major , Charles Brand . They discovered the Turkish battery in the Lone Pine sector , which was preparing to move . As the Australians opened fire the battery withdrew down Owen 's Gully . Brand remained on the plateau and ordered Loutit to continue after the Turkish battery . However , the guns had been hidden at the head of the gully and Loutit 's platoon moved beyond them . Around the same time , Lieutenant Eric Smith and his 10th Battalion scouts and Lieutenant G. Thomas with his platoon from the 9th Battalion arrived on the plateau , looking for the guns . As they crossed the plateau Turkish machine @-@ guns opened fire on them from the Lone Pine area . One of Thomas 's sections located the battery , which had started firing from the gully . They opened fire , charged the gun crews , and captured the guns . The Turks did manage to remove the breech blocks , making the guns inoperable , so the Australians damaged the sights and internal screw mechanisms to put them out of action . By now the majority of the 9th and 10th Battalions , along with brigade commander Maclagen , had arrived on the plateau , and he ordered them to dig in on the plateau instead of advancing to Gun Ridge . Unfortunately the units that had already passed beyond there were obeying their orders to " go as fast as you can , at all costs keep going " .
Loutit , Lieutenant J. Haig of the 10th , and thirty @-@ two men from the 9th , 10th , and 11th Battalions crossed Legge Valley and climbed a spur of Gun Ridge , just to the south of Scrubby Knoll . As they reached the top , about four hundred yards ( 370 m ) further inland was Gun Ridge , defended by a large number of Turkish troops . Loutit and two men carried out a reconnaissance of Scrubby Knoll , from the top of which they could see the Dardanelles , around three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east . When one of the men was wounded they returned to the rest of their group , which was being engaged by Turkish machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Around 08 : 00 , Loutit sent a man back for reinforcements ; he located Captain J. Ryder of the 9th Battalion , with half a company of men at Lone Pine . Ryder had not received the order to dig in , so he advanced and formed a line on Loutit 's right . Soon after , they came under fire from Scrubby Knoll and were in danger of being cut off ; Ryder sent a message back for more reinforcements . The messenger located Captain John Peck , the 11th Battalion 's adjutant , who collected all the men around him and went forward to reinforce Ryder . It was | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
now 09 : 30 and the men on the spur , outflanked by the Turks , had started to withdraw . At 10 : 00 the Turks set up a machine @-@ gun on the spur and opened fire on the withdrawing Australians . Pursued by the Turks , only eleven survivors , including Loutit and Haig , reached Johnston 's Jolly and took cover . Further back , two companies of the 9th and the 10th Battalions had started digging a trench line .
= = = 2nd Brigade = = =
As part of the second wave , the 2nd Brigade had been landing since 05 : 30 ; the 5th , 6th and 8th Battalions were supposed to cross 400 Plateau and head to Hill 971 , while the 7th Battalion on the left were to climb Plugge 's Plateau then make for Hill 971 . One 7th Battalion company , Jackson 's , landed beside the Fisherman 's Hut in the north and was almost wiped out ; only forty men survived the landing . At 06 : 00 Major Ivie Blezard 's 7th Battalion company , and part of another , were sent onto 400 Plateau by Maclagen to strengthen the defence . When the 7th Battalion commander Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Harold Elliott landed he realised events were not going to plan , and he headed to the 3rd Brigade headquarters to find out what was happening . Maclagen ordered him to gather his battalion at the south of the beachhead , as the 2nd Brigade would now form the division 's right flank , not left . When the 2nd Brigade commander Colonel James McCay arrived Maclagen convinced him to move his brigade to the south , swapping responsibility with the 3rd Brigade . Eventually agreeing , he established his headquarters on the seaward slope of 400 Plateau ( McCay 's Hill ) . Heading onto the plateau , McCay realised the ridge to his right , Bolton 's Ridge , would be a key point in their defence . He located the Brigade @-@ Major , Walter Cass , and ordered him to gather what men he could to defend the ridge . Looking around , he saw the 8th Battalion , commanded by Colonel William Bolton , moving forward , so Cass directed them to Bolton 's Ridge . As such , it was the only ANZAC battalion that remained together during the day . Eventually , around 07 : 00 , the rest of the brigade started arriving . As each company and battalion appeared they were pushed forward into the front line , but with no defined orders other than to support the 3rd Brigade . At 10 : 30 the six guns of the 26th Jacobs Mountain Battery arrived , positioning three guns each side of White 's Valley . At noon they opened fire on the Turks on Gun Ridge .
Within two hours half the Australian Division was involved in the battle of 400 Plateau . However , most of the officers had misunderstood their orders . Believing the intention was to occupy Gun Ridge and not hold their present position , they still tried to advance . The 9th and 10th Battalions had started forming a defence line , but there was a gap between them that the 7th Battalion was sent to fill . Seeing the 2nd Brigade coming forward , units of the 3rd Brigade started to advance to Gun Ridge . The advancing Australians did not then know that the counter @-@ attacking Turkish forces had reached the Scrubby Knoll area around 08 : 00 and were prepared for them . As the Australians reached the Lone Pine section of the plateau , Turkish machine @-@ guns and rifles opened fire , decimating the Australians . To the north other troops , advancing beyond Johnstone 's Jolly and Owen 's Gully , were caught by the same small arms fire . Soon afterwards a Turkish artillery battery also started firing at them . This was followed by a Turkish counter @-@ attack from Gun Ridge . Such was the situation they now found themselves in that at 15 : 30 McCay , now giving up all pretence of advancing to Gun Ridge , ordered his brigade to dig in from Owen 's Gully to Bolton 's Ridge .
= = = Pine Ridge = = =
Pine Ridge is part of the 400 Plateau , and stretches , in a curve towards the sea , for around one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Beyond Pine Ridge is Legge Valley and Gun Ridge and , like the rest of the terrain , it was covered in a thick gorse scrub , but also had stunted pine trees around eleven feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) tall growing on it .
Several groups of men eventually made their way to Pine Ridge . Among the first was Lieutenant Eric Plant 's platoon from the 9th Battalion . Captain John Whitham 's company of the 12th Battalion moved forward from Bolton 's Ridge when they saw the 6th Battalion moving up behind them . As the 6th Battalion reached the ridge , the companies carried on towards Gun Ridge , while Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Walter McNicoll established the battalion headquarters below Bolton 's Ridge . As the 6th Battalion moved forward they were engaged by Turkish small arms and artillery fire , causing heavy casualties . At 10 : 00 brigade headquarters received a message from the 6th Battalion asking for reinforcement , and McCay sent half the 5th Battalion to assist . At the same time the 8th Battalion were digging in on Bolton 's , except for two companies which moved forward to attack a group of Turks that had come up from the south behind the 6th Battalion . By noon the 8th Battalion was dug in on the ridge ; in front of them were scattered remnants of the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 9th Battalions , mostly out of view of each other in the scrub . Shortly after , McCay was informed that if he wanted the 6th Battalion to hold its position , it must be reinforced . So McCay sent his last reserves , a company of the 1st Battalion , and ordered the 8th to leave one company on the ridge and advance on the right of the 6th Battalion . The scattered formations managed to hold their positions for the remainder of the afternoon , then at 17 : 00 saw large numbers of Turkish troops coming over the southern section of Gun Ridge .
= = Turkish counter @-@ attack = =
Around 10 : 00 Kemal and the 1st Battalion , 57th Infantry were the first to arrive in the area between Scrubby Knoll and Chunuk Bair . From the knoll Kemal was able to observe the landings . He ordered the artillery battery to set up on the knoll , and the 1st Battalion to attack Baby 700 and Mortar Ridge from the North @-@ East , while the 2nd Battalion would simultaneously circle around and attack Baby 700 from the West . The 3rd Battalion would for the moment be held in reserve . At 10 : 30 Kemal informed II Corps he was attacking .
At 11 : 30 Sefik told Kemal that the ANZACs had a beachhead of around 2 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , and that he would attack towards Ari Burnu , in conjunction with the 19th Division . Around midday Kemal was appraised that the 9th Division was fully involved with the British landings at Cape Helles , and could not support his attack , so at 12 : 30 he ordered two battalions of the 77th Infantry Regiment ( the third battalion was guarding Suvla Bay ) to move forward between the 57th and 27th Infantry Regiments . At the same time he ordered his reserve 72nd Infantry Regiment to move further west . Within the next half @-@ hour the 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments started the counter @-@ attack , supported by three batteries of artillery . At 13 : 00 Kemal met with his corps commander Esat Pasha and convinced him of the need to react in strength to the ANZAC landings . Esat agreed and released the 72nd and 27th Infantry Regiments to Kemal 's command . Kemal deployed the four regiments from north to south ; 72nd , 57th , 27th and 77th . In total , Turkish strength opposing the landing numbered between ten thousand and twelve thousand men .
= = = North = = =
At 15 : 15 Lalor left the defence of The Nek to a platoon that had arrived as reinforcements , and moved his company to Baby 700 . There he joined a group from the 2nd Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Leslie Morshead . Lalor was killed soon afterwards . The left flank of Baby 700 was now held by sixty men , the remnants of several units , commanded by a corporal . They had survived five charges by the Turks between 07 : 30 and 15 : 00 ; after the last charge the Australians were ordered to withdraw through The Nek . There , a company from the Canterbury Battalion had just arrived , with their commanding officer Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Douglas Stewart . By 16 : 00 the New Zealand companies had formed a defence line on Russell 's Top . On Baby 700 , there was on the left Morsehead 's and Lalor 's men , and at the top of Malone 's Gulley were the survivors of the 2nd Battalion and some men from the 3rd Brigade . On the right were the men left from the Auckland companies , and a mixed group from the 1st , 2nd , 11th and 12th Battalions . Once Stewart 's men were secure , he ordered Morsehead to withdraw . During a Turkish artillery bombardment of The Nek , Stewart was killed . The artillery heralded the start of a Turkish counter @-@ attack ; columns of troops appeared over the top of Battleship Hill and on the flanks and attacked the ANZAC lines .
At 16 : 30 the three battalions from the 72nd Infantry Regiment arrived and attacked from the north . At the same time the Australians and New Zealanders holding on at Baby 700 broke and ran back to an improvised line , from Walker 's Ridge in the north to Pope 's Hill in the south . The defence line at The Nek was now defended by nine New Zealanders , under the command of a sergeant ; they had three machine @-@ guns but the crews had all been killed or wounded . As the survivors arrived from Baby 700 their numbers rose to around sixty . Bridges in his divisional headquarters starting receiving messages from the front ; just after 17 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel George Braund on Walker 's Ridge advised he was holding his position and " if reinforced could advance " . At 17 : 37 Maclagen reported they were being " heavily attacked " , at 18 : 15 the 3rd Battalion signalled , " 3rd Brigade being driven back " . At 19 : 15 from Maclagen again " 4th Brigade urgently required " . Bridges sent two hundred stragglers , from several different battalions , to reinforce Braund and promised two extra battalions from the New Zealand and Australian Division which was now coming ashore .
Dusk was at 19 : 00 and the Turkish attack had now reached Malone 's Gulley and The Nek . The New Zealanders waited until the Turks came close , then opened fire in the darkness , stopping their advance . Seriously outnumbered , they asked for reinforcements . Instead , the supporting troops to their rear were withdrawn and the Turks managed to get behind them . So , taking the machine @-@ guns with them , they withdrew off Russell 's Top into Rest Gully . This left the defenders at Walker 's Ridge isolated from the rest of the force .
= = = South = = =
The Australians on 400 Plateau had for some time been subjected to sniping and artillery fire and could see Turkish troops digging in on Gun Ridge . Around 13 : 00 a column of Turkish reinforcements from the 27th Infantry Regiment , in at least battalion strength , were observed moving along the ridge @-@ line from the south . The Turks then turned towards 400 Plateau and advanced in extended order . The Turkish counter @-@ attack soon forced the advanced Australian troops to withdraw , and their machine @-@ gun fire caused them heavy casualties . It was not long before the attack had forced a wedge between the Australians on Baby 700 and those on 400 Plateau . The heavy Turkish fire onto Lone Pine forced the survivors to withdraw back to the western slope of 400 Plateau . At 14 : 25 Turkish artillery and small arms fire was so heavy that the Indian artillerymen were forced to push their guns back off the plateau by hand , and they reformed on the beach .
Although in places there was a mixture of different companies and platoons dug in together , the Australians were deployed with the 8th Battalion in the south still centred on Bolton 's Ridge . North of them , covering the southern sector of 400 Plateau , were the mixed together 6th and 7th Battalions , both now commanded by Colonel Walter McNicoll of the 6th . North of them was the 5th Battalion , and the 10th Battalion covered the northern sector of 400 Plateau at Johnston 's Jolly . But by now they were battalions in name only , having all taken heavy casualties ; the commanders had little accurate knowledge of where their men were located .
At 15 : 30 the two battalions of the Turkish 77th Infantry Regiment were in position , and with the 27th Infantry they counter @-@ attacked again . At 15 : 30 and at 16 : 45 McCay , now under severe pressure , requested reinforcements . The second time he was informed there was only one uninvolved battalion left , the 4th , and Bridges was keeping them in reserve until more troops from the New Zealand and Australian Division had been landed . McCay then spoke to Bridges direct and informed him the situation was desperate and if not reinforced the Turks would get behind him . At 17 : 00 Bridges released the 4th Battalion to McCay who sent them to the south forming on the left of the 8th Battalion along Bolton 's Ridge . They arrived just in time to help counter Turkish probing attacks , by the 27th Infantry Regiment , from the south .
At 17 : 20 McCay signalled Bridges that large numbers of unwounded men were leaving the battlefield and heading for the beaches . This was followed by Maclagan asking for urgent artillery fire support , onto Gun Ridge , as his left was under a heavy attack and at 18 : 16 Owen reported the left flank was " rapidly " being forced to retire . At dusk Maclagan made his way to Bridges headquarters and when asked for his opinion replied " It 's touch and go . If the Turks come on in mass formation ... I don 't think anything can stop them . " As it got dark the Turkish artillery ceased firing , and although small arms fire continued on both sides , the effects were limited when firing blind . Darkness also provided the opportunity to start digging more substantial trenches and to resupply the troops with water and ammunition .
The last significant action of the day was at 22 : 00 south of Lone Pine , when the Turks charged towards Bolton 's Ridge . By now the 8th Battalion had positioned two machine @-@ guns to cover their front , which caused devastation amongst the attackers , and to their left the 4th Battalion also became involved . When the Turks got to within fifty yards ( 46 m ) the 8th Battalion counter @-@ attacked in a bayonet charge and the Turks withdrew . The ANZAC defence was aided by Royal Navy searchlights providing illumination . Both sides now waited for the next attack , but the day 's events had shattered both formations and they were no longer in any condition to conduct offensive operations .
= = Aftermath = =
By nightfall , around sixteen thousand men had been landed , and the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , although with several undefended sections . It stretched along Bolton 's Ridge in the south , across 400 Plateau , to Monash Valley . After a short gap it resumed at Pope 's Hill , then at the top of Walker 's Ridge . It was not a large beachhead ; it was under two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in length , with a depth around 790 yards ( 720 m ) , and in places only a few yards separated the two sides . That evening Birdwood had been ashore to check on the situation , and , satisfied , returned to HMS Queen . Around 21 : 15 he was asked to return to the beachhead . There he met with his senior officers , who asked him to arrange an evacuation . Unwilling to make that decision on his own he signalled Hamilton ;
Both my divisional generals and brigadiers have represented to me that they fear their men are thoroughly demoralised by shrapnel fire to which they have been subjected all day after exhaustion and gallant work in morning . Numbers have dribbled back from the firing line and cannot be collected in this difficult country . Even New Zealand Brigade which has only recently been engaged lost heavily and is to some extent demoralised . If troops are subjected to shellfire again tomorrow morning there is likely to be a fiasco , as I have no fresh troops with which to replace those in firing line . I know my representation is most serious , but if we are to re @-@ embark it must be at once .
Hamilton conferred with his naval commanders , who convinced him an evacuation would be almost impossible , and responded ; " dig yourselves right in and stick it out ... dig , dig , dig until you are safe " . The survivors had to fight on alone until 28 April when four battalions of the Royal Naval Division were attached to the corps .
On the Turkish side , by that night the 2nd Battalion 57th Infantry were on Baby 700 , the 3rd Battalion , reduced to only ninety men , were at The Nek , and the 1st Battalion on Mortar Ridge . Just south of them was the 77th Infantry , next was the 27th Infantry opposite 400 Plateau . The last regiment , the 72nd Infantry , were on Battleship Hill . As for manpower , the Turks were in a similar situation to the ANZACs . Of the two regiments most heavily involved , the 57th had been destroyed , and the 27th were exhausted with heavy casualties . Large numbers of the 77th had deserted , and the regiment was in no condition to fight . The 72nd was largely intact , but they were a poorly trained force of Arab conscripts . The III Corps , having to deal with both landings , could not assist as they had no reserves available . It was not until 27 April that the 33rd and 64th Infantry Regiments arrived to reinforce the Turkish forces . The ANZACs , however , had been unable to achieve their obectives , and therefore dug in . Gallipoli , like the Western Front , turned into a war of attrition . The German commander , Liman von Saunders , was clear about the reasons for the outcome . He wrote that , " on the Turkish side the situation was saved by the immediate and independent action of the 19th Division . " The division commander , Kemal , became noted as " the most imaginative , most successful officer to fight on either side " during the campaign . As a commander he was able to get the most out of his troops , typified by his order to the 57th Infantry Regiment ; " Men , I am not ordering you to attack . I am ordering you to die . In the time that it takes us to die , other forces and commanders can come and take our place . "
In the following days there were several failed attacks and counter @-@ attacks by both sides . The Turks were the first to try during the Second attack on Anzac Cove on 27 April , followed by the ANZACs who tried to advance overnight 1 / 2 May . The Turkish Third attack on Anzac Cove on 19 May was the worst defeat of them all , with around ten thousand casualties , including three thousand dead . The next four months consisted of only local or diversionary attacks , until 6 August when the ANZACs , in connection with the Landing at Suvla Bay , attacked Chunuk Bair with only limited success . The Turks never succeeded in driving the Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea . Similarly , the ANZACs never broke out of their beachhead . Instead , in December 1915 , after eight months of fighting , they evacuated the peninsula .
= = = Casualties = = =
The full extent of casualties on that first day are not known . Birdwood , who did not come ashore until late in the day , estimated between three and four hundred dead on the beaches . The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage claims one in five of the three thousand New Zealanders involved became a casualty . The Australian War Memorial has 860 Australian dead between 25 – 30 April , and the Australian Government estimates 2 @,@ 000 wounded left Anzac Cove on 25 April , but more wounded were still waiting on the battlefields to be evacuated . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission documents that 754 Australian and 147 New Zealand soldiers died on 25 April 1915 . A higher than normal proportion of the ANZAC casualties were from the officer ranks . One theory was that they kept exposing themselves to fire , trying to find out where they were or to locate their troops . Four men were taken prisoner by the Turks .
It is estimated that the Turkish 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments lost around 2 @,@ 000 men , or fifty per cent of their combined strength . The full number of Turkish casualties for the day has not been recorded . During the campaign , 8 @,@ 708 Australians and 2 @,@ 721 New Zealanders were killed . The exact number of Turkish dead is not known but has been estimated around 87 @,@ 000 .
= = = Anzac Day = = =
The anniversary of the landings , 25 April , has since 1916 been recognised in Australia and New Zealand as Anzac Day , now one of their most important national occasions . It does not celebrate a military victory , but instead commemorates all the Australians and New Zealanders " who served and died in all wars , conflicts , and peacekeeping operations " and " the contribution and suffering of all those who have served . " Around the country , dawn services are held at war memorials to commemorate those involved . In Australia , at 10 : 15 , another service is held at the Australian War Memorial , which the prime minister and governor general normally attend . The first official dawn services were held in Australia in 1927 and in New Zealand in 1939 . Lower @-@ key services are also held in the United Kingdom and Ireland . In Turkey , large groups of Australians and New Zealanders have begun to gather at Anzac Cove , where in 2005 an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people attended the service to commemorate the landings . Attendance figures rose to 38 @,@ 000 in 2012 and 50 @,@ 000 in 2013 .
= Michelle Rzepecki =
Michelle Rzepecki ( born 6 November 1986 ) is an Australian goalball player classified as a B3 competitor . She made her debut for the Australia women 's national goalball team at the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .
= = Personal life = =
Rzepecki was born on 6 November 1986 in Wollstonecraft , New South Wales , and is 173 centimetres ( 68 in ) tall . She has the visual disability rod monochromatism , which she acquired at birth . She can play the saxophone and piano . Rzepecki is a third @-@ generation Australian , as her grandfather moved to Australia from Germany . While attending Castle Hill High School , she returned to the country of her grandfather 's birth to do study abroad that was funded by a scholarship from the Society for Australian @-@ German Student Exchange Inc . She also lived in Bolivia for a while , working at a school for children with visual impairments . While there , she introduced the children to goalball . Part of her work in the country was funded by a mini @-@ grant . As of 2012 , she works as a Sydney Tower Skywalk guide .
= = Goalball = =
Rzepecki is a goalball player , and for visual disability sports , is classified as a B3 competitor . She is a centre and winger . She has a goalball scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . Rzepecki started playing the sport in 2002 . She competed at the 2004 Australian National Goalball Championships , playing for the New South Wales goalball team which beat the Queensland goalball team in the finals . In 2011 , Rzepecki made her national team debut during the African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She played in the game against the New Zealand women 's national goalball team that Australia won . As a member of the 2011 team , she finished sixth at the IBSA Goalball World Cup .
The Australian Paralympic Committee had chosen to work on her development as a goalball player with the idea that she might be able to qualify for , and win a medal at , the 2016 Summer Paralympics . She was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics , in what would be her debut Games . That the team qualifyied for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . Going into the Paralympics , her team was ranked eighth in the world . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals .
= The Good Terrorist =
The Good Terrorist is a 1985 political novel by Doris Lessing . It was first published in September 1985 in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The story examines events in the life of Alice , a naïve and well @-@ intentioned squatter , who moves in with a group of radicals in London , and is drawn into their terrorist activities .
Lessing was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She had been a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , but later grew disillusioned with communism . Three reviewers labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . Some critics called the novel 's title an oxymoron , stating that it highlights Alice 's ambivalent nature , and that she is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary .
The Good Terrorist divided reviewers , with some being impressed by the book 's insight and characterization , and others complaining about the novel 's style and the character 's lack of depth . One critic complimented Lessing 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " , but another called the book 's text " surprisingly bland " , and described the characters as " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " . The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the Booker Prize , and won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award .
= = Plot summary = =
The Good Terrorist is written in third person from the point of view of Alice , an unemployed politics and economics graduate in her mid @-@ thirties who drifts from commune to commune . She considers herself a revolutionary , fighting against " fascist imperialism " , but is still dependent on her parents , whom she treats with contempt . In the early @-@ 1980s , Alice joins a squat of like @-@ minded " comrades " in a derelict house in London . Accompanying her is Jasper , a graduate she took in at a student commune she lived in fifteen years previously . Jasper became dependent on Alice and followed her from squat to squat . Alice fell in love with him , only to become frustrated later by his aloofness and bourgeoning homosexuality . Other members of the squat include Bert , their ineffective leader , and a lesbian couple , the maternal Roberta , and Faye , her unstable and fragile partner .
The abandoned house is in a state of disrepair and is earmarked by the City Council for demolition . To the indifference of the other comrades , Alice takes it upon herself to clean up and renovate the house , and convinces the Council that it is worth saving . She also persuades the authorities to restore the electricity and water supplies . Alice becomes the house 's " mother " , cooking for everyone , and dealing with the local police , who are trying to evict them . The members of the squat belong to the Communist Centre Union ( CCU ) , and attend demonstrations and pickets . Alice involves herself in some of these activities , but spends most of her time working on the house .
To be more useful to the struggle , Jasper and Bert travel to Ireland to persuade the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) to let the CCU join them , but they are rejected . They also take a trip to the Soviet Union to offer their services , but are turned down . The IRA and KGB , however , have begun taking notice of them and start using the house as a conduit for propaganda material and guns . Packages start arriving in the middle of the night , and Alice , to avoid attracting the attention of the police , raises objections . This results in visits to the house by strangers who question the squat 's decision making . After this , the comrades decide to ignore orders , to act on their own , and to consider themselves " Freeborn British Communists " .
Going it alone now , they start experimenting with explosives , and build a car bomb . Alice does not fully support this action , but accepts the majority decision . They target an upmarket hotel in Knightsbridge , but their inexperience results in the premature detonation of the bomb , which kills Faye and several passers @-@ by . The remaining comrades , shaken by what they have done , decide to leave the squat and go their own way . Alice , disillusioned by Jasper , chooses not to follow him and remains behind because she cannot bear to abandon the house she has put so much effort into . Despite her initial reservations about the bombing , Alice feels a need to justify their actions to others , but realises it would be fruitless because " [ o ] rdinary people simply didn 't understand " . She acknowledges that she is a terrorist now , though she cannot remember when the change happened .
= = Background = =
Doris Lessing 's interest in politics began in the 1940s while she was living in Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) . She was attracted to a group of " quasi @-@ Communist [ s ] " and joined their Left Book Club in Salisbury ( now Harare ) . Later , prompted by the conflicts arising from racial segregation prominent in Rhodesia at the time , she also joined the Southern Rhodesian Labour Party . Lessing moved to London in 1949 and began her writing career there . She became a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , and was an active campaigner against the use of nuclear weapons .
By 1964 , Lessing had published six novels , but grew disillusioned with Communism and , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah , turned her attention to Sufism , an Islamic belief system . This prompted her to write her five @-@ volume " space fiction " series , Canopus in Argos : Archives , which drew on Sufi concepts . The series was not well received by some of her readers , who felt she had abandoned her " rational worldview " .
The Good Terrorist was Lessing 's first book to be published after the Canopus in Argos series , which prompted several retorts from reviewers , including , " Lessing has returned to Earth " , and " Lessing returns to reality " . Several commentators have labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . She said :
[ I ] t 's not a book with a political statement . It 's ... about a certain kind of political person , a kind of self @-@ styled revolutionary that can only be produced by affluent societies . There 's a great deal of playacting that I don 't think you 'd find in extreme left revolutionaries in societies where they have an immediate challenge .
Lessing said she was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the IRA bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She recalled , " the media reported it to sound as if it was the work of amateurs . I started to think , what kind of amateurs could they be ? " and realised " how easy it would be for a kid , not really knowing what he or she was doing , to drift into a terrorist group . " Lessing already had Alice in mind as the central character : " I know several people like Alice — this mixture of ... maternal caring , ... and who can contemplate killing large numbers of people without a moment 's bother . " She described Alice as " quietly comic [ al ] " because she is so full of contradictions . She said she was surprised how some of the characters ( other than Jasper , Alice 's love interest ) developed , such as the pill @-@ popping and fragile Faye , who turned out to be a " destroyed person " .
= = Genre = =
The Good Terrorist has been labelled a " political novel " by the publishers and some reviewers , including Alison Lurie in The New York Review of Books . Lurie stated that as political fiction , it is " one of the best novels ... about the terrorist mentality " since Joseph Conrad 's The Secret Agent ( 1907 ) , although this was questioned by William H. Pritchard in The Hudson Review , who wrote that compared to Conrad , The Good Terrorist is " shapeless " . Several commentators have pointed out that it is more a novel about politics than political fiction . In From the Margins of Empire : Christina Stead , Doris Lessing , Nadine Gordimer , Louise Yelin called the work a novel about politics , rather than a political novel per se .
The Good Terrorist has also been called a satire . In her book Doris Lessing : The Poetics of Change , Gayle Greene called it a " satire of a group of revolutionaries " , and Susan Watkins , writing in Doris Lessing : Border Crossings , described it as a " dry and satirical examination of a woman 's involvement with a left @-@ wing splinter group " . A biography of Lessing for the Swedish Academy on the occasion of her winning the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature described the book as " a satirical picture of the need of the contemporary left for total control and the female protagonist 's misdirected martyrdom and subjugation " . Yelin said the novel " oscillat [ ed ] between satire and nostalgia " . Academic Robert E. Kuehn felt that it is not satire at all . He stated while the book could have been a " satire of the blackest and most hilarious kind " , in his opinion Lessing " has no sense of humor , and instead of lashing [ the characters ] with the satirist 's whip , she treats them with unremitting and belittling irony " .
Virginia Scott called the novel a fantasy . Drawing on Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in The International Fiction Review , she wrote that " [ Lessing 's ] Alice with her group of political revolutionaries can be seen as a serious fantasy which has striking parallels to ... Carroll 's Alice " . Both Alices enter a house and are confronted by seemingly impossible challenges : Carroll 's Alice has to navigate passages too small to fit through , while Lessing 's Alice finds herself in a barely inhabitable house that is earmarked for demolition . Both Alices are able to change their appearances : in Wonderland , Alice adjusts her size to suit her needs ; in The Good Terrorist , Alice changes her demeanour to get what she wants from others . Scott noted that at one point in The Good Terrorist , Faye refers to Alice as " Alice the Wonder , the wondrous Alice " , alluding to Carroll 's Alice .
= = Themes = =
The American novelist Judith Freeman wrote that one of the common themes in The Good Terrorist is that of keeping one 's identity in a collective , of preserving " individual conscience " . This theme suggests that problems occur when we are coerced into conforming . Freeman said that Alice is a " quintessential good woman ... the little Hausefrau revolutionary " , but turns bad under peer pressure .
Another theme present is the symbolic nature of the house . Margaret Scanlan stated that as in books like Mansfield Park and Jane Eyre , The Good Terrorist " defines a woman in terms of her house " . Writing in the journal Studies in the Novel , Katherine Fishburn said that Lessing often uses a house to symbolise " psychological or ontological change " , and that here , " the house ... symbolizes Alice 's function in the story " . Yelin described The Good Terrorist as " an urban , dystopian updating of the house @-@ as @-@ England genre , [ where ] ... England is represented by a house in London " . Writing in " Politics of Feminine Abuse : Political Oppression and Masculine Obstinacy in Doris Lessing 's The Good Terrorist " , Lalbakhsh and Yahya suggest that the house , and the " oppressive relations " in it , reflect the similarly oppressive relationships in the society it resides in .
Several critics have focused on the theme of motherhood . In " Mothers and Daughters / Aging and Dying " , Claire Sprague wrote that Lessing often dwells on the theme of mothers passing their behaviours onto their daughters , and how the cycle of daughters fighting their mothers permeates each generation . The British novelist Jane Rogers said that The Good Terrorist " is as unsparing and incisive about motherhood as it is about the extreme left " . She stated that motherhood here " is terrible " : Alice 's mother is reduced to despair continually yielding to her selfish daughter 's demands ; Alice mothers Jasper , and has a similar despairing relationship with him . Rogers added that motherhood is depicted here as a compulsion to protect the weak , despite their propensity to retaliate and hurt you .
Feminist themes and the subjugation of women have also been associated with The Good Terrorist . Scanlan indicated that while many of the comrades in the book are women , they find that political activity does not elevate their position , and that they are " trapped in the patriarchy they despise " . Yelin suggested that although Lessing ridicules the male members of the CCU and their role playing , she is also critical of the female members " who collude in male @-@ dominant political organizations and thus in their own oppression " . But with the book 's allusions to Jasper 's homosexuality , Yelin added that Lessing 's " critique of women 's infatuation with patriarchal misogyny and their emotional dependence on misogynist men " is muted by homophobia and the " misogyny pervasive in patriarchal constructions of ( male ) heterosexuality " . Lalbakhsh and Yahya noted that Lessing depicts Alice as a " typical housewife " who cares for her family , in this case , the squat , but is " ignored and neglected " . They concluded that Alice 's fate is sealed because , according to the British socialist feminist Juliet Mitchell , women are " fundamental to the human condition " , yet " their economic , social , and political roles ... are marginal " .
= = Critical analysis = =
Several critics have called The Good Terrorist 's title an oxymoron . Robert Boschman suggested it is indicative of Alice 's " contradictory personality " , that she renovates the squat 's house , yet is bent on destroying society . In The Hudson Review , George Kearns wrote that the title " hovers above the novel with ... irony " . The reader assumes that Alice is the " good terrorist " , but that while she may be a good person , she is " rotten at being a terrorist " . Writing in World Literature Today , Mona Knapp concluded that Lessing 's heroine , the " good terrorist " , is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary . She knows how to renovate houses and manipulate people to her advantage , but she is unemployed and steals money from her parents . When real revolutionaries start using the squat to ship arms , she panics , and going behind her comrades ' backs , she makes a telephone call to the authorities to warn them . Knapp called Alice " a bad terrorist and a stunted human being " . Fishburn suggested that it is Lessing herself who is the " good terrorist " , symbolised here by Alice , but that hers is " political terrorism of a literary kind " , where she frequently disguises her ideas in " very domestic @-@ looking fiction " , and " direct [ ly ] challenge [ s ] ... our sense of reality " .
Kuehn described Alice as " well @-@ intentioned , canny and sometimes lovable " , but as someone who , at 36 , never grew up , and is still dependent on her parents . Yelin said Alice is " in a state of perpetual adolescence " , and her need to " mother everyone " is " an extreme case of psychological regression or failure to thrive " . Greene wrote that Alice 's " humanitarianism is ludicrous in her world " , and described her as " so furiously at odds with herself " because she is too immature to comprehend what is happening and her actions vary from being helpful to dangerous .
Boschman called Lessing 's narrative " ironic " because it highlights the divide between who Alice is and who she thinks she is , and her efforts to pretend there is no discrepancy . Alice refuses to acknowledge that her " maternal activities " stem from her desire to win her mother 's approval , and believing that her mother has " betrayed and abandoned " her , Alice turns to Jasper as a way to " continue to sustain her beliefs about herself and the world " . Even though Jasper takes advantage of her adoration of him by mistreating her , Alice still clings to him because her self @-@ image " vigorously qualifies her perception of [ him ] , and thus proliferates the denial and self @-@ deception " . The fact that Jasper has turned to homosexuality , which Alice dismisses as " his emotional life " , " suits her own repressed desires " . Kuehn called Alice 's obsession with the " hapless " and " repellent " Jasper " just comprehensible " , adding that she feels safe with his gayness , even though she has to endure his abuse .
Knapp stated that while Lessing exposes self @-@ styled insurrectionists as " spoiled and immature products of the middle class " , she also derides their ineptness at affecting any meaningful change . Lessing is critical of the state which " feeds the very hand that terrorizes it " , yet she also condemns those institutions that exploits the working class and ignores the homeless . Knapp remarks that Lessing does not resolve these ambiguities , but instead highlights the failings of the state and those seeking to overthrow it . Scanlan compared Lessing 's comrades to Richard E. Rubenstein 's terrorists in his book Alchemists of Revolution : Terrorism in the Modern World . Rubenstein wrote that when " ambitious idealists " have no " creative ruling class to follow or a rebellious lower class to lead [ they ] have often taken upon themselves the burden of representative action " , which he said " is a formula for disaster " .
= = Reception = =
Critics have been divided on The Good Terrorist . Elizabeth Lowry highlighted this in the London Review of Books : " [ Lessing ] has been sharply criticised for the pedestrian quality of her prose , and as vigorously defended " . The Irish literary critic Denis Donoghue complained that the style of the novel is " insistently drab " , and Kuehn referred to Lessing 's text as " surprisingly bland " . Lowry noted that the English academic Clare Hanson defended the book by saying that it is " a grey and textureless novel because it ... speaks a grey and textureless language " .
Freeman on the other hand called the book a " graceful and accomplished story " , and a " brilliant account of the types of individuals who commit terrorist acts " . Writing in the Los Angeles Times Freeman described Lessing as " one of our most valuable writers " who " has an uncanny grasp of human relationships " . In a review in the Sun @-@ Sentinel , Bonnie Gross described the novel as " rewarding reading " and Lessing 's " most accessible " book to date . She said it is the author 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " that makes this book " remarkable " . Gross felt that while some of the male characters are not that strong , the female characters are much better developed , particularly Alice , whom she found memorable .
Amanda Sebestyen wrote in The Women 's Review of Books that at first glance the ideas in The Good Terrorist appear deceptively simple , and the plot predictable . But she added that Lessing 's strength is her " stoic narrat [ ion ] of the daily effort of living " , which excels in the way she describes day @-@ to @-@ day life in a squat . Sebestyen also liked the book 's depiction of Alice , who " speak [ s ] to me most disquietingly about myself and my generation " . In a review in off our backs , an American feminist publication , Vickie Leonard called The Good Terrorist a " fascinating book " that is " extremely well written " with characters that are " exciting " and " realistic " . Leonard added that even though Alice is not a feminist , the book illustrates the author 's " strong admiration for women and their accomplishments " .
Writing in The Guardian , Rogers described The Good Terrorist as " a novel in unsparing close @-@ up " that examines society through the eyes of individuals . She said it is " witty and ... angry at human stupidity and destructiveness " , and within the context of recent terrorist attacks in London , it is an example of " fiction going where factual writing cannot " . A critic in Kirkus Reviews wrote that Alice 's story is " an extraordinary tour de force — a psychological portrait that 's realistic with a vengeance " . The reviewer added that although Alice is " self @-@ deluding " and not always likeable , the novel 's strength are the characters and its depiction of political motivation .
Donoghue wrote in The New York Times that he did not care much about what happened to Alice and her comrades . He felt that Lessing presents Alice as " an unquestioned rigmarole of reactions and prejudices " , which leaves no room for any further interest . Donoghue complained that Lessing has not made up her mind on whether her characters are " the salt of the earth or its scum " . In a review in the Chicago Tribune , Kuehn felt that the work has little impact and is not memorable . He said Lessing 's real interest is character development , but complained that the characters are " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " .
The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the 1985 Booker Prize , and in 1986 won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award . In 2007 Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for being " part of both the history of literature and living literature " . In the award ceremony speech by Swedish writer Per Wästberg , The Good Terrorist was cited as " an in @-@ depth account of the extreme leftwing squatting culture that sponges off female self @-@ sacrifice " . Following Lessing 's death in 2013 , The Guardian put The Good Terrorist in their list of the top five Lessing books . Indian writer Neel Mukherjee included the novel in his 2015 " top 10 books about revolutionaries " , also published in The Guardian .
= = Publication history = =
The Good Terrorist was first published in September 1985 in hardcover in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The first paperback edition was published in the United Kingdom in September 1986 by Grafton . An unabridged 13 @-@ hour audio cassette edition , narrated by Nadia May , was released in the United States in April 1999 by Blackstone Audio . The novel has been translated into several other languages since its first publication in English in 1985 , including Catalan , Chinese , French , German , Italian , Spanish and Swedish .
= Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster =
Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster , 4th Earl of Leicester and Lancaster , KG ( c . 1310 – 23 March 1361 ) , also Earl of Derby , was a member of the English nobility in the 14th century , and a prominent English diplomat , politician , and soldier . The son and heir of Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , and Maud Chaworth , he became one of Edward III 's most trusted captains in the early phases of the Hundred Years ' War and distinguished himself with victory in the Battle of Auberoche . He was a founding member and the second Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 , and in 1351 was created duke . Grosmont was also the author of the book Livre de seyntz medicines , a highly personal devotional treatise . He is remembered as one of the founders and early patrons of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge , which was established by two of the guilds of the town in 1352 .
= = Family background and early life = =
Grosmont 's uncle , Thomas of Lancaster , was the son and heir of Edward I 's brother Edmund Crouchback . Through his inheritance and a fortunate marriage , Thomas became the wealthiest peer in England , but constant quarrels with King Edward II led to his execution in 1322 . Having no heir , Thomas 's possessions and titles went to his younger brother Henry – Grosmont 's father . Earl Henry of Lancaster assented to the deposition of Edward II in 1327 , but did not long stay in favour with the regency of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer . When Edward III took personal control of the government in 1330 , relations with the Crown improved , but by this time the older Henry was already struggling with poor health and blindness .
Little is known of Grosmont 's early years , but that he was born at Grosmont Castle in Grosmont , Monmouthshire , Wales , and that he was born c . 1310 , not around the turn of the century as previously held . According to his own memoirs , he was better at martial arts than at academic subjects , and did not learn to read until later in life . In 1330 he was knighted , and represented his father in parliament . The next year he is recorded as participating in a royal tournament at Cheapside .
In 1333 he took part in Edward 's Scottish campaign , though it is unclear whether he was present at the great English victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill . After further service in the north , he was appointed the King 's lieutenant in Scotland in 1336 . The next year he was one of the six men Edward III promoted to the higher levels of the peerage . One of his father 's lesser titles , that of Earl of Derby , was bestowed upon Grosmont .
= = Service in France = =
With the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War in 1337 , Grosmont 's attention was turned towards France . He took part in several diplomatic missions and minor campaigns and was present at the great English victory in the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340 . Later the same year , he was required to commit himself as hostage in the Low Countries for the king 's considerable debts . He remained hostage until the next year and had to pay a large ransom for his own release . On his return he was made the king 's lieutenant in the north and stayed at Roxburgh until 1342 . The next years he spent in diplomatic negotiations in the Low Countries , Castile and Avignon .
In 1345 Edward III was planning a major assault on France . A three @-@ pronged attack would have the Earl of Northampton attacking from Brittany , the king himself from Flanders , while Grosmont was dispatched to Aquitaine to prepare a campaign in the south . Moving rapidly through the country , he confronted the Comte d ’ Isle at Auberoche on 21 October and there achieved a victory described as " the greatest single achievement of Lancaster 's entire military career " . The ransom from the prisoners has been estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 . The next year , while Edward was carrying out his Crécy campaign , Grosmont laid siege to , and captured , Poitiers , before returning home to England in 1347 .
= = Duke of Lancaster = =
In 1345 , while Grosmont was in France , his father died . The younger Henry was now Earl of Lancaster – the wealthiest and most powerful peer of the realm . After participating in the Siege of Calais in 1347 , the king honoured Lancaster by including him as a founding knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 . A few years later , in 1351 , Edward bestowed an even greater honour on Lancaster when he created him Duke of Lancaster . The title of duke was of relatively new origin in England ; only one other ducal title existed previously .
In addition to this , Lancaster was given palatinate status for the county of Lancashire , which entailed a separate administration independent of the crown . This grant was quite exceptional in English history ; only two other counties palatine existed : Durham , which was an ancient ecclesiastical palatinate , and Chester , which was crown property .
It is a sign of Edward 's high regard for Lancaster that he would bestow such extensive privileges on him . The two men were second cousins through their great @-@ grandfather Henry III and practically coeval ( Edward was born in 1312 ) , so it is natural to assume that a strong sense of camaraderie existed between them . Another factor that might have influenced the king 's decision was the fact that Henry had no male heir , so the grant was made for the Earl 's lifetime only , and not intended to be hereditary .
= = = Further prestige = = =
Lancaster spent the 1350s intermittently campaigning and negotiating peace treaties with the French . In 1350 he was present at the naval victory at Winchelsea , where he allegedly saved the lives of the Black Prince and John of Gaunt . The years 1351 @-@ 2 he spent on crusade in Prussia . It was here that a quarrel with Otto , Duke of Brunswick , almost led to a duel between the two men , narrowly averted by the intervention of the French king , John II . In the later half of the decade campaigning in France resumed . After a chevauchée in Normandy in 1356 and the siege of Rennes in 1358 , Lancaster participated in the last great offensive of the first phase of the Hundred Years ' War : the Rheims campaign of 1359 @-@ 60 . Then he was appointed principal negotiator for the Treaty of Brétigny , where the English achieved very favourable terms .
After returning to England in November 1360 , he fell ill early the next year , and died at Leicester Castle on 23 March . It is likely that the cause of death was the plague , which that year was making a second visitation of England . He was buried in the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke , Leicester , the church which he had built within the religious and charitable institution founded by his father next to Leicester Castle , and where he had re @-@ buried his father some years previously .
= = Private life = =
Lancaster was married to Isabella , daughter of Henry , Lord Beaumont , in 1330 . The two had no sons , but two daughters : Maud and Blanche . While Maud was married to William I , Duke of Bavaria , Blanche married Edward III 's son John of Gaunt . Gaunt ended up inheriting Lancaster 's possessions and ducal title , but it was not until 1377 , when the dying King Edward III was largely incapacitated , that he was able to restore the palatinate rights for the county of Lancaster . When Gaunt 's son Henry of Bolingbroke usurped the crown in 1399 and became Henry IV , the vast Lancaster inheritance , including the Lordship of Bowland , was merged with the crown as the Duchy of Lancaster .
We know more about Lancaster 's character than of most of his contemporaries through his memoirs , the Livre de seyntz medicines ( Book of the Holy Doctors ) . This book is a highly personal treatise on matters of religion and piety , but it also contains details of historical interest . It , among other things , revealed that Lancaster , at the age of 44 when he wrote the book in 1354 , suffered from gout . The book is primarily a devotional work though ; it is organized around seven wounds which Henry claims to have , representing the seven sins . Lancaster confesses to his sins , explains various real and mythical medical remedies in terms of their theological symbolism , and exhorts the reader to greater morality .
= = Ancestors = =
= I Am Unicorn =
" I Am Unicorn " is the second episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ sixth overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and first aired on September 27 , 2011 on Fox in the United States . It features the return of Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) to the show to direct a rival glee club at William McKinley High even while New Directions , the current club , is having trouble recruiting members . Shelby also wants Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) , the biological parents of her adopted daughter Beth , to be a part of Beth 's life . The director of New Directions , Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sets up a " booty camp " for the less capable dancers in the club , and auditions for the school musical , West Side Story , begin .
The episode received mostly positive reviews , which ranged from okay to fabulous , with approval being given to the resurrection of neglected storylines from the show 's first season . One of these was the adoption of Beth , and critics were especially happy with the scene where Puck meets her , but there was widespread disdain for the explanation behind Shelby 's return , that of starting a rival glee club . There were only three musical numbers in the episode , though all three were given positive notices , with the overall favorite being Blaine 's performance of " Something 's Coming " from West Side Story at the end of the episode . All three songs were released as singles , available for download , and " Somewhere " , sung as a duet by Menzel and Lea Michele , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . It did not chart on the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) institutes a " booty camp " to hone the dancing skills of New Directions members Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , and has Mike ( Harry Shum Jr . ) instruct them . As he is too busy to direct the upcoming school musical West Side Story , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and New Directions member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) take charge of it .
Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Kurt audition , respectively , for the lead roles of Maria and Tony ; she performs " Somewhere " from the show , and he performs " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl . Kurt later eavesdrops on the directors and hears them question whether he is masculine enough for the role . He re @-@ auditions and attempts to give a more masculine performance , but they are unable to suppress laughter at his acting . Kurt is also running for class president , and accepts campaign help from Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , who wants to highlight his unique character by comparing him to a unicorn . Kurt feels her proposed campaign materials highlight only his gay side , and is upset when she goes against his wishes and posts them anyway . He discusses his image problem with his father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , who recommends that he embrace his uniqueness . Kurt later changes his mind about his campaign 's approach and apologizes to Brittany , but is surprised to learn that she too has decided to run for class president .
Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) — Rachel 's biological mother , the adoptive mother of Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck 's daughter Beth , and the former coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline — is headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta 's ( Vanessa Lengies ) wealthy and doting father . Shelby reaches out to Rachel , Puck and Quinn . She lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad @-@ girl attitude , appearance and behavior . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , who is running for Congress , convinces Quinn to feature in an anti @-@ arts video for her campaign . In it , Quinn confronts Will and blames him for her transformation into a bad girl , but Will reprimands her , reminds her of how the glee club and its members have always supported her in the past and tells her to grow up . After seeing a picture of a happy Beth and Puck , Quinn breaks down . She resumes her normal appearance , and Will and the New Directions welcome her back into the club . Puck tells Quinn he is proud of her , but Quinn reveals she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody .
To avoid competing with Kurt , Blaine auditions for a supporting role with a rendition of " Something 's Coming " , one of Tony 's songs from the show . The directors are impressed , and ask if he will read for the part of Tony instead . Kurt , who was watching from above , silently walks out of the auditorium .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and was filmed in five days , from August 22 , 2011 through August 26 , 2011 . Broadway star Idina Menzel returns for the first time since the first season finale " Journey to Regionals " , when her character , Shelby Corcoran , adopted Quinn 's newborn baby , named Beth . On July 15 , 2011 , it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season " for a major arc that could span as many as 10 @-@ 12 episodes " . Series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy was quoted as saying , " I 'm really excited [ ... ] that Idina is joining the family again . We missed her last year and we 're happy that she is coming back . " The article also noted that her character , Shelby , would be " returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher " . Menzel herself said that she would " be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season " , which she was " very excited about " . Shelby 's adopted daughter is also appearing : Menzel tweeted that she was " shooting scenes with babies " . The drawing of the " Clown Pig " that Puck brings for Beth was actually drawn by Falchuk and Agron .
Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Coach Beiste ( Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , student Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) and Menzel as Shelby . Second season series regular Mike O 'Malley , who plays Burt Hummel and also appears in the episode , is listed in the Fox press release as a guest star for this episode and receives a like credit in the episode itself .
Three singles were released from the episode : " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl sung by Colfer , and covers of " Something 's Coming " and " Somewhere " from West Side Story — the former sung by Criss , and the latter a duet between Michele and Menzel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" I Am Unicorn " was first broadcast on September 27 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was beaten for the second week in a row in its timeslot by NCIS on CBS , which earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the second episode of New Girl , which follows Glee on Fox , and brought in a 4 @.@ 5 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 28 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " , which netted a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 21 million viewers .
In the United Kingdom , " I Am Unicorn " was watched on Sky1 by 995 @,@ 000 viewers , down 177 @,@ 000 from the season premiere the previous week . In Australia , the episode drew 729 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from the season premiere 's twelfth most @-@ watched program of the night and 760 @,@ 000 viewers in the previous week . In Canada , 1 @.@ 50 million viewers watched the episode , and it was the eighteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down eight slots and 28 % from the 2 @.@ 10 million who watched " The Purple Piano Project " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reviewers generally received this episode positively , though some , like IGN 's Robert Canning , thought it was merely " okay " ; he gave it a score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times said she " felt vaguely underwhelmed " and that the episode " lacked emotional resonance " . In contrast , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave the episode a " B " , and called it " a marked improvement over the season premiere " , and complimented the way it " gave nearly all of the storylines an emotional core " . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times characterized it as " one of the tightest , best @-@ made , most well @-@ acted , and entertaining hours " from Glee in a very long time , and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek said that it was " quintessential Glee " and that " the show is once again a magical , fabulous unicorn . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle was " charmed " , " moved " , and " excited for what 's to come . "
The reappearance of storylines left dangling at the end of the first season was noted with approval by Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News and VanDerWerff , who both mentioned not only the big one about Quinn and Puck and baby Beth but also Artie 's love of directing , and variously added Rachel and Shelby , and movement on the Will and Emma relationship . The fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley , however , was greeted with derision by both reviewers — Urban called it " mind @-@ bogglingly idiotic " — and others as well . Reiter found the idea incomprehensible , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote , " Given Will 's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker 's dozen , this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University . " Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger characterized the notion of " Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up " to take a part @-@ time job in Lima as " ridiculous " , and the whole scenario as " more than a little bizarre " .
The effect of Shelby 's advent on Puck evoked the most praise . Benigno called the segment where Puck meets Beth " the best scene of this very young season " , The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg said it was a " top moment " , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly dubbed it " the sweetest scene of the night " . VanDerWerff also called it " very sweet " and expressed hope that " the show will come up with something for him to do after mostly relegating him to weird comic relief last season . " The effect of her return on Quinn was greeted with less enthusiasm . Reiter was " not thrilled " by the possibility of a custody battle between Quinn and Shelby and called Quinn 's plan " half @-@ baked " , and Canning dismissed it as " clichéd drama " . Kubicek expressed interest in seeing " where this goes " , and VanDerWerff noted that Quinn has been " grieving giving up her child all this time and she didn 't even know it " , and characterized it as a " fairly powerful storyline " .
Critics were divided on Kurt 's storyline as he faced being perceived primarily as gay both when auditioning and when running for class president . VanDerWerff said it was " the most consistent " storyline , and Canning called it " the most familiar story " , but also described Kurt as " by far the most interesting and most layered " character , his stories " delivering the most emotional connections " , and this episode 's installments " entertaining territory " . Kubicek stated that there were " tons " of wonderful " Kurt moments " in the episode . Benigno called Kurt learning to embrace his gayness yet again on the show " kind of awkward " , and Hyman asked " Was this Kurt Accepts He 's Special 3 @.@ 0 or 4 @.@ 0 ? I can 't keep track . " Votta summed up Kurt 's audition quandary : " Kurt is fighting typecasting , and while the ninjitsu , fingerless gloves and climbing routine might have been an attempt to butch it up , instead Kurt played right into expectations with the over @-@ the @-@ top Funny Girl piece . " His attempt to rescue the situation by reauditioning via performing a Romeo and Juliet scene with Rachel evoked laughter from the three directors and Rachel herself , but as Votta points out , Kurt was " not actually being bad as Romeo " . Jayma Mays , who plays Emma , one of the directors in that scene , stated in an interview that she thought Kurt was " good " . Kurt finding himself in competition with Blaine was also touched on , but several reviewers were unhappy with the revelation that Blaine was not a senior like Kurt , as had been implied in the previous season . VanDerWerff wrote that Blaine " seems to have simultaneously gotten younger and had a complete personality transplant over the summer " , Votta noted " the continuity @-@ bending plot point that he 's somehow a Junior and not a Senior like his boyfriend " , and Urban allowed her exasperation to show : " Oh really , Glee ? Blaine 's a junior ? Blaine 's younger than Kurt ? Fine . FINE . " MTV 's Jim Cantiello went into rhyme to express his dismay : " It 's hard to keep my bearings straight / And oh , how it makes my heart ache / Kurt and Blaine were gonna move to New York together / But now they 'll have to wait " , referring to a scene in the " New York " episode where Kurt discussed the planned move with Rachel .
Goldberg was pleased that having Brittany volunteer to run Kurt 's campaign included an acknowledgment that he " went through hell " the previous year , and praised " Brittany logic " in general . Respers France loved that Brittany , in helping Kurt find his magical inner unicorn , was able to find her own . Reiter enjoyed the " delicious dose of Brittany @-@ isms " , which she called " the best part " of the episode , and Kubicek said that there were " tons of wonderful " Brittany moments . For Hyman , the " one sit @-@ up @-@ and @-@ take @-@ notice moment " was the confrontation between Will and Quinn where he told her to grow up . Respers France thought " Sue Sylvester 's attempt to use Quinn against the glee club was hilarious " , but VanDerWerff was unhappy with Quinn being coopted into " Sue ’ s ridiculous run for Congress " . Reiter wrote that it was " hard to muster much sympathy for Quinn " in the episode given the scene with Quinn and The Skanks : " Flushing someone 's head in a public toilet , threatening to cut them , and shaking them down for their lunch money are orders of magnitude more chilling than the face @-@ full @-@ of @-@ slushy bullying we 're used to seeing . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances were well received by most reviewers . All three were Broadway songs , two from West Side Story and one from Funny Girl — the concentration on show tunes disappointed Reiter , and Canning felt they were all " too bland " , but others were happy with the selections including Hankinson who said he was " loving the Broadway @-@ bend to these first two episodes " , and added , " all three of tonight 's numbers were hands @-@ down fantastic . "
The duet of " Somewhere " featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented . Both Benigno and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet , Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " , from season one . Benigno gave the performance a " B + " , while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an " A − " and praised their " powerful , evocative voices " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman was not impressed , and characterized it as " Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way " . Amy Lee of The Huffington Post called it " pretty bland " , and said it was " getting annoying " that Rachel " sings every song as if she 's Barbra Streisand " . The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez , however , called the duet " pitch @-@ perfect " and " so sublime it makes you catch your breath " .
Kurt 's choice of " I 'm the Greatest Star " to audition for the role of Tony — the one song not from West Side Story — drew comment : Benigno ascribed it to Kurt 's " ability to make a talented ass of himself " , while Slezak was of the opinion that Kurt was " way too savvy , and way too hungry for the role " for that kind of misstep . Despite these plot @-@ related issues , both reviewers gave the performance an " A " , and Benigno noted both that " he nails it " and " last half of the song is a singing clinic . " VanDerWerff was not fond of the reliance on " gimmicky staging " , though Futterman called it " an impressive physical performance " , Votta stated that " Kurt sounds flawless and the performance is captivating " and Flandez complimented his " captivating high notes after high notes " , and added , " He 's a star unicorn , and he knows it . " Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that Kurt " was amazing singing Streisand , and for the first time I realized that he really is as big a star as Rachel . "
Blaine 's rendition of " Something 's Coming " was the most enthusiastically welcomed . It was the favorite number of Lee , VanDerWerff and Futterman ; Lee said it was " the best song " , and added , " he 's kinetic , impassioned and generally delightful as Blaine @-@ playing @-@ Tony . " VanDerWerff was even more complimentary with " by far the best performance " , and Futterman called it " the winning musical number of the episode " . Both Slezak and Benigno gave it a " B + " , and the former complimented Criss 's " breathless charm and boyish enthusiasm " , while the latter maintained that the actor is " at his best when he 's doing goofy pop numbers with kind of an off @-@ beat twist " . West gave the song an " A − " , and said " Blaine just knows how to own the stage and your TV screen " , while both Votta and Respers France wrote that he was the " perfect Tony " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the three cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and none charted on the Canadian Hot 100 or in England or Australia . The duet version of " Somewhere " appeared at number seventy @-@ five , the fourth time the song charted in the Hot 100 . By contrast , " Something 's Coming " , the episode 's other song from West Side Story , has never appeared in the Hot 100 , and failed to chart there again .
= Galentine 's Day =
" Galentine 's Day " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 22nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 11 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie and her boyfriend Justin seek to reunite Leslie 's mother , Marlene , with her teenage flame . Meanwhile , April 's feelings for Andy continue to bloom , while Ann appears to be growing apart from Mark .
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . " Galentine 's Day " featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , who was played by Pamela Reed . It also featured the last in a string of guest performances by Justin Theroux as Leslie 's love interest , Justin Anderson .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , which marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . It tied a record set with the previous episode , " Sweetums " , for the season 's highest rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot summary = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) throws her annual " Galentine 's Day " party for her female friends , celebrated the day before Valentine 's Day . She asks her mother , Marlene ( Pamela Reed ) , to tell the story about how she fell in love with a lifeguard that saved her from drowning in 1968 , but the two had to break it off over objections from Marlene 's parents . Leslie later tells the story to Justin ( Justin Theroux ) , who is amazed by the tale and wants to unite the two . He successfully tracks down Marlene 's old flame , Frank Beckerson ( John Larroquette ) , and convinces Leslie to go with him to Illinois and reunite the two on Valentine 's Day at the Senior Center Valentine 's Dance , which the parks department oversees .
Leslie and Justin meet Frank , a strange and depressed man that has constant panic attacks . Leslie begins to have doubts about bringing him to her mother and tries to call it off , but Justin insists that they should " let this unfold " . At the dance , where Andy 's ( Chris Pratt ) band Mouse Rat is playing , Frank meets up with Marlene , who is repulsed by Frank 's past , current unemployment and overall failure at life . She turns down his offer at a second chance at love , prompting him to storm onto the stage and denounce her over the microphone . Leslie apologizes to her mother for bringing Frank . She is later upset with Justin , but has trouble pinpointing the reasons for her dissatisfaction . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) explains that Justin is a " tourist , " meaning that he takes " vacations in people 's lives " and only cares about telling interesting stories to impress other people , which makes him selfish . Two older women then recognize Ron as jazz saxophonist Duke Silver , but he denies it . Leslie later breaks up with Justin , which Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) takes especially hard , reacting as if his parents were getting divorced .
Before the senior dance , Tom invites his ex @-@ wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) to his office to finally disclose his romantic feelings for her , but she rejects him . Not satisfied with the outcome , he attempts to blackmail her into a date using an alimony lawsuit as leverage . Tom and Wendy are later shown hugging and presumably making amends , although their conversation remains inaudible . Meanwhile , April 's ( Aubrey Plaza ) boyfriend Derek ( Blake Lee ) and his boyfriend Ben ( Josh Duvendeck ) mock the senior citizens , causing April to question why their interactions must constantly be " cloaked in like 15 layers of irony " . They accuse her of " lameness " , which they attribute to spending time with Andy , and provide her with several ultimatums . She breaks up with them in response . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , at the same time , celebrate their first Valentine 's Day together . In an interview with the camera crew , Ann describes the relationship as " good " , but her tone of voice and body language around Mark contradict her statements . She later becomes jealous when Andy dedicates a song to April , even going so far as to question April about the possibility of a budding relationship between April and Andy , to which April responds impatiently .
= = Production = =
" Galentine 's Day " was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . The episode featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Leslie 's mother , Marlene Knope . When Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels announced the casting in January 2010 , he described Larroquette 's character as " He 's the one who got away . " " Galentine 's Day " also included an appearance by Pamela Reed , who has played Marlene Knope in several episodes , and the last of a string of slated guest appearances by Justin Theroux as Justin Anderson , a love interest for Leslie . The episode marked the return of Andy 's band , " Mouse Rat " , which was previously featured in the first season finale " Rock Show " . His bandmates are played by Mark Rivers ( drums ) , Andrew Burlinson ( guitar ) and Alan Yang ( bass ) , the latter of whom serves as a screenwriter for Parks and Recreation .
= = Cultural references = =
At the dance , a senior citizen approaches Ron Swanson and asks for an autograph from Duke Silver . This is a reference to the previous second season episode , " Practice Date " , which establishes Ron 's secret identity as a jazz musician . Leslie referred to her Galentine 's Day breakfast tradition as " Lilith Fair minus the angst and plus frittatas " , a reference to the concert tour and traveling music festival . She also said the love story between Marlene and Frank makes the 2004 romance film The Notebook look like the 2008 horror film Saw V. Mark gets Ann a necklace similar to the Heart of the Ocean , the fictional jewelry given to Kate Winslet 's character in the 1997 romantic drama film , Titanic . During one scene in " Galentine 's Day " , Leslie does a voice impersonation of U.S. President John F. Kennedy . When Tom mistakes the impression for that of the Arnold Schwarzenegger character Terminator , he prompts Leslie to do that impression as well .
Among the songs performed by Mouse Rat in " Galentine 's Day " were " The Way You Look Tonight " , originally performed by Fred Astaire in the 1936 film , Swing Time . Andy 's bandmate suggests he sings the " Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off " more like jazz musician and trumpeter Louis Armstrong , who Andy admits he has never heard of . Andy and his band also performs " I Only Have Eyes for You " and " I 've Got You Under My Skin " . Leslie said reuniting Marlene and Frank would be like reuniting Romeo and Juliet , the protagonists of the William Shakespeare play of the same name , or reuniting actress Jennifer Aniston and actor Brad Pitt . She also warns to the camera for Aniston to " stay away from John Mayer " , the musician who previously dated Aniston . In the days prior to the original broadcast of " Galentine 's Day " , Mayer publicly apologized for a number of explicit sexual and racial comments he had made in the past months , which prompted news outlets to praise Parks and Recreation for the timeliness of their Mayer joke . Ironically , in May 2011 , Jennifer Aniston started dating Justin Theroux , who guest starred in the episode , and they later married . Frank made a reference to a recurring gag from Arrested Development when , after being rejected , he announced to Marlene , " take one last look ... because you 'll never see this body again . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American NBC broadcast on February 11 , 2010 , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . " Galentine 's Day " was seen by more viewers than the previous week 's episode " Sweetums " , which drew 4 @.@ 87 million viewers and was an itself an increase from previous episodes . " Galentine 's Day " drew an overall 3 @.@ 1 rating / 5 share , and a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers between 18 and 49 , the latter of which tied with " Sweetums " as the highest of its age group for the series . The subsequent episode , " Woman of the Year " , would also tie the two episodes for a series @-@ high rating in that 18 to 49 age group .
" Galentine 's Day " received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said , " The show managed to cram more character development into 22 minutes than I thought possible . Almost every couple had a major milestone of sorts last night . " Gonzalez complimented the acting of Aziz Ansari during his moments with Wendy , and praised the " touching moment " between Ron and Leslie when she realized she had to break up with Justin . Steve Kandell of New York magazine appreciated that Leslie was correct about Frank , and that Justin was the ignorant one . Kandell said the senior dance served as a " poignant backdrop " for the episode 's romantic subplots , but said the most intriguing show 's relationship is between Leslie and Ron . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said the episode was funny , but focused more attention on advancing various romantic subplots . Sepinwall said the scenes about Ann and Mark were " a nice reaction to the general blandness of that relationship " , but found it " frustrating " that the episode left the reason for Wendy and Tom 's resolution unclear in " Galentine 's Day " .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for displaying some of Leslie 's stronger and more competent aspects , which he said makes audiences " much more willing to put up with her many , many eccentricities " . Heisler said he thought the Leslie and Justin relationship ended appropriately and praised Ansari 's performance , but added he was a little " taken aback " by how rudely Tom treated Wendy . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode had many funny moments and good character development , but he said some of the romantic relationships risked skewing the balance between " the sweet and the absurd " , and that some of the character moments " played out a bit too jarringly real for a show like this " . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said she would like to see Leslie get a boyfriend who last longer than three episodes , unlike Justin Theroux and Louis C.K. , who played Leslie 's love interest Dave Sanderson earlier in the season . Gallagher praised Andy 's band and the befuddlement with which Andy reacted to the senior citizen audience . Mike Murphy of The Press Democrat said the episode was funny , and he particularly praised the " hilariously whacked @-@ out " performance of John Laroquette . Several commentators praised the joke about Andy 's new rock song " Sex Hair " , about how one can tell whether someone had sex because their hair is matted .
= = DVD release = =
" Galentine 's Day " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= Bossy ( Lindsay Lohan song ) =
" Bossy " is a song by American actress and singer @-@ songwriter Lindsay Lohan . The song was written and produced by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . After leaking online in the beginning of May 2008 , Universal Motown officially released the song to media outlets , while its digital single was released on May 27 , 2008 . The song is influenced by electropop and dance @-@ pop . Lyrically , it is about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it .
Critically , " Bossy " attained generally mixed reception upon release , many music critics generally praised the attitude of the song , but considered the song less catchy than Lohan 's previous efforts . Commercially , " Bossy " managed to peak at number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire music career , so far , to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play .
= = Background = =
" Bossy " was written by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and song production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . In the beginning of May 2008 , a clip of the song leaked on YouTube . As a result , Universal Motown released the full song to media outlets on May 7 , 2008 . In an interview with Billboard , Ne @-@ Yo revealed that he was approached by the label to write a song for Lohan : " I gotta admit , we were like ... Lindsay Lohan ? ' I mean , I 've written for Beyoncé , Mary J. Blige , Rihanna , Celine Dion and ... Lindsay Lohan ? But I will say this ; we gave her a quality record and she did a ridiculously fabulous job . I was so shocked I had to call her and apologize for what I was thinking because she did so good . I think the world is gonna be surprised . " In an interview with People Magazine , he revealed the song " it 's basically about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it . In this case , ' Bossy ' is a term that describes confidence and power . " " Bossy " was digitally released on May 27 , 2008 , and it was set to appear on Lohan 's third studio album .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bossy " received mixed reviews from music critics . A Billboard review said " the track spotlights the raspy @-@ voiced singer 's dominating side as she rhymes about liking things her way over simple drums " , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy considered " Bossy " as an " electro @-@ dance @-@ pop [ song ] with attitude " , but commented that it " isn 't pop gold – the chorus lacks a bit of oomph and Lohan 's vocals still aren 't convincing – but it 's the first Lohan tune we 'd be prepared to listen to more than once . That , we suppose , is enough to constitute a small step forward " . Kate Brandli of Blogcritics said " Bossy " " is not nearly as good or as catchy as Miss Lohan 's previous musical attempts " , while commenting that its lyrical content " is an obvious reflection on Miss Lohan 's relationship with the paparazzi . As Miss Lohan sings in the lyrics , she does what she wants , she controls them , and not vice versa . Unfortunately , Miss Lohan 's logic is not entirely correct — neither party has the authority to boss the other around . That is , sadly , the price of fame these days — once people want in , they want total access and exposure . With some individual 's antics , like Miss Lohan and Britney Spears , it is difficult to garner sympathy for them " . " Bossy " reached number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire career to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play . The song also managed to peak on the Global Dance Tracks component chart .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Bossy " – 4 : 10
= = Charts = =
= Biddenden Maids =
Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst ( or Chalkhurst ) , commonly known as the Biddenden Maids , were a pair of conjoined twins supposedly born in Biddenden , Kent , England , in the year 1100 . They are said to have been joined at both the shoulder and the hip , and to have lived for 34 years . It is claimed that on their death they bequeathed five plots of land to the village , known as the Bread and Cheese Lands . The income from these lands was used to pay for an annual dole of food and drink to the poor every Easter . Since at least 1775 , the dole has included Biddenden cakes , hard biscuits imprinted with an image of two conjoined women .
Although the annual distribution of food and drink is known to have taken place since at least 1605 , no records exist of the story of the sisters prior to 1770 . Records of that time say that the names of the sisters were not known , and early drawings of Biddenden cakes do not give names for the sisters ; it is not until the early 19th century that the names " Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst " were first used .
Edward Hasted , the local historian of Kent , has dismissed the story of the Biddenden Maids as a folk myth , claiming that the image on the cake had originally represented two poor women and that the story of the conjoined twins was " a vulgar tradition " invented to account for it , while influential historian Robert Chambers accepted that the legend could be true but believed it unlikely . Throughout most of the 19th century little research was carried out into the origins of the legend . Despite the doubts among historians , in the 19th century the legend became increasingly popular and the village of Biddenden was thronged with rowdy visitors every Easter . In the late 19th century historians investigated the origins of the legend . It was suggested that the twins had genuinely existed but had been joined at the hip only rather than at both the hip and shoulder , and that they had lived in the 16th rather than the 12th century .
In 1907 , the Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , and the resulting income allowed the annual dole to expand considerably , providing the widows and pensioners of Biddenden with cheese , bread and tea at Easter and with cash payments at Christmas . Biddenden cakes continue to be given to the poor of Biddenden each Easter , and are sold as souvenirs to visitors .
= = Legend = =
According to tradition Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst , or Chalkhurst , were born to relatively wealthy parents in Biddenden , Kent , in the year 1100 . The pair were said to be conjoined at both the shoulder and the hip . They grew up conjoined , and are said to have " had frequent quarrels , which sometimes terminated in blows " . At the age of 34 , Mary Chulkhurst died suddenly . Doctors proposed to separate the still @-@ living Eliza from her sister 's body but she refused , saying " as we came together we will also go together " , and died six hours afterwards . In their wills , the sisters left five pieces of land in the Biddenden area comprising around 20 acres ( 8 ha ) in total to the local church , with the income from these lands ( claimed to have been 6 guineas per annum at the time of their death ) to provide an annual dole of bread , cheese and beer to the poor every Easter . Henceforward , the lands were to be known as the Bread and Cheese Lands .
= = History = =
The churchwardens of Biddenden continued to maintain the annual dole from the Bread and Cheese Lands . It is recorded that in 1605 , the custom that " on that day [ Easter ] our parson giveth unto the parishoners bread , cheese , cakes and divers barrels of beer , brought in there and drawn " was suspended on account of a visit from Charles Fotherby , the Archdeacon of Canterbury , owing to previous ceremonies having caused " much disorder by reason of some unruly ones , which at such time we cannot restrain with any ease " . In 1645 , rector William Horner claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were glebe ( land intended for the use of the parish priest ) , and attempted to take control of the lands . The case of the Bread and Cheese Lands was brought before the Committee for Plundered Ministers , who eventually found in favour of the charity in 1649 . Horner brought the case before the Court of the Exchequer in 1656 but again without success , and the charity continued to own the lands and to operate the annual Easter dole . Witness statements from these cases mention that the lands had been given by two women " who grew together in their bodies " , but do not give any name for the women .
In 1681 the " disorder and indecency " of the annual dole led to the threat of intervention by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The distribution of the dole ceased to be conducted inside the church ; it was moved to the church porch .
By 1770 , it is recorded that the annual dole took place immediately after the afternoon Easter service . The annual income from the Bread and Cheese Lands had risen to 20 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) , and a huge quantity of food was distributed each year . By this time as well as the dole of bread , cheese and beer , hard bread rolls known as " Biddenden cakes " , moulded into an image of the sisters , were thrown to crowds from the church roof . The Biddenden cakes were flat , hard and made of flour and water , and were described as " not by any means tempting " ; one writer in 1860 described one as " a biscuit plaque " .
= = = Origins of the Biddenden Maids legend = = =
Although it is known that the charity had been in operation as early as 1656 , an anonymous article in The Gentleman 's Magazine in August 1770 is the earliest recorded account of the legend of the Biddenden Maids . This account states that the twins were joined at the hip only , rather than at both the hip and the shoulder , and that they lived to a relatively old age . The article explicitly states that their names were not recorded , and that they were known only as the " Maids of Biddenden " . The anonymous author recounts the story of their bequest of the lands to the parish to support the annual dole , and goes on to say that despite the antiquity of the events described , he has no doubt as to their authenticity . As with all accounts of the tradition prior to 1790 the author does not mention their alleged birth in 1100 , or the name of Chulkhurst ; these details first appeared in a broadside published in 1790 . The Antiquarian Repertory of 1775 says that the sisters had lived " as tradition says , two hundred and fifty years ago " . Drawings of Biddenden cakes from this period show that they featured an image of two women , possibly conjoined , but no names , dates or ages .
Historian Edward Hasted , in the third volume of The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent published in 1798 , dismissed the legend of the Biddenden Maids . He claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were the gift of two women named Preston ( although he elsewhere described the lands as having been " given by persons unknown " ) . Hasted stated that the Biddenden cakes had only begun to be moulded with the imprint of two women in the last 50 years ( i.e. since 1748 ) and that the figures were intended to represent " two poor widows , as the general objects of a charitable benefaction " . While he mentioned a legend that the figures represent two conjoined twins who died in their 20s and bequeathed the Bread and Cheese Lands to the parish , he dismissed it as " a vulgar tradition " .
Hasted 's arguments were largely accepted by influential historian Robert Chambers , and the story was generally treated as a folk myth . A letter to the British Medical Journal in 1869 pointed out that surnames were not in use in Kent in the 12th century , and that in older styles of English handwriting the 1 and 5 characters could easily be confused , and suggested a correct birthdate of 1500 . The Biddenden Maids were occasionally mentioned in pieces on conjoined twins , particularly after Chang and Eng Bunker proved that conjoined twins could live to an advanced age and lead relatively normal lives . Notes and Queries magazine called in 1866 for a close examination of Biddenden documents , the editors describing Hasted 's conclusions as " very obscure and unsatisfactory " and questioning why the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " should have been added to the design of cakes granted by a family named Preston , but no significant research into the tradition was carried out .
= = = Growth of the charity = = =
As the annual dole grew larger the Easter distribution became increasingly popular . In 1808 a broadside featuring a woodcut of the twins and a brief history of their alleged story was sold outside the church at Easter , the first recorded mention of the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " , and clay replicas of Biddenden cakes were sold as souvenirs .
In the 1820s , a new account of the Biddenden Maids was published , which claimed that a gravestone marked with a diagonal line near the rector 's pew in Biddenden church was the sisters ' burial place . In 1830 it was noted that Biddenden was becoming thronged by visitors every Easter , " attracted from the adjacent towns and villages by the usage , and the wonderful account of its origin , and the day is spent in rude festivity " . The large crowds were increasingly disorderly , and churchwardens on occasion had to use their staffs to hold back the mob . As a result , the distribution of the dole was moved from the church to the workhouse , but the crowds continued to cause problems . In 1882 Biddenden 's rector applied for authority to abandon the ceremony ; the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted the distribution of bread , cheese and Biddenden cakes to continue , but abolished the free beer in an effort to combat the problem of unruly crowds .
In 1900 , antiquarian George Clinch investigated the Biddenden Maids in detail . Examining the costumes of the figures on the Biddenden cake moulds , he concluded that the style of dress depicted dated from the reign of Mary I ( 1553 – 1558 ) , a date roughly consistent with the " two hundred and fifty years ago " reported in 1775 , and concluded that the tradition had originated in the 16th century . He suggested that the " 1100 " date on Biddenden cakes had originally read " 1500 " , and explained the absence of names on prints of 18th century Biddenden cakes as an engraving error . It is likely that the cake moulds examined by Clinch were not the original moulds , as the designs Clinch examined are strikingly different to the earliest surviving drawings of Biddenden cakes , published in 1775 . Writing in the early 1930s , William Coles Finch explains the confusion over the dates , saying " the old @-@ fashioned numeral five is so frequently taken as a one " . He lamented the quality of the Biddenden cake then being produced , compared to that of former years . Coles Finch stated that the villagers considered the then @-@ current cake to be unleavened bread .
= = Belief and scepticism = =
In almost all drawings and Biddenden cake designs , the twins are shown as conjoined at both the hip and the shoulder . Although such a fusion is theoretically possible , in that twins fused at one point may form a secondary fusion elsewhere , no case of a viable double fusion has ever been documented .
Although Clinch believed that the evidence pointed to the twins having genuinely existed but that they had lived in the 16th century , rather than the early 12th century as generally claimed , they are not mentioned in any journals or books from the period . This points against their having lived in the 16th century ; the case of Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo ( 1617 – after 1646 ) had prompted great interest in conjoined twins , and conjoined sisters surviving to adulthood in south east England would have been widely noted .
In 1895 , surgeon J. W. Ballantyne considered the case of the Biddenden Maids from a teratological perspective . He suggested that they had in fact been pygopagus ( twins joined at the pelvis ) . Pygopagus twins are known to put their arms around each other 's shoulders when walking , and Ballantyne suggested that this accounted for their apparently being joined at the shoulders in drawings . The pygopagus Millie and Christine McCoy had lived in Britain for a short time before going on to a successful singing career in the United States , and it was known from their case that such twins were capable of surviving to adulthood .
Jan Bondeson ( 1992 and 2006 ) proposed that , while the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " are not recorded in any early documents and are likely to have been a later addition , the existence of the twins and the claimed 1100 year of birth cannot be dismissed . Although mediaeval chronicles are unreliable , he noted multiple reports in the Chronicon Scotorum , the Annals of the Four Masters and the Annals of Clonmacnoise of a pair of conjoined sisters born in or around 1100 , although all three are records of Irish history and none mention Kent as the location . He concluded that the case of Christine McCoy , who survived for eight hours following the death of her polypagus twin Millie , shows that the claimed six hours between the deaths of the Biddenden Maids is plausible , and agreed with Ballantyne 's proposal that the idea that the twins were joined at the shoulder is a later misinterpretation of the figures on the Biddenden cake . He also pointed out that although there is no recorded version of the legend prior to 1770 , there would have been no possible motive for the villagers of the 18th century to fabricate the story .
= = Today = =
In 1907 , the Chulkhurst Charity was amalgamated with other local charities with similar purposes , to form the Biddenden Consolidated Charity , still functioning as a registered charity . The Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , expanding the charity significantly to provide Biddenden pensioners and widows with bread , cheese , and tea at Easter , a cash payment at Christmas , and distribute Biddenden cakes . ( During the food rationing of the 1940s and early 1950s , the cheese was replaced by cocoa . Distribution of cheese resumed in 1951 . ) A wrought iron village sign showing the Biddenden Maids was erected on Biddenden village green in the 1920s .
The tradition of the dole continues to the present , and every Easter Monday tea , cheese and bread are given to local widows and pensioners through the windows of Biddenden 's former workhouse . All those eligible for the annual dole are given a Biddenden cake , and they are sold as souvenirs to visitors . The cakes are baked so hard as to be inedible , to allow better preservation as souvenirs ; they are baked in large batches every few years and kept until the stock runs out . Historically , the loaves used were of the archaic quartern loaf size , but this particular part of the tradition ended when Biddenden 's last bakery closed in the 1990s .
= Ælfric of Abingdon =
Ælfric of Abingdon ( Old English : Ælfrīc ; died 16 November 1005 ) , also known as Ælfric of Wessex , was a late 10th @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury . He previously held the offices of abbot of St Albans Abbey and Bishop of Ramsbury , as well as likely being the abbot of Abingdon Abbey . After his election to Canterbury , he continued to hold the bishopric of Ramsbury along with the archbishopric of Canterbury until his death in 1005 . Ælfric may have altered the composition of Canterbury 's cathedral chapter by changing the clergy serving in the cathedral from secular clergy to monks . In his will he left a ship to King Æthelred II of England as well as more ships to other legatees .
= = Early life = =
Ælfric was the son of an earl of Kent and became a monk of Abingdon Abbey in Berkshire ( now Oxfordshire ) . He was very likely Abbot of Abingdon before becoming Abbot of St Albans Abbey around 975 , although some historians do not believe that he held the office of Abbot at Abingdon . Although the Historia Ecclesie Abbendonensis , or History of the Church of Abingdon , names Ælfric as abbot , the abbatial lists do not record him as such . Indirect corroboration of his being abbot at Abingdon is a grant of land to Ælfric personally ( instead of to the office he held ) while he was archbishop that had previously been unjustly taken from Abingdon . This land was to revert to Abingdon after Ælfric 's death .
= = Bishop and archbishop = =
Ælfric 's brother , Leofric , succeeded him as Abbot of St Albans when he became bishop . Between 991 and 993 , Ælfric rose to the Bishopric of Ramsbury , and possibly continued to hold office of abbot of St Albans while bishop . In 995 he was elevated to the see of Canterbury . He was translated , or moved with appropriate ecclesiastical ceremony , to Canterbury on 21 April 995 at a witenagemot held at Amesbury . Here he received the permission of " King Æthelred and all the witan " to be elevated to Canterbury . Ælfric continued to hold Ramsbury along with Canterbury until his death . The story that his brother was chosen first for Canterbury but refused , stems from confusion on the part of Matthew of Paris and historians generally hold the entire episode to be untrue .
Ælfric 's appointment to Canterbury caused consternation with the clergy of the cathedral chapter . In reaction , the chapter sent two members to Rome ahead of Ælfric and tried to secure the archbishopric for either of the monks . Pope Gregory V , however , would not appoint a candidate without royal permission , which neither of the monks had . Instead , when Ælfric arrived in Rome in 997 , he was appointed and received the pallium , a symbol of an archbishop 's authority . He also witnessed some miracles at the gravesite of Edward the Martyr at Shaftesbury Abbey , helping to lead to Edward 's sainthood .
A story was told that Ælfric introduced monks into the cathedral church of Christ Church , Canterbury , replacing the secular clerks that had taken over the foundation during the ninth century . Ælfric is said to have done this on the command of the pope . This story originally dates to soon after the Norman Conquest and originated with the monastic historians of Canterbury , and its veracity is unclear . He likely performed the marriage ceremony of King Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy in 1002 . A later tradition held that he consecrated a Bishop of Llandaff and two Bishops of St. David 's in Wales , which , if true , would have meant extending Canterbury 's jurisdiction into new territory .
Either Ælfric or his predecessor Sigeric wrote a letter to Wulfsige , Bishop of Sherborne about the duties of bishops to make sure that the laity did not despoil churches . The letter also urged Wulfsige to exhort the laity to strive for justice in their dealings with others , help widows and orphans , not fight , as well as other moral precepts . Ælfric also ordered the composition of the first Life of Dunstan , a hagiography , or saint 's life , of Dunstan , a predecessor as Archbishop of Canterbury . He also acted as a royal judge , once being ordered by King Æthelred to adjudicate a case between thegns , or local noblemen .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ælfric died on 16 November 1005 and was buried in Abingdon Abbey , later being translated to Canterbury Cathedral . His will survives and in it he left ships to the people of Wiltshire and Kent , with his best one , equipped for sixty men , going to King Æthelred . The hagiography of Dunstan was dedicated to Ælfric at the end of the 10th century . After his death , he was considered a saint with a feast day of 16 November .
= White Dog ( Gary novel ) =
White Dog , released in France as Chien Blanc , is a fictional autobiographical novel written by Romain Gary . Originally published as a short story in Life in 1970 ( 9 October ) , the full novel was published in 1970 in French in France by Éditions Gallimard . Gary 's English version of the novel was published in North America in the same year by New American Library . The novel provides a fictionalized account of Gary and his wife 's experiences in the 1960s with a stray Alabama police dog trained to attack black people on sight , and their attempts to have the dog reprogrammed .
Gary uses the novel as a vehicle to denounce both racism and the activists supporting African @-@ American rights , including his own ex @-@ wife and Marlon Brando . He also examines whether human responses to situations , including racism , are learned social behavior and whether they can be unlearned . In 1981 , it was adapted into the controversial film of the same name , in which director Samuel Fuller made various changes to the novel 's story to focus more on the dog and present a more pessimistic ending than the original novel . The film 's American release after negative press from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) led to concerns of boycotts .
= = Plot synopsis = =
A fictionalized memoir set in both the United States and France during the 1960s American civil rights movement , White Dog focuses on the events that occur after Gary and his then @-@ wife Jean Seberg , an actress and an activist , adopt a handsome and clearly well @-@ trained German Shepherd dog who comes back to their home with one of their other dogs . At first , the dog , which they name Batka , is an ideal new member of the family : intelligent , devoted , and quickly befriending the couple 's assortment of other animals . To their dismay , they discover that the dog , a former Alabama police dog , was trained to attack black people on sight . Although they are told the dog is too old to be retrained , they take him to a black dog trainer to try . Instead , the man trains the dog to attack white people , including Gary himself . Gary states that he changed the ending of the American version to be more optimistic .
= = Publication history = =
White Dog was first released as an English short story that appeared in Life magazine in 1968 . It was published as a full novel in 1970 in two languages and two countries . A French @-@ language version was published in France under the title Chien Blanc by Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) in April 1970 . Gary , who was multi @-@ lingual , also wrote an English version , which was published by New American Library in 1970 under its Signet label .
French
1970 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) , 256 pages , paperback
1972 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 2070360504 ) , 220 pages , paperback
English
1970 , United States , New American Library , 279 pages , paperback
2004 , United States , University Of Chicago Press ( ISBN 0226284301 ) , 290 pages , paperback
= = Themes = =
With the use of a " flippant tone and [ an ] uncomfortable use of sarcasm , " White Dog is Gary 's dissection of the paranoia generated by both racism and classism as he juxtaposes McCarthyism @-@ American , in which there is an " obsessive sniffing out of ' subversives ' and violent race riots , " against the barricades and race riots of France in 1968 . The violence depicted also provides a discourse on revolutionary social change , as it also leads to " a new order , a new reality . " Gary " excoriates American racism , black activism , and movie @-@ colony liberalism " and reflects on American race relations as a whole . He also documents his own " intolerance of intolerance that is the curse of tolerance " . Through the dog , Gary examines whether a learned response can be unlearned . He also poses the question of how much freedom and uniqueness a person can claim if humans responses are indeed learned by " social indoctrination . "
Within the novel , Gary makes " scathing attacks on self @-@ aggrandising Jewish pro @-@ black sentiment and self @-@ serving celebrity campaigners " , while making explicit attacks against Marlon Brando and Seberg for their involvement in civil rights movements and the latter 's involvement with the Black Panthers organization . In an interview about the novel , Gary states that as a " typical American idealist " she was an easy mark for people seeking money for causes , and he depicts this in the novel by having her frequently appearing in activist events writing checks . After her death , he called the novel the " story of her crusade " .
= = Reception = =
White Dog quickly became a bestseller in the United States after its English release . Phoebe Adams of The Atlantic felt the story was ironic , and noted that it was " presumably " true . She felt the depiction of Marlon Brando was " tartly funny " and that story as a whole served " as an excuse for Mr. Gary 's comments on racial affairs in this country , a matter on which is somewhat less pessimistic than the natives and a good deal more sensible . " The Globe and Mail 's H. J. Kirchhoff considered it a " riveting , thoughtful work " that serves as a metaphor for American racism . Julien Roumette felt Romain 's depiction of the racial tensions in America at the time was " meticulously reconstituted , with a realistic , even documentary , rather exceptional dimension . " Julia Weldon of Harper 's Magazine remarked with amusement that the events of the novel were ones that " only a Frenchman " could have found himself in . She felt the novel was a " decathlon event " in which Gary turned a " household crisis into a full @-@ scale allegory . " Overall , she praised the book as a " memorable portrait of guilt and largess in black and white " , noting she felt Gary had lived to " witness his own maturity " though she also wondered if he stretched the truth to " make himself a legend in his own time . "
= = Film adaptation = =
Paramount Pictures purchased the film rights for White Dog in 1975 , though the film itself was not produced until 1981 , after Gary 's suicide . Various changes were made from the original novel 's story , including the removal of Gary himself and a tighter focus on the dog . Gary 's wife was replaced in the script with a young , unmarried actress as Paramount wanted the film to show a strong contrast between the loving relationship between the protagonist and the dog 's random attacks . The novel 's hate @-@ filled Muslim black trainer was converted into the character named Keys , who genuinely wished to cure the animal . The novel 's original ending was also changed to make it more pessimistic . Directed by Samuel Fuller and starring Paul Winfield and Kristy McNichol , the film 's theatrical release was suppressed in the United States out of concern of negative press after rumors began circulating from the NAACP that the film was racist . It was released internationally in France and the United Kingdom in 1982 , and broadcast on various American cable television channels . Its first official American release came in December 2008 when The Criterion Collection released the original uncut film to DVD .
In reflecting on the film , Fuller notes that he had known Gary before being offered the chance to direct the White Dog adaptation , and greatly admired both Gary and the novel . He wanted to have the film dedicated to Gary , who had committed suicide before the film was completed , but the studio declined . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , he stated " I | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
0 , a stereoscopic 3D version was announced adding a new opening sequence . The 3D version was released in Tokyo 's Shinjuku Wald 9 theater on March 26 , 2011 . The stereoscopic 3D version was released in both normal and deluxe edition on July 22 , 2011 . The normal version contains opening @-@ day greetings by the staff and cast , film advertisements , and audio commentaries . The deluxe edition titled Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex Solid State Society -Another Dimension- is packaged in a Dennōka Box containing the film in Stereoscopic 3D all the content the normal edition along with three Tachikomatic Days shorts in 3D and one in 2D .
A novel adaptation titled Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Solid State Society ( 攻殻機動隊S.A.C. Solid State Society ) was published by Kodansha and released on April 3 , 2011 . An optical camouflage camera app for iOS was released on September 2 , 2011 . A video game for the Xbox 360 Kinect was developed by Kayac to promote the 3D remake of the film .
= = Reception = =
Christopher Monfette of IGN gave Solid State Society an " Impressive " score of 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , stating that it was " A worthwhile watch " . Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network gave the film a " B " rating , calling it a " swift @-@ moving futuristic crime film with some clever science @-@ fiction twists and solid action " but criticizing it was " wordy , confusing and somewhat bloodless . " The film earned a 1 @.@ 4 % rating when it aired in NTV on October 15 , 2012 . Marcus Doidge of DVD Active gave it a 6 / 10 stating , " Solid State Society isn 't as strong as the first and second season of the anime show but being one feature length story as opposed to lots of very cool and largely great individual episodes offers a more in depth and focused story for the most part and a happy return to the world of Ghost in the Shell " . The film was awarded the Juri Prize at the 21st Digital Content Grand Prix . The film was featured in the " Late Night Manga to Anime Film Season " hosted by The British Museum . The DVD released ranked No. 1 on Oricon charts on November 23 , 2006 .
The 3D version ranked at No. 11 in the Japanese box office chart with a total of $ 285 @,@ 268 from a total of nine theaters . The 3D version won the Movie award for The Japanese Committee of the International 3D Society .
= Winston Tunnel =
The Winston Tunnel is a railroad tunnel located 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 5 kilometers ) west of Elizabeth , Illinois .
The tunnel was completed in 1888 for the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad , a predecessor to the Chicago Great Western Railway ( CGW ) . The tunnel was located on the CGW main line 152 miles ( 245 kilometers ) west of Chicago in the isolated and hilly Driftless Area of extreme north @-@ western Illinois .
In 1972 , four years after the Chicago Great Western was merged into the Chicago and North Western Railway ( C & NW ) , the CGW 's largely redundant trackage in the area , including the Winston Tunnel , was abandoned . It was the third longest railroad tunnel in Illinois at 2 @,@ 493 feet ( 760 m ) . Two longer ( still active ) tunnels are located on the Canadian National ( ex @-@ Illinois Central ) Edgewood Cutoff Line , the longest being Tunnel # 2 near Abbot , Illinois which is 6 @,@ 994 feet ( 2 @,@ 132 m ) long .
= = History = =
The newly constructed Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad across northern Illinois utilized trackage rights on the Illinois Central Railroad between Dubuque , Iowa and Stockton , Illinois in 1886 before construction on its own line through the isolated wilderness could commence . Engineers quickly realized that a tunnel would need to be constructed in order to traverse the rugged landscape . The Sheppard , Winston and Company ( for which the tunnel would be named ) and more than 350 laborers worked by hand , digging through the silty and unstable shale for nine months starting in the spring of 1887 . The work was backbreaking and dangerous , and at least one worker , a thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Finnish immigrant named John Hill , was killed . When complete , the total cost of the tunnel , $ 600 @,@ 000 , had exceeded expectations .
The tunnel proved to be a constant nuisance to the Chicago Great Western and its predecessors . Almost immediately , railroad engineers realized that the unstable nature of shale through which the tunnel was bored , ground water seepage , and the isolated location of the tunnel meant repairs would be frequent and costly . The tunnel was originally braced by wooden beams when it opened to rail traffic in January 1888 , but these eventually proved inadequate , to be replaced in 1902 by brick and reinforced concrete . Constant deterioration of the supports meant large @-@ scale reconstruction of the tunnel would be needed again in 1912 , 1918 , 1944 and 1947 .
The bore was also improperly ventilated at first . A shaft sunk into the top of the tunnel failed to provide enough fresh air , and the crews of the steam engines would often complain of the intense heat and smoke due to the poor air circulation . Piecemeal solutions failed to work , and by 1912 the railroad was forced to install a huge fan , powered by a 310 horsepower ( 230 kW ) diesel motor and staffed by operators day and night , to ventilate the tunnel . The fanhouse , constructed by 1916 , was abandoned by the CGW with the acquisition of diesel locomotives by 1947 .
When the Chicago Great Western was federalized during World War I , a contingent of Illinois National Guardsmen were assigned to protect the tunnel .
The operating nightmares of the tunnel , not to mention the millions of dollars the CGW spent to keep it open , forced the railroad 's management to consider many schemes to rid themselves of the burden . In 1909 , 1951 and again in 1964 ( the same year the North Western and Great Western announced their intentions to merge ) the CGW sought engineering proposals to reroute their trackage around the bore , to daylight the tunnel , or to completely rebuild and improve it . To the often cash @-@ strapped Great Western , however , all these plans proved far too expensive .
In the end , the 1968 merger with the Chicago and North Western ( C & NW ) sealed the Winston Tunnel 's fate . The Great Western 's main line through northern Illinois closely paralleled the North Western 's own line , but through less densely populated and less commercially active areas . The steep grades of the line and the obvious financial burden of the Winston Tunnel also played a role in the decision to completely abandon the Great Western 's trackage in the area . The C & NW operated its last train through the tunnel in 1971 . Scrappers pulled up the tracks the following year . Upon abandonment , the C & NW placed chain @-@ link fences over each bore of the tunnel to keep squatters and other trespassers out . A 1973 attempt to turn the right @-@ of @-@ way through Jo Daviess County , including the Winston Tunnel , into a rail trail , failed when ownership of the land reverted to nearby property owners .
= = Present day = =
The Winston Tunnel still exists , although in a very isolated area , and in a very deteriorated condition . Nature has reclaimed the right @-@ of @-@ way ; the fan house , unused since the 1940s and severely damaged by the elements , was demolished in early 2007 ; and the eastern bore , located on private property , has been almost completely sealed with earth .
The western half , however , was purchased by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources as a " satellite area " of Apple River Canyon State Park . The DNR installed a new steel gate to replace the chain @-@ link fence covering the western bore , and is developing the area with nature trails and other improvements . However , the tunnel is currently off @-@ limits to general public visitation , as it is a very dangerous place to visit , with the ever @-@ present danger of further collapse and rattlesnake bite .
= Wales national rugby union team =
The Wales national rugby union team ( Welsh : Tîm rygbi 'r undeb cenedlaethol Cymru ) represent Wales in international rugby union . They compete annually in the Six Nations Championship with England , France , Ireland , Italy and Scotland . Wales have won the Six Nations and its predecessors 26 times outright , one less than England . Wales ' most recent championship win came in 2013 .
The governing body , the Welsh Rugby Union ( WRU ) , was established in 1881 , the same year that Wales played their first international against England . Wales ' performances in the Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) continued to improve , experiencing their first ' golden age ' between 1900 and 1911 . They first played New Zealand , known as the All Blacks , in 1905 , when they defeated them 3 – 0 in a famous match at Cardiff Arms Park . Welsh rugby struggled between the two World Wars , but experienced a second ' golden age ' between 1969 and 1980 when they won eight Five Nations Championships .
Wales played in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 where they achieved their best ever result of third . Following the sport allowing professionalism in 1995 , Wales hosted the 1999 World Cup and , in 2005 , won their first @-@ ever Six Nations Grand Slam . That was the first Grand Slam won by a team playing most of the matches away from home . Wales won two more Grand Slams in 2008 and in 2012 , and in 2011 came fourth in the Rugby World Cup .
Their home ground is the Millennium Stadium , currently known for sponsorship reasons as Principality Stadium , completed in 1999 to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park . Eight former Welsh players have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame ; ten were inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame prior to its 2014 merger into the World Rugby Hall .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1881 – 1892 ) = = =
Rugby union took root in Wales in 1850 , when Reverend Rowland Williams became Vice @-@ Principal at St David 's College , Lampeter , where he introduced the sport . Wales played their first international on 19 February 1881 ; organised by Newport 's Richard Mullock , Wales played against England , losing by seven goals , one drop goal and six tries to nil ( 8 – 0 ) . On 12 March 1881 , the Welsh Rugby Union was formed at The Castle Hotel , Neath . Two years later , the Home Nation Championship – now the Six Nations Championship – was first played and Wales did not register a win . However , rugby in Wales developed and , by the 1890s , the Welsh had developed the four three @-@ quarters formation . This formation – with seven backs and eight forwards , instead of six backs and nine forwards – revolutionised the sport and was eventually adopted almost universally at international and club level .
= = = First ' golden age ' ( 1893 – 1913 ) = = =
With the " four three @-@ quarter " formation Wales became Home International Champions for the first time in 1893 ; in the process winning the Triple Crown . Wales next won the Championship in 1900 , heralding the first " golden age " of Welsh rugby which was to last until 1911 . They won two more Triple Crowns in 1902 and 1905 , and were runners up in 1901 , 1903 and 1904 .
When Wales faced New Zealand 's All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in late 1905 they had not lost at home since 1899 . This New Zealand team – now referred to as the Original All Blacks – was the first of the southern hemisphere national teams to visit the British Isles , and were undefeated on their tour up until that point ; their victories included prior defeats of England , Ireland and Scotland . Before the match , the All Blacks performed a haka ( a Māori posture dance ) ; the 47 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd responded with the Welsh national anthem – Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ( " Land of Our Fathers " ) – the first time a national anthem had been sung before a sporting fixture . Wales ' wing Teddy Morgan scored a try to give Wales a 3 – 0 lead , but later in the match All Black Bob Deans claimed to have scored a try , only to be dragged behind the try @-@ line before the referee arrived . The referee ruled a scrum to Wales and the score did not change ; Wales winning 3 – 0 . The loss was the All Blacks ' only loss on their 35 @-@ match tour .
In 1906 , Wales again won the Home Championship , and later that year played the South African national side , the Springboks for the first time . Wales were favourites to win the match , but instead South Africa dominated in the forwards and eventually won 11 – 0 . Two years later , on 12 December 1908 , Wales played the touring Australians , the Wallabies , who they defeated 9 – 6 .
In 1909 , Wales won the Home Championship and then , in 1910 – with the inclusion of France – the first @-@ ever Five Nations . In 1911 , Wales took the first Five Nations Grand Slam by winning all their matches in the Five Nations ; France were heavily defeated by Wales at St Helens in 1910 ( 49 – 14 ) and Ivor Morgan scored two tries in the match . It would be nearly forty years before they achieved a Grand Slam again . England 's defeat of Wales at Cardiff in 1913 was Wales ' first home loss to one of the Home Nations since 1899 , and their first home loss to England since 1895 . The Great War came in 1914 and rugby was suspended for the duration .
= = = Post @-@ war years ( 1920 – 1968 ) = = =
The post @-@ First World War years marked a decline in Welsh rugby . An industrial recession struck the principality , and hurt South Wales in particular . Welsh international results in the 1920s mirrored the performance of the economy : of their 42 matches they won only 17 , with three drawn . Half @-@ a @-@ million people emigrated from Wales to find work elsewhere during the depression ; this included many Welsh rugby union internationals who moved to the professional code of rugby league . Between 1923 and 1928 , Wales managed only seven victories – five of them against France . However , even France managed to defeat Wales that decade ; achieving their first victory over Wales in 1928 . Welsh selection policy reflected the upheavals of the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1924 , 35 different players were selected for Wales ' four matches , with a different captain for each ; and only Edward Watkins in the backs and Charlie Pugh in the forwards , playing in all four matches .
A resurgence of both economy and rugby union followed in the 1930s and , in 1931 , Wales won their first championship for nine years . That year , for the first time since the First World War , Wales retained the same side for two consecutive Tests when they faced England and Scotland . Then , in 1933 , captained by Watcyn Thomas , Wales defeated England at Twickenham . In 1935 , Wales beat the touring All Blacks by 13 – 12 , with Haydn Tanner making his first appearance . Although the Five Nations Championship was suspended during the Second World War Wales did play a Red Cross charity match against England at Cardiff in 1940 , which Wales lost 18 – 9 .
Following the Second World War , Wales played a New Zealand Army team ( the Kiwis ) in 1946 , which Wales lost 11 – 3 . The Five Nations ( suspended during the war ) resumed in 1947 when Wales shared the title with England . Although Wales suffered their first home defeat to France in 1948 , they won their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1911 in 1950 . The next year , they lost to the touring South Africans 6 – 3 despite dominating in the line @-@ outs . They achieved another Grand Slam in 1952 , followed by a 13 – 8 win over the All Blacks in 1953 . In 1954 , St Helens in Swansea ( a Welsh international venue since 1882 ) hosted its last international and Cardiff Arms Park officially became the home of the Welsh team . In 1956 , Wales again won the Five Nations , but they did not regain the title until 1964 and did not win it outright until 1965 .
Wales conducted their first overseas tour in 1964 , playing several games and one Test in South Africa . They lost the Test against South Africa in Durban 24 – 3 , their biggest defeat in 40 years . At the WRU annual general meeting that year , the outgoing WRU President D. Ewart Davies declared that " it was evident from the experience of the South African Tour that a much more positive attitude to the game was required in Wales ... Players must be prepared to learn , and indeed re @-@ learn , to the absolute point of mastery , the basic principles of Rugby Union football " . This started the coaching revolution . The WRU Coaching Committee – set up in the late 1950s – was given the task of improving the quality of coaching and , in January 1967 , Ray Williams was appointed Coaching Organiser . The first national coach , David Nash , was appointed in 1967 to coach Wales for the season , but resigned when the WRU refused to allow him to accompany Wales on their 1968 tour of Argentina . Eventually , the WRU reversed their decision , appointing Clive Rowlands to tour as coach . Of the six matches , Wales won three , drew two and lost one .
= = = Second ' golden age ' ( 1969 – 1979 ) = = =
Wales enjoyed a second " golden age " in the 1970s , with world @-@ class players such as Gareth Edwards , J. P. R. Williams , Gerald Davies , Barry John , and Mervyn Davies , in their side . Wales dominated Northern Hemisphere rugby between 1969 and 1979 , and attained an incredible winning record , losing only seven times during that period . Wales toured New Zealand for the first time in 1969 , but were defeated in both Tests . As well as losing the first Test 19 – 0 , and the second 33 – 12 , they also conceded 24 points to the All Blacks ' fullback Fergie McCormick in the second Test ; a record at the time .
In 1970 , Wales shared the Five Nations with France , and recorded a 6 – 6 draw against South Africa in Cardiff . The following year Wales recorded their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1952 . Using only 16 players in four games , the 1971 side achieved their most notable win of the tournament in their victory over Scotland ; after a last minute try by Gerald Davies that reduced Scotland 's lead to 18 – 17 , flanker John Taylor kicked a conversion from the sideline described as " the greatest conversion since St Paul " to give Wales a 19 – 18 win . Wales contributed more players than any other team to the British and Irish Lions that toured New Zealand that year . Those Lions became the only to win a series over the All Blacks .
In the 1972 Five Nations Championship , Wales and Scotland refused to travel to Ireland at the height of the Troubles after receiving threats , purportedly from the Irish Republican Army . The Championship remained unresolved with Wales and Ireland unbeaten . Although the Five Nations was a five way tie in 1973 , the Welsh did defeat Australia 24 – 0 in Cardiff .
Wales next won the Five Nations outright in 1975 , and in 1976 , Wales won their second Grand slam of the decade . Just like the first in 1971 , they only used 16 players over their four matches . They repeated the feat in 1978 and , in the process , became the first team to win three consecutive Triple Crowns . Following their final Five Nations match of 1978 , both Phil Bennett and Gareth Edwards retired from rugby .
Wales hosted the All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in November 1979 , losing 13 – 12 after a late penalty goal by the replacement All Black fullback , Brian McKechnie . The penalty was controversial because All Black lock Andy Haden had dived out of a line @-@ out in an attempt to earn a penalty . Haden later admitted that he and Frank Oliver had pre @-@ agreed this tactic should the All Blacks find themselves in difficulties . Referee Roger Quittenton was roasted by the press for failing to notice the dive , but he later stated he had the penalty was in for Welsh lock Geoff Wheel for jumping off the shoulder of Frank Oliver . Quittenton later said , " Haden 's perception is that his dive secured the penalty . That is a load of rubbish " . The All Blacks went on to secure their first Home Nations Grand Slam . Wales then went on to win the 1979 Five Nations with a Triple Crown .
= = = Barren years ( 1980 – 2003 ) = = =
In 1980 , the WRU 's centenary year , Wales lost to the All Blacks in Cardiff by 23 – 3 after the All Blacks scored four tries to nil . Wales won two matches in each Five Nations of 1980 and 1981 , and in 1983 were nearly upset by Japan ; winning 29 – 24 at Cardiff . In 1984 , Australia defeated Wales 28 – 9 at Cardiff Arms Park and in the process scored a push @-@ over try . Australia went on to win their first Home Nations Grand Slam .
Wales achieved only one win in 1987 's Five Nations before contesting the inaugural Rugby World Cup . Wales defeated Ireland in their crucial pool fixture , before defeating England in the quarter @-@ finals . They then faced hosts the All Blacks who won 49 – 6 , but beat Australia in the third place play @-@ off game to claim third . The next year Wales won the Triple Crown for the first time since 1979 , but heavy defeats on tour to New Zealand later that year saw the end of a number of Welsh players ' careers , as several converted to rugby league .
Welsh rugby reached a nadir when Wales suffered their first Five Nations championship whitewash ; they had upset England in 1989 to avoid losing all their Championship matches that season , but in 1990 Wales were defeated in all four Five Nations ' matches for the first time . The 1991 World Cup saw further frustration when Wales were upset by Manu Samoa in their opening match . A second group @-@ stage loss , by 38 – 3 to Australia , eliminated Wales from the tournament .
After winning two Five Nations games in 1992 , and one in 1993 , Wales won the Championship in 1994 on points difference . But without defeating one of Australia , New Zealand , or South Africa , during the inter @-@ World Cup period , Wales was not considered a major tournament contender . At the 1995 World Cup , after comprehensively beating Japan , Wales lost to New Zealand ; this meant that they needed to defeat Ireland to qualify for the quarter @-@ finals . Wales lost 24 – 23 and so failed to progress beyond the pool stage for the second time , and later that year Kevin Bowring replaced Alex Evans to become Wales ' first full @-@ time coach .
Record defeats , 51 – 0 to France , and 96 – 13 to South Africa , prompted the WRU to appoint New Zealander Graham Henry as coach in 1998 . Henry had early success as coach , leading Wales to a ten @-@ match winning streak ; this included Wales ' first ever victory over South Africa , by 29 – 19 . Henry was consequently nicknamed " the great redeemer " by the Welsh media and fans . Hosting the 1999 World Cup , Wales qualified for the quarter @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 , but lost 9 – 24 to eventual champions Australia . A lack of success in the Five and Six Nations ( Italy joined the tournament in 2000 ) , and especially a number of heavy losses to Ireland , led to Henry 's resignation in February 2002 ; his assistant Steve Hansen took over .
During Hansen 's tenure , the WRU implemented a significant change in the structure of the game domestically . Regional teams were introduced as a tier above the traditional club @-@ based structures in 2003 , and the five ( then four ) regional sides became the top level of domestic professional rugby in the principality . At the 2003 World Cup , Wales scored four tries in their 53 – 37 loss to New Zealand , and also lost to the eventual tournament winners , England , in their quarter @-@ final , despite outscoring them by three tries to one .
= = = Revival ( 2004 – present ) = = =
Coached by Mike Ruddock , Wales won their first Grand Slam since 1978 and their first ever Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . A late long range penalty from Gavin Henson gave them a victory over England at Cardiff for the first time in 12 years , and after victories over Italy , France , Scotland , they faced Ireland in front of a capacity crowd at the Millennium Stadium where Wales ' 32 – 20 victory gave them their first Championship since 1994 . Later that year they suffered a record home loss , 41 – 3 to New Zealand .
Mike Ruddock resigned as the head coach of Wales mid @-@ way through the 2006 Six Nations , where Wales finished fifth , and Gareth Jenkins was eventually appointed as his replacement . Jenkins led Wales through the 2007 World Cup , where they failed to advance beyond the pool stage following a loss to Fiji . Jenkins subsequently lost his job , and Warren Gatland , a New Zealander , was appointed as his successor .
Wales faced England at Twickenham for Gatland 's inaugural match as coach and their first match of the 2008 Six Nations . They had not defeated England there since 1988 , and went on to win 26 – 19 . They eventually won all their Championship matches , conceding only two tries in the process , to claim another Grand Slam . Later that year Wales defeated Australia 21 – 18 in Cardiff , but then started a six @-@ year , twenty @-@ three @-@ game win @-@ less streak against the southern hemisphere nations of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa .
At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the tournament semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 where they lost 9 – 8 to France after a red card for captain Sam Warburton . The two teams met again in March 2012 , where Wales needed a win to claim their third Six Nations Grand Slam in eight years , which they did with a 16 – 9 victory . This was followed immediately by an eight @-@ match losing streak , which was eventually broken during the 2013 Six Nations , where Wales retained the Championship for the first time since 1979 wins . Wales reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 2015 World Cup at the expense of hosts England , then lost 23 – 19 to South Africa .
= = Strip = =
Wales play in red jerseys , white shorts and red socks . For the 2015 – 16 season , the design of the Jersey incorporated gold for the first time . The jerseys are embroidered with the Prince of Wales 's feathers , which were chosen in the 19th century by the WRU over another Welsh symbol , the leek , to demonstrate the nation 's loyalty to Britain . In 1991 , to enable the device to be trademarked , the original generic motif was replaced with a more stylised version . The original motto beneath the feathers was Ich dien ( German for " I serve " ) but was replaced with " WRU " in the new version .
Wales change strip – also known as the alternative strip – is black jerseys , shorts and socks. although there have been various different coloured strips in the past Former change strips worn by Wales have included a green , navy , white or grey jersey . Wales previously wore black jerseys as part of celebrations for the WRU 's 125th anniversary in 2005 . The jersey was worn against Fiji and then Australia that year ; the Australia match was the first time Wales had not played in their red jersey against one of their traditional rivals . Since the 2008 end @-@ of @-@ year Tests , the strip is made by Under Armour . They replaced Reebok who supplied the Wales strip between late 1996 and the 2008 mid @-@ year @-@ Tests . The shirt sponsor is Cardiff based Insurance firm , Admiral .
= = Support = =
Rugby union and Wales ' national team hold an important place in Welsh culture and society . Sport historian John Bale has stated that " rugby is characteristically Welsh " , and David Andrew said that " To the popular consciousness , rugby is as Welsh as coal mining , male voice choirs , How Green Was My Valley , Dylan Thomas , and Tom Jones " . Welsh rugby 's first ' golden age ' ( 1900 – 1911 ) coincided with the country 's zenith during the 20th century , and rugby was important in building Wales ' modern identity . There is a long tradition of Welsh supporters singing before and during matches . The choral tradition developed in Wales during the nineteenth @-@ century alongside the rise of nonconformity , and has extended to singing at rugby matches . Commonly sung songs include the hymn Bread of Heaven , Tom Jones ' Delilah , and Max Boyce 's Hymns and Arias .
= = Grounds = =
Wales ' first home international was played at St Helen 's ground , Swansea in 1882 . In the 1880s and 1890s , home Welsh internationals were played at Cardiff , Swansea , Newport and Llanelli . Swansea continued to be used as an international venue until 1954 , when Cardiff Arms Park became Wales ' primary home venue . Cardiff Arms Park first had a stand erected in 1881 , and continued to expand its seating that decade . Crowds continued to grow and in 1902 in Wales ' match against Scotland a world record 40 @,@ 000 spectators paid to see the match . In 1911 , the owners of the Arms Park , the Marquess of Bute 's family , confirmed Wales ' tenure and the 1920s and 1930s , Wales gradually gained increasing control . A new stand was built at the park in the 1933 – 34 season , which increased the grounds capacity to 56 @,@ 000 .
By 1958 , the WRU had concluded that a new national ground was needed due to flooding that often plagued Arms Park . After debate and disputes between the WRU and various other parties , including Cardiff RFC , in the 1960s , it was decided that a new national stadium would be built with a new ground for the Cardiff club backing onto it . The National Stadium , as it was known , was officially opened in 1970 .
Currently , Wales play all their home matches at the 74 @,@ 500 capacity Millennium Stadium , Cardiff , which is also Wales ' national stadium . The Millennium Stadium was first conceived in 1994 , when a group redevelopment committee was set up . It was decided to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park after a review found it was out of date ; new legislation also required stadia to be all seated . Construction began in September 1997 , and was completed by June 1999 , in time for the Rugby World Cup . The construction cost the WRU £ 126 million , which was funded by private investment , £ 46 million of public funds from the National Lottery , the sale of debentures to supporters ( which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest @-@ free loan ) , and loans . While the new ground was being built , Wales used the old Wembley Stadium for their home matches – a deal reciprocated during construction of the new Wembley , when FA Cup finals were held at the Millennium Stadium .
= = Record = =
= = = Six Nations = = =
Wales compete annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : England , France , Ireland , Italy , and Scotland . The Six Nations started as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 , as a contest between the four component nations of the United Kingdom . Wales first won it in 1893 , when they achieved a Triple Crown . Wales have won the tournament outright 26 times , and shared eleven other victories . Their longest wait between championships was 11 years ( 1994 – 2005 ) . Wales first won a Grand Slam in 1908 – although France did not officially join the Five Nations until 1910 – and their first Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . Their latest Grand Slam was won against France on 17 March 2012 , and they claimed their most recent Triple Crown on 25 February 2012 against England .
= = = World Cup = = =
Wales have contested every Rugby World Cup since the inaugural tournament in 1987 . The 1987 tournament was Wales ' most successful ; they won all three pool matches and their quarter @-@ final , before losing to the All Blacks in the semi @-@ finals . They then faced Australia in the third place play @-@ off match , which they won 22 – 21 . In the next two tournaments in 1991 and 1995 , Wales failed to progress beyond the pool stage , winning just one match in each tournament . Both the 1999 and 2003 tournaments were more successful , with Wales qualifying for the quarter @-@ finals both times . Wales hosted the event in 1999 and topped their pool only to lose to eventual winners Australia in the quarter @-@ finals . In 2003 , they finished second in their pool behind the All Blacks , and faced England in their quarter @-@ final . They lost to England , the eventual champions , 28 – 17 . Wales conceded 17 penalties , and their lack of discipline proved costly . In the 2007 World Cup , Wales again failed to progress from the pool stage . After a loss to Australia , and two wins against Japan and Canada , they faced Fiji for a place in the quarter @-@ finals . The game started poorly for Wales who were behind 25 – 3 at half @-@ time . They fought back to lead by three points with six minutes remaining , but Fiji then scored a try to win 38 – 34 and eliminated Wales from the tournament . At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 . Playing the semi @-@ finals against France , Wales lost 9 – 8 , in a game overshadowed by the 18th @-@ minute sending off of Wales ' captain Sam Warburton for a dangerous tackle against Vincent Clerc .
= = = Overall = = =
When the World Rugby Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , Wales were ranked 8th . They rose to 7th in June 2004 , before falling back to 8th in November that year . Following a Grand Slam win in the 2005 Six Nations , they rose to a ranking position of 5th . They fell to 9th by June 2006 , and , after rising back to 8th by September , fell to 10th after the 2007 World Cup . A second Six Nations ' Grand Slam in 2008 propelled them to 6th in the rankings , but following losses to South Africa in the mid @-@ year and end @-@ of @-@ year internationals Wales slipped to 7th . Wales climbed to 4th after a win over Scotland in their first match of the 2009 Six Nations . They slumped to 9th in 2010 but rose back to 4th after their fourth place in the 2011 World Cup . Since then – notwithstanding a nine @-@ game slump in 2012 – 13 where they fell to 9th – Wales have ranked consistently in the top six teams . They reached their highest ranking of 2nd during the 2015 Rugby World Cup .
Wales have won 355 of their 690 Test matches for a 51 @.@ 45 % winning record . Their biggest Test defeat was 96 – 13 loss to South Africa in 1998 , and their largest victory a 98 – 0 defeat of Japan in 2004 . Their record for most tries in a match is 16 , scored against Portugal in 1994 – they also scored 102 points in this match , more than in any other Test . Wales ' record for consecutive Test wins is eleven , and for consecutive losses is ten .
Below is table summary of Wales Test matches up until 25 June 2016 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
On 10 May , Warren Gatland named a 35 @-@ man squad for their June 3 @-@ test series against New Zealand , pre @-@ tour test against England and the mid week match against the Chiefs .
On 29 May , after injury to Dan Lydiate in the England warm @-@ up match , Ellis Jenkins was called up to the squad to replace Lydiate .
On 7 June , Aaron Jarvis was called up to the squad as injury cover for Paul James . Jarvis later became a permanent replacement after James failed to recover form his injury .
On 11 June , Aled Davies joined the squad as an injury replacement for Lloyd Williams .
Following the first test , Keelan Giles and Rhys Patchell were called up to the squad as injury cover .
‡ – Denotes dual contracted players .
Caps and clubs updated 25 June 2016
= Anekantavada =
Anekāntavāda ( Sanskrit : अनेकान ् तवाद , " many @-@ sidedness " ) refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints , or vantage points , the notion that reality is perceived differently from diverse points of view , and that no single point of view is the complete truth , yet taken together they comprise the complete truth . It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism .
Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah , which can be illustrated through the parable of the " blind men and an elephant " . In this story , each blind man felt a different part of an elephant ( trunk , leg , ear , etc . ) . All the men claimed to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant , but could only partly succeed , due to their limited perspectives . This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence , so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception . ( This is the Absolute Truth . ) According to the Jains , only the Kevalis — omniscient beings — can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations ; others are only capable of partial knowledge . Consequently , no single , specific , human view can claim to represent absolute truth .
The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra ( 599 – 527 BCE ) , the 24th Jain Tīrthankara . The dialectical concepts of syādvāda " conditioned viewpoints " and nayavāda " partial viewpoints " arose from anekāntavāda , providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression . The Sanskrit compound an @-@ eka @-@ anta @-@ vāda literally means " doctrine of uncertainty " ( an- " not " , ekānta " certainty " or " single @-@ natured " , vāda ( " school of thought " or " thesis " ) ; it is roughly translated into English as " non @-@ absolutism " . An @-@ ekānta " uncertainty , non @-@ exclusivity " is the opposite of ekānta ( eka + anta ) " exclusiveness , absoluteness , necessity " ( or also " monotheistic doctrine " ) .
Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties . Proponents of anekāntavāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy , reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy — even Jainism — which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets , is committing an error based on its limited point of view . The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance , ahiṃsā and satyagraha .
= = Philosophical overview = =
The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words : anekānta ( " manifoldness " ) and vāda ( " school of thought " ) . The word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an , eka ( " one " ) , and anta ( " attribute " ) . Hence , anekānta means " not of solitary attribute " .
The Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva , that is , rationality and logic . According to Jains , the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason . Thus , the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject , whether they are constructive or obstructive , inferential or analytical , enlightening or destructive .
= = = Jain doctrines of relativity = = =
Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning . The other two are :
syādvāda — the theory of conditioned predication and ;
nayavāda — the theory of partial standpoints .
These Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy , especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity .
= = = = Syādvāda = = = =
Syādvāda ( Sanskrit : स ् याद ् वाद ) is the theory of conditioned predication , which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that every phrase or statement be expressed in the optative mood ( the equivalent of the subjunctive mood in Latin and other Indo @-@ European languages ) , i.e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt , the third person singular optative of the Sanskrit verb as , " to be " . ( In Sanskrit , syāt becomes syān when followed by an " n " , and syād when followed by a non @-@ nasal voiced consonant or vowel . ) According to Jain texts , a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters ( i.e. , it is anekāntātmaka ) ; each character can be analysed and grasped individually . Each individual character is called a naya . Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality , and should not be mistaken for the whole . A synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance . Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda , Acharya Samantabhadra asserts :
Affirmation , when not in conflict with negation , yields the desired result of describing truly an object of knowledge . Only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non @-@ conflicting situation , one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion . This is how the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) establishes the truth . ”
Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology , but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own . As reality is complex , no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully . Thus " syāt " should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement . Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions , syādvāda is known as saptibhaṅgīnāya or " the theory of seven conditioned predications " . These saptibhaṅgī are :
syād @-@ asti — in some ways , it is ,
syān @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is not ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is , and it is not ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , and it is indescribable ,
syān @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is not , and it is indescribable ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , it is not , and it is indescribable ,
syād @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is indescribable .
Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time , space , substance and mode . To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism .
The phrase ‘ in a way ’ ( syāt ) declares the standpoint of expression – affirmation with regard to own substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) , and negation with regard to other substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) . Thus , for a ‘ jar ’ , in regard to substance ( dravya ) – earthen , it simply is ; wooden , it simply is not . In regard to place ( kṣetra ) – room , it simply is ; terrace , it simply is not . In regard to time ( kāla ) – summer , it simply is ; winter , it simply is not . In regard to being ( bhāva ) – brown , it simply is ; white , it simply is not . And the word ‘ simply ’ has been inserted for the purpose of excluding a sense not approved by the ‘ nuance ’ ; for avoidance of a meaning not intended . The phrase ‘ in a way ’ is used to declare that the ‘ jar ’ exists in regard to its own substance etc. and not also in regard to other substance etc .
According to the Jains , Syādvāda and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) are the foundational facts of knowledge . In this regard , Āchārya Samantabhadra writes :
Syādvāda , the doctrine of conditional predications , and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) , are both illuminators of the substances of reality . The difference between the two is that while kevalajñāna illumines directly , syādvāda illumines indirectly . Anything which is not illuminated or expressed by the two is not a substance of reality and hence a non @-@ substance ( avastu ) .
= = = = Nayavāda = = = =
Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints . Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words — naya ( " reason " or " method " ) and vāda ( " school of thought or thesis " ) . It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view . An object has infinite aspects to it , but when we describe an object in practice , we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones . This does not deny the other attributes , qualities , modes and other aspects ; they are just irrelevant from a particular perspective . Authors like Natubhai Shah explain nayavāda with the example of a car ; for instance , when we talk of a " blue BMW " we are simply considering the color and make of the car . However , our statement does not imply that the car is devoid of other attributes like engine type , cylinders , speed , price and the like . This particular viewpoint is called a naya or a partial viewpoint . As a type of critical philosophy , nayavāda holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints , and the standpoints we adopt are , although we may not realise it , " the outcome of purposes that we may pursue " . While operating within the limits of language and seeing the complex nature of reality , Mahāvīra used the language of nayas . Naya , being a partial expression of truth , enables us to comprehend reality part by part .
= = = Syncretisation of changing and unchanging reality = = =
The age of Mahāvīra and Buddha was one of intense intellectual debates , especially on the nature of reality and self . Upanishadic thought postulated the absolute unchanging reality of Brahman and Ātman and claimed that change was mere illusion . The theory advanced by Buddhists denied the reality of permanence of conditioned phenomena , asserting only interdependence and impermanence . According to the vedāntin ( Upanishadic ) conceptual scheme , the Buddhists were wrong in denying permanence and absolutism , and within the Buddhist conceptual scheme , the vedāntins were wrong in denying the reality of impermanence . The two positions were contradictory and mutually exclusive from each other 's point of view . The Jains managed a synthesis of the two uncompromising positions with anekāntavāda . From the perspective of a higher , inclusive level made possible by the ontology and epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda , Jains do not see such claims as contradictory or mutually exclusive ; instead , they are seen as ekantika or only partially true . The Jain breadth of vision embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which , according to Jainism , " recognises substances but not process " , and Buddhism , which " recognises process but not substance " . Jainism , on the other hand , pays equal attention to both substance ( dravya ) and process ( paryaya ) .
This philosophical syncretisation of paradox of change through anekānta has been acknowledged by modern scholars such as Arvind Sharma , who wrote :
Our experience of the world presents a profound paradox which we can ignore existentially , but not philosophically . This paradox is the paradox of change . Something – A changes and therefore it cannot be permanent . On the other hand , if A is not permanent , then what changes ? In this debate between the " permanence " and " change " , Hinduism seems more inclined to grasp the first horn of the dilemma and Buddhism the second . It is Jainism that has the philosophical courage to grasp both horns fearlessly and simultaneously , and the philosophical skill not to be gored by either .
However , anekāntavāda is not simply about syncretisation or compromise between competing ideas , as it is cooperatively about finding the hidden elements of shared truth between such ideas ( such as naturalism — relative to pantheism and sanctuary — although its basis in simplicity may be described with the scientific principle of Occam 's razor — whereas science is likewise paradoxical in nature — relative to nonviolence ) . Anekāntavāda is not about denying the truth ; rather truth is acknowledged as an ultimate spiritual goal . For ordinary humans , it is an elusive goal , but they are still obliged to work towards its attainment . Anekāntavāda also does not mean compromising or diluting ones own values and principles . On the contrary , it allows us to understand and be tolerant of conflicting and opposing views , while respectfully maintaining the validity of ones own view @-@ point . Hence , John Koller calls anekāntavāda as – " epistemological respect for view of others " . Anekāntavāda , thus , did not prevent the Jain thinkers from defending the truth and validity of their own doctrine while simultaneously respecting and understanding the rival doctrines . Anne Vallely notes that the epistemological respect for other viewpoints was put to practice when she was invited by Ācārya Tulsi , the head of the Terāpanthī order , to teach sadhvis the tenets of Christianity . Commenting on their adherence to ahiṃsā and anekāntavāda , she says :
The Jain samaṇīs of Ladnun uncompromisingly maintain ahiṃsā to be an eternal and unchangeable moral law . Other views and beliefs that contradict this belief would certainly be challenged , and ultimately rejected . But what is significant , is that both the rejection and retention of views is tempered by the belief that our perception conveys only a partial reality , that reality itself is manifold , and that to assume one particular viewpoint is final , is to hold a limited picture of reality .
Anekāntavāda is also different from moral relativism . It does not mean conceding that all arguments and all views are equal , but rather logic and evidence determine which views are true , in what respect and to what extent ( as truth in relativism , itself ) . While employing anekāntavāda , the 17th century philosopher monk , Yaśovijaya Gaṇi also cautions against anābhigrahika ( indiscriminate attachment to all views as being true ) , which is effectively a kind of misconceived relativism . Jains thus consider anekāntavāda as a positive concept corresponding to religious pluralism that transcends monism and dualism , implying a sophisticated conception of a complex reality . It does not merely involve rejection of partisanship , but reflects a positive spirit of reconciliation of opposite views . However , it is argued that pluralism often degenerates to some form of moral relativism or religious exclusivism . According to Anne Vallely , anekānta is a way out of this epistemological quagmire , as it makes a genuinely pluralistic view possible without lapsing into extreme moral relativism or exclusivity .
= = = Parable of the blind men and elephant = = =
The ancient Jain texts often explain the concepts of anekāntvāda and syādvāda with the parable of the blind men and an elephant ( Andhgajanyāyah ) , which addresses the manifold nature of truth .
A group of blind men heard that a strange animal , called an elephant , had been brought to the town , but none of them were aware of its shape and form . Out of curiosity , they said : " We must inspect and know it by touch , of which we are capable " . So , they sought it out , and when they found it they groped about it . In the case of the first person , whose hand landed on the trunk , said " This being is like a drain pipe " . For another one whose hand reached its ear , it seemed like a kind of fan . As for another person , whose hand was upon its leg , said , " I perceive the shape of the elephant to be like a pillar " . And in the case of the one who placed his hand upon its back said , " Indeed , this elephant is like a throne " . Now , each of these presented a true aspect when he related what he had gained from experiencing the elephant . None of them had strayed from the true description of the elephant . Yet they fell short of fathoming the true appearance of the elephant .
Two of the many references to this parable are found in Tattvarthaslokavatika of Vidyanandi ( 9th century ) and Syādvādamanjari of Ācārya Mallisena ( 13th century ) . Mallisena uses the parable to argue that immature people deny various aspects of truth ; deluded by the aspects they do understand , they deny the aspects they don 't understand . " Due to extreme delusion produced on account of a partial viewpoint , the immature deny one aspect and try to establish another . This is the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . " Mallisena also cites the parable when noting the importance of considering all viewpoints in obtaining a full picture of reality . " It is impossible to properly understand an entity consisting of infinite properties without the method of modal description consisting of all viewpoints , since it will otherwise lead to a situation of seizing mere sprouts ( i.e. , a superficial , inadequate cognition ) , on the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . "
= = History and development = =
The principle of anekāntavāda is the foundation of many Jain philosophical concepts . The development of anekāntavāda also encouraged the development of the dialectics of syādvāda ( conditioned viewpoints ) , saptibhaṅgī ( the seven conditioned predication ) , and nayavāda ( partial viewpoints ) .
= = = Origins = = =
The origins of anekāntavāda lie in the teachings of Mahāvīra , who used it effectively to show the relativity of truth and reality . Taking a relativistic viewpoint , Mahāvīra is said to have explained the nature of the soul as both permanent , from the point of view of underlying substance , and temporary , from the point of view of its modes and modification . The importance and antiquity of anekāntavāda are also demonstrated by the fact that it formed the subject matter of Astinasti Pravāda , the fourth part of the lost Purva that contained teachings of the Tīrthaṇkaras prior to Mahāvīra . German Indologist Hermann Jacobi believes Mahāvīra effectively employed the dialectics of anekāntavāda to refute the agnosticism of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Sutrakritanga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , contains the first references to syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . According to Sūtrakritanga , Mahāvīra advised his disciples to use syādvāda to preach his teachings :
A monk living single should not ridicule heretical doctrines , and should avoid hard words though they be true ; he should not be vain , nor brag , but he should without embarrassment and passion preach the Law . A monk should be modest , though he be of a fearless mind ; he should expound the syādvāda , he should use the two permitted kinds of speech , living among virtuous men , impartial and wise .
= = = Early history = = =
The early Jain canons and teachings contained multitudes of references to anekāntavāda and syādvāda in rudimentary form without giving it proper structure or establishing it as a separate doctrine . Śvētāmbara text , Sutrakritanga contains references to Vibhagyavāda , which , according to Hermann Jacobi , is the same as syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . Bhagvatisūtra mentions only three primary predications of the saptibhaṅgīnaya . After Mahāvīra , Kundakunda ( 1st century CE ) was the first author – saint to expound on the doctrine of syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī and give it a proper structure in his famous works Pravacanasāra and Pancastikayasāra . Kundakunda also used nayas to discuss the essence of the self in Samayasāra . Proper classification of the nayas was provided by the philosopher monk , Umāsvāti ( 2nd century CE ) in Tattvārthasūtra . Samantabhadra ( 2nd century CE ) and Siddhasena Divākara ( 3rd century CE ) further fine @-@ tuned Jain epistemology and logic by expounding on the concepts of anekāntavāda in proper form and structure .
Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara expounded on the nature of truth in the court of King Vikramāditya :
Vikramāditya : What is ' truth ' ? That which is said repeatedly , that which is said loudly , that which is said with authority or that which is agreed by the majority ?
Divākara : None of the above . Every one has his own definition of ' truth ' and that it is conditional .
Vikramāditya : How about traditions ? They have been established by our ancestors and have passed the test of time ?
Divākara : Would the system established by ancestors hold true on examination ? In case it does not , I am not here to justify it for the sake of saving the traditional grace of the dead , irrespective of the wrath I may have to face .
In Sanmatitarka , Divākara further adds : " All doctrines are right in their own respective spheres — but if they encroach upon the province of other doctrines and try to refute their view , they are wrong . A man who holds the view of the cumulative character of truth never says that a particular view is right or that a particular view is wrong . "
= = = Age of logic = = =
The period beginning with the start of common era , up to the modern period is often referred to as the age of logic in the history of Jain philosophy . By the time of Akalanka ( 5th century CE ) , whose works are a landmark in Jain logic , anekāntavāda was firmly entrenched in Jain texts , as is evident from the various teachings of the Jain scriptures .
Ācārya Haribhadra ( 8th century CE ) was one of the leading proponents of anekāntavāda . He was the first classical author to write a doxography , a compendium of a variety of intellectual views . This attempted to contextualise Jain thoughts within the broad framework , rather than espouse narrow partisan views . It interacted with the many possible intellectual orientations available to Indian thinkers around the 8th century .
Ācārya Amrtacandra starts his famous 10th century CE work Purusathasiddhiupaya with strong praise for anekāntavāda : " I bow down to the principle of anekānta , the source and foundation of the highest scriptures , the dispeller of wrong one @-@ sided notions , that which takes into account all aspects of truth , reconciling diverse and even contradictory traits of all objects or entity . "
Ācārya Vidyānandi ( 11th century CE ) provides the analogy of the ocean to explain the nature of truth in Tattvarthaslokavārtikka , 116 : " Water from the ocean contained in a pot can neither be called an ocean nor a non @-@ ocean , but simply a part of ocean . Similarly , a doctrine , though arising from absolute truth can neither be called a whole truth nor a non @-@ truth . "
Yaśovijaya Gaṇi , a 17th @-@ century Jain monk , went beyond anekāntavāda by advocating madhāyastha , meaning " standing in the middle " or " equidistance " . This position allowed him to praise qualities in others even though the people were non @-@ Jain and belonged to other faiths . There was a period of stagnation after Yasovijayaji , as there were no new contributions to the development of Jain philosophy .
= = = Role in ensuring the survival of Jainism = = =
Anekāntavāda played a pivotal role in the growth as well as the survival of Jainism in ancient India , especially against onslaughts from Śaivas , Vaiṣṇavas , Buddhists , Muslims , and Christians at various times . According to Hermann Jacobi , Mahāvīra used such concepts as syādvāda and saptbhangi to silence some of his opponents . The discussions of the agnostics led by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta had probably influenced many of their contemporaries and consequently syādvāda may have seemed to them a way out of ajñānavāda . Jacobi further speculates that many of their followers would have gone over to Mahāvīra 's creed , convinced of the truth of the saptbhanginaya . According to Professor Christopher Key Chapple , anekāntavāda allowed Jains to survive during the most hostile and unfavourable moments in history . According to John Koller , professor of Asian studies , anekāntavāda allowed Jain thinkers to maintain the validity of their doctrine , while at the same time respectfully criticizing the views of their opponents .
Anekāntavāda was often used by Jain monks to obtain royal patronage from Hindu Kings . Ācārya Hemacandra used anekāntavāda to gain the confidence and respect of the Cālukya Emperor Jayasimha Siddharaja . According to the Jain text Prabandhacantamani , Emperor Siddharaja desired enlightenment and liberation and he questioned teachers from various traditions . He remained in a quandary when he discovered that they all promoted their own teachings while disparaging other teachings . Among the teachers he questioned was Hemacandra , who , rather than promote Jainism , told him a story with a different message . According to his story , a sick man was cured of his disease after eating all the herbs available , as he was not aware which herb was medicinal . The moral of the tale , according to Hemacandra , was that just as the man was restored by the herb , even though no one knew which particular herb did the trick , so in the kaliyuga ( " age of vice " ) the wise should obtain salvation by supporting all religious traditions , even though no @-@ one can say with absolute certainty which tradition it is that provides that salvation .
= = Influence = =
Jain religious tolerance fits well with the ecumenical disposition typical of Indian religions . It can be traced to the analogous Jain principles of anekāntavāda and ahiṃsā . The epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda also had a profound impact on the development of ancient Indian logic and philosophy . In recent times , Jainism influenced Gandhi , who advocated ahiṃsā and satyagraha .
= = = Intellectual ahimsā and religious tolerance = = =
The concepts of anekāntavāda and syādvāda allow Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their own perspective and thus inculcate tolerance for other viewpoints . Anekāntavāda is non @-@ absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms , including any assertion that Jainism is the only correct religious path . It is thus an intellectual ahiṃsā , or ahiṃsā of the mind . Burch writes , " Jain logic is intellectual ahiṃsā . Just as a right @-@ acting person respects the life of all beings , so a right @-@ thinking person acknowledges the validity of all judgments . This means recognizing all aspects of reality , not merely one or some aspects , as is done in non @-@ Jain philosophies . "
Mahāvīra encouraged his followers to study and understand rival traditions in his Acaranga Sutra : " Comprehend one philosophical view through the comprehensive study of another one . "
In anekāntavāda , there is no " battle of ideas " , because this is considered to be a form of intellectual himsa or violence , leading quite logically to physical violence and war . In today 's world , the limitations of the adversarial , " either with us or against us " form of argument are increasingly apparent by the fact that the argument leads to political , religious and social conflicts . Sūtrakrtānga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , provides a solution by stating : " Those who praise their own doctrines and ideology and disparage the doctrine of others distort the truth and will be confined to the cycle of birth and death . "
This ecumenical and irenical attitude , engendered by anekāntavāda , allowed modern Jain monks such as Vijayadharmasuri to declare : " I am neither a Jain nor a Buddhist , a Vaisnava nor a Saivite , a Hindu nor a Muslim , but a traveler on the path of peace shown by the supreme soul , the God who is free from passion . "
= = = = Contemporary role and influence = = = =
Some modern authors believe that Jain philosophy in general and anekāntavāda in particular can provide a solution to many problems facing the world . They claim that even the mounting ecological crisis is linked to adversarialism , because it arises from a false division between humanity and " the rest " of nature . Modern judicial systems , democracy , freedom of speech , and secularism all implicitly reflect an attitude of anekāntavāda . Many authors , such as Kamla Jain , have claimed that the Jain tradition , with its emphasis on ahimsā and anekāntavāda , is capable of solving religious intolerance , terrorism , wars , the depletion of natural resources , environmental degradation and many other problems . Referring to the September 11 attacks , John Koller believes that violence in society mainly exists due to faulty epistemology and metaphysics as well as faulty ethics . A failure to respect the life and views of others , rooted in dogmatic and mistaken knowledge and refusal to acknowledge the legitimate claims of different perspectives , leads to violent and destructive behaviour . Koller suggests that anekāntavāda has a larger role to play in the world peace . According to Koller , because anekāntavāda is designed to avoid one @-@ sided errors , reconcile contradictory viewpoints , and accept the multiplicity and relativity of truth , the Jain philosophy is in a unique position to support dialogue and negotiations amongst various nations and peoples .
Some Indologists like Professor John Cort have cautioned against giving undue importance to " intellectual ahiṃsā " as the basis of anekāntavāda . He points out that Jain monks have also used anekāntavāda and syādvāda as debating weapons to silence their critics and prove the validity of the Jain doctrine over others . According to Dundas , in Jain hands , this method of analysis became a fearsome weapon of philosophical polemic with which the doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism could be pared down to their ideological bases of simple permanence and impermanence , respectively , and thus could be shown to be one @-@ pointed and inadequate as the overall interpretations of reality they purported to be . On the other hand , the many @-@ sided approach was claimed by the Jains to be immune from criticism since it did not present itself as a philosophical or dogmatic view .
= = = Influence on Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi = = =
Since childhood , Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was exposed to the actual practice of non @-@ violence , non @-@ possession and anekāntavāda by his mother . According to biographers like Uma Majumdar , Rajmohan Gandhi , and Stephen Hay , these early childhood impressions and experiences contributed to the formation of Gandhi 's character and his further moral and spiritual development . In his writings , Mahatma Gandhi attributed his seemingly contradictory positions over a period of time to the learning process , experiments with truth and his belief in anekāntavāda . He proclaimed that the duty of every individual is to determine what is personally true and act on that relative perception of truth . According to Gandhi , a satyagrahi is duty bound to act according to his relative truth , but at the same time , he is also equally bound to learn from truth held by his opponent . In response to a friend 's query on religious tolerance , he responded in the journal " Young India – 21 Jan 1926 " :
I am an Advaitist and yet I can support Dvaitism ( dualism ) . The world is changing every moment , and is therefore unreal , it has no permanent existence . But though it is constantly changing , it has a something about it which persists and it is therefore to that extent real . I have therefore no objection to calling it real and unreal , and thus being called an Anekāntavadi or a Syādvadi . But my Syādvāda is not the Syādvāda of the learned , it is peculiarly my own . I cannot engage in a debate with them . It has been my experience that I am always true from my point of view , and am often wrong from the point of view of my honest critics . I know that we are both right from our respective points of view . And this knowledge saves me from attributing motives to my opponents or critics . The seven blind men who gave seven different descriptions of the elephant were all right from their respective points of view , and wrong from the point of view of one another , and right and wrong from the point of view of the man who knew the elephant . I very much like this doctrine of the manyness of reality . It is this doctrine that has taught me to judge a Musulman from his standpoint and a Christian from his . Formerly I used to resent the ignorance of my opponents . Today I can love them because I am gifted with the eye to see myself as others see me and vice versa . I want to take the whole world in the embrace of my love . My Anekāntavāda is the result of the twin doctrine of Satyagraha and ahiṃsā .
= = Criticism = =
The doctrines of anekāntavāda and syādavāda are often criticised on the grounds that they engender a degree of hesitancy and uncertainty , and may compound problems rather than solve them . It is also pointed out that Jain epistemology asserts its own doctrines , but at the cost of being unable to deny contradictory doctrines . Furthermore , it is also argued that this doctrine could be self @-@ defeating . It is argued that if reality is so complex that no single doctrine can describe it adequately , then anekāntavāda itself , being a single doctrine , must be inadequate . This criticism seems to have been anticipated by Ācārya Samantabhadra who said : " From the point of view of pramana ( means of knowledge ) it is anekānta ( multi @-@ sided ) , but from a point of view of naya ( partial view ) it is ekanta ( one @-@ sided ) . "
In defense of the doctrine , Jains point out that anekāntavāda seeks to reconcile apparently opposing viewpoints rather than refuting them .
Anekāntavāda received much criticism from the Vedantists , notably Adi Sankarācārya ( 9th century C.E. ) . Sankara argued against some tenets of Jainism in his bhasya on Brahmasutra ( 2 : 2 : 33 – 36 ) . His main arguments centre on anekāntavāda :
It is impossible that contradictory attributes such as being and non @-@ being should at the same time belong to one and the same thing ; just as observation teaches us that a thing cannot be hot and cold at the same moment . The third alternative expressed in the words — they either are such or not such — results in cognition of indefinite nature , which is no more a source of true knowledge than doubt is . Thus the means of knowledge , the object of knowledge , the knowing subject , and the act of knowledge become all alike indefinite . How can his followers act on a doctrine , the matter of which is altogether indeterminate ? The result of your efforts is perfect knowledge and is not perfect knowledge . Observation shows that , only when a course of action is known to have a definite result , people set about it without hesitation . Hence a man who proclaims a doctrine of altogether indefinite contents does not deserve to be listened any more than a drunken or a mad man .
However , many believe that Sankara fails to address genuine anekāntavāda . By identifying syādavāda with sansayavāda , he instead addresses " agnosticism " , which was argued by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Many authors like Pandya believe that Sankara overlooked that , the affirmation of the existence of an object is in respect to the object itself , and its negation is in respect to what the object is not . Genuine anekāntavāda thus considers positive and negative attributes of an object , at the same time , and without any contradictions .
Another Buddhist logician Dharmakirti ridiculed anekāntavāda in Pramānavarttikakārika : " With the differentiation removed , all things have dual nature . Then , if somebody is implored to eat curd , then why he does not eat camel ? " The insinuation is obvious ; if curd exists from the nature of curd and does not exist from the nature of a camel , then one is justified in eating camel , as by eating camel , he is merely eating the negation of curd . Ācārya Akalanka , while agreeing that Dharmakirti may be right from one viewpoint , took it upon himself to issue a rejoinder :
The person who criticises without understanding the prima facie view is acting like a jester and not a critic . The Buddha was born a deer and the deer was born as Buddha ; but Buddha is adorable and deer is only a food . Similarly , due to the strength of an entity , with its differences and similarities specified , nobody would eat camel if implored to eat curd .
= Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery =
The Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery , more commonly known as the Airborne Cemetery , is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Oosterbeek , near Arnhem , the Netherlands . It was established in 1945 and is home to 1759 graves from the Second World War . Most of the men buried in the cemetery were Allied servicemen killed in the Battle of Arnhem , an Allied attempt to cross the Rhine in 1944 , or in the liberation of the city the following year . Men killed in these battles are still discovered in the surrounding area even in the 21st century , and so the number of people interred in the cemetery continues to grow .
= = Background = =
In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden , an attempt by the British 2nd Army to bypass the Siegfried Line and advance into the Ruhr , Germany 's industrial heartland . The operation required the 1st Airborne Corps to seize several bridges over rivers and canals in the Netherlands , allowing ground forces to advance rapidly through the Netherlands and cross the River Rhine .
The British 1st Airborne Division was tasked with securing the most distant objectives ; bridges over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem . The division dropped onto the area on 17 September and a small force was able to secure the Arnhem road bridge . However the unexpected presence of SS Panzer troops of the II SS Panzerkorps meant the Allies were never able to fully secure their objectives and so after nine days without sufficient reinforcement by the advancing ground forces , the division was withdrawn on 25 September .
In the 9 days of battle almost 2000 Allied soldiers were killed ( some of whom died of their wounds or in captivity after the battle ) . These included over 1174 men of the British 1st Airborne Division , 219 men of the Glider Pilot Regiment , 92 men of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade , 368 men of the RAF , 79 re @-@ supply dispatchers of the RASC , 25 men of XXX Corps and 27 men of US IX Troop Carrier Command . The exact number of German dead is unknown , but is believed to be at least 1300 . Additionally it is believed 453 Dutch civilians were killed during the battle .
= = Cemetery = =
Owing to the Allied withdrawal , the vast majority of their dead had to be left on the battlefield . Here they were buried in simple field graves ( some little more than their own slit trenches ) or in small mass graves dug by the Germans . Kate Ter Horst , whose house was used as a first aid post during the battle , found the graves of 57 men in her garden when she returned after the war . After Arnhem was liberated in April 194 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
5 , Grave Registration Units of the British 2nd Army moved into the area and began to locate the Allied dead . A small field north of Oosterbeek was offered on perpetual loan by the Netherlands government to the Imperial War Graves Commission ( now Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) in June 1945 and the dead were reburied there . Many of those killed during Arnhem 's liberation were also buried at the same site . The cemetery was completed in February 1946 , originally with the graves marked by metal crosses , although these were replaced by headstones in 1952 . Most of the German dead were buried in the SS Heroes Cemetery near Arnhem after the battle , but reburied in Ysselsteyn German war cemetery after the war .
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records 1759 graves in the cemetery as of 2004 . 1432 of these are Commonwealth , including British , Canadian , Australian and New Zealanders . The cemetery is also the last resting place of 73 Polish soldiers , ( many of them exhumed and moved from Driel , to the disappointment of Driel 's residents ) and 8 Dutch civilians – some killed in the fighting and some former Commission employees . 253 of the graves are unidentified .
As of 2003 there were still 138 Allied men with no known grave in the area , and they are commemorated at the Groesbeek Memorial . However , evidence of the battle is often discovered even today , and the bodies of Allied servicemen are reinterred at the Airborne Cemetery . When found , bodies are exhumed and Dutch Graves Registration staff attempt to identify them before they are reburied . One soldier of the Border Regiment was discovered and reburied in the cemetery in 2005 and another who had previously been unidentified was reburied in 2006 .
Five men were awarded the Victoria Cross after the battle , four of them posthumously . Three of the men now rest in the cemetery ; Lieutenant John Hollington Grayburn of the 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment ; Flight Lieutenant David Samuel Anthony Lord of 271 Squadron , Royal Air Force and Captain Lionel Ernest Queripel of the 10th Battalion , Parachute Regiment . Lance @-@ Sergeant John Daniel Baskeyfield of the 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment has no known grave and is commemorated instead at Groesbeek Memorial . Major Robert Henry Cain , also of 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment , survived the battle and was buried on the Isle of Man when he died in 1974 .
Opposite the Airborne Cemetery is a civilian graveyard with a small Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot containing the graves of nine airmen shot down shortly before the battle . It is also home to Lipmann Kessel , a surgeon with the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance during the battle , who wished to be buried near his men after his death in 1986 . Similarly , the Moscowa Cemetery three miles east contains the graves of thirty six aircrew killed before the battle , and one unidentified soldier . Not all of the Allied dead from the Battle of Arnhem are interred at the cemetery . Some 300 men who were killed when flying into battle , while trying to escape or who succumbed to wounds later , are buried in civilian cemeteries in the Netherlands , Belgium , the UK and the USA . Sixty men who died in prisoner of war camps after the battle are buried in Germany .
= = Airborne commemoration service = =
In the summer of 1945 several hundred veterans of the battle were detached from operations in Norway and returned to Arnhem to take part in filming for the war movie Theirs Is the Glory . While there they attended the first commemorative event at the cemetery . This event continued every year , and was attended by veterans , local residents and over 1000 school children who laid flowers on the graves of the dead . After the 25th anniversary in 1969 , the Parachute Regiment approached Dutch organisers to suggest ending the ceremony , believing the battle to have passed sufficiently into history . The Dutch were vehemently and emotionally opposed to the idea and thus the ceremony continues to be held annually .
= Ace Attorney =
Ace Attorney , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban ( Japanese : 逆転裁判 , " Turnabout Trial " ) , is a series of visual novel adventure video games developed by Capcom . The first entry in the series , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney , was released in 2001 ; since then , nine further games have been released . Additionally , the series has seen adaptations in the form of a live action film and an anime , and has been the base for manga series , drama CDs , musicals and stage plays .
The player takes the roles of the defense attorneys Phoenix Wright , Mia Fey , Apollo Justice and Athena Cykes , and investigates cases and defends their clients in court ; they find the truth by cross @-@ examining witnesses and finding inconsistencies between the testimonies and the evidence they have collected . The cases all last a maximum of three days , with the judge determining the outcome based on evidence presented by the defense attorney and the prosecutor . In the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations , the player takes the role of prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , and in the spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban , they play as Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .
The series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi , who wanted the series to end after the third game . The series still continued , with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth ( 2009 ) ; Takumi has since returned to write and direct some spin @-@ off titles . While the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan , the series ' localizations are set in the United States , though retaining Japanese cultural influence . The series has been well received , with reviewers liking the characters and story , and the finding of contradictions ; it has also performed well commercially , with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties .
= = Titles = =
The Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney in 2001 , and has been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005 . The series currently consists of six main series games and four spin @-@ offs . Additionally , two titles that collect the first three main series games have been released : Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , which was released for iOS in 2012 in Japan and in 2013 in the West , and Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , which was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014 .
= = = Main series = = =
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii and iOS in 2009 .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All is the second entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii in 2010 .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations is the third entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan ; it has also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006 , the Nintendo DS in 2007 , and the Wii in 2010 .
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney is the fourth entry in the series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and in 2008 in the West .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Dual Destinies is the fifth entry in the main series . It was originally released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 in Japan , North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it was given a digital @-@ only release . An iOS version was released in 2014 in Japan and the West .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Spirit of Justice is the sixth entry in the main series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 in Japan , and is planned to be released later in the year in North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it will be a digital @-@ only release .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth is the first entry in the Investigations spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 in the West .
Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan , but has not been released in the West .
Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is a crossover between Ace Attorney and the Professor Layton series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012 in Japan and in 2014 in the West .
Dai Gyakuten Saiban : Naruhodō Ryūnosuke no Bōken is the first entry in a planned spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 in Japan , but is not intended to be released in the West .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Gameplay = = =
The Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes . The gameplay is split into two types of sections : investigations and courtroom trials . During the investigations , the player searches the environments , gathering information and evidence , and talks to characters such as their client , witnesses , and the police . Once enough evidence has been collected , the game moves on to a courtroom trial section .
In the courtroom trials , the player aims to get their client declared " not guilty " . To do so , they cross @-@ examine witnesses , and aim to find lies and inconsistencies in the testimonies . They are able to go back and forth between the different statements in the testimony , and can press the witness for more details on a statement . When the player finds an inconsistency , they can present a piece of evidence that contradicts the statement . The player is penalized if they present incorrect evidence : in the first game , a number of exclamation marks is shown , with one disappearing after each mistake the player makes ; in later games , a health bar that represents the judge 's patience is used instead . If all exclamation marks are lost , or the health bar reaches zero , the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty .
Several Ace Attorney games introduce new gameplay mechanics to the series . Justice for All introduces " psyche @-@ locks " , which are shown over a witness when the player asks them about a topic they do not want to discuss ; using a magatama , the player can start breaking the psyche @-@ locks by showing the witness evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something . The number of psyche @-@ locks depends on how deep the secret is ; when all locks are broken , the topic becomes available , giving the player access to new information . Apollo Justice introduces the " perceive " system , where the player looks for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness , similar to a tell in poker .
Dual Destinies introduces the " mood matrix " , through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness , such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics ; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony , they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information . Dual Destinies also introduces " revisualization " , where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions . Spirit of Justice introduces " divination séances " , in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths , and must find contradictions in the victim 's five senses to determine what has happened . Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross @-@ examinations of multiple witnesses , with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions . Dai Gyakuten Saiban introduces " joint reasoning " , where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Sherlock Holmes takes his reasoning " further than the truth " .
The Ace Attorney Investigations spin @-@ off series splits the gameplay into investigation phases and rebuttal phases , the latter of which is similar to the courtroom trials of the main series . During the investigation phases , the player searches for evidence and talks to witnesses and suspects . Things the player character notices in the environment are saved as thoughts ; the player can use the " logic " system to connect two such thoughts to gain access to new information . At some points , the player can create hologram reproductions of the crime scene , through which they can discover new information that would otherwise be hidden . Ace Attorney Investigations 2 introduces " logic chess " , where the player interrogates witnesses in a timed sequence that is visualized as a game of chess , with the player aiming to destroy the other character 's chess pieces . To do this , they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening , and then choose to go on the offensive .
= = = Characters and setting = = =
The protagonist of the first three games is the defense attorney Phoenix Wright , who is assisted by the spirit medium Maya Fey ; in the third game , Phoenix 's mentor Mia Fey is also a playable character . In the fourth game , the protagonist is the defense attorney Apollo Justice ; in the fifth , Phoenix , Apollo and the new defense attorney Athena Cykes are all protagonists ; and in the sixth , Phoenix and Apollo are the protagonists . The spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban is set in England near the end of the 19th century , and follows Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .
Phoenix 's childhood friend Miles Edgeworth , who is the protagonist of the Ace Attorney Investigations games , is a recurring rival prosecutor character ; in addition to him , each new game in the series introduces a new rival : Franziska von Karma is introduced in the second game , Godot in the third , Klavier Gavin in the fourth , Simon Blackquill in the fifth , and Nahyuta Sahdmadhi in the sixth . The prosecutor characters are portrayed as powerful and arrogant characters of high social status , who favor convictions over finding the truth , and who care about keeping perfect @-@ win records in court . Similarly to real Japanese prosecutors , the prosecutors in the series often directly oversee investigations , issuing orders to the police . Japanese attitudes towards the police force are reflected in the series , with the police being represented by incompetent characters such as Dick Gumshoe , Maggey Byrde and Mike Meekins . In the world of Ace Attorney , trials only last three days , and usually end with a " guilty " verdict . The outcomes of cases are decided by a judge , based on evidence provided by the defense attorney and the prosecutor .
= = Development = =
The series was created by Shu Takumi , who wrote and directed the first three games . The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi 's boss at the time , Shinji Mikami , gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to ; Takumi had originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games , and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator . The game was designed to be simple , as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play . It was originally going to be a detective game , with Phoenix being a private investigator , but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work , and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms .
Takumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues , and then pull them together into one conclusion , and not have multiple possible endings . He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together ; the goal was to make the player feel like they have driven the story forward themselves , with their own choices , even though the game is linear . He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game 's story , and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix 's personality as he went along . He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them , giving them advice , than investigating on their own .
After the first game 's development was finished , Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game , but during the production the development team learned that the character had become popular . This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly ; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work , he avoided making a lot of changes between games : art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth was reused , to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series ; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations , as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche @-@ lock mechanic for Justice for All .
For the fourth game , Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role . He had wanted the series to end with the third game , as he felt Phoenix had been fully explored and that his story had been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . Despite this , the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created , being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro ; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney . He also directed and wrote Dai Gyakuten Saiban , which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series . He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff , comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school . Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice . Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies , Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice , with Yamazaki working on the scenario , and Fuse on the art and gameplay .
= = Localization = =
The localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global , and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson . While the Japanese version takes place in Japan , the localized version is set in the United States : because one of the episodes involves time zones , they had to specify where the game takes place , and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it . The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization , as changing it would have altered the entire game structure .
The change in the series ' setting became an issue in later games , where the Japanese setting was more apparent . Starting with the second game , the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu ; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed .
Character names were also localized to use double meanings similarly to the Japanese names ; the name puns were based on the characters ' personalities or backgrounds , or were visual gags . Several English names were based on their Japanese counterparts , but for some characters the names had to be altered heavily compared to the Japanese versions . Smith and Anderson had a lot of freedom when localizing the names of minor characters in the first game , but discussed the names of the main cast with Capcom . Phoenix 's English surname , " Wright " , was chosen as his Japanese name , " Naruhodō " – meaning " I see " or " I understand " – was frequently used as a joke in the script .
Dual Destinies was given a digital @-@ only release in the West . This was partially because of the game 's tight development schedule : by releasing it digitally , Capcom was able to release the English version close to the Japanese release date . Two of the games have not been localized : Ace Attorney Investigations 2 and Dai Gyakuten Saiban , although the former has received a full fan translation .
= = Reception = =
The Ace Attorney series has been well received by critics , and has performed well commercially : in December 2009 , it was Capcom 's 9th best selling series of all time , and in October 2010 , they called it one of their " strongest intellectual properties " , with more than 3 @.@ 9 million units sold worldwide . By December 2013 , the series had sold over 5 million units . In the United States , the first game became surprisingly successful , forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand .
Reviewers have liked finding contradictions ; a common complaint , however , is the games ' linearity , as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial @-@ and @-@ error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence , and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order . Some reviewers have criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series , while some have said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this .
Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the " craziness " of the game world makes the cases entertaining , but also that it " resonates on a deeper level " due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system , making the setting still feel relevant in 2014 . Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time , and that the series ' strength is how each game builds up to a " stunning and satisfying finale " . Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing , praising its balance between " light @-@ hearted nonsense " and darker , more serious scenarios . Several reviewers have appreciated the series ' characters ; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya 's banter is among the best in video games , and that Edgeworth 's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories .
Several reviewers have praised the series ' music . Thew said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design , with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform ; he called the music phenomenal , with the exception of that in Justice for All , but said the sound effects are what " steals the show " . Mackey commented that the games ' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization .
= = Related media and other appearances = =
The Takarazuka Revue , an all @-@ female theater troupe , has adapted the series into stage musicals : 2009 's Ace Attorney : Truth Resurrected , which is based on the last episode of the first game ; 2010 's Ace Attorney 2 : Truth Resurrected Again , whose first act is an original story , while its second act is based on the final episode of the second game ; and 2013 's Ace Attorney 3 : Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again . A stage play based on the series , titled Gyakuten no Spotlight , ran in 2013 , and was written by Eisaku Saito . A 2012 live @-@ action film adaptation of the first game , titled Ace Attorney , was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike . A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series , Ace Attorney , is being produced at A @-@ 1 Pictures and is directed by Ayumu Watanabe . Kodansha has published several manga based on the series : a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006 ; Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009 , respectively ; and another manga , which is based on the anime , will be published in V Jump in 2016 . A novel based on the series , Gyakuten Saiban : Turnabout Idol , is planned to be released in 2016 . Ace Attorney drama CDs and albums with Ace Attorney music have also been released .
Ace Attorney characters have made cross @-@ over appearances in other video games . Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She @-@ Hulk 's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ; in the game 's update , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , Phoenix appears as a playable character . Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2 , while Edgeworth makes a non @-@ playable appearance . Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master : Doko Don ! Mystery Adventure , with Phoenix making an appearance in the game 's story .
= Cambodian Campaign =
The Cambodian Campaign ( also known as the Cambodian Incursion and the Cambodian Invasion ) was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during 1970 by the United States and the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) ( NRA ) during the Vietnam War . These invasions were a result of the policy of President Richard Nixon . A total of 13 major operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) between 29 April and 22 July and by US forces between 1 May and 30 June .
The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 troops of the People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF , also known as Viet Cong ) who were ensconced in the eastern border regions of Cambodia . Cambodia 's official neutrality and military weakness made its territory effectively a safe zone where Vietnamese communist forces could establish bases for operations over the border . With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal , the US sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government 's security by eliminating the cross @-@ border threat .
A change in the Cambodian government allowed a window of opportunity for the destruction of the base areas in 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro @-@ US General Lon Nol . Allied military operations failed to eliminate many communist troops or to capture their elusive headquarters , known as the Central Office for South Vietnam ( COSVN ) , but the haul of captured material in Cambodia prompted claims of success .
= = Preliminaries = =
= = = Background = = =
The People 's Army of Vietnam had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked . These base areas were also utilized by the Vietnamese communists to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail . PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963 . In 1966 , Prince Norodom Sihanouk , ruler of Cambodia , convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule , had concluded an agreement with the People 's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply .
During 1968 , Cambodia 's indigenous communist movement , labeled Khmer Rouge ( Red Khmers ) by Sihanouk , began an insurgency to overthrow the government . While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time ( the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk , since it was satisfied with his continued " neutrality " ) , they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN / NLF troops .
The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia , but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position . To accomplish this , President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross @-@ border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN / NLF activities in the border regions ( Project Vesuvius ) . This intelligence data would then be presented to the prince in an effort to change his mind .
= = = Menu , coup and North Vietnamese offensive = = =
The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , General Creighton W. Abrams , recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after his inauguration that the Cambodian Base Areas be attacked by aerial bombardment utilizing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . The president initially refused , but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN 's " Mini @-@ Tet " Offensive of 1969 within South Vietnam . Nixon , angered at what he perceived as a violation of the " agreement " with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam , authorized the covert air campaign . The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3 @,@ 000 sorties had been flown and 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance had been dropped on eastern Cambodia .
While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970 , government @-@ sponsored anti @-@ Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia . Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister / Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours . The prince , outraged that his " modus vivendi " with the communists had been disturbed , immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia .
On 18 March , the Cambodian National Assembly deposed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state . This led Sihanouk to immediately establish a government @-@ in @-@ exile in Beijing and to ally himself with North Vietnam , the Khmer Rouge , the NLF , and the Laotian Pathet Lao . In doing so , Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control . The North Vietnamese response to the coup was swift . PAVN began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge , and Cambodia plunged into civil war .
Lon Nol saw Cambodia 's population of 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment . Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror , murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians . On 15 April for example , 800 Vietnamese men had been rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar , tied together , executed , and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River . They then floated downstream into South Vietnam . Cambodia 's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments .
Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down , PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos ( the Ho Chi Minh trail ) into northeastern Cambodia . PAVN also launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) against the Cambodian army , quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country , isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham . Communist forces then approached within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the capital , Phnom Penh , spurring President Nixon into action .
On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Phnom Penh . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .
= = = Planning = = =
In response to events in Cambodia , President Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response . With Sihanouk gone , conditions were ripe for strong measures against the Base Areas . He was also adamant that some action be taken to support " The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty @-@ five years that had the guts to take a pro @-@ Western stand . " The president then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV , who presented him with a series of options : a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast ; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes ; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces ; or a ground invasion by ARVN , U.S. forces , or both .
During a televised address on 20 April , Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150 @,@ 000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year . This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia . By the spring of 1970 , MACV still maintained 330 @,@ 648 U.S. Army and 55 @,@ 039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam , most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions . Many of them , however , were preparing to leave the country or expected to leave in the near future and would not be available for immediate combat operations .
On 22 April Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot 's Beak ( named for its perceived shape on a map ) , believing that " Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization . " On the following day , Secretary of State William P. Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that " the administration had no intentions ... to escalate the war . We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program [ Vietnamization ] is defeated . "
South Vietnamese forces had been rehearsing for just such an operation since late March . On 27 April , an ARVN Ranger Battalion had advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a communist base . Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory . Lon Nol , who had initially attempted to follow a neutralist policy of his own , requested military aid and assistance from the U.S. government on 14 April . On that day , South Vietnamese forces then conducted the first of three brief cross @-@ border operations under the aegis of Operation Toan Thang ( Complete Victory ) 41 , sending armored cavalry units into regions of Cambodia 's Svay Rieng Province nicknamed the Angel 's Wing and the Crow 's Nest . On 20 April , 2 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops advanced into the Parrot 's Beak , killing 144 PAVN troops . On 22 April , Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations . All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger @-@ scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts , subject to authorization by Nixon .
President Nixon then authorized General Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region . A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March , but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to General Michael Davison , commander of the II Field Force , he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch . Seventy @-@ two hours later , Davison 's plan was submitted to the White House . National Security Advisor Dr. Henry Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April , and the NSC staffer was appalled by its " sloppiness " .
The main problems were the pressure of time and the desire of the U.S. president for secrecy . The Cambodian monsoon , whose heavy rains would hamper operations , was only two months away . By the order of the president , the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy , Saigon , the Phnom Penh embassy , or Lon Nol of the planning . Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it . There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build @-@ up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists . U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive , while battalion commanders got only two or three days ' notice .
= = = Decisions = = =
Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient . Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird and Secretary Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris ( they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons ) . Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their " bureaucratic foot @-@ dragging . " As a result , Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation .
On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger . Afterward , they screened one of Nixon 's favorite movies , Patton , a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton , Jr . , which he had seen five times previously . Kissinger later commented that " When he was pressed to the wall , his [ Nixon 's ] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton . "
The following evening , Nixon decided that " We would go for broke " and gave his authorization for the incursion . The joint U.S. / ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of : reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam ; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces ; and enhancing the U.S. / Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris .
In order to keep the campaign as low @-@ key as possible , General Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon . At 21 : 00 on 30 April , however , President Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that " It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight " and that " the time has come for action . " He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN , " the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam . " COSVN as a single headquarters for control of PAVN operations in South Vietnam probably did not exist , or , at least , was never found .
= = Operations = =
= = = Previous ARVN attacks = = =
Coordinating with Lon Nol ARVN forces attacked the PRG headquarter complexes . Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March elements of the PRG and NLF were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter . Surrounded they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by the NLF 7th division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratie province in what would come to be known as Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government . Trương Như Tảng was the Minister of Justice in the PRG and he recounts that during the march to the northern bases was day after day of forced marches broken up by B @-@ 52 bombing raids . Just before the column crossed route 7 on their way north they received word that on 3 April the 9th Division had fought and won a battle near the city of Krek , Cambodia against ARVN forces .
Years later Trương would recall just how " close [ South Vietnamese ] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance – elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership " . After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases , and relative safety , in the Kratie region . Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa , the deputy minister of health in the Provisional Revolutionary Government ( PRG ) . The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march .
= = = Parrot 's Beak and Fishhook = = =
South Vietnamese forces had already crossed the border on 30 April , launching Operation Toan Thang 42 . 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8 @,@ 700 troops ( two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th Division and 5th Infantry Divisions , an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division , and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regt from the 3rd Ranger Group ) crossed into the Parrot 's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province . The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of III Corps , who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals . During their first two days in Cambodia , ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces . The North Vietnamese , forewarned by previous ARVN incursions , however , conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west .
The ARVN operation soon settled down to become a search and destroy mission , with South Vietnamese troops combing the countryside in small patrols looking for PAVN supply caches . Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of the 9th Infantry Division . Four tank @-@ infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot 's Beak from the south . After three days of operations , ARVN claimed 1 @,@ 010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead and 330 wounded .
On 1 May an even larger operation , known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rockcrusher , got underway as 36 B @-@ 52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook . This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter @-@ bombers . At 10 : 00 , the 1st Air Cav Division , the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment , the 1st ARVN Armoured Cavalry Regiment , and the 3rd ARVN Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province of Cambodia . Known as Task Force Shoemaker ( after General Robert M. Shoemaker , the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division ) , the force attacked the long @-@ time communist stronghold with 10 @,@ 000 U.S. and 5 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops . The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter .
Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy , but PAVN / NLF forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began . By 3 May , MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded , low casualties for such a large operation . There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the U.S. 11th Armoured Cavalry three kilometers inside Cambodia . PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes . When the smoke had cleared , 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action .
1st Battalion / 7th Cavalry , 3rd Brigade 1st Cavalry Division was in the Fishhook very early May through 30 June when they crossed the river back into Vietnam . There was extremely heavy combat throughout the period . American losses were very heavy , with all units relying on heavy inflow of replacements to try to maintain at least half strength in the field . In one company , of all the men who had entered Cambodia , only nine left on 30 June , the rest having been either killed or wounded and evacuated . The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award , equivalent to individual Silver Stars , for their combat performance in the Fishhook .
The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack . A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B @-@ 3 Front , captured during the incursion , ordered PAVN / NLF forces to " break away and avoid shooting back ... Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can " . The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol , who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country . He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the head of the U.S. mission , who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast .
The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at the town of Snoul , the suspected terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7 , 13 , and 131 . Elements of the U.S. 11th Armored Cavalry and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield . When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance , the Americans backed off , called in air support and blasted the town for two days , reducing it to rubble . During the action , Brigadier General Donn A. Starry , commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry , was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated .
= = = Hunting supply caches = = =
On the following day , elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry division entered what came to be known as " The City " , southwest of Snoul . The two @-@ square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts , storage sheds , and bunkers , each of which was packed with food , weapons , and ammunition . There were truck repair facilities , hospitals , a lumber yard , 18 mess halls , a pig farm , and even a swimming pool . Forty kilometers to the northeast , other 1st Cavalry Division elements discovered a larger base on 6 May . Nicknamed " Rock Island East " after the U.S. Army 's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois , the area contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million rounds of anti @-@ aircraft ammunition , 500 @,@ 000 rifle rounds , thousands of rockets , several General Motors trucks , and large quantities of communications equipment .
While on patrol 20 kilometers northeast of " Rock Island East " on 23 May , a point man nicknamed Shakey ( Chris Keffalos ) from the 5th Battalion , 7th Cavalry , tripped over a metal plate buried just below the surface of the ground . The trooper was later killed by PAVN defenders , but the cache he had uncovered was the first of 59 buried storage bunkers at the site of what was thereafter known as " Shakey 's Hill " . The bunkers contained thousands of cases of weapons and ammunition , all of which were turned over to the Cambodian army . Much of the captured enemy material was turned over to the MACV Special Support Group for Cambodia where it was maintained and then issued to Lon Nol 's Forces . This group was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Will H. Horn .
The one thing that was not found was COSVN . On 1 May a tape of Nixon 's announcement of the incursion was played for General Abrams , " who must have cringed " when he heard the president state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation . MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely- dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate . In response to a White House query before the fact , MACV had replied that " major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle " and that " the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote " .
After the first week of operations , additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation , so that between 6 and 24 May , a total of 90 @,@ 000 Allied troops ( including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions ) were conducting operations inside Cambodia . Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S. , President Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam .
South Vietnamese forces were not constrained by the time and geographic limitations placed upon U.S. units . From the provincial capital of Svay Rieng , ARVN elements pressed westward to Kampong Trabek , where on 14 May their 8th and 15th Armored Cavalry regiments defeated the 88th PAVN Infantry Regiment . On 23 May , the South Vietnamese pushed beyond the deepest U.S. penetrations and attacked the town of Krek .
= = = Binh Tay and Cuu Long = = =
In the II Corps area , Operation Binh Tay I ( Operation Tame the West ) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the 40th ARVN Infantry Regiment against Base Area 702 ( the traditional headquarters of the communist B @-@ 2 Front ) in northeastern Cambodia from 5 – 25 May . Following airstrikes , the initial American forces , assaulting via helicopter , were driven back by intense anti @-@ aircraft fire . On the following day , the 3rd Battalion , 506th Infantry ( on loan from the U.S. 101st Airborne Division ) , landed without opposition . Its sister unit , the 1st Battalion , 14th Infantry was also unopposed . The 3rd Battalion of the 8th Infantry , however , inserted only 60 men before intense PAVN fire ( which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others ) shut down the landing zone , leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight . By the following morning , PAVN forces had left the area .
On the 7th , the division 's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed . After ten days ( and only one significant firefight ) the American troops returned to South Vietnam , leaving the area to the ARVN . Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that " there was a noted lack of aggressiveness " in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be " suffering from almost total combat paralysis . " During Operation Binh Tay II , the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 702 from 14 – 26 May . The second phase of the operation was carried out by ARVN forces against Base Area 701 between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 22nd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740 .
On 10 May , Bravo Company , 3rd Battalion , 506th Regiment , 101st Airborne Division , was ambushed by a much larger North Vietnamese force in the Se San Valley . Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded . Among the killed was Spc . Leslie Sabo , Jr . ( posthumously promoted to sergeant ) , who was recommended for the Medal of Honor , but the paperwork went missing until 1999 . Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama .
In the III Corps Tactical Zone , Operation Toan Thang 44 ( Operation Bold Lancer ) , was conducted by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 25th Infantry Division between 6 May and 30 June . The targets of the operation were Base Areas 353 , 354 , and 707 located north and northeast of Tay Ninh , South Vietnam . Once again , a hunt for COSVN units was conducted , this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and , once again , the search was futile . During its operations , the 25th Infantry killed 1 @,@ 017 PAVN and NLF troops while losing 119 of its own men killed .
Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44 , the two battalions of the 3rd Brigade , U.S. 9th Infantry Division , crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the Dog 's Face from 7 through 12 May . The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near the hamlet of Chantrea , where 51 North Vietnamese were killed and another 21 were captured . During the operation , the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded . It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution , but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could now be evacuated to safety . South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave . The new relationship did not , however , prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left .
Thieu then authorized Operation Cuu Long , in which ARVN ground forces , including mechanized and armoured units , drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May – 1 July . A combined force of 110 Vietnamese Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng , permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh and to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam . Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled . Surprisingly , North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation , though they could easily have done so .
Other operations conducted from IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II ( 16 – 24 May ) , which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong . Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kompong Speu , a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles ( 140 km ) inside Cambodia . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ man ARVN armoured task force linked up with Cambodian ground troops and then retook the town . Operation Cuu Long III ( 24 May – 30 June ) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia .
After rescuing the Vietnamese from the Cambodians , ARVN was tasked with saving the Cambodians from the North Vietnamese . The goal was to relieve the city of Kompong Cham , 70 kilometers northwest of the capital and the site of the headquarters of Cambodia 's Military Region I. On 23 May , General Tri led a column of 10 @,@ 000 ARVN troops along Route 7 to the 180 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 73 km2 ) Chup rubber plantation , where PAVN resistance was expected to be heavy . Surprisingly , no battle ensued and the siege of Kompong Cham was lifted at a cost of 98 PAVN troops killed .
= = = Air support and logistics = = =
Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start . Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention . The role of the Air Force in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best , in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border .
On 17 April , General Abrams requested that the president approve Operation Patio , covert tactical airstrikes in support of Studies and Observations Group recon elements " across the fence " in Cambodia . This authorization was given , allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles ( 21 km ) into northeastern Cambodia . This boundary was extended to 29 miles ( 47 km ) along the entire frontier on 25 April . Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown . The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May .
During the incursion itself , U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9 @,@ 878 aerial sorties ( 6 @,@ 012 U.S. / 2 @,@ 966 Vietnamese Air Force ) , an average of 210 per day . During operations in the Fishhook , for example , the USAF flew 3 @,@ 047 sorties and the South Vietnamese Air Force 332 . These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B @-@ 52 missions in the border regions ( 71 supporting Binh Tay operations , 559 for Toan Thang operations , and 23 for Cuu Long ) . 30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal ( named as of 6 June ) , a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia . These missions were limited to a depth of 48 @-@ kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River .
Within two months , however , the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong , and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field . These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence . Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8 @,@ 000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971 , approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized Freedom Deal boundary .
The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied . Once again , the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation . This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight . Aerial resupply , therefore , became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units . Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone .
Due to the rapid pace of operations , deployment , and redeployment , coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations . This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units . The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network . Regardless , due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise , supplies of food , water , ammunition , and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system , although complicated , functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations .
= = Aftermath = =
The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and , if possible , to fall back westward and regroup . PAVN forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN / B @-@ 3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began . During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict . As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route , North Vietnamese forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year , pushing what had been a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) corridor to a width of 90 miles ( 140 km ) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia . A new logistical command , the 470th Transportation Group , was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new " Liberation Route " ran through Siem Prang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng .
As foreseen by Secretary Laird , fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America 's universities , as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country . On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students ( two of whom were not protesters ) during the Kent State shootings . Two days later , at the University at Buffalo , police wounded four more demonstrators . On 8 May 100 @,@ 000 protesters gathered in Washington and another 150 @,@ 000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice . Nationwide , 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police . National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states . The student strike spread nationwide , involving more than four million students and 450 universities , colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts .
Simultaneously , public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of President Nixon 's actions . Fifty @-@ eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State . On both sides , emotions ran high . In one instance , in New York City on 8 May , pro @-@ administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students . Such violence , however , was an aberration . Most demonstrations , both pro- and anti @-@ war , were peaceful . On 20 May 100 @,@ 000 construction workers , tradesmen , and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of the president 's policies .
Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift . Senators Frank F. Church ( Democratic Party , Idaho ) and John S. Cooper ( Republican Party , Kentucky ) , proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia , but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces . On 30 June the United States Senate passed the act with the amendment included . The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled . The newly amended act did , however , rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution ( better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution ) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war .
The Cooper – Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970 . This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December . As a result , all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia , while the air war being conducted in both countries by the U.S. Air Force was ignored .
= = Conclusion = =
President Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be " the most successful military operation of the entire war . " General Abrams was of like mind , believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972 . A " decent interval " had been obtained for the final American withdrawal . ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical : " despite its spectacular results ... it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved , in the long run , to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam 's march toward domination of all of Laos , Cambodia , and South Vietnam . "
John Shaw and other historians , military and civilian , have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective . The next large @-@ scale North Vietnamese offensive , the Nguyen Hue Offensive of 1972 ( called the Easter Offensive in the West ) would be launched out of southern North Vietnam and western Laos , not from Cambodia , was cited as proof positive that the Cambodian operations had succeeded . The fact that PAVN forces were otherwise occupied in Cambodia and had no such offensive plan ( so far as is known ) was seemingly irrelevant . The fact that logistically , a northern offensive ( especially a conventional one backed by armour and heavy artillery ) would be launched closer to its source of manpower and supply also seemed to be of little consequence .
The logistical haul discovered , removed , or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious : 20 @,@ 000 individual and 2 @,@ 500 crew @-@ served weapons ; 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 tons of rice ; 1 @,@ 800 tons of ammunition ( including 143 @,@ 000 mortar shells , rockets , and recoilless rifle rounds ) ; 29 tons of communications equipment ; 431 vehicles ; and 55 tons of medical supplies . MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN / NLF forces in southern Vietnam required 1 @,@ 222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations . Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos , MACV estimated that for every 2 @.@ 5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail , only one ton reached its destination . However , the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent . General Abrams claimed 11 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 500 captured , but his figures were disputed by CIA , who insisted that civilians death were figured into Abrams 's total
South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven . General Tri proved a resourceful and inspiring commander , earning the sobriquet the " Patton of the Parrot 's Beak " from the American media . General Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyen Viet Thanh , commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot 's Beak operation . Unfortunately for the anti @-@ communists , both officers were killed in helicopter crashes — Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Tri in February 1971 . Other ARVN commanders , however , had not performed well . Even at this late date in the conflict , the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence . As a test of Vietnamization , the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike , but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone . The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim . When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos ( Operation Lam Son 719 ) in 1971 , the ARVN 's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent .
The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way . It has been argued by some scholars that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause .
= = = = Unpublished government documents = = = =
Military Assistance Command , Vietnam , Command History 1967 , Annex F. Saigon , 1968 .
= = = = Published government documents = = = =
Gilster , Herman L. The Air War in Southeast Asia : Case Studies of Selected Campaigns . Maxwell Air Force Base AL : Air University Press , 1993 .
Nalty , Bernard C. Air War Over South Vietnam : 1968 – 1975 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2000 .
Nalty , Bernard C. War Against Trucks : Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos , 1968 – 1972 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2005 .
A War Too Long : The USAF in Southeast Asia , 1961 @-@ 1975
Foreign Relations Series
VIETNAM , JULY 1970 – JANUARY 1972
VIETNAM , JANUARY 1969 – JULY 1970
= = = = Secondary accounts = = = =
Chandler , David P. The Tragedy of Cambodian History . New Haven CT : Yale University Press , 1991 .
Deac , Wilfred , Road to the Killing Fields : The Cambodian Civil War of 1970 – 1975 . College Station TX : Texas A & M University , 1997 .
Fulghum , David , Terrence Maitland , et al . South Vietnam on Trial : Mid @-@ 1970 – 1972 . Boston ; Boston Publishing Company , 1984 .
Gitlin , Todd , The Sixties : Years of Hope , Days of Rage . New York : Bantam Books , 1987 .
Karnow , Stanley , Vietnam : A History . New York : Viking Books , 1983 .
Kennedy , Denis , Tracks in the Jungle in The Army at War . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1987 .
Lipsman , Samuel , Edward Doyle , et al . Fighting for Time : 1969 – 1970 . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1983 .
Morocco , John , Operation Menu in War in the Shadows . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1988 .
Morocco , John , Rain of Fire : Air War , 1969 – 1973 Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1985 .
Nolan , Keith W. Into Cambodia : Spring Campaign , Summer Offensive , 1970 . Novato CA : Presidio Press , 1990 .
Palmer , Dave Richard ( 1978 ) . Summons of the Trumpet : The History of the Vietnam War from a Military Man 's Viewpoint . New York : Ballantine .
Prados , John , The Blood Road : The Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Vietnam War . New York : John Wiley and Sons , 1998 .
Shaw , John M. The Cambodian Campaign : The 1970 Offensive and America 's Vietnam War . Lawrence KS : University of Kansas Press , 2005 .
Shawcross , William , Sideshow : Kissinger , Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia . New York : Washington Square Books , 1979 .
Sorley , Lewis ( 1999 ) . A Better War : The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America 's Last Years in Vietnam . New York : Harvest Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 601309 @-@ 6 .
Stanton , Shelby L. ( 1985 ) . The Rise and Fall of an American Army : U.S. Ground Forces in Vietnam , 1965 – 1973 . New York : Dell . ISBN 0 @-@ 89141 @-@ 232 @-@ 8 .
Tảng , Truong Như ; David Chanoff , Van Toai Doan ( 1985 ) . A Vietcong memoir ( 1985 ed . ) . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 193636 @-@ 6 . - Total pages : 350
= = = = TIME coverage = = = =
" Upsetting the Balance " . Time . 23 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Danger and Opportunity in Indochina " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Royal Jugglers of Southeast Asia " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Mounting Uneasiness in Southeast Asia " . Time . 6 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Nixon Doctrine 's Test in Indochina " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Three @-@ Theater War " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina 's Crumbling Frontiers " . Time . 20 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" A New Horror in Indochina " . Time . 27 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Communists on the Rampage " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Between the Lines " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The New Burdens of War " . Time . 11 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" At War with War " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" In Search of an Elusive Foe " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Ten Days — or Ten Years " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Congress v. the President " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Now It 's ' Operation Buy Time ' " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Exodus on the Mekong " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Nixon 's Campaign for Confidence " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Toward War by Proxy " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Senate : Unloving Acts " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Widening Cracks in Nixon 's Cabinet " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : A Cocky New ARVN " . Time . 8 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina : More and More Fighters " . Time . 15 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" No Confidence on Cambodia " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina : The Rising Tide of War " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" New Dangers in Cambodia " . Time . 29 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Cambodian Venture : An Assessment " . Time . 6 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Struggle for Survival " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Winding Up the Cambodian Hard Sell " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Gloom in the Land of Smiles " . Time . 27 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Discreet US Presence " . Time . 3 August 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
= Verpa bohemica =
Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae . Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a " false morel " . The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like convolutions . The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Microscopically , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per ascus .
In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem . Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals . Poisoning symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination . V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia . It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of " true morels " ( genus Morchella ) . The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European mycologists .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica . The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 . Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications . Boudier believed that the large , curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species . Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa . The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .
The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where Krombholz originally collected the species . The mushroom is commonly known as the " early morel " , " early false morel " , or the " wrinkled thimble @-@ cap " . Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek pty | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
the CBSE , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( U.P Board ) . The overall " state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . " Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools outperforming government schools . In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children . Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as blackboards and sufficient desks and chairs for all students . Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms . Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families . Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations . Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .
= = Sport = =
Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi . The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr Sampurnanda Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held . Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. Bheeem Rao sports complex .
The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers diploma courses in Sports Management , Sports Physiotherapy , Sports Psychology and Sports Journalism .
Gymnastics is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts akhadas , where " morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman " forms a daily ritual . Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .
The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( VDCSA ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( UPCSA ) . Udai Pratap Autonomous College is also known for its world class athletes like Prashanti Singh .
= = Transport = =
Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road . One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country . Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three wheelers but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .
Varanasi is served by Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in Babatpur . The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 . Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet Konnect , IndiGo , and SpiceJet operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , Gaya , Kathmandu , Khajuraho , Sharjah , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata . Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .
Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi Cant Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station . More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day . Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the Udhna Varanasi Express that runs between Udhna ( Surat ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( 869 mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi InterCity express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the Sabarmati Express which runs between Varanasi and Ahmedabad . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi . National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to Gorakhpur via Ghazipur to the northeast . National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via Jaunpur and Sultanpur , to the northwest . National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , Madurai , Tirunelveli , and Kanyakumari . Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city . In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .
= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =
Varanasi is twinned with :
Kyoto , Japan
= Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory =
The Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory is a historical observatory located on the grounds of the University of Toronto , in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The original building was constructed in 1840 as part of a worldwide research project run by Edward Sabine to determine the cause of fluctuations in magnetic declination . Measurements from the Toronto site demonstrated that sunspots were responsible for this effect on Earth 's magnetic field . When this project concluded in 1853 , the observatory was greatly expanded by the Canadian government and served as the country 's primary meteorological station and official timekeeper for over fifty years . The observatory is considered the birthplace of Canadian astronomy .
= = Sabine 's study = =
Compasses tended to " wander " from north when measurements were taken at different locations or even at a single location over a period of time . The astronomer Edmund Halley noted this and the problems it would cause for navigation in 1701 . It was also believed that whatever was causing this effect might be causing changes in the weather , and that studying magnetic variations might lead to better weather prediction .
In 1833 the British Association for the Advancement of Science commissioned a series of magnetic measurements across the United Kingdom . Under the direction of Major Edward Sabine of the Royal Artillery , a multi @-@ year measuring project began , with the results to be published in 1838 . As the measurements were being made a number of proposals were put forth to expand the program worldwide . In 1836 the German explorer and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt wrote to Prince Augustus Frederick , Duke of Sussex , then President of the Royal Society , stating that a formal program was important to a nation with dominions spread across the globe . At the seventh meeting of the British Association in Liverpool in 1837 , Sabine declared that " the magnetism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical history of the planet we inhabit " and mapping its variations would be " regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achievement of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous undertaking " .
In 1837 , the British Government funded the installation of a magnetic observatory at Greenwich . The Association continued to press for the construction of similar observatories around the world , and in 1838 their suggestions were accepted by the Government and funds were provided . In 1839 the British Government and the Royal Society prepared four expeditions to build magnetic observation stations in Cape Town ; St. Helena ; Hobart , Tasmania and ( eventually ) Toronto . Teams of Royal Artillery officers were sent out to take the measurements . The team assigned to Canada originally planned to build their observatory on Saint Helen 's Island off Montreal , but the local rocks proved to have a high magnetic influence , and the decision was made to move to Toronto instead . The team arrived in 1839 , and set up camp at Fort York in a disused barracks while construction started on new buildings . The observatory was given 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land to the west of King 's College ; the Ontario Legislature now occupies the area on which the college was located .
The observatory , officially " Her Majesty 's Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto " , was completed the following year . It consisted of two log buildings , one for the magnetic instruments and the other a smaller semi @-@ buried building nearby for " experimental determinations " . The north end of the main building was connected to a small conical dome which contained a theodolite used to make astronomical measurements for the accurate determination of the local time . The buildings were constructed with as little metal as possible ; when metal was required , non @-@ magnetic materials such as brass or copper were used . A small barracks was built nearby to house the crew .
Using the measurements from the Toronto and Hobart sites , Sabine noticed both short @-@ term fluctuations in magnetic declination over a period of hours , and longer @-@ term variations over months . He quickly concluded that the short term variations were due to the day / night cycle , while the longer term ones were due to the number of visible sunspots . He published two introductory papers on the topic in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . The first , in 1851 , was a collection of early measurements ; the second in 1852 correlated with Heinrich Schwabe 's sunspot measurements , which had been made widely available in Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos , also published in 1851 . With further data collected from the Toronto site , Sabine was able to demonstrate conclusively that the eleven @-@ year sunspot cycle caused a similarly periodic variation in the Earth 's magnetic field . He presented a third and conclusive paper on the topic in 1856 , " On Periodical Laws Discoverable in the Mean Effects of the Larger Magnetic Disturbances " , in which he singled out the Toronto site for particular praise .
Sir John Henry Lefroy , a pioneer in the study of terrestrial magnetism served as director of the magnetic observatory from 1842 to 1853 ; In 1960 , the Ontario Heritage Foundation , Ministry of Citizenship and Culture erected a Provincial Military Plaque in his honour on the University of Toronto campus .
= = Meteorological service = =
In 1853 the Royal Society 's project was concluded , and the observatory was set to be abandoned . After a lengthy debate , the fledgling colonial government decided to take over its operation . Rather than disappearing like its three counterparts , the Toronto observatory was upgraded , and its mission was expanded as it became a meteorological station ( see Meteorological Service of Canada ) under the direction of the Ministry of Marine and Fisheries . During the expansion , the original buildings were replaced with a permanent structure .
The new building was designed in 1853 by local architect Frederick Cumberland , who was also working on the design of University College , which was being built just north of the Observatory to replace King 's College . The new observatory design called for a stone building , with an attached tower containing the theodolite . The new building was completed in 1855 , and stood directly opposite the entrance of today 's Convocation Hall .
During its time as a meteorological station , the observatory collected reports from 312 observation stations in Canada and another 36 in the United States . Each station was equipped with a " Mercurial Barometer , two Thermometers ( a maximum and a minimum Thermometer ) , an Anemometer to measure the velocity of the wind , a Wind Vane and a Rain Gauge " . Reports were sent in coded form to the Observatory at 8 am and 8 pm every day , Eastern Standard Time ( then known as " 75th meridian time " ) , and used to produce a chart predicting the weather for the following 36 hours . These predictions were then telegraphed across the country , and charts were distributed to newspapers and the Board of Trade , where they could be viewed by the public . With the installation of telephones , the Observatory also offered weather reports on demand , which was an important service to fruit vendors , who used the reports to plan shipping .
Among its other uses , in 1880 , measurements from the site were used as part of the effort to develop standard time . The observatory remained the official timekeeper for Canada until 1905 , when that responsibility was transferred to Ottawa 's Dominion Observatory . At exactly 11 : 55 am the clocks in Toronto fire halls were rung by an electrical signal from the Observatory .
In 1881 the observatory 's director , Charles Carpmeal , suggested adding a high @-@ quality telescope to the observatory . He felt that direct solar observations would lead to a better understanding of sunspot effects on weather ( as late as 1910 the observatory 's then @-@ director , R. F. Stupart , noted that " sun spots have more to do with our weather conditions than have the rings around the moon . " ) . Coincidentally , the Canadian government ( having formed in 1867 ) was interested in taking part in the major international effort to accurately record the December 1882 Transit of Venus .
Funds were provided for the purchase of a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) refracting telescope from T. Cooke & Sons . The dome was originally designed to mount a small transit , and the lengthy telescope , over 2 metres long , had a limited field of view though the dome 's opening . A large stone pillar was constructed inside the tower , raising the telescope to bring it closer to the dome and improve its field of view . Unfortunately , the new telescope was unable to take part in the transit measurements due to bad weather , and missed the 1895 Transit of Mercury for the same reason .
= = Relocation = =
By the 1890s , the observatory had become crowded by the rapidly growing university . Electrification of the tramways along College Street just to the south , and the large quantities of metal used in the modern buildings surrounding the site threw off the instruments . A new magnetic observatory opened in 1898 in Agincourt , at that time largely empty fields , [ 1 ] leaving the downtown campus location with its meteorological and solar observation duties .
By 1907 , new university buildings completely surrounded the observatory ; dust from the construction clogged meteorological instruments , and at night electric lighting made astronomical work impossible . The Meteorological Office decided to abandon the site and move to a new building at the north end of campus on Bloor Street , trading the original Observatory to the University in exchange for the new parcel of land . There was some discussion regarding what to do with the Cooke telescope , since the Meteorological Office had little use for this purely astronomical instrument . No other use was immediately forthcoming , and the telescope moved along with the Meteorological Office to their new Bloor Street Observatory .
The university assumed ownership of the now @-@ disused observatory building and was originally going to abandon it . Louis Beaufort Stewart , a lecturer in the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , campaigned for it to be saved for the Department of Surveying and Geodesy . He eventually arranged for the building to be re @-@ constructed on a more suitable site . Demolition work was carried out in 1907 : the stones were simply left in place over the winter , and were used the following year to construct a re @-@ arranged building just east of the main University College building ( south of Hart House ) .
In 1930 the Meteorological Office no longer used the Cooke telescope , and agreed to donate it to the university if they would handle its removal . Both the telescope and the observatory dome were moved to the observatory building . The telescope moved once again in 1952 to the David Dunlap Observatory north of the city , and in 1984 it was donated to the Canada Science and Technology Museum . The Department of Surveying and Geodesy used the observatory until the 1950s . Since then the office areas have been used for a variety of purposes , including a police substation and a telephone switchboard . Renamed as the Louis Beaufort Stewart Observatory , the building was handed over to the Students ' Administrative Council ( now University of Toronto Students ' Union ) in 1953 , which has used the building since then . The dome , now unused , receives a yearly multi @-@ colour paint job by engineering students .
= 1973 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1973 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season to use the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , a scale developed in 1971 by Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson to rate the intensity of tropical cyclones . The season produced 24 tropical and subtropical cyclones , of which only 8 reached storm intensity , 4 became hurricanes , and only 1 reached major hurricane status . Although more active than the 1972 season , 1973 brought few storms of note . Nearly half of the season 's storms affected land , one of which resulted in severe damage .
The season officially began on June 1 , 1973 , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first system formed on April 18 , more than a month before the official start . Three more depressions formed before June 1 ; however , none attained storm intensity . The first named storm of the year was Hurricane Alice which formed on July 1 and became the first known cyclone to affect Bermuda during July . More than a month later , the second hurricane , Brenda , formed and was considered the worst storm to strike Mexico along the eastern coast of the Bay of Campeche , killing 10 people .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone on record when it developed formed over Guinea . The most intense storm of the season was Hurricane Ellen , a Category 3 cyclone that remained over open water . The final named storm was meteorologically significant in that it became the first recorded tropical cyclone to transition into a subtropical cyclone . No names were retired during the season ; however , due to the addition of male names into the list of Atlantic hurricane names in 1979 , several of the names were removed and have not been used since .
= = Season summary = =
The first storm of the 1973 hurricane season , forming in mid @-@ April , developed more than a month before the official start of the season . Several other short @-@ lived , weak depressions formed before and during June ; however , none reached storm intensity . The first named storm , Alice , formed on July 1 . Tracking generally to the north , Alice also became the first hurricane of the season as well as the first known cyclone to impact Bermuda during July . Shortly after Alice dissipated over Atlantic Canada , another depression formed . By the end of July , two more non @-@ developing depressions formed and the first subtropical cyclone , given the name Alfa , developed off the east coast of the United States . This storm was short @-@ lived and dissipated on August 2 just offshore southern Maine . The first half August was relatively quiet , with only one depression forming . However , later in the month , the season 's second hurricane , Brenda , formed in the northwestern Caribbean . Peaking just below Category 2 status on the newly introduced Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , Brenda made the first recorded landfall in the Mexican State of Campeche .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record , developing over the western African country of Guinea on August 25 . The system traveled for several thousand miles before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea in early September . At the start of the month , a new tropical storm formed in the Gulf of Mexico . This storm , named Delia , became the first known cyclone to make landfall in the same city twice . After moving inland a second time , Delia eventually dissipated on September 7 . As Delia dissipated another depression formed in the same region , eventually making landfall in the same city as Delia , Freeport , Texas . Another brief depression formed several days later . On September 13 , the strongest storm of the season , Ellen , formed over the eastern Atlantic . After tracking northwest for several days , Ellen eventually attained hurricane status as it turned westward . Several days later , the hurricane turned northeast due to an approaching frontal system . Shortly before becoming extratropical , Ellen reached major hurricane intensity at a record northerly latitude .
In late September , a brief depression affected northern Florida before dissipating . After a week of inactivity , the second subtropical storm of the year formed over the central Atlantic . This storm , named Bravo , gradually intensified , becoming fully tropical , at which time it was renamed Fran , a few days later . Upon being renamed , Fran had intensified into a hurricane and maintained this intensity for several days before dissipating east of the Azores on October 12 . A few days after Fran dissipated , the final named storm of the year formed in the central Caribbean Sea . A slow moving system , Gilda gradually intensified just below hurricane @-@ intensity before striking Cuba and moving over the Bahamas . A few days after passing through the islands , Gilda became the first storm on record to transition from a tropical cyclone into a subtropical cyclone . A large storm , Gilda eventually became extratropical near Atlantic Canada and dissipated later that month . Around the time Gilda was dissipating , a weak depression briefly existed near the Azores . The final storm of the year was a strong depression in the southern Caribbean Sea . This system was active for less than two days but may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity as it made landfall in southern Nicaragua .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alice = = =
The first named storm formed out of the interaction between tropical wave and a mid @-@ level tropospheric trough northeast of the Bahamas in late @-@ June . A well @-@ defined circulation became apparent by June 30 and satellite images depicted cyclonic banding features . The following day , the system intensified into a tropical depression and shortly thereafter became a tropical storm as reconnaissance aircraft recorded gale @-@ force winds . An area of high pressure to the east of Alice steered the storm generally to the north . Decreasing wind shear allowed the storm to become increasingly organized and a well @-@ defined eye developed by July 3 . By this time , reconnaissance had determined that the storm had intensified into a hurricane , with maximum winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
On July 4 , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) , as the eastern portion of the eyewall brushed Bermuda . After passing the island , Alice began to accelerate in response to a mid @-@ level trough over the eastern United States and weakened . By July 6 , winds head decreased below hurricane intensity as the storm neared Atlantic Canada . Later that day , Alice made landfall in eastern Newfoundland with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
During its passage of Bermuda , Alice produced sustained winds up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and gusts to 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) . No major damage was recorded on the island , though the winds blew down a few trees and powerlines . The heavy rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 57 in ( 116 mm ) , ended a three @-@ month drought in Bermuda . Although Alice tracked through Atlantic Canada , no impact was recorded .
= = = Subtropical Storm Alfa = = =
During late July , an upper @-@ level low , with a non @-@ tropical cold core , formed near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and tracked southward . Gradually , the circulation lowered to the surface and developed subtropical characteristics . On July 31 , the system attained gale @-@ force winds off the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast and was named Alfa , the first name from the list of subtropical storm names for the 1973 season . Tracking north @-@ northeast , the system intensified very little as it paralleled the coastline . By August 1 , the system weakened below subtropical storm intensity as it neared New England . The following day , Alfa dissipated just off the southern coast of Maine . The only effects from Alfa was light to moderate rainfall in New England , peaking at 5 @.@ 03 in ( 128 mm ) in Turners Falls , Massachusetts . Most of southern Maine recorded around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with a maximum of 2 @.@ 59 in ( 66 mm ) in Saco .
= = = Hurricane Brenda = = =
Hurricane Brenda originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 9 ; however , the initial wave quickly weakened upon entering the Atlantic Ocean . By August 13 , the wave began to regenerate as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . Several days later , convection associated with the system consolidated into a central , organized mass and on August 18 , the system had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression while situated near the Yucatán Channel . Early the next day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda as it made landfall in the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . After moving inland , a strong ridge of high pressure over Texas forced the storm to take an unusual track , eventually leading it to enter the Bay of Campeche on August 20 .
Once back over water , Brenda began to intensify , attaining hurricane status late on August 20 . The next day , a well @-@ defined eye had developed and the storm attained its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . The storm made landfall later that day near Ciudad del Carmen , Mexico at this intensity , becoming the first hurricane on record to strike the region . After moving inland , Brenda rapidly weakened to a depression by the morning of August 22 and dissipated later that day .
Already suffering from severe flooding that killed at least 18 people and left 200 @,@ 000 homeless , Hurricane Brenda worsened the situation with torrential rainfall and additional flooding . The storm killed at least 10 people in the country . Following the damage wrought by Brenda , a large earthquake struck the region , hampering relief efforts and collapsing numerous structures . Winds on land gusted up to 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) , leading to severe wind damage . Two of the fatalities occurred in Campeche after 80 % of the city was flooded . This was considered the worst flooding in the city in over 25 years . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as a direct result of Brenda throughout Mexico . Offshore , a freighter with 25 crewman became trapped in the storm after its engines failed . They were safely rescued several days later once the storm had dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Christine = = =
The easternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , Tropical Storm Christine , originated as a tropical wave over Africa in mid @-@ August . As it neared the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned a tropical depression at 14 @.@ 0 ° W , over the country of Guinea , unlike most cyclone producing waves which travel several hundred miles over water before spawning a depression . Although it was already a depression , advisories on the storm were not issued until August 30 , five days after its formation . For several days , the depression maintained its intensity as it steadily tracked west across the Atlantic . It eventually attained tropical storm intensity on August 28 . Despite the lack of aircraft reconnaissance in the region , the intensity was determined by wind readings from a German cargo ship that passed through the storm .
On August 30 , the first reconnaissance mission into the storm found tropical storm @-@ force winds and the first advisory was issued that day , immediately declaring the system as Tropical Storm Christine . Three days later , Christine attained its peak intensity just below hurricane @-@ status with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken as it neared the Leeward Islands . As it passed over Antigua on September 3 , Christine weakened to a tropical depression and eventually dissipated near the Dominican Republic later that day .
During its passage through the Leeward Islands , Christine produced torrential rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 74 in ( 298 mm ) in southeastern Puerto Rico . These rains led to flooding on several islands . One person was killed during the storm after being electrocuted by a downed power line on a flooded road . Schools were closed ahead of the storm in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands as a precaution following the issuance of flood warnings . Six scientists had to be evacuated from the small island of Aves once the storm posed a threat to them . No major damage was reported on any of the affected islands in the wake of Christine .
= = = Tropical Storm Delia = = =
On August 27 , a tropical wave formed over the central Caribbean and tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . The system gradually developed organized shower and thunderstorm activity . By September 1 , a tropical depression developed from the wave . By September 3 , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm , receiving the name Delia , and began tracking more towards the west . A complex steering patter began to take place later on that day , resulting in the creation of a more hostile environment for tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico . As Delia neared the Texas coastline , it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) at this time . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone made its first landfall in Freeport , Texas late on September 4 . After executing a counterclockwise loop , the storm made landfall in Freeport again on September 5 . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened , becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico .
Due to the erratic track of the storm along the Texas coastline , widespread heavy rains fell in areas near the storm and in Louisiana . Tides up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , in addition to rainfall up to 13 @.@ 9 in ( 350 mm ) , caused significant flooding in the Galveston @-@ Freeport area . Up to $ 3 million was reported in damages to homes due to the flooding . Throughout Louisiana , there was substantial flooding of farmland . Damages to crops amounted to $ 3 million . In addition to the flooding rains produced by Delia , eight tornadoes also touched down due to the storm , injuring four people . Five people were killed during Delia , two drowned during floods , two died in a car accident and the other died from a heart attack while boarding up his home .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven = = =
On September 6 , a tropical depression formed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea within a trough of low pressure extended southeastward from Delia , which was situated over southeast Texas at the time . The depression remained weak until it reached the Texas coastline on September 10 . Once onshore , it produced significant rainfall , causing significant damage that was attributed to Tropical Storm Delia . After turning northeast and tracking inland , the depression quickly increased in forward speed before dissipating over North Carolina on September 14 .
Along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , the depression produced significant amounts of rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 15 in ( 283 mm ) near Freeport . Several areas in southern Louisiana recorded rainfall exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) with a maximum amount of 9 @.@ 2 in ( 230 mm ) falling in Kinder . Significant rainfall was also recorded in the Carolinas and Georgia , with numerous areas recording over 3 in ( 76 mm ) . A maximum of 9 @.@ 35 in ( 237 mm ) fell near Whitmire , South Carolina before the system dissipated . In all , the depression resulted in an additional $ 22 million in crop losses in southern Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Ellen = = =
The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Ellen , began as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on September 13 . On the following day , the wave spawned an area of low pressure south of the Cape Verde Islands that quickly became a tropical depression . Tracking northeast , the system intensified into a tropical storm on September 15 after sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) were reported by a French naval vessel ; however , due to sparse data on the storm , the first advisory on Ellen was not issued for two more days . A slightly elongated storm , Ellen gradually intensified over the open Atlantic and was steered by two troughs of low pressure . On September 18 , the storm took a nearly due west track and the system became increasingly organized , with an ill @-@ defined eye becoming present on satellite imagery .
The next day , Ellen intensified into a hurricane before taking a sharp turn to the north @-@ northwest in response to a weak trough moving northeast from the Bahamas . Gradually , the hurricane turned more towards the northeast and began to accelerate as well as intensify . Despite being at an unusually high latitude for development , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane on September 23 . At that time , Ellen attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Upon attaining this intensity at 42 @.@ 1 ° N , Ellen had become a major hurricane farther north than any other tropical cyclone on record , and is one of two storms to become a major hurricane north of 38 ° N , the other being Hurricane Alex in 2004 . Shortly after peaking , Ellen transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before merging with a frontal system several hundred miles east of Newfoundland on September 23 .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =
On September 24 , a depression formed northeast of the Bahamas . The following day , the NHC issued their first advisory on the system , declaring it a subtropical depression . The depression was displayed an asymmetrical structure , with most winds being recorded up to 300 mi ( 480 km ) north of the center . Later that day , the subtropical depression organized into a tropical depression . Upon doing so , the NHC issued small craft advisories for coastal areas between North Carolina and St. Augustine , Florida . Tracking north @-@ northwestward in response to a break in a subtropical ridge to the north , the depression eventually made landfall near Marineland , Florida and quickly weakened , dissipating before reaching the Gulf of Mexico .
Heavy rain fell in association with the depression in parts of Florida and Georgia . A maximum of 6 @.@ 74 in ( 171 mm ) fell in Orlando while several other areas recorded over 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain . Over land , wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in some locations . Offshore , swells produced by the system reached 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , impacting several vessels in the region . Minor beach erosion and coastal flooding was reported in parts of South Carolina as a result of the storm . In parts of coastal Georgia , high water resulted in several road closures and flooded a few homes . Police officers in Savannah reported that wave were topping the local seawall ; however , no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Fran ( Bravo ) = = =
The final hurricane of the season , Fran , originated from an area of convection north of Hispaniola on October 1 . By October 4 , the system interacted with a mid @-@ tropospheric trough near the southeast United States , resulting in the formation of a surface low . Tracking eastward , showers and thunderstorms began to develop around the circulation ; however , the structure of the system was not fully tropical . Late on October 8 , the cyclone had become sufficiently organized to be classified a subtropical depression . Cold air from the remnants of a cold front became entrained within the circulation ; however , the cold air gradually warmed . The following day , winds increased to gale @-@ force and the depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm , at which time it was given the name Bravo .
By October 10 , Bravo had intensified substantially , as hurricane hunters recorded hurricane @-@ force winds roughly 15 mi ( 25 km ) from the center of the storm . Following this finding , the National Hurricane Center reclassified the system as a tropical system and renamed it Fran , dropping its previous designation of Bravo . Steered generally eastward by a deep surface low in the westerlies , Fran accelerated towards the Azores Islands . Shortly after bypassing the islands on October 12 , the central pressure of Fran decreased to 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the hurricane . Shortly after reaching this intensity , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and quickly merged with a cold front off the coast of France . Although Fran passed near the Azores , no impact was recorded on any of the islands .
= = = Tropical Storm Gilda = = =
The precursor to Tropical Storm Gilda was a large convective system partially due to a tropical wave . It gradually became better organized over the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and on October 15 , a tropical depression formed off the coast of Nicaragua . As it drifted to the northeast , it strengthened to a tropical storm , peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . Before it hit the coast of Cuba , it weakened enough to cause only minor damage . By the time it struck the island , it had become very disorganized in nature .
On October 24 , cool , dry air entered the newly developed convection , and as a result it transitioned into a subtropical cyclone . Gilda became the first tropical system to pass through a subtropical stage prior to becoming extratropical . The large circulation continued northeast before becoming extratropical on October 27 . The remnants of Gilda intensified as they tracked near Atlantic Canada , attaining a central pressure of 968 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 58 inHg ) near Cape Race , Newfoundland . The system eventually dissipated near southern Greenland on October 29 .
Gilda caused heavy rain and mudslides in Jamaica , destroying six homes and killing six people . In Cuba , Gilda dropped over 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain , while 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds were reported in the northern part of the country . In the Bahamas , Gilda caused significant crop damage from heavy rainfall and high tides . The storm 's persistent strong currents and easterly winds caused moderate beach erosion on the East Coast of the United States , mostly along the Florida coast . The extratropical remnants of the storm produced hurricane @-@ force wind gusts over parts of Atlantic Canada , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; however , no damage was reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the eight named storms of 1973 and two notable tropical depressions , there were several minor systems that were classified as depressions by the National Hurricane Center . The first four systems of the year were not classified as fully tropical , rather they were associated with the remnants of decaying cold fronts . On April 18 , the first of these depressions formed northeast of the Bahamas and tracked in a curved motion before dissipating over open water on April 21 . Several days later , on April 24 , another depression formed in the same general region ; however , this system was shorter lived and dissipated two days later without significant movement . On May 2 , another partially tropical system formed over open waters . The cyclone tracked northeast and dissipated late on May 5 east @-@ southeast of the Azores . On May 11 , a brief depression formed near Bermuda but dissipated the following day . Roughly a week into the official hurricane season , the fifth depression of the year formed just offshore southeast Florida , near Miami . The system tracked northwest across the peninsula and briefly entered the Gulf of Mexico on June 8 before making landfall along the Florida Panhandle . The depression eventually dissipate on June 10 over South Carolina .
On June 23 , another depression formed along Florida , this time just onshore near the Georgia border . The system slowly tracked northeastward before dissipating on June 26 southeast of the North – South Carolina border . As Hurricane Alice neared Bermuda on July 9 , a depression formed near the east coast of the United States ; however , the storm dissipated the following day . On July 19 , the first Cape Verde storm formed over the central Atlantic . This system did not intensify , remaining a weak depression and dissipated on July 21 without affecting land . The next day , a new depression formed over the southwestern Caribbean Sea near the coast of Nicaragua . The depression tracked over Central America , briefly moving back over water in the Gulf of Honduras before making a second landfall in Belize . The system persisted over land for a few days before entering the eastern Pacific late on July 25 .
Only one non @-@ developing depression formed during the month of August , an unusually eastward forming system . The depression was first identified just offshore eastern Africa on September 8 , near where Tropical Storm Christine formed later in the month . Tracking rapidly towards the west , the depression dissipated on September 11 over open waters . In addition to the two notable tropical depressions and two named storms in September , a slow @-@ moving depression formed south @-@ southeast of Bermuda on September 8 . Tracking generally northward , the depression dissipated early on September 10 without affecting land . Upon the declaration of Hurricane Fran on October 10 , a new depression formed southwest of the strengthening hurricane . This system rapidly tracked northeast and dissipated two days later . Later that month , a slow @-@ moving depression formed near the Azores . This system tracked southeast and dissipated on October 30 without affecting land . The final system of the year formed near the northern coast of Panama on November 17 . The depression was noted as a " ... strong depression ... " by the National Hurricane Center and may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity before making landfall in southern Nicaragua on November 18 ; the system dissipated later that day over land .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1973 . Storms were named Christine , Delia , Ellen and Fran for the first time in 1973 . Due to the relatively minimal impact caused by storms during the season , no names were retired in the spring of 1974 ; however , due to the addition of male names in 1979 , the list was removed and replaced with a new set of names .
= = = Subtropical storm names = = =
The following names were used for subtropical storms in the Atlantic basin for this year . This year was the second and last year to use the phonetic alphabet . Although a storm was given the name Bravo , it was renamed Fran after acquiring tropical characteristics .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1973 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
= 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was an Australian Army unit raised for service with the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) during the Second World War . Formed in late 1940 as part of the 8th Division , the battalion was established to provide direct fire support to the division ’ s infantry brigades . It was the fourth , and last , such unit raised within the 2nd AIF . The unit 's personnel were largely drawn from the state of Western Australia and after formation , the battalion concentrated near Perth for basic individual training before moving to the Adelaide Hills to complete more advance manouevres .
In late 1941 , amidst concerns of war in the Pacific , the unit was deployed north to Darwin in the Northern Territory , where they undertook garrison duties in the weeks following Japan 's entry into the war . Following Japanese landings in Malaya , the 2 / 4th embarked from Darwin and were transferred to Malaya , arriving in Singapore in the final days of the fighting on the peninsula . In the wake of the withdrawal of British and Commonwealth forces to the island , the battalion was hastily deployed in support of the two Australian brigades — the 22nd and 27th Brigades — in the north @-@ western sector of the island . During the initial Japanese landing , elements of the battalion were heavily engaged around the landing beaches but they were outnumbered and over the course of the week the defenders were pushed back towards the centre of the island , towards the city of Singapore . They suffered heavy casualties during this time , before subsequently becoming prisoners of war after the fall of Singapore .
Meanwhile , a detachment of about 100 men from the battalion , who had been left behind in Australia when it deployed to Singapore , also took part in the fighting on Java . After a brief campaign , the majority of these personnel were taken into captivity when the Allied forces were overwhelmed around Buitenzorg in mid @-@ March 1942 , although some attempted to fight on as guerillas . Eventually these men were either killed or captured ; prisoners remained in Japanese captivity until the end of the war in August 1945 . During the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years they were held by the Japanese , members of the 2 / 4th were sent to prison camps around the Pacific , where they were used as slave labour and subjected to harsh conditions and extreme brutality . After the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions raised as part of the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during the Second World War . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles and tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of fire support than that ordinarily available within infantry battalions . Developed by the British Army , the concept had its genesis in the Australian Army during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions — initially two and then four — had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level , to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . On the Western Front , the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and finally , in 1918 , to the establishment of machine gun battalions . Similar formations had also been established among the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . They were not re @-@ raised when the Army was reorganised in 1921 but in 1937 , as the Australian Army looked to expand owing to fears of war in Europe , four such units were formed within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . Several other Militia machine gun battalions were also raised as new units later after the Second World War began . These were formed by consolidating the machine gun companies assigned to a number of infantry battalions , and other light horse units were also converted into the role for use as garrison forces . Within the 2nd AIF — Australia 's overseas expeditionary force — the decision was made to raise four machine gun battalions as corps troops that were usually allocated at a rate of one per division ; several of the Militia units were also later designated Australian Imperial Force units , after the majority of their personnel volunteered for overseas service . This meant that they could be deployed outside of Australian territory even though they were not 2nd AIF units .
In mid @-@ 1940 , amid the tide of German successes in Europe , there was an influx of volunteers for the 2nd AIF . As a result , the Australian government decided to raise a third volunteer division for overseas service , named the 8th Division . Established around three infantry brigades — the 22nd , 23rd and 27th — the division was supported by corps troops including engineers , cavalry , artillery , pioneers and a machine gun battalion for direct fire support . Within this formation , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion came into being on 25 November 1940 , when Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell , a First World War veteran who had commanded a Militia infantry battalion before the war , established his headquarters at Northam Camp , near Perth , Western Australia . While the rest of the 8th Division had drawn its personnel mainly from the more populous eastern states of New South Wales and Victoria , the decision was made to select personnel for the 2 / 4th only from those who were already enlisted and conducting training in the west . While potentially parochial , it was a primarily a pragmatic decision to reduce the time it would take to concentrate the unit and complete its training .
Like most 2nd AIF units , the 2 / 4th drew its cadre staff of officers and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) from volunteers from local Militia units . These were augmented by partially trained Other Ranks ( ORs ) from the three local recruit training depots ; the first batch of these , numbering 394 men , arrived at Northam on 27 November and a further 262 marched in on 4 December . As the battalion was brought up to its authorised strength of around 800 men , personnel were formed into four machine gun companies , ' A ' to ' D ' , under a headquarters company consisting of several specialist platoons — including signals and anti @-@ aircraft platoons — and battalion headquarters . There were no platoon commanders until a contingent arrived from the regional Officer Training Units . Initially training was hampered by a lack of equipment — only 12 of 48 Vickers machine guns assigned to the battalion were available — so at the start the focus was on individual rather than collective training . As more stores arrived , training accelerated with the help of experienced Militia NCOs and First World War veterans , who were brought in to share their experiences with the new troops . Just before Christmas and New Year 's leave , the battalion received its distinctive Unit Colour Patch : a black and gold triangle .
Early in the New Year , the establishment of the battalion 's command formation was completed with the appointment of subalterns as platoon commanders , following their return from their first appointment courses . The training continuum evolved with the establishment of an NCO school and various specialist courses , including range finding and transport ; a bugle and drum band was also raised . In February 1941 , training focused upon skill @-@ at @-@ arms , before undertaking a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) march from Northam to Perth , which was conducted over the course of three days and was undertaken , according to the Australian War Memorial , to test the " physical fitness and endurance of the personnel and officers " and " the efficiency of the battalion 's motor transport and administration personnel " . Upon their return , training progressed to field firing , night manoeuvres , portage , defensive exercises and further specialised training , continuing until July , by which time the battalion was considered ready for deployment . That month it received orders to move to Adelaide , South Australia . Proceeding in four drafts — one each on the transports Katoomba and Duntroon and two by rail — they were established at Woodside , in the Adelaide Hills , by the end of the month . The battalion endured a bitter winter , conducting field exercises amidst the steep wooded slopes of the Mount Lofty Range ; these became more tactically complex and physically demanding as Anketell worked the battalion up to a peak of efficiency , in preparation for deployment amidst growing tensions in the Pacific .
= = = Garrison duties in northern Australia = = =
In August 1941 , the 27th Brigade was sent to Malaya to reinforce the 22nd , which had been serving there in a garrison role since February , having been dispatched while the 2 / 4th Machine Battalion had been forming . With this , the only 2nd AIF troops remaining in Australia were those of the 23rd Brigade . As a result of concerns about Japanese intentions in the region , the decision was made to move the brigade north to bolster the defences around Darwin in the Northern Territory . In the event of fighting in the Pacific , the government planned to split infantry battalions , to defend the island chain to Australia ’ s north , dispatching forces to Rabaul , Ambon and Timor . The role of the corps troops from the 2 / 4th Pioneers and 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion remained uncertain . The 8th Division ’ s commander , Major General Gordon Bennett , unhappy with the dispersal of his command , had been agitating for the dispatch of the machine gunners to Malaya to support his two infantry brigades , arguing that they would be valuable for beach defence . Bennett 's request had been rejected initially in March , due to the limited numbers of recruits enlisting but by mid @-@ September , elements at Army headquarters in Melbourne had also begun to advocate for it . In early October , following a War Cabinet decision to split the command of the 8th Division in two , removing the elements in Australia from Bennett 's command , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to move north to Darwin , where it was to serve in a home defence role in case of a Japanese attack .
On 11 October 1941 , the battalion entrained at Oakbank and began the journey north . They detrained at Alice Springs , where they camped overnight before continuing the journey by road in a 44 @-@ vehicle convoy , which took them further north to Larrimah . There they once again entrained for the final journey to Winnellie , which they reached on 19 October , after overnighting in Katherine .
At Winnellie , the battalion was allocated a large defensive zone between Nightcliff , Lee Point and Shoal Bay , which included a large beach frontage , as well as extensive swamp lands and creeks further inland . Throughout November , extensive work was undertaken improving the camp and preparing this position with fortified emplacements . They also undertook various other garrison duties such as guarding ammunition dumps , and road and railway construction . Heavy summer rains flooded the camp and surrounding area and as well as hampering construction , brought a wave of dengue fever amongst the battalion and the threat of crocodile attacks as the creeks within the battalion position swelled ; the battalion ’ s mascot , a dog named " Gunner " , fell victim . News of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of Malaya came in early December and with it a need to bolster Australian forces in the Pacific . As Bennett pressed harder for reinforcements , on 23 December the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to embark for Malaya .
= = = Embarkation = = =
On 30 December 1941 , after transferring responsibility for their defensive area to a Militia Light Horse machine gun regiment from South Australia , the battalion embarked upon two troopships , Westralia and Marella , bound for Malaya via Port Moresby . Arriving on 4 January 1942 , they were transferred to the transport Aquitania , which was to take them the rest of the way . Before they had completed transferring the battalion ’ s equipment , news was received that Rabaul , about 500 miles ( 800 km ) north @-@ east , had been bombed by carrier @-@ based aircraft . Due to concerns that the aircraft may have been looking for the convoy , or US warships fleeing the Philippines , and that Port Moresby might be bombed next , the convoy ’ s departure was advanced and so they sailed immediately . Instead of proceeding to Malaya , though , they were taken to Sydney , New South Wales , as it was decided that it would be safer to proceed via the southern route .
After a brief stay in Sydney where the battalion ’ s equipment deficiencies were made good and some reinforcements were received from local recruit training depots , they embarked again on 10 January in company with HMAS Canberra , and proceeded through the Bass Strait . As they were under way , the troops were kept occupied with training on the Bren light machine gun and the Thompson sub @-@ machine gun , quantities of which were hastily added to the battalion ’ s equipment scale . They reached Fremantle , Western Australia , on 15 January and overnight , a large number of 2 / 4th men defied orders to stay aboard ship and went ashore to spend time with their families ; when the Aquitania sailed the next day , 94 men were left behind . The situation in Malaya was grave as the Japanese were steadily pushing the British and Commonwealth defenders south down the peninsula and as the gravity of the situation dawned upon the Australian government , a knee @-@ jerk reaction saw the dispatch of 150 partially trained reinforcements from Northam . They arrived just as the Aquitania departed , being ferried out to Rottnest Island where they joined the ship ’ s company late in the afternoon of 16 January . Although the reinforcements made good the men that had been left behind , they were only partially trained and ill @-@ prepared for the fighting that would follow .
After departing Fremantle , the convoy steamed towards Java and reached Ratai Bay early on 20 January . Proceeding on to the Sunda Strait , which was reached mid @-@ morning on 21 January and the men were then transferred to a number of smaller , faster Dutch ships to run the gauntlet of Japanese bombers that were attacking Allied shipping in the area . In concert with several Australian , British and Indian escorts and two Dutch Catalina flying boats , the convoy entered Keppel Harbour on 25 January 1942 . Upon arrival in Singapore , consisting of 942 personnel of all ranks , the battalion was allocated to the task of preparing machine gun positions on Singapore ’ s north coast and around the naval base . They stepped into a maelstrom , the Japanese were bombing the naval base — where the 2 / 4th were accommodated — every day and the fighting on the Malay Peninsula was all but over . Having been pushed back down the peninsula over the course of seven weeks , in the final week of January , the Allies withdrew from Johore , on the mainland , to Singapore , where they would make a final stand . Covering the withdrawal , the 22nd Brigade was the last Australian unit to cross the 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) wide Causeway before it was blown up , early on the morning of 31 January , to prevent the Japanese from capturing it and to slow their advance .
One of only two machine gun battalions available for the defending British and Commonwealth forces , as preparations were made to repulse the expected Japanese assault across the Johore Strait , the battalion was split up to provide support to troops from the 22nd and 27th Australian Infantry Brigades and the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade around the western part of the island , where the Japanese assault was expected . On 7 February , due to concerns about the lack of defending infantry , about 90 machine gun reinforcements , who had been hastily formed into a sixth company — ' E ' — were detached at this time to form part of a 400 @-@ strong Special Reserve Battalion , initially under the command of an officer from the 2 / 19th Infantry Battalion and later taken over by Major Albert Saggers , formerly of the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion .
= = = Fall of Singapore = = =
The Japanese attack came in the night of 8 / 9 February , after a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment that had lasted throughout the day . ' D ' Company , positioned in various locations in support of the Australian 22nd Brigade in the north @-@ western area , found themselves in the thick of the fighting as the Japanese concentrated their landing on the Australian 8th Division front . Understrength and stretched out across a large frontage over ground that was unsuited to defence , the Australians were almost immediately under pressure . Shortly after 8 : 00 pm , 13 Platoon , supporting the 2 / 20th Infantry Battalion around the head of the Lim Chu Kang Road , was confronted by a large number of landing barges filled with Japanese assault troops . For almost six hours , the platoon , under Lieutenant Eric Wankey , fought a desperate action to repel the invaders . With four machine guns , as well as personal small arms and grenades , the platoon inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese and sank several barges . Despite heavy casualties from Japanese mortar and machine gun fire , they kept fighting until early in the morning on 9 February when , threatened with being outflanked and low on ammunition — each gun had fired over 10 @,@ 000 rounds — and having had one gun knocked out , the platoon was forced to withdraw . Destroying their equipment as they went to prevent it from being captured , the platoon was forced to withdraw in contact , taking their wounded with them ; the action was later rewarded with a Military Cross for the platoon commander , who was badly wounded after taking over one of the machine guns after its crew had been wounded .
Near the Sungei Murai ( Murai River ) , 15 Platoon — under Lieutenant John Meiklejohn — had been stationed in support of a company from the 2 / 18th Infantry Battalion , in a thickly wooded area with low hills and many inlets . 15 Platoon established an enfilade formation near the shore , with its machine guns distributed in two sections on a north – south axis , facing a narrow peninsula , between the mouth of the Murai and a small inlet . According to the official history by Lionel Wigmore , after a Japanese landing party approached , the southern section under Meiklejohn " opened fire against six approaching barges , and kept on firing for two hours , despite retaliation by hand grenades , as the Japanese landed and crossed the neck of the peninsula " . As was the case elsewhere in the extremely wide sector assigned to the 22nd Brigade , many Japanese landing parties were able to outflank the thinly @-@ spread Australian positions . At risk of being cut off and with ammunition running low , Meiklejohn ordered the southern section to retreat . According to Wigmore : " Meiklejohn led his section along a jungle path where they came upon a party of Japanese resting . He shot some with his revolver , and another was knocked out with a swing from a [ machine gun ] tripod , but Meiklejohn lost his life in attempting to cover his section 's withdrawal . " The northern section of 15 Platoon held its ground " until it was informed that a near @-@ by infantry platoon was almost surrounded , and about to withdraw " . Forced to retreat without its machine guns , the northern section also found Japanese troops blocking its path . When Private Cliff Spackman was attacked by a Japanese officer wielding a sword , Spackman " bayoneted him " , took the sword and used it against another Japanese soldier .
As the situation worsened , early on 9 February ' A ' Company , which had been in reserve , and HQ Company were sent forward to provide further assistance to the 22nd Infantry Brigade , which was slowly being pushed back towards the tactically important Tengah airfield , via the village of Ama Keng . They took up positions at Bulim , east of the airfield ; shortly afterwards they were joined by 7 Platoon , from ‘ B ’ Company , which had been detached from the Causeway sector . The remnants of the 22nd , numbering around only 500 men from its original 2 @,@ 500 , with a further 500 or so isolated and attempting to fight their way through , was pushed further back throughout the day . Orders were passed for a counter @-@ attack around the airfield but as the size of Japanese forces in the area grew to around 20 @,@ 000 men , they were later cancelled in favour of establishing a line between Bulim and Jurong , to the east of the airfield . Established in the early afternoon , within this line , the 2 / 4th 's ' A ' Company was positioned east of Bulim with 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , while the remnants of ' D ' Company , amounting to only 47 men , were moved south , where they joined with ' C ' Company , which was supporting the Indian 44th Brigade , which although it had not yet been engaged , had fallen back from the south @-@ west coast to avoid being cut off and had established itself west of Ulu Pandan , behind the Sungei Jurong .
Late on 9 February , the Japanese made more landings , in the Causeway sector , held by the 27th Infantry Brigade . Despite having been reduced to just two infantry battalions due to the transfer of the 2 / 29th to the hard @-@ pressed 22nd Infantry Brigade , they were able to mount a stiff defence , supported by the machine guns of ‘ B ’ Company . 8 Platoon inflicted many casualties in the Japanese landing craft coming ashore at the mouth of the Sungei Mandi . With casualties mounting and pressure being placed on the brigade 's rear due to a large gap that had developed around Kranji , by the Japanese advances in the 22nd Infantry Brigade 's area , the decision was made to withdraw from the beach and realign north – south along the Woodlands Road . Further south , the Australian 22nd and Indian 44th , 6th / 15th and 12th Infantry Brigades also established themselves along this axis between Bukit Panjang and Pasir Panjang on the south coast and by early evening on 10 February the Japanese had secured the entire west coast of the island .
For the next four days , the Allied troops were pushed south @-@ east towards the city of Singapore . Throughout this time , the battalion ’ s companies were in almost constant action , either — in the case of ' B ' , ' C ' , ' D ' and ' E ' Companies — under separate command , or ' A ' and ' HQ ' Companies with Battalion Headquarters . The reinforcements of ' E ' Company , detached to the Special Reserve Battalion , suffered heavily . In three days , they lost 43 men killed or missing , before the ad hoc formation was disbanded and the men returned to the 2 / 4th . 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , took on a mounted role , procuring four Bren carriers , with which they began patrolling in support . On 12 February they were engaged along the Buona Vista Road , while supporting the Malayan Regiment . The following day , they were attacked by a Japanese light tank , which knocked out one of the carriers before the platoon extricated themselves .
By 14 February , the Allied troops had withdrawn into a small perimeter around the city . The 8th Division were holding a position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the city , centred upon the axis of the Holland Road , with its headquarters at Tanglin Barracks . With the Japanese gaining ground to their north and south through the porous lines of the Indian 44th and British 54th Brigades , the situation became critical . Threatened with being cut off , Anketell began to plan a last stand ; moving forward to survey the situation he was badly wounded by mortar and small arms fire and after being evacuated to Alexandra Hospital , died of his wounds late in the evening of 14 February . Despite his loss , the battalion kept on fighting to the very end , sending out patrols throughout the following day and severely mauling a Japanese vehicle convoy that came too close to their position . Late on 15 February , the British commander , Lieutenant General Arthur Percival gave the order to surrender . The physical process of the surrender was slow , and despite orders to surrender weapons and ammunition , the men proceeded to destroy the majority of their equipment the following morning , before the Japanese arrived . Later , they were marched to Changi prison , during which several men from the battalion attempted to escape after the Japanese began executing several prisoners ; one , the regimental sergeant major , Fred Airey , successfully made it to Sumatra but was later recaptured there , while another , Private Les McCann , remained on the run for eight days before being recaptured after collapsing from bullet wounds he had received during the attempt .
= = = Java detachment = = =
While the majority of the battalion was fighting on Singapore , a small detachment of 106 men were sent to Java . The majority of these were the 94 men that had failed to return in time from their unofficial leave in Fremantle . After missing their ship , they had been arrested by the military police and were confined to quarters in Karrakatta Camp for two weeks . On 30 January they were released and under the command of two officers and a small group of NCOs , they embarked upon Marella , which set out for Singapore via Palembang in Batavia , escorted by Canberra .
After reaching Tanjong Priok on 10 February , the detachment found itself placed under Dutch command and formed into a composite infantry company , within the reserve battalion of the ad hoc formation known as " Blackforce " , which had been formed under Brigadier Arthur Blackburn . At the end of the month , having taken Sumatra , the Japanese invaded Java with three divisions and a strong naval task force . Fierce fighting at sea ensued , during which 14 out of a force of 18 Allied ships were sunk . Several Japanese transports were also sunk but the majority of Japanese troops were landed . The detachment from the 2 / 4th found itself around Buitenzorg , where the majority of the 2 / 4th personnel formed part of an ad hoc infantry force , known as the Reserve Group , or 3rd Battalion , consisting of eight platoons , under Major John Champion de Crespigny . They fought several defensive actions before being overwhelmed and taken into captivity on 12 March 1942 . A small number continued to fight as guerrillas but were eventually all captured . Some of the men were held in camps in Java and Sumatra , although the majority were later sent to Singapore before being transported to camps elsewhere in south @-@ east Asia .
= = = Internment and disbandment = = =
During the fighting , out of a total of 976 men deployed , the battalion lost 137 men killed in action and 106 wounded , while a further 24 suffered from shell shock . A total of 808 men were taken into captivity , including most of the wounded . Four men managed to escape to Australia but of the remaining men , 263 died while prisoners of war . Following their capture , the men from the 2 / 4th in Singapore were concentrated in Changi prison , before being split up and sent to various prison camps around the Pacific , including Borneo , Burma , Thailand , Java , Sumatra , Japan and Formosa . There they were used as slave labour on the Burma – Thai Railway , in coal mines and on wharves , during which they were subjected to harsh treatment , starvation , disease and extreme brutality , which took a heavy toll . Many soldiers from the 2 / 4th were also killed while being taken to Japan , when the ships were sunk by Allied submarines .
Throughout their captivity , some soldiers continued to contribute to the Allied war effort , building a series of home @-@ made radios with which they transmitted Japanese shipping movements to British forces in India and through which they were able to gain news from home . They were liberated in August 1945 and after the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Military Cross , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , two British Empire Medals and nine Mentions in Despatches ; in addition one member of the battalion was appointed as a Member of the Order of the British Empire .
After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion concept and no similar units were raised . The machine gun role was subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The idea was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been for machine gun battalions to provide highly mobile fire support but this only worked where the principles of open warfare worked . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive weapons for long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely used in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed .
= = Commanding officers = =
Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the Second World War :
Malaya 1942 , and Singapore .
= Richard Nixon presidential campaign , 1968 =
The 1968 presidential campaign of Richard Nixon , the 36th Vice President of the United States , began when Nixon , the Republican nominee of 1960 , formally announced his candidacy following a year 's preparation and five years ' political reorganization following defeats in the 1960 presidential election , and the 1962 California gubernatorial election .
En route to the Republican Party 's presidential nomination , Nixon faced challenges from Governor George Romney of Michigan , Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York , Governor Ronald Reagan of California , and Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . Nixon won nine of the thirteen state primaries held that season , although due to the population of his state , Governor Reagan won the popular vote while carrying only California . These victories , along with pledged delegate support from states not holding primaries , secured Nixon the nomination on the first ballot of the Republican National Convention , where he named Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate .
In the general election , Nixon emphasized " law and order , " positioning himself as the champion of what he called the " silent majority . " Running well ahead of his opponent , incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey , his support slipped in the polls following his refusal to partake in presidential debates , and following an announcement from President Lyndon B. Johnson that a halt in bombing of Vietnam had been negotiated .
Winning a close election on November 5 , 1968 , Nixon and Agnew were inaugurated as the 37th President of the United States and 39th Vice President of the United States , respectively , on January 20 , 1969 . He was the first Vice President elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836 , and the only one to do so while not an incumbent .
= = Background = =
Nixon was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1946 , representing California 's 12th congressional district from 1947 until his election to the Senate in 1950 . As a member of Congress , he gained a reputation as a firm anti @-@ Communist . In 1952 , he was selected by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican nominee for president , as his vice presidential nominee . Elected together with Eisenhower , he served as Vice President during the height of the Cold War . In office , he traveled the world on " goodwill tours " , promoting pro @-@ American policies ; he was re @-@ elected with Eisenhower in 1956 . At the end of Eisenhower 's second term in 1960 , Nixon ran unopposed for the Republican nomination , which he received . He lost a close race to Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts , which many credited in part to his unhealthy appearance during the first televised debate .
Nixon ran for Governor of California against incumbent Pat Brown , and was defeated handily , leading the media to label him as a " loser . " This defeat was widely believed to be the end of his career ; in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , " you won 't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference . " In September , the New York Post published an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses . He moved to New York , joining the Mudge Rose Guthrie Alexander & Ferdon law firm , and regrouped , considering but decided against a run for president in 1964 , beginning to plan for a 1968 presidential campaign .
= = Campaign developments = =
= = = Early stages = = =
On January 7 , 1967 , Nixon held a secret meeting with his closest advisers to discuss a potential campaign , brainstorming strategies to obtain sufficient delegates to win the Republican nomination . He asked the attendees not to discuss the meeting with anyone , but to spread subtle hints that he would run for president . The next month , during an interview with the Saturday Evening Post , Nixon flatly denied he was running for president . Nevertheless , polls suggested that he was the front @-@ runner for the nomination . The Gallup poll from February 1967 showed Nixon leading Governor George Romney , his closest rival , 52 % to 40 % . At this time , he quietly began efforts to organize in Indiana , Nebraska , New Hampshire , Oregon , and Wisconsin , positioning to secure victories in those states ' primaries the following year . In March , he gained the support of the 1964 Republican nominee , Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona A " Nixon for President Committee " formed that month , and headquarters for the organization opened in Washington D.C. in late May .
During the spring and summer , Nixon traveled to Eastern Europe and Latin America to bolster his foreign policy credentials . He returned in August to conduct meetings with his advisers to formulate a solid campaign strategy . Two days later , his campaign manager , Gaylord Parkinson , left his position to care for his ailing wife . Political commentators speculated that the vacancy built " an element of instability " for the campaign . The position was soon temporarily filled by former Governor Henry Bellmon of Oklahoma . The next week , five staff members were fired after private investigators determined that information had been leaked to the campaigns of potential primary rivals Governors Rockefeller and Reagan . The news did not stall the progression of the campaign , and soon Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander member Leonard Garment assembled an advertising team that included CBS Television president Frank Shakespeare .
= = = = Fall 1967 = = = =
By mid @-@ September 1967 , the Nixon campaign had organized headquarters in four states deemed critical to the Republican primaries . Nixon hoped the moves would increase his delegate strength and demonstrate his " ability to win . " He notified the media that his decision on whether to run for president would be formally announced anytime between early December and February . Meanwhile , Nixon and his staff discussed handling the topic of the Vietnam War . They advised him to soften his stance on the war , and encouraged him to shift his focus from foreign affairs to domestic policy to avoid the divisive war issue . Observers noted that this move potentially hurt Nixon by straying from his reputation " as a foreign policy expert . "
In October , political experts predicted that Nixon would gain delegates in the important states of New Hampshire , Wisconsin and Nebraska during the primary season , scheduled to begin in March 1968 . They noted that in the other critical state of Oregon , Ronald Reagan would have an advantage due to the proximity of his home state . Like Nixon , rival George Romney began to organize in these states . Romney officially announced his candidacy in November , prompting Nixon to step up his efforts . He spent most of this period on the campaign trail in New Hampshire . Those following Nixon noted that during this period , he seemed more relaxed and easygoing than in his past political career . One commentator examined that he was not " the drawn , tired figure who debated Jack Kennedy or the angry politician who conceded his California [ gubernatorial ] defeat with such ill grace . " Making appearances at fundraisers in his adopted home state of New York , Nixon helped to raise $ 300 @,@ 000 for the re @-@ election campaign of Senator Jacob K. Javits . At the end of December , Time labeled Nixon as the " man to beat . "
= = = = 1968 begins = = = =
Nixon entered 1968 as the front @-@ runner for the Republican nomination . However , polls suggested that in a head @-@ to @-@ head match up with incumbent President Lyndon Johnson , Nixon trailed 50 % to 41 % . Later in January , Nixon embarked on a tour of Texas , where he lampooned President Johnson 's State of the Union address , asking : " Can this nation afford to have four more years of Lyndon Johnson 's policies that have failed at home and abroad ? " At this time , reports suggested that Nixon would formally announce his bid in February .
= = = Primary campaign = = =
On February 1 in New Hampshire , Nixon announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination , commenting that problems " beyond politics " needed to be addressed . Immediately following his entrance , the media team prepared for an advertising campaign . They analyzed video of Nixon , determining that he was at his best when speaking spontaneously . The team organized a question and answer session with seven members of the New Hampshire Republican Party , taping Nixon 's responses for editing and use in advertisements . He campaigned in the state , although polls suggested that he would easily win its primary . As a result , he began campaigning in Wisconsin where the second primary would be held . During a stop , he briefly discussed Vietnam , although not in detail , stating that the United States " must prevent [ such ] confrontations , " but that the nation must also " help people in the free world fight against aggression , but not do their fighting for them . " He used those dictatorships in Latin America as an example , stating : " I am talking not about marching feet but helping hands . " As military operations increased in Vietnam in mid @-@ February , Nixon 's standing against President Johnson improved . A Harris poll showed that he trailed the president 43 % to 48 % . Near the end of the month , Nixon 's opponent George Romney exited the race , mostly due to comments he made about being " brainwashed " during a visit to Vietnam . This left Nixon nearly unopposed for the upcoming primaries , narrowing his opponents to Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , neither of whom had announced their candidacies .
Due to Romney 's exit , Nixon declared in early March that he would " greatly expand [ his ] efforts in the non @-@ primary states , " with Time observing that Nixon could now focus his political attacks solely on President Johnson . However , the void also caused problems for Nixon ; Time argued that the prospect of soundly defeating second @-@ tier candidates such as former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota in the primaries , would not " electrify the voters . " The Nixon campaign countered this claim stating that Romney 's withdrawal was a " TKO " at the hands of Nixon . Meanwhile , Rockefeller began to be viewed more as a candidate , articulating that while not wishing to split the party , he was " willing to serve ... if called . " As talks of other candidates persisted , Nixon continued to campaigning and discussion of the issues . He pledged to end the war in Vietnam , but would not go into detail , drawing some criticism . Nixon easily won the New Hampshire primary on March 12 , pulling in 80 % of the vote with a write @-@ in campaign for Rockefeller receiving 11 % . At the end of March , Rockefeller announced that he would not campaign for the presidency , but would be open to being drafted . Nixon doubted a draft stating that it would only be likely if " I make some rather serious mistake . " Reports suggested that the decision caused " Nixon 's political stock [ to ] skyrocket . " Polling by Gallup at this time revealed that Nixon led President Johnson 41 % to 39 % in a three @-@ way race with American Independent Party candidate and former Governor George Wallace of Alabama .
As the Wisconsin primary loomed in early April , Nixon 's only obstacle seemed to be preventing his supporters from voting in the Democratic primary for Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota as a protest against President Johnson . However , Johnson withdrew from the race before the primary , meanwhile Governor Reagan 's name was on the ballot in Wisconsin , but he did not campaign in the state and was still not a declared candidate . Nixon won the primary with 80 % followed by Reagan with 11 % and Stassen with 6 % . With Johnson removed from the race , Nixon fell behind Democratic candidates Eugene McCarthy , Hubert Humphrey and Robert Kennedy in head @-@ to @-@ head match @-@ ups . At the end of April , Nixon called for a moratorium on criticism of the Johnson policy in Vietnam as negotiations were underway : " The one man who can do anything about peace is Lyndon Johnson , and I 'm not going to do anything to undercut him . " However , the Democratic candidates for president remained fair game for criticism . He argued that " A divided Democratic Party cannot unite a divided country ; a united Republican Party can . " He also began to discuss economics more frequently , announcing plans to cut spending while criticizing the Democrats ' policy of raising taxes . During a question and answer session with the American Society of Newspaper Editors , Nixon spoke out of turn , receiving numerous interruptions of applause . The largest came when he addressed the issue of crime , proclaiming that " there cannot be order in a free society without progress , and there cannot be progress without order . "
On the last day of April , Rockefeller announced that he would campaign for the presidency , despite his previous statement to the contrary . Immediately following his entrance , he defeated Nixon in the Massachusetts primary 30 % to 26 % . New Harris polls found that Rockefeller fared better against Democratic candidates than Nixon , but the outlook started to appear better for Nixon after he won the Indiana primary over Rockefeller . Off the victory , Nixon campaigned in Nebraska where he criticized the three leading Democratic candidates as " three peas in a pod , prisoners of the policies of the past . " He then proposed a plan to tackle crime that included wiretapping , legislation to reverse previous Supreme Court decisions , and the formation of a congressional committee targeting crime and reforms to the criminal justice system . He did not connect crime to racial rioting , drawing praise from Civil Rights leaders . Nixon won the primary in Nebraska , defeating the undeclared Reagan 71 % to 22 % . At the following primary in Oregon , Reagan seemed more willing to compete with Nixon , and Rockefeller sat out . But Nixon won with 72 % , fifty points ahead of Reagan .
In early June , Nixon continued to be regarded as the favorite to win the nomination , but observers noted that he had not yet locked up the nomination . He still faced challenges from Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , and was not on the ballot in California , where Reagan won a large slate of delegates . Behind the scenes , Nixon staff lobbied for delegates from " favorite son " candidates , resulting , in the backing of Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee , and his 28 pledged delegates , as well as those 58 delegates supporting Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . After the assassination of Robert Kennedy , like the other candidates , Nixon took a break from campaigning . Reports suggested that the assassination all but assured his nomination . Upon returning to the trail , Nixon found that Rockefeller had begun attacking him . Rockefeller described Nixon as a man " of the old politics " who has " great natural capacity not to do the right thing , especially under pressure . " Nixon refused to respond to the jabs , stating that he would not participate in attacks . As he edged closer to the nomination , discussions about his running mate arose . Republicans in the Midwest pushed for Mayor John Lindsay of New York City . The endorsement of Nixon by Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon raised speculation that he might be chosen . Congressman George Bush of Texas and Senator Percy were also mentioned as possible selections . At the end of the month , Nixon had two thirds of the required 667 delegates necessary to win the nomination .
On July 1 , Nixon received the endorsement of Senator John G. Tower of Texas , handing him at least 40 delegates . With his nomination all but assured , Nixon 's ad team began preparing for the general election . A series of advertisements featuring question and answer sessions with Nixon and friends of campaign staffers were filmed in New York . The tapes were sent to the swing states of Illinois , Michigan , and Ohio , giving Nixon the advantage of advertising long before the Democratic Party settled on a candidate . At this time , Nixon decided with a group of legislators that " crime and disorder " would be presented as the number one issue in the nation . This continued to be a major theme of the Nixon campaign , and would continue to be used extensively during the general election . Nixon publicly announced his opposition to the military draft , proposing to replace the current system with a volunteer army encouraged with higher pay . President Eisenhower endorsed Nixon in mid @-@ July , breaking his tradition of waiting until after the primary , due to the election 's importance . By July 's end , reports circulated that Nixon had 691 probable delegates for the convention , placing him over the 667 delegate threshold , Rockefeller , however , disputed these numbers . Sources within Washington reported that Reagan caused greater concern for the Nixon campaign than Rockefeller . A possible scenario surfaced where Nixon 's southern delegates would drop their support to back the more conservative Reagan . Nonetheless , Nixon staffers believed that if such a scenario occurred , liberal Rockefeller delegates in the Northeast would support Nixon to prevent a Reagan nomination .
= = Republican National Convention = =
The 1968 Republican National Convention was held from August 5 to 9 at the Miami Beach Convention Center in Miami Beach , Florida . At the convention , Richard Nixon won the nomination for President on the first ballot with 692 delegates . Behind him finished Governor Rockefeller , second with 277 delegates , followed by Governor Ronald Reagan , in third place , having just entered the race , accruing 182 delegates . Nixon 's early nomination occurred partly because he held on to delegates in the South largely influenced by Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina , and delegate Charlton Lyons of Louisiana .
Following nomination , Nixon held his hands in the air with his trademark " V " sign of victory , delivering an acceptance speech written over the preceding weeks . In his speech , he remarked :
" Tonight I do not promise the millennium in the morning . I don 't promise that we can eradicate poverty and end discrimination in the space of four or even eight years . But I do promise action . And a new policy for peace abroad , a new policy for peace and progress and justice at home . " - Fmr . Vice President Richard Nixon , 1968 Republican Nominee for President
He called for a new era of negotiation with communist nations , and a strengthening of the criminal justice system to restore law and order . Marking himself as a champion of the American Dream , he stressed greater unity , invoking the silent majority . Nixon also discussed economics , articulating his opposition to social welfare , advocating programs designed to help African Americans start their own small businesses . By the end of his address , he promised that " the long dark night for America is about to end . "
Following the speech , Nixon formally selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate , who received 1119 delegate votes , with the distant second being Governor Romney with 186 . Agnew was relatively unknown nationally , and was selected due to his purported appeal to African Americans , and work for the Nixon campaign after an embarrassing experience as the head of the Draft Rockefeller movement . It was later noted that the convention had featured Nixon as the centrist candidate with Rockefeller to his left and Reagan to his right . The same analysis applied to the general campaign , as commentators noted that Nixon would stand to the right of the still undecided Democratic nominee but would fall to the left of American Independent Party candidate George Wallace .
= = General election = =
As the general election season began , Nixon focused his efforts on the " big seven " states : California , Illinois , Michigan , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Texas . He hired Roger Ailes , whom he had first encountered during an appearance on the The Mike Douglas Show , to produce one hour television programs to advertise the campaign in strategic regions . The campaign also continued to use televised town hall segments throughout the campaign , which aired live , featuring real voters whom were instructed to ask tough questions , following the campaign 's belief that Nixon would respond well to such questions . Starting the ground campaign tour , during his first stop in Springfield , Illinois , he discussed the importance of unity , stating that " America [ now ] needs to be united more than any time since Lincoln . " He then traveled to Michigan , Ohio and Pennsylvania before returning to New York , meeting with Governor Rockefeller . In those Gallup polls following the convention , Nixon led Humphrey 45 % to 29 % and topped McCarthy 42 % to 37 % . At the end of the month , Hubert Humphrey narrowly won Democratic presidential nominee over McCarthy at the Democratic convention , which was filled with protest and riots . Analysts saw the Democrat 's split , along with lacking " law and order " at the convention , positioning Nixon well . Shortly before the convention and throughout the general election , Nixon received regular briefings from President Johnson on developments in the Vietnam War . The President made it clear to Nixon that he did not want the war to be politicized , to which Nixon agreed , although questioning Humphrey 's eventual compliance .
Following the Democratic convention , Nixon was consistently labeled the favorite , described as " relaxed [ and ] confident , " counter to his " unsure " self from 1960 . Even observers speculated as to the President 's possible favoring Nixon to Humphrey . In a visit to Chicago shortly after the Democratic convention , Nixon received a large welcome and ticker tape parade , with crowds estimated at several hundred thousand .
Before his visit , he called upon Senator Edward Brooke of Massachusetts , the highest ranking African American in U.S. government , to campaign with him on trips to Illinois and California . Referring to Brooke as " one of my top advisers , " he accompanied campaign stops in Chicago and San Francisco , a move critics described as an attempt to further gain favor within the African American community .
= = = September = = =
In mid @-@ September , Nixon 's running mate Spiro Agnew went on the offensive against Humphrey ; he referred to the Vice President as being " soft on Communism , " along with softness on inflation , and " law and order , " comparing him to former British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . At this time , Nixon sent his adviser , former Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania , on a fact finding trip to Europe to gather intelligence on Western alliance and Soviet issues . In response to Humphrey 's calls for a face to face debate , Nixon remarked : " Before we can have a debate between Nixon and Humphrey , Humphrey 's got to settle his debate with himself . " Nixon campaigned in San Francisco , in front of 10 @,@ 000 supporters amidst an array of protests . The candidate took on the protesters first hand , and delivered his " forgotten American " speech , declaring that election day would be " a day of protest for the forgotten American , " a group which included those that " obey the law , pay their taxes , go to church , send their children to school , love their country and demand new leadership . " By month 's end , many in the Nixon campaign believed his election was guaranteed , beginning to prepare for the transition period , despite Nixon 's warning that " the one thing that can beat us now is overconfidence . " Gallup showed Nixon leading Humphrey 43 % to 28 % at the end of September .
= = = October = = =
In early October , commentators weighed Nixon 's advantage , arguing that placement of blame for the Vietnam War strictly on the Johnson administration was acceptable — avoiding discussion of war with the excuse that he did not want to disrupt the peace talks in Paris . However , anti @-@ war protesters heckled Nixon repeatedly on the campaign trail . Nixon addressed the American Conservative Union on October 9 , and argued that George Wallace 's American Independent Party candidacy could split the anti @-@ Administration vote , and help the Democrats . The Union decided to back Nixon over Wallace , labeling the third party candidate 's beliefs as " Populist . " As Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Edmund Muskie criticized Nixon for his connections to Strom Thurmond , Nixon continued to oppose a possible debate with Humphrey and Wallace , as well as between running mates , on the basis that he did not want to give Wallace more exposure . It was also argued that Nixon opposed debating due to his experience during the 1960 encounter with John F. Kennedy , which many cited as a factor in his defeat . In another lesson learned from 1960 , the campaign employed 100 @,@ 000 workers to oversee election day polling sites to prevent a recurrence of what many Republicans viewed as 1960 's stolen election . Nixon went on a whistle @-@ stop train tour of Ohio near the end of October . From the back of the " Nixon Victory Special " car , he bashed Vice President Humphrey as well as the Secretary of Agriculture and Attorney General of the Johnson cabinet , for farmers ' debt and rising crime . At this time , the campaign released two controversial television advertisements , juxtaposing a smiling Humphrey with images of the Vietnam War and the chaos at the 1968 Democratic National Convention ; the advertisements aroused protests from the Humphrey campaign . By October 's end , Nixon began to lose his edge over Humphrey ; Gallup showing he led 44 % to 36 % , down five points from a few weeks earlier , a decline observers attributed to Nixon 's refusal for a debate with Humphrey .
= = = November = = =
At the beginning of November , President Johnson announced that a bombing had been halted in Vietnam ; observers noted that the development significantly helped Humphrey although Nixon had endorsed such talks | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
cultural heritage in Georgia , and are currently nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO 's list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity .
= = Preview = =
= = Origins = =
The origins of the Georgian script are to this date poorly known , and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation , who designed the script and the main influences on that process .
The first version of the script attested is Asomtavruli which dates back to at least the 5th century ; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries . Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of a core Georgian @-@ speaking kingdom , that is , Kartli ( or Iberia in Classical sources ) . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III ( 326 or 337 ) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430 , contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet . It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor Levan Chilashvili 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions , discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi , in Georgia 's easternmost province of Kakheti , in the 1980s , to the 1st or 2nd century has not been universally accepted .
A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ( ca . 800 ) , assigns a much earlier , pre @-@ Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet , and names King Pharnavaz I ( 3rd century BC ) as its inventor . This account is now considered legendary , and is rejected by scholarly consensus , as no archaeological confirmation has been found . Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots , and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions . Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition , in the pre @-@ Christian use of foreign scripts ( alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts .
A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process . According to a number of scholars and medieval Armenian sources , Mesrop Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots , and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell , but has been criticized by scholars , both Georgian and Western , who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation . Other scholars quote Koryun 's claims without taking a stance on its validity . Many agree , however , that Armenian clerics , if not Mashtots himself , must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script .
Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet , as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems , most notably the order and numeric value of letters . Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre @-@ Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers .
= = Asomtavruli = =
Asomtavruli ( Georgian : ასომთავრული ) is the oldest Georgian script . The name Asomtavruli means " capital letters " , from aso ( ასო ) " letter " and mtavari ( მთავარი ) " principal / head " . It is also known as Mrgvlovani ( Georgian : მრგვლოვანი ) " rounded " , from mrgvali ( მრგვალი ) " round " , so named because of its round letter shapes . Despite its name , this " capital " script is unicameral , just like the modern Georgian script , Mkhedruli .
The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions .
From the 9th century , Nuskhuri script starting becoming dominant , and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced . However , epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script . Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative . In the majority of 9th @-@ century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script , Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters . Although , some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century .
= = = Form of Asomtavruli letters = = =
In early Asomtavruli , the letters are of equal height . Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli , like that of Greek , was initially boustrophedon , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right .
In most Asomtavruli letters , straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles . The only letter with acute angles is Ⴟ ( ჯ jani ) . There have been various attempts to explain this exception . Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ , composed of the Ⴈ ( ი ini ) and Ⴕ ( ქ kani ) . According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze , the cross @-@ like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet , and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( ) , Greek chi ( Χ ) , and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician , Greek , or Latin .
Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script , 1200 – 1210 AD .
From the 7th century , the forms of some letters began to change . The equal height of the letters was abandoned , with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders .
Note : Some fonts show " capitalized " ( tall ) variants of Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli letters rather than Asomtavruli .
= = = Asomtavruli illumination = = =
In Nuskhuri manuscripts , Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text . In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts , Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink . Later , from the 10th century , the letters were illuminated . The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text . For example , in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era , when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals .
Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters , მ ( m ) , ნ ( n ) and თ ( t ) , 12 – 13th century .
From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ arrowy " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in 11th- and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century .
Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself .
Asomtavruli letter დ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds .
The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli " Curly " form only .
The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form .
= = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter :
= = Nuskhuri = =
Nuskhuri ( Georgian : ნუსხური ) is the second Georgian script . The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : ხუცური , " clerical " , from khutsesi ( ხუცესი " cleric " ) , and it was principally used in hagiography .
Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century .
= = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = =
Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are slanted to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts .
→ → Asomtavruli letters ო ( oni ) and ჳ ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , უ uni .
Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters .
= = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter :
= = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = =
Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone engravings . Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli . Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts .
= = Mkhedruli = =
Mkhedruli ( Georgian : მხედრული ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning " horseman " , " knight " , " warrior " and " cavalier " .
Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli was used for non @-@ religious purposes only and represented the " civil " , " royal " and " secular " script .
Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though Khutsuri ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church .
= = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = =
Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets , Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops .
Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century .
" Gurgen : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates "
Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD .
= = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = =
The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters :
= = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = =
The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant :
ჱ ( he ) , sometimes called " ei " or " e @-@ merve " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to ეჲ ey , as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey ' Christ ' .
ჲ ( hie ) , also called iota , appeared instead of ი ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as ი ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey " Christ " is now written ქრისტეი krist 'ei .
ჳ ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi " others ' " .
ჴ ( qari , hari ) came to be pronounced the same as ხ ( khani ) , and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴლმწიფე became ხელმწიფე " sovereign " .
ჵ ( hoe ) was used for the interjection hoi ! and is now spelled ჰოი .
All but ჵ ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; ჲ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script .
= = = Letters added to other alphabets = = =
Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters :
ჶ ( fi " phi " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian . It derives from the Greek letter Φ ( phi ) .
ჷ ( shva " schwa " ) , also called yn , is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian .
ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .
ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .
ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .
= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :
ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print .
Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .
Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ
An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც
Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .
= = = = Variation = = = =
There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants :
გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .
დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .
კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .
ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .
Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .
რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .
ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .
წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .
ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .
ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .
ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "
= = = = Similar letters = = = =
Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .
For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .
For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .
For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .
ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .
= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =
Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .
A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )
A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "
Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century .
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "
Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .
A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "
Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti
= = Type faces = =
Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .
= = Punctuation = =
In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − ,
= and =
− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special words " , three dots for a " bigger stop " ( such as the appositive name and title " the sovereign Alexander " , below , or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above ) , and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence . Starting in the 11th century , marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use . An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word , and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence . From the 12th century on , these were replaced with the semicolon ( the Greek question mark ) . In the 18th century , Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again , with commas , single dots , and double dots used to mark " complete " , " incomplete " , and " final " sentences , respectively . For the most part , Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script .
Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉
ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე
" The sovereign Alexander "
= = Summary = =
This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " national " transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government , whereas " Laz " is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey . The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters .
= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =
Ossetian language during the 1940s .
Abkhaz language during the 1940s .
Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .
Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Armenian language . In the Armenian community in Tbilisi , the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries , and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Russian language . In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries .
Other Northeast Caucasian languages . The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century .
Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script .
= = Computing = =
= = = Unicode = = =
The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October , 1991 with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 . In creating the Georgian Unicode block , important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American @-@ Irish linguist and script @-@ encoder Michael Everson , who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems . Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili . ( not the former Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili )
Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia 's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ) .
= = = = Blocks = = = =
The Unicode block for Georgian is U + 10A0 – U + 10FF . Mkhedruli ( modern Georgian ) occupies the U + 10D0 – U + 10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U + 10A0 – U + 10CF range . The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U + 2D00 – U + 2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri .
= = = Keyboard layouts = = =
Below is the standard Georgian @-@ language keyboard layout , the traditional layout of manual typewriters .
= = Gallery = =
Gallery of Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts .
= = = Gallery of Asomtavruli = = =
= = = Gallery of Nuskhuri = = =
= = = Gallery of Mkhedruli = = =
= Banai ( goddess ) =
Banai ( Marathi : बाणाई Bāṇāi , sometimes बानाई ) , also known as Banu ( Bāṇu , बानू ) and Banu @-@ bai ( Bāṇu @-@ bāī , बानू @-@ बाई ) , is a Hindu goddess and the second wife of Khandoba , a form of the god Shiva worshipped in the Deccan – predominantly in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Khandoba is portrayed as a king of Jejuri , where his chief temple stands . Some traditions do not give her the status of a legal wife and treat her as a concubine of Khandoba .
While scriptures related to Khandoba do not mention Banai , she is a central subject of folk songs . Banai is considered as a Dhangar , a sheep herding caste , and is sometimes regarded to be of celestial origin . Oral traditions chiefly discuss the tale of her marriage to Khandoba and her conflicts with his first wife Mhalsa . Banai is an antithesis of Mhalsa ; together they complete the god . Banai is generally depicted with Khandoba and often is also accompanied by Mhalsa .
Banai does not enjoy independent worship , but is worshipped as Khandoba 's consort in most of his temples . She is the patron goddess of the Dhangar community and is worshipped as a protector of their herds .
= = Development and symbolism = =
Though Khandoba is a god with five wives , his first two consorts Mhalsa and Banai are the most important . The tale of the King or god with two wives is retold with some variation across India : Murugan and his wives Devasena and Valli ; Venkateswara , Lakshmi and Padmavati being some examples . The motif of Shiva and his wives Parvati and Ganga is told in the Puranas .
The theme of the god marrying a tribal girl like Banai recurs across the Deccan region ; another example being Valli 's marriage to Murugan . Deities across the Deccan ( even extending to Kerala and Tamil Nadu ) often have two wives ; one wife from a high caste and another from the lower social strata : a lower caste or a tribal . Khandoba 's wives who come from various communities establish cultural linkages of the god to these communities , who worship them as their patron god .
While Banai is considered as a legal wife of Khandoba in Maharashtra ( especially with the Dhangars ) , the Kurubas of Karnataka regard her as a concubine . While Mhalsa is from the high @-@ caste Lingayat merchant ( Vani ) community , Banai is described as a Dhangar ( shepherd caste ) , representing the " outside " and associates Khandoba with non @-@ elite herding castes like Dhangars , Gavli and Kuruba ( Gowda ) who live in the forest . Some traditions consider Banai as a Gavli ( cowherd caste ) or Koli ( fisherman caste ) . In Karnataka , she is called Kurbattyavva and is a Kuruba .
Banai is an antithesis Mhalsa . Mhalsa has a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba . Banai , on the other hand , has a love marriage after being captured by the god . Mhalsa is described as pure , ugly , jealous and a good cook ; Banai is impure , erotic , resolute , but does not even know to cook . Mhalsa represents " culture " while Banai " nature " ; together they aid the god @-@ king Khandoba .
The oral legends and texts initiate a process of Sanskritization of the folk deity Khandoba by elevating him to the classical Hindu god Shiva ; his two principal wives Mhalsa and Banai are equated to Parvati and Ganga . Banai does not appear in the Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya , the main scripture related to Khandoba , however it mentions Ganga arriving from heaven . Banai ( Ganga ) has a quarrel with Mhalsa ( Parvati ) , ultimately ending with the message that both are the same . Some Dhangars consider Banai also to be a form of Parvati .
The chief source of legends related to Banai are ovi ( pada ) or folk songs sung by Vaghyas and Muralis , the male and female bards of Khandoba . They sing at jagrans ( a vigil ) where the bards sing in praise of Khandoba through the night . The songs talk about the relationship of Khandoba to his consorts and the mutual relationships of the wives . They are centred on Mhalsa and Banai and often narrate about their quarrels . The tale of the marriage of Khandoba and Banai is a central theme in many Dhangar folk songs . The Varkari saint Sheikh Muhammad ( 1560 @-@ 1650 ) disparages Khandoba in his Yoga @-@ samgrama and calls him the " mad " god that searches for Banai due to " sexual passion " , an allusion to the tale of Banai 's marriage , indicating that the tale was well @-@ established by this era .
According to scholar Günther @-@ Dietz Sontheimer , the legend of Banai has close parallels with the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala from the Hindu epic Mahabharata . The tale of another folk god Mhaskoba ( Bhairava ) to gain his wife Balurani or Balai despite obstacles is also similar to Khandoba 's endeavour to win over Banai .
= = Legends = =
Banai does not appear in the Malhari Mahatmya originating from the Brahmin ( high @-@ priest caste ) tradition , which glorifies Khandoba as Shiva and de @-@ emphasizes his earthly connections . In contrast , Banai occupies the central position in the Dhangar folk narrative and Mhalsa 's marriage to Khandoba is reduced to a passing mention ; Marathas and other settled castes give more importance to Mhalsa .
= = = Early life = = =
Generally , Banai 's birth is not discussed in the folk songs . Few regard her as an avatar of the apsara ( celestial nymph ) Rambha , while others consider her as one of the seven daughters of Indra , the king of the gods . She is found by a Dhangar in a golden box in the forest , hidden in a termite mound or a pit . Her Dhangar father ( sometimes named Yamu ) is the chief of shepherds , who owns nine lakh sheep and goats , nine lakh lambs and numerous barren ones . Yamu is said to have prayed for a child and finds Banai in a box . A virgin ewe is said to have fed Banai her milk , as Yamu does not have a wife and does not know how to feed the infant . In another miracle , a three @-@ storeyed house appears at the place of Yamu 's tent for the young Banai to reside , while the rest of the Dhangars live in tents . She grows up as a rich shepherdess and becomes the overseer of twelve Dhangar vadas ( pastoral settlements or camps , inhabited by different Dhangar clans ) . She cares for her sheep , grazes them and learns how to breed them .
= = = Marriage = = =
Once , Khandoba and Mhalsa play a game of saripat ( translated as game of dice or chess ) . Khandoba loses everything to Mhalsa in the wager , except his dhoti , his flag , his staff ( wand ) and his bhandari , the bag of magical bhandara ( turmeric powder ) . In a dream , he sees Banai and falls in love with her . He goes on a hunt in the forest , gets away from the army and stays with Banai for twelve years . He marries her in non @-@ ritualistic marriage and brings her back to Jejuri . A variant describes how Khandoba arrives in Chandanpur on a hunting expedition and becomes thirsty . A Dhangar directs him to Banai 's vada . Banai offers him water or sends a pot of water , in which Khandoba reads Banai 's name . In another version , the pot with nine jewels is a sign for Khandoba to recognise Banai , the girl he saw in his dream . He falls for her and loses purposefully in saripat with Mhalsa and accepts a twelve @-@ year exile . In this period , he disguises himself as an impoverished , old leper and becomes a man @-@ servant of Banai 's father . Some folk songs have erotic overtones , for example , some songs give erotic descriptions of Banai 's beauty which maddens Khandoba .
Khandoba is described as doing odd jobs under Banai 's orders . Banai first assigns him the task of sweeping the entire vada . He is responsible for cleaning the sheep pens and taking the sheep and lambs for grazing . He completes all tasks by spreading his magical bhandara . The shepherds are astonished how a single old man can handle all the animals . Their vanity is crushed . Banai assigns him the additional responsibility of taking care of five hundred children . She commands if any sheep or lamb is lost or a child cries , she will not give him his food . But Khandoba fulfils the tasks again by spraying his bhandara . She assigns him the job of washing the sheep and lambs . Instead , Khandoba kills all her sheep and lambs to humble the shepherds and Banai . He skins the sheep and separates the meat . A repentant Banai begs his forgiveness ; he agrees to revive her flock on the condition that Banai marries him . Khandoba revives the sheep by spreading his bhandara and reveals his true form .
The wedding is deemed not in accordance to Hindu rituals . Banai and Khandoba marry in a simple , un @-@ Brahmanical ceremony , where sheep droppings are showered on the couple , instead of rice as in the ritualistic weddings of classical ( Brahmanical ) Hinduism . The wedding is conducted without a Brahmin officiating priest . Shepherds read the mantras ( the responsibility of the Brahmin in a normal wedding ) and the bleating of sheep replaces the traditional wedding band . The wedding is sometimes described as a gandharva marriage . Due to the unceremonious nature of the wedding , she is sometimes considered as a rakh ( concubine ) of Khandoba .
= = = After marriage = = =
In all versions , Khandoba returns to Jejuri with his new wife and faces the wrath of Mhalsa . Many songs tell about the confrontations of Mhalsa and Banai . In some songs , Mhalsa complains about Khandoba 's infatuation with the impure Banai . The cantankerous Mhalsa grumbles how Banai has polluted the house by her uncouth ways and suggests that Banai should be returned to the wilderness again . The songs sing how the vegetarian , high @-@ caste Mhalsa is forced to catch fish and eat in the same plate as the non @-@ vegetarian low @-@ caste Banai . Mhalsa is portrayed blaming Banai for the problems in the palace and talking about her superiority to Banai . Banai retorts by saying that Khandoba came to her , mesmerized by her beauty and became her servant . A frustrated Khandoba leaves the palace on a hunting trip after Mhalsa and Banai quarrel about who will embroider a shawl for him and marries Rambhai . The songs also narrate how ultimately the wives have to remain in harmony and aid each other . For example , a song sings how Mhalsa and Banai come together and celebrate the festival of Diwali with Khandoba at Jejuri .
Rarely , Banai also appears in Khandoba 's chief legend where he slays the demons Mani and Malla . Mhalsa and Banai ( or Ganga ) futilely help Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani , every drop of which was creating a new demon . Finally , the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood . Rarely , Banai is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear , a role generally assigned to Mhalsa .
= = Worship and iconography = =
While traces of Banai / Balai 's association with the folk god Biroba as a " mother " remain , Banai rarely enjoys independent worship in modern times . She is generally worshipped as Khandoba 's consort . While in Karnataka , her temple is outside the village and Mailara ( as Khandoba is known in Karnataka ) journeys every year to visit it for ten nights from his temple in the village . In Maharashtra , Banai 's temple is inside the village , but outside the chief temple , as in Khandoba 's chief temple at Jejuri . Mhalsa - who is installed in the main temple - is said to resist the arrival of Khandoba 's new wife Banai and thus , Banai does not reside in the chief temple . Frustrated by the constant quarrels between the two wives , Khandoba is said to have divided the hill of Jejuri into two halves : the lower half belongs to Banai , where she has a separate shrine while Mhalsa rules the upper half where she stays with Khandoba in the main temple . It is customary to pay respects to Banai on the way up to the main shrine , before worshipping Khandoba and Mhalsa there . It is said that Khandoba bestowed the honour of first worship on Banai , while sending her off to a separate residence .
Banai is the patron goddess of the Dhangars and the protector goddess of flock and herds . She takes care of the well @-@ being of the community and is worshipped for increasing the herd . Stone votive images of sheep and other cattle are offered to her for plentiful animals . No animal sacrifice or non @-@ vegetarian offerings are presented to Khandoba directly , instead non @-@ vegetarian offerings intended for Khandoba are offered to Banai . Dhangars sacrifice rams in her honour and offer her a naivedya ( food offering ) of liver , meat and rice , especially on the holy days : Vijayadashami ( when warriors traditionally set off on war or on a journey ) and the full moon days in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra .
Khandoba is often depicted with two identical goddesses accompanying him , representing Mhalsa and Banai . In brass images , Banai is depicted holding a lamb and offering water to Khandoba , while Mhalsa rides with Khandoba on his horse . In metal plaques worshipped by the Dhangars , Banai accompanies Khandoba on his horse and is depicted with sheep .
= Europium =
Europium is a chemical element with symbol Eu and atomic number 63 . It was isolated in 1901 and is named after the continent of Europe . It is a moderately hard , silvery metal which readily oxidizes in air and water . Being a typical member of the lanthanide series , europium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , but the oxidation state + 2 is also common : all europium compounds with oxidation state + 2 are slightly reducing . Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non @-@ toxic compared to other heavy metals . Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds . Europium is one of the least abundant elements in the universe ; only about 5 × 10 − 8 % of all matter in the universe is europium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Europium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead . It crystallizes in a body @-@ centered cubic lattice . Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half @-@ filled electron shell . Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides .
Europium becomes a superconductor when it is cooled below 1 @.@ 8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa . This is because europium is divalent in the metallic state , and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure . In the divalent state , the strong local magnetic moment ( J
= 7 / 2 ) suppresses the superconductivity , which is induced by eliminating this local moment ( J =
0 in Eu3 + ) .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Europium is the most reactive rare earth element . It rapidly oxidizes in air , so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter @-@ sized sample occurs within several days . Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium , and the reaction is
2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu ( OH ) 3 + 3 H2
Because of the high reactivity , samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal , even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil . Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 ° C to form europium ( III ) oxide :
4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3
Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of the hydrated Eu ( III ) , which exist as a nonahydrate :
2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [ Eu ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + + 3 SO2 −
4 + 3 H2
= = = = Eu ( II ) vs. Eu ( III ) = = = =
Although usually trivalent , europium readily forms divalent compounds . This behavior is unusual to most lanthanides , which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of + 3 . The + 2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half @-@ filled f @-@ shell gives more stability . The + 2 state is highly reducing . In terms of size and coordination number , europium ( II ) and barium ( II ) are similar . For example , the sulfates of both barium and europium ( II ) are also highly insoluble in water . Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent , oxidizing in air to form Eu ( III ) compounds . In anaerobic , and particularly geothermal conditions , the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths . This ion @-@ exchange process is the basis of the " negative europium anomaly " , the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite , relative to the chondritic abundance . Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite , and hence is the major source of europium today . The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other ( trivalent ) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration , as it usually is .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes , 151Eu and 153Eu , with 153Eu being the most abundant ( 52 @.@ 2 % natural abundance ) . While 153Eu is stable , 151Eu was recently found to be unstable to alpha decay with half @-@ life of 5 + 11
− 3 × 1018 years , giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium . This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions . Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu , 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being 150Eu with a half @-@ life of 36 @.@ 9 years , 152Eu with a half @-@ life of 13 @.@ 516 years , and 154Eu with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 593 years . All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 4 @.@ 7612 years , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives shorter than 12 @.@ 2 seconds . This element also has 8 meta states , with the most stable being 150mEu ( t1 / 2 = 12 @.@ 8 hours ) , 152m1Eu ( t1 / 2 = 9 @.@ 3116 hours ) and 152m2Eu ( t1 / 2 = 96 minutes ) .
The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture , and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay . The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium ( Sm ) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium ( Gd ) .
= = = = Europium as a nuclear fission product = = = =
Europium is produced by nuclear fission , but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products .
Like other lanthanides , many isotopes , especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and neutron @-@ poor isotopes like 152Eu , have high cross sections for neutron capture , often high enough to be neutron poisons .
151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium @-@ 151 , but since this has a long decay half @-@ life and short mean time to neutron absorption , most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm .
152Eu ( half @-@ life 13 @.@ 516 years ) and 154Eu ( half @-@ life 8 @.@ 593 years ) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non @-@ radioactive , but 154Eu is the only long @-@ lived " shielded " nuclide , other than 134Cs , to have a fission yield of more than 2 @.@ 5 parts per million fissions . A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non @-@ radioactive 153Eu ; however , much of this is further converted to 155Eu .
155Eu ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 7612 years ) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million ( ppm ) for uranium @-@ 235 and thermal neutrons ; most of it is transmuted to non @-@ radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium @-@ 156 by the end of fuel burnup .
Overall , europium is overshadowed by caesium @-@ 137 and strontium @-@ 90 as a radiation hazard , and by samarium and others as a neutron poison .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Europium is not found in nature as a free element . Many minerals contain europium , with the most important sources being bastnäsite , monazite , xenotime and loparite .
Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly . Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks ( rocks that cooled from magma or lava ) . The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks .
Divalent europium ( Eu2 + ) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite ( CaF2 ) . The reduction from Eu3 + to Eu2 + is induced by irradiation with energetic particles . The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England ; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852 , although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause .
= = Production = =
Europium is associated with the other rare earth elements and is , therefore , mined together with them . Separation of the rare earth elements is a step in the later processing . Rare earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite , loparite , xenotime , and monazite in mineable quantities . The first two are orthophosphate minerals LnPO
4 ( Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium ) , and the third is a fluorocarbonate LnCO3F . Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium , which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive . For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides , several methods have been developed . The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate . Roasting the ore and subsequent acidic and basic leaching is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides . If cerium is the dominant lanthanide , then it is converted from cerium ( III ) to cerium ( IV ) and then precipitated . Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium . This fraction is reduced with zinc , zinc / amalgam , electrolysis or other methods converting the europium ( III ) to europium ( II ) . Europium ( II ) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as carbonate or is co @-@ precipitated with barium sulfate . Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl ( or CaCl2 ) in a graphite cell , which serves as cathode , using graphite as anode . The other product is chlorine gas .
A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production . The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is , with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare earth element oxides , the largest known deposit . The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare earth elements in the 1990s . Only 0 @.@ 2 % of the rare earth element content is europium . The second large source for rare earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine . The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare earth elements ( La @-@ Gd , Sc , and Y ) and contains only 0 @.@ 1 % of europium . Another large source for rare earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula . It contains besides niobium , tantalum and titanium up to 30 % rare earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia .
= = Compounds = =
Europium compounds tend to exist trivalent oxidation state under most conditions . Commonly these compounds feature Eu ( III ) bound by 6 – 9 oxygenic ligands , typically water . These compounds , the chlorides , sulfates , nitrates , are soluble in water or polar organic solvent . Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate @-@ like ligands , e.g. , Eufod .
= = = Halides = = =
Europium metal reacts with all the halogens :
2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 ( X = F , Cl , Br , I )
This route gives white europium ( III ) fluoride ( EuF3 ) , yellow europium ( III ) chloride ( EuCl3 ) , gray europium ( III ) bromide ( EuBr3 ) , and colorless europium ( III ) iodide ( EuI3 ) . Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides : yellow @-@ green europium ( II ) fluoride ( EuF2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) chloride ( EuCl2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) bromide ( EuBr2 ) , and green europium ( II ) iodide ( EuI2 ) .
= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens , but the heavier chalcogens ( S , Se , and Te ) stabilize the lower oxidation state . Three oxides are known : europium ( II ) oxide ( EuO ) , europium ( III ) oxide ( Eu2O3 ) , and the mixed @-@ valence oxide Eu3O4 , consisting of both Eu ( II ) and Eu ( III ) . Otherwise , the main chalcogenides are europium ( II ) sulfide ( EuS ) , europium ( II ) selenide ( EuSe ) and europium ( II ) telluride ( EuTe ) : all three of these are black solids . EuS is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3 :
Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S
The main nitride is europium ( III ) nitride ( EuN ) .
= = History of study = =
Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements , due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated . William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements and observed spectral lines later assigned to europium .
Europium was first found in 1890 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran , who obtained basic fractions from samarium @-@ gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium . However , the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène @-@ Anatole Demarçay , who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901 ; he then named it europium .
When the europium @-@ doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s , and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry , there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors , as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0 @.@ 05 % . However , the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine , California , whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0 @.@ 1 % , was about to come on @-@ line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry . Prior to europium , the color @-@ TV red phosphor was very weak , and the other phosphor colors had to be muted , to maintain color balance . With the brilliant red europium phosphor , it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors , and a much brighter color TV picture was the result . Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors . Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo , China , with an even " richer " europium content of 0 @.@ 2 % .
Frank Spedding , celebrated for his development of the ion @-@ exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in the mid @-@ 1950s , once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide . This was an unheard @-@ of quantity at the time , and Spedding did not take the man seriously . However , a package duly arrived in the mail , containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide . The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry .
= = Applications = =
Relative to most other elements , commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized . Almost invariably , they exploit its phosphorescence , either in the + 2 or + 3 oxidation state .
It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices . Europium oxide ( Eu2O3 ) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps , and as an activator for yttrium @-@ based phosphors . Color TV screens contain between 0 @.@ 5 and 1 g of europium oxide . Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors , the luminescence of divalent europium depends on the host lattice , but tends to be on the blue side . The two classes of europium @-@ based phosphor ( red and blue ) , combined with the yellow / green terbium phosphors give " white " light , the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors . This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs . Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens . Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass . One of the more common persistent after @-@ glow phosphors besides copper @-@ doped zinc sulfide is europium @-@ doped strontium aluminate . Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug @-@ discovery screens . It is also used in the anti @-@ counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes .
An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes , such as Eu ( fod ) 3 , as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy . Chiral shift reagents , such as Eu ( hfc ) 3 , are still used to determine enantiomeric purity .
A recent ( 2015 ) application of europium is in quantum memory chips which can reliably store information for days at a time ; these could allow sensitive quantum data to be stored to a hard disk @-@ like device and shipped around the country .
= = Precautions = =
There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals . Europium chloride , nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity : europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg / kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg / kg . Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg / kg , while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg / kg . The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard .
= North @-@ Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) =
North @-@ Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . For most of its existence it covered central and northern Queensland , and Papua New Guinea . It was formed in January 1942 from the eastern part of the former Northern Area Command , which had covered the whole of northern Australia and Papua . Headquartered at Townsville , Queensland , North @-@ Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . Aircraft under its control took part in the battles of Rabaul , Port Moresby and Milne Bay in 1942 , and the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in 1944 . The command continued to operate following the end of the war , before its responsibilities were subsumed in 1954 by the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system ; the headquarters was disbanded two years later .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
North @-@ Eastern Area Command was formed at Townsville , Queensland , on 15 January 1942 , taking over the eastern portion of what was previously Northern Area Command . Northern Area had been established on 8 May 1941 as one of the RAAF 's geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones , and covered northern New South Wales , Queensland , the Northern Territory , and Papua . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each area was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary .
The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 was the catalyst for Northern Area being split into North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) and North @-@ Eastern Area ( NEA ) , to counter distinct threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively . Air Commodore Frank Lukis , formerly in charge of Northern Area , was NEA 's inaugural AOC , taking responsibility for RAAF operations against the Japanese in New Guinea , New Britain and surrounding islands . His headquarters staff numbered 284 . On 20 January 1942 , a force of over 100 Japanese aircraft attacked Rabaul , destroying or badly damaging six CAC Wirraways and killing or wounding eleven crewmen of No. 24 Squadron under Wing Commander John Lerew . The following day , NEA headquarters sent a signal to Lerew ordering him to keep his airfield open , to which Lerew , with only two Wirraways left , replied using the legendary ancient gladiatorial phrase to honour an Emperor : " Morituri vos salutamus " ( " We who are about to die salute you " ) . Ignoring a further message from headquarters to abandon his squadron and escape in a Lockheed Hudson bomber , on 22 January Lerew began evacuating staff to Port Moresby , New Guinea .
No. 33 Squadron , operating ex @-@ Qantas Short Empire flying boats and several smaller transports , was raised in NEA on 19 February 1942 . Earlier that month , Lukis warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby , due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons . On 25 February , Nos. 3 and 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters were established to coordinate fighter operations ; they were based at Townsville and Port Moresby respectively . Seventeen P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 75 Squadron , recently formed at Townsville , were deployed to Port Moresby in mid @-@ March . Commanded by Squadron Leader John Jackson , the squadron suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle . At one point NEA headquarters gave Jackson permission to withdraw but he refused , and the squadron was eventually credited with destroying thirty @-@ five Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground , securing Port Moresby until relieved by the 35th and 36th Squadrons of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , operating P @-@ 39 Airacobras .
Several USAAF bomber formations operated under NEA 's control in early 1942 , including A @-@ 24 Banshees of the 8th Squadron from Port Moresby , and B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the 435th Squadron ( initially known as the " Kangaroo Squadron " ) from Townsville . As of 20 April , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) . One result of this was the integration of USAAF and RAAF staff at area headquarters . According to the official history of the RAAF , though " more a diplomatic gesture than a practical method of war organisation " , it gave personnel from the two services the opportunity to quickly become acclimatised to each other and " in North @-@ Eastern Area , as an example , the atmosphere was happy and the staff extremely cooperative " . Following the Battle of the Coral Sea in May , USAAF units no longer operated under RAAF control in the NEA but were commanded directly by senior American officers of the AAF .
NEA 's operational headquarters , a reinforced concrete bunker known as Building 81 , was completed in May 1942 . Located on Green Street , Townsville , at the base of Castle Hill , it was topped with a suburban house to mislead enemy aircraft . The same month , Eastern Area Command was formed , taking control of units in New South Wales and southern Queensland from Southern Area and NEA . This left NEA in command of Nos. 24 , 33 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Townsville ; No. 100 Squadron at Cairns ; No. 32 Squadron at Horn Island ; and Nos. 11 , 20 and 75 Squadrons , as well as No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Port Moresby . NEA 's boundaries were finetuned on 19 August : a portion of Queensland within the Barkly Tableland and the Haslingden and Heywood districts was assigned to the control of North @-@ Western Area . Lukis handed over command of NEA to Group Captain ( later Air Commodore ) Harry Cobby on 25 August . By the end of the month , the headquarters staff numbered 684 . No. 75 Squadron , replenished after its defence of Port Moresby , and No. 76 Squadron , deployed north from Townsville and also flying Kittyhawks , played what senior Australian Army commanders described as the " decisive " role in the Battle of Milne Bay in New Guinea during August and September 1942 . During the battle , Cobby exercised overall command of the RAAF units from NEA headquarters , while their efforts were coordinated on the ground by Group Captain Bill Garing , NEA 's senior air staff officer .
On 1 September 1942 , No. 9 ( Operational ) Group was formed at Port Moresby as a mobile strike force to move forward with Allied advances in the Pacific , in contrast to the static , defensive nature of the area commands . It took over all units in New Guinea previously operating under NEA Command . NEA initially retained administrative control of No. 9 Group but , on 1 January 1943 , the group was made independent of the area command and its administration became the responsibility of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . September 1942 also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA . Bostock exercised control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority over all Australian units . He personally coordinated operations when they involved more than one area command , for instance when the fighter squadrons of both NWA and NEA were required to repulse a major attack . No. 42 ( Radar ) Wing was formed at Townsville in February 1943 , and the following month took control of all radar stations in NEA . As of April 1943 , the area command directly controlled four squadrons tasked primarily with anti @-@ submarine warfare : No. 7 Squadron , flying Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance @-@ bombers out of Ross River ; No. 9 Squadron , a fleet co @-@ operation unit flying Supermarine Seagulls from Bowen ; and Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with PBY Catalinas from Cairns .
In early 1943 , Japan was still believed to be capable of invading , or at least bombing , the Torres Strait islands , and NEA had only No. 7 Squadron , now operating from Horn Island , to counter the threat . It was reinforced in April by No. 84 Squadron , flying CAC Boomerang fighters . The same month , No. 72 Wing was formed at Townsville , before deploying to Merauke , New Guinea . Controlling No. 84 Squadron , No. 86 Squadron ( flying Kittyhawks ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( Vultee Vengeance dive bombers ) , the wing was responsible for Torres Strait 's air defence , as well as offensive operations against infrastructure and shipping in Dutch New Guinea . In October , No. 84 Squadron converted to Kittyhawks and transferred to the newly formed No. 75 Wing , which was given responsibility for units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula . In February 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by other units under its control , Nos. 7 and 23 Squadrons ; the latter operated Vengeances until being declared non @-@ operational in June , prior to re @-@ equipping with B @-@ 24 Liberators for duty in North @-@ Western Area . By May , NEA 's order of battle on the Australian mainland consisted of Nos. 7 , 9 , 13 ( operating Lockheed Venturas from Cooktown ) , 20 and 23 Squadrons .
Cobby served as AOC NEA until November 1943 , handing over to Air Commodore John Summers , who held command for the remainder of the war . By the end of November , NEA headquarters staff numbered 499 , including ninety @-@ seven officers . NEA 's Catalinas joined aircraft of No. 9 Group in support of the US invasion of New Britain in December 1943 and January 1944 . The Catalinas also conducted mine @-@ laying operations around the Timor Sea in the lead @-@ up to the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in April 1944 . In August , No. 76 Wing headquarters , formed at Townsville in January and subsequently based at Cairns , was transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory . There it came under the control of NWA headquarters and oversaw operations by three Catalina squadrons , including No. 20 . The same month , No. 75 Wing was disbanded and its units became the direct responsibility of NEA headquarters . No. 42 Wing disbanded in October 1944 , following a decision to assign control of RAAF radar stations to mobile fighter control units or similar formations . By the end of February 1945 , NEA headquarters staff numbered 743 , including 127 officers . No. 72 Wing headquarters transferred to Townsville in May that year , and disbanded the following month .
= = = Post @-@ war activity and disbandment = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . By the end of the month , NEA headquarters staff numbered 526 , including ninety @-@ eight officers . The Air Force shrank dramatically as personnel were demobilised and units disbanded ; most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations after the war were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland . In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The Australian Government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place . By 1949 , NEA headquarters was located in Sturt Street , Townsville . No. 10 Squadron was based at Townsville from March that year , operating Avro Lincolns over the Pacific and Australia 's northern approaches in the maritime reconnaissance and search @-@ and @-@ rescue roles . Air Commodore Ian McLachlan was appointed AOC NEA in September 1951 and served two years in the post before handing over to acting Air Commodore Patrick Heffernan .
Commencing in October 1953 , the RAAF was reorganised from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system into one based on function . In February 1954 , the newly constituted functional organisations — Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands — assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from North @-@ Eastern Area Command . NEA headquarters remained in existence , but only as one of Home Command 's " remote control points " . It was finally disbanded on 3 December 1956 , and was succeeded by Headquarters RAAF Townsville .
As of 2009 , the former NEA headquarters in Building 81 , Green Street , housed Townsville 's State Emergency Service group .
= = Order of battle = =
As at 30 April 1942 , NEA 's order of battle comprised :
RAAF Station Townsville
No. 24 ( General Purpose ) Squadron
No. 33 ( Transport ) Squadron
No. 76 ( Fighter ) Squadron
RAAF Station Amberley
No. 23 ( General Purpose ) Squadron
RAAF Station Port Moresby
No. 11 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 20 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 32 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron
No. 75 ( Fighter ) Squadron
No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Townsville
No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Port Moresby
= Cape lobster =
The Cape lobster , Homarinus capensis , is a species of small lobster that lives off the coast of South Africa , from Dassen Island to Haga Haga . Only a few dozen specimens are known , mostly regurgitated by reef @-@ dwelling fish . It lives in rocky reefs , and is thought to lay large eggs that have a short larval phase , or that hatch directly as a juvenile . The species grows to a total length of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and resembles a small European or American lobster ; it was previously included in the same genus , Homarus , although it is not very closely related to those species , and is now considered to form a separate , monotypic genus – Homarinus . Its closest relatives are the genera Thymops and Thymopides .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
The Cape lobster is endemic to South Africa . It occurs from Dassen Island , Western Cape in the west to Haga Haga , Eastern Cape in the east , a range of 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) . Most of the known specimens were regurgitated by fish caught on reefs at depths of 20 – 40 metres ( 66 – 131 ft ) . This suggests that the Cape lobster inhabits rocky substrates , and may explain its apparent rarity , since such areas are not amenable to dredging or trawling , and the species may be too small to be retained by lobster traps .
= = Description = =
Homarinus capensis is considerably smaller than the large northern lobsters of the Atlantic Ocean , Homarus gammarus ( the European lobster ) and Homarus americanus ( the American lobster ) , at 8 – 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) total length , or 4 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) carapace length . Accounts of the colouration of H. capensis are very variable , from tawny , red or yellow to " a rather dark olive " , similar to Homarus gammarus .
Homarinus and Homarus are considered to be the most plesiomorphic genera in the family Nephropidae . Nonetheless , the Cape lobster differs from Homarus in a number of characters . The rostrum of the Cape lobster is flattened , while that of Homarus is rounded in section , and curves upwards at the tip . The three pairs of claws are covered with hairs in Homarinus , while those of Homarus are hairless . The telson tapers along its length in Homarus , but has sides which are nearly parallel in Homarinus . Although no egg @-@ bearing females have been collected , the gonopores ( openings of the oviducts ) of female Cape lobsters are much larger than those of Homarus gammarus and Homarus americanus . This is thought to indicate that Homarinus bears fewer , larger eggs than Homarus , and that either the larvae develop quickly into juveniles after hatching , or that the eggs hatch directly into juveniles .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Cape lobsters are elusive and rare , with only fourteen specimens having been collected between 1792 ( the date of its first description ) and 1992 . These include five males in the collections of the South African Museum ( Cape Town ) , two in the Natural History Museum ( London ) , one in each of the East London Museum , the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie ( Leiden ) and the Albany Museum ( Grahamstown ) , and one male and one female in the Muséum national d 'histoire naturelle ( Paris ) . In 1992 , a Cape lobster was discovered at Dassen Island , and the publicity the find generated resulted in more than 20 additional specimens being reported .
The Cape lobster was first described by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1792 as Cancer ( Astacus ) capensis . It was independently described in 1793 by Johan Christian Fabricius as Astacus flavus , possibly based on the same type specimen . When Friedrich Weber erected the genus Homarus in 1795 , he included Fabricius ' species in it , but this placement was not followed by later authors . The species reached its current classification in 1995 , when the monotypic genus Homarinus was erected by Irv Kornfield , Austin B. Williams and Robert S. Steneck .
While analyses of morphology suggest a close relationship between Homarinus and Homarus , molecular analyses using mitochondrial DNA reveal that they are not sister taxa . Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and carinae , but are thought to have reached that state independently , through convergent evolution . The closest living relative of Homarus is Nephrops norvegicus , while the closest relatives of Homarinus are Thymops and Thymopides .
= A4232 road =
The A4232 , which is also known either as the Peripheral Distributor Road ( PDR ) ( Welsh : Ffordd Ddosbarthu Ymylol ) or the Cardiff Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Caerdydd ) , is a distributor road in Cardiff , the capital of Wales .
The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road in 1978 and the last section was the Butetown Link Road in 1995 . Construction of the first phase of the final link road , the Eastern Bay Link Road , started on 17 March 2016 and is due to be completed by April 2017 . When fully completed , the road will form part of the Cardiff ring road system . The PDR runs west , south and east of Cardiff , with the M4 between junction 30 and junction 33 completing the northern section . The PDR is dual carriageway for its entire length except for the East Moors Viaduct , which is a single carriageway .
The PDR has been constructed in separate link roads of between 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) and 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) around Cardiff and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs have been opened to traffic , with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . It has 4 large viaducts ( Ely Viaduct , Grangetown Viaduct , Taff Viaduct and the East Moors Viaduct ) , 1 tunnel ( Queen 's Gate Tunnel ) and 2 spur roads ( Cogan Spur and Central Link Road ) . The road also has many smaller bridges over or under most of the interchanges on the road . The entire length of the road has clearway restrictions on it .
= = History = =
The road was conceived in the early 1970s and planning began in the late 1970s , by South Glamorgan County Council . The road at that stage was planned to be completed by 1995 and would relieve Ely , Grangetown , Butetown and East Moors of through traffic and as a fast link to the national motorway network via the M4 and A48 ( M ) . The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 and the last section of the PDR , the Butetown Link Road , was opened to the public in 1995 .
The former chairman of the South Glamorgan County Council environment committee , Councillor Paddy Kitson , called the road a " necklace of opportunity " due to its shape and also the opportunities for regeneration . By 1 April 1996 the responsibility for the road was transferred from South Glamorgan County Council to the unitary authority of Cardiff Council . Much of the funding for the road had been grant aided from the European Community and the UK Government on the basis that it would improve the economic viability of the area and bring in new jobs and industry . However , since the completion of the Butetown Link Road , funding for further developments have been at a stand still , and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs are open to traffic with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . The " missing link " , the Eastern Bay Link Road , is still to be built .
= = Route description = =
The PDR has 3 separate sections ; the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) to Queen 's Gate roundabout , the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( A48 ) and the Pontprennau Interchange ( A48 ) to the Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) .
The section from the Capel Llanilltern Interchange on the M4 ( junction 33 ) to the Queen 's Gate roundabout is sometimes referred to as the Western Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Gorllewin ) , is 15 @.@ 77 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 80 mi ) in length and includes the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road , Ely Link Road , Grangetown Link Road and Butetown Link Road . For the majority of this section it is the boundary between the City of Cardiff to the east and the Vale of Glamorgan to the west .
This section partly opened in 1978 , from the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange on the A48 is oldest section of the PDR . It includes only the Southern Way Link Road , known locally as Southern Way , and is 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) in length .
The Pentwyn Link Road section from the Pontprennau Interchange on the A48 to the Pentwyn Interchange on the M4 ( junction 30 ) is one of the newer sections of the PDR , having been opened in 1984 , it is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length . The road between the Llanedeyrn Interchange to the Pontprennau Interchange is the A48 ( Eastern Avenue ) , it too is a dual carriageway and is a concurrent road with the PDR , there are no plans to renumber this section of the A48 .
= = Link roads = =
A map of all the link roads and spur roads can be seen by clicking Map of all coordinates opposite
Each section of the road was completed in separate link roads .
= = = Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road = = =
The GB £ 14 @.@ 5 million Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Capel Llanilltern – Croes Cwrlwys ) , also known as the A4232 Trunk Road ( as it is the only section of the PDR which is a trunk road ) , between the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( 51 @.@ 506481 ° N 3 @.@ 310425 ° W / 51 @.@ 506481 ; -3.310425 ( Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) ) ) and the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 466350 ° N 3 @.@ 271110 ° W / 51 @.@ 466350 ; -3.271110 ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) was opened in 1985 . It was designed to provide a by @-@ pass for traffic from the M4 to the Vale of Glamorgan . It is 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) in length and includes the Ely Viaduct close to Michaelston @-@ super @-@ Ely . The trunk road is maintained by the South Wales Trunk Road Agency ( SWTRA ) on behalf of the Welsh Assembly Government ( WAG ) . The remainder of the PDR is a primary route , which is maintained by Cardiff Council . In 2006 variable message signs were installed on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road by Techspan Systems to display messages giving motorists warning of road and weather conditions , accidents , congestion and major events held in the area .
= = = = Ely Viaduct = = = =
The Ely Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelái ) crosses over the River Ely and also the main South Wales railway line .
The viaduct is a 538 ft ( 164 m ) twin @-@ box girder and has central span of 230 ft ( 70 m ) and 150 ft ( 46 m ) side spans , constructed by the balanced cantilever method . It was constructed in segments each weighing between 54 tons for plain segments to 93 tons for the main segments .
= = = Ely Link Road = = =
The Ely Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelái ) between the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 465840 ° N 3 @.@ 269895 ° W / 51 @.@ 465840 ; -3.269895 ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) and the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470641 ° N 3 @.@ 211762 ° W / 51 @.@ 470641 ; -3.211762 ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) , sometimes referred to as the Leckwith Road Interchange . It is 4 @.@ 83 km ( 3 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened in 1982 and built by Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd ( DMD ) . It was designed to relieve Ely of through traffic and partly cuts into Leckwith Hill .
= = = Grangetown Link Road = = =
The 2 @.@ 89 km ( 1 @.@ 80 mi ) Grangetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelluest ) between the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470159 ° N 3 @.@ 211239 ° W / 51 @.@ 470159 ; -3.211239 ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) and the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453510 ° N 3 @.@ 185760 ° W / 51 @.@ 453510 ; -3.185760 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) was opened on 3 May , 1988 . It includes the Grangetown Viaduct .
= = = = Grangetown Viaduct = = = =
The Grangetown Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelluest ) is approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length and is said to be the longest glued segmental bridge in the United Kingdom . It has 13 spans of 71 meters ( 233 ft ) with 2 end spans of 38 m ( 125 ft ) and 46 m ( 151 ft ) .
The viaduct was designed by South Glamorgan County Council . Robert Benaim and Associates , now called Benaim UK Ltd designed the initial launching system for the glued segmental structure .
= = = Butetown Link Road = = =
The 2 @.@ 57 km ( 1 @.@ 60 mi ) Butetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Butetown ) between the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453585 ° N 3 @.@ 184044 ° W / 51 @.@ 453585 ; -3.184044 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) and the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 467873 ° N 3 @.@ 157455 ° W / 51 @.@ 467873 ; -3.157455 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) was opened on 27 March , 1995 by Neil Kinnock at the time the European Commissioner for Transport . Construction of the link road commenced on 15 October 1993 and it was the last link road to be built . It includes the Taff Viaduct , also known as the Butetown Link Road Bridge , and the Queen 's Gate Tunnel , which is also known simply as the Butetown Tunnel .
In 1987 South Glamorgan County Council had intended to build a viaduct cross the River Taff and then go onto an elevated section through Butetown " on stilts " . But the newly formed Cardiff Bay Development Corporation along with local residents objected to the scheme that they said would cut through Butetown and split the community , creating an unnecessary physical barrier between the two areas to the north and south of the link road . By 1988 South Glamorgan County Council had agreed to change the design of the link road , despite having already spent 6 years of design work on the link road meant that a tunnel had to be built instead . The cost of the Butetown Link Road was estimated to cost £ 35 million , but this had risen to £ 45M in 1988 , before the design change .
The contract to build the Butetown Link Road was eventually won by a local company Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd in a joint venture with an Italian contractor , Cogefar @-@ Impresit UK Ltd . The bid of £ 60 million undercut all other bids by £ 10 million , Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd have subsequently gone into administrative receivership .
= = = = Queen 's Gate Tunnel = = = =
The Queen 's Gate Tunnel ( Welsh : Twnnel Porth y Frenhines ) , also known as the Butetown Tunnel , is underneath southern Butetown and follows a line underneath the Wales Millennium Centre . The 715 m ( 2 @,@ 346 ft ) twin tunnel was constructed using the cut and cover method of construction , which involves digging a trench for the tunnel and then roofing it over . The tunnel was constructed using reinforced concrete and a central wall separates the two sets of traffic .
South Glamorgan County Council originally awarded the contract for the management , installation , testing and commissioning of all electrical and mechanical services for the tunnel , and the water pumping stations to EI · WHS Ltd . They still maintain the tunnel on behalf of Cardiff Council .
= = = = Taff Viaduct = = = =
Construction of the 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) Taff Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Tâf ) includes a dual @-@ carriageway roadway plus a foot and cycle path . South Glamorgan County Council was the local authority in charge of the project at the time and construction of the viaduct began in March , 1991 . The Taff Viaduct crosses the River Taff at Cardiff Bay .
The viaduct was constructed using precast concrete segments , which is widely used in the construction industry for medium to long span viaducts . Segments were made in a casting yard near the site and then transported for final assembly of the viaduct .
= = = Eastern Bay Link Road = = =
Construction began on 17 March 2016 on the 5 @.@ 25 km ( 3 @.@ 26 mi ) Eastern Bay Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Ddwyreiniol y Bae ) which will run from the Queen 's Gate Roundabout to the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout on the Southern Way Link Road , although at present only the first phase between Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468090 ° N 3 @.@ 156193 ° W / 51 @.@ 468090 ; -3.156193 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and Ocean Way Interchange . ( 51 @.@ 472328 ° N 3 @.@ 144107 ° W / 51 @.@ 472328 ; -3.144107 ( Ocean Way Interchange ) ) The link road will be a two lane dual carriageway with a 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) speed limit .
For many years this link road has been mothballed due to the costs involved . The link road had previously been known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 1 and 3 , but it also included the East Moors Viaduct , which was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 . Later it became known as the Cardiff Bay Link Road , then renamed the Eastern Bay Link Road .
The Eastern Bay Link Road , along with other schemes have been subject to many planning proposals since the last link road ( the Butetown Link Road ) was finished in 1995 , namely a local transport plan ( Local Transport Plan 2000 – 2016 ) in August 2000 , a green paper ( A Change of Gear ) in December 2002 and a white paper ( Keeping Cardiff Moving ) in May 2003 . The cost of the link road was estimated to cost GB £ 162 million in 2001 and this increased to GB £ 180 million by August 2002 . It could be paid for by congestion charging , although a public @-@ private partnership is also possible .
The original route of the link road had been challenged by both Friends of the Earth Cymru , and also the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) , who had both lodged formal objections against the link road . However , the current proposal from Cardiff Council of 31 October 2006 is to complete the first phase of the road , approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length , from the Butetown Link Road to Ocean Way roundabout . The new route would be a different route from the earlier proposal and would avoid any encroachment into the nature conservation area , which Friends of the Earth and the RSPB had objected to . Therefore , the new route of the link road should ensure that there are no objections .
It was revealed on 14 June 2013 that Edwina Hart , Minister for Economy , Science and Transport in the WAG supported the completion the Eastern Bay Link Road . She said that the link road would ; improve access to Cardiff Bay , improve access to the Cardiff Central Enterprise Zone and enhance connections within the Cardiff City Region . The overall objectives of the road would be to :
Increase accessibility from east Cardiff to major employment sites in the East Moors area , Cardiff Bay and the Central Cardiff Enterprise Zone
Provide a more direct route between the Butetown Tunnel and Rover Way
Reduce congestion at the junctions on Tyndall Street by removing traffic currently using the Ocean Way- East Tyndall Street – Central Link route
Reduce journey times for private and commercial road users
Help economic regeneration
Enhance road safety and reduce casualties
Improve resilience on the strategic road network around Cardiff
Provide more opportunities for cycling and walking
On 2 May 2014 , Edwina Hart approved the procurement of the design – build contractor , advance service diversion works and communications arrangements for the Eastern Bay Link Road . Construction of this first phase of the Eastern Bay Link Road is due to begin in 2015 and will take 18 months to complete . In April 2015 , it was announced by the Welsh Government that the 1 @.@ 2 km £ 27.3m Eastern Bay Link Road from the incomplete flyover at the Queens Gate roundabout to the Ocean Way roundabout at Tremorfa known as the " roundabout to nowhere " , would be designed by Capita Property and Infrastructure and constructed by Dawnus Construction Holdings and Ferrovial Agroman UK in a joint venture . Construction began on the link road on 17 March 2016 .
= = = Southern Way Link Road = = =
The Southern Way Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt y Ffordd Deheuol ) , generally known simply as Southern Way , was built in two parts ; the first section of Southern Way to be completed was between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 . The final section of the link road was built between Newport Road and the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout and was opened in 1984 at a cost of £ 9 million and includes the East Moors Viaduct , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover . In 1987 it was envisaged that the present single @-@ carriage would be " twinned " as a dual @-@ carriageway , the same as the rest of the PDR . The 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) link road now runs from the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 493127 ° N 3 @.@ 133759 ° W / 51 @.@ 493127 ; -3.133759 ( Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ) ) to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 507202 ° N 3 @.@ 145853 ° W / 51 @.@ 507202 ; -3.145853 ( Llanedeyrn Interchange ) ) on the A48 .
= = = = East Moors Viaduct = = = =
The 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) East Moors Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Rhostiroedd y Dwyrain ) , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover , was also designed by Robert Benaim and Associates who won the ICE ( Institution of Civil Engineers ) Project Award and also a Concrete Society Commendation , both in 1985 for work on the viaduct . The viaduct was constructed by concrete box girder deck of segmental construction . The East Moors Viaduct was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 , but now forms part of the Southern Way Link Road .
= = = Pentwyn Link Road = = =
The Pentwyn Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Pentwyn ) , which is also known as the North Pentwyn Link Road , runs from the Pontprennau Interchange ( 51 @.@ 528660 ° N 3 @.@ 130240 ° W / 51 @.@ 528660 ; -3.130240 ( Pontrennau Interchange ) ) on the A48 and the Pentwyn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 541525 ° N 3 @.@ 128749 ° W / 51 @.@ 541525 ; -3.128749 ( Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) ) ) on the M4 ( junction 30 ) . It is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened by John Redwood MP , the Secretary of State for Wales on 20 June , 1994 . It provides a link between the Eastern Avenue ( A48 ) and the M4 so that westbound traffic from the east of the city can get onto the M4 without having to go through the city , via the A48 and A470 . In addition it also provides access to the community of Pontprennau to the national road network . This link was financed by private developers as part of a large scale housing development at Pontprennau .
= = Public Art & Commemorative Stones = =
= = Spur roads = =
= = = Cogan Spur ( A4055 ) = = =
The Cogan Spur , which is also known as the Cogan Link ( Welsh : Gyswllt Cogan ) , from the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453519 ° N 3 @.@ 184876 ° W / 51 @.@ 453519 ; -3.184876 ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) to Barons Court Junction ( 51 @.@ 447910 ° N 3 @.@ 189787 ° W / 51 @.@ 447910 ; -3.189787 ( Barons Court Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened in 1988 . It is only 0 @.@ 8 km ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) , but it is an important link to provide access to the PDR from Penarth and the southern part of the Vale of Glamorgan . It also bypasses Penarth Road ( A4160 ) for traffic going in and out of Cardiff city centre .
The most recent development , which began at the end of 2006 and into 2007 was the widening of the road between the Cogan Viaduct and the Ferry Road Interchange to a 3 @-@ lane dual @-@ carriageway . A new junction was also built for the Cardiff International Sports Village directly from Cogan Spur ; also the Barons Court roundabout was replaced by a signal controlled crossroad . The main contractor for this project was Laing O 'Rourke Civil Engineering .
= = = = Cogan Viaduct = = = =
The Cogan Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Cogan ) is the most important element of the Cogan Spur as it crosses the River Ely with a central span of 95 metres ( 312 ft ) . In total it has 6 spans ; 40 m ( 130 ft ) , 60 m ( 200 ft ) , 60 m , 60m , 95 m and 60 m . It is made from a multi @-@ span glued segmental structure of rectangular box sections . In all over 300 sections were used to construct the viaduct , each weighing from 43 to 117 tonnes . The Cogan Viaduct was again designed by South Glamorgan County Council , who won a Concrete Society Commendation in 1989 for the design .
= = = Central Link Road ( A4234 ) = = =
The £ 8 @.@ 5 million Central Link ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Canolog ) between the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468399 ° N 3 @.@ 157366 ° W / 51 @.@ 468399 ; -3.157366 ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and the junction on Adam Street ( 51 @.@ 479557 ° N 3 @.@ 167631 ° W / 51 @.@ 479557 ; -3.167631 ( Adam Street Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened on 16 February 1989 . When it was first opened it only linked Cardiff city centre with Cardiff | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Some early " Moritzian " comic strips were heavily influenced by Busch in plot and narrative style . Tootle and Bootle ( 1896 ) , borrowed so much content from Max and Moritz that it was described as a pirate edition . The true " Moritzian " recreation is The Katzenjammer Kids by German artist Rudolph Dirks , published in the New York Journal from 1897 . It was published though William Randolph Hearst 's suggestion that a pair of siblings following the pattern of " Max and Moritz " should be created . The Katzenjammer Kids is regarded as one of the oldest , continuous comic strips .
German " Moritzian " -inspired stories include Lies und Lene ; die Schwestern von Max und Moritz ( Hulda Levetzow , F. Maddalena , 1896 ) , Schlumperfritz und Schlamperfranz ( 1922 ) , Sigismund und Waldemar , des Max und Moritz Zwillingspaar ( Walther Günther , 1932 ) and Mac und Mufti ( Thomas Ahlers , Volker Dehs , 1987 ) . These are shaped by observations of the First and Second World Wars , while the original is a moral story . In 1958 the Christian Democratic Union used the Max and Moritz characters for a campaign in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , the same year that the East German satirical magazine Eulenspiegel used them to caricature black labour . In 1969 Max and Moritz " participated " in late 1960s student activism .
= = Partial list of works = =
= Crown Fountain =
Crown Fountain is an interactive work of public art and video sculpture featured in Chicago 's Millennium Park , which is located in the Loop community area . Designed by Catalan artist Jaume Plensa and executed by Krueck and Sexton Architects , it opened in July 2004 . The fountain is composed of a black granite reflecting pool placed between a pair of glass brick towers . The towers are 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) tall , and they use light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) to display digital videos on their inward faces . Construction and design of the Crown Fountain cost $ 17 million . The water operates from May to October , intermittently cascading down the two towers and spouting through a nozzle on each tower 's front face .
Residents and critics have praised the fountain for its artistic and entertainment features . It highlights Plensa 's themes of dualism , light , and water , extending the use of video technology from his prior works . Its use of water is unique among Chicago 's many fountains , in that it promotes physical interaction between the public and the water . Both the fountain and Millennium Park are highly accessible because of their universal design .
Crown Fountain has been one of the most controversial of all the Millennium Park features . Before it was even built , some were concerned that the sculpture 's height violated the aesthetic tradition of the park . After construction , surveillance cameras were installed atop the fountain , which led to a public outcry ( and their quick removal ) .
However , the fountain has survived its contentious beginnings to find its way into Chicago pop culture . It is a popular subject for photographers and a common gathering place . While some of the videos displayed are of scenery , most attention has focused on its video clips of local residents ; hundreds of Chicagoans visit the fountain hoping to see themselves appearing on one of the fountain 's two screens . The fountain is a public play area and offers people an escape from summer heat , allowing children to frolic in the fountain 's water .
= = Concept and design = =
Grant Park , which is between Lake Michigan and the central business district , is commonly called " Chicago 's Front Yard " . Its northwest corner had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Millennium Park was conceived in 1998 as the capstone of Grant Park , to celebrate the new millennium and to feature world @-@ renowned architects , artists , designers , landscape architects , and urban planners . As of 2007 , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction . The fountain is centrally located in Chicago : it is east of Michigan Avenue and its Historic Michigan Boulevard District , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute of Chicago ; and south of Madison Street . Looking north from the fountain , viewers see some of the tallest buildings in the United States ( Aon Center , Two Prudential Plaza , and One Prudential Plaza ) .
= = = Selection of artist = = =
In December 1999 , Lester Crown and his family agreed to sponsor a water feature in Millennium Park . Unlike other park feature sponsors , the Crowns acted independently of Millennium Park officials ; they conducted independent surveys of water technologies , held their own informal design contest , and stayed active in the design and engineering of the project .
The Crowns were open @-@ minded about the choice of artist ; wanting a modern work , they solicited proposals from a list of prospective artists and architects . Jaume Plensa researched the traditions and history of fountains and studied anthropomorphism in fountain imagery . Some of his early ideas for the project referenced Buckingham Fountain , but these were soon abandoned . His presentation to the Crown family started with a slide show of fountains from the Middle Ages through the 20th century . Plensa focused on the philosophical meanings associated with fountains , their history , use and art . His presentation included computer animation of facial expressions . The other finalists were Maya Lin , who presented a low @-@ height horizontal form , and Robert Venturi , who presented a fountain that would have been 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall . In January 2000 , Plensa won the commission to design the fountain over Lin and Venturi . The installation is a video sculpture , commissioned to operate thirty years .
= = = Artistic design = = =
Prior to Crown Fountain , Plensa 's dominant theme had been dualism , which he had expanded to artworks in which the viewers are outside , and the visible subjects of the art are inside containers and hollow spaces . In the 1990s , he completed several outdoor sculptures in which he explored the use of light ( The Star of David ( 1998 ) at Stockholm 's Raoul Wallenberg Square , Bridge of Light ( 1998 ) in Jerusalem ) , and LED technology , video , and computer design ( Gläserne Seele & Mr. Net in Brandenburg ( 1999 – 2000 ) ) . In his public art , Plensa challenged himself to involve the viewer with his art , which led to his conception of the Crown Fountain . His objective was to create a socially relevant , interactive fountain for the 21st century . Since water is the focus of a fountain , and since Chicago , and especially Millennium Park , is so greatly affected by the nearby waterfront , Plensa sought to create an eternal water work to complement the local natural inspirations . Because of the colder winters common to the climate of Chicago , Plensa created a fountain that would remain vibrant when the water was inactive in the wintertime , so the fountain is an experience of light themes and the use of video technology .
Plensa explores dualism with Crown Fountain , where he has two randomly selected faces " conversing " with each other . Plensa feels that by using faces , he can represent the diversity of the city both in ethnicity and in age . The artist intends to portray the sociocultural evolution of the city by updating the collection of images . His representation has become a part of the city 's pop culture ; the first few episodes of the first season of Prison Break featured shots of the fountain .
Plensa feels that the challenge in the creation of successful work of public art is to integrate the viewer into an interactive relationship with the art . The fountain is known for encouraging its visitors to splash and slide in the reflecting pool , jostle for position under the water spout and place themselves under the cascade . This interactivity was to some degree accidental . Although the city planned for some interactivity , the transformation of the fountain into a water park for kids within hours of opening surprised Plensa . Now , when the National Weather Service issues summer heat advisories and the Governor of Illinois declares state office buildings as official daytime cooling centers , the national press points to Crown Fountain as a respite for inhabitants of the Chicago metropolitan area .
= = = Video production = = =
Approximately 75 ethnic , social , and religious Chicago organizations were asked to provide candidates whose faces would be photographed for integration into the fountain . The subjects were chosen from local schools , churches and community groups , and filming began in 2001 at the downtown campus of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago ( SAIC ) . The SAIC students filmed their subjects with a $ 100 @,@ 000 high @-@ definition HDW @-@ F900 video camera , the same model used in the production of the three Star Wars prequels . About 20 SAIC students took part in what became an informal master 's course in public art for the project . Faculty from Columbia College Chicago was also involved in the production of the video . The high @-@ definition equipment was used because of the scale of the project . Because the image proportions were like a movie screen with a width far exceeding its height , the camera was turned on its side during filming .
Each face appears on the sculpture for a total of 5 minutes using various parts of individual 80 @-@ second videos . A 40 @-@ second section is played at one @-@ third speed forward and backward , running for a total of 4 minutes . Then , there is a subsequent segment , where the mouth is puckering , that is stretched to 15 seconds . This is followed by a section , in which the water appears to spout from the open mouth , that is stretched to last for 30 seconds . Finally , there is a smile after the completion of the water spouting from the mouth , that is slowed to extend for 15 seconds . Of the original 1 @,@ 051 subjects filmed , 960 videos were determined to be usable for the project . Originally , the set of images was presumed to be the beginning of a work in progress , but as of 2009 no additional videos are planned .
To achieve the effect in which water appears to be flowing from subjects ' mouths , each video has a segment where the subject 's lips are puckered , which is then timed to correspond to the spouting water , reminiscent of gargoyle fountains . Each face is cropped so that no hair and usually no ears are visible . Since there is no tripod designed for cameras turned on their sides , an adjustable barber / dentist 's chair was used to minimize the need for the movement of the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art camera during filming . Nonetheless , in some case , digital manipulation was necessary to properly simulate puckering in the exact proper location on the video . Many of the faces had to be stretched in order to get the mouths properly positioned . Additionally , each video was color @-@ corrected for brightness , contrast and color saturation . Both the playback equipment and the final videos had to be further adjusted to account for sunlight during viewing .
= = Construction and engineering = =
The Crown family , for whom the fountain is named , donated $ 10 million of the $ 17 million construction and design cost . The Goodman family , known for funding the Goodman Theatre , was also a large contributor ; the entire $ 17 million cost was provided by private donations . The initial proposed cost for the fountain had been $ 15 million .
After two architectural firms refused the contract to make Plensa 's design a reality , the firm Krueck and Sexton Architects accepted . Public art was a departure from Krueck & Sexton 's residential and corporate office @-@ dominated portfolio , which includes buildings like the Spertus Institute . Collaboration between the artist , architectural team , and consultants proved to be crucial to the success of the project . The fountain 's black granite reflecting pool measures 48 by 232 feet ( 15 by 71 m ) and has an approximate water depth of 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) . It displays videos on two LED screens , each encapsulated in a glass brick tower measuring 50 by 23 by 16 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 0 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) . The firm designed a special stainless steel T @-@ frame both to bear the load of the walls , which are 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , and to withstand lateral wind forces . The frame holds all the glass blocks and transfers the load to the base in a zigzag pattern . Rods measuring 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) in diameter anchor to the structure and project into the frame for lateral stability , while triangular corner brackets add support .
After several dozen glass manufacturing firms were interviewed , L. E. Smith Glass Company emerged as the company to produce 22 @,@ 500 glass blocks near the upper limit of the size of press glass formed from hand @-@ poured molten glass and cast iron molds . The process used sand and soda ash heated to a temperature of 2 @,@ 600 ° F ( 1 @,@ 430 ° C ) and " gathered " with a large clay ball resembling a honey dipper . Rather than use a standard plunger to ensure the glass that sagged off the rod spread to the corners of the mold , they relied on gravity . The full mold was annealed ( reheated in an oven to 1 @,@ 100 ° F ( 593 ° C ) ) and cooled . Over the course of four months of production , about 350 blocks were produced per day .
The glass was custom @-@ made at a factory in Mount Pleasant , Pennsylvania , and shipped to the structural glass panel manufacturer in Melbourne , Florida . The panels were then shipped by truck to Chicago . The glass is white glass , rather than the usual green glass that results from iron impurities . This has the tradeoff of increased image clarity , but greater dirt visibility . Each block is 5 by 10 by 2 inches ( 127 by 254 by 51 mm ) with glass thin enough to avoid image distortion . On each block , one of the six faces is polished , and the other five surfaces are textured .
The structure for the blocks was a challenge . At first , the design team had considered switching to plastic blocks , until the team found Circle Redmont Inc . , a prefabricated glass panel company in Melbourne , Florida which specializes in structural glass panel systems . Circle Redmont came up with the plan of turning grates on their sides to be used as building elements . The individual grids are 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall and either 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) or 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide with cell capacity of an average of 250 blocks . Each tower is composed of 44 grids stacked and welded . The combination of the refraction of the glass and the thinness of the metal make the grid virtually invisible .
The fountain uses 11 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 50 @,@ 000 L ) per hour , 97 % of which is recycled back into the system . Getting the water to the spout took ingenuity . Although consideration was given to omitting a LED tile , it was determined that the images would then look as though they were each missing a tooth . Instead , one tile in each tower is recessed about 6 inches ( 150 mm ) to allow the installation of 1 inch ( 25 mm ) clear tubing for the water nozzle . The water regularly spills over the fountain and down the sides of the towers and intermittently spouts from the nozzle . Two essential custom fittings contribute to the artistic vision of the fountain : a custom glass block at the upper edge for guiding the water 's descent while remaining unobtrusive , and a plastic nozzle fitted to the stainless steel frame to control the rate of water flow and reduce liability to the city for any injuries sustained by the fountain 's interactive participants . The interactive participants are usually children playing in the stream from the water spout or under the cascade . The risk that the spouting water would knock people down made the design both a legal and a physical challenge .
The fountains use over one million LEDs . The inner surface of each tower uses 147 smaller screens with a total of 264 @,@ 480 LED points ( each with two red , one blue and two green LEDs ) . The physical demands of LED screens , in particular the red , green , and blue long @-@ life light bulbs and the requisite circuitry , created three major challenges : supporting the physical structure , combating heat buildup , and optimizing perceptibility of the display . Plensa had used LED fixtures on previous projects , and thus had some experience with these issues . The LED structure is not supported as a single wall ( which would be 50 feet ( 15 m ) high ) , but rather as several segments that are noticeable as visible horizontal bands every few feet : these show where the LED equipment is supported . The heat generated is handled by fans that cool the air at the bottom , that then works its way through the chimney @-@ like tower . Perceptibility was determined to be optimal with LED lights 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the glass .
LEDs were chosen because they were viewed as the lowest maintenance option of the possible color changing fixtures . LEDs fit into an electrical circuit , causing illumination by the movement of electrons in the semiconductor material and making a filament unnecessary , so the bulbs never burn out and do not get too hot . Fins were added to the screens to keep direct sunlight from hitting the LEDs . Color Kinetics ( now part of Philips Solid @-@ State Lighting Solutions , which is now called Philips Color Kinetics ) ColorBlast 12 LEDs fixtures are used to illuminate the tower structures and glass in an attempt to meet Plensa 's objective that the towers have a light and translucent appearance , with their internal structures reflecting light from behind the glass surface . The electronics were designed to be adaptable to the time of day , weather and season and to meet the desired century @-@ long longevity and dependability objectives set by the design team in response to the thirty @-@ year directive .
The 9 @,@ 423 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 875 @.@ 4 m2 ) pool used 3 by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 by 0 @.@ 91 m ) pavers that weigh 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) . The pavers were rested on screw jack pedestals in order to be leveled and shimmed . The pavers had to be perfectly leveled for the water to work correctly because the fountain incorporates numerous sensors to regulate the flow and level of the water .
During construction the underground parking garage remained open . An additional challenge was designing the structure to facilitate interior access for ongoing maintenance and repairs , while accommodating two levels of underground parking underneath . The challenge was solved by combining a T @-@ bar grid to absorb weight with about 150 " outriggers " , or " tiebacks " , inserted through the video wall to support the glass blocks and absorb wind loads . This design allows for the removal of individual glass blocks for cleaning or repair without disruption to the display . The filtered air inside the towers helps minimize the need for cleaning . Crown Fountain 's design not only included interior access for technical repairs , but also incorporated exemplary , non @-@ discriminatory , barrier @-@ free accessibility , because its interactivity is not limited to the able @-@ bodied . The force of the water accounts for the entire range of possible interactive visitors .
= = Dedication and operation = =
= = = Unveiling = = =
Construction of the video sculpture was completed for testing without the fountain 's water features on May 18 , 2004 . Originally , Plensa had planned to have each face appear for 13 minutes , and this continued to be the targeted duration when the testing of the sculpture occurred . Eventually , professors at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago convinced him to use only five @-@ minute videos .
Plensa 's design of Crown Fountain was unveiled to the public on July 16 – 18 , during the 2004 grand opening celebrations for Millennium Park , which was sponsored by J.P. Morgan Chase & Co . At the time of the unveiling , Crown Fountain , like the nearby Cloud Gate , was incomplete because only 300 of the videos had been refined for public display . It was officially dedicated on July 24 , 2004 as part of a special private fundraising party that raised $ 3 million for the Millennium Park Conservancy fund .
= = = Operation = = =
The control center for the synchronization of images , water flow , and lighting color and intensity is beneath one of the towers , in a room that covers 550 square feet ( 51 m2 ) . The room houses high @-@ definition video servers and equipment temperature sensors . Hard drives contain all the individual electronic computer files of the face videos . Generally , the computer programs automatically perform tasks such as determining when the face will pucker and , if weather conditions permit , when to turn the water on and off . Using low- rather than high @-@ resolution images was both less expensive and created a better display for the average viewer . A Barco show controller selects the sequence of faces one at a time and determines a random tower lighting selection of one of eight LED colors programmed into an Electronic Theatre Controls ( ETC ) Emphasis control system . At night , the ETC system controls spotlights that illuminate the cascading water and that are dimmed by special wet @-@ use location ground fault circuit interrupters . The control room covers an area equal to 26 parking spaces in the underground parking garage , which costs the city $ 100 @,@ 000 annually in terms of the opportunity cost of lost revenue ( in 2004 dollars ) . Maintenance issues for the fountain range from kids removing the adhesive between the bricks to pipes in need of maintenance . As of 2014 , annual upkeep costs were approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Video sculpture = = = =
The front face of each tower is animated with a continuous , dynamic exhibit of lights and electronic images . Although the screens on the towers periodically display clips of landscapes such as waterfalls , most intriguing are the display of faces of Chicago residents . About 1 @,@ 000 faces of Chicagoans are shown in a random rotation , the order determined using a Barco show controller . Each face is displayed for five minutes , with a brief period between each of these videos during which the sculpture is unlit . As a result , no more than 12 faces appear per hour during the summer . However , during the winter a version without the final one minute of puckering is shown , so the video segments then are only four minutes each . The video pattern also includes a three @-@ minute water scene every half @-@ hour and a 30 @-@ second fade @-@ to @-@ black every 15 minutes . If all the faces were shown consecutively , instead of randomly , they would each appear about once every eight days . A June 2007 article in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that many of the subjects who had their images digitized for the project had yet to either see their own images or hear of anyone who had seen them .
The spouting water from the faces of the towers appears to be flowing from the displayed subject 's mouth from a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) nozzle located in the center of each interior face 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the reflecting pool . Images are shown daily year @-@ round , while the water feature only operates from May 1 to approximately October 31 , weather permitting . The park is open to the public daily from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m.
Each tower is illuminated from within on three sides by approximately 70 color @-@ changing Color Kinetics LED lighting fixtures per tower , while the fourth side features opposing Barco LED display screens . At night , some of the videos are replaced by images of nature or solid colors . Also at night , the other three sides of the fountain display changing colors . The outer Color Kinetics surfaces randomly display the translucent glow of one of eight colors along with each of the inner opposing faces . As a video sculpture with a variety of cascade and water spout fountain modes , the sculpture is a fluid , dynamic evolving artwork .
= = = = Fountain = = = =
Crown Fountain has both slits and a grate for drainage ( pictured above right ) to drain the 11 @,@ 520 US gal ( 43 @,@ 608 l ; 9 @,@ 592 imp gal ) of water per minute . When the videos are not on the front of the tower , water cascades down each of the facades . The water is filtered , pumped and recirculated through the fountain . Dual pump rooms below each tower draw water from a reservoir beneath the reflecting pool . There are 12 mechanical pumps that are regulated from a control room in the underground parking garage beneath the south tower of the fountain . The water in the reflecting pool has a depth of about 0 @.@ 33 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 013 in ) .
= = Controversies = =
Before the fountain was completed in 2004 , Art Institute of Chicago president James Wood felt the columns would be too tall and other community leaders felt that the height and scale of the project stemmed from a " pissing contest " with other park feature artists . Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago in the 1890s to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park , and to keep it from building new ones . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park . However , Crown Fountain and Jay Pritzker Pavilion , which stands 139 feet ( 42 m ) tall , were exempt from the height restriction because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures .
In November 2006 , Crown Fountain became the focus of a public controversy when the city added surveillance cameras atop each tower . Purchased through a $ 52 million Department of Homeland Security grant to the Chicago area , the cameras were part of a surveillance system augmenting eight other cameras covering all of Millennium Park . The city said the cameras , similar to those used throughout the city at high @-@ crime areas and traffic intersections , were intended to remain on the towers for several months until permanent , less intrusive replacements were secured . City officials had consulted the architects who collaborated with Plensa on the tower designs , but Plensa himself had not been notified . Public reaction was negative , as bloggers and the artistic community decried the cameras on the towers as inappropriate and a blight . The city said that the cameras were largely for security reasons , but also partly to help park officials monitor burnt @-@ out lights . The Chicago Tribune quickly published an article concerning the cameras as well as the public reaction , and the cameras were removed the next day . Plensa supported their removal .
= = Updating = =
In 2014 , the hardware and software behind the fountain 's operation were replaced . At the time there were plans to replace LED lighting with incandescent bulbs on each of the non @-@ video display surfaces and to replace the video surface LEDs . Plensa , who maintained control of the video faces for the first two years of the fountain 's operation , understands that future generations may wish to update the faces used in the rotation of videos to reflect changes in humanity going forward . In 2014 , an additional 1000 faces were anticipated for 2016 .
= = Critical reception = =
Crown Fountain , Trevi Fountain , and Buckingham Fountain , as well as natural water features such as Old Faithful , are examples of the ability of water to attract people and hold their attention . Crown Fountain has more interactivity than other Chicago fountains , such as Buckingham Fountain and Lorado Taft 's Fountain of the Great Lakes and Fountain of Time ( all but the last are in Grant Park ) . These other Chicago fountains are traditional in that they discourage viewer touching ; Buckingham Fountain is surrounded by a fence , and Taft 's fountains are surrounded by moats . In contrast , Crown Fountain provides an open invitation to play in the fountain 's water .
U.S. News & World Report describes the fountain as an exemplary feature of the city 's numerous urban parks . Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin , who is pleased with the sculptures ' verticalness , says the fountain helps appropriately depict the modern 21st @-@ century urban park . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times describes the fountain as " eye @-@ catching , crowd @-@ friendly ... high @-@ tech [ and ] ... contemporary " . The New York Times calls the fountain an " extraordinary art object " . Frommer 's describes the fountain as public art at its best . The beauty of the fountain is , as the San Francisco Chronicle explains , that it is high @-@ concept art for all to enjoy . The Financial Times refers to the fountain as a " techno @-@ fountain " . The fountain is praised for its technical features by industry magazines and has won various awards . The project won the 2006 Bombay Sapphire prize for its design work with glass . Critical reviews were not unanimous in their praise . One Chicago Tribune critic was not impressed with JumboTron @-@ like art , although he conceded the participatory element reminded him in a positive way of the jungle gym element of the Chicago Picasso .
The fountain is featured on the cover of Philip Jodidio 's 2005 book , Architecture : Art . Although Plensa is considered to be a conceptual artist , according to Jodidio , Plensa created a work whose architectural aspects are paramount . Its location juxtaposed with the Historic Michigan Boulevard District 's skywall highlights these aspects . Jodidio considers the work to be a modernization of the gargoyle theme , and feels that the scale of the enlarged faces humanize the work and challenges the architecture . The towers are an integral part of the skyline that have achieved rare permanence for contemporary art .
= Canning Dam =
The Canning Dam and reservoir provide a major fresh water resource for the city of Perth , Western Australia . The dam is situated on the Darling Scarp and is an impoundment of the Canning River . It is noted for its innovative structural and hydraulic design that was considered to be at the forefront of concrete gravity dam design at the time of construction . The Canning Dam was Perth 's primary water supply up until the 1960s when other sources of fresh water were tapped . Currently the dam supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's fresh water . Inflow into the Canning Reservoir is estimated to be 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) and has a storage capacity of 90 @,@ 352 megalitres ( 3 @,@ 190 @.@ 8 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) .
Since its completion in 1940 , the Canning Dam has contributed to a wide range of environmental and ecological problems in surrounding regions , problems include more common algal blooms , habitat loss and sedimentation . Despite these issues , Canning Dam and the adjacent parks and forests provide a variety of recreational activities for the public such as bushwalking , historic walks and picnic facilities .
= = History = =
Development of the Canning River as a source of water for Perth was first proposed in a report of the first Metropolitan Water Works Board of Perth in 1896 . Investigation of the site began in 1897 when engineer Thomas Hodgson surveyed and proposed the dam 's current location as a possible site . However , despite the recommendations of further inquiries , and an extreme shortage of water in some years , government funds were not allocated for the construction of a dam until the Great Depression in the 1930s .
In 1924 a small pipehead dam was built 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) downstream from the present Canning Dam . It was only intended as a quick fix to the water supply problem and it soon became apparent that a major reservoir was needed , although it would be nine years before work on the current Canning Dam would begin . The new dam was completed in 1940 at a cost of AU £ 1 @.@ 1 million . Engineer Russell Dumas designed the dam and directed most of its construction .
A further improvement was made in 1951 when a concrete @-@ lined channel was constructed to divert stream flow from the nearby Kangaroo Gully catchment . The Canning Dam and reservoir was Perth 's primary source of water until the boom growth of the city in the 1960s and the completion of Serpentine Dam in 1961 . In 1975 the reservoir was connected to Perth 's Integrated Water Supply Scheme by the Canning Tunnel . Prior to its opening water had flowed through the Canning Contour Channel to Gosnells .
The Canning Dam and reservoir still supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's drinking water requirements and plays an important role in the context of the development of Perth .
The Canning reservoir is also used to store water from the newly completed Kwinana Desalination Plant . Treated water can be pumped from the plant to the reservoir through the new Forrestdale Pumping Station .
= = Hydrology = =
The Canning Dam Catchment lies within the Darling Scarp which forms part of an Archaean Shield composed largely of granite with some invaded linear belts of metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks .
The dam wall is situated in a narrow gorge running east and west , with rock sides sloping upward from the river bed . Behind the dam wall , the south branch of the Canning River joins the main stream , with the impounded water forming a lake which stretches back in three major arms to the east south @-@ east and south .
The catchment has an area of 804 square kilometres ( 310 sq mi ) . The reservoir is at 200 metres ( 660 ft ) AHD and the highest point of the catchment , Mount Cooke is at 582 metres ( 1 @,@ 909 ft ) AHD .
Climatically , the area receives about 900 millimetres ( 35 in ) of rainfall per annum with most of this falling between May and September . There is widespread variability of rainfall across the catchment however , from between 700 and 1 @,@ 300 millimetres ( 28 and 51 in ) .
Since 1975 long @-@ term average rainfalls at the dam wall have decreased by 20 percent and streamflow into the catchment by approximately 60 percent — the average annual inflow between 1948 and 1974 was 52 gigalitres ( 1 @.@ 8 × 109 cu ft ) which had reduced to 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) between 1975 and 2004 .
= = Construction = =
The construction of Canning Dam ended a long period during which Perth 's water supply was generally unsatisfactory in quality ( either due to salinity or bacterial pollution or both ) and in quantity . The project , the biggest public works program of the decade , stimulated significant growth in the local economy and provided desperately needed work for around five hundred men .
Several innovative design concepts and construction methods which were new to Australia were introduced on the project , while others which were used on the nearby Wellington Dam , were improved upon at the Canning dam site .
At the Canning Dam and indeed all dams , care had to be taken to prevent water seepage between the foundation rock and the structure of the dam . At the Canning in addition to cutting back the foundation to solid unfractured rock , a cut @-@ off trench was sited near the upstream face of the dam , down stream which a rock filled drain containing open jointed pipes was provided to intercept any seepage between the rock face and the concrete of the dam . The inclusion of an internal drainage system was considered innovative at the period . Near vertical tubular 8 in ( 200 mm ) cut @-@ off drains were provided at five @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) intervals along the dam to relieve internal seepage through the concrete .
While state of the art materials @-@ handling methods were used , in some instances labour @-@ saving machinery worked beside operations intended to maximise the labour content . Sustenance workers were employed chiefly for on @-@ site preparation , road construction , foundation excavation , clearing timber from the reservoir basin , and on some concreting operations . Skilled workers were required on the dam for fixing the formwork where the concrete was poured . These workers were probably employed at normal day labour rates , the main employment method used on the project . Bulk handling of cement was also used for the first time in Australia , this saw a significant saving as opposed to bagged cement which was the standard practice of the day .
Generally construction work proceeded smoothly and from an engineering point of view there were few setbacks . However , one did occur in the early stages of construction . In March 1934 there was a violent storm bringing 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) of rain in less than two days . As a result , the river rose rapidly which flooded the dam foundation workings . Pumps had to be installed and work resumed three days later .
The dam was completed in September 1940 . When built it was the longest concrete gravity dam in Australia , and also the second highest after the Burrinjuck Dam in New South Wales . As of 1997 of the 90 large concrete and masonry gravity dams in Australia the Canning Dam is still the fifth highest and the sixth longest . It is the largest concrete dam in Western Australia in terms of length of crest and volume of concrete .
The final cost of the dam was significantly less than had been originally budgeted for , and the work was completed on schedule to a date that was calculated seven years previously .
= = = Remedial works = = =
Recently the Canning Dam has been subjected to considerable cracking of the upper parts of the dam and upper gallery . Investigations have shown that cracking was due to strong AAR ( alkali aggregate reactivity ) in the concrete . AAR results in swelling of the concrete , which may cause secondary compressive stresses , localised map cracks , and , ultimately structural cracks . In addition , the concrete tensile strength and elasticity significantly decreases . Many old concrete dams are known to suffer from AAR , including Fontana Dam in Tennessee and Pian Telessio dam in Italy among others .
Extensive remedial works were undertaken between 1999 & 2001 to strengthen the dam wall . This work involved removing the top 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) of the existing dam wall and drilling / blasting through the dam wall plus up to a further 70 m ( 230 ft ) into the bedrock below . The top section of the wall was then rebuilt using reinforced concrete . Finally , permanent , re @-@ stressable ground anchors were then installed through the formed and drilled holes from the crest to be stressed and grouted into the foundation rock . At time of completion , these were the largest capacity and longest permanent ground anchors ever installed in the world .
An innovative drilling and blasting technique called Penetrating Cone Fracture ( PCF ) was used in the remedial works process . PCF was chosen over conventional drilling and / or blasting techniques due to the reduced risk of damage to the existing structure from vibration , as well as lower noxious fume and dust levels .
= = Environmental issues = =
Since the construction of the Canning Dam , among other drinking water supply dams , water flow into the Canning River has been reduced by up to 96 % . A number of freshwater fish species which are endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia are found in the Canning River system , however studies of fish and fish habitats in the area have shown that fish numbers are low due to a loss of habitat and a loss of linkage between breeding areas due to low flows , preventing fish migrating upstream and reaching important breeding and nursery grounds . Stagnant water caused by a lack of water flow has provided a suitable habitat for successful breeding of an introduced pest , the mosquitofish .
Damming of the Canning caused dramatic flow reductions that significantly altered downstream aquatic macroinvertebrate communities . The lack of water flow has also resulted in a poor flushing effect below the dam wall . An excessive amount of nutrients from fertilizers and animal waste has caused algal blooms and eutrophication .
Many river pools which are an important summer refuge and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna have been lost due to sedimentation and modification of the flow regime caused by impoundments in the Canning River .
Periodic flooding of the Canning River from the dam is required to disperse seed , stimulate germination and ensure seedlings survive , recharge shallow groundwater tables that are important during periods of drought and to discourage and prevent weed growth . However , during times of low rainfall periodic flooding is reduced .
= = Recreation = =
A number of recreation activities occur in and around the dam and catchment area . Canning Dam features a number of picnic areas ( with gas barbecues ) , look outs and historic walks – many with disabled access . Bushwalking occurs throughout the catchment , particularly along the Bibbulmun Track , which passes through the catchment about 10 km upstream of Canning Dam . Several mountain bike trails run either through the Canning National Park or adjacent State Forest areas .
The Canning Reservoir , Canning River and tributaries are illegally fished for marron , especially during summer . Boating , fishing and swimming are prohibited in the reservoir for health and hygiene reasons . Unauthorised camping ( including overnight stays and / or outside of designated areas ) and unauthorised trail establishment occur more and more frequently in the Canning catchment .
= = Gallery = =
= Midge ( Barbie ) =
Midge Hadley is a fictional doll character in the Barbie line of toys by Mattel that was first released in 1963 . Midge was created , along with Skipper , to counteract criticism that claimed Barbie was a sex symbol . She was marketed as Barbie 's best friend . No Midge dolls were sold for the rest of the vintage years after the 1960s .
Midge was re @-@ introduced in 1988 as part of the play line , though two vintage reproduction dolls were made specifically for collectors in 1993 and 1998 . The dolls sold in this time period usually had red hair , often with freckles , and her eye color was usually blue . Also in the period , Wedding Day Midge was sold , with the groom being Alan Sherwood , who had been marketed as Midge 's boyfriend in the vintage years . Midge and Alan had three children introduced named Ryan , Nikki , and Cassandra . They also had twins who were never introduced . This was known as the Happy Family line , and in the set , Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki as a newborn baby . The Happy Family product became the subject of controversy when some parents disliked the " pregnant " Midge toy because they believed that Midge was too young to have children .
In 2013 Mattel decided to revamp Midge 's history , reintroducing her as a best friend of Barbie 's , but unmarried , without children , and with no connection to Alan .
= = Vintage years = =
When Barbie first came out , she was the subject of a lot of criticism , some of which that claimed Barbie was too mature @-@ looking for children . Midge was the first same @-@ size friend of Barbie ever sold , and was created to oppose these controversies aimed at Barbie . She had a fuller , gentler face mold that was less sexually intimidating , although her body proportions were the same as Barbie and they both stood at 11 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 290 mm ) tall . This allowed the two dolls to be able to share clothes and accessories . Her head mold was stamped " 1958 " , the same as Barbie . When Midge arrived , the markings on the straight leg body mold they shared changed to include both her and Barbie . Midge had shoulder @-@ length hair that flipped at the ends . Buyers had an option of buying a doll with one of three different hair colors : red , blond , or brunette . Her face was usually brushed with freckles . The dolls that were sold without freckles had a longer hair style and are now hard to find . Depending on the doll 's hair color , the color of her two @-@ piece swimming suit varied . If Midge had red hair her swimsuit was yellow and orange , for blond hair it was in two shades of blue , and if she was brunette it was pink and red . The first vintage Midge dolls had a value of $ 175 MIB ( Mint In Box ) in 2007 .
For the first two years that Midge was sold , she had " straight legs " that could not bend at the knee . A rare Midge with teeth was sold the first year and is now sought after by collectors . One year later , in 1964 the dolls that were sold had slightly longer hair . Midge 's boyfriend Allan arrived as well . Early in 1965 , Wigs Wardrobe Midge was sold , and consisted of a Midge head with short molded hair and three wigs . This was the Midge counterpart of the Fashion Queen Barbie . Since she came with only a head , another doll had to provide for the body . In 1965 Midge with bendable legs was introduced . She had shorter " bobbed " hair , like the American Girl Barbie , with a blue headband . Her swimming suit was different as well , and was now one @-@ piece and striped .
= = Return = =
From her introduction to until 1967 , Midge was marketed as Barbie 's original best friend , but no dolls were sold for about 20 years until 1988 , when California Dream Midge was sold as part of a beach line , which used the " Steffie " mold . The same " Steffie " mold was used for Cool Times Midge in 1989 . In 1990 , she began to use the " Diva " mold for All Stars Midge and The Beat Midge . In 1991 she was married to Allan ( now spelled " Alan " ) . Before and after the Wedding Day Midge doll was sold , many Midge play line dolls were produced . Before Wedding Day Midge , Midge dolls still had freckles , but up until Hawaii Midge was sold in 1999 , the dolls lacked freckles . Most of the dolls were red @-@ haired with blue or green eyes , but some dolls were brunette . The most commonly used head mold for Midge in this period was the " Diva " mold , stamped 1985 .
A 35th anniversary Midge reproduction doll was sold in 1998 for collectors , made to look like the vintage Midge dolls . She had red hair , was dressed in her original orange and lime two @-@ piece swimming suit , and came with a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit from 1964 – 1965 as well as a reproduction of the box the Midge dolls originally came in . Earlier in 1993 , for Midge 's 30th anniversary , a Midge reproduction doll was also produced , but she did not possess a reproduction of her original swimsuit or the original box . Like the later version , she came in a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit .
In 2013 , Midge appeared on the webseries Barbie : Life in the Dreamhouse where it is revealed that she has moved to Malibu . With this , her canon has been changed extensively , and she is a teenager who is retro at heart and still uses old @-@ fangled terms . The whole ' Happy Family ' canon has been dropped altogether due to controversy . Two Midge dolls will be released in 2013 - one is as part of a collectors set with Barbie , and the other on her own in the Life in the Dreamhouse doll line .
= = " Happy Family " line = =
The year after Midge and Alan were married , a picture of the couple with twin babies was shown in a pamphlet , but the dolls were never produced . However , in 2003 , she and Alan were re @-@ introduced with a family consisting of them and three different kids , three @-@ year @-@ old Ryan , and newborn baby Nikki . This was known as the " Happy Family " line , and was similar to the discontinued Heart Family line of the 1980s . The dolls came in both European American and African American versions . This was the first time an African American Midge was ever produced .
Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki , who was a tiny baby inside Midge 's magnetic removable womb . This led to some controversy with some consumers saying that the doll was inappropriate for children , or that it promoted teen pregnancy . Another cause for this controversy was that Midge did not initially have a wedding ring , but this was later fixed . She also was packaged without Alan . Customers complaining about the doll led to Wal @-@ Mart pulling the Happy Family line off their shelves . A new version of this Midge was produced for Wal @-@ Mart , this time not pregnant and with a cardboard cut @-@ out display of Alan and Ryan standing next to her inside the box . The Happy Family Line included everything from a talking house , a backyard swimming pool , neighborhood market , and playground .
Later , around Nikki 's first birthday , Midge was " pregnant " again with another child , who wasn 't named or given a specific gender , as the gender was a surprise when the owner opened the doll 's box . Midge 's new baby was later named Cassandra . Midge has two known parents who are simply called " Grandpa " and " Grandma " . At first , the grandparent dolls were sold together as part of a big set consisting of the dolls and a kitchen play set , but for Nikki 's first birthday they were sold separately . Midge , Alan , and Ryan gave Nikki a dog for her birthday . They too came in both Caucasian and African American versions . They use different body molds , to reflect their age .
= = Head Molds = =
Midge 's first appearance was made with her own headmold , Vintage Midge
Later , we have Midge using DIVA ( by Barbie and the Rockers ) headmold
Before Teresa made her debut , Midge used Steffie headmold
Midge comes and goes so many times , but with her 50th birthday , she returns with the Steffie headmold
Florida Midge uses Mackie headmold .
= The Tempest ( album ) =
The Tempest is the tenth studio album by American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse . Released in 2007 , the album marks the return of producer Mike E. Clark , who had a falling @-@ out with the duo in 2000 . However , he did not collaborate directly with ICP , and would not do so until their 2009 album Bang ! Pow ! Boom !
The album 's concept compares a violent storm to a roller coaster ; its lyrical themes vary from horrorcore @-@ based character deconstructions and songs about the supernatural to humorous and lighter subject matter . Clark 's production was praised by critics , and the album peaked at # 20 on the Billboard 200 . It is the group 's 23rd overall release .
= = History = =
Mike E. Clark produced much of Insane Clown Posse 's discography , as well as working with other groups on Psychopathic Records , until having a falling @-@ out with ICP in 2000 , after completing ICP 's album 's Bizaar and Bizzar , and beginning production on the Dark Lotus debut album Tales from the Lotus Pod .
After becoming a full @-@ time producer for Kid Rock , Clark contracted pneumonia , but ignored the illness , and began coughing severely as he awoke , leading to a three @-@ month stay in Mount Clemens General Hospital , during which one of his lungs collapsed three times . As the result of his near @-@ death experience , Clark decided to reconcile with Bruce and Utsler . Phone conversations between Clark and Insane Clown Posse led to Clark producing Shaggy 2 Dope 's 2006 solo album F.T.F.O .. The following year , Clark produced The Tempest ; however , in both instances , he did not work with Psychopathic Records directly . Because of this , ICP felt that The Tempest was missing the collaborative element that they felt made their earlier albums enjoyable . Clark would not work directly work with Psychopathic Records until 2009 's Bang ! Pow ! Boom !
= = Music and lyrics = =
Unlike previous Insane Clown Posse albums , The Tempest is not connected to the Dark Carnival mythology , which formed the basis for ICP 's " Joker 's Cards " series , which began in 1992 with Carnival of Carnage and concluded with the albums The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit ; however , it references themes , concepts and songs from previous albums . Joseph Bruce ( Violent J ) said that The Tempest is a concept album in its own right . Bruce describes the album 's concept as relating to both a violent storm which turns into a tornado and pulls people into a hurricane as well as a roller coaster . According to Bruce , " That 's a lot like riding on a violent roller coaster , I 'd assume . You get jerked to the left , jerked to the right , sucked way up into the sky , and then you go shooting down to the floor , and then you jerk up to the left and then you whip around to the right . Well , The Tempest is a storm in the form of a roller coaster . " As a result of this concept , the album focuses on a variety of different moods .
The Tempest maintains much of the horrorcore lyrical content ICP is known for , as well as their humorous perspective . Unlike previous albums , this album does not contain any disses aimed at other rappers or music industry figures . Bruce and Joseph Utsler ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ' s rapping on this album is described by Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries as being delivered in " a carnival barker fashion that fits with their circus motif " , and contrasted Bruce and Utsler themselves as being like " Alice Cooper with a mallrat attitude " .
The lyrics of " Growing Again " , which describes Violent J growing into a giant , were inspired by Bruce 's weight gain ; Bruce also says that the song reflects the feeling of being able to " rap about anything we want [ ... ] I feel we have the right for some songs to be softer and not about killing or Dark Carnival . " " The Tower " describes a war veteran and expert marksman climbing a college tower and shooting people with an arsenal of weapons , a reference to Charles Whitman 's 1966 murder spree .
Mike E. Clark 's production incorporates elements of rock and heavy metal , as well as live instrumentation . Reviewer Lana Cooper of PopMatters compares " Ride the Tempest " to Flock of Seagulls , and describes the instrumentation as incorporating elements of synthesizers and calliope . Cooper says that " Growing Again " incorporates power ballad chords . Jeffries describes " I Do This ! " as being influenced by psychedelia , and called " Mexico City " " Low Rider music " .
= = Release and reception = =
The album was released with a bonus poster . The Tempest debuted at # 20 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , selling about 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Reviews from Allmusic and PopMatters generally appraised Mike E. Clark 's production as the album 's most appealing element . Allmusic 's David Jeffries wrote , " there 's no denying that Clark 's vision does wonders for the duo . " PopMatters ' Lana Cooper said that " [ Insane Clown Posse 's ] theatrics have to be given their due . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
Joseph Bruce – vocals , composer
Shaggy 2 Dope — vocals , scratching
Mike E. Clark – composer , engineer , mixing , producer , programming
Jeffrey Campo – mastering
Brian Debler – artwork , cover design
DJ Clay — scratching , vocals
Insane Clown Posse — composer , vocals
James Mitchell — vocals
The R.O.C. — vocals , background vocals
Razor Ray — guitar , soloist , vocals , background vocals
Michael Scotta — artwork , cover design
Cindy Wulkan — artwork , cover design
= Star =
A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity . The nearest star to Earth is the Sun . Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth . Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms , the brightest of which gained proper names . Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations . However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth . Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .
For at least a portion of its life , a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core , releasing energy that traverses the star 's interior and then radiates into outer space . Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star 's lifetime , and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes . Near the end of its life , a star can also contain degenerate matter . Astronomers can determine the mass , age , metallicity ( chemical composition ) , and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space , its luminosity , and spectrum respectively . The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate . Other characteristics of a star , including diameter and temperature , change over its life , while the star 's environment affects its rotation and movement . A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( H – R diagram ) . Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined .
A star 's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements . When the stellar core is sufficiently dense , hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion , releasing energy in the process . The remainder of the star 's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes . The star 's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity . When the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted , a star of mass 0 @.@ 4 times greater than the Sun 's will expand to become a red giant . In some cases , it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core . As the star expands it throws a part of its mass , enriched with those heavier elements , into the interstellar environment , to be recycled later as new stars . Meanwhile , the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole .
Binary and multi @-@ star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits . When two such stars have a relatively close orbit , their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution . Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure , such as a star cluster or a galaxy .
= = Observation history = =
Historically , stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world . They have been part of religious practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation . Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable . By convention , astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun . The motion of the Sun against the background stars ( and the horizon ) was used to create calendars , which could be used to regulate agricultural practices . The Gregorian calendar , currently used nearly everywhere in the world , is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to its local star , the Sun .
The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC . The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC , during the Kassite Period ( ca . 1531 – 1155 BC ) .
The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC , with the help of Timocharis . The star catalog of Hipparchus ( 2nd century BC ) included 1020 stars , and was used to assemble Ptolemy 's star catalogue . Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova ( new star ) . Many of the constellations and star names in use today derive from Greek astronomy .
In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens , Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear . In 185 AD , they were the first to observe and write about a supernova , now known as the SN 185 . The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova , which was observed in 1006 and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese astronomers . The SN 1054 supernova , which gave birth to the Crab Nebula , was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers .
Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars . They built the first large observatory research institutes , mainly for the purpose of producing Zij star catalogues . Among these , the Book of Fixed Stars ( 964 ) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Sufi , who observed a number of stars , star clusters ( including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi 's Clusters ) and galaxies ( including the Andromeda Galaxy ) . According to A. Zahoor , in the 11th century , the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars , and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019 .
According to Josep Puig , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH ( 1106 / 1107 AD ) as evidence . Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky ( later termed novae ) , suggesting that the heavens were not immutable . In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun , and may have other planets , possibly even Earth @-@ like , in orbit around them , an idea that had been suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers , Democritus and Epicurus , and by medieval Islamic cosmologists such as Fakhr al @-@ Din al @-@ Razi . By the following century , the idea of the stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers . To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System , Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction , an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley .
The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667 . Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby " fixed " stars , demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus .
William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky . During the 1780s he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight . From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky , in the direction of the Milky Way core . His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction . In addition to his other accomplishments , William Herschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight , but are also physical companions that form binary star systems .
The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi . By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun , they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines — the dark lines in a stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere 's absorption of specific frequencies . In 1865 Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types . However , the modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s .
The first direct measurement of the distance to a star ( 61 Cygni at 11 @.@ 4 light @-@ years ) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique . Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens . Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century . In 1834 , Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion . Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104 @-@ day period . Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as William Struve and S. W. Burnham , allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of orbital elements . The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827 . The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars . The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool . Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and , hence , its temperature , could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude . The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals . In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory .
Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century . In 1913 , the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram was developed , propelling the astrophysical study of stars . Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution . Cecilia Payne @-@ Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 PhD thesis . The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics . This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined .
With the exception of supernovae , individual stars have primarily been observed in the Local Group , and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way ( as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our galaxy ) . But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster , about 100 million light years from the Earth . In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters , and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group ( see Cepheids ) . However , outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies , neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed . The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years — ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed .
= = Designations = =
The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period . Ancient sky watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns , and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths . Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology . Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names , particularly with Arabic or Latin designations .
As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself , individual stars have their own myths . To the Ancient Greeks , some " stars " , known as planets ( Greek πλανήτης ( planētēs ) , meaning " wanderer " ) , represented various important deities , from which the names of the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were taken . ( Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods , but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness . Their names were assigned by later astronomers . )
Circa 1600 , the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky . The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation . Later a numbering system based on the star 's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed 's star catalogue in his book " Historia coelestis Britannica " ( the 1712 edition ) , whereby this numbering system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering .
The only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . A number of private companies sell names of stars , which the British Library calls an unregulated commercial enterprise . The IAU has disassociated itself from this commercial practice , and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them . One such star @-@ naming company is the International Star Registry , which , during the 1980s , was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the assigned name was official . This now @-@ discontinued ISR practice was informally labeled a scam and a fraud , and the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against ISR for engaging in a deceptive trade practice .
= = Units of measurement = =
Although stellar parameters can be expressed in SI units or CGS units , it is often most convenient to express mass , luminosity , and radii in solar units , based on the characteristics of the Sun :
Large lengths , such as the radius of a giant star or the semi @-@ major axis of a binary star system , are often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit — approximately equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun ( 150 million km or 93 million miles ) .
= = Formation and evolution = =
Stars condense from regions of space of higher density , yet those regions are less dense than within a vacuum chamber . These regions - known as molecular clouds - consist mostly of hydrogen , with about 23 to 28 percent helium and a few percent heavier elements . One example of such a star @-@ forming region is the Orion Nebula . Most stars form in groups of dozens to hundreds of thousands of stars . Massive stars in these groups may powerfully illuminate those clouds , ionizing the hydrogen , and creating H II regions . Such feedback effects , from star formation , may ultimately disrupt the cloud and prevent further star formation .
All stars spend the majority of their existence as main sequence stars , fueled primarily by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within their cores . However , stars of different masses have markedly different properties at various stages of their development . The ultimate fate of more massive stars differs from that of less massive stars , as do their luminosities and the impact they have on their environment . Accordingly , astronomers often group stars by their mass :
Very low mass stars , with masses below 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , are fully convective and distribute helium evenly throughout the whole star while on the main sequence . Therefore , they never undergo shell burning , never become red giants , which cease fusing and become helium white dwarfs and slowly cool after exhausting their hydrogen . However , as the lifetime of 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe , no such star has yet reached the white dwarf stage .
Low mass stars ( including the Sun ) , with a mass between 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ depending on composition , do become red giants as their core hydrogen is depleted and they begin to burn helium in core in a helium flash ; they develop a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core later on the asymptotic giant branch ; they finally blow off their outer shell as a planetary nebula and leave behind their core in the form of a white dwarf .
Intermediate @-@ mass stars , between 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 5 – 10 M ☉ , pass through evolutionary stages similar to low mass stars , but after a relatively short period on the RGB they ignite helium without a flash and spend an extended period in the red clump before forming a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core .
Massive stars generally have a minimum mass of 7 – 10 M ☉ ( possibly as low as 5 – 6 M ☉ ) . After exhausting the hydrogen at the core these stars become supergiants and go on to fuse elements heavier than helium . They end their lives when their cores collapse and they explode as supernovae .
= = = Star formation = = =
The formation of a star begins with gravitational instability within a molecular cloud , caused by regions of higher density - often triggered by compression of clouds by radiation from massive stars , expanding bubbles in the interstellar medium , the collision of different molecular clouds , or the collision of galaxies ( as in a starburst galaxy ) . When a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability , it begins to collapse under its own gravitational force .
As the cloud collapses , individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form " Bok globules " . As a globule collapses and the density increases , the gravitational energy converts into heat and the temperature rises . When the protostellar cloud has approximately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic equilibrium , a protostar forms at the core . These pre – main sequence stars are often surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy . The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 to 15 million years .
Early stars of less than 2 M ☉ are called T Tauri stars , while those with greater mass are Herbig Ae / Be stars . These newly formed stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation , which may reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing star and result in small patches of nebulosity known as Herbig – Haro objects . These jets , in combination with radiation from nearby massive stars , may help to drive away the surrounding cloud from which the star was formed .
Early in their development , T Tauri stars follow the Hayashi track — they contract and decrease in luminosity while remaining at roughly the same temperature . Less massive T Tauri stars follow this track to the main sequence , while more massive stars turn onto the Henyey track .
Most stars are observed to be members of binary star systems , and the properties of those binaries are the result of the conditions in which they formed . A gas cloud must lose its angular momentum in order to collapse and form a star . The fragmentation of the cloud into multiple stars distributes some of that angular momentum . The primordial binaries transfer some angular momentum by gravitational interactions during close encounters with other stars in young stellar clusters . These interactions tend to split apart more widely separated ( soft ) binaries while causing hard binaries to become more tightly bound . This produces the separation of binaries into their two observed populations distributions .
= = = Main sequence = = =
Stars spend about 90 % of their existence fusing hydrogen into helium in high @-@ temperature and high @-@ pressure reactions near the core . Such stars are said to be on the main sequence , and are called dwarf stars . Starting at zero @-@ age main sequence , the proportion of helium in a star 's core will steadily increase , the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase , as will the star 's temperature and luminosity . The Sun , for example , is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 40 % since it reached the main sequence 4 @.@ 6 billion ( 4 @.@ 6 × 109 ) years ago .
Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space . For most stars , the mass lost is negligible . The Sun loses 10 − 14 M ☉ every year , or about 0 @.@ 01 % of its total mass over its entire lifespan . However , very massive stars can lose 10 − 7 to 10 − 5 M ☉ each year , significantly affecting their evolution . Stars that begin with more than 50 M ☉ can lose over half their total mass while on the main sequence .
The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and the rate at which it fuses it . The Sun 's is expected to live 10 billion ( 1010 ) years . Massive stars consume their fuel very rapidly and are short @-@ lived . Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly . Stars less massive than 0 @.@ 25 M ☉ , called red dwarfs , are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while stars of about 1 M ☉ can only fuse about 10 % of their mass . The combination of their slow fuel @-@ consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion ( 1012 ) years ; the most extreme of 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ ) will last for about 12 trillion years . Red dwarfs become hotter and more luminous as they accumulate helium . When they eventually run out of hydrogen , they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature . However , since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe ( 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , no stars under about 0 @.@ 85 M ☉ are expected to have moved off the main sequence .
Besides mass , the elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars . Astronomers label all elements heavier than helium " metals " , and call the chemical concentration of these elements in a star , its metallicity . A star 's metallicity can influence the time the star takes to burn its fuel , and controls the formation of its magnetic fields , which affects the strength of its stellar wind . Older , population II stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger , population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed . Over time , such clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed portions of their atmospheres .
= = = Post – main sequence = = =
As stars of at least 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core , they start to fuse hydrogen in a shell outside the helium core . Their outer layers expand and cool greatly as they form a red giant . In about 5 billion years , when the Sun enters the helium burning phase , it will expand to a maximum radius of roughly 1 astronomical unit ( 150 million kilometres ) , 250 times its present size , and lose 30 % of its current mass .
As the hydrogen shell burning produces more helium , the core increases in mass and temperature . In a red giant of up to 2 @.@ 25 M ☉ , the mass of the helium core becomes degenerate prior to helium fusion . Finally , when the temperature increases sufficiently , helium fusion begins explosively in what is called a helium flash , and the star rapidly shrinks in radius , increases its surface temperature , and moves to the horizontal branch of the HR diagram . For more massive stars , helium core fusion starts before the core becomes degenerate , and the star spends some time in the red clump , slowly burning helium , before the outer convective envelope collapses and the star then moves to the horizontal branch .
After the star has fused the helium of its core , the carbon product fuses producing a hot core with an outer shell of fusing helium . The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch ( AGB ) that parallels the other described red giant phase , but with a higher luminosity . The more massive AGB stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes degenerate .
= = = = Massive stars = = = =
During their helium @-@ burning phase , stars of more than nine solar masses expand to form red supergiants . When this fuel is exhausted at the core , they continue to fuse elements heavier than helium .
The core contracts and the temperature and pressure rises enough to fuse carbon ( see Carbon burning process ) . This process continues , with the successive stages being fueled by neon ( see neon burning process ) , oxygen ( see oxygen burning process ) , and silicon ( see silicon burning process ) . Near the end of the star 's life , fusion continues along a series of onion @-@ layer shells within a massive star . Each shell fuses a different element , with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen ; the next shell fusing helium , and so forth .
The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron . Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei , any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy . To a very limited degree such a process proceeds , but it consumes energy . Likewise , since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei , such energy cannot be released by fission . In relatively old , very massive stars , a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star . The heavier elements in these stars can work their way to the surface , forming evolved objects known as Wolf @-@ Rayet stars that have a dense stellar wind which sheds the outer atmosphere .
= = = = Collapse = = = =
As a star 's core shrinks , the intensity of radiation from that surface increases , creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away , forming a planetary nebula . If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth , known as a white dwarf . White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place . The electron @-@ degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma , even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma . Eventually , white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time .
In larger stars , fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large ( more than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) that it can no longer support its own mass . This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons , forming neutrons , neutrinos , and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse beta decay . The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova . Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star 's entire home galaxy . When they occur within the Milky Way , supernovae have historically been observed by naked @-@ eye observers as " new stars " where none seemingly existed before .
A supernova explosion blows away the star 's outer layers , leaving a remnant such as the Crab Nebula . The core is compressed into a neutron star , which sometimes manifests itself as a pulsar or X @-@ ray burster . In the case of the largest stars , the remnant is a black hole greater than 4 M ☉ ) s . In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron @-@ degenerate matter , with a more exotic form of degenerate matter , QCD matter , possibly present in the core . Within a black hole , the matter is in a state that is not currently understood .
The blown @-@ off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements , which may be recycled during the formation of new stars . These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets . The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium .
= = = = Binary stars = = = =
The post – main @-@ sequence evolution of binary stars may be significantly different from the evolution of single stars of the same mass . If stars in a binary system are sufficiently close , when one of the stars expands to become a red giant it may overflow its Roche lobe , the region around a star where material is gravitationally bound to that star , leading to transfer of material to the other . When the Roche lobe is violated , a variety of phenomena can result , including contact binaries , common @-@ envelope binaries , cataclysmic variables , and type Ia supernovae .
= = Distribution = =
In addition to isolated stars , a multi @-@ star system can consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit each other . The simplest and most common multi @-@ star system is a binary star , but systems of three or more stars are also found . For reasons of orbital stability , such multi @-@ star systems are often organized into hierarchical sets of binary stars . Larger groups called star clusters also exist . These range from loose stellar associations with only a few stars , up to enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands of stars . Such systems orbit our Milky Way galaxy .
It has been a long @-@ held assumption that the majority of stars occur in gravitationally bound , multiple @-@ star systems . This is particularly true for very massive O and B class stars , where 80 % of the stars are believed to be part of multiple @-@ star systems . The proportion of single star systems increases with decreasing star mass , so that only 25 % of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions . As 85 % of all stars are red dwarfs , most stars in the Milky Way are likely single from birth .
Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe , but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust . A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars , and there are more than 100 billion ( 1011 ) galaxies in the observable universe . In 2010 , one estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe was 300 sextillion ( 3 × 1023 ) . While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies , intergalactic stars have been discovered .
The nearest star to the Earth , apart from the Sun , is Proxima Centauri , which is 39 @.@ 9 trillion kilometres , or 4 @.@ 2 light @-@ years . Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle ( 8 kilometres per second — almost 30 @,@ 000 kilometres per hour ) , it would take about 150 @,@ 000 years to arrive . This it typical of stellar separations in galactic discs . Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters , or much farther apart in galactic halos .
Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus , collisions between stars are thought to be rare . In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center , collisions can be more common . Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers . These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity of the cluster to which it belongs .
= = Characteristics = =
Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass , including such characteristics as luminosity , size , evolution , lifespan , and its eventual fate .
= = = Age = = =
Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old . Some stars may even be close to 13 @.@ 8 billion years old — the observed age of the universe . The oldest star yet discovered , HD 140283 , nicknamed Methuselah star , is an estimated 14 @.@ 46 ± 0 @.@ 8 billion years old . ( Due to the uncertainty in the value , this age for the star does not conflict with the age of the Universe , determined by the Planck satellite as 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 ) .
The more massive the star , the shorter its lifespan , primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores , causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly . The most massive stars last an average of a few million years , while stars of minimum mass ( red dwarfs ) burn their fuel very slowly and can last tens to hundreds of billions of years .
= = = Chemical composition = = =
When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71 % hydrogen and 27 % helium , as measured by mass , with a small fraction of heavier elements . Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere , as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure . The portion of heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system .
The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327 @-@ 2326 , with only 1 / 200,000th the iron content of the Sun . By contrast , the super @-@ metal @-@ rich star μ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun , while the planet @-@ bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron . There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum ; especially chromium and rare earth elements . Stars with cooler outer atmospheres , including the Sun , can form various diatomic and polyatomic molecules .
= = = Diameter = = =
Due to their great distance from the Earth , all stars except the Sun appear to the unaided eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth 's atmosphere . The Sun is also a star , but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead , and to provide daylight . Other than the Sun , the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus , with an angular diameter of only 0 @.@ 057 arcseconds .
The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be observed with current ground @-@ based optical telescopes , and so interferometer telescopes are required to produce images of these objects . Another technique for measuring the angular size of stars is through occultation . By precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is occulted by the Moon ( or the rise in brightness when it reappears ) , the star 's angular diameter can be computed .
Stars range in size from neutron stars , which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km ( 25 mi ) in diameter , to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation , which has a diameter approximately 1 @,@ 070 times that of the Sun — about 1 @,@ 490 @,@ 171 @,@ 880 km ( 925 @,@ 949 @,@ 878 mi ) . Betelgeuse , however , has a much lower density than the Sun .
= = = Kinematics = = =
The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star , as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy . The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun , and the traverse angular movement , which is called its proper motion .
Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star 's spectral lines , and is given in units of km / s . The proper motion of a star , its parallax , is determined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milli @-@ arc seconds ( mas ) per year . With knowledge of the star 's parallax and its distance , the proper motion velocity can be calculated . Together with the radial velocity , the total velocity can be calculated . Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun , making them good candidates for parallax measurements .
When both rates of movement are known , the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed . Among nearby stars , it has been found that younger population I stars have generally lower velocities than older , population II stars . The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy . A comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has allowed astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds , and are referred to as stellar associations .
= = = Magnetic field = = =
The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation occurs . This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo , wherein the movement of elecrical charges induce magnetic fields , as does a mechanical dynamo . Those magnetic fields have a great range that extend throughout and beyond the star . The strength of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star , and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star 's rate of rotation . This surface activity produces starspots , which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures . Coronal loops are arching magnetic field flux lines that rise from a star 's surface into the star 's outer atmosphere , its corona . The coronal loops can be seen due to the plasma they conduct along their length . Stellar flares are bursts of high @-@ energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity .
Young , rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field . The magnetic field can act upon a star 's stellar wind , functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation with time . Thus , older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface activity . The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods of time . During the Maunder minimum , for example , the Sun underwent a 70 @-@ year period with almost no sunspot activity .
= = = Mass = = =
One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae , which , with 100 – 150 times as much mass as the Sun , will have a lifespan of only several million years . Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests 150 M ☉ as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe . This represents an empirical value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the accreting gas cloud . Several stars in the R136 cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud have been measured with larger masses , but it has been determined that they could have been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , sidestepping the 150 M ☉ limit on massive star formation .
The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger , up to 300 M ☉ , due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition . This generation of supermassive population III stars is likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , they are observed to have a high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life . In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6 @.@ 60 .
With a mass only 80 times that of Jupiter ( MJ ) , 2MASS J0523 @-@ 1403 is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core . For stars with metallicity similar to the Sun , the theoretical minimum mass the star can have and still undergo fusion at the core , is estimated to be about 75 MJ . When the metallicity is very low , however , the minimum star size seems to be about 8 @.@ 3 % of the solar mass , or about 87 MJ . Smaller bodies called brown dwarfs , occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants .
The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines its surface gravity . Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than do main sequence stars , while the opposite is the case for degenerate , compact stars such as white dwarfs . The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star 's spectrum , with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines .
= = = Rotation = = =
The rotation rate of stars can be determined through spectroscopic measurement , or more exactly determined by tracking their starspots . Young stars can have a rotation greater than 100 km / s at the equator . The B @-@ class star Achernar , for example , has an equatorial velocity of about 225 km / s or greater , causing its equator to be slung outward and giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50 % greater than between the poles . This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km / s at which speed the star would break apart . By contrast , the Sun rotates once every 25 – 35 days , with an equatorial velocity of 1 @.@ 994 km / s . A main sequence star 's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow its rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main sequence .
Degenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass , resulting in a rapid rate of rotation . However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum — the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin . A large portion of the star 's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind . In spite of this , the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid . The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula , for example , rotates 30 times per second . The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation .
= = = Temperature = = =
The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius , and is often estimated from the star 's color index . The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature , which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star . Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface , as the temperature increases toward the core . The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins .
The stellar temperature will determine the rate of ionization of various elements , resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum . The surface temperature of a star , along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features , is used to classify a star ( see classification below ) .
Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50 @,@ 000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3 @,@ 600 K ; but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area .
= = Radiation = =
The energy produced by stars , a product of nuclear fusion , radiates to space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation . The particle radiation emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar wind , which streams from the outer layers as electrically charged protons and alpha and beta particles . Although almost massless , there also exists a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star 's core .
The production of energy at the core is the reason stars shine so brightly : every time two or more atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single atomic nucleus of a new heavier element , gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear fusion product . This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy of lower frequency , such as visible light , by the time it reaches the star 's outer layers .
The color of a star , as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light , depends on the temperature of the star 's outer layers , including its photosphere . Besides visible light , stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye . In fact , stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum , from the longest wavelengths of radio waves through infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , to the shortest of X @-@ rays , and gamma rays . From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star , not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant , but all frequencies provide insight into the star 's physics .
Using the stellar spectrum , astronomers can also determine the surface temperature , surface gravity , metallicity and rotational velocity of a star . If the distance of the star is found , such as by measuring the parallax , then the luminosity of the star can be derived . The mass , radius , surface gravity , and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models . ( Mass can be calculated for stars in binary systems by measuring their orbital velocities and distances . Gravitational microlensing has been used to measure the mass of a single star . ) With these parameters , astronomers can also estimate the age of the star .
= = = Luminosity = = =
The luminosity of a star is the amount of light and other forms of radiant energy it radiates per unit of time . It has units of power . The luminosity of a star is determined by its radius and surface temperature . Many stars do not radiate uniformly across their entire surface . The rapidly rotating star Vega , for example , has a higher energy flux ( power per unit area ) at its poles than along its equator .
Patches of the star 's surface with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as starspots . Small , dwarf stars such as our Sun generally have essentially featureless disks with only small starspots . Giant stars have much larger , more obvious starspots , and they also exhibit strong stellar limb | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
52 ( 1859 ) , is a blow @-@ by @-@ blow recreation in music of the emotions and prophecies of Psalm 137 ( " By the waters of Babylon ... " ) . This piece is prefaced by a French version of the psalm which is believed to be the sole remnant of Alkan 's Bible translation . Alkan 's lyrical side was displayed in this period by the five sets of Chants inspired by Mendelssohn , which appeared between 1857 and 1872 , as well as by a number of minor pieces .
Alkan 's publications for organ or pédalier commenced with his Benedictus , Op. 54 ( 1859 ) . In the same year he published a set of very spare and simple preludes in the eight Gregorian modes ( 1859 , without opus number ) , which , in Smith 's opinion , " seem to stand outside the barriers of time and space " , and which he believes reveal " Alkan 's essential spiritual modesty . " These were followed by pieces such as the 13 Prières ( Prayers ) , Op. 64 ( 1865 ) , and the Impromptu sur le Choral de Luther " Un fort rempart est notre Dieu " , op . 69 ( 1866 ) . Alkan also issued a book of 12 studies for the pedalboard alone ( no opus number , 1866 ) and the Bombardo @-@ carillon for pedalboard duet ( four feet ) of 1872 .
Alkan 's return to the concert platform at his Petits Concerts , however , marked the end of his publications ; his final work to be issued was the Toccatina , Op. 75 , in 1872 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Alkan had few followers ; however , he had important admirers , including Liszt , Anton Rubinstein , Franck , and , in the early twentieth century , Busoni , Petri and Sorabji . Rubinstein dedicated his fifth piano concerto to him , and Franck dedicated to Alkan his Grand pièce symphonique op . 17 for organ . Busoni ranked Alkan with Liszt , Chopin , Schumann and Brahms as one of the five greatest composers for the piano since Beethoven . Isidor Philipp and Delaborde edited new printings of his works in the early 1900s . In the first half of the twentieth century , when Alkan 's name was still obscure , Busoni and Petri included his works in their performances . Sorabji published an article on Alkan in his 1932 book Around Music ; he promoted Alkan 's music in his reviews and criticism , and his Sixth Symphony for Piano ( Symphonia claviensis ) ( 1975 – 76 ) , includes a section entitled Quasi Alkan . The English composer and writer Bernard van Dieren praised Alkan in an essay in his 1935 book , Down Among the Dead Men , and the composer Humphrey Searle also called for a revival of his music in a 1937 essay .
For much of the 20th century , Alkan 's work remained in obscurity , but from the 1960s onwards it was steadily revived . Raymond Lewenthal gave a pioneering extended broadcast on Alkan on WBAI radio in New York in 1963 , and later included Alkan 's music in recitals and recordings . The English pianist Ronald Smith championed Alkan 's music through performances , recordings , a biography and the Alkan Society of which he was president for many years . Works by Alkan have also been recorded by Jack Gibbons , Marc @-@ André Hamelin , Mark Latimer , John Ogdon , and Hüseyin Sermet , among many others . Ronald Stevenson has composed a piano piece Festin d 'Alkan ( referring to Alkan 's Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and the composer Michael Finnissy has also written piano pieces referring to Alkan , e.g. Alkan @-@ Paganini , no . 5 of The History of Photography in Sound . Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's Étude No . IV is a moto perpetuo study combining themes from Alkan 's Symphony , Op. 39 , no . 7 , and Alkan 's own perpetual motion étude , Op. 76 , no . 3 . It is dedicated to Averil Kovacs and François Luguenot , respectively activists in the English and French Alkan Societies . As Hamelin writes in his preface to this étude , the idea to combine these came from the composer Alistair Hinton , the finale of whose Piano Sonata No. 5 ( 1994 – 95 ) includes a substantial section entitled " Alkanique " .
Alkan 's compositions for organ have been among the last of his works to be brought back to the repertoire . As to Alkan 's pedal @-@ piano works , due to a recent revival of the instrument , they are once again being performed as originally intended ( rather than on an organ ) , such as by Italian pedal @-@ pianist Roberto Prosseda , and recordings of Alkan on the pedal piano have been made by Jean Dubé and Olivier Latry .
= = Selected recordings = =
This list comprises a selection of some premiere and other recordings by musicians who have become closely associated with Alkan 's works . A comprehensive discography is available at the Alkan Society website .
Piano Trio , Op. 30 – played by Trio Alkan . Recorded 1992 . Naxos , 8555352 ( 2001 )
Grande sonate , Op. 33 – played by Marc @-@ André Hamelin ( piano ) . Recorded 1994 . Hyperion , CDA669764 ( 1995 ) .
Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 – played by Ronald Smith ( piano ) . Recorded 1977 . EMI , SLS 5100 [ 3 LPs ] ( 1978 ) , partly reissued EMI Gemini , 585 4842 ( 2003 )
Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 and other works – played by Jack Gibbons ( piano ) . Recorded 1995 . ASV , CD DCS 227 [ 2 CDs ] ( 1995 )
Concerto , Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 – played by John Ogdon ( piano ) . Recorded 1969 . RCA , LSC @-@ 3192 [ LP ] ( 1972 ) . Great British Pianists , 4569132 ( 1999 )
Le festin d 'Esope ( Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and other works – played by Raymond Lewenthal . Recorded 1966 . RCA LM 2815 [ LP mono ] , LSC @-@ 2815 [ LP stereo ] ; BMG High Performance Series 633310 ( 1999 )
Sonate de concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano – played by Steven Osborne ( piano ) and Alban Gebhart ( cello ) . Recorded 2008 . Hyperion CDA67624 ( 2008 ) .
11 Pièces dans le style religieux , et une transcription du Messie de Hændel , Op. 72 – played by Kevin Bowyer ( organ ) . Recorded 2005 . Toccata TOCC 0031 ( 2007 )
Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , no . 4 @-@ 7 ) – played by Egon Petri ( piano ) . c . 1952 – 53 . Symposium Records , CD 1145 ( 1993 )
= = = About Alkan = = =
Alkan Society , including complete and regularly updated discography
Alkan web site of Sylvain Chosson , contains detailed listing of Alkan 's works , with some downloadable scores
" The Myths of Alkan " by Jack Gibbons
Unriddling Alkan by David Conway
Alkan @-@ Zimmerman International Music Association
Pictures of Alkan
= = = Scores and sheet @-@ music = = =
Free Alkan scores and manuscripts – site of Sylvain Chosson
Kunst der Fuge : many of Alkan 's piano works in MIDI performances
Alkan Piano Trio @-@ Discussion of work and soundbites
www.kreusch @-@ sheet @-@ music.net – Free Scores by Alkan
Free scores by Alkan at the International Music Score Library Project
= = = Performances on the Web = = =
Trois Andantes Romantiques , Op. 13 , No 2 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck
Scherzo Focoso , Op. 34 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck
" Allegro Barbaro " , Op. 35 , No. 5 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons
Menuet , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 6 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell
Last movement , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 7 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell
First movement , Concerto , Op. 39 , No. 8 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons
Le Festin d 'Ésope , Op. 39 , no . 12 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen
Four Esquisses from Op. 63 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen
" Trois anciennes mélodies de la synagogue " and " Sicut cerva " on YouTube - Klára Kolonits ( soprano ) and Daniel Dinyes ( piano )
= Business School ( The Office ) =
" Business School " is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's forty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by Brent Forrester , and directed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly creator Joss Whedon , the episode aired on NBC on February 15 , 2007 .
In the episode , Michael is invited by Ryan to speak to his business school class . When many of the students question the usefulness of paper in a computerized world , Michael attempts to inform the class of how essential paper is . Meanwhile , a bat becomes trapped in the office , leading Dwight and Creed on a mission to protect the employees .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to speak at his business school class . Michael is excited , but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he has only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class . During his introduction of Michael to his classmates , Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years . However , Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics ( including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you " can 't learn from textbooks " ) . Michael is then taken aback when one of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction . Infuriated and hurt , Michael punishes Ryan by relocating his desk to the " annex , " where Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) works , who babbles uncontrollably in excitement .
Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) discovers a bat in the ceiling , and accidentally lets it loose into the office , sending the employees scurrying for cover . Stanley immediately goes home . As many of the employees hide , Dwight enlists the help of Creed ( Creed Bratton ) to expel the bat . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) exploits Dwight 's paranoia , and pretends that he is turning into a vampire . Dwight eventually catches the bat with a garbage bag after it lands on Meredith 's head .
Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , in the meantime , invites her co @-@ workers to her art show after work , but few show any enthusiasm , leaving her feeling alienated and sad . The art show doesn 't go as planned , and she begins to doubt her abilities . When Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) shows up with his partner Gil , they critique her art , and note that Pam 's art has been let down by her lack of courage , not realizing that she is standing right behind them . As she begins to take her work down , Michael appears and , in a moment of sincere kindness , compliments her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building . Pam embraces him as her eyes tear up . Michael soon places Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office .
= = Production = =
" Business School " was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester . Forrester had previously written " The Merger " . The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon . Whedon , who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer , and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode , stated that he chose to direct the episode " because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast , and I adore the show . " When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire , Whedon thought that it was a joke , stating " Didn 't I just leave this party ? " in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In an interview featured on the third season DVD , Whedon joked that the " Business School " episode and his former TV show were very similar because " Buffy [ ... ] was sad and depressing but ... it was funny . Especially when people died . And a lot of people do die in [ ' Business School ' ] . " But upon completing the episode , Whedon stated " That was just coincidence . But that 's how that happened . God , it was fun . " Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script . " I wouldn 't say freedom to do things with it ... But way more input was asked for than I would have ever anticipated . " At Pam 's art show , the pieces which she was supposed to have painted didn 't suit Whedon . " I got to the set and saw Pam 's art , and I was like , ' This is not right . ' " Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art .
For the scenes which involved filming with a bat , the production team used an actual bat , an animated bat , and a mechanical bat . When around the actual bat , Kate Flannery , who portrays Meredith Palmer , stated that " we had to be extremely quiet around [ it ] , basically pretending to scream . " California State University , Northridge served as the backdrop for Ryan 's business school and the art show .
= = Reception = =
The episode received generally good reviews from critics . Brian Zoromski , of IGN , stated that " ' Business School ' was an exercise in what works best in an Office episode . " Zoromski also praised Joss Whedon 's directorial debut for the show , stating that " Whedon 's direction and sense of humor was both excellently put to use and alluded to in the scenes in which Jim hilariously pretended to become a vampire . " Zoromski went on to say that the acting of John Krasinski and Rashida Jones , who portrays Karen Filippelli , helped to make the vampire scenes the funniest parts of the episode . He gave the episode a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 . Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , stated that " This show has always been able to turn on a dime and take the comedy to a soul @-@ stirring dramatic climax with just the lightest of touches , and last night was no different . " West went on to praise Michael and Pam 's scene at the art show as one of these moments .
= M @-@ 81 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 81 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline travels from the city of Saginaw at the junction with M @-@ 13 to the junction with M @-@ 53 east of Cass City over the county line in Greenleaf Township in northwestern Sanilac County in The Thumb area of the state . Outside of the cities and villages along its route , M @-@ 81 passes through mostly rural farm country . Near Saginaw it intersects the freeway that carries both Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) in an industrial area .
A road bearing the M @-@ 81 designation has existed since at least July 1 , 1919 , when the state initially numbered its trunkline highways . Since that time , it has been extended , rerouted or shortened several times . These changes resulted in essentially the modern highway routing by 1926 ; the highway was fully paved in the 1940s . A change made in 1929 was reversed in 1933 , and an extension through downtown Saginaw in the 1960s was overturned in the 1970s . The last change was the construction of a pair of roundabouts at the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange in 2006 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 81 starts at a junction with M @-@ 13 , with the two directions of each highway separated by a median . This central feature ends for M @-@ 81 immediately east of the intersection as the highway runs east out of Saginaw . The trunkline follows Washington Road easterly through residential subdivisions to an interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 in an industrial area of Buena Vista Township . This interchange , exit 151 along the freeway , is built with roundabouts on either side of the bridge that carries Washington Road over the freeway in a variant of the diamond interchange design called a dumbbell interchange . After leaving the industrial properties on the east side of I @-@ 75 / US 23 , M @-@ 81 follows Washington Road through a mixture of farm fields and residential subdivisions . North of the community of Arthur , the highway intersects M @-@ 15 ( Vassar Road ) . Further east , M @-@ 81 crosses out of Saginaw County ; across the border in Tuscola County , the highway follows Saginaw Road .
In the village of Reese , M @-@ 81 crosses the Huron and Eastern Railway twice . East of town , the highway follows Caro Road through more farm fields through the community of Watrousville . Near the south side of the Tuscola Area Airport , M @-@ 81 turns to the northeast running along the Cass River to Caro . In the city , the trunkline follows State Street past the fairgrounds . At the intersection with Ellington Street , M @-@ 81 crosses M @-@ 24 . The highway continues northeasterly out of town and through the community of Ellington . Northeast of Elmwood , M @-@ 81 turns due east along Cass City Road . The trunkline runs to the village of Cass City where it follows Main Street through residential neighborhoods and the central business district . East of Cass City , the highway crosses the Cass River before crossing the county line into Sanilac County . Approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the county , M @-@ 81 ends at the intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) .
M @-@ 81 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 81 were the 17 @,@ 839 vehicles daily between Van Gelsen Road and Frank Street in Caro ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 527 vehicles per day east of Cass City to the M @-@ 53 intersection . No sections of M @-@ 81 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When originally signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 81 ran from Bay City southeast and east to the Munger area ; from there it ran south concurrently with M @-@ 31 to the Reese area before running northeasterly to the east of Cass City to M @-@ 53 . By 1921 , the eastern end was extended southerly from Caro to Mayville along a highway that is now part of M @-@ 24 . In late 1926 , the western end was changed so that M @-@ 81 followed the former M @-@ 31 from Reese into Saginaw and the eastern end was rerouted from Caro northeasterly to the Cass City area . With the exception of the routing through downtown Saginaw , the highway followed the approximate routing of the current highway .
In the latter half of 1929 , the highway was rerouted between Saginaw and Reese , using a set of parallel roadways to the south of the previous routing ; this change was reversed in 1933 . M @-@ 81 was fully paved when the last section between Ellington and Elmwood in Tuscola County was finished in late 1946 or early 1947 .
Starting in 1953 , the westernmost approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of M @-@ 81 was also used for a US 23 concurrency . When the bypass of Saginaw was completed in late 1961 , M @-@ 81 was extended along M @-@ 13 southwesterly into downtown Saginaw where it turned west across the Saginaw River to Midland Road west of the city . This routing across the city was removed in 1971 when I @-@ 675 was completed ; west of that freeway the highway became M @-@ 58 , the rest was either removed from the highway system and turned back to local control , or it had the M @-@ 81 designation removed . Since this truncation , M @-@ 81 has ended at its junction with M @-@ 13 north of downtown Saginaw . In 2006 , MDOT completed the reconstruction of the interchange between M @-@ 81 and I @-@ 75 / US to incorporate a pair of roundabouts along Washington Road .
= = Major intersections = =
= Common starling =
The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized passerine bird in the starling family , Sturnidae . It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen , which is speckled with white at some times of year . The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have browner plumage than the adults . It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an unmusical but varied song . Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare .
The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it has been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji . This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa . The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid . These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks . There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year . This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit . It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .
Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops . Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts . Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia . The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks . Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name . Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for " starling " and " common " respectively . The Old English staer , later stare , and the Latin sturnus are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . " Starling " was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely supplanted " stare " to refer to birds of all ages . The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem " The Stare 's Nest by My Window " . The International Ornithological Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling .
The starling family , Sturnidae , is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The genus Sturnus is polyphyletic and relationships between its members are not fully resolved . The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling . The non @-@ migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian refugium during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling . There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling . Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the paucity of the fossil record for the family as a whole .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary clinally in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage . The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities .
Subspecies
Birds from Fair Isle , St Kilda and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form , and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority . The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere , indicating some gene flow from faroensis or zetlandicus , subspecies formerly considered to be isolated .
Several other subspecies have been named , but are generally no longer considered valid . Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet . These include : S. v. ruthenus Menzbier , 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia ; S. v. graecus Tschusi , 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the Bosporus ; and S. v. heinrichi Stresemann , 1928 , an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran . S. v. persepolis Ticehurst , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( Fars Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe .
= = Description = =
The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 6 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 7 in ) , the culmen is 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The plumage is iridescent black , glossed purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter . The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year . The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed . The legs are stout and pinkish- or greyish @-@ red . The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases . Moulting occurs once a year- in late summer after the breeding season has finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance . The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off . Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile feathering , especially on the head . They can usually be sexed by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females . Estimating the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered . The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and passerine standards . It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized passerines , such as thrushes , icterids or small corvids , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs . In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat waddling gait is also characteristic . The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in adult breeding plumage .
Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping . Their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular @-@ shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight . When in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in unison , form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion . Common starling on migration can fly at 60 – 80 km / h ( 37 – 50 mph ) and cover up to 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 km ( 620 – 930 mi ) .
Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing . This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ cheeked starlings ) , where the protractor muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill . This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items . Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide .
In Iberia , the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour . At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings .
= = = Voice = = =
The common starling is a noisy bird . Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical @-@ sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds . The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more . Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type , which follow each other in a regular order without pause . The bout starts with a series of pure @-@ tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song , a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man @-@ made noises . The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs . Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next . After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high @-@ frequency song , again formed of several types . Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks .
Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded . In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in . Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones . Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider repertoires attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others . Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity . Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching .
Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the moulting period . The songsters are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion . The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood . Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , snarl call and copulation call . The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings squabble incessantly . They chatter while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby . When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the synchronised movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter . Although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts . These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian sparrowhawks . Flocks form a tight sphere @-@ like formation in flight , frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape , seemingly without any sort of leader . Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours . Very large roosts , exceptionally up to 1 @.@ 5 million birds , can form in city centres , woodlands or reedbeds , causing problems with their droppings . These may accumulate up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , killing trees by their concentration of chemicals . In smaller amounts , the droppings act as a fertiliser , and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits .
Huge flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland , Denmark over the seaward marshlands of Tønder and Esbjerg municipalities between Tønder and Ribe . They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid @-@ April . Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes silhouetted against the sky , a phenomenon known locally as sort sol ( " black sun " ) . Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before sundown during mid @-@ winter . These flocks are commonly called murmurations .
= = = Feeding = = =
The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other arthropods . The food range includes spiders , crane flies , moths , mayflies , dragonflies , damsel flies , grasshoppers , earwigs , lacewings , caddisflies , flies , beetles , sawflies , bees , wasps and ants . Both adults and larvae are consumed and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards . While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises . The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily metabolise foods containing high levels of sucrose , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries . The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered roseate tern . Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the terns return to their breeding colonies in spring .
There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food but for the most part , they forage close to the ground , taking insects from the surface or just underneath . Generally , common starlings prefer foraging amongst short @-@ cropped grasses and are often found among grazing animals or perched on their backs , where they will also feed on the mammal 's external parasites . Large flocks may engage in a practice known as " roller @-@ feeding " , where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best . The larger the flock , the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging . Flocks often feed in one place for some time , and return to previous successfully foraged sites .
There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . " Probing " involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole . This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term zirkeln , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . " Hawking " is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and " lunging " is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil . Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .
= = = Nesting = = =
Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females , often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material , which the female later disassembles upon accepting him as a mate . The amount of green material is not important , as long as some is present , but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate . The scent of plants such as yarrow acts as an olfactory attractant to females .
The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest . Following copulation , the male and female continue to build the nest . Nests may be in any type of hole , common locations include inside hollowed trees , buildings , tree stumps and man @-@ made nest @-@ boxes . S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs , a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form . Nests are typically made out of straw , dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers , wool and soft leaves . Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation .
Common starlings are both monogamous and polygamous ; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female , occasionally the pair may have an extra helper . Pairs may be part of a colony , in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees . Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest . The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous .
= = = Breeding = = =
Breeding takes place during the spring and summer . Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days . If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it . There are normally four or five eggs that are ovoid in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance . The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels . The egg size is 26 @.@ 5 – 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter .
Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch . Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time incubating them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost . The young are born blind and naked . They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days . Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest . Prior to that , the fouling would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as insulation and increasing the risk of chilling the hatchlings . Nestlings remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents . Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks . A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and relining the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of 48oN . Within two months , most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage . They acquire their adult plumage the following year . As with other passerines , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' faecal sacs are removed by the adults .
Intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests . Female " floaters " ( unpaired females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest . Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 yr 11 m .
= = Predators and parasites = =
A majority of starling predators are avian . The typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns . Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey . Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and Eurasian sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) , and falcons including the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) , Eurasian hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) and common kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) . Slower raptors like black and red kites ( Milvus migrans & milvus ) , eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) , common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) and Australasian harrier ( Circus approximans ) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles . While perched in groups by night , they can be vulnerable to owls , including the little owl ( Athene noctua ) , long @-@ eared owl ( Asio otus ) , short @-@ eared owl ( Asio flammeus ) , barn owl ( Tyto alba ) , tawny owl ( Strix aluco ) and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( Bubo bubo ) .
More than twenty species of hawk , owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America , though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban @-@ living peregrine falcons or merlins ( Falco columbarius ) . Common mynas ( Acridotheres tristis ) sometimes evict eggs , nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests , and the lesser honeyguide ( Indicator minor ) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host . Starlings are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest eviction however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers . Nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as stoats ( Mustela erminea ) , raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and squirrels ( Sciurus spp . ) , and cats may catch the unwary .
Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites . A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite ; 99 % had external fleas , mites or ticks , and 95 % carried internal parasites , mostly various types of worm . Blood @-@ sucking species leave their host when it dies , but other external parasites stay on the corpse . A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with Mallophaga lice , presumably due to its inability to remove vermin .
The hen flea ( Ceratophyllus gallinae ) is the most common flea in their nests . The small , pale house @-@ sparrow flea C. fringillae , is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species . This flea does not occur in the US , even on house sparrows . Lice include Menacanthus eurystemus , Brueelia nebulosa and Stumidoecus sturni . Other arthropod parasites include Ixodes ticks and mites such as Analgopsis passerinus , Boydaia stumi , Dermanyssus gallinae , Ornithonyssus bursa , O. sylviarum , Proctophyllodes species , Pteronyssoides truncatus and Trouessartia rosteri . The hen mite D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory mite Androlaelaps casalis . The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests .
Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse @-@ fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus . The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage . Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode Syngamus trachea . This worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate . In Britain , the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm Prosthorhynchus transverses .
Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and retrovirus @-@ induced lymphomas . Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea @-@ leaves to the food .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004 , occupying a total area of 8 @,@ 870 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere , the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe , northern Africa ( from Morocco to Egypt ) , India ( mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives ) Nepal , the Middle East including Syria , Iran , and Iraq and north @-@ western China .
Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40oN are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce . Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards . In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa . Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross . Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries . Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated . In North America , northern populations have developed a migration pattern , vacating much of Canada in winter . Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US .
Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites . Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy . They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland . Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed . Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level .
= = = Introduced populations = = =
The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands . As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea .
= = = = South America = = = =
Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England alighted near Lago de Maracaibo in Venezuela in November 1949 , but subsequently vanished . In 1987 , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires . Since then , despite some initial attempts at eradication , the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) per year , keeping within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of the Atlantic coast . In Argentina , the species makes use of a variety of natural and man @-@ made nesting sites , particularly woodpecker holes .
= = = = Australia = = = =
The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax , a major agricultural product . Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later . By the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees . By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state . The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades . The common starling has also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island .
= = = = New Zealand = = = =
The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of caterpillars and other insects deprived of their previous food sources . Native birds were not habituated to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe to control the pests . It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson Acclimatisation Society and other introductions followed . The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south .
= = = = North America = = = =
After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin . He was president of the American Acclimatization Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America . About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon . These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction . The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America .
= = = = Polynesia = = = =
The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ lau and Vatoa islands . It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji . Its spread in Fiji has been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability . Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group .
= = = = South Africa = = = =
In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes . It spread slowly and by 1954 had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth . It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area . It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland Lesotho , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , Gauteng and around the town of Oranjemund in Namibia . In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his habitations and pastures . It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects . It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition . It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks , often roosting in reedbeds . It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas .
= = = = West Indies = = = =
The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903 , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US . This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica , Grand Bahama and Bimini , and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas , eastern Cuba , the Cayman Islands , Puerto Rico and St. Croix .
= = Status = =
The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides . The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 . The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland . It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s . The low rate of advance , about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the suboptimal mountain and woodland terrain . Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain .
Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( Karelia ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe . The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % . Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply . The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices . The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Benefits and problems = = =
Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms , they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia , and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere . Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union , and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra zelandica in New Zealand . The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully , and even in the US , where this is a pest species , the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings .
Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes . In North America , chickadees , nuthatches , woodpeckers , purple martins and other swallows may be affected . In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas . For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .
Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , peaches , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops . They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings . In eastern Australia , weeds like bridal creeper , blackberry and boneseed are thought to have been spread by common starlings . Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually . This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States .
The large size of flocks can also cause problems . Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines , one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960 , when sixty @-@ two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and plummeted into the sea at Winthrop Harbor .
Starlings ' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum , the cause of histoplasmosis in humans . At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings . There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated .
= = = Control = = =
Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings . Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation . For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year . In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year . This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected . In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long @-@ term results . Non @-@ lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case .
Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings . In 1949 , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London 's Big Ben that it stopped , leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting , repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls . An entire episode of The Goon Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London .
Where it is introduced , the common starling is unprotected by legislation , and extensive control plans may be initiated . Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) diameter they need , and the removal of perches discourages them from visiting bird feeders .
Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895 . New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot , while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted . New methods are being developed , such as tagging one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost . Another technique is to analyse the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better preventive strategies can be used . By 2009 , only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia , and the state committed a further A $ 400 @,@ 000 in that year to continue the eradication programme .
In the United States , common starlings are exempt from the Migratory Bird Treaty Act , which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds . No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults . Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable avicide that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them . It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds . The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC @-@ 1339 , now marketed as Starlicide . In 2008 , the United States government poisoned , shot or trapped 1 @.@ 7 million birds , the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed . In 2005 , the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds , around 45 % of the global total of 310 million .
= = = In science and culture = = =
Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals . Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon 's Ring as " the poor man 's dog " and " something to love " , because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after . They adapt well to captivity , and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and mealworms . Several birds may be kept in the same cage , and their inquisitiveness makes them easy to train or study . The only disadvantages are their messy and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans . As a laboratory bird , the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic pigeon .
The common starling 's gift for mimicry has long been recognised . In the medieval Welsh Mabinogion , Branwen tamed a common starling , " taught it words " , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , Bran and Manawydan , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her . Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare " The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer . But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll holler ' Mortimer ! ' Nay I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . "
Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( KV . 453 ) . He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which had not yet been performed in public . He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later . It has been suggested that his A Musical Joke ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , inconsequential style of a starling 's vocalisation . Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions . The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs . Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak .
Common starlings are trapped for food in some Mediterranean countries . The meat is tough and of low quality , so it is casseroled or made into pâté . One recipe said it should be stewed " until tender , however long that may be " . Even when correctly prepared , it may still be seen as an acquired taste .
= William McGregor ( football ) =
William McGregor ( 13 April 1846 – 20 December 1911 ) was a Scottish association football administrator in the Victorian era who is regarded as the founder of the Football League , the first organised association football league in the world .
After moving from Perthshire to Birmingham to set up business as a draper , McGregor became involved with local football club Aston Villa , which he helped to establish as one of the leading teams in England . He served the club for over 20 years in various capacities , including president , director and chairman . In 1888 , frustrated by the regular cancellation of Villa 's matches , McGregor organised a meeting of representatives of England 's leading clubs , which led to the formation of the Football League , giving member clubs a guaranteed fixture list each season . This was instrumental in the transition of football from an amateur pastime to a professional business .
McGregor served as both chairman and president of the Football League and was also chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) . He was recognised by the FA for his service to the game shortly before his death in 1911 , and was posthumously honoured by the local football authorities and Aston Villa .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Braco in Perthshire , Scotland , McGregor first became interested in football after watching a match between locals and visiting artisans at Ardoch . He served an apprenticeship as a draper in Perth , and in 1870 , following the example of his brother Peter , moved to Birmingham , and opened his own drapery business in Aston , an area just outside the city . Upon his arrival in the English Midlands he became involved with a local football club , Calthorpe , which had been formed by a fellow Scot , Campbell Orr . McGregor was enthusiastic enough about the game to arrange for his shop to close early on Saturdays to allow him to watch matches , and he later sold football kits at the shop , which became a popular meeting place for football enthusiasts .
McGregor was married to Jessie , and the couple had a daughter and a son , also named Jessie and William . A teetotaller , McGregor was a supporter of the Temperance movement , and was active in the local branch of the Liberal Party until his membership lapsed in 1882 due to the increasing amount of time he devoted to football . He was involved in the early attempts to establish a baseball league in the United Kingdom , and served as the honorary treasurer of the Baseball Association of Great Britain and Ireland . Despite his commitment to sport , he held desperately on to his drapery business throughout his life .
McGregor was a committed Christian who was widely respected for his honesty and integrity . He worshipped for forty years at the Congregational church in Wheeler Street , Aston . His pastor , the Revd . W.G. Percival said that the best thing about him " was not so much the genial , kindly , honest sportsman , but the Christian behind it all " . He described him as " a man of absolutely unblemished personal character " .
= = Association with Aston Villa = =
In 1877 , McGregor was invited to become a committee member of Aston Villa , a football club formed three years earlier . He also umpired matches for the club . At the time the club played at Aston Park , close to the premises of McGregor 's business . He became interested in joining Villa due to the strong Scottish contingent in the club 's ranks , the team 's exciting style of play , and the club 's connection to a Wesleyan Chapel . He quickly assumed the post of club administrator , helping the impecunious club to survive its financial troubles . After some of Aston Villa 's possessions were seized by bailiffs , McGregor allowed the club to use his shop as a store to prevent further seizures . Under McGregor 's leadership , Aston Villa won their first trophy , the Birmingham Senior Cup , in 1880 , shortly after which McGregor became the club 's president .
The following year McGregor became a member of the club 's board of directors . Villa 's standing within the game continued to grow , and in 1887 the club became the first from the Midlands to win the FA Cup , defeating local rivals West Bromwich Albion in the final . In 1895 , McGregor became vice @-@ chairman , and went on to become the club 's chairman in 1897 . During his time at the club he was noted for his organisational skills and ambition , and was responsible for adopting the lion rampant depicted on the Royal Standard of Scotland , as the club 's crest .
= = Founder of the Football League = =
As the 1880s progressed , the balance of power within English football began to change . The first national competition , the FA Cup , had previously been dominated by amateur clubs from privileged backgrounds , such as Wanderers and Old Etonians . However the 1883 FA Cup Final saw the first victory by a working @-@ class team , Blackburn Olympic . At this time professionalism was not permitted . Clubs from urban areas in the north were strong advocates of the practice , but the southern amateur teams and the FA authorities were firmly opposed . Though not initially an advocate of professionalism , McGregor came to favour its introduction . By 1885 the issue threatened to split the FA when a group of clubs , predominantly from Lancashire , announced their intention to leave and form a rival British Football Association if professionalism was not accepted . An emergency FA conference was called in response . Representing Aston Villa , McGregor spoke in favour of professionalism , the only delegate from the Midlands to do so , and was one of the few delegates to admit that his club had been paying players . Though not as outspoken as stronger proponents , such as Preston North End 's William Sudell , McGregor was well respected . The conference ended with the FA accepting professionalism , although each club was permitted only to pay players who had been born or lived for at least two years within six miles of its home stadium .
Professionalism brought fresh complications for club administrators . Many friendlies were cancelled due to opponents ' FA Cup or county cup matches taking precedence or clubs simply failing to honour a fixture in favour of a more lucrative match elsewhere . This made it hard for the clubs to pay players ' wages on a regular basis . McGregor took action after seeing Villa matches cancelled , to the increasing frustration of the club 's fans , on five consecutive Saturdays . On 2 March 1888 , he wrote to the committee of his own club , Aston Villa , as well as to those of Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End and West Bromwich Albion , suggesting the creation of a league competition that would provide a number of guaranteed fixtures for its member clubs each season . Corinthian F.C. founder N. Lane Jackson , writing in 1899 , stated that McGregor took his inspiration from the existing league set @-@ up used in American baseball , although McGregor himself cited the County Cricket Championship as his inspiration . McGregor 's letter to the clubs read :
Every year it is becoming more and more difficult for football clubs of any standing to meet their friendly engagements and even arrange friendly matches . The consequence is that at the last moment , through cup @-@ tie interference , clubs are compelled to take on teams who will not attract the public .
I beg to tender the following suggestion as a means of getting over the difficulty : that ten or twelve of the most prominent clubs in England combine to arrange home @-@ and @-@ away fixtures each season , the said fixtures to be arranged at a friendly conference about the same time as the International Conference .
This combination might be known as the Association Football Union , and could be managed by representative from each club . Of course , this is in no way to interfere with the National Association ; even the suggested matches might be played under cup @-@ tie rules . However , this is a detail .
My object in writing to you at present is merely to draw your attention to the subject , and to suggest a friendly conference to discuss the matter more fully . I would take it as a favour if you would kindly think the matter over , and make whatever suggestions you deem necessary . I am only writing to the following – Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End , West Bromwich Albion , and Aston Villa , and would like to hear what other clubs you would suggest .
I am , yours very truly , William McGregor ( Aston Villa F.C. )
P.S. How would Friday , 23 March 1888 , suit for the friendly conference at Anderton 's Hotel , London ?
McGregor chose 23 March as the date of his proposed meeting because it was the day before the FA Cup final and representatives of the country 's top clubs would be in London . Representatives from ten clubs attended , including the FA Cup finalists West Bromwich Albion and Preston North End , but it quickly became clear that clubs from the South of England were not interested in McGregor 's proposal and none attended . A second meeting was held in Manchester on 17 April , and details concerning the new competition were finalised . McGregor 's suggested name for the competition , " The Association Football Union " was rejected as too similar to that of the Rugby Football Union and " The Football League " was chosen , despite McGregor 's opposition on the grounds that he felt it might invoke associations with the unpopular Irish Land League . The term English League was avoided , to leave the possibility of future applications from Scottish clubs . McGregor also proposed a rule that only one club from each town should be included . The other founders agreed to this rule , which caused controversy , as it meant Birmingham team Mitchell St. George 's were denied membership in favour of McGregor 's Aston Villa . Twelve clubs kicked off the first season of League football in September 1888 .
McGregor served as the first chairman of the League 's Management Committee . One of the committee 's main jobs was handling issues of discipline , but committee members were not barred from involvement in decisions involving their own clubs . In fact , the first disciplinary meeting saw fines issued to three of the four clubs with representatives on the committee . McGregor was re @-@ elected unopposed in 1891 . Earlier he had spoken of his pleasure that " of the 132 matches in which the League clubs have taken part and in which about 300 players have taken the field , not a single fatal accident has to be recorded " . A year later he oversaw the expansion of the Football League into two divisions when the rival Football Alliance was merged into the competition , but he relinquished his post later that year due to ill health , which caused him to miss meetings .
After stepping down as chairman , he was unanimously elected to an honorary position of president , a role he kept until 1894 , and was named the first @-@ ever life member of the League in 1895 . The role was that of a figurehead with little actual authority , but he was used as a mediator to resolve league disagreements . In the second half of the decade McGregor 's failure to attend many committee meetings led to criticism from John Bentley , his successor as president . Bentley 's criticism achieved the desired effect ; from 1899 until his health deteriorated in 1910 , McGregor seldom missed a meeting . During this period McGregor was noted for his reserved nature . He was silent for large parts of committee meetings , but would contribute enthusiastically on the occasions he felt his input was necessary .
= = Other football activities = =
Between 1888 and 1894 McGregor also served as chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) , English football 's overall governing body , which had existed since 1863 . He became known as a football celebrity , writing a weekly column for the Birmingham Gazette and endorsing products such as footballs , and a type of football boot which the manufacturer billed as the " McGregor lace @-@ to @-@ toe boot " . Though he held many different administrative posts in his lifetime , McGregor never played the sport competitively ; his only on @-@ pitch involvement was occasional goalkeeping during Aston Villa practices in the 1870s .
= = Death and legacy = =
Although McGregor envisaged the League as a friendly union , within which clubs would share ticket revenues and work together in their mutual best interests , the immediate effect of its creation was that football came to be treated as a business for the first time , as opposed to something that players and officials simply regarded as a pastime . All the clubs involved experienced significant increases in their turnover , which at Aston Villa , McGregor 's own club , increased more than sixfold between 1889 and 1899 . The wages paid to players , however , remained low due to restrictions imposed by the FA , so clubs were able to use their increased profitability to build larger stadiums and accommodate ever larger crowds of spectators . Although the League initially contained a small number of clubs , all of which were based in the northern half of the country , by the early years of the twentieth century it included clubs from all parts of England . At its peak nearly 100 clubs played in the Football League , and it remained the pre @-@ eminent competition in English football until the 1990s , when the top clubs broke away to form the Premier League . In keeping with McGregor 's views on mutual support and co @-@ operation , gate receipts were shared amongst the clubs until the 1980s , which helped to ensure that a select few wealthy clubs were not able to dominate the competition . McGregor himself had little interest in the business aspect of football , and was adamant that the Football League should not challenge the longstanding authority of the FA . The success of the Football League directly inspired the creation of similar competitions in other countries , beginning with Scotland , where the Scottish Football League was formed in 1890 .
In May 1910 , McGregor was taken ill and later confined to a nursing home . His condition worsened towards the end of 1911 . His last public appearance was a committee meeting on 4 December , and he underwent an operation on 19 December . However , after a brief improvement in his condition he relapsed and died the following day . Although a devout Congregationalist , he is buried in the grounds of a Church of England church , St. Mary 's , in the Handsworth district of Birmingham , alongside his wife , who died in 1908 . McGregor is remembered as the " father of The Football League " , an Aston Villa legend , and a legend of football in general .
Shortly before his death , the FA presented McGregor , who was at that time a vice @-@ president of the association , with a long service medal . After his death , Aston Villa dedicated a bed in the children 's ward of one of Birmingham 's hospitals in his honour , and the Birmingham County Football Association unveiled a commemorative drinking fountain , which is now preserved at Villa Park , current home of his former club . In the modern era , Aston Villa selected him as one of the twelve inaugural members of its Hall of Fame , and named a hospitality suite at Villa Park after him . In 2008 , the Aston Villa Supporters ' Trust announced plans to further honour him with a bronze statue outside the stadium . The statue , by sculptor Sam Holland , is displayed outside the Directors ' Entrance of the Trinity Road Stand , and was unveiled on 28 November 2009 . The Trust also raised £ 1 @,@ 000 to restore and rededicate McGregor 's grave in 2011 .
= Climate of Buenos Aires =
Buenos Aires , the capital of Argentina , has a temperate climate , which is classified as a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) under the Köppen climate classification with four distinct seasons . Summers are hot and humid with frequent thunderstorms while winters are cool and drier with frosts that occurs on average twice per year . Spring and fall are transition seasons characterized by changeable weather . At the central observatory , the highest recorded temperature is 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) while the lowest recorded temperature is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) .
Different climatic factors influence the climate of Buenos Aires . The semi – permanent South Atlantic High influences its climate throughout the year by bringing in moist winds from the northeast , which bring most of the precipitation to the city in the form of frontal systems during winter or storms produced by cyclogenesis in autumn and winter . The hot temperatures and high insolation in the summer months form a low pressure system called the Chaco Low over northern Argentina , generating a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the city – because of this , summer is the rainiest season . In contrast , this low pressure system weakens in the winter , which combined with strong southerly winds results in a drier season due to weaker easterly winds . Being located in the Pampas , Buenos Aires has variable weather due to the passage of contrasting air mass – the cold , dry Pampero from the south and warm , humid tropical air from the north . The coastal location results in a strong maritime influence , causing extreme temperatures ( hot or cold ) to be rare .
= = General climatology = =
Buenos Aires is located in the humid subtropical climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) . Due to the maritime influences from the adjoining Atlantic Ocean , its climate is temperate with extreme temperatures ( both hot and cold ) being rare . Thus , cold air coming directly from the south are moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and warmer than winds from the southwest ( which are not moderated by it ) .
The climate of Buenos Aires is dominated by the semi – permanent South Atlantic High throughout the year . This brings in moist winds from the northeast , which brings most of the precipitation to the city . During winter , it brings in frontal systems responsible for precipitation in the city . In autumn and summer , it produces storms that are generally located north of the city and produces strong winds from the south or southeast that can occasionally lead to the swelling of the Río de la Plata , flooding coastal areas . The South Pacific High is the origin of polar air masses that are responsible for the coldest temperatures and result in clear and very dry conditions . These air masses originate from the South Pacific high and move in a northeastern direction during winter towards Buenos Aires by passing . Although it is polar maritime ( this is a cool , moist air mass that forms from oceans located in the subarctic and arctic regions at the southern tip of South America ) , it becomes modified as it passes over the South American continent , becoming drier as it arrives at Buenos Aires . This is because as the cold air masses from the South Pacific High move over the Pacific Ocean and the Andes and reach the land south of 35oS ( where the Andes are shorter in height ) , anticyclogenesis leads to the formation of a strong high pressure system in the center of the country ( at around 40oS ) . This high pressure system brings cold and dry , polar continental air masses to Buenos Aires . Cold fronts are more common during winter than in summer as the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions during summer , making it difficult for cold fronts to enter .
The city is located in an area in which the Pampero and the Sudestada winds pass by . Being located in the Pampas , the weather is | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
[ she ] moved to Los Angeles " in order to pursue a career as a film actress , and was therefore " very comfortable with the idea of singing " . Citing both actress and singer Julie Andrews and several Disney Princesses as musical inspiration , Adams decided to perform the film 's first song , " True Love 's Kiss " , in the style of an operetta before eventually replacing this with a more Broadway musical @-@ style voice for " Happy Working Song " .
= = Context , scene and analysis = =
Having just recently arrived in New York City after having been magically transported there from her fantastical world of Andalasia , a lost and hopelessly confused Giselle is discovered wandering around by Robert , a single father and divorce attorney , and his daughter Morgan . Robert decides to offer his assistance to Giselle by inviting her to spend a night 's shelter in the safety of their apartment . The following morning , Giselle awakens to find Robert 's apartment in a complete state of disarray . During the " Happy Working Song " musical sequence , described as one of the film 's " large scale production numbers " , Giselle , who is very much appalled by the untidy state of Robert 's Manhattan apartment , decides to " repay ... the favour " by taking the liberty of confronting and cleaning up the apartment 's mess herself . By performing a brief aria and " utilizing her animal @-@ charming abilities " , Giselle musically " summons the city 's animals " in order " to help her tidy it up " . This gesture and scene serves as a reference to similar scenes and musical sequences from preceding Disney animated fairy tale films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) and Cinderella ( 1950 ) .
Demonstrating and suggesting " that Giselle really does have some magical power , even in [ the real world ] " , – according to Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , " When she breaks into song ... sewer rats and cockroaches arrive to help with the housework " – the aria is immediately responded to by several animals , creatures and " vermin " typically associated with New York City , including rats , pigeons , roaches , and flies – visually meant to represent " makeshift ' forest friends ' " – " as opposed to the woodland critters of the movie 's opening animated segment . " According to film critic Brent Simon of Shared Darkness , the comedic gag serves as one of the film 's " amusing ways to contrast the two worlds " of Giselle 's fictional Andalasia and the real @-@ life New York City .
Several professional film critics have allotted a variety of different terms and nicknames to the animals who appear during the " Happy Working Song " sequence . Neil Smith of BBC Online described the animals who appear during the scene as " a grotesque menagerie of CG vermin " , while the Orlando Sentinel 's Roger Moore jokingly referred to them as New York 's own " woodland creatures " , writing , " the rats and pigeons are merely the cuddlier ones " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times coined the creatures " urban critters . "
= = Composition and inspiration = =
" Happy Working Song " is a " vibrant " , uptempo pop song . Reminiscent of and influenced by a variety of " archetypal Disney " and " classical @-@ sounding " musical numbers , the musical theater @-@ inspired song runs a total length of two minutes and nine seconds . Incorporating into its lyrical structure a variety of " clever " words including " toilet " , " hairball " and " vermin " , while rhyming humorous terms such as " hum " and " scum " with " dum dum dum " and " vacu @-@ um " , " Happy Working Song " ' s use of " comical " , " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics " , according to Filmtracks.com , both describe and add narration to Giselle 's " attempts to conjure an ultra happy tune while scrubbing floors and toilets in the real world " upon deciding " to clean her new home with the help of ... cockroaches and flies " . Its musical instrumentation is heavily reliant on the use of the harpsichord , with Filmtracks.com additionally describing " Happy Working Song " as a " harpsichord @-@ laced " song . Troob purposefully included the harpsichord in the song 's instrumentation and orchestration in order to provide it with a more accurate " period setting " .
According to Common Sense Media , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with and is also inspired by " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , in addition to " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and " The Work Song " from Cinderella . Additionally , the song is reminiscent of " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast , specifically when it comes to its bridge and " staccato quality " . Written in the key of D major in alla breve cut common time , " Happy Working Song " is structured around a " lilting " , Broadway musical @-@ inspired melody . According to the song 's official sheet music , published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Publishing , " Happy Working Song " follows an upbeat , " perky and live " tempo of 88 beats per minute . In portrayal of Giselle , Adams performs the song using an " earnest " , " tart ... soprano voice " . Her high soprano vocal range spans approximately two octaves , from the low note of G # 3 to the high note of D5 . The song 's lyrics begin , " Come , my little friends , as we all sing a happy little working song , merry little voices clear and strong . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
" Happy Working Song " has garnered widespread critical acclaim . Filmtracks.com hailed " Happy Working Song " as Ashman and Schwartz 's " best work together in Enchanted " Describing " Happy Working Song " as a " loving , well @-@ crafted homage ... to Disney classics " , Elisabeth Vincentelli of Amazon.com wrote , " tellingly , the lovely ' Happy Working Song ' ... sounds like it could have been lifted from any number of Disney movies — and that 's meant as a compliment . " Drawing similarities between the song and " Heigh @-@ Ho " , Jacqueline Rupp of Common Sense Media commented , " the ' Hi @-@ Ho ' [ sic ] -inspired ' Happy Working Song ' will have kids giggling and dancing . " Jeff Swindoll of Monsters and Critics wrote that " Happy Working Song " successfully " ap [ es ] ' Whistle While You Work ' most amusingly . " The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis called " Happy Working Song " " brilliantly surrealistic " .
Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described " Happy Working Song " as a " hilarious ... production number " that successfully " encapsulates the joys of Enchanted " . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern enthusiastically praised both the song and the sequence , hailing the latter as " magical " while describing " Happy Working Song " as a " gleeful variation on theme of ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Similarly , Todd McCarthy of Variety called " Happy Working Song " " a hilarious variation on ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Sun Media 's Kevin Williamson hailed the musical number as one of the film 's " stand @-@ outs " , elaborating , " [ ' ] Happy Working Song [ ' is ] a crowd @-@ pleaser . " The Mountain Xpress ' Ken Hanke allotted particular praise to Adams ' , writing that when the actress is " singing her ' Happy Working Song ' with her makeshift ' forest friends ' ... she is the perfect cartoon heroine made flesh " . Kerry Lengel of The Arizona Republic jokingly lauded " Happy Working Song " as " the funniest - and grossest - set piece in the film . " Calling the sequence the " film 's highlight " , Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented , " The song , like the movie , is cheerfully gross enough to get boys - and their fathers - into theater seats for a story every tween and her mother will love . "
Interestingly , film critics who generally disliked Enchanted tended to have mostly positive things to report about " Happy Working Song " . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , who assigned the film a negative score of two out of five stars , in contrast gave " Happy Working Song " a positive review , describing it as " a funny opening song " . Additionally , Bradshaw drew similarities between the musical number and scenes from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Disney 's Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) .
One of the song 's few negative reviews was written by Mary F. Pols of the Contra Costa Times , who opined , " a cleaning crew of vermin and cockroaches is just real enough to be crass rather than funny " .
Empire ranked " Happy Working Song " third on its list of the " 10 Great Musical Numbers " of the decade , writing that although " Shrek set the benchmark for Disney song parodies at Everest levels ... it 's Amy Adams calling on New York 's creatures of the forest to tidy up Patrick Dempsey 's apartment that pulls it off to perfection . "
= = = Academy Award nomination and aftermath = = =
" Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted songs " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , ultimately dominating the category . However , the song was generally not favored to win by the media in spite of the fact that it was vastly a critical success . According to a poll conducted by Billboard in anticipation of the ceremony , when the magazine asked 155 of its readers " Who gets your vote for best original song in a motion picture at the Academy Awards ? " ; only 5 % of them voted in favor of " Happy Working Song " winning the award while 10 % voted for " So Close " and 24 % voted for " That 's How You Know " . In addition to this , 6 % of readers voted for August Rush 's " Raise It Up " and 22 % voted for Glen Hansard and Marketa Irglova 's " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) . Ultimately , " Happy Working Song " lost to " Falling Slowly " . Menken believes that his compositions did not win the Best Original Song award because of the fact that three of them had been nominated at once .
Famously , Enchanted became the fourth out of only four films in the history of the Academy Awards to receive three separate Academy Award nominations in the Best Original Song category , having been preceded by Disney 's own Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King ( 1994 ) at the 64th and 67th Academy Awards in 1992 and 1995 , respectively , and Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007 . In anticipation of the 81st Academy Awards occurring the following year in 2009 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ultimately decided to prohibit and prevent this rare feat from reoccurring at upcoming ceremonies by limiting the maximum number of Best Original Song nominations from any one film to a total of only two per film .
= = Live performance and Kristin Chenoweth controversy = =
Adams ' first live performance of " Happy Working Song " was at the 80th Academy Awards ceremony in 2008 . Performing at approximately 6 : 01 pm local time , Adams was reportedly very nervous during and after her performance , revealing to The Huffington Post , " I don 't know how I did that . It 's the thing that was the most terrifying that I 've ever done , and the thing I 'm most proud of in my career . " Subsequently , Adams told Vulture.com that she would likely perform at the Academy Awards again " As long as [ she ] wasn 't doing it by [ her ] self " .
Adams ' live rendition of " Happy Working Song " was generally well @-@ received by critics . George Lang of The Oklahoman described it as a " perky " performance , additionally commenting , " [ Adams is ] great ... and she should have already racked up her first Oscar for acting by now . " The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris wrote , " Watching Amy Adams sing ... makes you appreciated [ sic ] the magic of the movies . " However , the performance generated some mild controversy revolving around the fact that while Adams was selected to perform " Happy Working Song " , Broadway actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was hired to sing " That 's How You Know " live at the ceremony . When questioned about this , Disney executives told the Los Angeles Times that " it 's best [ Adams ] sing ' Happy Working Song ' because it has so many parallels to Julie Andrews in Mary Poppins " .
However , some critics and journalists have argued that the decision stemmed from Disney and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ' belief that Adams , predominantly a film actress , would ultimately not be able to perform " That 's How You Know " as adequately as the more experienced Chenoweth . Additionally , critics noted that while Chenoweth 's Academy Award performance was staged and choreographed as a large , extravagant number featuring " dozens of colorfully costumed dancers " , Adams performed by herself on a mostly barren stage highlighted by a " single spotlight " . Vulture.com commented about the performance , " Adams didn 't do terribly , but she 's no Broadway star , and we felt kind of awful for her . " During an interview , Adams told the New York Post that she was not upset by the Academy 's decision , instead feeling that " That 's How You Know " was the " perfect " for Chenoweth to perform .
= John McCain =
John Sidney McCain III ( born August 29 , 1936 ) is the senior United States Senator from Arizona . He was the Republican presidential nominee in the 2008 United States presidential election .
McCain followed his father and grandfather , both four @-@ star admirals , into the United States Navy , graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1958 . He became a naval aviator , flying ground @-@ attack aircraft from aircraft carriers . During the Vietnam War , he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire . In October 1967 , while on a bombing mission over Hanoi , he was shot down , seriously injured , and captured by the North Vietnamese . He was a prisoner of war until 1973 . McCain experienced episodes of torture , and refused an out @-@ of @-@ sequence early repatriation offer . His war wounds left him with lifelong physical limitations .
He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona , where he entered politics . Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1982 , he served two terms , and was then elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986 , winning re @-@ election easily four times , most recently in 2010 . While generally adhering to conservative principles , McCain at times has had a media reputation as a " maverick " for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues . After being investigated and largely exonerated in a political influence scandal of the 1980s as a member of the Keating Five , he made campaign finance reform one of his signature concerns , which eventually led to the passage of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act in 2002 . He is also known for his work towards restoring diplomatic relations with Vietnam in the 1990s , and for his belief that the Iraq War should be fought to a successful conclusion . McCain has chaired the Senate Commerce Committee , opposed spending that he considered to be pork barrel , and played a key role in alleviating a crisis over judicial nominations with the bi @-@ partisan group known as the Gang of 14 .
McCain ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but lost a heated primary season contest to George W. Bush . He secured the nomination in 2008 after coming back from early reversals , but fell to Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the general election , losing by a 365 – 173 electoral college margin and by 53 – 46 percent in the popular vote . He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration , especially in regard to foreign policy matters . By 2013 , however , he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment . In 2015 , McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee .
= = Early life and military career , 1936 – 1981 = =
= = = Formative years and education = = =
John McCain was born on August 29 , 1936 , at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone , to naval officer John S. McCain Jr . ( 1911 – 1981 ) and Roberta ( Wright ) McCain ( born 1912 ) . He has a younger brother named Joe and an elder sister named Sandy . At that time , the Panama Canal was under U.S. control .
McCain 's family tree includes Scots @-@ Irish and English ancestors . His father and his paternal grandfather , John S. McCain Sr. , both became four @-@ star United States Navy admirals . The McCain family followed his father to various naval postings in the United States and the Pacific . Altogether , he attended about 20 schools . In 1951 , the family settled in Northern Virginia , and McCain attended Episcopal High School , a private preparatory boarding school in Alexandria . He excelled at wrestling and graduated in 1954 .
Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather , McCain entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . There , he was a friend and informal leader for many of his classmates , and sometimes stood up for targets of bullying . He also became a lightweight boxer . McCain did well in academic subjects that interested him , such as literature and history , but studied only enough to pass subjects he struggled with , such as mathematics . He came into conflict with higher @-@ ranking personnel and did not always obey the rules , which contributed to a low class rank ( 894 of 899 ) , despite a high IQ . McCain graduated in 1958 .
= = = Naval training , first marriage , and Vietnam assignment = = =
McCain 's early military career began when he was commissioned an ensign and started two and a half years of training at Pensacola to become a naval aviator . While there , he earned a reputation as a partying man . He completed flight school in 1960 , and became a naval pilot of ground @-@ attack aircraft , assigned to A @-@ 1 Skyraider squadrons aboard the aircraft carriers USS Intrepid and USS Enterprise in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas . McCain began as a sub @-@ par flier who was at times careless and reckless ; during the early to mid @-@ 1960s , the planes he was flying crashed twice and once collided with power lines , but he received no major injuries . His aviation skills improved over time , and he was seen as a good pilot , albeit one who tended to " push the envelope " in his flying .
On July 3 , 1965 , McCain married Carol Shepp , a model originally from Philadelphia . McCain adopted her two young children Douglas and Andrew . He and Carol then had a daughter named Sidney .
McCain requested a combat assignment , and was assigned to the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal flying A @-@ 4 Skyhawks . His combat duty began when he was 30 years old , in mid @-@ 1967 , when Forrestal was assigned to a bombing campaign , Operation Rolling Thunder , during the Vietnam War . Stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin , McCain and his fellow pilots became frustrated by micromanagement from Washington , and he would later write that " In all candor , we thought our civilian commanders were complete idiots who didn 't have the least notion of what it took to win the war . "
On July 29 , 1967 , McCain , by then a lieutenant commander , was near the epicenter of the USS Forrestal fire . He escaped from his burning jet and was trying to help another pilot escape when a bomb exploded ; McCain was struck in the legs and chest by fragments . The ensuing fire killed 134 sailors and took 24 hours to control . With the Forrestal out of commission , McCain volunteered for assignment with the USS Oriskany , another aircraft carrier employed in Operation Rolling Thunder . Once there , he would be awarded the Navy Commendation Medal and the Bronze Star for missions flown over North Vietnam .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
McCain 's capture and subsequent imprisonment began on October 26 , 1967 . He was flying his 23rd bombing mission over North Vietnam when his A @-@ 4E Skyhawk was shot down by a missile over Hanoi . McCain fractured both arms and a leg ejecting from the aircraft , and nearly drowned when he parachuted into Trúc Bạch Lake . Some North Vietnamese pulled him ashore , then others crushed his shoulder with a rifle butt and bayoneted him . McCain was then transported to Hanoi 's main Hỏa Lò Prison , nicknamed the " Hanoi Hilton " .
Although McCain was badly wounded , his captors refused to treat his injuries , beating and interrogating him to get information ; he was given medical care only when the North Vietnamese discovered that his father was a high @-@ ranking admiral . His status as a prisoner of war ( POW ) made the front pages of major newspapers .
McCain spent six weeks in the hospital while receiving marginal care . By then having lost 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) , in a chest cast , and with his gray hair turned white as snow , McCain was sent to a different camp on the outskirts of Hanoi in December 1967 , into a cell with two other Americans who did not expect him to live a week . In March 1968 , McCain was put into solitary confinement , where he would remain for two years .
In mid @-@ 1968 , John S. McCain Jr. was named commander of all U.S. forces in the Vietnam theater , and the North Vietnamese offered McCain early release because they wanted to appear merciful for propaganda purposes , and also to show other POWs that elite prisoners were willing to be treated preferentially . McCain turned down the offer ; he would only accept repatriation if every man taken in before him was released as well . Such early release was prohibited by the POW 's interpretation of the military Code of Conduct : To prevent the enemy from using prisoners for propaganda , officers were to agree to be released in the order in which they were captured .
In August 1968 , a program of severe torture began on McCain . He was subjected to rope bindings and repeated beatings every two hours , at the same time as he was suffering from dysentery . Further injuries led to the beginning of a suicide attempt , stopped by guards . Eventually , McCain made an anti @-@ American propaganda " confession " . He has always felt that his statement was dishonorable , but as he later wrote , " I had learned what we all learned over there : Every man has his breaking point . I had reached mine . " Many American POWs were tortured and maltreated in order to extract " confessions " and propaganda statements ; virtually all of them eventually yielded something to their captors . McCain subsequently received two to three beatings weekly because of his continued refusal to sign additional statements .
McCain refused to meet with various anti @-@ war groups seeking peace in Hanoi , wanting to give neither them nor the North Vietnamese a propaganda victory . From late 1969 onward , treatment of McCain and many of the other POWs became more tolerable , while McCain continued actively to resist the camp authorities . McCain and other prisoners cheered the U.S. " Christmas Bombing " campaign of December 1972 , viewing it as a forceful measure to push North Vietnam to terms .
Altogether , McCain was a prisoner of war in North Vietnam for five and a half years . He was released on March 14 , 1973 . His wartime injuries left him permanently incapable of raising his arms above his head .
= = = Commanding officer , liaison to Senate , and second marriage = = =
McCain 's return to the United States reunited him with his family . His wife Carol had suffered her own crippling ordeal due to an automobile accident in December 1969 . McCain became a celebrity of sorts , as a returned POW .
McCain underwent treatment for his injuries , including months of grueling physical therapy , and attended the National War College at Fort McNair in Washington , D.C. during 1973 – 1974 . Having been rehabilitated , by late 1974 , McCain had his flight status reinstated , and in 1976 he became commanding officer of a training squadron stationed in Florida . He improved the unit 's flight readiness and safety records , and won the squadron its first @-@ ever Meritorious Unit Commendation . During this period in Florida , McCain had extramarital affairs , and the McCains ' marriage began to falter , for which he later would accept blame .
McCain served as the Navy 's liaison to the U.S. Senate beginning in 1977 . In retrospect , he has said that this represented his " real entry into the world of politics and the beginning of my second career as a public servant . " His key behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role gained congressional financing for a new supercarrier against the wishes of the Carter administration .
In April 1979 , McCain met Cindy Lou Hensley , a teacher from Phoenix , Arizona , whose father had founded a large beer distributorship . They began dating , and he urged his wife Carol to grant him a divorce , which she did in February 1980 , with the uncontested divorce taking effect in April 1980 . The settlement included two houses , and financial support for her ongoing medical treatments due to her 1969 car accident ; they would remain on good terms . McCain and Hensley were married on May 17 , 1980 , with Senators William Cohen and Gary Hart attending as groomsmen . McCain 's children did not attend , and several years would pass before they reconciled . John and Cindy McCain entered into a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family 's assets under her name ; they would always keep their finances apart and file separate income tax returns .
McCain decided to leave the Navy . It was doubtful whether he would ever be promoted to the rank of full admiral , as he had poor annual physicals and had been given no major sea command . His chances of being promoted to rear admiral were better , but McCain declined that prospect , as he had already made plans to run for Congress and said he could " do more good there . " McCain retired from the Navy on April 1 , 1981 , as a captain . He was designated as disabled and awarded a disability pension . Upon leaving the military , he moved to Arizona . His 17 military awards and decorations include the Silver Star , Legion of Merit , Distinguished Flying Cross , Bronze Star and Navy Commendation Medal , for actions before , during , and after his time as a POW .
= = House and Senate elections and career , 1982 – 2000 = =
= = = U.S. Congressman = = =
McCain set his sights on becoming a congressman because he was interested in current events , was ready for a new challenge , and had developed political ambitions during his time as Senate liaison . Living in Phoenix , he went to work for Hensley & Co . , his new father @-@ in @-@ law Jim Hensley 's large Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributorship . As vice president of public relations at the distributorship , he gained political support among the local business community , meeting powerful figures such as banker Charles Keating Jr . , real estate developer Fife Symington III and newspaper publisher Darrow " Duke " Tully . In 1982 , McCain ran as a Republican for an open seat in Arizona 's 1st congressional district , which was being vacated by 30 @-@ year incumbent Republican John Jacob Rhodes . A newcomer to the state , McCain was hit with charges of being a carpetbagger . McCain responded to a voter making that charge with what a Phoenix Gazette columnist would later describe as " the most devastating response to a potentially troublesome political issue I 've ever heard " :
Listen , pal . I spent 22 years in the Navy . My father was in the Navy . My grandfather was in the Navy . We in the military service tend to move a lot . We have to live in all parts of the country , all parts of the world . I wish I could have had the luxury , like you , of growing up and living and spending my entire life in a nice place like the First District of Arizona , but I was doing other things . As a matter of fact , when I think about it now , the place I lived longest in my life was Hanoi .
With the assistance of local political endorsements , his Washington connections , as well as money that his wife lent to his campaign , McCain won a highly contested primary election . He then easily won the general election in the heavily Republican district .
In 1983 , McCain was elected to lead the incoming group of Republican representatives , and was assigned to the House Committee on Interior Affairs . Also that year , he opposed creation of a federal Martin Luther King Jr . Day , but admitted in 2008 : " I was wrong and eventually realized that , in time to give full support [ in 1990 ] for a state holiday in Arizona . "
McCain 's politics at this point were mainly in line with President Ronald Reagan , including support for Reaganomics , and he was active on Indian Affairs bills . He supported most aspects of the foreign policy of the Reagan administration , including its hardline stance against the Soviet Union and policy towards Central American conflicts , such as backing the Contras in Nicaragua . McCain opposed keeping U.S. Marines deployed in Lebanon citing unattainable objectives , and subsequently criticized President Reagan for pulling out the troops too late ; in the interim , the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing killed hundreds . McCain won re @-@ election to the House easily in 1984 , and gained a spot on the House Foreign Affairs Committee . In 1985 , he made his first return trip to Vietnam , and also traveled to Chile where he met with its military junta ruler , General Augusto Pinochet .
= = = Growing family = = =
In 1984 , McCain and Cindy had their first child together , daughter Meghan , followed two years later by son John Sidney ( Jack ) IV , and in 1988 by son James ( Jimmy ) . In 1991 , Cindy McCain brought an abandoned three @-@ month @-@ old girl needing medical treatment to the U.S. from a Bangladeshi orphanage run by Mother Teresa . The McCains decided to adopt her and named her Bridget .
= = = First two terms in U.S. Senate = = =
McCain 's Senate career began in January 1987 , after he defeated his Democratic opponent , former state legislator Richard Kimball , by 20 percentage points in the 1986 election . McCain succeeded longtime American conservative icon and Arizona fixture Barry Goldwater upon the latter 's retirement as U.S. senator from Arizona .
Senator McCain became a member of the Armed Services Committee , with which he had formerly done his Navy liaison work ; he also joined the Commerce Committee and the Indian Affairs Committee . He continued to support the Native American agenda . As first a House member and then a senator – and as a lifelong gambler with close ties to the gambling industry – McCain was one of the main authors of the 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act , which codified rules regarding Native American gambling enterprises . McCain was also a strong supporter of the Gramm @-@ Rudman legislation that enforced automatic spending cuts in the case of budget deficits .
McCain soon gained national visibility . He delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1988 Republican National Convention , was mentioned by the press as a short list vice @-@ presidential running mate for Republican nominee George H. W. Bush , and was named chairman of Veterans for Bush .
McCain became embroiled in a scandal during the 1980s , as one of five United States senators comprising the so @-@ called Keating Five . Between 1982 and 1987 , McCain had received $ 112 @,@ 000 in lawful political contributions from Charles Keating Jr. and his associates at Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , along with trips on Keating 's jets that McCain belatedly repaid , in 1989 . In 1987 , McCain was one of the five senators whom Keating contacted in order to prevent the government 's seizure of Lincoln , and McCain met twice with federal regulators to discuss the government 's investigation of Lincoln . In 1999 , McCain said : " The appearance of it was wrong . It 's a wrong appearance when a group of senators appear in a meeting with a group of regulators , because it conveys the impression of undue and improper influence . And it was the wrong thing to do . " In the end , McCain was cleared by the Senate Ethics Committee of acting improperly or violating any law or Senate rule , but was mildly rebuked for exercising " poor judgment " . In his 1992 re @-@ election bid , the Keating Five affair was not a major issue , and he won handily , gaining 56 percent of the vote to defeat Democratic community and civil rights activist Claire Sargent and independent former governor , Evan Mecham .
McCain developed a reputation for independence during the 1990s . He took pride in challenging party leadership and establishment forces , becoming difficult to categorize politically .
As a member of the 1991 – 1993 Senate Select Committee on POW / MIA Affairs , chaired by fellow Vietnam War veteran and Democrat , John Kerry , McCain investigated the Vietnam War POW / MIA issue , to determine the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action during the Vietnam War . The committee 's unanimous report stated there was " no compelling evidence that proves that any American remains alive in captivity in Southeast Asia . " Helped by McCain 's efforts , in 1995 the U.S. normalized diplomatic relations with Vietnam . McCain was vilified by some POW / MIA activists who , unlike the Arizona senator , believed large numbers of Americans were still held against their will in Southeast Asia . Since January 1993 , McCain has been Chairman of the International Republican Institute , an organization partly funded by the U.S. Government that supports the emergence of political democracy worldwide .
In 1993 and 1994 , McCain voted to confirm President Clinton 's nominees Stephen Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg whom he considered to be qualified for the U.S. Supreme Court . He would later explain that " under our Constitution , it is the president 's call to make . " McCain had also voted to confirm nominees of Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush , including Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .
McCain attacked what he saw as the corrupting influence of large political contributions – from corporations , labor unions , other organizations , and wealthy individuals – and he made this his signature issue . Starting in 1994 , he worked with Democratic Wisconsin Senator Russ Feingold on campaign finance reform ; their McCain @-@ Feingold bill attempted to put limits on " soft money " . The efforts of McCain and Feingold were opposed by some of the moneyed interests targeted , by incumbents in both parties , by those who felt spending limits impinged on free political speech and might be unconstitutional as well , and by those who wanted to counterbalance the power of what they saw as media bias . Despite sympathetic coverage in the media , initial versions of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act were filibustered and never came to a vote .
The term " maverick Republican " became a label frequently applied to McCain , and he has also used it himself . In 1993 , McCain opposed military operations in Somalia . Another target of his was pork barrel spending by Congress , and he actively supported the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 , which gave the president power to veto individual spending items but was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998 .
In the 1996 presidential election , McCain was again on the short list of possible vice @-@ presidential picks , this time for Republican nominee Bob Dole . The following year , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " .
In 1997 , McCain became chairman of the powerful Senate Commerce Committee ; he was criticized for accepting funds from corporations and businesses under the committee 's purview , but in response said the small contributions he received were not part of the big @-@ money nature of the campaign finance problem . McCain took on the tobacco industry in 1998 , proposing legislation that would increase cigarette taxes in order to fund anti @-@ smoking campaigns , discourage teenage smokers , increase money for health research studies , and help states pay for smoking @-@ related health care costs . Supported by the Clinton administration but opposed by the industry and most Republicans , the bill failed to gain cloture .
= = = Start of third term in the U.S. Senate = = =
McCain won re @-@ election to a third senate term in November 1998 , prevailing in a landslide over his Democratic opponent , environmental lawyer Ed Ranger . In the February 1999 Senate trial following the impeachment of Bill Clinton , McCain voted to convict the president on both the perjury and obstruction of justice counts , saying Clinton had violated his sworn oath of office . In March 1999 , McCain voted to approve the NATO bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , saying that the ongoing genocide of the Kosovo War must be stopped and criticizing past Clinton administration inaction . Later in 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Feingold for their work in trying to enact their campaign finance reform , although the bill was still failing repeated attempts to gain cloture .
In August 1999 , McCain 's memoir Faith of My Fathers , co @-@ authored with Mark Salter , was published ; a reviewer observed that its appearance " seems to have been timed to the unfolding Presidential campaign . " The most successful of his writings , it received positive reviews , became a bestseller , and was later made into a TV film . The book traces McCain 's family background and childhood , covers his time at Annapolis and his service before and during the Vietnam War , concluding with his release from captivity in 1973 . According to one reviewer , it describes " the kind of challenges that most of us can barely imagine . It 's a fascinating history of a remarkable military family . "
= = 2000 presidential campaign = =
McCain announced his candidacy for president on September 27 , 1999 , in Nashua , New Hampshire , saying he was staging " a fight to take our government back from the power brokers and special interests , and return it to the people and the noble cause of freedom it was created to serve " . The leader for the Republican nomination was Texas Governor George W. Bush , who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment .
McCain focused on the New Hampshire primary , where his message appealed to independents . He traveled on a campaign bus called the Straight Talk Express . He held many town hall meetings , answering every question voters asked , in a successful example of " retail politics " , and he used free media to compensate for his lack of funds . One reporter later recounted that , " McCain talked all day long with reporters on his Straight Talk Express bus ; he talked so much that sometimes he said things that he shouldn 't have , and that 's why the media loved him . " On February 1 , 2000 , he won New Hampshire 's primary with 49 percent of the vote to Bush 's 30 percent . The Bush campaign and the Republican establishment feared that a McCain victory in the crucial South Carolina primary might give his campaign unstoppable momentum .
The Arizona Republic would write that the McCain – Bush primary contest in South Carolina " has entered national political lore as a low @-@ water mark in presidential campaigns " , while The New York Times called it " a painful symbol of the brutality of American politics " . A variety of interest groups that McCain had challenged in the past ran negative ads . Bush borrowed McCain 's earlier language of reform , and declined to dissociate himself from a veterans activist who accused McCain ( in Bush 's presence ) of having " abandoned the veterans " on POW / MIA and Agent Orange issues .
Incensed , McCain ran ads accusing Bush of lying and comparing the governor to Bill Clinton , which Bush said was " about as low a blow as you can give in a Republican primary " . An anonymous smear campaign began against McCain , delivered by push polls , faxes , e @-@ mails , flyers , and audience plants . The smears claimed that McCain had fathered a black child out of wedlock ( the McCains ' dark @-@ skinned daughter was adopted from Bangladesh ) , that his wife Cindy was a drug addict , that he was a homosexual , and that he was a " Manchurian Candidate " who was either a traitor or mentally unstable from his North Vietnam POW days . The Bush campaign strongly denied any involvement with the attacks .
McCain lost South Carolina on February 19 , with 42 percent of the vote to Bush 's 53 percent , in part because Bush mobilized the state 's evangelical voters and outspent McCain . The win allowed Bush to regain lost momentum . McCain would say of the rumor spreaders , " I believe that there is a special place in hell for people like those . " According to one report , the South Carolina experience left McCain in a " very dark place " .
McCain 's campaign never completely recovered from his South Carolina defeat , although he did rebound partially by winning in Arizona and Michigan a few days later . He made a speech in Virginia Beach that criticized Christian leaders , including Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell , as divisive conservatives , declaring " ... we embrace the fine members of the religious conservative community . But that does not mean that we will pander to their self @-@ appointed leaders . " McCain lost the Virginia primary on February 29 , and on March 7 lost nine of the thirteen primaries on Super Tuesday to Bush . With little hope of overcoming Bush 's delegate lead , McCain withdrew from the race on March 9 , 2000 . He endorsed Bush two months later , and made occasional appearances with the Texas governor during the general election campaign .
= = Senate career , 2000 – 2008 = =
= = = Remainder of third Senate term = = =
McCain began 2001 by breaking with the new George W. Bush administration on a number of matters , including HMO reform , climate change , and gun legislation ; McCain @-@ Feingold was opposed by Bush as well . In May 2001 , McCain was one of only two Senate Republicans to vote against the Bush tax cuts . Besides the differences with Bush on ideological grounds , there was considerable antagonism between the two remaining from the previous year 's campaign . Later , when a Republican senator , Jim Jeffords , became an Independent , thereby throwing control of the Senate to the Democrats , McCain defended Jeffords against " self @-@ appointed enforcers of party loyalty " . Indeed , there was speculation at the time , and in years since , about McCain himself leaving the Republican Party , but McCain has always adamantly denied that he ever considered doing so . Beginning in 2001 , McCain used political capital gained from his presidential run , as well as improved legislative skills and relationships with other members , to become one of the Senate 's most influential members .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , McCain supported Bush and the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan . He and Democratic senator Joe Lieberman wrote the legislation that created the 9 / 11 Commission , while he and Democratic senator Fritz Hollings co @-@ sponsored the Aviation and Transportation Security Act that federalized airport security .
In March 2002 , McCain @-@ Feingold passed in both Houses of Congress and was signed into law by President Bush . Seven years in the making , it was McCain 's greatest legislative achievement .
Meanwhile , in discussions over proposed U.S. action against Iraq , McCain was a strong supporter of the Bush administration 's position . He stated that Iraq was " a clear and present danger to the United States of America " , and voted accordingly for the Iraq War Resolution in October 2002 . He predicted that U.S. forces would be treated as liberators by a large number of the Iraqi people . In May 2003 , McCain voted against the second round of Bush tax cuts , saying it was unwise at a time of war . By November 2003 , after a trip to Iraq , he was publicly questioning Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , saying that more U.S. troops were needed ; the following year , McCain announced that he had lost confidence in Rumsfeld .
In October 2003 , McCain and Lieberman co @-@ sponsored the Climate Stewardship Act that would have introduced a cap and trade system aimed at returning greenhouse gas emissions to 2000 levels ; the bill was defeated with 55 votes to 43 in the Senate . They reintroduced modified versions of the Act two additional times , most recently in January 2007 with the co @-@ sponsorship of Barack Obama , among others .
In the 2004 U.S. presidential election campaign , McCain was once again frequently mentioned for the vice @-@ presidential slot , only this time as part of the Democratic ticket under nominee John Kerry . McCain said that Kerry had never formally offered him the position and that he would not have accepted it if he had . At the 2004 Republican National Convention , McCain supported Bush for re @-@ election , praising Bush 's management of the War on Terror since the September 11 attacks . At the same time , he defended Kerry 's Vietnam war record . By August 2004 , McCain had the best favorable @-@ to @-@ unfavorable rating ( 55 percent to 19 percent ) of any national politician ; he campaigned for Bush much more than he had four years previously , though the two remained situational allies rather than friends .
McCain was also up for re @-@ election as senator , in 2004 . He defeated little @-@ known Democratic schoolteacher Stuart Starky with his biggest margin of victory , garnering 77 percent of the vote .
= = = Start of fourth Senate term = = =
In May 2005 , McCain led the so @-@ called Gang of 14 in the Senate , which established a compromise that preserved the ability of senators to filibuster judicial nominees , but only in " extraordinary circumstances " . The compromise took the steam out of the filibuster movement , but some Republicans remained disappointed that the compromise did not eliminate filibusters of judicial nominees in all circumstances . McCain subsequently cast Supreme Court confirmation votes in favor of John Roberts and Samuel Alito , calling them " two of the finest justices ever appointed to the United States Supreme Court . "
Breaking from his 2001 and 2003 votes , McCain supported the Bush tax cut extension in May 2006 , saying not to do so would amount to a tax increase . Working with Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy , McCain was a strong proponent of comprehensive immigration reform , which would involve legalization , guest worker programs , and border enforcement components . The Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act was never voted on in 2005 , while the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 passed the Senate in May 2006 but failed in the House . In June 2007 , President Bush , McCain , and others made the strongest push yet for such a bill , the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , but it aroused intense grassroots opposition among talk radio listeners and others , some of whom furiously characterized the proposal as an " amnesty " program , and the bill twice failed to gain cloture in the Senate .
By the middle of the 2000s ( decade ) , the increased Indian gaming that McCain had helped bring about was a $ 23 billion industry . He was twice chairman of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee , in 1995 – 1997 and 2005 – 2007 , and his Committee helped expose the Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal . By 2005 and 2006 , McCain was pushing for amendments to the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act that would limit creation of off @-@ reservation casinos , as well as limiting the movement of tribes across state lines to build casinos .
Owing to his time as a POW , McCain has been recognized for his sensitivity to the detention and interrogation of detainees in the War on Terror . In October 2005 , McCain introduced the McCain Detainee Amendment to the Defense Appropriations bill for 2005 , and the Senate voted 90 – 9 to support the amendment . It prohibits inhumane treatment of prisoners , including prisoners at Guantanamo Bay , by confining military interrogations to the techniques in the U.S. Army Field Manual on Interrogation . Although Bush had threatened to veto the bill if McCain 's amendment was included , the President announced in December 2005 that he accepted McCain 's terms and would " make it clear to the world that this government does not torture and that we adhere to the international convention of torture , whether it be here at home or abroad " . This stance , among others , led to McCain being named by Time magazine in 2006 as one of America 's 10 Best Senators . McCain voted in February 2008 against a bill containing a ban on waterboarding , which provision was later narrowly passed and vetoed by Bush . However , the bill in question contained other provisions to which McCain objected , and his spokesman stated : " This wasn 't a vote on waterboarding . This was a vote on applying the standards of the [ Army ] field manual to CIA personnel . "
Meanwhile , McCain continued questioning the progress of the war in Iraq . In September 2005 , he remarked upon Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Richard Myers ' optimistic outlook on the war 's progress : " Things have not gone as well as we had planned or expected , nor as we were told by you , General Myers . " In August 2006 , he criticized the administration for continually understating the effectiveness of the insurgency : " We [ have ] not told the American people how tough and difficult this could be . " From the beginning , McCain strongly supported the Iraq troop surge of 2007 . The strategy 's opponents labeled it " McCain 's plan " and University of Virginia political science professor Larry Sabato said , " McCain owns Iraq just as much as Bush does now . " The surge and the war were unpopular during most of the year , even within the Republican Party , as McCain 's presidential campaign was underway ; faced with the consequences , McCain frequently responded , " I would much rather lose a campaign than a war . " In March 2008 , McCain credited the surge strategy with reducing violence in Iraq , as he made his eighth trip to that country since the war began .
= = 2008 presidential campaign = =
McCain formally announced his intention to run for President of the United States on April 25 , 2007 in Portsmouth , New Hampshire . He stated that : " I 'm not running for president to be somebody , but to do something ; to do the hard but necessary things not the easy and needless things . "
McCain 's oft @-@ cited strengths as a presidential candidate for 2008 included national name recognition , sponsorship of major lobbying and campaign finance reform initiatives , his ability to reach across the aisle , his well @-@ known military service and experience as a POW , his experience from the 2000 presidential campaign , and an expectation that he would capture Bush 's top fundraisers . During the 2006 election cycle , McCain had attended 346 events and helped raise more than $ 10 @.@ 5 million on behalf of Republican candidates . McCain also became more willing to ask business and industry for campaign contributions , while maintaining that such contributions would not affect any official decisions he would make . Despite being considered the front @-@ runner for the nomination by pundits as 2007 began , McCain was in second place behind former Mayor of New York City Rudy Giuliani in national Republican polls as the year progressed .
McCain had fundraising problems in the first half of 2007 , due in part to his support for the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was unpopular among the Republican base electorate . Large @-@ scale campaign staff downsizing took place in early July , but McCain said that he was not considering dropping out of the race . Later that month , the candidate 's campaign manager and campaign chief strategist both departed . McCain slumped badly in national polls , often running third or fourth with 15 percent or less support .
The Arizona senator subsequently resumed his familiar position as a political underdog , riding the Straight Talk Express and taking advantage of free media such as debates and sponsored events . By December 2007 , the Republican race was unsettled , with none of the top @-@ tier candidates dominating the race and all of them possessing major vulnerabilities with different elements of the Republican base electorate . McCain was showing a resurgence , in particular with renewed strength in New Hampshire – the scene of his 2000 triumph – and was bolstered further by the endorsements of The Boston Globe , the New Hampshire Union Leader , and almost two dozen other state newspapers , as well as from Senator Lieberman ( now an Independent Democrat ) . McCain decided not to campaign significantly in the January 3 , 2008 , Iowa caucuses , which saw a win by former Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee .
McCain 's comeback plan paid off when he won the New Hampshire primary on January 8 , defeating former Governor of Massachusetts Mitt Romney in a close contest , to once again become one of the front @-@ runners in the race . In mid @-@ January , McCain placed first in the South Carolina primary , narrowly defeating Mike Huckabee . Pundits credited the third @-@ place finisher , Tennessee 's former U.S. Senator Fred Thompson , with drawing votes from Huckabee in South Carolina , thereby giving a narrow win to McCain . A week later , McCain won the Florida primary , beating Romney again in a close contest ; Giuliani then dropped out and endorsed McCain .
On February 5 , McCain won both the majority of states and delegates in the Super Tuesday Republican primaries , giving him a commanding lead toward the Republican nomination . Romney departed from the race on February 7 . McCain 's wins in the March 4 primaries clinched a majority of the delegates , and he became the presumptive Republican nominee .
McCain , having been born in the Panama Canal Zone , if elected would have become the first president who was born outside the current 50 states . This raised a potential legal issue , since the United States Constitution requires the president to be a natural @-@ born citizen of the United States . A bipartisan legal review , and a unanimous but non @-@ binding Senate resolution , both concluded that he is a natural @-@ born citizen . Also , if inaugurated in 2009 at age 72 years and 144 days , he would have been the oldest U.S. president upon ascension to the presidency , and the second @-@ oldest president to be inaugurated .
McCain addressed concerns about his age and past health concerns , stating in 2005 that his health was " excellent " . He had been treated for a type of skin cancer called melanoma , and an operation in 2000 for that condition left a noticeable mark on the left side of his face . McCain 's prognosis appeared favorable , according to independent experts , especially because he had already survived without a recurrence for more than seven years . In May 2008 , McCain 's campaign briefly let the press review his medical records , and he was described as appearing cancer @-@ free , having a strong heart , and in general being in good health .
Upon clinching enough delegates for the nomination , McCain 's focus shifted toward the general election , while Barack Obama and Hillary Rodham Clinton fought a prolonged battle for the Democratic nomination . McCain introduced various policy proposals , and sought to improve his fundraising . Cindy McCain , who accounts for most of the couple 's wealth with an estimated net worth of $ 100 million , made part of her tax returns public in May . After facing criticism about lobbyists on staff , the McCain campaign issued new rules in May 2008 to avoid conflicts of interest , causing five top aides to leave .
When Obama became the Democrats ' presumptive nominee in early June , McCain proposed joint town hall meetings , but Obama instead requested more traditional debates for the fall . In July , a staff shake @-@ up put Steve Schmidt in full operational control of the McCain campaign . Throughout these summer months , Obama typically led McCain in national polls by single @-@ digit margins , and also led in several key swing states . McCain reprised his familiar underdog role , which was due at least in part to the overall challenges Republicans faced in the election year . McCain accepted public financing for the general election campaign , and the restrictions that go with it , while criticizing his Democratic opponent for becoming the first major party candidate to opt out of such financing for the general election since the system was implemented in 1976 . The Republican 's broad campaign theme focused on his experience and ability to lead , compared to Obama 's .
Alaska Governor Sarah Palin was revealed as McCain 's surprise choice for running mate on August 29 , 2008 . McCain was only the second U.S. major @-@ party presidential nominee to select a woman for running mate and the first Republican to do so ; Palin would have become the first female Vice President of the United States if she had been elected . On September 3 , 2008 , McCain and Palin became the Republican Party 's presidential and vice presidential nominees , respectively , at the 2008 Republican National Convention in Saint Paul , Minnesota . McCain surged ahead of Obama in national polls following the convention , as the Palin pick energized core Republican voters who had previously been wary of him . However , by the campaign 's own later admission , the rollout of Palin to the national media went poorly , and voter reactions to Palin grew increasingly negative , especially among independents and other voters concerned about her qualifications .
On September 24 , McCain said he was suspending his campaign , called on Obama to join him , and proposed delaying the first of the general election debates with Obama , in order to work on the proposed U.S. financial system bailout before Congress , which was targeted at addressing the subprime mortgage crisis and liquidity crisis . McCain 's intervention helped to give dissatisfied House Republicans an opportunity to propose changes to the plan that was otherwise close to agreement . After Obama declined McCain 's suspension suggestion , McCain went ahead with the debate on September 26 . On October 1 , McCain voted in favor of a revised $ 700 billion rescue plan . Another debate was held on October 7 ; like the first one , polls afterward suggested that Obama had won it . A final presidential debate occurred on October 15 .
During and after the final debate , McCain compared Obama 's proposed policies to socialism and often invoked " Joe the Plumber " as a symbol of American small business dreams that would be thwarted by an Obama presidency . McCain barred using the Jeremiah Wright controversy in ads against Obama , but the campaign did frequently criticize Obama regarding his purported relationship with Bill Ayers . McCain 's rallies became increasingly vitriolic , with attendees denigrating Obama and displaying a growing anti @-@ Muslim and anti @-@ African @-@ American sentiment . After one female McCain supporter said she did not trust Obama because " he 's an Arab " , McCain pointedly replied to the woman , " No ma 'am . He 's a decent family man , citizen , that I just happen to have disagreements with on fundamental issues . " McCain 's response was considered one of the finer moments of the campaign and was still being viewed several years later as a marker for civility in American politics . Down the stretch , McCain was outspent by Obama by a four @-@ to @-@ one margin .
The election took place on November 4 , and Barack Obama was projected the winner at about 11 : 00 pm Eastern Standard Time ; McCain delivered his concession speech in Phoenix , Arizona about twenty minutes later . In it , he noted the historic and special significance of Obama becoming the nation 's first African American president . In the end , McCain won 173 electoral college votes to Obama 's 365 ; McCain failed to win most of the battleground states and lost some traditionally Republican ones . McCain gained 46 percent of the nationwide popular vote , compared to Obama 's 53 percent .
= = Senate career after 2008 = =
= = = Remainder of fourth Senate term = = =
Following his defeat , McCain returned to the Senate amid varying views about what role he might play there . In mid @-@ November 2008 he met with President @-@ elect Obama , and the two discussed issues they had commonality on . Around the same time , McCain indicated that he intended to run for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 2010 . As the inauguration neared , Obama consulted with McCain on a variety of matters , to an extent rarely seen between a president @-@ elect and his defeated rival , and President Obama 's inauguration speech contained an allusion to McCain 's theme of finding a purpose greater than oneself .
Nevertheless , McCain emerged as a leader of the Republican opposition to the Obama economic stimulus package of 2009 , saying it had too much spending for too little stimulative effect . McCain also voted against Obama 's Supreme Court nomination of Sonia Sotomayor – saying that while undeniably qualified , " I do not believe that she shares my belief in judicial restraint " – and by August 2009 was siding more often with his Republican Party on closely divided votes than ever before in his senatorial career . McCain reasserted that the Afghanistan War was winnable and criticized Obama for a slow process in deciding whether to send additional U.S. troops there .
McCain also harshly criticized Obama for scrapping construction of the U.S. missile defense complex in Poland , declined to enter negotiations over climate change legislation similar to what he had proposed in the past , and strongly opposed the Obama health care plan . McCain led a successful filibuster of a measure that would allow repeal of the military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy towards gays . Factors involved in McCain 's new direction included Senate staffers leaving , a renewed concern over national debt levels and the scope of federal government , a possible Republican primary challenge from conservatives in 2010 , and McCain 's campaign edge being slow to wear off . As one longtime McCain advisor said , " A lot of people , including me , thought he might be the Republican building bridges to the Obama Administration . But he 's been more like the guy blowing up the bridges . "
In early 2010 , a primary challenge from radio talk show host and former U.S. Congressman J. D. Hayworth materialized in the 2010 U.S. Senate election in Arizona and drew support from some but not all elements of the Tea Party movement . With Hayworth using the campaign slogan " The Consistent Conservative " , McCain said – despite his own past use of the term on a number of occasions – " I never considered myself a maverick . I consider myself a person who serves the people of Arizona to the best of his abilities . " The primary challenge coincided with McCain reversing or muting his stance on some issues such as the bank bailouts , closing of the Guantánamo Bay detention facility , campaign finance restrictions , and gays in the military .
When the health care plan , now called the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , passed Congress and became law in March 2010 , McCain strongly opposed the landmark legislation not only on its merits but also on the way it had been handled in Congress . As a consequence , he warned that congressional Republicans would not be working with Democrats on anything else : " There will be no cooperation for the rest of the year . They have poisoned the well in what they 've done and how they 've done it . " McCain became a vocal defender of Arizona SB 1070 , the April 2010 tough anti @-@ illegal immigration state law that aroused national controversy , saying that the state had been forced to take action given the federal government 's inability to control the border . In the August 24 primary , McCain beat Hayworth by a 56 to 32 percent margin . McCain proceeded to easily defeat Democratic city councilman Rodney Glassman in the general election .
In the lame duck session of the 111th Congress , McCain voted for the compromise Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 , but against the DREAM Act ( which he had once sponsored ) and the New START Treaty . Most prominently , he continued to lead the eventually losing fight against " Don 't ask , don 't tell " repeal . In his opposition , he sometimes fell into anger or hostility on the Senate floor , and called its passage " a very sad day " that would compromise the battle effectiveness of the military .
= = = Fifth Senate term = = =
While control of the House of Representatives went over to the Republicans in the 112th Congress , the Senate stayed Democratic and McCain continued to be the ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee . As the Arab Spring took center stage , McCain urged that the embattled Egyptian president , Hosni Mubarak , step down and thought the U.S. should push for democratic reforms in the region despite the associated risks of religious extremists gaining power . McCain was an especially vocal supporter of the 2011 military intervention in Libya . In April of that year he visited the Anti @-@ Gaddafi forces and National Transitional Council in Benghazi , the highest @-@ ranking American to do so , and said that the rebel forces were " my heroes " . In June , he joined with Senator Kerry in offering a resolution that would have authorized the military intervention , and said : " The administration 's disregard for the elected representatives of the American people on this matter has been troubling and counterproductive . " In August , McCain voted for the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved the U.S. debt ceiling crisis . In November , McCain and Senator Carl Levin were leaders in efforts to codify in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 that terrorism suspects , no matter where captured , could be detained by the U.S. military and its tribunal system ; following objections by civil libertarians , some Democrats , and the White House , McCain and Levin agreed to language making it clear that the bill would not pertain to U.S. citizens .
In the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries , McCain endorsed former 2008 rival Mitt Romney and campaigned for him , but compared the contest to a Greek tragedy due to its drawn @-@ out nature with massive Super PAC @-@ funded attack ads damaging all the contenders . He labelled the Supreme Court 's 2010 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission decision as " uninformed , arrogant , naïve , " and , decrying its effects and the future scandals he thought it would bring , said it would become considered the court 's " worst decision ... in the 21st century " . McCain took the lead in opposing the defense spending sequestrations brought on by the Budget Control Act of 2011 and gained attention for defending State Department aide Huma Abedin against charges brought by a few House Republicans that she had ties to the Muslim Brotherhood .
McCain continued to be one of the most frequently appearing guests on the Sunday morning news talk shows . He became one of the most vocal critics of the Obama administration 's handling of the September 11 , 2012 , attack on the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi , saying it was a " debacle " that featured either " a massive cover @-@ up or incompetence that is not acceptable " and that it was worse than the Watergate scandal . As part of this , he and a few other senators were successful in blocking the planned nomination of Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice to succeed Hillary Rodham Clinton as U.S. Secretary of State ; McCain 's friend and colleague John Kerry was nominated instead .
Regarding the Syrian civil war that had begun in 2011 , McCain repeatedly argued for the U.S. intervening militarily in the conflict on the side of the anti @-@ government forces . He staged a visit to rebel forces inside Syria in May 2013 , the first senator to do so , and called for arming the Free Syrian Army with heavy weapons and for the establishment of a no @-@ fly zone over the country . Following reports that two of the people he posed for pictures with had been responsible for the kidnapping of eleven Lebanese Shiite pilgrims the year before , McCain disputed one of the identifications and said he had not met directly with the other . Following the 2013 Ghouta chemical weapons attack , McCain argued again for strong American military action against the government of the Syrian president , Bashar al @-@ Assad , and in September 2013 cast a Foreign Relations committee vote in favor of Obama 's request to Congress that it authorize a military response . McCain took the lead in criticizing a growing non @-@ interventionist movement within the Republican Party , exemplified by his March 2013 comment that Senators Rand Paul and Ted Cruz and Representative Justin Amash were " wacko birds " .
During 2013 , McCain was a member of a bi @-@ partisan group of senators , the " Gang of Eight " , which announced principles for another try at comprehensive immigration reform . The resulting Border Security , Economic Opportunity , and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013 passed the Senate by a 68 – 32 margin , but faced an uncertain future in the House . In July 2013 , McCain was at the forefront of an agreement among senators to drop filibusters against Obama administration executive nominees without Democrats resorting to the " nuclear option " that would disallow such filibusters altogether . However , the option would be imposed later in the year anyway , much to the senator 's displeasure . These developments and some other negotiations showed that McCain now had improved relations with the Obama administration , including the president himself , as well as with Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , and that he had become the leader of a power center in the Senate for cutting deals in an otherwise bitterly partisan environment . They also led some observers to conclude that the " maverick " McCain had returned .
McCain was publicly skeptical about the Republican strategy that precipitated the U.S. federal government shutdown of 2013 and U.S. debt @-@ ceiling crisis of 2013 in order to defund or delay the Affordable Care Act ; in October 2013 he voted in favor of the Continuing Appropriations Act , 2014 , which resolved them and said , " Republicans have to understand we have lost this battle , as I predicted weeks ago , that we would not be able to win because we were demanding something that was not achievable . " Similarly , he was one of nine Republican senators who voted for the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 at the end of the year . By early 2014 , McCain 's apostasies were enough that the Arizona Republican Party formally censured him for having what they saw as a liberal record that had been " disastrous and harmful " . McCain remained stridently opposed to many aspects of Obama 's foreign policy , however , and in June 2014 , following major gains by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant in the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive , decried what he saw as a U.S. failure to protect its past gains in Iraq and called on the president 's entire national security team to resign . McCain said , " Could all this have been avoided ? ... The answer is absolutely yes . If I sound angry it 's because I am angry . "
McCain was a supporter of the Euromaidan protests against Ukraine leader Viktor Yanukovych and his government , and appeared in Independence Square in Kiev in December 2013 . Following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine , McCain became a vocal supporter of providing arms to Ukrainian military forces , saying the sanctions imposed against Russia were not enough . In 2014 , McCain led the opposition to the appointments of Colleen Bell , Noah Mamet , and George Tsunis to the ambassadorships in Hungary , Argentina , and Norway , respectively , arguing they were unqualified appointees being rewarded for their political fundraising . Unlike many Republicans , McCain supported the release and contents of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture in December 2014 , saying " The truth is sometimes a hard pill to swallow . It sometimes causes us difficulties at home and abroad . It is sometimes used by our enemies in attempts to hurt us . But the American people are entitled to it , nonetheless . " He added that the CIA 's practices following the September 11 attacks had " stained our national honor " while doing " much harm and little practical good " and that " Our enemies act without conscience . We must not . " He opposed the Obama administration 's December 2014 decision to normalize relations with Cuba .
As the 114th United States Congress assembled in January 2015 with Republicans in control of the Senate , McCain became chair of the Armed Services Committee , a longtime goal of his . In this position , he led the writing of proposed Senate legislation that sought to modify parts of the Goldwater @-@ Nichols Act of 1986 in order to return responsibility for major weapons systems acquisition back to the individual armed services and their secretaries and away from the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition , Technology and Logistics . As chair , McCain has tried to maintain a bipartisan approach and has forged a good relationship with ranking member Jack Reed . In April 2015 , McCain announced that he would run for a sixth term in Arizona 's 2016 Senate election . While there was still conservative and Tea Party anger at him , it was unclear if they would mount an effective primary challenge against him . During 2015 , McCain strongly opposed the proposed comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear program , saying that Secretary of State Kerry was " delusional " and " giv [ ing ] away the store " in negotiations with Iran . McCain supported the 2015 Saudi Arabian @-@ led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh .
In the Republican Party presidential primaries , 2016 , McCain said he would support the Republican nominee even if it was Donald Trump , but following Mitt Romney 's March 3 speech , McCain endorsed the sentiments expressed in that speech , saying he had serious concerns about Trump 's " uninformed and indeed dangerous statements on national security issues " . Relations between the two had been fraught since early in the Donald Trump presidential campaign , 2016 , when the real estate mogul had said of McCain , saying " He 's not a war hero . He was a war hero because he was captured ? I like people who weren 't captured . " Following Trump becoming the presumptive nominee of the party on May 3 , McCain said that Republican voters had spoken and he would support Trump . McCain was expected to face a potentially strong challenge from Democratic Congresswoman Ann Kirkpatrick in the general election and privately expressed worry over the effect that Trump 's unpopularity among Hispanic voters might have on his own chances .
= = = Committee assignments = = =
Committee on Armed Services ( Chair )
as chair of the full committee may serve as an ex @-@ officio member of any subcommittee
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
Subcommittee on Financial and Contracting Oversight
Committee on Indian Affairs
Committee on Intelligence ( ex @-@ officio )
= = = Caucus memberships = = =
International Conservation Caucus
Senate Diabetes Caucus
Senate National Security Caucus ( Co @-@ Chair )
Sportsmen 's Caucus
Senate Wilderness and Public Lands Caucus
Senate Ukraine Caucus
= = Political positions = =
Various advocacy groups have given Senator McCain scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group . The American Conservative Union has awarded McCain a lifetime rating of 82 percent through 2014 , while McCain has an average lifetime 12 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action through 2014 .
The non @-@ partisan National Journal rates a Senator 's votes by what percentage of the Senate voted more liberally than he or she , and what percentage more conservatively , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 ( as reported in the 2008 Almanac of American Politics ) , McCain 's average ratings were as follows : economic policy : 59 percent conservative and 41 percent liberal ; social policy : 54 percent conservative and 38 percent liberal ; and foreign policy : 56 percent conservative and 43 percent liberal .
Columnists such as Robert Robb and Matthew Continetti have used a formulation devised by William F. Buckley Jr. to describe McCain as " conservative " but not " a conservative " , meaning that while McCain usually tends towards conservative positions , he is not " anchored by the philosophical tenets of modern American conservatism . " Following his 2008 presidential election loss , McCain began adopting more orthodox conservative views ; the magazine National Journal rated McCain along with seven of his colleagues as the " most conservative " Senators for 2010 and he achieved his first 100 percent rating from the American Conservative Union for that year .
From the late 1990s until 2008 , McCain was a board member of Project Vote Smart which was set up by Richard Kimball , his 1986 Senate opponent . The project provides non @-@ partisan information about the political positions of McCain and other candidates for political office . Additionally , McCain uses his Senate website to describe his political positions .
= = Cultural and political image = =
McCain 's personal character has been a dominant feature of his public image . This image includes the military service of both himself and his family , the circumstances and tensions surrounding the end of his first marriage and beginning of second , his maverick political persona , his temper , his admitted problem of occasional ill @-@ considered remarks , and his close ties to his children from both his marriages .
McCain 's political appeal has been more nonpartisan and less ideological compared to many other national politicians . His stature and reputation stem partly from his service in the Vietnam War . He also carries physical vestiges of his war wounds , as well as his melanoma surgery . When campaigning , he quips : " I am older than dirt and have more scars than Frankenstein . "
Writers often extolled McCain for his courage not just in war but in politics , and wrote sympathetically about him . McCain 's shift of political stances and attitudes during and especially after the 2008 presidential campaign , including his self @-@ repudiation of the maverick label , left many writers expressing sadness and wondering what had happened to the McCain they thought they had known . By 2013 , some aspects of the older McCain had returned , and his image became that of a kaleidoscope of contradictory tendencies , including , as one writer listed , " the maverick , the former maverick , the curmudgeon , the bridge builder , the war hero bent on transcending the call of self @-@ interest to serve a cause greater than himself , the sore loser , old bull , last lion , loose cannon , happy warrior , elder statesman , lion in winter .... "
In his own estimation , the Arizona senator is straightforward and direct , but impatient . Other traits include a penchant for lucky charms , a fondness for hiking , and a sense of humor that has sometimes backfired spectacularly , as when he made a joke in 1998 about the Clintons widely deemed not fit to print in newspapers : " Do you know why Chelsea Clinton is so ugly ? – Because Janet Reno is her father . " McCain subsequently apologized profusely , and the Clinton White House accepted his apology . McCain has not shied away from addressing his shortcomings , and apologizing for them . He is known for sometimes being prickly and hot @-@ tempered with Senate colleagues , but his relations with his own Senate staff have been more cordial , and have inspired loyalty towards him . He formed a strong bond with two senators , Joe Lieberman and Lindsey Graham , over hawkish foreign policy and overseas travel , and they became dubbed the " Three Amigos " .
McCain acknowledges having said intemperate things in years past , though he also says that many stories have been exaggerated . One psychoanalytic comparison suggests that McCain was not the first presidential candidate to have a temper , and cultural critic Julia Keller argues that voters want leaders who are passionate , engaged , fiery , and feisty . McCain has employed both profanity and shouting on occasion , although such incidents have become less frequent over the years . Senator Lieberman has made this observation : " It is not the kind of anger that is a loss of control . He is a very controlled person . " Senator Thad Cochran , who has known McCain for decades and has battled him over earmarks , expressed concern about a McCain presidency : " He is erratic . He is hotheaded . He loses his temper and he worries me . " Ultimately Cochran decided to support McCain for president , after it was clear he would win the nomination .
All of McCain 's family members are on good terms with him , and he has defended them against some of the negative consequences of his high @-@ profile political lifestyle . His family 's military tradition extends to the latest generation : son John Sidney IV ( " Jack " ) graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 2009 , becoming the fourth generation John S. McCain to do so , and is a helicopter pilot ; son James served two tours with the marines in the Iraq War ; and son Doug flew jets in the navy . His daughter Meghan became a blogging and Twittering presence in the debate about the future of the Republican Party following the 2008 elections , and showed some of his maverick tendencies .
= = Electoral history = =
= = Writings by McCain = =
= = Awards and honors = =
In addition to his military honors and decorations , McCain has been granted a number of civilian awards and honors .
In 1997 , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " . In 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Senator Russ Feingold for their work towards campaign finance reform . The following year , the same pair shared the Paul H. Douglas Award for Ethics in Government . In 2005 , The Eisenhower Institute awarded McCain the Eisenhower Leadership Prize . The prize recognizes individuals whose lifetime accomplishments reflect Dwight D. Eisenhower 's legacy of integrity and leadership . In 2006 , the Bruce F. Vento Public Service Award was bestowed upon McCain by the National Park Trust . The same year , McCain was awarded the Henry M. Jackson Distinguished Service Award by the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs , in honor of Senator Henry M. " Scoop " Jackson . In 2007 , the World Leadership Forum presented McCain with the Policymaker of the Year Award ; it is given internationally to someone who has " created , inspired or strongly influenced important policy or legislation " . In 2010 , President Mikheil Saakashvili of Georgia awarded McCain the Order of National Hero , an award never previously given to a non @-@ Georgian . In 2015 , the Kiev Patriarchate awarded McCain its own version of the Order of St. Vladimir . In 2016 , Allegheny College awarded McCain , along with Vice President Joe Biden , its Prize for Civility in Public Life .
McCain has received honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the United States and internationally . These include ones from Colgate University ( 2000 ) , The Citadel ( 2002 ) , Wake Forest University ( 2002 ) , the University of Southern California ( 2004 ) , Northwestern University ( 2005 ) , Liberty University ( 2006 ) , The New School 2006 ) , and the Royal Military College of Canada ( 2013 ) . He was also made an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society at Trinity College Dublin in 2005 .
= Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building =
The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was a chemistry laboratory and classroom building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . The 42 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) postmodern building stood on the north end of a cluster of other science buildings on the site of the school 's first chemistry laboratory . It was completed in 1984 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 2 million after the college received money from a fund bequeathed to it in the will of California cardiologist and professor Seeley G. Mudd . The structure replaced Sanders Hall of Chemistry and included elements designed to be energy efficient , notably a large wall of glass blocks that designers hoped would passively heat the building . Reviews of the structure were positive when it opened with critics praising the way its form complemented nearby older buildings . By 2015 , many aspects of the building had been evaluated as being in Fair or Poor condition and the building was demolished in spring 2016 Science Center project , to be replaced by an open green space .
= = History = =
Vassar Brothers Laboratory was the first chemistry building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , built in 1880 , around 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the college 's Main Building . The Laboratory , which was the first free @-@ standing chemistry structure at a women 's college , stood until 1938 , 29 years after the construction of its replacement , the Ewing & Chapelle @-@ designed Sanders Hall of Chemistry .
In 1981 , the Seeley G. Mudd Fund granted Vassar $ 1 @.@ 3 million for the construction of a new chemistry building . Mudd was a California @-@ based cardiologist , professor , and trustee with the University of Southern California 's School of Medicine as well as with a number of other West Coast schools . Over his lifetime , Mudd donated more than $ 10 million to higher education institutions and upon his death in 1968 , his will established a further $ 44 million for building construction at universities and colleges , with the stipulation that institutions requesting a grant provide at least half the funds for their projects and that his name be prominently displayed on any buildings receiving the funding . While the cost of the building was originally reported to be $ 4 @.@ 5 million , this estimate grew to $ 6 @.@ 5 million by 1984 and would ultimately come to $ 7 @.@ 2 million once the project was completed . The College planned to cover the costs not paid for by the Mudd Fund with a $ 100 million development fundraising program that spanned the entirety of the 1980s .
Ground was broken on the new building on October 8 , 1982 , in a ceremony presided over by Vassar president Virginia B. Smith . Smith had previously selected engineer Fred Dubin to aid the school in constructing a more environmentally friendly chemistry building . As design progressed , she identified the need to hire architects to design the building alongside Dubin , so Perry Dean Rogers Architects of Boston were selected . Named the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building after its benefactor , the building was constructed on the site where Vassar Brothers Laboratory once stood . Dubin initially tried to have it placed on the south side of Sanders Physics Building , but that site was deemed unworkable in part because of its proximity to the school 's Shakespeare Gardens . The building was instead placed southwest of Sanders Hall of Chemistry , which would be renamed Sanders Classrooms , and completed a quadrangle consisting of both Sanders buildings and the New England Building . Though built across from Sanders Physics , Mudd was actually 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) out of alignment with it . Zaldastani Associates served as the project 's structural engineers and W. J. Barney Corporation served as its general contractor .
In 2007 , despite being Vassar 's youngest completed academic building , a report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects report found that many components of Mudd 's structure were in either Fair or Poor condition . The structure was slated for demolition in spring 2016 as part of the college 's Science Center project , which also included the construction of the new Bridge for Laboratory Sciences building and the renovations of the New England Building , Sanders Physics , and Olmsted Hall . The chemistry department began its move to the Bridge for Laboratory Sciences in summer 2015 and Mudd 's demolition followed . Exterior facade elements , windows , and indoor walls were cut away before the building 's frame was dismantled , concluding on April 22 , 2016 . Once cleared , the former site of Mudd will be an open green space .
= = Features = =
The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was designed in the postmodern style . The structure 's exterior walls were constructed from limestone and brick that surround regular glass blocks , each about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) thick with side lengths ranging from 8 to 12 inches ( 20 to 30 cm ) . The brick and limestone walls faced the west , north , and east , while the southern face was primarily glass , a feature designed for efficient energy use ; when sunlight hit the wall , air rose into the building and was heated , then pumped throughout where it aided in the operation of the structure 's 46 fume hoods . The north wall , meanwhile , wass designed to be resistant to cold air . The building was well insulated and its plain outer walls were as uninterrupted in material as possible to keep as much warm air inside the structure as possible in winters .
Containing 42 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) , the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building stood three stories tall . The second and first floors ( the latter of which lies partially below ground ) contained laboratory space while the third floor consisted of communal and teaching spaces like classrooms and offices . Other offices on the first floor were lit via skylights . The stairwells in Mudd were designed with the purpose of discouraging students from passing through lab spaces to get from one side of the building to the other . In spite of this , Michael J. Crosbie reported in Architecture in 1986 that students had taken to passing through the building as a shortcut instead of going around it . Furnishings and carpeting in the building were deep blue and rust @-@ colored .
The 2007 report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects evaluating the condition and context for many of Vassar 's buildings found Mudd to be " by far Vassar 's most interesting and most important post @-@ Modern building . " A contemporary review in Architecture commented that Mudd " responds on a variety of levels to its context , but it does so without sacrificing its own unique and powerful identity . " Margaret Gaskie also praised the building 's placement and contextualization among its fellow structures in a 1986 issue of Architectural Record : " the scale of the structure beneath its outcroppings is sympathetic to the existing buildings in the quad , and its mass , though larger , [ is ] appropriate to its role as a gateway between them and the central campus " . She went on to positively comment on the building 's aesthetics , saying , " the eye can feast on the mingled sparkle and luminosity drawn from minimal outdoor exposures used to maximum effect . In more public areas , where crisp glass @-@ block and lucent glass ignite clear deep @-@ timbered tones and pretty pastels , the feast becomes a banquet . " Crosbie in Architecture noted " some instances of shoddy drywall work and sloppy painting " but otherwise praised the building 's " bare @-@ bones " and " nuts and bolts " interior as functional and environmentally friendly . The Platt Byard Dovell White report found that Mudd 's glass walls " seem to function particularly poorly " as a passive heat control system but otherwise noted that the structure 's expressive postmodernist ambitions marked it as " a strong , compact if busy building [ that ] makes it more than a bit of a tour de force . " Mudd was awarded first place in a 1988 competition run by Pittsburgh Corning for its design .
= Korketrekkeren =
Korketrekkeren ( direct translation : " The Corkscrew " ) is a tobogganing track and former bobsleigh and luge track in Oslo , Norway . The tobogganing track runs between Frognerseteren and Midtstuen and is operated as a public venue by the municipality . Return transport to the top of the hill is undertaken by riding the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line . Tobogganing in the area started in the 1880s , with several roads being used during winter evenings . Auto racing took place in the hill in 1921 and the following year it saw its first luge tournament . The first major tournament was the FIL European Luge Championships 1937 . Tobagganing also took place in the nearby Heftyebakken , but from 1950 Korketrekkeren became the sole tobogganing hill and Heftyebakken was used for cross @-@ country skiing .
The bobsleigh track was built for the 1952 Winter Olympics , where it hosted two bobsleigh events . Contrary to popular belief , this was not built at Korketrekkeren but as a separate run nearby also starting at Frognerseteren . It was built as a temporary , artificial track with the curves being constructed in snow and then frozen hard to ice . Trial runs were undertaken in 1951 and the bobsleigh course was not used after 1952 . Both Olympic events were won by Germany , with Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl participating in both winning teams . The tobogganing hill hosted the inaugural FIL World Luge Championships 1955 , with Norway 's Anton Salvesen winning the men 's single — the only time in history Norway has won a World Luge Championships medal .
= = History = =
Korketrekkeren was originally part of Frognerseterveien , a road which ran up to Frognerseteren . It was completed in 1867 to the orders of landlord Thomas Johannessen Heftye , who had been purchasing forest properties in the area . The section between Svendstuen and Frognerseteren gradually became known as Korktrekkeren . Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet was established in 1888 and undertook a series of public infrastructure investments in the area , including the construction of roads , skiing trails , natural tobagganing tracks and a chapel . The property was given to Kristiania Municipality ( today Oslo Municipality ) in 1894 . Tobagganing became a popular sport from the 1880s and Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet rented out sleds which were permitted to be used on roads and designated tracks after 19 : 00 on evenings with moonlight .
Norsk Vinterturistforening was founded in 1899 to work towards encouraging English tourists to visit Oslo , specifically by building tobogganing tracks . A committee was established in 1904 to look into building a new tobogganing track in the Holmenkollen area . It proposed that two new tracks be built , one from Voksenkollveien to Peisestuen , and one from Peisestuen to Midtstuen , and that Korketrekkeren be upgraded to allow for safer tobogganing . The investments cost 7 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and the annual operating costs estimated at NOK 2 @,@ 000 . The investments were financed with NOK 2 @,@ 000 by Christiania Brænnevinssamlag and NOK 5 @,@ 000 by Akeforeningen . The latter was established in 1905 and was also responsible to operating the track .
In 1898 , the Holmenkollen Line was opened to Besserud . One of the line 's main revenue sources was transporting city @-@ dwellers to the recreational area of Nordmarka where they would go skiing . An alternative activity was tobogganing down the hill back to Majorstuen . The operator Holmenkolbanen immediately started plans to extend the line . There were two proposals : a continuation of the line past Holmenkollen and a branch from Midtstuen up Korketrekkeren to Frogneseteren . However , the latter required the use of a rack railway , as it would give a 1 : 8 gradient . The former route was selected and the line was extended to Frogneseteren in 1916 . Holmenkolbanen started renting out sleds at Frogneseteren , which could be returned at most stations . To save the return ticket , many chose to continue the tobogganing ride to Majorstuen .
The use of Korketrekkeren for tobogganing created a conflict with the local residents — especially at the guest house in Sverdrupstuen , which was often blocked on Sundays . There was also a conflict between cross @-@ country skiing and tobogganing , as both groups wanted priority on the road . Akeforeningen proposed holding a tournament in 1921 , but this was rejected by the municipal council . However , an auto race was held on the track that year . Permission for the sleighing race was given the following season , resulting in regular tournaments . Construction of Heftyebakken took place in 1930 . The track was constructed between Frogerseteren to Svendstuen , including a concrete curve which allowed it to connect to Korketrekkeren . Heftyebakken had a poor profile as it was not steep enough in the lower areas . In 1950 , Heftyebakken was converted to a skiing trail and Korketrekkeren became a pure tobogganing trail .
Unusually for winter sports , bobsleigh has never been popular in Norway . The country had not sent an Olympic team until the 1948 Winter Olympics and there were no previous bobsleigh tracks in Norway when Oslo was awarded the 1952 Winter Olympics . Two Swiss civil engineers , Heinz Cattani and Emil Ingold , were the main technical consultants for the development of the venue . The steep terrain made construction excessively expensive , resulting in the organizing committee deciding to build a temporary track , without permanent concrete and stone curves . Instead , a new track was constructed each year using snow : the overhangs were built by hand , the tracks were leveled and the structure sprayed with ice until it was hard .
The track route was built under supervision of Sigurd Lund and Carl Venderboe in 1949 and 1950 and subsequently corrected by Cattani . The only fixed installation was a water main which ran along the track , using Øvresetertjern as its water source . Engineer Luigi Angelini from Switzerland was hired to supervise the construction of the curves , which cost NOK 615 @,@ 000 . The track was first constructed for training in 1951 and then for the Olympics in 1952 .
There have been occasional proposals that Norway should build a permanent bobsleigh track , where Korketrekkeren was the leading location . The debate died out in the 1990s with the selection of Lillehammer as the host of the 1994 Winter Olympics and the subsequent construction of Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track . Also the Oslo bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics proposed using the Lillehammer track . In 2007 , there were two serious accidents in the hill and it was subsequently closed by the police . The municipality then renovated the hill , removing poles and polstering dangerous edges .
= = Olympic track = =
The Olympic track ran from Frogneseteren , with the start line located at 429 @.@ 2 meters ( 1 @,@ 408 ft ) above mean sea level . The course falls 124 @.@ 35 meters ( 408 @.@ 0 ft ) , with the finish line located at 304 @.@ 85 meters ( 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 2 ft ) elevation . The track had an average 8 @.@ 6 percent gradient , which varied between 3 @.@ 67 and 13 @.@ 86 percent . The track was 1 @,@ 507 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @,@ 946 ft ) long and had 13 curves , varying with radii between 14 and 50 meters ( 46 and 164 ft ) . Beyond the finish @-@ line the track ran steeply uphill . The track had three boxes for time @-@ keepers , one at the start , one mid @-@ way and one at the finish . In addition there was a bob garage at the top of the hill . Bobs were transport up using a four @-@ wheel @-@ drive car up Heftyebakken . The track had 50 telephone linesto keep up with the competition and track conditions during the event .
The following is a list of the turns with their names and curve radii .
= = Tobogganing = =
Korketrekkeren is a public hill owned by the municipality and can be used free of charge . Toboggans can be rented from Skiservice and Akerforeningen . The start of the hill is located next to Frognerseteren Station on the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line and the end of the course is located at Midtstuen Station . Tobogganists can take their sleds on the train using ordinary tickets . There is also a smaller beginners track at Skistua at Frognerseteren . Korketrekkeren is widely regarded as Oslo 's prime tobogganing course .
= = Events = =
= = = 1937 European championships = = =
The FIL European Luge Championships 1937 were the sixth to be contested and the only to have been held in Norway . Six nations competed — Martin Tietze from Germany won both the men 's singles and along with Kurt Weidner the men 's doubles . Norway took all the medals in the women 's singles with Titti Maartmann winning .
= = = 1952 Winter Olympics = = =
Two events in bobsleigh were held at the 1952 Winter Olympics — two @-@ man and four @-@ man . Both were contested over four heats over two days . Two @-@ man was contested on 14 and 15 February , while four @-@ man was contested on 21 and 22 February . The same teams won both events , with Germans Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl winning gold in both events and Friedrich Kuhn and Franz Kemser winning gold in the four @-@ man . The events attracted up to 15 @,@ 000 spectators .
= = = 1955 World championships = = =
FIL World Luge Championships 1955 was the inaugural world championship in luge and the only to have been held in Norway . Eight countries participated , with the top results being dominated by Austria . The men 's singles was won by Anton Salvesen , which remains the only medal ever won by Norway in the World Luge Championships . The women 's singles saw double Austrian victory with Karla Kienzl winning ahead of Maria Isser . In the doubles , Hans Krausner and Josef Thaler won ahead of their Austrian countrymen Josef Isser and Maria Isser .
= Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleship =
The Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class was a pair of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) during the 1890s . The class comprised two ships : Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the lead ship , and Emanuele Filiberto . They were armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 @-@ millimetre ) guns and were capable of a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Smaller and less powerfully @-@ armed than most contemporary battleships , they marked a brief departure from Italian battleship design , which had previous emphasized large ships equipped with large guns .
Both ships served in the active duty squadron early in their careers , and participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . They took part in the Italian offensives in North Africa and the island of Rhodes , but did not see combat with the Ottoman fleet . They were reduced to harbor defense ships by the outbreak of World War I , and they spent the war in Venice . The ships were discarded shortly after the end of the war , both having been stricken in 1920 .
= = Design = =
The previous Italian capital ships , the Re Umberto and the Ruggiero di Lauria classes of ironclad battleships , marked a period of experimentation on the part of Benedetto Brin , Admiral Simone di Pacoret Saint Bon , and the strategists of the Italian navy . Since the planners had not determined what type of battleship would best suit their strategic needs , the government stepped in and mandated a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) design smaller than the earlier classes . Following the death of di Saint Bon , Brin took over the design process and proposed a small battleship armed with 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , a weaker main battery than those of contemporary foreign designs .
The ships , much smaller than their contemporaries , and slower than cruisers , were not particularly useful warships . The mistake of building a battleship of only 10 @,@ 000 tons was not repeated in the subsequent , and much more successful , Regina Margherita class .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class were 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long at the waterline and 111 @.@ 8 m ( 367 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 12 m ( 69 @.@ 3 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 69 m ( 25 @.@ 2 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon displaced 10 @,@ 082 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 923 long tons ; 11 @,@ 114 short tons ) at standard loading and 10 @,@ 531 t ( 10 @,@ 365 long tons ; 11 @,@ 608 short tons ) at full combat load , while Emanuele Filiberto displaced 9 @,@ 645 t ( 9 @,@ 493 long tons ; 10 @,@ 632 short tons ) and 9 @,@ 940 t ( 9 @,@ 780 long tons ; 10 @,@ 960 short tons ) , respectively . The ships had a low freeboard of only 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon had a crew of 557 officers and enlisted men , while Emanuele Filiberto had a slightly larger complement of 565 .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines ; Ammiraglio di Saint Bon 's were rated at 14 @,@ 296 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 661 kW ) , while Emanuele Filiberto 's engines only reached 13 @,@ 552 ihp ( 10 @,@ 106 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . The ships ' propulsion system provided a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 10 in ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . The guns were placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ships were also equipped with eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in individual casemates amidships . These guns were export derivatives of the British QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 gun . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was also equipped with eight 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in shielded pivot mounts directly above the casemate battery and eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Emanuele Filiberto carried six 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns and eight 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns instead . Both ships also carried four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers .
The ships were protected with Harvey steel . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 9 @.@ 8 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had 9 @.@ 8 in thick plating , and the casemates were 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick .
= = Ships | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of the class = =
= = Service = =
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was built by the Venice Naval Shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1893 , launched on 29 April 1897 , and completed on 24 May 1901 , although she had been commissioned on 1 February 1901 . Emanuele Filiberto was named after Prince Emanuele Filiberto , Duke of Aosta . She was built by the Castellammare Naval Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia , Naples . She was laid down on 5 October 1893 , launched on 29 September 1897 , and completed on 16 April 1902 , although she had been commissioned on 6 September 1901 . The ships spend the first several years in the active duty squadron until they were replaced by the new Regina Elena @-@ class battleships , which entered service by 1908 .
Both ships took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 1912 in the 3rd Division with the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . Emanuele Filiberto took part in the attack on Tripoli in October 1911 , though Ammiraglio di Saint Bon did not see action in the first months of the war . Both ships participated in the seizure of the island of Rhodes , where Ammiraglio di Saint Bon provided gunfire support to the soldiers ashore .
The two ships were slated to be scrapped in 1914 – 15 due to their age , but the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 prevented their disposal . Italy initially remained neutral during the war , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and Emanuele Filiberto were used as harbor defense ships in Venice for the duration of the war , and did not see action there . Neither ship remained in service long after the end of the war . Emanuele Filiberto was stricken from the naval register on 29 March 1920 and Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was stricken on 18 June . Both ships were subsequently discarded .
= Jon Challinor =
Jon Challinor ( born 2 December 1980 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender or a midfielder for Northern Premier League Premier Division club Stamford .
Challinor started his career with Rushden & Diamonds , and after being released in 2000 had spells with Stamford , Cambridge City , the Kalamazoo Kingdom and St Albans City . He reached the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final with Aldershot Town , and after another unsuccessful play @-@ off campaign in the 2004 – 05 season signed for Exeter City in 2005 . He played in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final defeat before returning to Rushden in 2007 . He left for Cambridge United a year later , playing for them in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . After spells with Forest Green Rovers , Mansfield Town , Brackley Town , Newport County and Kettering Town , Challinor signed for York City in 2011 . Here , he won promotion to League Two in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final , following victory in the 2012 Final , also winning in the 2012 FA Trophy Final . He was released by the club a year later .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Northampton , Northamptonshire , Challinor began his career in the youth system at Rushden & Diamonds . He made his first team debut for the Football Conference club as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old in a Conference League Cup game against Farnborough Town on 22 December 1998 . He signed a contract at the end of his scholarship , but after failing to break into the first team squad was released in May 2000 . Challinor dropped two divisions to join Southern League Division One East side Stamford in search of first team football . He impressed with Stamford , moving to Southern League Premier Division side Cambridge City in February 2001 , scoring two goals in 11 league appearances before the end of the 2000 – 01 season . He made 46 appearances , scoring three goals , in the 2001 – 02 season before spending the close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom in the American USL Premier Development League .
Challinor returned to England after joining Isthmian League Premier Division side St Albans City on a two @-@ year contract in August 2002 . His debut came in St Albans ' 4 – 0 victory away at Ware in the Herts Charity Cup first round on 3 August 2002 , before scoring his first goal in a 2 – 0 home win against Heybridge Swifts on 26 August . Challinor played in St Albans ' 4 – 1 FA Cup first round defeat to Second Division team Stockport County on 16 November 2002 . He scored six goals in 57 games in the 2002 – 03 season , before spending a second close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom , making 17 appearances and scoring two goals in the USL Premier Development League .
= = = Aldershot Town = = =
After being released by St Albans , Challinor signed for Football Conference side Aldershot Town on 8 August 2003 , having appeared for them in pre @-@ season . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 home win over Accrington Stanley on 10 August 2003 , before scoring his first goal in a 5 – 2 win away to Telford United on 16 August . Having made an impressive start for Aldershot , scoring five goals in 12 games , Challinor signed a contract lasting until the end of the 2004 – 05 season on 14 October 2003 . After being sent off in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Margate on 20 December 2003 he was given a three @-@ match suspension , making his return in a 4 – 0 defeat away to Farnborough on 24 January 2004 . He played in the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final against Shrewsbury Town at the Britannia Stadium , which Aldershot lost 3 – 0 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 draw following extra time . His 2003 – 04 season with Aldershot finished having scored 13 goals in 48 appearances .
Aldershot qualified for the play @-@ offs again in the 2004 – 05 season , and Challinor played in both semi @-@ final games against Carlisle United , which ended in a 2 – 2 draw on aggregate . Challinor missed his penalty kick in the penalty shoot @-@ out , before Danny Livesey scored the penalty that secured Carlisle 's place in the play @-@ off final . Having finished the season with nine goals in 44 appearances , Challinor was released by Aldershot on 18 May 2005 , despite being rated as one of the best attacking midfielders in the Conference National .
= = = Exeter City = = =
On 20 May 2005 , Challinor joined Conference National side Exeter City on a two @-@ year contract . Manager Alex Inglethorpe described him by saying " He 's 24 years of age and he fits the bill of the type of player that will help us next season . I liken him to Tim Cahill of Everton . He likes to get forward and score goals , and has a good grounding in both League and non @-@ League football . " Challinor made his debut in a 2 – 0 win away at Gravesend & Northfleet on 13 August 2005 , before scoring his first goal on 3 September in a 2 – 2 away to Dagenham & Redbridge . He scored in a 4 – 0 win over former club Aldershot on 26 December 2005 , during which he was targeted by opposition fans , after his former manager Terry Brown claimed he left Aldershot for financial reasons . After the match , Challinor said " I got one over on the manager and proved him wrong , he didn 't think I was good enough . Their fans were at me throughout the game but it only made me focus more . " He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 13 goals in 48 appearances for Exeter .
Challinor was targeted by fellow Conference National side Grays Athletic in December 2006 , but after remaining at Exeter he was offered a new contract at the club in February 2007 , which he did not sign . He played for Exeter in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final on 20 May 2007 , the first Conference play @-@ off final to be played at the new Wembley Stadium . He assisted Lee Phillips ' ninth minute opening goal for Exeter , although the side went on to lose 2 – 1 to Morecambe . Challinor made 48 appearances and scored 10 goals for Exeter in the 2006 – 07 season .
= = = Return to Rushden & Diamonds = = =
Challinor returned to Conference Premier club Rushden & Diamonds after signing a two @-@ year contract on 28 May 2007 . He made his debut in a 1 – 1 draw away at Woking on 11 August 2007 , before scoring his first goal with Rushden 's only strike in a 1 – 1 draw away at Salisbury City on 8 September . He started the season playing in midfield , but after being played as a striker in late February 2008 he went on a run of scoring six goals in five consecutive games .
He appeared for Rushden in the 2008 Conference League Cup Final against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground on 3 April 2008 . The match finished a 3 – 3 draw after extra time , but Aldershot won 4 – 3 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Challinor made 57 appearances and scored 10 goals for Rushden in the 2007 – 08 season , only missing out on ever @-@ present status after missing the last game of the season against Grays Athletic through injury .
= = = Cambridge United and Mansfield Town = = =
He joined Conference Premier rivals Cambridge United on a two @-@ year contract for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee on 6 August 2008 . His debut came in a 1 – 0 win away to Northwich Victoria on 9 August 2008 , and scored his first goal with a stoppage time winner in a 1 – 0 home win over Lewes on 7 October 2008 . Soon after he was told by manager Gary Brabin to provide more support for the team 's strikers , with Challinor agreeing , saying " It will put the added responsibility on me to start shooting and take some pressure off the forwards . If the midfield can get some goals as well , then that will help the team " . He immediately followed this up with the winning goal against Weymouth in a 1 – 0 home win on 11 October 2008 , coming from a low right @-@ footed shot into the corner from 25 yards .
Challinor 's first sending off for Cambridge came after receiving a second yellow card during a 5 – 0 home defeat to Crawley Town in the FA Trophy second round on 14 January 2009 . He made his return from suspension in a 1 – 1 home draw with Oxford United on 29 January 2009 . Challinor came on as a 79th minute substitute for Paul Carden in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley , in which Torquay United won 2 – 0 . Having struggled to make an impact for Cambridge in the 2008 – 09 season , which he finished with two goals in 39 games , he was transfer @-@ listed .
He was sent out on loan for the start of the 2009 – 10 season to divisional rivals Forest Green Rovers for one month on 7 August 2009 . Challinor made his debut the following day in a 2 – 1 home defeat against Kettering Town , going on to make seven appearances at Forest Green . Forest Green had been interested in taking Challinor on another loan , until appointing a new manager . He left Cambridge on loan again after joining Conference Premier rivals Mansfield Town on a two @-@ month loan on 20 November 2009 . Challinor made a scoring debut for Mansfield with the equalising goal from close range in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Eastbourne Borough on 21 November 2009 . After making six appearances and scoring one goal in his loan spell , Challinor signed permanently for Mansfield for the rest of the season on 6 January 2010 . He was released by Mansfield at the end of the season , having made 15 appearances and scored two goals after signing permanently .
= = = Brackley Town and Newport County = = =
Challinor signed with Southern League Premier Division side Brackley Town in July 2010 , after he had been set to sign for Corby Town of the Conference North , with whom he had been on trial . He then signed for Conference Premier club Newport County on a short @-@ term contract on 30 October 2010 , making his debut later that day as a 28th @-@ minute substitute for Martin John in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Kettering Town , but was himself substituted in the 73rd minute for Robbie Matthews . Challinor scored on his next appearance for Newport , with the winning goal after netting Sam Deering 's cross in the 29th minute of extra time in a 1 – 0 victory away at Wealdstone in an FA Trophy first round replay on 13 December 2010 . He was released by Newport on 30 December 2010 , having made four appearances and scored one goal for the club .
= = = Kettering Town = = =
He joined Conference Premier side Kettering Town on a contract until the end of the 2010 – 11 season on 18 January 2011 . Kettering were fighting against relegation , and Challinor was quoted as saying " We have to stay positive . We know it 's a transitional period for the club and there is a lot going on " . He made his debut later that day as a half @-@ time substitute for Callum Wilson in Kettering 's 2 – 1 loss away to Grimsby Town . His first goal for Kettering came in stoppage time against Southport in a 3 – 1 home victory on 30 April 2011 , having entered the match in the 89th minute . Challinor finished the season with 14 appearances and one goal for Kettering . He agreed to stay at Kettering ahead of the 2011 – 12 season on non @-@ contract terms , in the belief that a permanent contract would later be agreed , and started the season playing in defensive midfield .
= = = York City = = =
On 25 August 2011 , Challinor signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on a contract until January 2012 , having impressed manager Gary Mills when playing against York for Kettering two days earlier . He made his debut a day later , coming on as a 56th @-@ minute substitute for Patrick McLaughlin in a 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood Town . Challinor was soon converted into a right @-@ back at York , a position in which he displayed composure and an ability to start attacking moves . His first goal for York came in a 4 – 2 win away at Hayes & Yeading United on 22 October 2011 with a drilled shot into the bottom right corner of the goal from the edge of the penalty box .
He signed a new contract with York until the end of the season in January 2012 . He featured in the York side that won 2 – 0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley against his former club Newport on 12 May 2012 . Eight days later he again played at Wembley to win promotion to League Two through the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final with a 2 – 1 victory over Luton Town . Thus , Challinor was successful in achieving promotion to the Football League in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final . Having made 51 appearances and scored three goals for York in the 2011 – 12 season , he signed a new one @-@ year contract with the club in July 2012 .
Ahead of Challinor 's first season as a Football League player he was quoted as saying " It 's been a long time coming so I ’ m going to embrace it and enjoy every minute . I think almost every team I have played for has gone on to reach the League so to finally achieve it is a dream come true but it doesn 't end there " . He made his first appearance as a League player in a League Cup first round game away at Doncaster Rovers on 11 August 2012 as an 87th @-@ minute substitute for McLaughlin . York lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 extra time draw , although Challinor was successful in converting his penalty . He finished the 2012 – 13 season with 22 appearances before being released by York on 30 April 2013 .
= = = Return to Stamford and FC Halifax Town = = =
Challinor re @-@ signed for Stamford in August 2013 , after playing for the Northern Premier League Premier Division club during pre @-@ season . After impressive performances throughout December 2013 , which culminated in him being named Stamford 's player of the month , Challinor signed a dual registration deal with Conference Premier team FC Halifax Town on 7 January 2014 . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Wrexham on 11 January 2014 . Challinor made five appearances for FC Halifax before resuming playing for Stamford in February 2014 . He played in the final of the Lincolnshire Senior Cup as Stamford beat Brigg Town 5 – 4 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 3 – 3 draw after extra time on 29 April 2014 . Challinor took over as caretaker manager of Stamford on 5 November 2015 , following the sacking of Andrew Wilson . He remained in charge until the appointment of Graham Drury as manager on 12 November 2015 .
= = International career = =
Challinor was capped twice by the England National Game XI , the team that represents England at non @-@ League level , making his debut against Belgium on 4 November 2003 before making his second appearance against Italy on 11 February 2004 .
= = Personal life = =
Challinor married his wife Lara during the summer of 2007 . As he is a fan of the Star Wars films , The Imperial March was played as part of the ceremony .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 23 April 2016 .
= = Managerial statistics = =
As of 12 November 2015 .
= = Honours = =
York City
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12
FA Trophy : 2011 – 12
Stamford
Lincolnshire Senior Cup : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15
= HMS Glorious =
HMS Glorious was the second of the Courageous @-@ class battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord , Lord Fisher , they were very lightly armoured and armed with only a few heavy guns . Glorious was completed in late 1916 and spent the war patrolling the North Sea . She participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 and was present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered a year later .
Glorious was paid off after the end of the war , but was rebuilt as an aircraft carrier during the late 1920s . She could carry 30 % more aircraft than her half @-@ sister Furious which had approximately the same tonnage . After recommissioning she spent most of her career operating in the Mediterranean Sea . After the start of the Second World War , Glorious spent the rest of 1939 unsuccessfully hunting for the German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean before returning to the Mediterranean . She was recalled in April 1940 to support British operations in Norway . While evacuating British aircraft from Norway in June , the ship was sunk by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in the North Sea with the loss of over 1 @,@ 200 lives .
= = Design and description = =
During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on a design with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .
Glorious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 81 feet ( 24 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 25 feet 10 inches ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 180 long tons ( 19 @,@ 490 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 560 long tons ( 22 @,@ 922 t ) at deep load . Glorious and her sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the Royal Navy with geared turbines , was simply doubled . The Parsons turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers . They were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 113 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . During the ship 's abbreviated sea trials she reached 31 @.@ 42 knots ( 58 @.@ 19 km / h ; 36 @.@ 16 mph ) .
The ship was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 210 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Glorious carried four BL 15 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two twin hydraulically powered Mark I * turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns mounted in six manually powered triple T.I. Mark I mounts . These mounts had the three breeches too close together and the 23 loaders tended to interfere with one another . This rather negated the mount 's intended purpose to provide a high rate of fire against torpedo boats and other smaller craft . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were fitted abreast the mainmast on Glorious . She mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .
= = World War I = =
Her keel was laid down on 1 May 1915 by Harland and Wolff at their Belfast shipyard . Glorious was launched on 20 April 1916 and completed on 14 October 1916 . During her sea trials in November 1916 , Courageous sustained structural damage while running at full speed in a rough head sea and had the damaged areas stiffened shortly afterwards to prevent a recurrence . Glorious did not suffer any similar damage and did not receive her stiffening until 1918 . Upon commissioning , Courageous served with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet . After most of the 1st Cruiser Squadron was sunk at the Battle of Jutland , the squadron was re @-@ formed with Courageous as flagship along with her sister ship Glorious . She cost £ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 223 to build ( costs to 23 Nov 1916 ) . Glorious received a half a dozen torpedo mounts , each with two tubes in mid @-@ 1917 : one mount on each side of the mainmast on the upper deck and two mounts on each side of the rear turret on the quarterdeck .
On 16 October 1917 the Admiralty received word of German ship movements , possibly indicating some sort of raid . Admiral Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed a convoy bound for Norway during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st Cruiser Squadron were ordered to intercept , but were unsuccessful as the German cruisers were faster than expected .
= = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
Throughout 1917 the Admiralty was becoming more concerned about German efforts to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships and the Admiralty decided on a larger operation to destroy the minesweepers and their light cruiser escorts . Based on intelligence reports , the Admiralty allocated the 1st Cruiser Squadron on 17 November 1917 , with cover provided by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and distant cover by the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron .
The German ships , four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight sperrbrecher ( cork @-@ filled trawlers ) and two trawlers to mark the swept route , were spotted at 7 : 30 am , silhouetted by the rising sun . Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying a smoke screen and this made spotting targets very difficult . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers as opportunity permitted . One 15 @-@ inch hit was made on a gun shield of SMS Pillau , but it did not affect her speed . At 8 : 33 the left @-@ hand gun in Glorious 's forward turret was wrecked when a shell detonated inside the gun barrel . At 9 : 30 the 1st Cruiser Squadron broke off their pursuit so they would not enter a minefield marked on their maps ; the ships turned south , playing no further role in the battle .
Glorious required five days of repairs to right the damage caused from the premature detonation and from her own muzzle blast . She fired 57 15 @-@ inch and 213 4 @-@ inch shells during the engagement . The ship received flying @-@ off platforms on top of her turrets in 1918 . A Sopwith Camel was carried on the rear turret and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on the forward turret . She was present at the surrender of the German fleet on 21 November 1918 . Glorious was reduced to reserve at Rosyth on 1 February 1919 and served as a turret drill ship , being also flagship of the Rear @-@ Admiral Commanding the Devonport Reserve between 1921 and 1922 .
= = Conversion = =
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 severely limited the amount of capital ship tonnage and the Royal Navy was forced to scrap many of its older battleships and battlecruisers . However up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 059 t ) of existing ships could be converted into aircraft carriers , for which the Courageous @-@ class ships ' combination of a large hull and high speed made them an ideal candidate for conversion . Glorious began her conversion at Rosyth in 1924 , but was towed to Devonport for completion , and she was re @-@ commissioned on 24 February 1930 . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 29 @.@ 47 knots ( 54 @.@ 58 km / h ; 33 @.@ 91 mph ) . Her fifteen @-@ inch turrets were placed into storage and later reused during World War II for HMS Vanguard , the Royal Navy 's last battleship .
Her new design improved on her half @-@ sister HMS Furious which lacked an island and a conventional funnel . All superstructure , guns , torpedo tubes , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar , each level 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long , was built on top of the remaining hull ; the upper hangar level opened on to a short flying @-@ off deck , below and forward of the main flight deck . The flying @-@ off deck improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility until new fighters requiring longer takeoff rolls made the lower deck obsolete in the 1930s . Two 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 m × 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island with the bridge , flying control station , and funnel was added on the starboard side as islands had been found not to contribute significantly to turbulence . By 1939 the ship could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft .
Glorious received a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark VIII guns in single High @-@ Angle Mark XII mounts . One mount was on each side of the lower flight deck and a pair was on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of the ship . During her 1935 refit , Glorious received three octuple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom Mark VI mounts , one on each side of the flying @-@ off deck , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one behind the island on the flight deck . She also received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine guns in a single quadruple mounting .
Glorious recommissioned on 24 February 1930 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , but was attached to the Home Fleet from March to June 1930 . She relieved Courageous in the Mediterranean Fleet in June 1930 and remained there until October 1939 . In a fog on 1 April 1931 Glorious rammed the French ocean liner Florida amidships while steaming at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The impact crumpled 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) of the flying @-@ off deck and killed 1 seaman aboard Glorious and 24 passengers and crew aboard Florida . Glorious was forced to put into Gibraltar to temporary repairs . She had to sail to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted until September 1931 . Sometime in the early 1930s , traverse arresting gear was installed . She was refitted at Devonport from July 1934 to July 1935 where she received two hydraulic accelerators ( catapults ) on her upper flight deck , which was also extended to the rear , her quarterdeck was raised one deck and she received her multiple pom @-@ pom mounts . Glorious participated in the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI before returning to the Mediterranean .
= = = Air group = = =
Glorious could carry up to 48 aircraft ; when first recommissioned , she carried Fairey Flycatcher fighters , Blackburn Dart and Blackburn Ripon torpedo bombers , and Fairey IIIF reconnaissance planes of the Fleet Air Arm . From 1933 until Glorious returned to the United Kingdom in April 1940 , aside from a period when refitting in the mid @-@ 1930s , she carried 802 Squadron which flew a mixture of nine Hawker Nimrod and three Hawker Osprey fighters , until re @-@ equipping with a dozen Gloster Sea Gladiators in May 1939 . 812 and 823 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ ship attack missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as Fairey IIIF and Fairey Seal reconnaissance aircraft . When Glorious recommissioned after her refit in 1935 825 Squadron was embarked , initially with Fairey IIIFs , but the squadron converted to Fairey Swordfish in May 1936 .
= = World War II = =
Glorious served briefly with the Mediterranean Fleet for a time after World War II broke out . In October 1939 , she moved through the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean where she became part of Force J which was organized to hunt for the Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean . It was not successful and Glorious remained in the Indian Ocean until December when she returned to the Mediterranean .
= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =
She was recalled to the Home Fleet in April 1940 to provide air cover for British forces landing in Norway . Eighteen Gloster Gladiators of No. 263 Squadron RAF were flown aboard to be transferred to Norwegian airbases . Eleven Blackburn Skuas of 803 Squadron , plus eighteen Sea Gladiators from 802 and 804 Squadrons were also embarked . Glorious and Ark Royal arrived off central Norway on 24 April where 263 Squadron was flown off and their own aircraft attacked targets in and south of Trondheim before Glorious had to return to Scapa Flow late on 27 April to refuel and embark new aircraft . Glorious 's Sea Gladiators provided air cover for the two carriers . They damaged one Heinkel He 111 bomber on a reconnaissance mission . Before departing she transferred four serviceable Skuas to Ark Royal . She returned on 1 May , but had been unable to load many new aircraft because of poor weather . Only a dozen Swordfish of 823 Squadron , three Skuas and one Blackburn Roc managed to be flown aboard . The task force was under heavy air attack by the Luftwaffe all day and was withdrawn that evening . One Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber was shot down after it dropped its bomb by the Sea Gladiators on patrol .
Glorious returned on 18 May with six Supermarine Walrus amphibious flying boats of 701 Squadron and 18 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF . The latter aircraft had been loaded aboard by crane . The Walruses were quickly flown off to Harstad , but the airfield at Skånland was not yet ready for the Hurricanes and they were still aboard when Glorious returned to Scapa on 21 May . Glorious came back to the Narvik area on 26 May and the Hurricanes were quickly flown off .
However , even this success proved to be ephemeral and British forces were ordered withdrawn a few days later . The evacuation ( Operation Alphabet ) began in the north on the night of 3 / 4 June and Glorious arrived off the coast on 2 June to provide support although she only carried nine Sea Gladiators of 802 and six Swordfish from 823 Squadrons for self @-@ defence as it was hoped to evacuate the RAF fighters if at all possible . Ten Gladiators of 263 Squadron were flown aboard during the afternoon of 7 June and the Hurricanes of 46 Squadron were also flown aboard without any significant problems in the early evening despite having a much higher landing speed than the biplanes . These had been flown off from land bases to keep them from being destroyed in the evacuation after the pilots discovered that a 7 @-@ kilogram ( 15 lb ) sandbag carried in the rear of the Hurricane allowed full brakes to be applied immediately on landing . This was the first time that high performance monoplanes without tailhooks had been landed on an aircraft carrier .
= = = The sinking = = =
The commanding officer of Glorious , Captain Guy D 'Oyly @-@ Hughes , was a former submariner who had been executive officer of Courageous for ten months . He was granted permission to proceed independently to Scapa Flow in the early hours of 8 June to hold a court @-@ martial of his Commander ( Air ) , J. B. Heath , who had refused an order to carry out an attack on shore targets on the grounds that the targets were at best ill @-@ defined and his aircraft were unsuited to the task , and who had been left behind in Scapa to await trial . On the way through the Norwegian Sea the funnel smoke from Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , Acasta and Ardent , was spotted by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau at about 3 : 46 pm . The German ships were not spotted until shortly after 4 : 00 and Ardent was dispatched to investigate . Glorious did not alter course or increase speed . Five Swordfish were ordered to the flight deck but Action Stations was not ordered until 4 : 20 . No combat air patrol was being flown , no aircraft were ready on the deck for quick take @-@ off and there was no lookout in Glorious 's crow 's nest . Scharnhorst opened fire on Ardent at 4 : 27 at a range of about 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , causing the destroyer to withdraw , firing torpedoes and making a smoke screen . Ardent scored one hit with her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) guns on Scharnhorst but was hit several times by the German ships ' secondary armament and sank at about 5 : 25 .
Scharnhorst switched her fire to Glorious at 4 : 32 and scored her first hit six minutes later on her third salvo , at an approximate range of 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , when one 28 @.@ 3 @-@ centimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) hit the forward flight deck and burst in the upper hangar , starting a large fire . This hit destroyed two Swordfish being prepared for flight and the hole in the flight deck prevented any other aircraft from taking off . Splinters penetrated a boiler casing and caused a temporary drop in steam pressure . At 4 : 58 a second shell hit the homing beacon above the bridge and killed or wounded the captain and most of the personnel stationed there . The smokescreen became effective enough to impair the visibility of the Germans from about 4 : 58 to 5 : 20 so they ceased fire on Glorious .
Glorious was hit again in the centre engine room at around 5 : 20 and this caused her to lose speed and commence a slow circle to port . She also developed a list to starboard . The German ships closed to within 16 @,@ 000 yards and continued to fire at her until about 5 : 40 . Glorious sank at about 6 : 10 , approximately at 68 ° 38 ′ N 03 ° 50 ′ E , with only 43 survivors .
As the German ships approached Glorious , the destroyer Acasta , which had been trying to maintain the smokescreen , broke through her own smoke and fired two volleys of torpedoes at Scharnhorst . One of these hit the battleship at 5 : 34 abreast her rear turret and badly damaged her . Acasta also managed one hit from her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns on Scharnhorst , but was riddled by German gunfire and sank at around 6 : 20 .
According to Winton , survivors ' estimates were that about 900 men abandoned Glorious . The German ships did not try to save survivors . The Royal Navy knew nothing of the sinking until it was announced on German radio . The Norwegian ship Borgund , on passage to the Faroe Islands , arrived late on June 10 and picked up survivors , eventually delivering 37 alive to Thorshavn of whom two died . Another Norwegian ship , Svalbard II , also making for the Faeroes , picked up five survivors but was sighted by a German aircraft and forced to return to Norway , where the four still alive became prisoners of war for the next five years . It is also believed that one more survivor from Glorious was rescued by a German seaplane . Therefore , the total of survivors was 40 , including one each from Acasta and Ardent . The total killed or missing was 1 @,@ 207 from Glorious , 160 from Acasta and 152 from Ardent , a total of 1 @,@ 519 .
The disaster and the failure to mount an effective rescue was clearly an embarrassment for the Royal Navy . All ships encountering the enemy should routinely broadcast a sighting report , and so the lack of a sighting report from Glorious was eventually raised in the House of Commons . It later became known that the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire had passed within 30 – 50 miles of the battle , flying the flag of Vice Admiral John Cunningham , who was carrying out orders to evacuate the Norwegian Royal Family to the UK and maintain radio silence . Some surviving eyewitnesses from Glorious and HMS Devonshire later testified that the sighting report had been correctly sent , and received by HMS Devonshire , but that it had been suppressed by Cunningham , who departed at high speed in accordance with his orders . It has also been alleged by Howland that there was some confusion over the use of wireless telegraphy frequencies on board Glorious which could have contributed to the failure of any other ship or shore @-@ station to receive a sighting report . Howland also cites the absence of normal airborne patrols over Glorious and its attendant destroyers , in conditions of maximum visibility , as a contributory factor to the sinking of Glorious and her escorts .
= = = Memorials = = =
For many years the only memorial to the seamen lost in the three ships was a stained @-@ glass window in the church of St Peter Martindale in Cumbria , on the east side of Ullswater . On 8 June 2010 , 70 years after the loss of Glorious , Acasta and Ardent , a memorial plaque inscribed in English and Norwegian was unveiled near the Trondenes Historical Centre in Harstad , Norway , the two destroyers ' last port of call .
= = Acclaimed model = =
A model of HMS Glorious by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough , built for the Royal United Services Museum , is now on display in the Fleet Air Arm Museum at RNAS Yeovilton .
= Morgan dollar =
The Morgan dollar was a United States dollar coin minted from 1878 to 1904 , and then again in 1921 . It was the first standard silver dollar minted since production of the previous design , the Seated Liberty dollar , ceased due to the passage of the Coinage Act of 1873 , which also ended the free coining of silver . The coin is named after its designer , United States Mint Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . The obverse depicts a profile portrait representing Liberty , while the reverse depicts an eagle with wings outstretched .
The dollar was authorized by the Bland – Allison Act . Following the passage of the 1873 act , mining interests lobbied to restore free silver , which would require the Mint to accept all silver presented to it and return it , struck into coin . Instead , the Bland – Allison Act was passed , which required the Treasury to purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver at market value to be coined into dollars each month . In 1890 , the Bland – Allison Act was repealed by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which required the Treasury to purchase 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) of silver each month , but only required further silver dollar production for one year . This act , once again , was repealed in 1893 .
In 1898 , Congress approved a bill that required all remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act to be coined into silver dollars . When those silver reserves were depleted in 1904 , the Mint ceased to strike the Morgan dollar . The Pittman Act , passed in 1918 , authorized the melting and recoining of millions of silver dollars . Pursuant to the act , Morgan dollars resumed mintage for one year in 1921 . The design was replaced by the Peace dollar later the same year .
In the early 1960s , a large quantity of unissued Morgan dollars was found to be available from Treasury vaults , including issues once thought rare . Individuals began purchasing large quantities of the pieces at face value , and eventually the Treasury ceased exchanging silver certificates for silver coin . Beginning in the 1970s , the Treasury conducted a sale of silver dollars minted at the Carson City Mint through the General Services Administration . In 2006 , Morgan 's reverse design was used on a silver dollar issued to commemorate the old San Francisco Mint building .
= = Background = =
In 1873 , Congress enacted the Fourth Coinage Act , which effectively ended the bimetallic standard in the United States by demonetizing silver bullion . Prior to enactment of the Coinage Act , silver could be brought to the mints and coined into legal tender for a small fee . With such a system in place , bullion producers could have silver coined into dollars when the intrinsic value of a silver dollar was lower than the face value , thus making a profit , flooding the money supply and causing inflation . The act ended production of the standard silver dollar ( then the Seated Liberty dollar , as designed by Christian Gobrecht ) and provided for mintage of a silver trade dollar , which was intended to compete with Mexican dollars for use in the Orient . Under the act , bullion producers were allowed to bring bullion to the mints in order to be cast into bars or coined into the newly authorized trade dollars for a small fee . Trade dollars initially held legal tender status , but it was revoked in 1876 to prevent bullion producers from making a profit by coining silver into trade dollars when the value of the metal was low . The restrictions on free coinage laid out in the Coinage Act initially met little resistance from mining interests until the price of silver declined rapidly due to increased mining in the Western United States . Protests also came from bankers , manufacturers and farmers , who felt an increased money supply would have a positive impact . Groups were formed that demanded the free coinage of silver ( or " free silver " ) in order to inflate the dollar following the Panic of 1873 .
Beginning in 1876 , several bills were introduced in the House of Representatives in an effort to resume the free coinage of silver . One such bill introduced into the House by Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri was passed in the fall of 1876 . Republican senator William B. Allison of Iowa added important amendments to the bill in the Senate . The House bill allowed Free Silver ; one of Allison 's amendments struck that provision . This same amendment allowed for the issuance of silver certificates for the first time in United States history . The bill was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes . The president 's veto was overridden on February 28 , 1878 . What came to be known as the Bland – Allison Act required that the Treasury purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver per month , to be coined into silver dollars at the former gold / silver value ratio of 16 : 1 , meaning that one ounce of gold would be valued the same as sixteen ounces of silver .
= = Design history = =
In 1876 , Director of the Mint Henry Linderman began efforts to redesign the nation 's silver coins . Linderman contacted C.W. Fremantle , Deputy Master of the Royal Mint in London , requesting him to " find a first class die @-@ sinker who would be willing to take the position of Assistant Engraver at the Mint at Philadelphia . " In response to Linderman 's request , Fremantle wrote " My inquiries as to an Assistant Engraver lead me very strongly to recommend for the post Mr. George Morgan , age 30 , who has made himself a considerable name , but for whom there is not much opening at present in this country . " An agreement was reached between Linderman and Morgan for the engraver to work at the Philadelphia Mint under Chief Engraver William Barber on a six @-@ month trial basis .
Morgan arrived in Philadelphia on October 9 , 1876 . His earliest pattern coins designed during his tenure at the Philadelphia Mint were intended for the half dollar . In 1876 , Morgan enrolled as a student at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts to prepare to create a new Liberty head design . Morgan also obtained studies from nature of the bald eagle for preparation of the reverse design . For the representation of Liberty , Morgan sought to depict an American woman rather than the usual Greek – style figures . Morgan 's friend , artist Thomas Eakins , suggested he use Anna Willess Williams of Philadelphia as a model . In total , Morgan had five sittings with Williams ; he declared her profile to be the most perfect he had seen .
On October 18 , 1877 , Linderman requested Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint James Pollock to " instruct Mr. Morgan to prepare without delay , dies for a silver dollar , the designs , inscriptions , and arrangement thereof to be the same as the enclosed impression for the Half Dollar and numbered ' 2' substituting the words ' one dollar ' in place of ' half dollar ' " . Linderman also ordered Pollock to " instruct Mr. Barber to prepare a reverse die for a dollar with a representation of an eagle as well as the inscriptions required by law . He will select whichever of his Heads of Liberty he prefers for the obverse of the same . " Linderman evidently preferred the designs of Morgan over those of the Chief Engraver ; he wrote Pollock on February 21 , 1878 , " I have now to state for your information , that it is my intention , in the event of the silver bill now pending in Congress , becoming law , to request the approval by the Secretary of the Treasury , of the dies prepared by Mr. Morgan . "
= = Production = =
Production of the coins did not commence until March 11 , more than a week after the passage of the Bland – Allison Act . The first acceptable strike , after adjustments to the press , was coined at 3 : 17 p.m. at the Philadelphia Mint . This piece was given to President Hayes ; the second and third were given to Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman and to Mint Director Henry Linderman .
Linderman desired to involve the western mints of San Francisco and Carson City in production in order to help reach the monthly quota necessary under the Bland – Allison Act . Pressure was so great at the Philadelphia Mint that it halted production of all other coins and began operating overtime . Use of the western mints was delayed , however , as all dies were prepared at the Philadelphia Mint , and it was believed that the Western mints did not have the proper equipment to prepare the dies for use . During the second week of production , Linderman pointed out what he called a " slight imperfection " in the dies for the dollar . The reason for the changes was to reduce the relief of the designs and to change the number of tail feathers on the eagle from eight to seven ; this was done because all prior United States coinage depicted the bald eagle as having an odd number of tail feathers . The high relief had caused the dies to have a shorter life . Dies were eventually sent to the Western mints , arriving in both San Francisco and Carson City on April 16 , 1878 . The New Orleans Mint began striking the new silver dollars in 1879 .
The Denver Mint , established in 1906 , struck the coins for only one year , in 1921 . The mint marks appearing on the coins are none , representing Philadelphia , " CC " for Carson City , " S " for San Francisco , " O " for New Orleans and " D " for Denver . In order to conform to the Coinage Act of 1837 , the Morgan dollar contained ninety percent silver and ten percent copper , measured 38 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 50 in ) in diameter and weighed 412 @.@ 5 grains ( 26 @.@ 73 g ) .
= = Sherman Silver Purchase Act , Panic of 1893 = =
Mintage of the Morgan dollar remained relatively steady until the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act on July 14 , 1890 . The act , authored by Ohio senator and former Treasury secretary John Sherman , forced the Treasury to increase the amount of silver purchased to 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) each month . Supporters of the act believed that an increase in the amount of silver purchased would result in inflation , helping to relieve the nation 's farmers . The act also received support from mining interests because such large purchases would cause the price of silver to rise and increase their profits . Despite the Act 's requiring large purchases of silver indefinitely , it provided that the Mint must coin 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars each month only until 1891 . Since the Treasury already had a surplus of silver dollars , minting of dollars dropped sharply beginning in 1892 . The silver that remained after mintage of the dollars was used to mint dimes , quarters and half dollars .
Beginning early in 1893 , a number of industrial firms , including the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Company went bankrupt . The resulting bank runs and failures became known as the Panic of 1893 . In June of that year , President Grover Cleveland , who believed that the Panic was caused by the inflation generated by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , called a special session of Congress in order to repeal it . The act was repealed on November 1 , 1893 . On June 13 , 1898 , Congress ordered the coining of all the remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act into silver dollars . Silver dollar production rose again , until the bullion was exhausted in 1904 , when it ceased .
= = Pittman Act = =
The German government began a propaganda campaign during World War I to discredit the United Kingdom 's currency in India . The Germans convinced Indian citizens that British banknotes in that country could not be redeemed for silver . This led to a run on the British supply of silver . In response , United States Democratic senator Key Pittman of Nevada introduced legislation in 1918 that was intended to offer financial relief to the British government . The bill , passed on April 22 , 1918 , stated that " sales of silver bullion under authority of this act may be made for the purpose of conserving the existing stock of gold in the United States , of providing silver for subsidiary coinage and for commercial use , and of assisting foreign governments at war with the enemies of the United States " . The Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to melt up to 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars , and this commenced immediately after the Act 's passage . The U.S. eventually melted a total of 270 @,@ 232 @,@ 722 silver dollars . Of that amount , 259 @,@ 121 @,@ 554 were sold to the United Kingdom at the cost of one dollar per troy ounce .
The U.S. only minted the Morgan dollar again during 1921 , the only year in which Morgan dollars were struck at the Denver mint . Since the Treasury had destroyed the obsolete Morgan dollar dies in 1910 , Morgan had to create an entirely new master die . Another provision of the Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to mint a replacement coin for every silver dollar melted . During the same year , the Peace dollar was first issued to commemorate the end of World War I. The Peace dollar was supposedly minted to replace the Morgan dollar under the terms of the Pittman Act but without congressional authorization , despite the fact that the Act did not describe the coin design . The change in design was actually authorized under an 1890 act of Congress , which stated :
But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design , model , die , or hub for the same coin :
Provided , That no change be made in the diameter of any coin :
And provided further , That nothing in this section shall prevent the adoption of new designs or models for devices or emblems already authorized for the standard silver dollar and the five @-@ cent nickel piece as soon as practicable after the passage of this act .
= = Carson City Mint Morgan dollars = =
Until 1964 , U.S. citizens could redeem paper money known as silver certificates for silver dollars at a U.S. Treasury mint on demand . In 1962 , an individual redeemed a silver certificate and received a rare and valuable Morgan dollar in exchange . The coin was from a bag of silver dollars in the vault of the Philadelphia Mint . This incident triggered huge interest , and between November 1962 and March 1964 , millions of Morgan and Peace dollars were sold to the general public . The demand to exchange silver certificates for silver dollars was so great that lines formed outside of the Treasury Building in Washington , D.C. Some people in line were pushing wheelbarrows . The U.S. Treasury discovered previously unknown mint bags of Carson City dollars in its vaults containing slightly more than 2 @.@ 8 million Carson City silver dollars in the Treasury vaults . Treasury officials decided to hold them back because the total number of coins minted at the Carson City mint were generally lower than others .
On May 12 , 1969 , the Joint Commission on Coinage held a meeting in order to determine the best way to sell the Carson City @-@ minted dollars earlier held back by Treasury officials . They recommended a mail bid sale . Legislation was passed on December 31 , 1970 directing the Treasury to transfer the silver dollars to the Administrator of General Services who was given the responsibility for marketing and selling the coins . The legislation also stated that all proceeds from the sale were to be " covered into the Treasury as miscellaneous receipts . " Congress supplied the General Services Administration with $ 10 million to market the dollar coins . Advertising consisted of posters and brochures distributed to post offices , banks and various financial institutions , as well as television documentaries . The coins were sorted and mounted in small plastic display cases . The GSA conducted a total of seven mail bid sales between 1972 and 1980 . In total , the sales generated $ 107 million in revenue .
= = San Francisco commemorative dollar = =
On June 15 , 2006 , legislation was approved that provided for the minting of a silver dollar and a five dollar gold coin in " commemoration of the Old Mint at San Francisco , " with surcharges to be given to the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society in an effort to rehabilitate the Old Mint . In total , 100 @,@ 000 gold and 500 @,@ 000 silver commemorative coins were authorized . Authorization came at the behest of several hobby publications , who enlisted readers to contact their local congressmen and persuade them to pass necessary legislation . The designs approved for the silver dollar bear a left @-@ frontal view of the Old Mint building and a copy of Morgan 's eagle design on the obverse and reverse , respectively . Mint artist Joseph Menna made a new model for the reverse , employing a 1904 San Francisco @-@ minted dollar as his model .
= Keswick , Cumbria =
Keswick ( / ˈkɛzᵻk / ) is an English market town and civil parish , historically in Cumberland , and since 1974 in the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria . The town , in the Lake District National Park , just north of Derwentwater , and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Bassenthwaite , had a population of 4 @,@ 821 at the time of the 2011 census .
There is considerable evidence of prehistoric occupation of the Keswick area , but the first recorded mention of the town dates from the 13th century , when Edward I of England granted a charter for Keswick 's market , which has maintained a continuous 700 @-@ year existence . In Tudor times the town was an important mining area , and from the 18th century onwards it has increasingly been known as a holiday centre ; tourism has been its principal industry for more than 150 years . Its features include the Moot Hall ; a modern theatre , the Theatre by the Lake ; one of Britain 's oldest surviving cinemas , the Alhambra ; and the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery in the town 's largest open space , Fitz Park . Among the town 's annual events is the Keswick Convention , an Evangelical gathering attracting visitors from many countries .
Keswick became widely known for its association with the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey . Together with their fellow Lake Poet William Wordsworth , based at Grasmere , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away , they made the scenic beauty of the area widely known to readers in Britain and beyond . In the late 19th century and into the 20th , Keswick was the focus of several important initiatives by the growing conservation movement , often led by Hardwicke Rawnsley , vicar of the nearby Crosthwaite parish and co @-@ founder of the National Trust , which has built up extensive holdings in the area .
= = Name = =
The town is first recorded in Edward I 's charter of the 13th century , as " Kesewik " . Scholars have generally considered the name to be from the Old English , meaning " farm where cheese is made " , the word deriving from " cēse " ( cheese ) with a Scandinavian initial " k " and " wīc " ( special place or dwelling ) , although not all academics agree . George Flom of the University of Illinois ( 1919 ) rejected that derivation on the grounds that a town in the heart of Viking @-@ settled areas , as Keswick was , would not have been given a Saxon name ; he proposed instead that the word is of Danish or Norse origin , and means " Kell 's place at the bend of the river " . Among the later scholars supporting the " cheese farm " toponymy are Eilert Ekwall ( 1960 ) and A D Mills ( 2011 ) ( both Oxford University Press ) , and Diana Whaley ( 2006 ) , for the English Place @-@ Name Society .
= = Prehistory = =
Evidence of prehistoric occupation in the area includes the Castlerigg stone circle on the eastern fringe of the town , which has been dated to between 3000 and 2500 BC . Neolithic @-@ era stone tools were unearthed inside the circle and in the centre of Keswick during the 19th century . The antiquary W G Collingwood , commenting in 1925 about finds in the area , wrote that they showed " Stone Age man was fairly at home in the Lake District " . There is little evidence of sustained settlement in the area during the Bronze Age , but from excavations of hill forts it is clear that there was some Iron Age occupation , circa 500 BC , although scholars are not agreed about how permanent it was .
In Roman Britain Cumbria was the territory of the Carvetii . As the site of the western part of Hadrian 's Wall , it was of strategic importance . The north of the county is rich in archaeological evidence from the period , but nothing is known that suggests any Roman habitation in the Keswick area , other than finds that point to the existence of one or more Roman highways passing the vicinity of the present @-@ day town . Such nearby settlements as can be traced from the era of the Romans and the years after their departure seem to have been predominantly Celtic . Many local place names from the period , including that of the River Derwent , are Celtic , some closely related to Welsh equivalents .
Several Christian saints preached the Gospel in the north of England in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD ; in Keswick and the surrounding area the most important figures were St Herbert of Derwentwater and his contemporary St Kentigern . The former , the pupil and friend of St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , lived as a hermit on an island in Derwentwater , now named after him . Kentigern , who lived and preached in the area before moving to Wales , is traditionally held to have founded Crosthwaite Church , which was the parish church of Keswick until the 19th century .
= = History = =
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Keswick 's recorded history starts in the Middle Ages . The area was conquered by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria in the seventh century , but Northumbria was destroyed by the Vikings in the late ninth . In the early tenth century the British Kingdom of Strathclyde seized the area , and it remained part of Strathclyde until about 1050 , when Siward , Earl of Northumbria , conquered Cumbria . In 1092 William II of England , son of William the Conqueror , marched north and established the great baronies of Allerdale @-@ below @-@ Derwent , Allerdale @-@ above @-@ Derwent , and Greystoke , the borders of which met at Keswick . In 1181 Jocelyn of Furness wrote of a new church at Crosthwaite , Keswick , founded by Alice de Romilly , the Lady of Allerdale , a direct descendant of William II 's original barons . In 1189 , Richard I granted the rectory of Crosthwaite to the Cistercian order of Fountains Abbey .
During the 13th century , agricultural land around the town was acquired by Fountains and Furness Abbeys . The latter , already prosperous from the wool trade , wished to expand its sheep farming , and in 1208 bought large tracts of land from Alice de Romilly . She also negotiated with Fountains Abbey , to which she sold Derwent Island in Derwentwater , land at Watendlath , the mill at Crosthwaite and other land in Borrowdale . Keswick was at the hub of the monastic farms in the area , and Fountains based a steward in the town , where tenants paid their rents . Furness also enjoyed profitable rights to the extraction of iron ore .
Keswick was granted a charter for a market in 1276 by Edward I. This market has an uninterrupted history lasting for more than 700 years . The pattern of buildings around the market square remained broadly the same from this period until at least the late 18th century , with houses – originally timber @-@ framed – fronting the square , and sturdily enclosed gardens or yards at the back . According to local tradition these stout walls and the narrow entrances to the yards were for defence against marauding Scots . In the event it appears that the town escaped such attacks , Scottish raiders finding richer and more accessible targets at Carlisle and the fertile Eden Valley , well to the north of Keswick .
= = = 16th and 17th centuries : agriculture and industry = = =
With the Dissolution of the Monasteries , between 1536 and 1541 , Furness and Fountains Abbeys were supplanted by new secular landlords for the farmers of Keswick and its neighbourhood . The buying and selling of sheep and wool were no longer centred on the great Abbeys , being handled locally by the new landowners and tenants . This enhanced Keswick 's importance as a market centre , though at first the town remained only modestly prosperous : in the 1530s John Leland wrote of it as " a lytle poore market town " . By the second half of the century copper mining had made Keswick richer : in 1586 William Camden wrote of " these copper works not only being sufficient for all England , but great quantities of the copper exported every year " with , at the centre , " Keswicke , a small market town , many years famous for the copper works as appears from a charter of king Edward IV , and at present inhabited by miners . "
Earlier copper mining had been small in scale , but Elizabeth I , concerned for the defence of her kingdom , required large quantities of copper for the manufacture of weapons and the strengthening of warships . There was the additional advantage for her that the Crown was entitled to royalties on metals extracted from English land . The experts in copper mining were German , and Elizabeth secured the services of Daniel Hechstetter of Augsburg , to whom she granted a licence to " search , dig , try , roast and melt all manner of mines and ores of gold , silver , copper and quicksilver " in the Keswick area and elsewhere .
As well as copper , a new substance was found , extracted and exploited : this was variously called wad , black lead , plumbago or black cauke , and is now known as graphite . Many uses were quickly discovered for the mineral : it reduced friction in machinery , made a heat @-@ resistant glaze for crucibles , and when used to line moulds for cannonballs , resulted in rounder , smoother balls that could be fired further by English naval cannon . Later , from the second half of the 18th century , it was used to make pencils , for which Keswick became famous .
The copper mines prospered for about seventy years , but by the early 17th century the industry was in decline . Demand for copper fell and the cost of extracting it was high . Graphite mining continued , and quarrying for slate began to grow in importance . Other small @-@ scale industries grew up , such as tannery and weaving . Although the boom of the mid @-@ 16th century had finished , the town 's economy did not slide into ruin , and the population remained generally constant at a little under 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries : beginnings of tourism = = =
The historian George Bott regards John Dalton ( 1709 – 63 ) and John Brown ( 1715 – 66 ) as the pioneers of tourism in the Lake District . Both wrote works praising the majesty of the scenery , and their enthusiasm prompted others to visit the area . The poet Thomas Gray published an account of a five @-@ day stay in Keswick in 1769 , in which he described the view of the town as " the vale of Elysium in all its verdure " , and was lyrical about the beauties of the fells and the lake . His journal was widely read , and was , in Bott 's phrase , " an effective public relations job for Keswick . " Painters such as Thomas Smith of Derby and William Bellers also contributed to the influx of visitors ; engravings of their paintings of Cumberland scenery sold in large numbers , further enhancing the fame of the area . In 1800 the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote , " It is no small advantage that for two @-@ thirds of the year we are in complete retirement – the other third is alive & swarms with Tourists of all shapes & sizes . " Coleridge had moved to Keswick in that year , and together with his fellow Lake Poets ( see below ) was possibly the strongest influence on the public esteem of Keswick and the Lake District .
During the 18th century and into the 19th , turnpike trusts were established and major roads in Cumberland were greatly improved . With the Lake District now accessible by coach the area attracted well @-@ off visitors , particularly at times of war in mainland Europe , which made the aristocratic Grand Tour impossible there . Regular public coach services were established in the 1760s , but they were expensive . The ten @-@ hour journey from Whitehaven to Penrith via Keswick cost 12 shillings ( equivalent to 60 pence ) , at a time when country labourers typically earned £ 24 a year or less , and the annual income of even the most prosperous tenant farmers was rarely more than £ 200 . Nonetheless , by the 19th century the number of tourists visiting Keswick during each season was estimated at between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 . Some of the Keswick inns that catered for affluent visitors remain as hotels , including the Queen 's , where Gray stayed .
The construction of the railways in the mid @-@ 19th century made the Lake District , and Keswick in particular , more accessible to visitors of modest means . The original impetus for building the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway ( CKP ) line came from heavy industry : the new Bessemer process of steelmaking brought a great demand for the rich iron ore from west Cumberland and the coking coal from Durham on the east side of the country . The CKP was built to enable ore and coal to be brought together at steel foundries in both counties . The line opened for goods traffic in 1864 , and the following year it began to carry passengers . Fares varied , but holidaymakers could buy excursion tickets at discounted prices , such as six shillings for the 170 @-@ mile return journey from Preston to Keswick .
In addition to its growing importance as a tourist centre , Keswick developed a reputation for its manufacture of pencils during the 19th century . It had begun on a modest scale in or about 1792 , as a cottage industry , using graphite mined locally . This developed on more industrial lines in factories purpose @-@ built by several companies . Pencil making was the town 's most important manufacturing industry by the mid @-@ 19th century , textiles and leather goods having declined .
The Moot Hall was rebuilt in 1813 , and the lower floor was used as a market house on Saturdays . Coal gas was supplied by a gas works from 1846 ; the Keswick library opened in 1849 ; a water works began operation in 1856 ; and Keswick police station opened in 1857 . The local weekly newspaper , The Keswick Reminder was founded in 1896 , and in 2014 continues to be published every Friday . In an article in The Observer in 1978 , Christopher Brasher wrote that as long as the Reminder flourishes , " there will be one corner of these islands that is forever England . "
In 1883 Hardwicke Rawnsley was appointed vicar of Crosthwaite . In a study of Lake District towns in 1974 , H A L Rice commented that to write about Keswick without mentioning Rawnsley would be the equivalent of writing about Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon without mentioning Shakespeare , so great was Rawnsley 's impact on the town . He and his wife set up classes to teach metalwork and wood carving ; these grew into the Keswick School of Industrial Art , which trained local craftsmen and -women from 1894 until it closed in 1986 . He revived the ancient May Day festival in the town , and was a leading figure in the establishment of Keswick School , Blencathra Sanatorium and the County Farm School . As co @-@ founder of the National Trust , Rawnsley contributed to Keswick 's continued growth as a tourist centre , with the acquisition by the Trust of many acres of popular scenic land around Derwentwater , beginning with Brandelhow Wood in 1902 .
= = = 20th century and beyond = = =
Keswick 's history throughout the 20th century was one of increasing reliance on tourism , the pencil industry being the second largest source of employment . The Cumberland Pencil Company , formed at the turn of the century , occupied a large factory near the River Greta on the road leading out of Keswick towards Cockermouth . The conservation movement continued to develop ; Rawnsley led successful campaigns to save the medieval Greta and Portinscale bridges from replacement with ferro @-@ concrete structures ; and the National Trust continued to acquire land locally . In the First World War Keswick lost many of its young men : the war memorial near Fitz Park commemorates 117 names , from a population at the time of less than 4 @,@ 500 . By the 1930s Keswick was firmly established as the main centre of tourism in Cumberland and Westmorland . An article in The Manchester Guardian in 1934 called it " the capital of the Lake District " , and continued :
Keswick 's chief industry is to promote the contentment and happiness of its visitors . Its pleasant position provides at the outset a tonic atmosphere ... it is set in the most delightful part of a delightful district , described by Wordsworth as " the loveliest spot that ever man has found . " There are numerous places of interest and fine shops , and good accommodation is offered to visitors at reasonable prices . Keswick is the best centre from which to visit Lakeland .
During the Second World War students from St Katharine 's College , Liverpool and Roedean School , Sussex , were evacuated to Keswick when their own buildings were requisitioned for use as a hospital and a navy base respectively . Students were also brought to the safety of Keswick from Central Newcastle High School , Hunmanby Hall School , Yorkshire , and the Liverpool Orphanage .
The creation of the Lake District National Park in 1951 , with strict control over new development , prevented any expansion of the town beyond its pre @-@ war borders . Keswick 's population has remained stable at a little below 5 @,@ 000 residents . The town 's reliance on tourism increased in 2006 when Cumberland Pencils moved production from Keswick to Lillyhall , Workington , only the Cumberland Pencil Museum remaining at the old site . At the beginning of the 21st century , more than 60 per cent of the population were employed in hotels , restaurants and distribution . A survey of retail premises in 2000 found that more than ten per cent were outdoor clothes shops , a similar proportion were cafés or restaurants , and more than eight per cent were gift shops . The age profile of the Keswick population is significantly higher than the English average . In 2011 children under 10 made up 7 @.@ 6 per cent of the town 's population , compared with 11 @.@ 9 per cent for England as a whole . Between ages 10 and 20 the comparable figures are 10 @.@ 2 and 12 @.@ 1 ; and from ages 20 to 44 , 25 @.@ 9 as against 34 @.@ 3 . The percentage of Keswick 's population aged 45 and upwards is above the national average , the largest difference being within the 75- to 84 @-@ year @-@ old bracket , which contains 9 @.@ 6 per cent of Keswick 's population compared with a national average of 5 @.@ 5 . Figures from the same census show that Keswick has fewer than average " large employers and higher managerial occupations " and more small employers and self @-@ employed people . Long @-@ term unemployment is considerably below the average for England .
= = = Ownership and governance = = =
In medieval times the township was within the manor of Castlerigg and Derwentwater . The earliest surviving official record of the town is the market charter of 1276 granted to the lord of the manor , Thomas de Derwentwater . The manor was granted by Alice de Romilly to Adam de Derwentwater before 1216 , and subsequently passed to the Radclyffe family through marriage . The Derwentwater estate was forfeit to the Crown after the execution of James Radclyffe , third Earl of Derwentwater , in 1716 for his part in the Jacobite rebellion the previous year . In 1735 the Crown granted the income from the estates to support the Greenwich Hospital , London . Land to the south and west were part of Greenwich Hospital 's forestry and farming estates until the 19th century . In 1925 the then owner , Sir John Randles , gave the National Trust 90 acres of land in this estate , including the foreshore woodland .
Keswick became a Local Government District in 1853 and an urban district with three wards in 1894 , reflecting its growth in the latter part of the 19th century . The new urban district 's northern boundary was extended from the Greta to the railway , taking in Great Crosthwaite and part of Underskiddaw in 1899 . In 1974 the urban district was abolished and since then the town has been administered by Keswick Town Council and Allerdale Borough Council . Since 2010 Keswick has been in the Copeland parliamentary constituency , having previously been part of Workington and before that Penrith and The Border . The electoral ward of Keswick stretches beyond the confines of the parish boundary and at the 2011 Census had a total population of 5 @,@ 243 .
= = Geography = =
Keswick lies in north @-@ western England , in the heart of the northern Lake District . The town is 31 @.@ 4 miles ( 50 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ west of Carlisle , 22 @.@ 1 miles ( 35 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Windermere and 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) south @-@ east of Cockermouth . Derwentwater , the lake to the south @-@ west of the town , is approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long by 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide and is some 72 feet ( 22 m ) deep . It contains several islands , including Derwent Isle , Lord 's Island , Rampsholme Island and St Herbert 's Island , the largest . Derwent Isle is the only island on the lake that is inhabited ; it is run by the National Trust and open to visitors five days a year . The land between Keswick and the lake consists mainly of fields and areas of woodland , including Isthmus Wood , Cockshot Wood , Castlehead Wood and Horseclose and Great Wood , further to the south . The River Derwent flows from Derwentwater to Bassenthwaite , the most northerly of the major Cumbrian lakes . The Derwent and its tributary the Greta , which flows through Keswick , meet to the east of Portinscale . The source of the Greta is near Threlkeld , at the confluence of the River Glenderamackin and St John 's Beck .
Keswick is in the lee of the Skiddaw group , the oldest group of rocks in the Lake District . These fells were formed during the Ordovician period , 488 to 443 million years ago ; they form a triangle sheltering the town , reaching a maximum height of 931m on Skiddaw itself . To the west of Portinscale , to the south @-@ west of the village of Thornthwaite , is Whinlatter Forest Park and Grisedale Pike . To the east , beyond Castlerigg stone circle , is St John 's in the Vale , at the foot of the Helvellyn range , which is popular with ramblers starting from Keswick . In 2010 , Electricity North West , United Utilities , the Lake District National Park Authority and the conservation charity Friends of the Lake District invested £ 100 @,@ 000 to remove power lines and replace them with underground cables , to improve the quality of scenery in the vicinity .
Climatically , Keswick is in the North West sector of the UK , which is characterised by cool summers , mild winters , and high monthly rainfalls throughout the year . The wettest months fall at the end of the year , the peak average of 189 @.@ 3 mm falling in October . Rain , sunshine and temperature figures are shown below .
= = Demography = =
The registers of Crosthwaite Church stated that there were 238 interments in 1623 , believed to have been something between a twelfth and a tenth of the whole population of the parish at that time . In the 1640s there was a sharp fall in population , brought on by the plague epidemic which affected Keswick , Carlisle , Cockermouth and Crosthwaite and other areas in 1645 – 47 .
In the 1801 census , the township of Keswick , including the town and surrounding hamlets , had a reported population of 1 @,@ 350 people . The population grew at a steady rate , increasing to 1 @,@ 683 in 1811 , 1 @,@ 901 in 1821 , 2 @,@ 159 in 1831 , 2 @,@ 442 in 1841 , and 2 @,@ 618 in 1851 . In 1871 the township had a population of 2 @,@ 777 people . The population grew at a faster rate towards the late 19th century and by 1901 it stood at 4 @,@ 451 people . There has been little fluctuation in population since , and in the 1991 census the town had a population of 4 @,@ 836 . In the 2001 census , 4 @,@ 984 people were recorded , and 4 @,@ 821 in 2011 . At the 2011 census , 57 @.@ 9 per cent of the population identified as Christian , 31 @.@ 5 per cent as non @-@ religious , 1 @.@ 2 per cent as Muslim and 8 @.@ 3 per cent did not specify .
= = Landmarks = =
Keswick is the home of the Theatre by the Lake , opened in 1999 . The theatre serves a dual purpose as the permanent home of a professional repertory company and a venue for visiting performers and festivals . It replaced the Century Theatre or " Blue Box " , which had spent 25 years in semi @-@ retirement on a permanent lakeside site in Keswick , after a career of similar length as a mobile theatre . The Alhambra cinema in St John Street , opened in 1913 , is one of the oldest continuously functioning cinemas in the country ; it is equipped with digital technology and satellite receiving equipment to allow the live screening of plays , operas and ballet from the National Theatre , Royal Opera House and other venues .
The town is the site of the Cumberland Pencil Museum . One of the exhibits is what is claimed to be the world 's largest coloured pencil . Fitz Park , on the bank of the River Greta , is home to the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery , a Victorian museum which features the Musical Stones of Skiddaw , Southey manuscripts , and a collection of sculptures and paintings of regional and wider importance , including works by Epstein , John Opie , Richard Westall and others . After extensive restoration and enlargement the museum reopened in 2014 . In 2001 the cricket ground in Fitz Park was named the most beautiful in England by Wisden Cricket Monthly .
Greta Hall ( see Lake Poets , below ) , is a Grade I listed building . The home of Coleridge in 1800 – 04 and Southey from 1803 until 1843 , it later became part of Keswick School and is now in private ownership , partly divided into holiday flats . The three @-@ storey house dates to the late 18th century and features a flush @-@ panelled central double door with Gothic top panels and Venetian windows . A carved oak fireplace inside is dated to 1684 . The Moot Hall is a prominent Grade II * listed building situated at the southern end of Main Street . It was built in 1571 and rebuilt in 1695 , and the current building dates to 1813 . It is built of lime @-@ washed stone and slate walling , and has a square tower on the north end with a round @-@ arched doorway and a double flight of exterior steps . At the top of the tower is what the Keswick Tourist Information Board describes as an " unusual one @-@ handed clock " . Formerly an assembly building , The Moot Hall contains a tourist information centre on the ground floor , with an art gallery on the floor above .
The prominent social thinker and art critic John Ruskin , who had many associations with Keswick , once said that the town was a place almost too beautiful to live in . In October 1900 , mainly through the efforts of Rawnsley , a simple memorial of Borrowdale slate was erected to Ruskin at Friars Crag . The monument is a now a Grade II listed structure .
= = = Churches = = =
Until 1838 Keswick had no Anglican church within the town boundaries and was part of the widespread parish of Crosthwaite . The present parish church , St John 's , was designed by Anthony Salvin and consecrated in 1838 . It is geometrical in style , with pink castle @-@ head ashlar sandstone and a slate roof . The church was extended in 1862 , 1882 and 1889 by the parish 's benefactors the Marshall family ; the chancel windows , designed by Henry Holiday , installed in 1879 , were taken down and reinstalled when the chancel was extended in 1889 . St John 's became a Grade II * listed building in 1951 . Keswick 's former parish church , St Kentigern 's , at Crosthwaite , just outside the town , is also Grade II * listed . Dated to at least the 14th century , it is built mainly in the Tudor @-@ Gothic style and was expanded in 1523 and later restored in 1844 by George Gilbert Scott .
The Quakers had an early meeting house in the town , replaced in 1715 by one at Underskiddaw . Protestant dissenters met at a private house from 1705 or before , moving to a chapel in Lake Road in the latter part of the 18th century . A Congregational chapel was built in 1858 – 59 . The first Wesleyan chapel was built in 1814 in a small yard off Main Street at a cost of £ 331 10s ; the present Methodist church is in Southey Street . Since 1928 Roman Catholics in Keswick have been served by Our Lady of the Lakes and St Charles in High Hill . A new Quaker meeting house opened in the town in 1994 . An Eastern Orthodox church was inaugurated in 2007 , holding services in Keswick and the nearby village of Braithwaite .
As at 2014 no other religions maintain dedicated buildings in Keswick ; Muslim worship is accommodated on Fridays in a room at the local council building in Main Street .
= = = Public houses and hotels = = =
Keswick 's old inns and their successors include many listed buildings , mainly Grade II in designation . The George Hotel , stated to be the oldest inn in the town , dates to the 16th century , with the alterations made during the Georgian period still evident . The King 's Arms Hotel , in the main market square , dates from the early 19th century ; it is built from stuccoed stone , with Victorian shop windows on the ground floor . The Queen 's Hotel in Main Street , a pebbledashed stone building dating from the late 18th century , was renamed " The Inn on the Square " in 2015 . The Bank Tavern in Main Street and The Dog and Gun public house in Lake Road are both Grade II listed 18th @-@ century buildings .
= = Education and health = =
The Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , adjoining Crosthwaite churchyard , was an ancient institution , its date of foundation uncertain . In 1819 the parish of Crosthwaite had five or six schools in the town and the outlying areas , with a total of 332 children . By 1833 Keswick had twelve daily schools , including a new National School at High Hill . The new parish church of Keswick , St John 's , started educational work in 1840 with a Sunday school which also educated infant boys , and later girls , on weekdays . A full @-@ time boys ' school opened in 1853 . For older pupils , Keswick School , the free co @-@ educational grammar school , successor to the Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , opened at a site diagonally opposite Greta Bridge in 1898 . In 1951 a new secondary modern school was built at Lairthwaite in Underskiddaw .
Junior education is provided by St Herbert 's School , which had a roll of 263 in 2013 . At senior level , Keswick and Lairthwaite schools merged in 1980 as a single comprehensive secondary school , with the name Keswick School . It was included in The Daily Telegraph 's list of the top thirty comprehensives in England , Wales and Northern Ireland in 2014 . The Local Education Authority for Keswick is Cumbria .
The Mary Hewetson Cottage Hospital , founded in 1892 , has fifteen beds and a minor injuries unit . It underwent a major rebuilding and upgrade in 2013 .
= = Sport = =
Keswick is home to Keswick Football Club . The principal team plays in the Westmorland League Division One , and it also has a reserve team which plays in Westmorland League Division Two , a female team which plays in the Cumbria League , juniors who compete in the under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 14 , under @-@ 12 and under @-@ 10 categories in the Penrith Junior Football League ; there is a veteran team , which competes in the Cumbria League . Keswick Rugby Union Football Club , established in 1879 , plays at Davidson Park , and has teams that play in the Cumbrian League and the Cumbria Rugby Union Raging Bull Competition . The rugby club is involved in the organisation of the Keswick Half Marathon , usually held in the first week of May .
Keswick Tennis Club has grass courts in upper Fitz Park , and also runs hard courts on Keswick 's Community Sports Area in the lower park area . Keswick Cricket Club was established in the 1880s . Its principal team competes in the North Lancashire and Cumbria Cricket League , Premier Division . The second team plays in the Eden Valley Cricket League , 3rd Division , and the club also has junior under @-@ 11 , under @-@ 13 , and under @-@ 15 teams and a women 's cricket team . Keswick Fitz Park Bowls Club was founded in 1882 .
In cycling , Keswick hosted the Keswick Bikes Borrowdale Cross of the North West League , second round , in September 2010 for junior riders , an event that was supported by the British Cycling Federation . The same month , the town hosted an activity weekend for children , involving the juniors of the Brooke Steelers Wheelchair Basketball Team , whose senior players who were competing in a 135 miles ( 217 km ) race from Keswick to Penrith to raise money for children 's cancer . Keswick is also home to Keswick Croquet Club , Keswick Archers , and Greta ( Keswick ) Junior Badminton Club , for children from eight to 16 years of age . The town leisure centre , Keswick Leisure Pool and Fitness Centre , is operated and managed by Carlisle Leisure Limited ( CLL ) , and has a pool and fitness facilities , and offers lessons in canoeing .
= = Transport = =
Keswick is on the A66 road linking Workington and Penrith , as well as the A591 , linking the town to Windermere , Kendal and Carlisle ( via the A595 ) .
There are no rail links to Keswick ; the line built in the 1860s for the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway closed in 1972 . Since the 1990s a plan to rebuild it has been under discussion . Some 90 percent of the earthworks of the railway still exist , but according to 2000 estimates , a reopening would cost £ 25 million . In 2014 the only public transport serving the towns and villages on the old railway route is a bus service operating at mostly hourly intervals . The bus journey from the main line station at Penrith to Keswick takes a scheduled 47 minutes .
The town is served by other bus routes providing direct connections with Carlisle , Cockermouth , Kendal , Lancaster , Penrith , Windermere , Workington , and other towns and villages in the north west . The flow of traffic from Penrith to Cockermouth and beyond was eased after the A66 was diverted to a new bypass in 1974 , a development that caused controversy because of a prominent new viaduct carrying the road across the Greta Gorge to the north of the town .
The majority of visitors arrive by car and are catered for by three town centre car parks , another large one next to the Theatre by the Lake , and smaller ones elsewhere in the town .
= = Culture = =
= = = Regular events = = =
Annual events in the town 's calendar include the Keswick Film Festival ( February – March ) . It features screenings of old and new films , interviews with directors , and the festival 's Osprey Awards for short films by local filmmakers . The ten @-@ day Words by the Water literary festival is held in March every year , based at the Theatre by the Lake . The festival began in 1995 , and events have been presented by Melvyn Bragg , Louis de Bernières , Germaine Greer , Steve Jones , Penelope Lively , Princess Michael of Kent , Michael Rosen and Joanna Trollope .
In May each year , Keswick is host to three contrasting events . The Keswick Half Marathon , in the early part of the month takes participants around Derwentwater with an additional loop into Newlands Valley . In the second week of May there is the four @-@ day Keswick Jazz Festival , with more than 100 jazz events at a dozen local venues . Participants include British and international exponents of mainstream and traditional jazz . After the Jazz Festival is the four @-@ day Keswick Mountain Festival in mid @-@ May . In the words of the organisers , the festival " celebrates everything we all love about the outdoors " . It includes ghyll scrambling , mountain biking , guided walks , map reading , canoeing , climbing , a triathlon and other events .
The main event of the town 's calendar in June is the Keswick Beer Festival , a two @-@ day event that attracts more than 5 @,@ 000 participants each year . July is marked by the opening of the annual Kes | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
wick Convention , an international gathering of Evangelical Christians , described in 1925 as " the last stronghold of British Puritanism " , promoting biblical teaching and pious lifestyles . Among those associated with the Convention have been Frank Buchman and Billy Graham . The event has grown from a single week to three weeks , straddling the latter part of July and early August .
In August , Keswick features the Derwentwater Regatta . It was inaugurated by the eccentric local landowner Joseph Pocklington in 1792 , and after a lapse of more than two centuries was revived in 2013 . Its organisers describe it as " A weekend of mayhem and madness afloat , with the chance to climb aboard in a variety of races on Derwentwater " . The Keswick Agricultural Show , founded in 1860 , has traditionally been held on August Bank Holiday Monday at the western edge of the town on the Crossing Fields section of the open land known as the Howrahs . The show features both commercial and charity stands , and attracts large numbers of competitors , exhibitors and spectators . From 2014 the venue has changed to Pump Field , a few hundred yards further from the town centre towards Braithwaite .
Classical music is presented throughout the year , both in conjunction with the Lake District Summer Music Festival and independently through the Keswick Choral Society and the Keswick Music Society , which was founded in 1947 . Performers in Keswick have included the Chilingirian Quartet , the Royal Northern Sinfonia , Tasmin Little , the City of London Sinfonia , Red Priest and Nicolai Demidenko .
= = = Lake Poets and other Keswick notables = = =
Coleridge and William Wordsworth were close friends and collaborators ; when Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy took up residence in the Lake District in late 1799 it was , in Bott 's word , inevitable that Coleridge would follow suit . Six months after the Wordsworths moved into Dove Cottage at Grasmere , Coleridge leased Greta Hall in Keswick , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away . In 1803 Robert Southey , Coleridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , agreed to share the house with Coleridge and his family . Southey remained at Greta Hall after Coleridge left in 1804 , and it remained Southey 's family home until his death in 1843 . Many famous literary figures stayed at Greta Hall in these years , including the Wordsworths , Charles and Mary Lamb , Thomas de Quincey , William Hazlitt , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and Sir Walter Scott . Lamb , a Londoner devoted to his native city , remained doubtful of the attractions of the Lake District , but most of the visitors to Greta Hall wrote eloquently of the beauty of the scenery , and further enhanced the public regard for , and desire to visit , the area . Southey was well regarded locally , but played little part in the life of the town . He is buried in Crosthwaite churchyard and there is a memorial to him inside the church , with an inscription written by Wordsworth .
Among Keswick notables before the Lake Poets was Sir John Bankes , a leading Royalist during the English Civil War . He was Charles I 's Attorney General and Chief Justice . Bankes was born at Castlerigg near Keswick in 1589 . A bust in his memory is in upper Fitz Park close to the museum . In 2014 he was further commemorated by the conversion of the former Keswick courthouse into a bar named in his honour with his full title , " The Chief Justice of the Common Pleas " .
Later residents of the area have included the classical scholar , essayist , poet and founder of the Society for Psychical Research , Frederic Myers , who was born in Keswick , and the campaigner for animal welfare Donald Watson , founder of the Vegan Society , who lived in Keswick after retiring from teaching . The pioneer mountaineers and photographers George and Ashley Abraham lived and worked in Keswick . Their photographic shop in Lake Road , built in 1887 , was later taken over by the local mountaineer and outfitter George Fisher ; the shop still contains memorabilia , including photographs , from the Abrahams ' era .
Of literary figures after the Lake Poets among those most closely associated with Keswick was the novelist Hugh Walpole . In 1924 he moved into Brackenburn , a house between Keswick and Grange at the opposite end of Derwentwater . Like the Lake Poets in the previous century , he wrote enthusiastically about the Lake District , and its scenery and atmosphere often found their way into his fiction . He wrote in 1939 , " That I love Cumberland with all my heart and soul is another reason for my pleasure in writing these Herries books . That I wasn 't born a Cumbrian isn 't my fault : that Cumbrians , in spite of my ' foreignness ' , have been so kind to me , is my good fortune . "
= Drishyam =
Drishyam ( English : Visual ) is a 2013 Indian Malayalam @-@ language drama thriller film written and directed by Jeethu Joseph . It stars Mohanlal and Meena in the lead roles and features Ansiba Hassan , Esther Anil , Kalabhavan Shajon , Asha Sarath , Siddique , Roshan Basheer and Neeraj Madhav in supporting roles . The film was produced by Antony Perumbavoor for Aashirvad Cinemas . The story follows the struggle of Georgekutty and his family , who come under suspicion when Varun Prabhakar , the son of the Inspector @-@ general of police , goes missing after an attempt to physically harass Georgekutty 's daughter .
The film 's principal photography commenced in the first week of October 2013 at Thodupuzha in Kerala and was completed in 44 days . The cinematography was done by Sujith Vaassudev and was edited by Ayoob Khan . The soundtrack of the film was composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas .
Released on 19 December 2013 in Kerala , Drishyam received positive reviews with critics praising the screenplay , the performances and direction . The film grossed over ₹ 750 million worldwide and is the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time . It ran for more than 150 days in theatres and became the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . It won numerous accolades including the Kerala State Film Award for Best Popular Film and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Malayalam and screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India and the 8th Asian Film Festival . The film was remade into four other Indian languages including Telugu , Tamil , Kannada and Hindi .
= = Plot = =
Georgekutty ( Mohanlal ) is an orphan who had dropped out of school after his 4th grade . Now he is a businessman running a cable TV service in a rural area . He is married to Rani ( Meena ) and they have two daughters , Anju ( Ansiba Hassan ) and Anu ( Esther Anil ) . His only interest apart from his family is watching films . He spends most of his time in front of the TV in his small office .
During a nature camp , Anju gets photographed in the bathroom by a hidden cell phone . The culprit , Varun ( Roshan Basheer ) , is the son of police inspector general Geetha Prabhakar ( Asha Sarath ) . Varun is accidentally killed by Rani and her daughter when he comes to blackmail them . They hide his body in a compost pit , which is witnessed by Anu . Rani tells Georgekutty about the incident and he devises a way to save his family from the law . He removes the broken cell phone and disposes of Varun 's car , which is seen by Constable Sahadevan ( Kalabhavan Shajon ) , who has a grudge against Georgekutty . Georgekutty takes them out on a trip to Thodupuzha to pray in a church , watch a movie and eat at a restaurant . Geetha , seeing that her son has gone missing , starts an investigation .
After a preliminary investigation , Geetha calls Georgekutty and family for questioning . Georgekutty , who had predicted that this would happen , had already taught his family how to change their alibi at the time of murder . When questioned individually , they give the same replies . Georgekutty also presents the bill of the restaurant , the movie ticket and the bus tickets as proof of their alibi . Geetha questions the owners of the establishments they have been to and their statements prove Georgekutty 's alibi . However , Geetha realizes later that Georgekutty had faked the evidence and established his alibi on the owners by going on a trip with his family to the same establishments later .
Geetha arrests Georgekutty and family and Sahadevan uses brute force to beat the truth out of them . Eventually , Anu gives in and reveals the place where the body is buried . After digging the compost pit , they find the carcass of a calf , indicating that Georgekutty had moved the body . Anu reports to the media and complains against Sahadevan . The constable is suspended and Geetha resigns from her post .
Later , Geetha and Prabhakar ( Siddique ) meet Georgekutty to ask forgiveness for their rude and violent behavior . Prabhakar asks Georgekutty if he can tell them about their son . Georgekutty then reveals indirectly that his family has committed a crime . Now in remand , Georgekutty signs a register at the newly constructed local police station . As he leaves , a flashback shows him leaving the incomplete police station with a shovel in hand , indicating that he has hidden Varun 's body in the foundations of the police station itself .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In July 2013 , it was reported that Jeethu Joseph will be directing a film titled My Family with Mohanlal in the lead . In August 2013 , Jeethu clarified that the film was titled Drishyam . A thread similar to that of Drishyam has been with the director since the early 1990s . He was inspired by a conversation he had overheard about the plight of two families involved in a legal battle . Jeethu had penned the story of Drishyam even before Memories ( 2013 ) . He says , " I started working on the subject some two years back . But I wanted to stick to the planned order and hence postponed the project till I finished Memories " . The script was initially planned to be filmed by another director but since that director could not find a producer , Jeethu took back the script and decided to direct it himself . Drishyam contrasts from the director 's previous films . He says , " Different films require different treatment . I toiled hard while filming Memories as the film was full of twists and turns and the handling of the subject mattered a lot . But Drishyam is a complete script @-@ oriented film that does not require any special effort . We shot the film sticking completely to the script , and the shooting was completed effortlessly . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jeethu had initially approached Mammootty to play the lead , but he was unable to commit and asked Jeethu to proceed with the film with another actor . According to the director , Mammootty was instrumental in casting actress Meena for the film . The director , in an interview with The New Indian Express , stated that he wrote the screenplay with Mohanlal in mind and that the character was tailor @-@ made for Mohanlal . He later added that no changes were made in the script when Mohanlal agreed .
Kalabhavan Shajon , who previously worked in the industry as a comedian and the sidekick of the lead actors , was chosen for the main antagonistic role . The director stated , " I had two @-@ three actors in mind , but at last decided to pick Shajon . I was very clear that I did not want anyone who has played negative characters so far to do the role . Shajon was a total revelation . " Roshan Basheer , who debuted through Plus Two ( 2010 ) , was chosen after conducting a screen test . Prithviraj was rumored to play a cameo role , though this was denied by Jeethu . Asha Sarath was later signed for the role of a police officer . Child actors Ansiba Hassan and Esther Anil , along with Siddique , Irshad , Kunchan and Koottickal Jayachandran were also cast to play major supporting roles .
= = = Filming = = =
Drishyam commenced principal photography in the first week of October 2013 . Mohanlal joined the sets only from 10 October as he was down with chickenpox . The film was shot at Thodupuzha in Kerala . The road @-@ side house shown in the film , which was a major location , is situated at Vazhithala , near Thodupuzha . The shooting had to be halted for a while as Meena fainted on the location . Drishyam was initially planned to be filmed in 52 days , though it was completed in 44 days .
= = Themes = =
A reviewer from The Hindu noted , " The film takes off as a typical family drama . The first half of the film is intentionally slow @-@ paced and shows to the audience the lighter moments in the family of Georgekutty . This half combines the elements of drama and comedy genres . The audience gets completely absorbed in the twist of events that begin to unfold from the end of the first half . The second half is more like a thriller and is about how the family , despite the vengeful villainy of a corrupt cop , stands its ground even as the law takes its course . " When asked whether this change in narrative style post @-@ interval was intentional , Jeethu replied : " I really don 't understand when people say the first half lacked pace . A story or a film has its own way of progression and it does travel in a zig @-@ zag away , capturing all the ups and downs of our lives . Right from the start if you accelerate the pace , sooner or later , the story @-@ telling will lose its steam . "
When asked whether he had kicked off a new genre in Malayalam — family thriller , a genre which combines the elements of a family drama and thriller , Jeethu replied , " I still believe it belongs to the genre ' drama ' , not a thriller . " He also stated in another interview , " We usually brand a film as a thriller , simply because there is some mystery in the narrative or the story unfolds through an investigation . But I don 't subscribe to this . Although there are some twists in the tale and some suspense as well , Drishyam is essentially the story of a family . "
The film has also been said to be inspired by The Devotion of Suspect X , a Japanese novel written by Keigo Higashino . Ekta Kapoor , who had purchased the Hindi movie rights of the novel , sent a legal notice to the makers of the film . However , the director clarified , " After Ekta 's legal team sent us the letter , I watched the Japanese film , Suspect X , which is an adaptation of the Japanese novel . There could be similarities between my film and that Japanese film , but my film is neither an adaptation nor a copy . The Japanese film is also about a murder cover @-@ up and hence the allegation . Similarities are quite common in the works of creators and that shouldn 't be made into an issue . " Rashomon ( 1950 ) was also cited as an inspiration for the film .
The film was criticised for the use of some " sexist dialogues " in the first half which were playing to a certain " new generation " audience . Sowmya Rajendran of Sify criticised the same and stated about one of such scenes in the film , " it is such banter , which we often dismiss with a laugh , that helps perpetuate rape culture . " When asked about this , the director replied , " I firmly believe such conversations are part of our lives . I don 't want to elaborate , but it also throws an insight into each character featured in the sequences . Yes , frankly , I was a bit worried how the family audience would react to those scenes . But then I read out that part of the script to a select group of women and they nodded their heads in approval . "
There were also allegations that Drishyam might provoke murder . Additional Director General of Police ( ADGP ) Senkumar claimed that two people accused of murdering a woman from Nilambur in February 2014 admitted that their methods for disposing of the victim 's body and mobile phone SIM card were influenced by the film . The murder of a young girl in Irinjalakkuda by her father and his mistress was also said to be influenced by Drishyam .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film features a soundtrack composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas , with lyrics penned by Santhosh Varma . The background score was composed by Anil Johnson . The songs were released on 20 June 2014 by Muzik 247 .
Veeyen of NowRunning noted in his review of the film that the songs " have a refreshingly delightful tenor to them that deserve an applause for certain . " The reviewer of IndiaGlitz called the score " refreshing " and stated that it " builds the tempo " for the film .
= = Release = =
Drishyam released on 19 December 2013 in India . It also received a theatrical release in the United States , United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates on 3 January 2014 . The film was passed with an ' U ' ( Universal ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was selected to be screened in the Indian Panorama at the 45th International Film Festival of India . It also screened at the 8th Asian Film Festival held in Jeddah in 2015 , representing India .
= = = Home media = = =
Drishyam was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD and VCD on 9 May 2014 . The film created a new record in the DVD and VCD sales on the first day of release itself . The film 's satellite rights were reported to be bought by Asianet for a record amount of ₹ 6 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 970 @,@ 000 ) . The record was previously held by Kadal Kadannu Oru Maathukutty ( 2013 ) which was bought for ₹ 5 @.@ 75 crore ( US $ 850 @,@ 000 ) by the same channel . It had its global television premiere on 7 September 2014 at 6 pm . IST .
= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =
In August 2014 , film director Sathish Paul filed a copyright infringement suit against the makers , saying that it had similarities to his script titled Oru Mazhakkalathu , written in 2013 . The court passed an order saying that the movie had prima facie similarities to Sathish ' script , but allowed the making of the Tamil version Papanasam to proceed , on the condition that the makers of Drishyam produce a ₹ 10 lakh bank guarantee before the court to ensure the compensation . The case was dismissed in March 2015 as it was proved that Jeethu had written the script in 2011 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Sify 's reviewer rated the film as " Excellent " and stated , " It is not often that you sit in a theatre with bated breath , never wanting to miss a moment of the film on screen . Writer director Jeethu Joseph 's Drishyam is one such film , a gripping tale that leaves you spellbound with its skillful craft . " Veeyen of NowRunning rated the film 3 / 5 and commented , " In Drishyam Jeethu attempts a stunning mix of the real with the imaginary , and the result is an unpredictable cinematic artichoke that takes you by surprise at every turn . " Rating the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 , Paresh C Palicha of Rediff said , " Drishyam can be credited for bringing Mohanlal back to form and pushing director Jeethu Joseph into the big league as he has made a cracker of a thriller . " Jabir Mushthari of The Hindu wrote : " It takes craft , intelligence , and the superior acumen of a genuine storyteller to pull off a film in such an engaging manner . " He also noted that the film 's " thread and treatment are new to Malayalam cinema in many ways " and its " principles go against the set rules film goers here are familiar with " .
Shibu B S of The New Indian Express wrote , " For his latest outing Drishyam , Jeethu attempts a splendid mix of emotions , relationships , suspense and thrill . End result : a spectacular cinematic experience . " Dalton L of Deccan Chronicle gave the film a 3 @-@ star rating , writing , " The limelight belongs entirely to Mohanlal . Like the versatile greats of Hollywood , this actor possesses such a vast repertoire that he isn 't required to always attempt the radically new to stamp his towering persona . " Mythily Ramachandran wrote in her review for Gulf News : " Drishyam is an unforgettable picture , shorn of irrational fight sequences and mindless dance numbers . " Aswin J Kumar of The Times of India said , " Drishyam is an elegantly crafted piece of film which Lal and Joseph can proudly hold close to their hearts . "
Unni R. Nair noted in his review for Kerala9.com , " The care with which the script is done , the finesse with which the direction part is executed and the characterization and performance plus the thoughtful placing of the songs makes Drishyam worth real appreciation . That the film has almost zero- ' filmy ' humour is also worth noting . It 's the logical manner in which the story unfolds and the very convincing manner in which the characters behave makes it impressive . " The critic rated the film three in a scale of five . IndiaGlitz 's reviewer rated the film 8 / 10 and stated , " Drishyam is undoubtedly cladded with exceptional story telling combined with bravura performances . An undoubtedly exceptional film as far the content is concerned , the movie is a must watch for all the audiences of family and thriller movies . " In contrast , Gautaman Bhaskaran of Hindustan Times wrote , " Scripted more or less in a convincing manner and mounted with finesse , writer @-@ director Joseph fleshes out his characters . However , Drishyam often seems like a radio play , long dialogues mar its cinematic qualities , and like many other helmers , Joseph too does not know where to end his film . Cinema need not be so explanatory ; certainly this is not how contemporary movies are made .
= = = Box office = = =
According to Sify , the film " started on a low key " but " swept the box @-@ office " from its second day of release . The film grossed ₹ 60 million in its first eight days . In less than one month following its release , Drishyam became the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time , beating the record of Twenty : 20 ( 2008 ) . The film ran for more than 150 days in Kerala , with collections of around ₹ 401 million .
The film also grossed around ₹ 100 million from rest of India . It showed for 100 days in Tamil Nadu . It also had a 100 @-@ day theatrical run in multiplexes in Mumbai , Bengaluru , Ahmedabad and Hyderabad . The collection from the overseas markets was more than ₹ 40 million , with around ₹ 10 million from England alone . Drishyam became the second film to complete 100 days in the UAE after Titanic ( 1997 ) . The film completed 100 days in 60 theaters in Kerala and rest of India .
Drishyam was the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . The film collected more than ₹ 600 million in its theatrical run worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
Drishyam was remade into several Indian languages . The remake rights of the film were sold for ₹ 155 million . It was first remade in Kannada as Drishya ( 2014 ) by P. Vasu and starring V. Ravichandran and Navya Nair . The Telugu version titled Drushyam ( 2014 ) directed by Sripriya featured Daggubati Venkatesh , along with Meena reprising her role . Jeethu himself directed the Tamil remake Papanasam ( 2015 ) which stars Kamal Haasan and Gautami . A Hindi remake was also made with the same name in 2015 , directed by Nishikant Kamat and starring Ajay Devgn and Shriya Saran in the lead roles . All these versions were commercially successful .
= Waylon Jennings =
Waylon Arnold Jennings ( pronounced / ˈweɪlən ˈdʒɛnɪŋz / ; June 15 , 1937 – February 13 , 2002 ) was an American singer , songwriter , musician , and actor . Jennings began playing guitar at eight and began performing at 12 on KVOW radio . His first band was The Texas Longhorns . Jennings worked as a DJ on KVOW , KDAV , KYTI , and KLLL . In 1958 , Buddy Holly arranged Jennings 's first recording session , of " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " . Holly hired him to play bass . In Clear Lake , Iowa , Jennings gave up his seat on the ill @-@ fated flight that crashed and killed Holly , J. P. Richardson , Ritchie Valens , and pilot Roger Peterson .
Jennings then worked as a DJ in Coolidge , Arizona , and Phoenix . He formed a rockabilly club band , The Waylors . He recorded for independent label Trend Records and A & M Records before succeeding with RCA Victor after achieving creative control .
During the 1970s , Jennings joined the Outlaw Country movement . He released critically acclaimed albums Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes followed by hit albums Dreaming My Dreams and Are You Ready for the Country . In 1976 , he released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter , the first platinum country music album . That success was followed by Ol ' Waylon and the hit song " Luckenbach , Texas . " Jennings was featured in the 1978 album White Mansions performed by various artists documenting the lives of white people in the Confederacy during the Civil War . The songs on the album were written by Paul Kennerley . By the early 1980s , Jennings was struggling with a cocaine addiction , which he quit in 1984 . Later , he joined the country supergroup The Highwaymen with Nelson , Kris Kristofferson , and Johnny Cash , which released three albums between 1985 and 1995 . During that period , Jennings released the successful album Will the Wolf Survive . He toured less after 1997 to spend more time with his family . Between 1999 and 2001 , his appearances were limited by health problems . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died from complications of diabetes .
Jennings also appeared in movies and television series . He was the balladeer for The Dukes of Hazzard , composing and singing the show 's theme song . In 2001 , he was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame , which he chose not to attend . In 2007 , he was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .
= = Early life = =
Waylon Arnold Jennings was born on June 15 , 1937 , on the J.W. Bittner farm , near Littlefield , Texas . He was the son of Lorene Beatrice ( née Shipley ) and William Albert Jennings . The Jennings family line descended from Irish and Black @-@ Dutch . Meanwhile , the Shipley family moved from Tennessee and settled in Texas . The Shipley line descended from Cherokee and Comanche families .
The name on his birth certificate was Wayland , meaning land by the highway . His name was changed after a Baptist preacher visited Jennings 's parents and congratulated his mother for naming him after the Wayland Baptist University in Plainview , Texas . Lorene Jennings , who had been unaware of the college , changed the spelling to Waylon . Jennings later expressed in his autobiography , " I didn 't like Waylon . It sounded corny and hillbilly , but it 's been good to me , and I 'm pretty well at peace with it right now . "
After working as a laborer on the Bittner farm , Jennings 's father moved the family to Littlefield and established a retail creamery . When Jennings was eight , his mother taught him to play guitar with the tune " Thirty Pieces of Silver " . Jennings used to practice with his relatives ' guitars , until his mother bought him a used Stella , and later ordered a Harmony Patrician . Early influences were Bob Wills , Floyd Tillman , Ernest Tubb , Hank Williams , Carl Smith , and Elvis Presley .
Beginning at family gatherings , Jennings advanced to perform at the Youth Center with Anthony Bonanno , followed by appearances at the local Jaycees and Lions Clubs . He won a talent show at Channel 13 , in Lubbock , singing " Hey Joe " . He later made frequent performances at the Palace Theater in Littlefield , during local talent night .
= = Music career = =
= = = Beginnings in music = = =
The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Jennings auditioned for a spot on KVOW in Littlefield , Texas . Owner J.B. McShan , along with Emil Macha , recorded Jennings 's performance . McShan liked his style and hired him for a weekly 30 @-@ minute program . Following this successful introduction , Jennings formed his own band . He asked Macha to play bass for him , and gathered other friends and acquaintances to form The Texas Longhorns . The style of the band , a mixture of Country and Western and Bluegrass music , was often not well received .
At age 16 , after several disciplinary infractions , tenth @-@ grader Jennings was convinced to drop out of high school by the superintendent . Upon leaving school , he worked for his father in the produce store , also taking temporary jobs . Jennings felt that music , his favorite activity , would turn into his career . The next year , Jennings and The Texas Longhorns recorded a demo of the songs " Stranger in My Home " and " There 'll Be a New Day " at KFYO radio in Lubbock . Meanwhile , he drove a truck for the Thomas Land Lumber Company , and a concrete truck for the Roberts Lumber Company . Tired of the owner , and after a minor driving accident , Jennings quit . Other local musicians and he often performed at Country radio station KDAV ; during this , he met Buddy Holly at a Lubbock restaurant . Holly and he became friends , often meeting during local shows . Jennings also attended Holly 's performances on KDAV 's Sunday Party .
In addition to performing on air for KVOW , Jennings started to work as a DJ in 1956 , and moved to Lubbock . His program ran for six hours , from 4 : 00 in the afternoon to 10 : 00 in the evening . Jennings played two hours of Country classics , two of current Country , and two of mixed recordings . During those final two hours , Jennings played artists such as Chuck Berry and Little Richard . The owner reprimanded him each time he aired the recordings , and when he then played two Richard records in a row , the owner fired him .
During his time at KVOW , Jennings was visited by DJ Sky Corbin , who worked at KLVT in Levelland . Corbin was impressed with his voice , and decided to visit Jennings at the station after hearing him sing a jingle to the tune of Hank Snow 's " I 'm Moving On " . Jennings expressed his economic struggle to live on a US $ 50 @-@ a @-@ week salary . Corbin invited Jennings to visit KLVT , where he eventually took Corbin 's then @-@ vacated position . The Corbin family later purchased KLLL , in Lubbock . They changed the format of the station to Country , becoming the main competition of KDAV . The Corbins hired Jennings as the station 's first DJ .
Jennings produced commercials and created jingles with the rest of the DJs . As their popularity increased , the DJs made public appearances . Jennings 's events included live performances . During one performance , Buddy 's father , L.O. Holley , approached them with his son 's latest record , and requested them to play it at the station . L.O. mentioned his son 's intention to start producing artists himself , and Corbin recommended Jennings . After returning from his England tour , Buddy Holly visited KLLL .
Holly took Jennings as his first artist . He outfitted him with new clothes , and worked with him to improve his image . He arranged a session for Jennings at Norman Petty 's recording studios in Clovis , New Mexico . On September 10 , Jennings recorded the songs " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " with Holly and Tommy Allsup on guitars with saxophonist King Curtis . Holly then hired Jennings to play electric bass for him during his " Winter Dance Party Tour " .
= = = Winter Dance Party Tour = = =
Before the tour , Holly vacationed with his wife in Lubbock , and visited Jennings ' radio station in December 1958 . Jennings and Sky Corbin performed the hand claps to Holly 's tune " You 're the One " . Jennings and Holly soon left for New York City , arriving on January 15 , 1959 . Jennings stayed at Holly 's apartment by Washington Square Park , on the days prior to a meeting scheduled on the headquarters of the General Artists Corporation , that organized the tour . They later took a train to Chicago to join the band .
The Winter Dance Party tour began in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on January 23 , 1959 . The amount of travel created logistical problems , as the distance between venues had not been considered when scheduling each performance . Adding to the problem , the unheated tour buses twice broke down in freezing weather , with dire consequences . Holly 's drummer Carl Bunch suffered frostbite to his toes ( while aboard the bus ) and was hospitalized , so Buddy Holly made the decision to find another means of transportation . Before their performance at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake , Iowa , Holly chartered a four @-@ seat Beechcraft Bonanza airplane at Dwyer Flying Service in Mason City , Iowa , for himself , Jennings , and Allsup , to avoid the long bus trip to their next venue in Moorhead , Minnesota . Following the Clear Lake show ( which ended around midnight ) , Tommy Allsup lost a coin toss and gave up his seat on the charter plane to Ritchie Valens , while Waylon Jennings voluntarily gave up his seat to J. P. Richardson , who was suffering from the flu and complaining about how cold and uncomfortable the tour bus was for a man of his size . When Holly learned that his band mates had given up their seats on the plane and had chosen to take the bus rather than fly , a friendly banter between Holly and Jennings ensued , and it would come back to haunt Jennings for decades to follow : Holly jokingly told Jennings , " Well , I hope your ol ' bus freezes up ! " Jennings jokingly replied , " Well , I hope your ol ' plane crashes ! " Less than an hour and a half later , shortly after 1 : 00 AM on February 3 , 1959 ( later known as The Day the Music Died ) , Holly 's charter plane crashed at full throttle into a cornfield outside Mason City , Iowa , instantly killing all on board .
Later that morning , Jennings ' family heard on the radio that " Buddy Holly and his band had been killed . " After calling his family , Jennings called Sky Corbin at KLLL from Fargo to say that he was alive . The General Artists Corporation promised to pay a first @-@ class ticket for Jennings and the band to assist Holly 's funeral in Lubbock , in exchange for them playing that night in Moorhead . After the first show , they were initially denied their payment by the venue , but after Jennings 's persistence , they were paid . The flights were never paid , and Jennings and Allsup continued the tour for two more weeks , featuring Jennings as the lead singer . They were paid less than half of the original agreed salary , and upon returning to New York , Jennings put Holly 's guitar and amplifier in a locker in Grand Central Terminal and mailed the keys to Maria Elena Holly . Then , he returned to Lubbock .
For decades afterward , Jennings repeatedly admitted that he felt responsible for the crash that killed Buddy Holly . This sense of guilt precipitated bouts of substance abuse through much of Jennings ' career . The day of the flight was later known as the Day the Music Died . Jennings sang The Stage , which is a touching tribute to the Day the Music Died . He recreates the concert performers on February 2 , 1959 , in order at the Surf Ballroom , starting with Eddie Cochran , then Ritchie Valens , the Big Bopper and , finally , Buddy Holly . This was the concert that preceded the infamous plane crash . The Stage can be found on the Surf Ballroom Winter Dance Party CD .
" Jole Blon " was released on Brunswick in March 1959 with limited success . Now unemployed , he returned to KLLL . Deeply affected by the death of Buddy Holly , Jennings ' performance at the station worsened . He left the station after he was denied a raise , and later worked briefly for the competition , KDAV .
= = = Phoenix and the Nashville Sound = = =
Due to Maxine 's father 's illness , Jennings had to shuttle between Arizona and Texas . While his family lived back in Littlefield , Jennings found a job briefly at KOYL in Odessa , Texas . He moved with his family to Coolidge , Arizona , where his wife 's sister lived . He found a job performing at the Galloping Goose bar , where he was heard by Earl Perrin , who offered him a spot on KCKY . Jennings also played during the intermission at drive @-@ in theaters and in bars . After a successful performance at the Cross Keys Club in Phoenix , Arizona , he was approached by contractors who were building a club for Jimmy D. Musiel , called JD 's . Musiel employed Jennings as his main artist and designed the club around his act .
He formed his backing band , The Waylors , with bassist Paul Foster , guitarist Jerry Gropp , and drummer Richie Albright . Jennings and his band performed at the newly opened nightspot in Scottsdale , where they soon earned a strong local fanbase . At JD 's , Jennings developed his " rock tempered " style of country music that defined him on his later career .
In 1961 , Jennings signed a recording contract with Trend Records , and experienced moderate success with his single , " Another Blue Day " . His friend , Don Bowman , took demos of Jennings to Jerry Moss , who at the time was starting A & M Records with associate Herb Alpert . On July 9 , 1963 , Jennings signed a contract with A & M that granted him 5 % of record sales . At A & M , he recorded " Love Denied " backed with " Rave On " , and " Four Strong Winds " backed with " Just to Satisfy You " . He followed up by recording demos of " The Twelfth of Never " , " Kisses Sweeter than Wine " , and " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " , and also produced the single " Sing the Girls a Song , Bill " , backed with " The Race Is On " . The singles were released between April and October 1964 .
His records had little success , because A & M 's main releases were folk music rather than Country . He had a few hits on local radio in Phoenix , with " Four Strong Winds " and " Just To Satisfy You " ( co @-@ written with Bowman ) . Meanwhile , he recorded an album on BAT records , called JD 's . After 500 copies were sold at the club , another 500 copies were pressed by the Sounds label . He also played lead guitar for Patsy Montana on a 1964 album .
Singer Bobby Bare heard Jennings 's " Just to Satisfy You " on his car radio while passing through Phoenix , eventually recording it and " Four Strong Winds " . After stopping in Phoenix to attend to a Jennings performance at JD 's , while driving to Las Vegas , Bare stopped and called Chet Atkins in Nashville , suggesting that he needed to sign Jennings .
When he was made aware of the new deal , Waylon was not sure if he should quit his gig at JD 's . He then went to get the advice of his friend , RCA artist Willie Nelson , who had gone to see one of Waylon 's shows . When Willie and Waylon met , after talking about the possibilities and considering Waylon 's profits at the club , Nelson suggested that Waylon should stay in Phoenix and not to move to Nashville .
Nonetheless , Jennings decided to accept the offer , and asked Herb Alpert to release him from his contract with A & M. Alpert agreed , though later A & M would compile all of Jennings 's singles and unreleased material the label had and release it as Don 't Think Twice . Atkins formally signed Jennings to RCA Victor in 1965 . On August 21 , Jennings made his first appearance on the Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart with " That 's the Chance I 'll Have to Take " .
In 1966 , Jennings released his debut album for RCA Folk @-@ Country , followed by Leavin ' Town and Nashville Rebel . Leavin ' Town resulted in significant chart success as the first two singles " Anita , You 're Dreaming " and " Time to Burn Again " both peaked at no . 17 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart . The album 's third single , a cover of Gordon Lightfoot 's " ( That 's What You Get ) For Lovin ' Me " , became Jennings 's first top 10 single , peaking at no . 9 . Nashville Rebel was the soundtrack to an independent film of the same name , starring Jennings . The single " Green River " charted on Billboard country singles at # 11 . In 1967 , Jennings released a hit single , " Just to Satisfy You " . During an interview , Jennings remarked that the song was a " pretty good example " of the influence of his work with Buddy Holly and rockabilly music . Jennings produced midchart albums that sold well , including Just to Satisfy You , that included the same @-@ named hit single of 1967 . Jennings 's singles enjoyed success . " The Chokin ' Kind " peaked at number eight on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles in 1967 , while " Only Daddy That 'll Walk the Line " hit number two the following year . In 1969 , his collaboration with The Kimberlys on the single " MacArthur Park " earned a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group . His single " Brown Eyed Handsome Man " reached number three at the Hot Country Singles chart by the end of the year .
During this time , Jennings rented an apartment in Nashville with singer Johnny Cash . Jennings and Cash were both managed by " Lucky " Moeller 's booking agency Moeller Talent , Inc . The tours organized by the agency were unproductive , with the artists being booked to venues located far from each other in close dates . After paying for the accommodation and travel expenditures , Jennings 's profits were reduced , with him frequently requesting advances from the agency or RCA Records to play the next venue . While playing 300 days on the road , Jennings 's debt increased along with his consumption of amphetamines , as he believed himself to be trapped on the circuit .
In 1972 , Jennings released Ladies Love Outlaws . The single that headlined the album became a hit for Jennings , and was his first approach to Outlaw Country . Jennings was accustomed to performing and recording with his own band , The Waylors , a practice that was not encouraged by powerful Nashville producers . Over time , however , Jennings felt limited by the Nashville sound 's lack of artistic freedom . The music style publicized as " Countrypolitan " was characterized by orchestral arrangements , and the absence of traditional Country music instruments . The producers did not let Jennings play his own guitar or select material to record .
= = = Outlaw Country = = =
In an interview , Jennings recalled the restrictions of the Nashville establishment : " They wouldn 't let you do anything . You had to dress a certain way : you had to do everything a certain way .... They kept trying to destroy me .... I just went about my business and did things my way .... You start messing with my music , I get mean . " By 1972 , after the release of Ladies Love Outlaws , his recording contract was nearing an end . Sick with hepatitis , Jennings was hospitalized . Afflicted by disease , and the music industry , he was considering retirement . Albright visited him and convinced him to continue . Albright talked to him about making Neil Reshen his new manager . Meanwhile , Jennings requested a US $ 25 @,@ 000 royalty advance from RCA Records to cover his living expenses during his recovery . The same day he met Rashen , RCA sent Jerry Bradley to offer Jennings US $ 5 @,@ 000 as a bonus for signing a new 5 % royalty deal with RCA , the same terms he had accepted in 1965 . After reviewing with Reshen , he rejected the offer and hired Reshen .
Reshen started to renegotiate Jennings 's recording and touring contracts . At a meeting in a Nashville airport , Jennings introduced Reshen to Willie Nelson . By the end of the meeting , Reshen had become Nelson 's manager , as well . Jennings 's new deal gained him a $ 75 @,@ 000 advance and artistic control . Reshen advised Jennings to keep the beard that he had grown in the hospital , to match the image of Outlaw Country .
By 1973 , Nelson had returned to music , finding success with Atlantic Records . Now based in Austin , Texas , he had made inroads into the rock and roll press by attracting rock audiences . Atlantic Records was now attempting to sign Jennings , but Nelson 's rise to popularity persuaded RCA to renegotiate with Jennings before losing another potential star .
In 1973 , Jennings released Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes , the first albums recorded and released under his creative control . The release of these albums heralded a major turning point for Jennings , kicking off his most critically and commercially successful years . More hit albums followed with This Time and The Ramblin ' Man , both released in 1974 . The title tracks of both albums topped the Billboard Country singles chart , with the self @-@ penned " This Time " becoming Jennings 's first no . 1 single . Dreaming My Dreams , released in 1975 , included the no . 1 single " Are You Sure Hank Done It This Way " and was his first album to be certified gold by the RIAA ; it was also the first of his next six consecutive , solo studio albums to be certified gold or higher . In 1976 , Jennings released Are You Ready for the Country , Jennings wanted the record to be produced by Los Angeles producer Ken Mansfield . Although RCA denied the request , Jennings and The Waylors went to Los Angeles and recorded with Mansfield at his expense . After a month , Jennings presented the master tape to Chet Atkins , who decided to release it . The album hit number one on Billboard 's country albums three times the same year , topping the charts for 10 weeks . It was named Country album of the year in 1976 by Record World magazine and it was certified gold by the RIAA .
In 1976 , Jennings released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws , recorded with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter for RCA . The album was the first Country music album certified platinum . The following year , RCA issued Ol ' Waylon , an album that produced a hit duet with Nelson , " Luckenbach , Texas " . The album Waylon and Willie followed in 1978 , producing the hit single " Mammas Don 't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys " . Jennings released I 've Always Been Crazy , also in 1978 . The same year , at the peak of his success , Jennings began to feel limited by the outlaw movement . Jennings referred to the overexploitation of the image in the song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit Has Done Got Out of Hand ? " , claiming that the movement had become a " self @-@ fulfilling prophecy " . In 1979 , he released Greatest Hits , which was certified gold the same year , and quintuple platinum in 2002 .
Also in 1979 , Jennings joined the cast of the CBS series The Dukes of Hazzard as the Balladeer , the narrator . The only episode to feature him in person was " Welcome , Waylon Jennings " , during the seventh season . Jennings played himself , presented as an old friend of the Duke family . For the show , he also wrote and sang the theme song " Good Ol ' Boys " , which became the biggest hit of his career . Released as a single in promotion with the show , it became Jennings 's 12th single to reach number one on the Billboard Country Singles chart . It was also a crossover hit , peaking at no . 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = = Later years = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Johnny Cash , Kris Kristofferson , Nelson , and Jennings formed a successful group called The Highwaymen . Aside from his work with The Highwaymen , Jennings released a gold album WWII ( 1982 ) with Willie Nelson .
In 1985 , Jennings joined with USA for Africa to record " We Are the World " , but he left the studio because of a dispute over the song 's lyrics that were to be sung in Swahili . Ironically , after Jennings left the session , the idea was dropped at the prompting of Stevie Wonder , who pointed out that Ethiopians did not speak Swahili . By this time , his sales had decreased . After the release of Sweet Mother Texas , Jennings signed with Music Corporation of America . The debut release with the label Will the Wolf Survive ( 1985 ) peaked at number one in Billboard 's Country albums in 1986 . Jennings 's initial success tailed off , and in 1990 , he signed with Epic Records . His first release , The Eagle , became his final top 10 album . During the late ' 80s @-@ early ' 90s , Jennings and his contemporaries such as Faron Young , Merle Haggard , and George Jones , were gradually evicted from the airwaves in favor of a younger generation of pop @-@ influenced country artists such as Alan Jackson and Reba McEntire .
Also in 1985 , he made a cameo appearance in the live @-@ action children 's film Sesame Street Presents : Follow That Bird . In the movie , he plays a turkey farm truck driver who gives Big Bird a lift . He also sings one of the film 's songs , entitled " Ain 't No Road Too Long " .
In 1993 , in collaboration with Rincom Children 's Entertainment , Jennings recorded an album of children 's songs , Cowboys , Sisters , Rascals & Dirt , which included " Shooter 's Theme " , a tribute to his 14 @-@ year @-@ old with the theme of " a friend of mine " .
Although his record sales and radio play dwindled during the ' 90s , Jennings continued to draw large crowds at his live performances . In 1997 , after the Lollapalooza tour , he decreased his tour schedule and became centered on his family .
In 1998 , Jennings teamed up with Bare , Jerry Reed , and Mel Tillis to form the Old Dogs . The group recorded a double album of songs by Shel Silverstein . In mid @-@ 1999 , Jennings assembled what he referred to as his " hand @-@ picked dream team " and formed Waylon & The Waymore Blues Band . Consisting primarily of former Waylors , the 13 @-@ member group performed concerts from 1999 to 2001 . In January 2000 , Jennings recorded what became his final album at Nashville 's historic Ryman Auditorium , Never Say Die : Live .
= = Music style and image = =
Jennings 's music was characterized by his " powerful " singing voice , noted by his " rough @-@ edged quality , " as well as his phrasing and texture . He was also recognized for his " spanky @-@ twang " guitar style . To create his sound , he used a pronounced ' phaser ' effect ( see ' Modulation Effects ' : below ) plus a mixture of thumb and fingers during the rhythmic parts , while using picks for the lead runs . He combined hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off riffs , with eventual upper @-@ fret double stops and modulation effects . Jennings played a 1953 Fender Telecaster , a used guitar that was a gift from The Waylors . Jennings 's bandmates adorned his guitar with a distinctive leather cover that featured a black background with a white floral work . Jennings further customized it by filing down the frets to lower the strings on the neck to obtain the slapping sound . Among his other guitars , Jennings used a 1950 Fender Broadcaster from the mid @-@ 1970s , until he gave it to guitarist Reggie Young in 1993 . The leather covers of his guitars were carved by leather artist Terry Lankford .
His signature image was characterized by his long hair and beard , as well as his black hat and the black leather vest he wore during his appearances .
= = Personal life = =
Jennings was married four times , and had six children . He was first married to Maxine Caroll Lawrence in 1956 at age 18 , with whom he had four children : Terry Vance Jennings ( born January 21 , 1957 ) , Julie Rae Jennings ( born August 12 , 1958 ) , Buddy Dean Jennings ( born March 21 , 1960 ) , and Deana Jennings . Jennings married again on December 10 , 1962 to Lynne Jones , adopting a child , Tomi Lynne . They divorced in 1967 . He next married Barbara Rood . He composed the song " This Time " about the trials and tribulations of his marriages and divorces . He married for the fourth and final time in Phoenix , Arizona , on October 26 , 1969 to Jessi Colter . Colter and Jennings had one son , Waylon Albright " Shooter " Jennings ( born May 19 , 1979 ) . Colter had one daughter , Jennifer , from her previous marriage to Duane Eddy . In the early 1980s , Colter and Jennings nearly divorced due to his addiction to drugs and other forms of substance abuse . However , they remained together until Jennings 's death in 2002 .
In 1997 , he gave up touring to be closer to his family . To set an example about the importance of education to his son Waylon Albright , Jennings earned a GED at age 52 .
= = = Addiction and recovery = = =
Jennings started to consume amphetamines while he lived with Johnny Cash during the mid @-@ 1960s . Jennings later stated , " Pills were the artificial energy on which Nashville ran around the clock . " In 1977 , Jennings was arrested by federal agents for conspiracy and possession of cocaine with intent to distribute . A private courier warned the Drug Enforcement Administration about the package sent to Jennings by a New York colleague that contained 27 grams of cocaine . The DEA and the police searched Jennings 's recording studio . They found no evidence , because while they were waiting for a search warrant , Jennings disposed of the cocaine . The charges were later dropped and Jennings was released . The episode was recounted in Jennings 's song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit 's Done Got Outta Hand ? "
During the early 1980s , his cocaine addiction intensified . Jennings claimed to have spent $ 1 @,@ 500 a day on his habit , draining his personal finances and leaving him bankrupt with debt up to $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Though he insisted on repaying the debt and did additional tours to earn the funds , his work became less focused and his tours deteriorated . Jennings decided to quit his addictions , leased a home in the Phoenix area , and spent a month detoxing himself , intending to start using cocaine again in a more controlled fashion afterward . In 1984 , he quit cocaine . Jennings claimed that his son Shooter was his main inspiration to quit permanently .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Jennings 's health had been deteriorating for years before his death . After quitting cocaine , he ended his habit of smoking six packs of cigarettes daily in 1988 . In December 1988 , he underwent triple heart bypass surgery after suffering chest pains while on his tour bus . By 2000 , his diabetes worsened , and the pain reduced his mobility , forcing Jennings to end most touring . Later the same year , he underwent surgery to improve his leg circulation . In December 2001 , his left foot was amputated at a hospital in Phoenix . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died in his sleep of diabetic complications in Chandler , Arizona . He was buried in the Mesa City Cemetery , in Mesa , Arizona . At the funeral ceremony , on February 15 , Jessi Colter sang " Storms Never Last " for the attendees , who included Jennings 's close friends and fellow musicians .
= = Recognition = =
Between 1966 and 1995 , 54 Jennings albums charted , with 11 reaching number one . Meanwhile , between 1965 and 1991 , 96 singles charted , with 16 number ones . In October 2001 , Jennings was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame . In one final act of defiance , he did not attend the ceremony and opted instead to send son Buddy Dean Jennings .
On July 6 , 2006 , Jennings was inducted to Hollywood 's Rock Wall in Hollywood , California . On June 20 , 2007 , Jennings was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .
= = Legacy = =
Jennings 's music had a major influence on several neotraditionalist and alternative country artists , including Hank Williams , Jr . , The Marshall Tucker Band , Travis Tritt , Steve Earle , Jamey Johnson , John Anderson , his son , Shooter Jennings , and Hank Williams III .
In 2008 , his first posthumous album , Waylon Forever , was released . The album consisted of songs recorded with his son Shooter when he was 16 . In 2012 , Waylon : The Music Inside a three @-@ volume project , consisting of covers of Jennings 's songs by different artists , was released . The same year , it was announced for September the release of Goin ' Down Rockin ' : The Last Recordings , a set of 12 songs recorded by Jennings and bassist Robby Turner before his death in 2002 . Jennings 's family was reluctant to release any new material because they did not feel comfortable at the time . The songs only featured Jennings and Turner on the bass , while further accompaniment would be added later . Ten years after , Turner completed the recordings with the help of former Waylors . The Jennings family approved the release despite the launch of a new business focused on his estate . Shooter Jennings arranged deals for a clothing line , while also launching a renewed website , and started talks with different producers about the making of a biographical film .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Journals = = =
Denberg , Jody ( January 1988 ) . " Chantilly Lace and Jolly Face " . Texas Monthly 16 ( 1 ) . ISSN 0148 @-@ 7736 .
Henderson , Richard ( May 12 , 2001 ) . " The RCA 100 : Ambitious Reissue Program Represents A Century of Diverse Music " . Billboard 113 ( 19 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
Jessen , Wade ; Evans Price , Deborah ; Stark , Phyllis ( February 23 , 2002 ) . " Waylon Jennings Remembered as Country Music Legend " . Billboard 114 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
Weatherby , Gregg ( 1988 ) . " Still Waylon " . Spin ( SPIN Media LLC ) 3 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0886 @-@ 3032 .
Billboard 112 ( 12 ) . March 18 , 2000 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .
" Patsy Montana Early Country Favorites " . Bluegrass Unlimited ( Bluegrass Unlimited ) 18 ( 1 @-@ 6 ) . 1983 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 5137 .
Country song roundup staff ( 1967 ) . " Country song roundup " ( 102 ) . Country Song Roundup : 15 .
The Journal of country music ( The Country Music Foundation ) 6 ( 3 ) . Fall 1975 .
The Southern Quarterly ( University of Southern Mississippi ) 22 . 1983 . ISSN 0038 @-@ 4496 .
= Treehouse of Horror X =
" Treehouse of Horror X " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' eleventh season , and the tenth annual Treehouse of Horror episode , consisting of three self @-@ contained segments . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween 1999 . In " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " , the Simpsons cover up a murder and are haunted by an unseen witness . In " Desperately Xeeking Xena " , Bart and Lisa gain superpowers and must rescue Xena star Lucy Lawless from the Comic Book Guy 's alter ego The Collector , and in " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " , Homer causes worldwide destruction thanks to the Y2K bug .
" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Ron Hauge , Donick Cary and Tim Long . The episode contains numerous parodies and references to horror and science fiction works , including Doctor Who , I Know What You Did Last Summer and Battlestar Galactica . It also features actress Lucy Lawless and actors Tom Arnold and Dick Clark as themselves . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , finishing in 34th place in the ratings the week it aired . Since its airing , the episode received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
In the opening scene , the two aliens Kang and Kodos introduce a variety show , with a live audience consisting of aliens . While they tell jokes , canned laughter is played , but the audience appears unamused . The Simpson family sits on the couch , with Homer appearing as the jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ box from " Treehouse of Horror II " , Marge as the witch from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " , Bart as the half @-@ fly mutant from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " . Maggie is the alien / human mutant from " Treehouse of Horror IX " and Lisa is the victim of an axe murder . Lisa then asks what aliens have to do with Halloween , and Maggie , in Kang 's voice , says , " Silence ! " , and disintegrates her with a ray gun .
= = = I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did = = =
In a parody of I Know What You Did Last Summer , on a foggy evening with a full moon , the Simpsons are driving down a coastal road when Marge accidentally smashes into Ned Flanders , killing him . Homer manipulates the body in several escapades , which convinces Maude that Ned died of an accident and that he does not want an autopsy . Shortly after Ned 's funeral , the family finds the phrase " I Know What You Did ! " written in blood everywhere they go . They are terrorized by a cloaked figure , which drives them out of their house . Again , in the wild , they find Ned . It turns out he lived because he was bitten by a werewolf moments before the accident . Clouds uncover the full moon , Ned changes into a wolf and Marge , Bart , Maggie and Lisa run away . Ned mauls Homer to death while Homer mocks him .
= = = Desperately Xeeking Xena = = =
An X @-@ ray machine scanning Halloween candy malfunctions and gives Bart the ability to stretch his body like rubber and Lisa super strength . They become a superhero duo , calling themselves " Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl " . Later , Lucy Lawless ( dressed as Xena ) addresses fans at a science fiction convention . Comic Book Guy , who has styled himself as a villain called " The Collector " , kidnaps her using a magnet to attract her metal breast plate . Lawless tries to remove the breastplate but stops after she notices that her horny nerd fans have cameras ready . The Collector takes her to his lair , where he puts her in an aluminized PET film bag for " safekeeping " and imprisons her in a room of other similarly @-@ captured celebrities . Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl then enter the fray in an attempt to free Xena , but they are soon captured as well . The Collector suspends the duo over a vat of " Lucite " . After feigning interest in the villain , Lawless starts clobbering him . The Collector grabs his limited edition double edged lightsaber from Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace ( which was released a few months before the episode ) and ignites the blades , but when Lawless reminds him that he has removed it from its original packaging , he panics and ends up falling into the Lucite . Lawless then flies the children home ( Lisa points out that Xena cannot fly , but Lawless reminds her she 's not Xena , she 's Lucy Lawless ) .
= = = Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die = = =
On December 31 , 1999 , Dick Clark is celebrating New Year 's Rockin ' Eve in Springfield . Homer , the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's Y2K compliance officer , declares that he fixed all the possible Y2K problems at the plant , including the computers . Unfortunately , Homer forgot to fix his own computer , and in the process sends a virus across the world . Chaos ensues , and widespread looting begins . Krusty 's malfunctioning pacemaker apparently kills him in front of the family . Bart tearfully mourns his hero , but he perks up , after finding a note . The letter in Krusty 's pocket states that a rocket ( codenamed Exodus ) is being populated with humanity 's " best and brightest " , and will be launched in order to preserve human civilization on Mars . When they reach the shuttle , Homer fails to bluff his way on board by claiming to be the famous pianist from the film Shine but the armed guard recognizes Lisa as the ship 's designated proofreader . Lisa is only able to take one parent with her , and quickly chooses Marge . Homer and Bart find a second , unguarded rocket and board just before it launches . They quickly notice that the spaceliner is filled with such notoriously obnoxious and mediocre celebrities as radio psychologist Dr. Laura , film director Spike Lee , skating champion Tonya Harding , grunge rock singer Courtney Love , politician Ross Perot , actor Tom Arnold , MTV VJ Paulie Shore , and actress / talk show host Rosie O 'Donnell . Although the craft is headed directly for the sun , Homer and Bart eject themselves from the spacecraft and die of explosive decompression .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Donick Cary , Tim Long and Ron Hauge . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween , 1999 . " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " was conceived and written by former staff writer Cary . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Cary said that he came up with the segment after watching the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . " I had just seen the movie and I was like , ' Hey , there you go . ' " he said . While Flanders serves as the segment 's antagonist , the role would originally go to Grampa , who would chase Homer inside a roller disco . While Grampa does not appear in the segment , the Springfield Roller Disco is seen during the Simpsons escape from Flanders . Despite serving as writer for the segment , Cary left the series after finishing the first draft in order to work on the animated Austin Powers series , which never came to fruition . In his absence , the writing staff rewrote the last quarter of the segment and added the revelation that Flanders is a werewolf . In order to dispose of Ned Flanders ' corpse , Homer throws his body into Flanders ' house . After he is finished , he says " That 's the end of that chapter " , a phrase that Cary often uses in his everyday life . " That 's just something that comes up a lot in my life is when no matter if it 's a good or a bad thing , just move on " he said .
" Desperately Xeeking Xena " was written by staff writer Long . At the beginning of the segment , Milhouse is seen wearing a plastic smock with a picture of Radioactive Man on it . The scene was based on an experience in Long 's childhood ; " I asked my mom for a Batman costume . And I got a smock that had Batman on it and said ' Batman ' . It was very dispiriting " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " Stretch Dude & Clobber Girl " ' s theme song was written by Long and composed by Alf Clausen . During the sequence , Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl are seen assaulting Saddam Hussein , the fifth President of Iraq . According to Long , the writing staff had a " passionate " discussion about whether the duo would be attacking Hussein or Iranian religious leader and politician Ruhollah Khomeini during the sequence . Scully quipped that Hussein was chosen because " he was always asking to be on the show . " The segment features New Zealand actress Lucy Lawless as herself . According to Long , Lawless was very happy with the segment 's script . She was especially fond of the speech she gives to The Collector , in which she mentions that she was very tall as an adolescent . Lawless was directed by Scully , who commented that she was " terrific " . In an interview with the Hungarian online newspaper Origo , Lawless said that her part in the episode was the best experience she had guest @-@ starring for a show . " It was really funny when the Comic Book Guy kidnapped me " , she said .
" Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " was written and conceived by Hauge . In DVD commentary for the episode , Hauge stated that , when writing the segment , he knew it would not age well . " I was aware of it at the time , that it wouldn 't last forever " he said , " But I wanted to capture that moment . " According to director Michels , the rocket which transported the " best and brightest " of the population was drawn to resemble a popsicle . The Simpsons ' staff had a lot of trouble finding a guest star for the second rocket , and the only person who agreed to participate was American actor Tom Arnold . In the episode , Arnold is depicted as an annoying , " not @-@ so @-@ great " celebrity . Although he was mostly in on the joke , Arnold did " bust [ the staff 's ] chops " a little bit when recording his lines . " He would say a line and then they 'd yell cut and he 'd look over at me and take a shot at me " Hauge said . Still , Hauge found Arnold 's performance " fantastic " and Scully said that he was a " good sport " . The segment also features television personality Dick Clark as himself . A few months after the episode aired , Hauge discussed the segment with Clark in a Fox studio . According to Hauge , Clark said that the episode gave the " biggest response " he had ever gotten from anything he had ever done . " After the career that he had in television for so long , just to give him a highlight was a highlight for me " Hauge said in the episode 's DVD commentary .
= = Cultural references = =
The opening segment , which shows Kang and Kodos attempting to entertain an audience of aliens , was " born out of [ The Simpsons ' staff 's ] love " of comedy teams like Martin and Lewis and the Smothers Brothers . The plot of " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " is based on the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . At the beginning of the segment , the Simpsons are seen escaping from a group of vampires . Holding a package of Super Sugar Crisp cereal , Homer starts singing a jingle about the cereal . Super Sugar Crisp is a reference to the breakfast cereal Golden Crisp , while the jingle Homer sings references " Can 't get enough of that Golden Crisp " , a jingle sung by Golden Crisp 's mascot Sugar Bear during advertisements for the cereal . According to Scully , the series ' staff had a lot of trouble clearing the song for the episode . " Apparently , they didn 't want the tune [ ... ] used in this context " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary .
Although there is a fictional Marvel Comics character called Collector , Long did not base The Collector on him . While carrying Lawless with an electromagnet , The Collector says " Care for a Rolo , sweet Xena ? " The reference was included because the writing staff were given free Rolos at the time . In The Collector 's lair , several celebrities are seen stored in aluminized PET film bags . Some of these include The Simpsons ' creator Matt Groening and Tom Baker , who portrayed the fourth incarnation of the doctor in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . " There are several Doctor Who actors but Tom Baker is the one we always go with " Hauge explained in the episode 's DVD commentary . Other captives include actress Yasmine Bleeth , Gilligan from the series Gilligan 's Island and Spock and Seven of Nine from Star Trek . The segment also features the series ' first reference to Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , when The Collector uses a mint @-@ condition of Darth Maul 's double @-@ bladed lightsaber . Because the episode was written before the film 's release , the writers did not know " how bad it was gonna be " , in their view , and therefore did not include any " obligatory shot " at the film . As he dies , The Collector poses as Lorne Greene 's character Commander Adama in the science fiction series Battlestar Galactica . Coincidentally , Lawless would go on have a recurring role on the re @-@ imagined Battlestar Galactica .
Hauge based " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " on the hysteria involving Y2K , a digital problem that occurred the night into January 1 , 2000 . Humans escaping an unsavable Earth in rockets is a reference to the 1951 film When Worlds Collide . In a scene in the segment , several celebrities , including actor Mel Gibson and former Major League Baseball player Mark McGwire , can be seen waiting in line for the first rocket . They both guest starred as themselves in two earlier episodes from the season . Others in the line include businessman Bill Gates , director Ron Howard , former President Jimmy Carter , scientist Stephen Hawking , rock musician Paul McCartney , basketball player Michael Jordan and ice skater Michelle Kwan . Those on the doomed ship include actors Pauly Shore and Tom Arnold , politicians Ross Perot and Dan Quayle , singer Courtney Love , TV presenters Rosie O 'Donnell and Laura Schlessinger , film director Spike Lee , reverend Al Sharpton and figure skater Tonya Harding .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 31 , 1999 , " Treehouse of Horror X " received an 8 @.@ 6 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode finished in 34th place in the ratings for the week of October 25 @-@ 31 , 1999 . Following the episode was a rerun of " Treehouse of Horror IX " , which was originally broadcast the previous year . In 2000 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was nominated for a CINE Golden Eagle Award , which it ultimately won . It was also nominated for a Golden Reel Award in the category of " Best Sound Editing - Television Animation " , which it lost to the SpongeBob SquarePants episode " Mermaid Man & Barnacle Boy " . On October 7 , 2008 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season DVD set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Donick Cary , Tim Long , Matt Selman and Pete Michels participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror X " received positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " Even in the series ’ crummier seasons , the staff always seems to come up with a good Halloween episode " , and that " Treehouse of Horror X " " continues that trend " . Of the three segments , Jacobson found " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " to be the weakest . He wrote " [ ... ] other than a good ending , it simply doesn ’ t have a lot going for it " and added that it is the most dated of the three . He continued , " ' Diddily ' offers a fun horror spoof , and ' Xena ' is a terrific superhero bit with plenty of cleverness . " DVD Talk 's Ian Jane gave the episode a positive review as well . Considering it to be one of the season 's best episodes , Jane wrote " This one , like so many that have come before and since , is a great blend of horror movie parody and Halloween themed fun in Springfield . " In 2007 , Seb Patrick of Noise to Signal included " Desperately Xeeking Xena " in a list called " The Ten Best Treehouse of Horror Vignettes " . Although he disliked Bart and Lisa 's part in the segment , Patrick wrote that it " earns its stripes by being perhaps Comic Book Guy 's finest hour " . He also praised the segment 's references , as well as Lawless ' line " A wizard did it " , a phrase used to explain continuity errors . In 2009 , The Collector 's marriage proposal to Lawless was included in " Line @-@ O @-@ Rama : Comic Book Guy " , a compilation of what IGN considers to be The Comic Book Guy 's best lines .
= Medal of Honor =
The Medal of Honor is the United States of America 's highest military honor , awarded for personal acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty . The medal is awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress to U.S. military personnel only . There are three versions of the medal , one for the Army , one for the Navy , and one for the Air Force . Personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version .
The Medal of Honor was created as a Navy version in 1861 named the " Medal of Valor " , and an Army version of the medal named the " Medal of Honor " was established in 1862 to give recognition to men who distinguished themselves " conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity " in combat with an enemy of the United States . Because the medal is presented " in the name of Congress " , it is often referred to as the " Congressional Medal of Honor " . However , the official name is the " Medal of Honor " , which began with the U.S. Army 's version . Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the " Medal of Honor " , and less frequently as " Congressional Medal of Honor " .
The Medal of Honor is usually presented by the President in a formal ceremony at the White House , intended to represent the gratitude of the American people , with posthumous presentations made to the primary next of kin . According to the Medal of Honor Historical Society of the United States , there have been 3 @,@ 515 Medals of Honor awarded to the nation 's soldiers , sailors , airmen , Marines , and Coast Guardsmen since the decoration 's creation , with just less than half of them awarded for actions during the four years of the American Civil War .
In 1990 , Congress designated March 25 annually as " National Medal of Honor Day " . Due to its prestige and status , the Medal of Honor is afforded special protection under U.S. law against any unauthorized adornment , sale , or manufacture , which includes any associated ribbon or badge .
= = History = =
1780 : The Fidelity Medallion was a small medal worn on a chain around the neck , similar to a religious medal , that was awarded only to three militiamen from New York state , for the capture of John André , a British officer and spy connected directly to General Benedict Arnold ( American and British general @-@ 1780 ) during the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army .
1782 : Badge of Military Merit : The first formal system for rewarding acts of individual gallantry by American soldiers was established by George Washington when he issued a field order on August 7 , 1782 , for a Badge of Military Merit to recognize those members of the Continental Army who performed " any singular meritorious action " . This decoration is America 's first combat decoration and was preceded only by the Fidelity Medallion , the Congressional medal for Henry Lee awarded in September 1779 in recognition of his attack on the British at Paulus Hook , the Congressional medal for General Horatio Gates awarded in November 1777 in recognition of his victory over the British at Saratoga , and the Congressional medal for George Washington awarded in March 1776 . Although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War , the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U.S. Armed Forces had been established .
1847 : Certificate of Merit : After the outbreak of the Mexican @-@ American War ( 1846 – 1848 ) a Certificate of Merit ( Meritorious Service Citation Certificate ) was established by Act of Congress on March 3 , 1847 " to any private soldier who had distinguished himself by gallantry performed in the presence of the enemy " . 539 Certificates were approved for this period . The certificate was discontinued and reintroduced in 1876 effective from June 22 , 1874 to February 10 , 1892 when it was awarded for extraordinary gallantry by private soldiers in the presence of the enemy . From February 11 , 1892 through July 9 , 1918 ( Certificate of Merit disestablished ) it could be awarded to members of the Army for distinguished service in combat or noncombat ; from January 11 , 1905 through July 9 , 1918 the certificate was granted medal status as the Certificate of Merit Medal ( first awarded to a soldier who was awarded the Certificate of Merit for combat action on August 13 , 1898 ) . This medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2 , 1918 ( the Navy Distinguished Service Medal was established in 1919 ) . Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross ( established 1918 ) effective March 5 , 1934 .
= = = Medal of Valor = = =
There were no military awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican @-@ American War . In the fall of 1861 , a proposal for a battlefield decoration for valor was submitted to Winfield Scott , the general @-@ in @-@ chief of the army , by Lt. Colonel Edward D. Townsend , an assistant adjutant at the War Department and Scott 's chief of staff . Scott however , was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition . After Scott retired in October 1861 , the Secretary of the Navy , Gideon Welles , adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service . On December 9 , U.S. Senator ( Iowa ) James W. Grimes , Chairman on the Committee on Naval Affairs , proposed Public Resolution Number 82 ( Bill 82 : 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 329 ) " to promote the efficiency of the Navy " which included a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor which was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on December 21 , 1861 ( Medal of Honor had been established for the Navy ) , " to be bestowed upon such petty officers , seamen , landsmen , and marines as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry and other seamen @-@ like qualities during the present war . " Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration . On May 15 , 1862 , the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals ( $ 1 @.@ 85 each ) with the words " Personal Valor " on the back from the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia .
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
Senator Henry Wilson , the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs , introduced a resolution on February 15 , 1862 for an Army Medal of Honor . The resolution ( 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 623 ) was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12 , 1862 ( " Medals of Honor " were established for enlisted men of the Army ) . This measure provided for awarding a medal of honor " to such non @-@ commissioned officers and privates as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry in action and other soldier @-@ like qualities during the present insurrection . " During the war , Townsend would have some medals delivered to some recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the " Medal of Honor " . The letter written and signed by Townsend on behalf of the Secretary of War , stated that the resolution was " to provide for the presentation of medals of honor to the enlisted men of the army and volunteer forces who have distinguished or may distinguish themselves in battle during the present rebellion . " By mid @-@ November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son , who had been responsible for the Navy design , to prepare 2 @,@ 000 Army medals ( $ 2 @.@ 00 each ) to be cast at the mint . The Army version had " The Congress to " written on the back of the medal . Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze , which " gave them a reddish tint " .
1863 : Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration . On March 3 , Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army ( 37th Congress , Third Session , 12 Stat . 751 ) . The Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25 , 1863 in his office .
1890 : On April 23 , the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington , D.C.
1896 : The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical .
1904 : The planchet of the Army version of the Medal of Honor was redesigned by General George Lewis Gillespie . The purpose of the redesign was to help distinguish the Medal of Honor from other medals , including a medal issued by the Grand Army of the Republic .
1915 : On March 3 , Navy , Marine Corps , and Coast Guard officers became eligible for the Medal of Honor .
1963 : A separate Coast Guard medal was authorized in 1963 , but not yet designed or awarded .
1965 : A separate design for a version of the medal for the U.S. Air Force was created in 1956 , authorized in 1960 , and officially adopted on April 14 , 1965 . Previously , members of the U.S. Army Air Corps , U.S. Army Air Forces , and the U.S. Air Force received the Army version of the medal .
= = Appearance = =
There are three versions of the Medal of Honor , one for each of the military departments of the Department of Defense : Army , Navy , and Air Force . Members of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard are eligible to receive the Navy version . Each is constructed differently and the components are made from gilding metals and red brass alloys with some gold plating , enamel , and bronze pieces . The United States Congress considered a bill in 2004 which would require the Medal of Honor to be made with 90 % gold , the same composition as the lesser @-@ known Congressional Gold Medal , but the measure was dropped .
= = = Army Medal of Honor = = =
The Army version is described by the Institute of Heraldry as " a gold five pointed star , each point tipped with trefoils , 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches [ 3 @.@ 8 cm ] wide , surrounded by a green laurel wreath and suspended from a gold bar inscribed VALOR , surmounted by an eagle . In the center of the star , Minerva 's head surrounded by the words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . On each ray of the star is a green oak leaf . On the reverse is a bar engraved THE CONGRESS TO with a space for engraving the name of the recipient . " The pendant and suspension bar are made of gilding metal , with the eye , jump rings , and suspension ring made of red brass . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with polished highlights .
= = = Navy , Marine , and Coast Guard Medal of Honor = = =
The Navy version is described as " a five @-@ pointed bronze star , tipped with trefoils containing a crown of laurel and oak . In the center is Minerva , personifying the United States , standing with left hand resting on fasces and right hand holding a shield blazoned with the shield from the coat of arms of the United States . She repulses Discord , represented by snakes . The medal is suspended from the flukes of an anchor . " It is made of solid red brass , oxidized and buffed .
= = = Air Force Medal of Honor = = =
The Air Force version is described as " within a wreath of green laurel , a gold five @-@ pointed star , one point down , tipped with trefoils and each point containing a crown of laurel and oak on a green background . Centered on the star , an annulet of 34 stars is a representation of the head of the Statue of Liberty . The star is suspended from a bar inscribed with the word VALOR above an adaptation of the thunderbolt from the Air Force Coat of Arms . " The pendant is made of gilding metal . The connecting bar , hinge , and pin are made of bronze . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with buffed relief .
= = = Neck ribbon , service ribbon , lapel button , and " V " device = = =
Since 1944 , the Medal of Honor has been attached to a light blue colored moiré silk Neck ribbon that is 1 3 ⁄ 16 in ( 30 mm ) in width and 21 3 ⁄ 4 in ( 550 mm ) in length . The center of the ribbon displays thirteen white stars in the form of three chevron . Both the top and middle chevrons are made up of 5 stars , with the bottom chevron made of 3 stars . The Medal of Honor is one of only two United States military awards suspended from a neck ribbon . The other , the Commander 's Degree of the Legion of Merit , and is usually awarded to individuals serving foreign governments .
On May 2 , 1896 , Congress authorized a " ribbon to be worn with the medal and [ a ] rosette or knot to be worn in lieu of the medal . " The service ribbon is light blue with five white stars in the form of an " M " . It is placed first in the top position in the order of precedence and is worn for situations other than full @-@ dress military uniform . The lapel button is a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) , six @-@ sided light blue bowknot rosette with thirteen white stars and may be worn on appropriate civilian clothing on the left lapel .
In 2011 , Department of Defense instructions were amended to read " for each succeeding act that would otherwise justify award of the Medal of Honor , the individual receiving the subsequent award is authorized to wear an additional Medal of Honor ribbon and / or a ' V ' device on the Medal of Honor suspension ribbon " ( the " V " device is a 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) high bronze miniature letter " V " with serifs that denotes valor ) . The Medal of Honor was the only decoration authorized the use of the " V " device to designate subsequent awards in such fashion . Nineteen individuals , all now deceased , were double Medal of Honor recipients . This was discontinued in July 2014 , and changed to read " A separate MOH is presented to an individual for each succeeding act that justified award . " As of 2014 , no devices are authorized for the Medal of Honor .
= = = Historical versions = = =
The Medal of Honor has evolved in appearance over time . The upside @-@ down star design of the Navy version 's pendant adopted in early 1862 has not changed since its inception . The Army 1862 version followed and was identical to the Navy version except an eagle perched atop cannons was used instead of an anchor to connect the pendant to the suspension ribbon . In 1896 , the Army version changed the ribbon 's design and colors due to misuse and imitation by nonmilitary organizations . In 1904 , the Army " Gillespie " version introduced a smaller redesigned star and the ribbon was changed to the light blue pattern with white stars seen today . In 1913 , the Navy version adopted the same ribbon pattern .
After World War I , the Navy decided to separate the Medal of Honor into two versions , one for combat and one for non @-@ combat . The original upside @-@ down star was designated as the non @-@ combat version and a new pattern of the medal pendant , in cross form , was designed by the Tiffany Company in 1919 . It was to be presented to a sailor or Marine who " in action involving actual conflict with the enemy , distinguish [ es ] himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " Despite the " actual conflict " guidelines — the Tiffany Cross was awarded to Navy CDR ( later RADM ) Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett for arctic exploration . The Tiffany Cross itself was not popular . In 1942 , the Navy returned to using only the original 1862 inverted 5 @-@ point star design , and ceased issuing the award for non @-@ combat action .
In 1944 , the suspension ribbons for both the Army and Navy version were replaced with the now familiar neck ribbon . When the Air Force version was designed in 1956 , it incorporated similar elements and design from the Army version . It used a larger star with the Statue of Liberty image in place of Minerva on the medal and changed the connecting device from an eagle to an heraldic thunderbolt flanked with wings as found on the service seal .
= = = Flag = = =
On October 23 , 2002 , Pub.L. 107 – 248 was enacted , modifying 36 U.S.C. § 903 , authorizing a Medal of Honor flag to be presented to recipients of the decoration .
The flag was based on a concept by retired Army Special Forces First Sergeant Bill Kendall of Jefferson , Iowa , who designed a flag to honor Medal of Honor recipient Captain Darrell Lindsey , a B @-@ 26 pilot from Jefferson who was killed in World War II . Kendall 's design of a light blue field emblazoned with 13 white five @-@ pointed stars was nearly identical to that of Sarah LeClerc 's of the Institute of Heraldry . LeClerc 's design , ultimately accepted as the official flag , does not include the words " Medal of Honor " and is fringed in gold . The color of the field and the 13 white stars , arranged in the form of a three bar chevron , consisting of two chevrons of five stars and one chevron of three stars , emulate the suspension ribbon of the Medal of Honor . The flag has no set proportions .
The first Medal of Honor recipient to receive the official Medal of Honor flag was Sergeant First Class Paul R. Smith . The Medal of Honor with the flag was presented by President George W. Bush to his family during a ceremony at the White House on April 4 , 2005 .
A special Medal of Honor Flag presentation ceremony was held for over 60 living Medal of Honor recipients on board the USS Constitution on September 30 , 2006 .
= = Presenting = =
There are two distinct protocols for awarding the Medal of Honor . The first and most common is nomination and approval through the chain of command of the service member . The second method is nomination by a member of the U.S. Congress , generally at the request of a constituent . In both cases , if the proposal is outside the time limits for the recommendation , approval to waive the time limit requires a special Act of Congress . The Medal of Honor is presented by the President on behalf of , and in the name of , the Congress . Since 1980 , nearly all Medal of Honor recipients or in the case of posthumous awards , the next of kin have been personally decorated by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Since 1941 , more than half of the Medals of Honor have been awarded posthumously .
= = = Evolution of criteria = = =
1800s : Several months after President Abraham Lincoln signed Public Resolution 82 into law on December 21 , 1861 for a Navy medal of honor , a similar resolution was passed in July 1862 for an Army version of the medal . Six Union Army soldiers who hijacked a Confederate locomotive named The General in 1862 , were the first Medal of Honor recipients ; James J. Andrews , a civilian , led the raid . He was caught and hanged as a Union spy , but was a civilian and not eligible to receive the medal . Many Medals of Honor awarded in the 19th century were associated with " saving the flag " ( and country ) , not just for patriotic reasons , but because the U.S. flag was a primary means of battlefield communication at the time . Because no other military decoration was authorized during the Civil War , some seemingly less exceptional and notable actions were recognized by a Medal of Honor during that conflict .
1900s : Early in the twentieth century , the Navy awarded many Medals of Honor for peacetime bravery . For instance , in 1901 , John Henry Helms aboard the USS Chicago ( CA @-@ 14 ) was awarded the medal for saving the ship 's cook from drowning . Seven sailors aboard the USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 4 ) were awarded the medal after the ship 's boiler exploded on January 25 , 1904 . Richard Byrd and Floyd Bennett were awarded the medal — combat ( " Tiffany " ) version despite the existence then of a non @-@ combat form of the Navy medal — for the 1926 flight they claim reached the North Pole . And Admiral Thomas J. Ryan was awarded the medal for saving a woman from the burning Grand Hotel in Yokohama , Japan , following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake . Between 1919 and 1942 , the Navy issued two separate versions of the Medal of Honor , one for acts related to combat and one for non @-@ combat bravery . The criteria for the award tightened during World War I for the Army version of the Medal of Honor , while the Navy version retained a non @-@ combat provision until 1963 . In an Act of Congress of July 9 , 1918 , the War Department version of the medal required that the recipient " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and also required that the act of valor be performed " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . This was in reaction to the results of the Army Medal of Honor Review Board , which struck 911 medals from the Medal of Honor Roll in February 1917 for lack of basic prerequisites . These included the members of the 27th Maine erroneously awarded the medal for reenlisting to guard the capital during the Civil War , 29 members of Abraham Lincoln 's funeral detail , and six civilians , including Buffalo Bill Cody and Mary Edwards Walker ( though the latter 's was restored posthumously in 1977 ) .
World War II : Starting in 1942 , the Medal would only be awarded for action in combat , although the Navy version of the Medal of Honor technically allowed non @-@ combat awards until 1963 . Official accounts vary , but generally , the Medal of Honor for combat was known as the " Tiffany Cross " , after the company that designed the medal . The Tiffany Cross was first awarded in 1919 , but was unpopular partly because of its design . The Tiffany Cross Medal of Honor was awarded at least three times for non @-@ combat . By a special authorized Act of Congress , the medal was presented to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . In 1942 , the United States Navy reverted to a single Medal of Honor , although the statute still contained a loophole allowing the award for both " action involving actual conflict with the enemy " or " in the line of his profession " . Arising from these criteria , approximately 60 percent of the medals earned during and after World War II have been awarded posthumously .
Public Law 88 @-@ 77 , July 25 , 1963 : The requirements for the Medal of Honor were standardized among all the services , requiring that a recipient had " distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty . " Thus , the act removed the loophole allowing non @-@ combat awards to Navy personnel . The act also clarified that the act of valor must occur during one of three circumstances :
While engaged in action against an enemy of the United States
While engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force .
While serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party .
Congress drew the three permutations of combat from President Kennedy 's executive order of April 25 , 1962 , which previously added the same criteria to the Purple Heart . On August 24 , Kennedy added similar criteria for the Bronze Star Medal . The amendment was necessary because Cold War armed conflicts did not qualify for consideration under previous statutes such as the 1918 Army Medal of Honor Statute that required valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , since the United States has not formally declared war since World War II as a result of the provisions of the United Nations Charter . According to congressional testimony by the Army 's Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel , the services were seeking authority to award the Medal of Honor and other valor awards retroactive to July 1 , 1958 , in areas such as Berlin , Lebanon , Quemoy and Matsu Islands , Taiwan Straits , Congo , Laos , Vietnam , and Cuba .
= = Authority and privileges = =
The four specific authorizing statutes amended July 25 , 1963 :
Army : 10 U.S.C. § 3741
Navy and Marine Corps : 10 U.S.C. § 6241
Air Force : 10 U.S.C. § 8741
Coast Guard : 14 U.S.C. § 491 A version is authorized but it has never been awarded .
The President may award , and present in the name of Congress , a medal of honor of appropriate design , with ribbons and appurtenances , to a person who while a member of the Army ( naval service ; Navy and Marine Corps ) ( Air Force ) ( Coast Guard ) , distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty .
= = = Privileges and courtesies = = =
The Medal of Honor confers special privileges on its recipients . By law , recipients have several benefits :
Each Medal of Honor recipient may have his or her name entered on the Medal of Honor Roll ( 38 U.S.C. § 1560 ) .
Each person whose name is placed on the Medal of Honor Roll is certified to the United States Department of Veterans Affairs as being entitled to receive a monthly pension above and beyond any military pensions or other benefits for which they may be eligible . The pension is subject to cost @-@ of @-@ living increases ; as of December 1 , 2012 , it is $ 1 @,@ 259 a month .
Enlisted recipients of the Medal of Honor are entitled to a supplemental uniform allowance .
Recipients receive special entitlements to air transportation under the provisions of DOD Regulation 4515 @.@ 13 @-@ R. This benefit allows the recipient to travel as he or she deems fit across geographical locations , and allows the recipient 's dependents to travel either Overseas @-@ Overseas , Overseas @-@ Continental US , or Continental US @-@ Overseas when accompanied by the recipient .
Special identification cards and commissary and exchange privileges are provided for Medal of Honor recipients and their eligible dependents .
Recipients are granted eligibility for interment at Arlington National Cemetery , if not otherwise eligible .
Fully qualified children of recipients are eligible for admission to the United States military academies without regard to the nomination and quota requirements .
Recipients receive a 10 percent increase in retired pay .
Those awarded the medal after October 23 , 2002 , receive a Medal of Honor Flag . The law specified that all 103 living prior recipients as of that date would receive a flag .
Recipients receive an invitation to all future presidential inaugurations and inaugural balls .
As with all medals , retired personnel may wear the Medal of Honor on " appropriate " civilian clothing . Regulations specify that recipients of the Medal of Honor are allowed to wear the uniform " at their pleasure " with standard restrictions on political , commercial , or extremist purposes ( other former members of the armed forces may do so only at certain ceremonial occasions ) .
Most states ( 40 ) offer a special license plate for certain types of vehicles to recipients at little or no cost to the recipient . The states that do not offer Medal of Honor specific license plate offer special license plates for veterans for which recipients may be eligible .
= = = Saluting = = =
Although not required by law or military regulation , members of the uniformed services are encouraged to render salutes to recipients of the Medal of Honor as a matter of respect and courtesy regardless of rank or status , whether or not they are in uniform . This is one of the few instances where a living member of the military will receive salutes from members of a higher rank .
= = Legal protection = =
1904 : The Army redesigned its Medal of Honor . To prevent the making of copies of the medal , Brigadier General George Gillespie , Jr . , a Medal of Honor recipient from the Civil War , applied for and obtained a patent for the new design . General Gillespie received the patent on November 22 , 1904 , and he transferred it the following month to the Secretary of War at the time , William Howard Taft .
1923 : Congress enacted a statute ( the year before the 20 @-@ year term of the patent would expire ) — which would later be codified at 18 U.S.C. § 704 — prohibiting the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . In 1994 , Congress amended the statute to permit an enhanced penalty if the offense involved the Medal of Honor .
2005 : Congress enacted the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 . ( Section 1 of the Act provided that the law could be cited as the " Stolen Valor Act of 2005 " , but the bill received final passage and was signed into law in 2006 . ) The law amended 18 U.S.C. § 704 to make it a federal criminal offense for a person to deliberately state falsely that he or she had been awarded a military decoration , service medal , or badge . The law also permitted an enhanced penalty for someone who falsely claimed to have been awarded the Medal of Honor .
June 28 , 2012 : In the case of United States v. Alvarez , the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 's criminalization of the making of false claims of having been awarded a military medal , decoration , or badge was an unconstitutional violation of the First Amendment 's guarantee of free speech . The case involved an elected official in California , Xavier Alvarez , who had falsely stated at a public meeting that he had been awarded the Medal of Honor , even though he had never served in any branch of the armed forces .
The Supreme Court 's decision did not specifically address the constitutionality of the older portion of the statute which prohibits the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . Under the law , the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of the Medal of Honor is punishable by a fine of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to one year .
June 3 , 2013 : President Barack Obama signs into law a revised version of the Stolen Valor Act , making it a federal offense for someone to pass themselves off as awardees of medals for valor in order to receive benefits or other privileges ( such as grants , educational benefits , housing , etc . ) that are set aside for veterans and other service members .
A number of veteran support organizations and private companies devote themselves to exposing those who falsely claim to have received the Medal of Honor .
= = = Enforcement = = =
1996 : HLI Lordship Industries Inc . , a former Medal of Honor contractor , was fined for selling 300 medals for US $ 75 each .
1996 : Fort Lauderdale , Florida , resident Jackie Stern was convicted of wearing a Medal of Honor to which he was not entitled . A federal judge sentenced him to serve one year of probation and to write a letter of apology to each of the then @-@ living 171 recipients of the medal . His letter was published in the local newspaper .
2003 : Edward Fedora and Gisela Fedora were charged with violating 18 U.S.C. § 704 ( b ) , Unlawful Sale of a Medal of Honor , for selling medals awarded to U.S. Navy Sailor Robert Blume ( for action in the Spanish – American War ) and to U.S. Army First Sergeant George Washington Roosevelt ( for action in the Civil War ) to an FBI agent . Edward Fedora pleaded guilty and was sentenced to prison .
= = Duplicate medals = =
Medal of Honor recipients may apply in writing to the headquarters of the service branch of the medal awarded for a replacement or display Medal of Honor , ribbon , and appurtenance ( Medal of Honor flag ) without charge . Primary next of kin may also do the same and have any questions answered in regard to the Medal of Honor that was awarded .
= = Recipients = =
The Medal of Honor has been awarded to 3 @,@ 496 different persons . Of the 19 men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice , 14 received two separate medals for two separate actions , while five received both the Navy and Army Medals of Honor for the same action . As of June 2011 , since the beginning of World War II , 851 Medals of Honor have been awarded , 523 ( 61 @.@ 45 % ) posthumously . One has been awarded to a woman : Mary Edwards Walker .
The first Medals of Honor ( Army ) were awarded by and presented to six " Andrews Raiders " on March 25 , 1863 , by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , in his office in the War Department . Private Jacob Parrott , a Union Army volunteer from Ohio , became the first recipient of the medal , awarded for his volunteering for and participation in a raid on a Confederate train in Big Shanty , Georgia on April 12 , 1862 during the American Civil War . The six decorated raiders met privately afterward with President Lincoln in his office , in the White House .
The first Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was awarded by Secretary of War Stanton to 41 sailors on April 4 , 1863 ( 17 for action during the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip ) .
The first Marine awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was John F. Mackie on July 10 , 1863 , for his rifle action aboard the USS Galena on May 15 , 1862 .
The only Coast Guardsman to be awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy , posthumous ) was Signalman First Class Douglas Munro on May 27 , 1943 , for evacuating 500 Marines under fire on September 27 , 1942 during the Battle of Guadalcanal . Munro was a Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen .
The only woman awarded the Medal of Honor ( Army ) is Mary Edwards Walker , who was a civilian Union Army surgeon during the American Civil War . She received the award in 1865 for the First Battle of Bull Run ( July 21 , 1861 ) and a series of battles to the Battle of Atlanta in Sept . 1864 ... " for usual medal of honor meritorious services . "
The 1917 Medal of Honor Board deleted 911 awards , but only 910 names from the Army Medal of Honor Roll , including awards to Dr. Mary Edwards Walker , William F. " Buffalo Bill " Cody and the first of two awards issued February 10 , 1887 , to George W. Midil , who retained his award issued October 25 , 1893 . None of the 910 " deleted " recipients were ordered to return their medals , although on the question of whether the recipients could continue to wear their medals , the Judge Advocate General advised the Medal of Honor Board the Army was not obligated to police the matter . Walker continued to wear her medal until her death . President Jimmy Carter formally restored her medal posthumously in 1977 .
61 Canadians who served in the United States Armed Forces , mostly during the American Civil War . Since 1900 , four Canadians have received the medal . The only Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen to receive the medal for heroism during the Vietnam War was Peter C. Lemon .
While the governing statute for the Army Medal of Honor ( 10 U.S.C. § 6241 ) , beginning in 1918 , explicitly stated that a recipient must be " an officer or enlisted man of the Army " , " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and perform an act of valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , exceptions have been made :
Charles Lindbergh , 1927 , civilian pilot , and U.S. Army Air Corps reserve officer . Lindbergh 's medal was authorized by a special act of Congress that directly contradicted the July 1918 act of Congress that required that all Army recipients be " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . The award was based on the previous acts authorizing the Navy medal to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . Some congressmen objected to Lindbergh 's award because it contradicted the 1918 statute , but Representative Snell reportedly quelled this dissent by explaining that " it was and it wasn 't the Congressional Medal of Honor which Lindbergh would receive under his bill ; that the Lindbergh medal would be entirely distinct from the valor award for war service . "
Major General ( Retired ) Adolphus Greely was awarded the medal in 1935 , on his 91st birthday , " for his life of splendid public service " . The result of a special act of Congress similar to Lindbergh 's , Greely 's medal citation did not reference any acts of valor .
Foreign unknown recipients include the British Unknown Warrior , the French Unknown Soldier , the Romanian Unknown Soldier , the Italian Unknown Soldier , and the Belgian Unknown Soldier .
U.S. unknown recipients include the Unknowns of World War I , World War II , Korea , and Vietnam . The Vietnam Unknown was later identified as Air Force 1st Lt. Michael J. Blassie through the use of DNA identification . Blassie 's family asked for his Medal of Honor , but the Department of Defense denied the request in 1998 . According to Undersecretary of Defense Rudy de Leon , the medal was awarded symbolically to all Vietnam unknowns , not to Blassie specifically .
= = = Double recipients = = =
Nineteen men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice . The first two @-@ time Medal of Honor recipient was Thomas Custer ( brother of George Armstrong Custer ) for two separate actions that took place several days apart during the American Civil War .
Five " double recipients " were awarded both the Army and Navy Medal of Honor for the same action ; all five of these occurrences took place during World War I. Since February 1919 , no single individual can be awarded more than one Medal of Honor for the same action , although a member of one branch of the armed forces can receive the Medal of Honor from another branch if the actions for which it was awarded occurred under the authority of the second branch .
To date , the maximum number of Medals of Honor earned by any service member has been two . The last individual to be awarded two Medals of Honor was John J. Kelly in 1918 ; the last individual to receive two Medals of Honor for two different actions was Smedley Butler , in 1914 and 1915 .
§ Rank refers to rank held at time of Medal of Honor action .
= = = Related recipients = = =
Arthur MacArthur , Jr. and Douglas MacArthur are the first father and son to be awarded the Medal of Honor . The only other such pairing is Theodore Roosevelt ( awarded in 2001 ) and Theodore Roosevelt , Jr .
Five pairs of brothers have received the Medal of Honor :
John and William Black , in the American Civil War . The Blacks are the first brothers to be so honored .
Charles and Henry Capehart , in the American Civil War , the latter for saving a drowning man while under fire .
Antoine and Julien Gaujot . The Gaujots also have the unique distinction of receiving their medals for actions in separate conflicts , Antoine in the Philippine – American War and Julien when he crossed the border to rescue Mexicans and Americans in a Mexican Revolution skirmish .
Harry and Willard Miller , during the same naval action in the Spanish – American War .
Allen and James Thompson , in the same American Civil War action .
Another notable pair of related recipients are Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher ( rear admiral at the time of award ) and his nephew , Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher ( lieutenant at the time of award ) , both awarded for actions during the United States occupation of Veracruz .
= = = Belated recognition = = =
Since 1979 , 85 belated Medal of Honor decorations were presented to recognize actions from the Civil War to the Vietnam War . In addition , five recipients who names were not included on the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 had their awards restored .
A 1993 study commissioned by the U.S. Army investigated " racial disparity " in the awarding of medals . At the time , no Medals of Honor had been awarded to American soldiers of African descent who served in World War II . After an exhaustive review , the study recommended that ten Distinguished Service Cross recipients be awarded the Medal of Honor . On January 13 , 1997 , President Bill Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to seven of these World War II veterans , six of them posthumously and one to former Second Lieutenant Vernon Baker .
In 1998 , a similar study of Asian Americans resulted in President Bill Clinton presenting 22 Medals of Honor in 2000 . Twenty of these medals went to American soldiers of Japanese descent of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team ( 442nd RCT ) that served in the European Theater of Operations during World War II . One of these Medal of Honor recipients was Senator Daniel Inouye , a former U.S. Army officer in the 442nd RCT .
In 2005 , President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor to Tibor Rubin , a Hungarian @-@ born American Jew who was a Holocaust survivor of World War II and enlisted U.S. infantryman and prisoner of war in the Korean War , whom many believed to have been overlooked because of his religion .
On April 11 , 2013 , President Obama presented the Medal of Honor posthumously to Army chaplain Captain Emil Kapaun for his actions as a prisoner of war during the Korean war . This follows other awards to Army Sergeant Leslie H. Sabo , Jr. for conspicuous gallantry in action on May 10 , 1970 , near Se San , Cambodia , during the Vietnam War and to Army Private First Class Henry Svehla and Army Private First Class Anthony T. Kahoʻohanohano for their heroic actions during the Korean War .
As a result of a Congressionally mandated review to ensure brave acts were not overlooked due to prejudice or discrimination , on March 18 , 2014 President Obama upgraded Distinguished Service Crosses to Medals of Honor for 24 Hispanic , Jewish , and African American individuals — the " Valor 24 " — for their actions in World War II , the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Three were still living at the time of the ceremony .
= = 27th Maine and other revoked awardings = =
During the Civil War , Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton promised a Medal of Honor to every man in the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment who extended his enlistment beyond the agreed @-@ upon date . The Battle of Gettysburg was imminent , and 311 men of the regiment volunteered to serve until the battle was resolved . The remaining men returned to Maine , but with the Union victory at Gettysburg the 311 volunteers soon followed . The volunteers arrived back in Maine in time to be discharged with the men who had earlier returned . Since there seemed to be no official list of the 311 volunteers , the War Department exacerbated the situation by forwarding 864 medals to the commanding officer of the regiment . The commanding officer only issued the medals to the volunteers who stayed behind and retained the others on the grounds that , if he returned the remainder to the War Department , the War Department would try to reissue the medals .
In 1916 , a board of five Army generals on the retired list convened under act of law to review every Army Medal of Honor awarded . The board was to report on any Medals of Honor awarded or issued for any cause other than distinguished service . The commission , led by Nelson A. Miles , identified 911 awards for causes other than distinguished service . This included the 864 medals awarded to members of the 27th Maine regiment ; 29 servicemen who served as Abraham Lincoln 's funeral guard ; six civilians , including Mary Edwards Walker and Buffalo Bill Cody ; and 12 others . Walker 's medal was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977 . Cody and four other civilian scouts who rendered distinguished service in action , and who were therefore considered by the board to have fully earned their medals , had theirs restored in 1989 . The report was endorsed by the Judge Advocate General , who also advised that the War Department should not seek the return of the revoked medals from the recipients identified by the board . In the case of recipients who continued to wear the medal , the War Department was advised to take no action to enforce the statute . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
= = Nomination under current consideration = =
David Dunnels White 's nomination is under consideration for the capture of Confederate Major General G. W. Custis Lee , eldest son of General Robert E. Lee , at the Battle of Sailors Creek , Virginia , on April 6 , 1865 .
= = Similar American decorations = =
The following decorations , in one degree or another , bear similar names to the Medal of Honor , but are entirely separate awards with different criteria for issuance :
Cardenas Medal of Honor : decoration of the United States Revenue Cutter Service , which was later merged into the United States Coast Guard
Chaplain 's Medal for Heroism : awarded posthumously for a single action to four recipients
Congressional Gold Medal : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom )
Congressional Space Medal of Honor : intended for issuance to astronauts , but despite its name , it is not equal to the Medal of Honor
Presidential Medal of Freedom : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Congressional Gold Medal )
Several United States law enforcement decorations bear the name " Medal of Honor " . The Public Safety Officer Medal of Valor , established by Congress in 2001 and stated to be " the highest National award for valor by a public safety officer " , is also awarded by the President of the United States .
= Bacteria =
Bacteria ( / bækˈtɪəriə / ; singular : bacterium ) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometres in length , bacteria have a number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth , and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil , water , acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep portions of Earth 's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals .
There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water . There are approximately 5 × 1030 bacteria on Earth , forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals . Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients , with many of the stages in nutrient cycles dependent on these organisms , such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction . In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps , bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds , such as hydrogen sulphide and methane , to energy . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench , which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2 @.@ 6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States . According to one of the researchers , " You can find microbes everywhere — they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . "
Most bacteria have not been characterized , and only about half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory . The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology , a branch of microbiology .
There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body , with the largest number of the human flora being in the gut flora , and a large number on the skin . The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system , and some are beneficial . However , several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases , including cholera , syphilis , anthrax , leprosy , and bubonic plague . The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections , with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year , mostly in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . In developed countries , antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming , making antibiotic resistance a growing problem . In industry , bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills , the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation , and the recovery of gold , palladium , copper and other metals in the mining sector , as well as in biotechnology , and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals .
Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes , bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes . Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes , bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane @-@ bound organelles . Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes , the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor . These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea .
= = Etymology = =
The word bacteria is the plural of the New Latin bacterium , which is the latinisation of the Greek βακτήριον ( bakterion ) , the diminutive of βακτηρία ( bakteria ) , meaning " staff , cane " , because the first ones to be discovered were rod @-@ shaped .
= = Origin and early evolution = =
The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth , about 4 billion years ago . For about 3 billion years , most organisms were microscopic , and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life . In 2008 , fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota . Although bacterial fossils exist , such as stromatolites , their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution , or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species . However , gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny , and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal / eukaryotic lineage . Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence , that of the archaea and eukaryotes . Here , eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells , which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea . This involved the engulfment by proto @-@ eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes , which are still found in all known Eukarya ( sometimes in highly reduced form , e.g. in ancient " amitochondrial " protozoa ) . Later on , some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial @-@ like organisms . This led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants . There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events . Here , eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a " second @-@ generation " plastid . This is known as secondary endosymbiosis .
= = Morphology = =
Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes , called morphologies . Bacterial cells are about one @-@ tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 0 micrometres in length . However , a few species are visible to the unaided eye — for example , Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimetre long and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0 @.@ 7 mm . Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma , which measure only 0 @.@ 3 micrometres , as small as the largest viruses . Some bacteria may be even smaller , but these ultramicrobacteria are not well @-@ studied .
Most bacterial species are either spherical , called cocci ( sing. coccus , from Greek kókkos , grain , seed ) , or rod @-@ shaped , called bacilli ( sing. bacillus , from Latin baculus , stick ) . Elongation is associated with swimming . Some bacteria , called vibrio , are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma @-@ shaped ; others can be spiral @-@ shaped , called spirilla , or tightly coiled , called spirochaetes . A small number of species even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes . More recently , some bacteria were discovered deep under Earth 's crust that grow as branching filamentous types with a star @-@ shaped cross @-@ section . The large surface area to volume ratio of this morphology may give these bacteria an advantage in nutrient @-@ poor environments . This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial cell wall and cytoskeleton , and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients , attach to surfaces , swim through liquids and escape predators .
Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells , others associate in characteristic patterns : Neisseria form diploids ( pairs ) , Streptococcus form chains , and Staphylococcus group together in " bunch of grapes " clusters . Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments , for example the Actinobacteria . Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells . Certain types , such as species of the genus Nocardia , even form complex , branched filaments , similar in appearance to fungal mycelia .
Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations called biofilms or bacterial mats . These films can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth , and may contain multiple species of bacteria , protists and archaea . Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components , forming secondary structures , such as microcolonies , through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients . In natural environments , such as soil or the surfaces of plants , the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms . Biofilms are also important in medicine , as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of implanted medical devices , and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria .
Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible . For example , when starved of amino acids , Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing , migrate toward each other , and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100 @,@ 000 bacterial cells . In these fruiting bodies , the bacteria perform separate tasks ; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation . For example , about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores , which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells .
= = Cellular structure = =
= = = Intracellular structures = = =
The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane ( also known as a lipid , cytoplasmic or plasma membrane ) . This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients , proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell . As they are prokaryotes , bacteria do not usually have membrane @-@ bound organelles in their cytoplasm , and thus contain few large intracellular structures . They lack a true nucleus , mitochondria , chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells . Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of cytoplasm , but structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and the localization of proteins to specific locations within the cytoplasm that give bacteria some complexity have been discovered . These subcellular levels of organization have been called " bacterial hyperstructures " .
Bacterial microcompartments , such as carboxysomes , provide a further level of organization ; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells , rather than by lipid membranes . These " polyhedral organelles " localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism , a function performed by the membrane @-@ bound organelles in eukaryotes .
Many important biochemical reactions , such as energy generation , use concentration gradients across membranes . The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means reactions such as electron transport occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space . However , in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light @-@ gathering membrane . These light @-@ gathering complexes may even form lipid @-@ enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria . Other proteins import nutrients across the cell membrane , or expel undesired molecules from the cytoplasm .
Bacteria do not have a membrane @-@ bound nucleus , and their genetic material is typically a single circular DNA chromosome located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the nucleoid . The nucleoid contains the chromosome with its associated proteins and RNA . The phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria may be exceptions to the general absence of internal membranes in bacteria , because they appear to have a double membrane around their nucleoids and contain other membrane @-@ bound cellular structures . Like all living organisms , bacteria contain ribosomes , often grouped in chains called polyribosomes , for the production of proteins , but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of eukaryotes and Archaea . Bacterial ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S ( measured in Svedberg units ) : their subunits have rates of 30S and 50S . Some antibiotics bind specifically to 70S ribosomes and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis . Those antibiotics kill bacteria without affecting the larger 80S ribosomes of eukaryotic cells and without harming the host .
Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use , such as glycogen , polyphosphate , sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates . Certain bacterial species , such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria , produce internal gas vesicles , which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels . Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria . Used primarily for photosynthesis , they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids . An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes , but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy . Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes . The most common inclusions are glycogen , lipid droplets , crystals , and pigments . Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate . These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect ; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue . Gas vacuoles , which are freely permeable to gas , are membrane @-@ bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria . They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy . Microcompartments are widespread , membrane @-@ bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes . Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation . Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments , present in magnetotactic bacteria , that contain magnetic crystals .
= = = Extracellular structures = = =
In most bacteria , a cell wall is present on the outside of the cell membrane . The cell membrane and cell wall comprise the cell envelope . A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan ( called " murein " in older sources ) , which is made from polysaccharide chains cross @-@ linked by peptides containing D @-@ amino acids . Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi , which are made of cellulose and chitin , respectively . The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea , which do not contain peptidoglycan . The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria , and the antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan .
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria , a thick one in the gram @-@ positives and a thinner one in the gram @-@ negatives . The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain , a test long @-@ employed for the classification of bacterial species .
Gram @-@ positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids . In contrast , gram @-@ negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins . Lipopolysaccharides , also called endotoxins , are composed of polysaccharides and lipid A that is responsible for much of the toxicity of gram @-@ negative bacteria . Most bacteria have the gram @-@ negative cell wall , and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria have the alternative gram @-@ positive arrangement . These two groups were previously known as the low G + C and high G + C gram @-@ positive bacteria , respectively . These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility ; for instance , vancomycin can kill only gram @-@ positive bacteria and is ineffective against gram @-@ negative pathogens , such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa . If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed , it is called a protoplast , whereas if it is partially removed , it is called a spheroplast. β @-@ Lactam antibiotics , such as penicillin , inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross @-@ links in the bacterial cell wall . The enzyme lysozyme , found in human tears , also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body 's main defense against eye infections .
Acid @-@ fast bacteria , such as Mycobacteria , are resistant to decolorization by acids during staining procedures . The high mycolic acid content of Mycobacteria , is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention . The most common staining technique used to identify acid @-@ fast bacteria is the Ziehl @-@ Neelsen stain or acid @-@ fast stain , in which the acid @-@ fast bacilli are stained bright @-@ red and stand out clearly against a blue background . L @-@ form bacteria are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls . The main pathogenic bacteria in this class is Mycoplasma ( not to be confused with Mycobacteria ) .
In many bacteria , an S @-@ layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell . This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier . S @-@ layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions , but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus .
Flagella are rigid protein structures , about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length , that are used for motility . Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane .
Fimbriae ( sometimes called " attachment pili " ) are fine filaments of protein , usually 2 – 10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometers in length . They are distributed over the surface of the cell , and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope . Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells , and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens . Pili ( sing. pilus ) are cellular appendages , slightly larger than fimbriae , that can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells in a process called conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or " sex pili " ( see bacterial genetics , below ) . They can also generate movement where they are called type IV pili ( see movement , below ) .
Glycocalyx are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells , and vary in structural complexity : ranging from a disorganised slime layer of extra @-@ cellular polymer to a highly structured capsule . These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as macrophages ( part of the human immune system ) . They can also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition , as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms .
The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on bacterial secretion systems . These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell . Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the virulence of pathogens , so are intensively studied .
= = = Endospores = = =
Certain genera of gram @-@ positive bacteria , such as Bacillus , Clostridium , Sporohalobacter , Anaerobacter , and Heliobacterium , can form highly resistant , dormant structures called endospores . In almost all cases , one endospore is formed and this is not a reproductive process , although Anaerobacter can make up to seven endospores in a single cell . Endospores have a central core of cytoplasm containing DNA and ribosomes surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by an impermeable and rigid coat . Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound that composes 5 % to 15 % of the dry weight of bacterial spores . It is implicated as responsible for the heat resistance of the endospore .
Endospores show no detectable metabolism and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses , such as high levels of UV light , gamma radiation , detergents , disinfectants , heat , freezing , pressure , and desiccation . In this dormant state , these organisms may remain viable for millions of years , and endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the vacuum and radiation in space . According to scientist Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson , " There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth — and we know they 're very hardened to radiation . " Endospore @-@ forming bacteria can also cause disease : for example , anthrax can be contracted by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis endospores , and contamination of deep puncture wounds with Clostridium tetani endospores causes tetanus .
= = Metabolism = =
Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types . The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy , but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications . Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria : the kind of energy used for growth , the source of carbon , and the electron donors used for growth . An additional criterion of respiratory microorganisms are the electron acceptors used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration .
Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic , where organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources , or autotrophic , meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide . Heterotrophic bacteria include parasitic types . Typical autotrophic bacteria are phototrophic cyanobacteria , green sulfur @-@ bacteria and some purple bacteria , but also many chemolithotrophic species , such as nitrifying or sulfur @-@ oxidising bacteria . Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on phototrophy , the use of light through photosynthesis , or based on chemotrophy , the use of chemical substances for energy , which are mostly oxidised at the expense of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors ( aerobic / anaerobic respiration ) .
Bacteria are further divided into lithotrophs that use inorganic electron donors and organotrophs that use organic compounds as electron donors . Chemotrophic organisms use the respective electron donors for energy conservation ( by aerobic / anaerobic respiration or fermentation ) and biosynthetic reactions ( e.g. , carbon dioxide fixation ) , whereas phototrophic organisms use them only for biosynthetic purposes . Respiratory organisms use chemical compounds as a source of energy by taking electrons from the reduced substrate and transferring them to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction . This reaction releases energy that can be used to synthesise ATP and drive metabolism . In aerobic organisms , oxygen is used as the electron acceptor . In anaerobic organisms other inorganic compounds , such as nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide are used as electron acceptors . This leads to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction , and acetogenesis , respectively .
Another way of life of chemotrophs in the absence of possible electron acceptors is fermentation , wherein the electrons taken from the reduced substrates are transferred to oxidised intermediates to generate reduced fermentation products ( e.g. , lactate , ethanol , hydrogen , butyric acid ) . Fermentation is possible , because the energy content of the substrates is higher than that of the products , which allows the organisms to synthesise ATP and drive their metabolism .
These processes are also important in biological responses to pollution ; for example , sulfate @-@ reducing bacteria are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury ( methyl- and dimethylmercury ) in the environment . Non @-@ respiratory anaerobes use fermentation to generate energy and reducing power , secreting metabolic by @-@ products ( such as ethanol in brewing ) as waste . Facultative anaerobes can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves .
Lithotrophic bacteria can use inorganic compounds as a source of energy . Common inorganic electron donors are hydrogen , carbon monoxide , ammonia ( leading to nitrification ) , ferrous iron and other reduced metal ions , and several reduced sulfur compounds . In unusual circumstances , the gas methane can be used by methanotrophic bacteria as both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism . In both aerobic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy , oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor , whereas under anaerobic conditions inorganic compounds are used instead . Most lithotrophic organisms are autotrophic , whereas organotrophic organisms are heterotrophic .
In addition to fixing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , some bacteria also fix nitrogen gas ( nitrogen fixation ) using the enzyme nitrogenase . This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above , but is not universal .
Regardless of the type of metabolic process they employ , the majority of bacteria are able to take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small molecules , which enter the cell by diffusion or through molecular channels in cell membranes . The Planctomycetes are the exception ( as they are in possessing membranes around their nuclear material ) . It has recently been shown that Gemmata obscuriglobus is able to take in large molecules via a process that in some ways resembles endocytosis , the process used by eukaryotic cells to engulf external items .
= = Growth and reproduction = =
Unlike in multicellular organisms , increases in cell size ( cell growth ) and reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms . Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission , a form of asexual reproduction . Under optimal conditions , bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly , and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9 @.@ 8 minutes . In cell division , two identical clone daughter cells are produced . Some bacteria , while still reproducing asexually , form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells . Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces , or budding . Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell .
In the laboratory , bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media . Solid growth media , such as agar plates , are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain . However , liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required . Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension , making the cultures easy to divide and transfer , although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult . The use of selective media ( media with specific nutrients added or deficient , or with antibiotics added ) can help identify specific organisms .
Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly . However , in natural environments , nutrients are limited , meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely . This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies ( see r / K selection theory ) . Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available , such as the formation of algal ( and cyanobacterial ) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer . Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments , such as the production of multiple antibiotics by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms . In nature , many organisms live in communities ( e.g. , biofilms ) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses . These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ( syntrophy ) .
Bacterial growth follows four phases . When a population of bacteria first enter a high @-@ nutrient environment that allows growth , the cells need to adapt to their new environment . The first phase of growth is the lag phase , a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high @-@ nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth . The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates , as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced . The second phase of growth is the log phase , also known as the logarithmic or exponential phase . The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth . The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate ( k ) , and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time ( g ) . During log phase , nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth . The third phase of growth is the stationary phase and is caused by depleted nutrients . The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non @-@ essential cellular proteins . The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased expression of genes involved in DNA repair , antioxidant metabolism and nutrient transport . The final phase is the death phase where the bacteria run out of nutrients and die .
= = Genetics = =
Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size from only 160 @,@ 000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Carsonella ruddii , to 12 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 base pairs in the soil @-@ dwelling bacteria Sorangium cellulosum . Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this arrangement , with bacteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi , the cause of Lyme disease , containing a single linear chromosome . The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria , these are much rarer than in eukaryotes .
Bacteria may also contain plasmids , which are small extra @-@ chromosomal DNAs that may contain genes for antibiotic resistance or virulence factors . Plasmids replicate independently of chromosomes , so it is possible that plasmids could be lost in bacterial cell division . Against this possibility is the fact that a single bacterium can contain hundreds of copies of a single plasmid .
Bacteria , as asexual organisms , inherit identical copies of their parent 's genes ( i.e. , they are clonal ) . However , all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or mutations . Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to mutagens . Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria . Genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or " stress @-@ directed mutation " , where genes involved in a particular growth @-@ limiting process have an increased mutation rate .
= = = DNA transfer = = =
Some bacteria also transfer genetic material between cells . This can occur in three main ways . First , bacteria can take up exogenous DNA from their environment , in a process called transformation . Genes can also be transferred by the process of transduction , when the integration of a bacteriophage introduces foreign DNA into the chromosome . The third method of gene transfer is conjugation , whereby DNA is transferred through direct cell contact .
Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to be a consequence of infrequent errors during intracellular assembly of virus particles , rather than a bacterial adaptation . Conjugation , in the much @-@ studied E. coli system is determined by plasmid genes , and is an adaptation for transferring copies of the plasmid from one bacterial host to another . It is seldom that a conjugative plasmid integrates into the host bacterial chromosome , and subsequently transfers part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium . Plasmid @-@ mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation .
Transformation , unlike transduction or conjugation , depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process , and thus transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer . In order for a bacterium to bind , take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome , it must first enter a special physiological state termed competence ( see Natural competence ) . In Bacillus subtilis , about 40 genes are required for the development of competence . The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be between a third of a chromosome up to the whole chromosome . Transformation appears to be common among bacterial species , and thus far at least 60 species are known to have the natural ability to become competent for transformation . The development of competence in nature is usually associated with stressful environmental conditions , and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells .
In ordinary circumstances , transduction , conjugation , and transformation involve transfer of DNA between individual bacteria of the same species , but occasionally transfer may occur between individuals of different bacterial species and this may have significant consequences , such as the transfer of antibiotic resistance . In such cases , gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment is called horizontal gene transfer and may be common under natural conditions . Gene transfer is particularly important in antibiotic resistance as it allows the rapid transfer of resistance genes between different pathogens .
= = = Bacteriophages = = =
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria . Many types of bacteriophage exist , some simply infect and lyse their host bacteria , while others insert into the bacterial chromosome . A bacteriophage can contain genes that contribute to its host 's phenotype : for example , in the evolution of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 and Clostridium botulinum , the toxin genes in an integrated phage converted a harmless ancestral bacterium into a lethal pathogen . Bacteria resist phage infection through restriction modification systems that degrade foreign DNA , and a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference . This CRISPR system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Secretion = = =
Bacteria frequently secrete chemicals into their environment in order to modify it favorably . The secretions are often proteins and may act as enzymes that digest some form of food in the environment .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
A few bacteria have chemical systems that generate light . This bioluminescence often occurs in bacteria that live in association with fish , and the light probably serves to attract fish or other large animals .
= = = Multicellularity = = =
Bacteria often function as multicellular aggregates known as biofilms , exchanging a variety of molecular signals for inter @-@ cell communication , and engaging in coordinated multicellular behavior .
The communal benefits of multicellular cooperation include a cellular division of labor , accessing resources that cannot effectively be utilized by single cells , collectively defending against antagonists , and optimizing population survival by differentiating into distinct cell types . For example , bacteria in biofilms can have more than 500 times increased resistance to antibacterial agents than individual " planktonic " bacteria of the same species .
One type of inter @-@ cellular communication by a molecular signal is called quorum sensing , which serves the purpose of determining whether there is a local population density that is sufficiently high that it is productive to invest in processes that are only successful if large numbers of similar organisms behave similarly , as in excreting digestive enzymes or emitting light .
Quorum sensing allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression , and enables them to produce , release and detect autoinducers or pheromones which accumulate with the growth in cell population .
= = = Movement = = =
Many bacteria can move using a variety of mechanisms : flagella are used for swimming through fluids ; bacterial gliding and twitching motility move bacteria across surfaces ; and changes of buoyancy allow vertical motion .
Swimming bacteria frequently move near 10 body lengths per second and a few as fast as 100 . This makes them at least as fast as fish , on a relative scale .
In bacterial gliding and twitching motility , bacteria use their type IV pili as a grappling hook , repeatedly extending it , anchoring it and then retracting it with remarkable force ( > 80 pN ) .
" Our observations redefine twitching motility as a rapid , highly organized mechanism of bacterial translocation by which Pseudomonas aeruginosa can disperse itself over large areas to colonize new territories . It is also now clear , both morphologically and genetically , that twitching motility and social gliding motility , such as occurs in Myxococcus xanthus , are essentially the same process . "
Flagella are semi @-@ rigid cylindrical structures that are rotated and function much like the propeller on a ship . Objects as small as bacteria operate a low Reynolds number and cylindrical forms are more efficient than the flat , paddle @-@ like , forms appropriate at human @-@ size scale .
Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface ; some have a single flagellum ( monotrichous ) , a flagellum at each end ( amphitrichous ) , clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell ( lophotrichous ) , while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell ( peritrichous ) . The bacterial flagella is the best @-@ understood motility structure in any organism and is made of about 20 proteins , with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly . The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power . This motor drives the motion of the filament , which acts as a propeller .
Many bacteria ( such as E. coli ) have two distinct modes of movement : forward movement ( swimming ) and tumbling . The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three @-@ dimensional random walk . ( See external links below for link to videos . ) The flagella of a unique group of bacteria , the spirochaetes , are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space . They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves .
Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviors called taxes : these include chemotaxis , phototaxis , energy taxis , and magnetotaxis . In one peculiar group , the myxobacteria , individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores . The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces , unlike E. coli , which is motile in liquid or solid media .
Several Listeria and Shigella species move inside host cells by usurping the cytoskeleton , which is normally used to move organelles inside the cell . By promoting actin polymerization at one pole of their cells , they can form a kind of tail that pushes them through the host cell 's cytoplasm .
= = Classification and identification = =
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities . Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure , cellular metabolism or on differences in cell components , such as DNA , fatty acids , pigments , antigens and quinones . While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains , it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species . This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria , as well as lateral gene transfer between unrelated species . Due to lateral gene transfer , some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms . To overcome this uncertainty , modern bacterial classification emphasizes molecular systematics , using genetic techniques such as guanine cytosine ratio determination , genome @-@ genome hybridization , as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer , such as the rRNA gene . Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology , and Bergey 's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology . The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology ( ICSB ) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria .
The term " bacteria " was traditionally applied to all microscopic , single @-@ cell prokaryotes . However , molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains , originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria , but now called Bacteria and Archaea that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor . The archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than either is to the bacteria . These two domains , along with Eukarya , are the basis of the three @-@ domain system , which is currently the most widely used classification system in microbiolology . However , due to the relatively recent introduction of molecular systematics and a rapid increase in the number of genome sequences that are available , bacterial classification remains a changing and expanding field . For example , a few biologists argue that the Archaea and Eukaryotes evolved from gram @-@ positive bacteria .
The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine , where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection . Consequently , the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria .
The Gram stain , developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram , characterises bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls . The thick layers of peptidoglycan in the " gram @-@ positive " cell wall stain purple , while the thin " gram @-@ negative " cell wall appears pink . By combining morphology and Gram @-@ staining , most bacteria can be classified as belonging to one of four groups ( gram @-@ positive cocci , gram @-@ positive bacilli , gram @-@ negative cocci and gram @-@ negative bacilli ) . Some organisms are best identified by stains other than the Gram stain , particularly mycobacteria or Nocardia , which show acid @-@ fastness on Ziehl – Neelsen or similar stains . Other organisms may need to be identified by their growth in special media , or by other techniques , such as serology .
Culture techniques are designed to promote the growth and identify particular bacteria , while restricting the growth of the other bacteria in the sample . Often these techniques are designed for specific specimens ; for example , a sputum sample will be treated to identify organisms that cause pneumonia , while stool specimens are cultured on selective media to identify organisms that cause diarrhoea , while preventing growth of non @-@ pathogenic bacteria . Specimens that are normally sterile , such as blood , urine or spinal fluid , are cultured under conditions designed to grow all possible organisms . Once a pathogenic organism has been isolated , it can be further characterised by its morphology , growth patterns ( such as aerobic or anaerobic growth ) , patterns of hemolysis , and staining .
As with bacterial classification , identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods . Diagnostics using DNA @-@ based tools , such as polymerase chain reaction , are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed , compared to culture @-@ based methods . These methods also allow the detection and identification of " viable but nonculturable " cells that are metabolically active but non @-@ dividing . However , even using these improved methods , the total number of bacterial species is not known and cannot even be estimated with any certainty . Following present classification , there are a little less than 9 @,@ 300 known species of prokaryotes , which includes bacteria and archaea ; but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 107 to 109 total species – and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude .
= = Interactions with other organisms = =
Despite their apparent simplicity , bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms . These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism , mutualism and commensalism . Due to their small size , commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface . However , their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat , and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odor .
= = = Predators = = =
Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms , these species are called predatory bacteria . These include organisms such as Myxococcus xanthus , which forms swarms of cells that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter . Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients , such as Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus , or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol , such as Daptobacter . These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from saprophages that consumed dead microorganisms , through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms .
= = = Mutualists = = =
Certain bacteria form close spatial associations that are essential for their survival . One such mutualistic association , called interspecies hydrogen transfer , occurs between clusters of anaerobic bacteria that consume organic acids , such as butyric acid or propionic acid , and produce hydrogen , and methanogenic Archaea that consume hydrogen . The bacteria in this association are unable to consume the organic acids as this reaction produces hydrogen that accumulates in their surroundings . Only the intimate association with the hydrogen @-@ consuming Archaea keeps the hydrogen concentration low enough to allow the bacteria to grow .
In soil , microorganisms that reside in the rhizosphere ( a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking ) carry out nitrogen fixation , converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds . This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants , which cannot fix nitrogen themselves . Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms . For example , the presence of over 1 @,@ 000 bacterial species in the normal human gut flora of the intestines can contribute to gut immunity , synthesise vitamins , such as folic acid , vitamin K and biotin , convert sugars to lactic acid ( see Lactobacillus ) , as well as fermenting complex undigestible carbohydrates . The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria ( usually through competitive exclusion ) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as probiotic dietary supplements .
= = = Pathogens = = =
If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms , they are classed as pathogens . Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as tetanus , typhoid fever , diphtheria , syphilis , cholera , foodborne illness , leprosy and tuberculosis . A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years after , as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease . Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture , with bacteria causing leaf spot , fire blight and wilts in plants , as well as Johne 's disease , mastitis , salmonella and anthrax in farm animals .
Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human hosts . Some organisms , such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus , can cause skin infections , pneumonia , meningitis and even overwhelming sepsis , a systemic inflammatory response producing shock , massive vasodilation and death . Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all . Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans , such as the Rickettsia , which are obligate intracellular parasites able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms . One species of Rickettsia causes typhus , while another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Chlamydia , another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites , contains species that can cause pneumonia , or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease . Finally , some species , such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Burkholderia cenocepacia , and Mycobacterium avium , are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis .
Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics , which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria , or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth . There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host . An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin , which inhibit the bacterial ribosome , but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome . Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth , where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations . Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilizing the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe , and by proper care of indwelling catheters . Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilized to prevent contamination by bacteria . Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection .
= = Significance in technology and industry = =
Bacteria , often lactic acid bacteria , such as Lactobacillus and Lactococcus , in combination with yeasts and molds , have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of fermented foods , such as cheese , pickles , soy sauce , sauerkraut , vinegar , wine and yogurt .
The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation . Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills . Fertilizer was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil . Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes . In the chemical industry , bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals .
Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control . This commonly involves Bacillus thuringiensis ( also called BT ) , a gram @-@ positive , soil dwelling bacterium . Subspecies of this bacteria are used as a Lepidopteran @-@ specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide . Because of their specificity , these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly , with little or no effect on humans , wildlife , pollinators and most other beneficial insects .
Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated , bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology , genetics and biochemistry . By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes , scientists can determine the function of genes , enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria , then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms . This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms . This is achievable in some well @-@ studied bacteria , with models of Escherichia coli metabolism now being produced and tested . This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins , such as insulin , growth factors , or antibodies .
Because of their importance for research in general , samples of bacterial strains are isolated and preserved in Biological Resource Centers . This ensures the availability of the strain to scientists worldwide .
= = History of bacteriology = =
Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 , using a single @-@ lens microscope of his own design . He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London . Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek 's most remarkable microscopic discovery . They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and , in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science , no one else would see them again for over a century . Only then were his by @-@ then @-@ largely @-@ forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous " animalcules " ( spermatozoa ) — taken seriously .
Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg introduced the word " bacterium " in 1828 . In fact , his Bacterium was a genus that contained non @-@ spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria , as opposed to Bacillus , a genus of spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria defined by Ehrenberg in 1835 .
Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that the growth of microorganisms causes the fermentation process , and that this growth is not due to spontaneous generation . ( Yeasts and molds , commonly associated with fermentation , are not bacteria , but rather fungi . ) Along with his contemporary Robert Koch , Pasteur was an early advocate of the germ theory of disease .
Robert Koch , a pioneer in medical microbiology , worked on cholera , anthrax and tuberculosis . In his research into tuberculosis Koch finally proved the germ theory , for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1905 . In Koch 's postulates , he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a disease , and these postulates are still used today .
Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases , no effective antibacterial treatments were available . In 1910 , Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic , by changing dyes that selectively stained Treponema pallidum — the spirochaete that causes syphilis — into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen . Ehrlich had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on immunology , and pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria , with his work being the basis of the Gram stain and the Ziehl – Neelsen stain .
A major step forward in the study of bacteria came in 1977 when Carl Woese recognized that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria . This new phylogenetic taxonomy depended on the sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA , and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains , as part of the three @-@ domain system .
= Janet Jackson ( album ) =
Janet Jackson is the self @-@ titled debut album by American recording artist Janet Jackson . It was released on September 21 , 1982 , by A & M Records . Jackson 's career as a recording artist was established by her father and manager Joseph Jackson , who arranged her recording contract with her recording company . Prior to her rise to fame , the singer had no interest in pursuing a musical career . Despite this , she was motivated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . After acting in the variety show The Jacksons , she began starring in several TV series and commenced recording her debut album . Its artwork depicts Jackson submerged in a swimming pool .
Janet Jackson is described as a post @-@ disco and R & B record . Songwriters Angela Winbush and René Moore contributed to much of the album 's lyrics . Moore and Winbush share production credits with Foster Sylvers , Jerry Weaver , and Bobby Watson . Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics who found its content bland , although highlighted some tracks . It also managed to chart on the Billboard 200 and in New Zealand . Three singles from the album had little impact on Billboard charts , among them " Young Love " , " Come Give Your Love to Me " and " Say You Do " . In order to promote Janet Jackson , she performed the song on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .
= = Background and artwork = =
Jackson had initially desired to become a horse racing jockey or entertainment lawyer , with plans to support herself through acting . Despite this , she was anticipated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . At age seven , Jackson performed at the Las Vegas Strip at the MGM Casino and began acting in the variety show The Jacksons in 1976 . The year after , she was selected to have a starring role as Penny Gordon Woods in the sitcom Good Times . She later starred in A New Kind of Family before joining the cast of Diff 'rent Strokes , portraying Charlene Duprey for two years . Jackson also played the recurring role of Cleo Hewitt during the fourth season of Fame , but expressed indifference towards the series . When Jackson was sixteen , she was arranged a contract with A & M Records and began recording her debut album with the assistance of her father , working with a number of songwriters and producers such as René Moore , Angela Winbush and Bobby Watson .
The album 's artwork was photographed by Harry Langdon in the swimming pool of the Jackson family 's home . Jackson described Langdon as " the sweetest man imaginable " . She took inspiration from a photograph of actress Elizabeth Taylor submerged in a swimming pool which was taken early in her career . In the photograph , nothing could be seen apart from Taylor 's face above the water ; her body was hidden beneath the surface . Jackson thought the pose was dramatic and loved the fact that she could do the same thing , and not to have to reveal anything except for her face . With the photographer , his assistant and other people around the pool , she was still reluctant to take off her robe , and stand there in her bathing suit . She waited until everybody got distracted to slip into the pool . After they took the photos , she waited until everybody was gone to get out of the pool .
= = Promotion = =
Five singles were released from the album . " Young Love " was the first . It received little notoriety on the principal singles chart , the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was able to reach a peak of number 64 . However , on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the single managed to reach number six . In New Zealand , " Young Love " reached a peak of number 16 . The second single from Janet Jackson was " Come Give Your Love to Me " and peaked at number 58 on the Hot 100 . It became her last single to appear on that chart until 1986 , when she released Control . The follow @-@ up single , " Say You Do " , only managed to appear on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the Hot Dance Club Songs charts , peaking at numbers 15 and 11 , respectively . The last singles from the album , " Love and My Best Friend " and " Don 't Mess Up A Good Thing " did not appear on any chart worldwide . In order to further promote Janet Jackson , she performed " Young Love " and " Say You Do " on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .
= = Reception = =
Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics . The Baltimore Afro @-@ American gave it a favorable review , commenting that " the eight songs simply feature the poised voice of a dynamic individual . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it two out of five stars , providing a mixed review saying " On her eponymous debut album , Janet Jackson demonstrates no distinctive musical personality of her own . If her producers had concocted a sharper set of songs and more interesting beats , Janet Jackson might have been a pleasant set of sunny dance @-@ pop " , highlighting " Young Love " as the only song which " stands out among the undistinguished , sub @-@ disco thumpers and drippy ballads " . Bil Carpenter from the same website called Janet Jackson a " debut album of youth @-@ oriented pop " .
Similarly , Wilson & Alroy 's Record Reviews commented that " Listening to Jackson 's childlike , personality @-@ challenged voice on this disc , you 'd never dream what a commercial juggernaut she would become " . On its first side , they deemed " You 'll Never Find ( A Love Like Mine ) " and " Young Love " as the standouts , but criticized the ballad " Love And My Best Friend " , saying it is nearly unendurable . He considered the second side 's sound " up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minute " , but said " Unfortunately , [ the producer 's ] taste in tunes is abysmal " . The The Rolling Stone Album Guide book stated that the album and its follow @-@ up Dream Street ( 1984 ) sound like bland dance @-@ music ready @-@ mades .
On the US Billboard 200 , Janet Jackson had its peak at number 63 . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number 44 on the New Zealand Albums Chart , during its only @-@ week chart on April 17 , 1983 . As of 2003 , Janet Jackson sold 82 @,@ 000 copies through BMG Music Club in the United States . And sold additional 62 @,@ 000 copies according to Soundscan . Worldwide , the album has sold 300 @,@ 000 copies , considered a failure at the time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= Fanny Bullock Workman =
Fanny Bullock Workman ( January 8 , 1859 – January 22 , 1925 ) was an American geographer , cartographer , explorer , travel writer , and mountaineer , notably in the Himalayas . She was one of the first female professional mountaineers ; she not only explored but also wrote about her adventures . She set several women 's altitude records , published eight travel books with her husband , and championed women 's rights and women 's suffrage .
Born to a wealthy family , Workman was educated in the finest schools available to women and traveled in Europe . Her marriage to William Hunter Workman cemented these advantages , and , after being introduced to climbing in New Hampshire , Fanny Workman traveled the world with him . They were able to capitalize on their wealth and connections to voyage around Europe , North Africa , and Asia . The couple had two children , but Fanny Workman was not a motherly type ; they left their children in schools and with nurses , and Workman saw herself as a New Woman who could equal any man . The Workmans began their travels with bicycle tours of Switzerland , France , Italy , Spain , Algeria and India . They cycled thousands of miles , sleeping wherever they could find shelter . They wrote books about each trip and Fanny frequently commented on the state of the lives of women that she saw . Their early bicycle tour narratives were better received than their mountaineering books .
At the end of their cycling trip through India , the couple escaped to the Western Himalaya and the Karakoram for the summer months , where they were introduced to high @-@ altitude climbing . They returned to this then @-@ unexplored region eight times over the next 14 years . Despite not having modern climbing equipment , the Workmans explored several glaciers and reached the summit of several mountains , eventually reaching 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) on Pinnacle Peak , a women 's altitude record at the time . They organized multiyear expeditions but struggled to remain on good terms with the local labor force . Coming from a position of American privilege and wealth , they failed to understand the position of the native workers and had difficulty finding and negotiating for reliable porters .
After their trips to the Himalaya , the Workmans gave lectures about their travels . They were invited to learned societies ; Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne and the second to speak at the Royal Geographical Society . She received many medals of honor from European climbing and geographical societies and was recognized as one of the foremost climbers of her day . She demonstrated that a woman could climb in high altitudes just as well as a man and helped break down the gender barrier in mountaineering .
= = Early life = =
Workman was born January 8 , 1859 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , to a wealthy and elite family descended from the Pilgrims ; she was the youngest of three children . Her mother was Elvira Hazard , and her father was Alexander H. Bullock , businessman and Republican Massachusetts governor . Fanny was educated by governesses before attending Miss Graham 's Finishing School in New York City , after which she spent time in Paris and then Dresden . Thomas Pauly writes in his short biography of Workman that " early on Fanny chafed at the constraints of her privilege " . A small number of her stories from this time survive , describing her interest in adventure . In one , " A Vacation Episode " , she describes a beautiful and aristocratic English girl who is contemptuous of society . She runs away to Grindelwald , becoming an excellent alpinist and marrying an American . The story encapsulates much of Fanny 's own life : wanderlust , a love of the mountains , and a commitment to women 's rights . In 1886 , she published a short story , set during the First Indian War , in New York Magazine about " the capture and rescue of a white girl " ; a reviewer of the story stated that it was " told in a very pleasant and infatuating style " .
In 1879 , Fanny returned to the United States and on June 16 , 1882 married William Hunter Workman , a man 12 years her senior . He was also from a wealthy and educated family , having attended Yale and having received his medical training at Harvard . In 1884 they had a daughter , Rachel .
William introduced Fanny to climbing after their marriage , and together they spent many summers in the White Mountains in New Hampshire ; here she summited Mount Washington ( 6 @,@ 293 feet or 1 @,@ 918 metres ) several times . Climbing in the Northeastern United States allowed Fanny to develop her abilities together with other women . Unlike European clubs , American climbing clubs in the White Mountains allowed women to be members and encouraged women to climb . They promoted a new vision of the American woman , one who was both domestic and athletic , and Workman took to this image with enthusiasm . By 1886 , women sometimes outnumbered men on hiking expeditions in New England . In her paper on the gender dynamics of climbing in the region , Jenny Ernie @-@ Steighner states that this formative experience shaped Workman 's commitment to women 's rights , pointing out that " no other well @-@ known international mountaineers of the time , male or female , spoke as openly and fervently about women 's rights " . However , both of the Workmans disliked the provincial nature of life in Worcester , where they resided , and yearned to live in Europe . After both Fanny 's and William 's fathers died , leaving them enormous estates , the couple embarked on their first major European trip , a tour of Scandinavia and Germany .
= = Move to Europe and cycling tours = =
In 1889 the Workman family relocated to Germany citing William 's health , although Pauly speculates that this may have been merely a pretext , for he recovered surprisingly quickly . The couple 's second child , Siegfried , was born shortly after they arrived in Dresden . Although Fanny and William now had two children , Fanny refused to conform to the socially accepted role of a wife and mother , and instead became an author and adventurer . She lived a vigorous life that diverged from idealized femininity in the 1800s . As a feminist , Fanny considered herself an example of the idea that women could equal and excel over men in the arduous life , and embodied the New Woman ethos of the day . Moreover , as Miller points out in her book about women explorers , since the ideal family of the time was a large one and information about birth control was not easily available , William 's medical knowledge must have been invaluable . The Workmans left their children with nurses while they took long trips . In 1893 , Siegfried died from a combination of influenza and pneumonia . After his death , according to Pauly , Workman , through her bicycle tours , " aggressively pursued an alternative identity , one that liberated her from the conventional responsibilities of wife and mother and allowed for her interests and ambitions " . They missed their daughter 's wedding to Sir Alexander MacRobert in 1911 while exploring in the Karakoram .
Together , the Workmans explored the world and co @-@ wrote eight travel books , which describe the people , art , and architecture of the areas in which they journeyed . The Workmans were aware of their contribution to the genre of travel writing as they commented on other writers in their own works . Their mountaineering narratives said little about the culture of those remote and sparsely inhabited regions ; they included both lyrical descriptions of the sunset , for example , for their popular audience and detailed explanations of geographical features , such as glaciers , for their scientific readership . Fanny and William added scientific elements to their writings to appeal to authoritative organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society ; Fanny also believed the science would make her more legitimate in the eyes of the climbing community , but it cost her readers . In general , their bicycling tour narratives were better received than those about their mountaineering exploits . Fanny wrote the majority of these travel books herself , and in them she commented extensively on the plight of women wherever she traveled .
Stephanie Tingley writes , in her encyclopedia entry on Workman 's travel writing , that there is an implied feminist criticism of the hardships women experienced and the inferior status of the women in the societies she encountered . As a strong @-@ willed , outspoken supporter of women 's rights , Workman used their travels to demonstrate her own abilities and to highlight the inequities other women lived under . However , their travel books are written in the first @-@ person plural or third @-@ person singular , so it is difficult to decisively attribute views or voices to either William or Fanny . The Workmans ' works are colonialist in that they describe the people they meet and observe as " exotic or unusual , at worst as primitive or even subhuman " . However , at times they make it clear that the people they encounter see them in a similar light , demonstrating that they were sometimes aware of their own biases .
Between 1888 and 1893 , the Workmans took bicycling tours of Switzerland , France , and Italy . In 1891 , Fanny became one of the first women to climb Mont Blanc . She also was one of the first women to climb the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn ; her guide was Peter Taugwalder , who had made the first ascent with Edward Whymper . In 1893 , the couple decided to explore areas beyond Europe and headed for Algeria , Indochina , and India . These longer trips were Fanny 's idea . The couple 's first extended tour was a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 500 km ) bicycle trip across Spain in 1895 ; each of them carried 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of luggage and they averaged 45 miles ( 72 km ) a day , sometimes riding up to 80 miles ( 130 km ) . Afterwards , they co @-@ wrote Sketches Awheel in Modern Iberia about their trip . In it , they described Spain as " rustic , quaint , and charming " , a common travel writing motif that did not make their book fresh or original . In Algerian Memories Fanny focused on the beauty and romance of the countryside , avoiding any commentary on the appalling urban conditions . However , she did highlight the abuse and neglect of women in Algerian society .
= = India = =
The Workmans ' trip to India , Burma , Ceylon , and Java lasted two and a half years , beginning in November 1897 , and covered 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) . At the time , Fanny was 38 and William 50 . They bicycled about 4 @,@ 000 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) from the southernmost tip of India to the Himalaya in the north . In order to ensure that they had access to supplies , they rode along major thoroughfares near railways , and were sometimes forced to sleep in railway waiting rooms if no other accommodation was available . They carried minimal supplies , including tea , sugar , biscuits , cheese , tinned meats , water , pillows , a blanket for each of them , writing materials , and medical and repair kits . They dispensed with their bicycles at the northern end of their trip and hiked over passes between 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) and 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . The trip was grueling . They often had little food or water , dealt with swarms of mosquitoes , fixed as many as 40 bicycle tire punctures per day , and slept in rat @-@ infested quarters . Fanny Workman 's book , written after the trip , highlighted the ancient architecture that they had seen rather than the contemporary local cultures . Mrs Workmans mentions in " My Asiatic Wanderings " about India " I have wheeled through much enchanting scenery , in the palm and banyan grooves of Orissa , Over the green and scarlet slopes of the Terai ... But I have never cycled 1200 miles in a country so continuously beautiful . " The Workmans possessed an unusual amount of historical knowledge about India for Westerners of the time and had read the Jakata , Mahabharata , and Ramayana before their trip . They were eager to learn about the culture that had produced these epics and spent more time learning about ancient history than interacting with living people .
= = = Labor issues = = =
During the summer of 1898 , the couple decided to escape the heat and explore the western Himalaya and Karakoram . After that , they intended to explore the area around Kanchenjunga in Sikkim , and then finally travel to the mountains bordering Bhutan on the east . Bureaucratic difficulties and weather problems abounded and impeded their plans . The most serious problems concerned labor . They hired 45 porters , outfitted them for basic mountain travel , and bought provisions , but costs skyrocketed as news of wealthy Americans circulated in the villages . They could not leave until October 3 and by then cold weather was approaching . The Workmans complain in their writings about the porters they hired , who were difficult to work with and refused to trek more than five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) per day . Three days into their journey the Workmans reached snow and the porters rebelled ; they refused to work in such cold conditions and forced the entire party to return to Darjeeling .
The Workmans struggled with labor problems continually , needing local porters to carry gear for them because they could not carry a sufficient amount for themselves for a multi @-@ month expedition . They had to transport Mummery tents , eider sleeping bags , camera equipment , scientific instruments , and a large supply of food . The porters were skeptical of the entire venture . The locals rarely climbed mountains and were not used to taking orders from a woman , which made Fanny 's position difficult . The Workmans tried to solve these problems with condescension and high @-@ handedness . Kenneth Mason maintains in his history of Himalayan mountaineering , written in 1955 , that " The Workmans were , on their journeys , the victims of their own faults . They were too impatient and rarely tried to understand the mentality of the porters and so did not get the best out of them . " Labor problems beset all of their expeditions because , as Miller puts it , " Almost alone of Victorian travellers , the Workmans had absolutely no sympathy or even common @-@ sense understanding of the local people , into whose poor and remote villages they burst with trains of followers demanding service and supplies . " In her chapter on Workman , Miller argues that the couple , being American , did not have the same sense of caste or class that British explorers had : " the Workmans , like most of their countrymen , plunged in their enterprises headlong , expecting their enormous energy to overcome all obstacles . They were justifiably criticized by the British for their callous , incompetent behavior toward the Indians . "
= = Mountaineering in the Himalayas = =
After travelling to the Himalaya the first time , the Workmans became entranced with climbing and mountaineering . Over a span of 14 years , they traveled eight times to the area , which at the time was almost completely unexplored and unmapped . Their trips were made without the benefit of modern lightweight equipment , freeze @-@ dried foods , sunblock , or radios . On each expedition , they explored , surveyed , and photographed , ultimately reporting on their findings and creating maps . The couple shared and alternated responsibilities ; one year Fanny would organize the logistics of their journey and William would work on the scientific projects and the next year they would reverse roles .
After their first trip to the Himalaya and subsequent labor problems , the Workmans hired Matthias Zurbriggen , the best and most experienced mountain climbing guide of the time . Thus , in 1899 , with 50 local porters and Zurbriggen , the Workmans began to explore the Biafo Glacier in the Karakoram , but dangerous crevasses and poor weather forced them instead to shift to the Skoro La Glacier and the unclimbed peaks around it . They reached Siegfriedhorn , an 18 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) summit that she named after her son , giving Fanny an altitude record for women at the time . They next camped at 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) and climbed a higher peak of 19 @,@ 450 feet ( 5 @,@ 930 m ) , naming it Mount Bullock Workman . Admiring the view of a far @-@ off mountain , they commented on the grand view : they were looking at K2 , the second @-@ highest mountain in the world . Fanny Workman may have been the first woman recorded to have seen it . Finally , they climbed Koser Gunge ( 20 @,@ 997 feet or 6 @,@ 400 metres ) , giving Fanny her third successive altitude record . It was very challenging : they had to hire new porters , establish a new base camp , and remain overnight at around 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . In the morning , they climbed a wall that measured 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) , and were buffeted by winds . During the summit push , Fanny 's fingers were so numb that she could no longer hold her ice ax and one of the porters abandoned them . Pauly writes , " propelled to the summit by adrenalin and desperation , the foursome lingered only long enough for their instruments to assess that the temperature was ten degrees Fahrenheit [ − 12 ° C ] and their elevation was 21 @,@ 000 feet . " Fanny was a " slow , relentless , and intrepid " climber ; " bearlike , she solidly planted one foot and then groped for another secure grip with the other " . Climbing at the beginning of the 20th century , she did not have specialized equipment like pitons or carabiners . She was able to climb to such heights , Pauly argues , because of " her dauntless persistence and her immunity to altitude sickness " .
As soon as she was able , Fanny Workman published accounts of her feats , such as an article in the Scottish Geographical Magazine . Writing about this trip at length in In the Ice World of the Himalayas , Fanny made efforts to include scientific information and experiments , touting her own modified barometer as superior , but scholarly critics were unimpressed and pointed out her lack of scientific knowledge . Popular reviewers , on the other hand , enjoyed the book , with one concluding , " We have no hesitation in saying that Dr. and Mrs. Workman have written one of the most remarkable books of travel of recent years . "
In 1902 , the Workmans returned to the Himalaya and became the first Westerners to explore the Chogo Lungma Glacier , starting in Arandu . They hired 80 porters and took four tons of supplies , but their explorations were limited by near @-@ constant snow and a 60 @-@ hour storm . In 1903 , they trekked to the Hoh Lumba Glacier with guide Cyprien Savoye . They also attempted to climb the nearby mountain they called Pyramid Peak ( later renamed Spantik , as part of the Spantik @-@ Sosbun Mountains ) . They camped the first night at 16 @,@ 200 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) and the second at 18 @,@ 600 feet ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) . An ailing porter forced them to camp the third night at 19 @,@ 355 feet ( 5 @,@ 899 m ) rather than 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and they eventually left him behind . They ascended a 22 @,@ 567 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 878 m ) peak , giving Fanny a new altitude record . William and a porter climbed toward the needle @-@ like spire that was the expedition 's goal . However , he abandoned the summit attempt a few hundred feet from the top because he realized they could not have descended to a safe altitude before altitude sickness set in .
After returning from their travels , the Workmans lectured all over Europe . Fanny lectured in English , German , or French , as the occasion required . At one talk in Lyon , France , 1000 people crowded into the auditorium and 700 were turned away . In 1905 Fanny became the second woman to address the Royal Geographical Society . ( Isabella Bird Bishop had been the first in May 1897 . ) Her talk was mentioned in The Times .
The Workmans returned to Kashmir in 1906 , and were the first Westerners to explore the Nun Kun massif . For this trip , the couple hired six Italian porters from the Alps , 200 local porters , and Savoye returned as guide . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar explain in their history of Himalayan mountaineering , the Workmans despised the local porters but were forced to recruit them ; " their otherwise invaluable books read like one long , anguished harangue against the lazy , lying , thieving , mutinous cheats on whom they unhappily depended for local support " . They planned a sequence of four camps from 17 @,@ 657 feet ( 5 @,@ 382 m ) to 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . Despite labor problems , the Workmans spent the night higher than any previous mountaineers — 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) on top of Z1 on Nun Kun — at what they called " Camp America " . William wrote of Fanny :
She concentrated her attention on the end in view , often disregarding the difficulties and even the dangers that might lie in the way of accomplishment . She went forward with a determination to succeed and a courage that won success where a less determined effort would have failed . She believed in taking advantage of every opportunity . She was no quitter , and was never the first to suggest turning back in the face of discouraging circumstances .
The map the Workmans made during this trip was of low quality . According to Mason , the couple did not have a good sense of topographical direction , which meant that their measurements were inaccurate and unusable by the Survey of India .
= = = Pinnacle Peak and altitude record = = =
From 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) , at the age of 47 in 1906 , Workman climbed up to Pinnacle Peak ( 22 @,@ 735 feet or 6 @,@ 930 metres ) ( which she believed to be 23 @,@ 263 feet or 7 @,@ 091 metres ) , a subsidiary peak in the Nun Kun massif of the western Himalaya . It was her greatest mountaineering achievement . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar point out , the fact that she " climbed the mountain at all , without benefit of modern equipment and encumbered by her voluminous skirts , speaks to both her ability and resolve " . She set an altitude record for women that would stand until Hetti Dhyrenfurth 's 1934 ascent of Sia Kangri C ( 23 @,@ 861 feet or 7 @,@ 273 metres ) . Believing that they had both climbed above the 23 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) mark , Fanny and William now considered themselves the leading experts on climbing at altitude .
Workman vigorously defended her Pinnacle Peak altitude record against all other claimants , especially Annie Smith Peck . In 1908 , Peck claimed a new record with her climb of Peru 's Huascarán , which she believed to be 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . However , she was misinformed as to the peak 's height and exaggerated distances she could not measure . Workman was so competitive that she paid a team of French surveyors from the Service Géographique de l 'Armée US $ 13 @,@ 000 to measure the elevation of the mountain , which was actually 22 @,@ 205 feet ( 6 @,@ 768 m ) , confirming her record . Pauly explains , " Ironically , her determination to prove herself the equal of any man at lofty elevations culminated with a withering attack on an American woman who tried to surpass her " . Determined to be the best woman , Workman was also a meticulous record @-@ keeper so that she could prove her accomplishments . Pauly concludes , " If Fanny Workman ever receives the recognition she deserves for her feminist determination to excel at this then @-@ male sport , she will surely be remembered as much for her insistence upon accurate record @-@ keeping as for the elevations she achieved . "
= = = Hispar and Siachen Glaciers = = =
In 1908 , the Workmans returned to the Karakoram and explored the 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 61 km ) Hispar Glacier in the Hunza Nagar region ; they went from Gilgit to Nagir over the Hispar pass ( 17 @,@ 500 feet or 5 @,@ 300 metres ) and onto the 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 km ) Biafo Glacier to Askole . Their total traverse of the glaciers was another record , and Fanny became the first woman to travel across any Himalayan glacier of this size . They were the first to explore its many side glaciers and the maps created by their Italian porters helped map the region for the first time . They recorded the physiological effects of high altitude , studied glaciers and ice pinnacles , and took meteorological measurements , including altitude data recorded with both aneroid barometers and boiling point thermometers .
The Workmans ' exploration of the Rose Glacier and the 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) Siachen Glacier in Baltistan around Masherbrum in 1911 and 1912 was the most important achievement of their careers because it was the widest and longest subpolar glacier in the world and at the time , the least explored and accessible glacier as well . For two months , the Workmans explored the 45 @-@ mile glacier , climbed several mountains , and mapped the area . They spent the entire time over 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , the high point being Indira Col which they summitted and named . On this expedition , one of their Italian guides fell into a crevasse and died ; Fanny was lucky to escape . The others were badly shaken but decided to carry on . Fanny led them across the Sia La pass ( 18 @,@ 700 feet or 5 @,@ 700 metres ) near the head of the Siachen Glacier and through a previously unexplored region to the Kaberi Glacier . This exploration and the resulting book were among her greatest accomplishments . As she wrote in her book about the trip , Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram , she organized and led this expedition : " Dr. Hunter Workman accompanied me , this time , in charge with me of commissariat and as photographer and glacialist , but I was the responsible leader of this expedition , and on my efforts , in a large measure , must depend the success or failure of it " . At one 21 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) plateau , Fanny unfurled a " Votes for Women " newspaper and her husband snapped an iconic picture . They took trained Alpine guides and surveyors including Grant Peterkin and Surjan Singh , whose contributions ensured that , unlike numerous other maps the Workmans helped create , their map of the Siachen Glacier remained unchallenged for many years .
= = Later life and death = =
After their 1908 – 12 trip , the couple stopped exploring and turned to writing and lecturing , primarily because of the onset of World War I in 1914 . Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne in Paris . She was also one of the first women to be admitted as a member of the Royal Geographical Society , a distinction she earned because her publications included scientific reflections on glaciation and other phenomena . She also earned medals of honor from 10 European geographical societies and was eventually elected a member of the American Alpine Club , Royal Asiatic Society , Club Alpino Italiano , Deutscher und Österreichischer Alpenverein , and Club alpin français . She was very proud of these achievements , listing them on the title pages of her books .
Fanny Workman fell ill in 1917 and died after a long illness in 1925 in Cannes , France . Her ashes were buried in Massachusetts , and are now reinterred along with her husband 's , under a monument in Worcester Massachusetts ' Rural Cemetery that reads " Pioneer Himalayan Explorers " . In her will , she left $ 125 @,@ 000 to four colleges , Radcliffe , Wellesley , Smith , and Bryn Mawr ; the bequests were demonstrative of her long @-@ lasting interest in the advancement of women 's rights , and her belief that women were the equals of men .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Women in climbing = = =
Along with Annie Smith Peck , Workman was recognized during the early 20th century as one of the most famous female climbers in the world . Their rivalry demonstrated that women could climb the most remote and difficult terrain on the planet , and achieve the same accomplishments as male mountaineers . It was not until Peck and Workman 's feats that women had been involved in mountaineering , though they had climbed regularly in the Alps since the 1850s . In the Himalaya , in particular , mountaineering had been dominated by wealthy Englishmen . No other women , however , climbed in the Himalaya until well after World War I , by which time improvements in equipment and organization had reduced the risk and the difficulty of the expeditions .
Workman , herself an ardent feminist and a supporter of women 's suffrage , wanted her readers to understand how her contributions and achievements reflected all women 's potential . In her writings , Workman described herself as " questioning or violating the norms of Victorian female propriety " . She demonstrated that women were strong enough to thrive outside the home by showing how easy it was for her to endure strenuous physical activities like bicycling long distances in hot , humid places or mountaineering in cold temperatures and high altitudes . Workman challenged a masculine realm ; her obituary in the Alpine Journal alluded to the challenges she faced , saying that she " felt that she suffered from ' sex antagonism ' " . The author of the piece added : " it is possible that some unconscious feeling let us say of the novelty of a woman 's intrusion into the domain of exploration so long reserved to man , may in some quarters have existed ... there tended to arise ... an atmosphere shall we say of aloofness ? " However , in her study of Victorian mountaineering , Ann Colley suggests that gender discrimination was more overt at lower elevations and in regular life than at higher elevations , such as in the Himalaya . Colley states , " Away from such petty opinion emanating from society pressures , up high , above the snow line or in distant regions , women climbers could more fully experience equality and power ... If they chose , they could be just as sportsmanlike or competitive as the men . " In her entry about Workman in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Tingley sums Workman up as " an aggressive , determined , and uncompromising turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century American woman traveler " and " one of the first women to work as a professional mountaineer and surveyor and to write about the expeditions she and her husband took to the most remote reaches of the Himalaya . She was an outspoken advocate of woman 's suffrage and made it clear that she considered herself to be a role model for other women travelers and mountaineers . "
As a result of the money Workman left in her will , Wellesley College offers a $ 16 @,@ 000 fellowship named after Fanny Workman for graduate study in any discipline to a Wellesley graduate each year . Bryn Mawr established a Fanny Bullock Workman Traveling Fellowship , which is awarded to Ph.D candidates in Archaeology or Art History when funds permit .
= = = Exploration of the Himalaya = = =
The many books and articles produced by the Workmans are " still useful " according to Mason , especially for their photographs and illustrations , but their maps are " deceptive and not always reliable " . One assessment states that although the Workmans excelled at describing meteorological conditions , glaciology , and how high altitudes affected human health and fitness , they were poor topographers . The Workmans were some of the first mountaineers to grasp that the Himalaya were the place for the ultimate climbing challenge and their explorations helped evolve mountaineering from strenuous recreation into a serious , regulated competitive sport . According to Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar , " that the Workmans were intrepid explorers and climbers none could possibly doubt , but they were also aggressive self @-@ promoters who in their eagerness for recognition and honors sometimes exaggerated the originality and significance of what they had done . " In their final assessment , Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar say " they had logged more miles and climbed more peaks than anyone to date ; they had produced five sumptuously illustrated and widely read expedition volumes ; and by simple virtue of her sex Fanny of course had set an invaluable Himalayan precedent . But the Workmans were not great mountaineers . At their best they were vigorous and competent patrons who followed capably in the hard @-@ won steps of their Italian guides . " However , in his chapter on Workman , Pauly writes that " the few recent accounts of Fanny Workman have tended to slight or belittle her achievements , but contemporaries , unaware of the far greater accomplishments to come , held the Workmans in high regard . " They were the first Americans to explore the Himalaya in depth and break the British monopoly over Himalayan mountaineering .
= = = Books = = =
Algerian memories : a bicycle tour over the Atlas to the Sahara . London : T.F. Unwin . 1895 @.@ p . 216 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Sketches awheel in modern Iberia . London : Unwin . 1897 @.@ p . 280 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
In the ice world of Himálaya , among the peaks and passes of Ladakh , Nubra , Suru , and Baltistan . New York : Cassell & Company , Limited . 1900 @.@ p . 204 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Ice @-@ Bound Heights of the Mustagh : An Account of Two seasons of Pioneer Exploration and High Climbing in the Baltistan Himalaya . London : A. Constable & Co . 1908 @.@ p . 444 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Peaks and Glaciers of Nun Kun : A Record of Pioneer @-@ Exploration and Mountaineering in the Punjab Himalaya . London : Constable and Company Ltd . 1909 @.@ p . 411 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
The Call of the Snowy Hispar : A Narrative of Exploration and Mountaineering on the Northern Frontier of India . New York : Scribner . 1911 @.@ p . 520 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram : The Exploration of Nineteen Hundred Square Miles of Mountain and Glacier . New York : E. P. Dutton & Company . 1916 @.@ p . 578 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .
= = = Articles = = =
" Among the Great Himalayan Glaciers . " National Geographic 13 ( Nov. 1920 ) : 405 – 406 .
" First Ascents of the Hoh Lumba and the Sosbon Glaciers in the Northwest Himalayas . " Independent 55 ( December 31 , 1903 ) : 3108 – 12 .
Through Town and Jungle : Fourteen Thousand Miles A @-@ Wheel Among the Temples and People of the Indian Plain . London : Unwin , 1904 .
" Miss Peck and Mrs. Workman . " Scientific American 102 ( Feb 12 and April 16 , 1910 ) ; 143 , 319 .
" Recent First Ascents in the Himalaya . " Independent 68 ( June 2 , 1910 ) : 1202 – 10 .
" Conquering the Great Rose . " Harper 129 ( June 1914 ) : 44 – 45 .
" Exploring the Rose . " Independent 85 ( January 10 , 1916 ) : 54 – 56 .
" Four Miles High . " Independent 86 ( June 5 , 1916 ) : 377 – 378 .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Colley , Ann C. ( 2010 ) . Victorians in the Mountains : Sinking the Sublime . Farnham : Ashgate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4094 @-@ 0634 @-@ 1 .
Ellis , Reuben ( 2001 ) . Vertical Margins : Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism . Madison : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17000 @-@ 4 .
Ernie @-@ Steighner , Jenny ( 2009 ) . " Delightful Escapes : U.S. Female Mountaineers Travel Abroad , 1890 – 1915 " . Thinking Gender Papers ( Los Angeles : UCLA Center for the Study of Women ) . Retrieved 22 October 2013 .
Isserman , Maurice ; Weaver , Stewart ; Molenaar , Dee ( 2008 ) . Fallen Giants : A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes . New Haven : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 11501 @-@ 7 .
Jordan , Jennifer ( 2009 ) . Savage Summit : The Life and Death of the First Women of K2 . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 175352 @-@ 7 .
Kraig , Beth ( 1999 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Garraty , John A. ; Carnes , Mark C. American National Biography 23 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 877 – 879 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 512802 @-@ 8 .
Mason , Kenneth ( 1955 ) . Abode of Snow : A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Middleton , Dorothy ( 1965 ) . Victorian Lady Travellers . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .
Miller , Luree ( 1976 ) . On Top of the World : Five Women Explorers in Tibet . Frome : Padding Press Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 8467 @-@ 0138 @-@ 3 .
Pauly , Thomas H. ( | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
up stuck in a " depressive ghetto of grimness and psychosis " . In 2009 , Lydia Millet of The Wall Street Journal contested that Watchmen was worthy of such acclaim , and wrote that while the series ' " vividly drawn panels , moody colors and lush imagery make its popularity well @-@ deserved , if disproportionate " , that " it 's simply bizarre to assert that , as an illustrated literary narrative , it rivals in artistic merit , say , masterpieces like Chris Ware 's ' Acme Novelty Library ' or almost any part of the witty and brilliant work of Edward Gorey " .
Watchmen was one of the two comic books , alongside Batman : The Dark Knight Returns , that inspired designer Vincent Connare when he created the Comic Sans font .
In 2009 , Brain Scan Studios released the parody Watchmensch , a comic in which writer Rich Johnston chronicled " the debate surrounding Watchmen , the original contracts , the current legal suits over the Fox contract " .
= Ro Laren =
Ro Laren is a fictional character who appears on a recurring basis in the fifth , sixth and seventh series of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Michelle Forbes , she is a member of the Bajoran race who joins the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D at the invitation of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The character was intended to both be at odds with the series regulars , as well as to replace Wesley Crusher at the conn officer post on the bridge . Forbes was cast to portray Ro , after previously appearing in the series as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " .
The character first appears in the fifth season episode " Ensign Ro " , which reveals elements of Ro 's backstory . She continued to appear throughout that season , and made a further appearance in each of the sixth and seventh seasons . Starfleet sought her aid to help the Cardassians apprehend a Bajoran terrorist . After joining the Enterprise crew , she wants to abandon the engineering section of the vessel following a series of power failures in " Disaster " . Alongside Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , she is affected by a Romulan experiment in " The Next Phase " and must help prevent the aliens from destroying the Enterprise . In " Rascals " , she is one of the crew who are transformed into children and helps prevent a Ferengi plot . When making her final appearance in " Preemptive Strike " , she is tasked by Starfleet to infiltrate the Maquis , eventually defecting and joining them permanently .
Ro was also planned to be a main character in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . However , Forbes turned down the role , so Kira Nerys was created to replace her . In the non @-@ canonical novels , Ro eventually joins the Bajoran militia and is posted onto Deep Space Nine . She re @-@ joins Starfleet when Bajor joins the Federation , and eventually becomes captain of the station . Reviewers discussed the religious views of Ro , comparing her views to those of Kira . Ro has been received positively by both critics and fans alike . Critics have praised the performances of Forbes , and the interaction of Ro with the existing characters . She has been placed in several polls listing the most popular characters , with Jordan Hoffman calling her the second strongest female character in the franchise .
= = Concept and development = =
During the course of planning out the fifth season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , the producers were looking to add a recurring character who could conflict with the regular cast at times as well as a new conn officer to replace Wesley Crusher . With that in mind , the episode " Ensign Ro " was written by Michael Piller , from a story idea created in conjunction with Rick Berman , to specifically introduce the character of Ensign Ro Laren . The episode was designed to show a backstory for the character , who would be at odds with series creator Gene Roddenberry 's ideal that Starfleet officers should all work together seamlessly . One of her major character traits was that she would be a member of an oppressed people , whose homeworld had been conquered by another . Supervising producer Jeri Taylor explained that they had sought to add some " fresh life " using a darker character .
Michelle Forbes was asked to return to the series , after impressing the producers with her performance as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " . The character was the daughter of Timicin , played by David Ogden Stiers , and supported the tradition that her father should commit ritual suicide upon reaching a certain age . The Bajoran make @-@ up was created on her , with Michael Westmore seeking to make her look different from the rest of the crew but in a way that would not detract from her appearance . Westmore created an appliance over Forbes ' nose , before adding a row of ridges while it was on her face . It was designed to be as thin and weightless as possible , as he wanted the piece to move with Forbes ' facial expressions . Her version of the make @-@ up had seven ridges , while other actors in " Ensign Ro " had different numbers , between five and nine , with the male actors wearing larger pieces .
Piller described the addition of Ro to the cast as one of that season 's biggest accomplishments , and was pleased that it was well received . He added that in " Ensign Ro " , they made a deliberate decision to have Ro embraced by Guinan in order to ensure that the fans warmed to the new addition . Piller felt that when Guinan took Ro to meet Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard in that episode , the character was effectively presenting Ro to the fans of the series and endorsing her . During the writing process , he felt that once he came across the friendship between Guinan and Ro that he believed " we had really done something magnificent " . Forbes , meanwhile , praised the writing and the cast of the series , saying that she had " become very attached to Star Trek " .
Piller was disappointed with the following Ro episode , " Disaster " , as it put her in the position of disbelieving Councillor Deanna Troi without having had the weight of " victories " in the past to convince the viewer of the power of her convictions . But he enjoyed her sudden relationship with Commander William Riker in " Conundrum " . Forbes shared the view of that episode , later saying " When you have amnesia , you wonder if that brings out a side of you that 's always wanted to come out . Would you really be comfortable with that ? It 's an interesting thing . I had a really good time with that episode . " Later in the season , " The Next Phase " was written with the idea of being a vehicle for Geordi La Forge and Troi , but it was decided to include Ro instead as one of the lead characters . Ro had been included as one of three lead characters in Morgan Gendel 's original pitch for the episode " The Inner Light " . This would have seen her in a love triangle with Picard and Riker . Instead , the concept was redeveloped to focus solely on Picard .
Forbes made a single appearance in the sixth season , in the episode " Rascals " . In the plot of the episode , a transporter accidentally turns Ro , among others , in a child . There was some consideration after the episode about whether or not to keep Ro as a child , as her return to adulthood was never shown on screen . Taylor said that the change would have been " too drastic for us " , and the idea was abandoned . Her final appearance , in the penultimate episode of the series , " Preemptive Strike " , had been considered a long shot by the producers . After the failure to agree her appearances on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Forbes ' agent had warned them to stay away from her . A week prior to filming , there was no story created for the episode other than the idea it would follow on from the Deep Space Nine episode " The Maquis " , and no agreement had been reached with Forbes to appear . Her agent indicated that Forbes wanted to talk directly to the producers , so she made the phone call , making up a story for the episode as the conversation went on . Forbes agreed , making her final appearance in the franchise . The character was promoted to Lieutenant , and Forbes wore updated Bajoran makeup developed by Westmore for Deep Space Nine .
= = = Star Trek : Deep Space Nine = = =
" Ensign Ro " proved influential on the creation of Deep Space Nine , with the Bajorans and Cardassians taken directly from the episode . The character was included in the original series description , stationed on the Bajor @-@ based Starfleet station and the producers had planned for her to be promoted to Lieutenant in an episode of The Next Generation prior to the start of Deep Space Nine . Taylor had expected Ro to be written out of The Next Generation , and so had taken some steps to see that the character was replaced . She said that " We all just love Michelle Forbes " , but the plans to replace Ro would not seek to add someone with the type of fire shown by the character in such episodes as " The Next Phase " . She also said that if Ro to remain on The Next Generation , then the character would have naturally evolved away from that conflicted position anyway .
The intention was that Ro would be one of a handful of The Next Generation characters moving over to the new series , alongside Miles and Keiko O 'Brien . At this stage , the other characters were only described as a wheelchair @-@ bound science officer , a brash doctor , a civilian law enforcer , a bar owner and the station commander and his son . Ro 's position on the station would have been to act as the liaison between the station and the Bajoran government . As described in the series bible , the producers had planned for Ro to be a point of conflict with " by @-@ the @-@ book Starfleet officers " . Regarding the other main characters , she was planned to have a friendship with Odo and be mentored by Jadzia Dax .
Both Berman and Piller sought to have Forbes sign on to portray Ro as a main character in the series , but she turned them down . She liked making occasional appearances on The Next Generation , but did not want to tie herself down to a five to six year main cast contract at that point in her career . She was also apprehensive about the types of demands fan appearances made on the stars of that series , and did not want to undertake the level of appearances that would be expected of a main cast member in Deep Space Nine . The producers of Deep Space Nine decided create a new character to fit a similar mould , which resulted in the creation of Kira Nerys , who was played by Nana Visitor . This was designed to require as minimal a change as possible in the premise of the pilot at that time , which was already under production . During the course of the series , Forbes told interviewers that she was interested in making one @-@ off appearances in the series if she liked the story and role .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Background = = =
In accordance with Bajoran tradition , her family name precedes her personal name . When she first joins the crew of the Enterprise @-@ D during the course of " Ensign Ro " , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) addresses her as " Ensign Laren " . She corrects him , saying that Laren is her given name and Ro is her family name . She is then referred to as " Ensign Ro " . Over the course of her several appearances in The Next Generation , information is revealed about her backstory . Bajor had been under the occupation of the Cardassians during her early life , and at the age of seven she watched as one of the occupiers tortured her father to death . This led to a life @-@ long hatred of Cardassians .
Ro joined Starfleet , and after being posted to the USS Wellington , she formed part of an away team . During that mission , she disobeyed orders , resulting in the death of eight crewmen . She was subsequently court @-@ martialled , and was imprisoned on Jaros II . Admiral Kennelly ( Cliff Potts ) later gave her a pardon and allowed her to return to Starfleet service , in return for convincing the Bajoran terrorist Orta ( Jeffrey Hayenga ) to call off his attacks after a raid on a Federation colony . He brings her to the USS Enterprise for the purpose of completing this mission .
= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation = = =
As shown in " Ensign Ro " , during an away team mission to capture Orta , Ro manages to get the team taken hostage . As a result , Picard confines her to her quarters . But Picard discovers that the Bajorans were not responsible for the attack on the Federation colony , and Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) convinces Ro to tell Picard of Kennelly 's plan . Ro was under orders to offer arms to Orta , to trick him to revealing his presence so the Cardassians can destroy his vessel . At that point , Kennelly would intervene and order Picard not to intervene to keep the peace treaty with the Cardassians . Picard allows the plan to proceed , but the Cardassians destroy an empty ship before revealing that the Cardassians had staged the attack in order to enlist aid against the Bajorans . At the conclusion of the episode , Picard offers Ro a position on the crew of the Enterprise , which she accepts .
In " Disaster " , Ro is one of the crew trapped on the bridge of the Enterprise when it undergoes a series of power failures . The ship is placed at risk of destruction because of the potential failure of the containment fields on the antimatter pods . Ro argues that they need to separate the saucer section to save those on @-@ board it as they have no way knowing if anyone is still alive on the engineering part of the vessel . When the crew undergo group amnesia in " Conundrum " , Ro and Riker act on a mutual attraction until their memories are restored . In " The Next Phase " , Ro and La Forge apparently die after a transporter accident after returning from a Romulan Warbird . But they have suffered the side effects of a Romulan cloaking experiment . Ro initial questions whether or not she has died and is now in the afterlife . But together with La Forge they discover a Romulan plot and defeating a similarly cloaked Romulan operative , Ro and La Forge alert the crew and return to normal , warning Picard and averting disaster .
In the episode " Rascals " , Ro , Picard , Guinan and Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) are transformed into adolescent versions of themselves while retaining their adult intelligence . As children , they foil a Ferengi plot to steal the Enterprise and sell the crew as slave labor . In her final episode , " Preemptive Strike " , Ro returns to the Enterprise as a Lieutenant after spending a year at Starfleet Advanced Tactical Training . During the course of the training , her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Chakotay , resigned from Starfleet to join the Marquis when his father is killed by the Cardassians . She is asked by Starfleet to infiltrate the rebel Maquis , who are undermining the Federation treaty with Cardassia . During the mission , she finds her loyalties in conflict with her duties as she becomes increasingly sympathetic to the plight of the Maquis . Despite Picard 's effort to force her to do her duty , she joins the rebel group . Riker says she seemed pretty sure she was doing the right thing , though she regretted disappointing Picard .
= = = Non @-@ canonical appearances = = =
Ro makes a series of appearances in the non @-@ canonical novel series based on The Next Generation . These include an expansion on her background and early life in the book Night of the Wolves by S. D. Perry and Britta Dennison . The events of the away mission while she was serving on the USS Wellington were shown in the second special issue of DC Comics ' The Next Generation series . Ro 's career with the Maquis is also chronicled in the novels . In Rogue Saucer , she is responsible for planning out the attack on the Enterprise in which the Maquis steal a prototype saucer section . Ro appears in the novel Tunnel Through the Stars , set during the events of the Dominion War , Ro and the remaining Maquis join forces with Picard and the USS Enterprise @-@ E to defeat the Dominion forces that are attempting to build an artificial wormhole to bypass the one near Deep Space Nine .
She began to appear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels beginning with the two @-@ part Avatar by Perry . The relaunch novels show the events that occur after the final episode of the television series . In Avatar , Ro enlists in the Bajoran Militia with the rank of Lieutenant , and is assigned to Deep Space Nine as the new Security Chief under the command of Colonel Kira . This move for Ro is also chronicled in the background to the massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game Star Trek Online .
In Twilight by David R. George III , the first part of the Mission : Gamma mini @-@ series , Quark and Ro start to develop romantic feelings for each other . In Perry 's Unity , Ro re @-@ joins Starfleet after Bajor joins the Federation and it 's military forces are merged . She is initially apprehensive about the prospect , but is convinced to accept a pardon for her time with the Maquis by Picard . Over time , Ro was promoted to Captain and as of the Star Trek : The Fall series of books , is in command of the new Deep Space Nine following the destruction of the original at the hands of a rogue element of the Typhon Pact . Ro was also one of the characters included at launch in the strategy video game Star Trek Timelines by Disruptor Beam .
= = Themes = =
The Bajorans have been described as analogues for a variety of displaced peoples , with Star Trek novelist Keith DeCandido comparing them to " Palestinians , Jews , Kurds , Haitians ; the sad reality is that you can pretty much pick and choose . History is full of people who have had their homes taken from them , forced to become refugees . " The Cardassian occupation of Bajor ( the Bajoran homeworld ) has been compared to the Holocaust , with Ro singled out as a Holocaust survivor . In his chapter " Speakers for the Dead : Star Trek , the Holocaust , and the Representation of Atrocity " within the book Star Trek as Myth , writer Matthew Wilheim Kapell compared the experiences and reactions of Ro Laren and Kira Nerys following the Cardassian occupation of Bajor . He said that the impact on Ro represented the " non @-@ american view of the holocaust " in that she does not fully recover from the trauma and continues to affect in , for example preventing her from connecting with her religious beliefs in " The Next Phase " . He explains that Kira is a far more " Americanize [ d ] " character , acting as a " resister and even liberator " during the occupation . As a result , unlike Ro , Kira retains her religious beliefs and does not typically show any ongoing emotional trauma . Further commentary of Ro 's relationship to religion have been made . In The Literary Galaxy of Star Trek , James F. Broderick compared the situation in which Ro and La Forge are trapped out of phase in " The Next Phase " to that of the purgatory dweller in Dante Alighieri 's Inferno .
= = Reception = =
When reviewing " Ensign Ro " for Tor.com , DeCandido described Michelle Forbes as " stellar " and called Ro " one of TNG 's best recurring characters " . He also added the the character was " a bit of piss and vinegar to add to the syrupy mix of homogeneity that the TNG cast tends to be " . In his review of " Preemptive Strike " , he said that the Ro character arc " comes full circle : once again making a decision that puts her on the outs with Starfleet . " He praised Forbes again , saying that she " inhabits the character so completely , from her awkwardness at the reception in her honor to her playing the role of rebel , to her pain at thinking about her father ... to her decision to betray Starfleet and the Enterprise . " He did criticise the episode for not wrapping up the Riker @-@ Ro relationship in the same way that closure had been given to her friendship with Picard . Zack Handlen reviewed " Ensign Ro " for The A.V. Club , and described Ro as " terrific " and said that the role represented " one of the rare times that TNG has managed to have a frustrated character who doesn 't immediately seem overly hateful or falsely confrontational " . But he criticized the manner in which her opinion changed to be more favourable of Picard and the Enterprise , as he felt that Guinan 's intervention was detrimental to the plot .
Ro Laren has placed in several polls featuring the characters of the franchise over the course of several years . In a list of the strongest female characters on the official Star Trek website by Jordan Hoffman in 2012 , Ro Laren was placed second behind Edith Keeler from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . He said that Ro was one of the " richest figures in Trek " , and wished to be able to see an alternative timeline where Forbes had accepted the main cast position on Deep Space Nine . A poll at the Creation Entertainment official Star Trek convention in 2013 , conducted by Hoffman , placed Ro Laren as the fifth most popular recurring character among fans , behind Elim Garak , Q , Gul Dukat and General Martok . Hoffman expressed a view that he had expected her to place higher in the rankings , due to the number of her vocal supporters , however she also had many booing her . On a poll run on the official Star Trek website in 2014 regarding the fans ' favourite supporting character , Ro came eighth out of ten . In 2015 , she was included in a list of the 21 " most interesting " supporting characters in the franchise by Lisa Granshaw at Blastr . Granshaw called Ro " a complicated , strong character " , and said her " different layers and motivations made her a great character to watch interact with the loyal crew of the Enterprise . "
= = Annotations = =
= Rock Steady Live =
Rock Steady Live is a video album by American ska punk band No Doubt , released on DVD on November 25 , 2003 under the Interscope records label . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . It is a recording of two of No Doubt 's concerts during their Rock Steady Tour in 2002 to promote their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , which was released in December 2001 . The material was recorded in November 2002 in Long Beach Arena , California . The concert features performances of seventeen songs from the band 's previous three albums : Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn and Rock Steady ; extras include performances of four extra songs , interviews with each band member and backstage footage of the tour .
Rock Steady Live was released alongside The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , a greatest hits album , and Boom Box , a box set containing two CDs and two DVDs . No Doubt then went into hiatus , allowing singer Gwen Stefani to pursue solo projects . The DVD received mixed reviews , with critics praising the band 's variety of musical styles . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers .
= = Background = =
After spending January to August 2001 writing and recording , No Doubt released their fifth studio album Rock Steady on December 11 , 2001 . They released four singles from it between October 2001 and July 2003 : " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " and " Running " . The album sold over three million copies . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , indicating sales of over two million units , gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 35 @,@ 000 units , platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units , and silver by the British Phonographic Industry , indicating sales of over 60 @,@ 000 units .
In 2002 , No Doubt embarked on their Rock Steady Tour , beginning with two dates outside the mainland United States on March 14 and 16 in Puerto Rico and Venezuela , before starting their main tour in Sacramento , California on March 18 , travelling across the U.S. and ending in Anaheim , California in November . Some performances featured burlesque group , the Pussycat Dolls . The concerts received positive reviews , with reviewers complimenting the variety of musical styles , elaborate stage and costume design and crowd interaction .
In April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus , before coming together in September 2003 to compile various retrospective works and record a new single : " It 's My Life " . Singer Gwen Stefani went on to record two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , released in November 2004 , and The Sweet Escape , released in December 2006 .
= = Content and release = =
Rock Steady Live was released on DVD on the Interscope Records label on November 23 , 2003 . On the same day , both The Singles 1992 – 2003 and Boom Box were also released by the band . The Singles 1992 – 2003 is a greatest hits album , featuring thirteen of No Doubt 's previous singles , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and new single , " It 's My Life " . Boom Box is a box set , containing Live in the Tragic Kingdom , a recording of a concert as part of the band 's Tragic Kingdom Tour , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , The Videos 1992 @-@ 2003 , compilation of the band 's music videos , and Everything in Time , a collection of B @-@ sides and rare songs . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller , who also produced the band 's previous video release , Live in the Tragic Kingdom .
The DVD contains a recording the two concerts performed in Long Beach Arena , California during No Doubt 's Rock Steady Tour . The concert features performances of 17 songs : " Just a Girl " , " Spiderwebs " , " Don 't Speak " and " Sunday Morning " from No Doubt 's third album Tragic Kingdom ; " New " , Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " , " Bathwater " and " Magic 's in the Makeup " from their fourth album Return of Saturn ; and " Hey Baby " , " Underneath It All " , " Hella Good " , " Running " , " Don 't Let Me Down " , " In My Head " , " Platinum Blonde Life " and " Rock Steady " from their fifth album Rock Steady .
The DVD also includes over an hour and a half of extra features . There are live performances of an extra four songs : " Excuse Me Mr. " and " Different People " from Tragic Kingdom , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and " Total Hate " from their second album , The Beacon Street Collection . Also included are an interview with Liam Lynch , a friend of the band ; documentary pieces featuring interviews with each band member : Tom Dumont , Tony Kanal , Gwen Stefani , Adrian Young and two touring members Stephen Bradley and Gabrial McNair ; backstage footage of the tour ; and footage of the band receiving the " Key to the City " of Anaheim , California from Mayor Tom Daly on November 22 , 2002 on KROQ @-@ FM radio .
= = Reception = =
= = = Certifications = = =
" Rock Steady Live " was certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers in 2004 , indicating sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2004 , indicating sales of over 50 @,@ 000 units .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The video received mixed reviews from critics . Allmovie reviewer Michael Hastings commented that the band " has managed to stay fresh and inventive after more than a decade together " , praising their " skills as a touring act " . He stated that the DVD encompassed a " virtual career retrospective of the band and its hits " , from its " ska @-@ punk roots into the pop realm " . In particular , he complimented the performances of " Don 't Speak " , " Hey Baby " and " Just a Girl " , giving the DVD 3 out of 5 stars . Allmusic reviewer Hal Horowitz , however , described the music as so " radically doctored " that " it is nothing like what the crowd at the venue heard " . He criticised the DVD for being " heavily edited " , the vocals for being " heavily and consistently overdubbed " and the editing for being " breathlessly nervous " . However , he complimented the band 's " high @-@ energy " performance , calling Gwen Stefani " a whirlwind of activity , strutting , preening , pouting , and prancing " . He gave the DVD 2 stars out of 5 . The Age reviewer Andrew Murfett gave a positive review , calling the sound quality " excellent " and praising the " glossy close @-@ ups to grainy back shots " of the camerawork . He described No Doubt as " endurable " and commented that the set list " stands out [ as the band 's greatest hits ] " .
MusicOMH reviewer Mark Fielding gave the DVD a positive review , calling the DVD a " very desirable package " and " must for any No Doubt fan out there " . He described the band as " one of the most versatile bands on the planet " , performing a " mish @-@ mash of rock , ska , reggae [ and ] punk " and calling Stefani 's performance " her gorgeous hyperactive best " . He complimented the camera work as providing " superb " pictures and sound , stating that they " [ captured ] the concert in all its fast and furious glory " . In particular , he praised the performances of " Hella Good " , " Hey Baby " , " Don 't Speak " , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Spiderwebs " and the inclusion of so many extra features . Rockfeedback.com reviewer Samantha Hall gave the DVD a positive review , calling the music " fun " and the DVD more representative of No Doubt 's greatest hits album , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , than their fifth studio album Rock Steady . She complimented the focus of the footage covering all four band members plus two touring members , instead of just singer Stefani , and the dancing : " the wind n ' grind dancehall moments " , " the No Doubt signature @-@ stamp " and " a seemingly inexhaustible torrent of jumps and high kicks " . Hall singled out the performance of " Magic 's In The Make @-@ up " , an album track from Return of Saturn , as the highlight of the DVD . She praised the live footage as " resplendent in near @-@ perfection " , describing the " wide range of dishy , fancy close @-@ ups and pausing effects " and calling the sound " precision @-@ balanced , distinct and clear " . She gave the DVD 4 stars out of 5 .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Concert = = =
Bonus tracks
= = = Extra Features = = =
Liam Lynch interview
Merkley Footage : Individual documentary pieces for each band member
Backstage Footage
Anaheim Key to the City
Hidden Footage
= Kellen Dunham =
Kellen Dunham ( born June 18 , 1993 ) is an American basketball player who recently completed his college career for the Butler Bulldogs . He is currently playing his senior season on the 2015 – 16 team . At Pendleton Heights High School in Pendleton , Indiana , Dunham led the state of Indiana in scoring as a senior with 29 @.@ 5 points per game and was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year . Dunham committed to Butler on July 7 , 2010 and was highly regarded by recruiting services . As a freshman , he was a 2012 – 13 Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team selection . He scored 16 @.@ 4 points per game as a sophomore and was named to the 2013 – 14 All @-@ Big East Second @-@ team . He was a 2014 – 15 All @-@ Big East First @-@ team selection as a junior .
= = Early life = =
Dunham was born on June 18 , 1993 , the son of Christy and Jim Dunham . He has three younger brothers : Kenton , Cole , and Jamison . Both his parents are basketball fans and raised their sons in a Christian household . Young Kellen learned to shoot on a " Little Tikes " hoop in the Dunham living room . He improved his game through constant practice in elementary school and middle school , to the consternation of some of his friends . When he was in eight grade , he worked on his jump shot with shooting coach Mark Baker , where Dunham learned how to shoot over his head .
Dunham attended Pendleton Heights High School , where he measured 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) as a freshman . Pendleton Heights head coach Brian Hahn described him as " gangly , skinny , and slow . " In practices , he would shoot for 45 minutes after his teammates were finished . He shot up to 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) as a sophomore and averaged 17 @.@ 0 points per game . He improved those numbers to 23 @.@ 5 points per game as a junior , leading Pendleton Heights to a 20 – 6 record . As a junior , he scored 41 points against Fort Wayne Northrop High School .
In his senior season , Dunham averaged 29 @.@ 5 points per game and shot 92 @.@ 1 % from the free throw line , leading the state of Indiana in both categories . He scored 45 points against Alexandria High School . Dunham was named Madison County Player of the Year as a senior after leading Pendleton Heights to a 23 – 3 record . His season came to an end after a 46 – 43 overtime loss against Terre Haute North High School in the Indiana High School Athletic Association Class 4A Regional at Hinkle Fieldhouse . Dunham was twice named All @-@ State . Dunham finished third in Indiana Mr. Basketball voting , behind Gary Harris and Yogi Ferrell . He was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year as a senior . He holds the record for the all @-@ time leading scorer at Pendleton Heights with 1 @,@ 899 points and led the Arabians to back @-@ to @-@ back sectional titles .
He signed a letter of intent with Butler on July 7 , 2010 . Rivals.com ranked him the 21st best shooting guard and 93rd best overall player . ESPN included Butler 's 2012 recruiting class among its top recruiting classes from teams in non @-@ BCS conferences , noting Dunham was listed as an ESPN Top 100 recruit and is " a sniper to run off screens and create movement in the halfcourt sets for the next four years . " In ESPN 's scouting report , Dunham was listed as the 78th best overall player , due in large part to the fact that what he " does really well is shoot the basketball . How he goes about his business is akin to a master craftsman applying his trade . Dunham is in constant motion , working to get himself in position to score and he 's typically shot @-@ ready . " Rivals listed him as the best shooter among all recruits of non @-@ BCS teams . Butler head coach Brad Stevens said , " the thing he brings is an incredible ability to put the ball through the net . "
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Coming into his freshman year on the 2012 – 13 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Rookie Team . Dunham began practicing basketball drills late at night thanks to senior Rotnei Clarke , and the two became fast friends . In his first college basketball game , a win against Elon , Dunham came off the bench to score 18 points . He was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week on November 12 , 2012 . During the 2012 Maui Invitational Tournament in 2012 , Dunham had one his best games as a freshman as Butler routed the then # 9 team in the country , North Carolina , shooting 56 % ( 5 of 9 ) from 3 @-@ point range and scoring 17 points . Dunham earned Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on December 10 . On December 31 , he again was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week . In a game against # 8 Gonzaga on January 19 , 2013 that was featured on ESPN 's College GameDay , he was the second leading scorer , shooting 4 of 8 from three @-@ point range , behind 20 points and a buzzer @-@ beating floater from Roosevelt Jones . Dunham earned his fourth Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on January 28 . Butler went 27 – 9 on the season and reached the NCAA Tournament as a six seed . He finished the season averaging 9 @.@ 5 points per game , fifth best on the team . Following the season , Dunham was named to the Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team .
= = = Sophomore = = =
" Most guys are relaxed , but I look up and I see Kellen , and he 's ... going 110 miles an hour , " said 2013 – 14 Butler Bulldogs first year head coach Brandon Miller during an August overseas basketball tour . " Sprinting up and down the court . Shooting pull @-@ ups . Going as hard and as fast as he possible can . He goes at a pace , whether its shootaround in Australia , 17 minutes into practice or two hours into practice , that never changes . "
Dunham scored a career @-@ high 32 points against Washington State in the Old Spice Classic , a tournament record . As a result , Dunham was named to the Old Spice Classic All @-@ Tournament Team . Through the first nine games , Dunham averaged 18 @.@ 7 points per game and shot 46 percent from 3 @-@ point range . He was named Big East Player of the Week on December 16 after contributing 25 points to lead Butler past the Purdue Boilermakers , 76 – 70 in the Crossroads Classic . Dunham had 30 points in a 99 – 94 double overtime loss to DePaul on January 9 and tied his career @-@ best with six three @-@ pointers , all of which came in the second half .
At the conclusion of the 2013 – 14 Big East season , Dunham was named to the All @-@ Big East Second Team . Despite his improvements , Butler had a lackluster season , finishing with a 14 – 17 overall record and bowing out to Seton Hall in the Big East Tournament . Dunham finished the season seventh in the Big East in scoring with a 16 @.@ 4 points per game average to go along with 4 rebounds per game . Dunham shot 39 percent from the field and 35 @.@ 5 from 3 @-@ point range . He hit a 3 @-@ pointer in 29 of the team 's 31 games . After the season , he teamed up with several college players to participate in Athletes in Action 's summer trip to the Philippines . Athletes in Action is a Christian group that helps athletes use sports for spiritual growth .
= = = Junior = = =
Coming into his junior year on the 2014 – 15 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham stopped drinking Mountain Dew prior to the season to improve his conditioning . Coach Brandon Miller took a medical leave of absence before the season and did not return ; he was replaced by Chris Holtmann . Dunham was on the Battle 4 Atlantis All @-@ tournament Team . Dunham scored a season @-@ high 28 points on January 3 , 2015 in a 73 – 69 win over St. John 's . Dunham received Big East Player of the Week honors for the week of February 9 , after scoring 21 points and pulling down seven rebounds in an 85 – 62 victory versus St. John 's and recording 24 points in an 83 – 73 win over DePaul .
Dunham averaged 16 @.@ 5 points per game , third best in the Big East , to go along with 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . He led Butler to a 23 – 11 record and six seed in the NCAA Tournament . In the Round of 64 of the NCAA Tournament , Dunham scored 20 points , including an important 3 @-@ pointer with 1 : 18 remaining , to propel Butler to a 56 – 48 victory over the Texas Longhorns . The Bulldogs fell to Notre Dame in the Round of 32 , 67 – 64 . At the conclusion of the season , Dunham was selected to the All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham was a 2014 – 15 Men 's All @-@ District V Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . He was named to the Second Team All @-@ District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches .
= = = Senior = = =
Coming into his senior year on the 2015 – 16 team at Butler , Dunham was named to the Preseason First Team All @-@ Big East . He was listed on the Oscar Robertson Award preseason watchlist . Dunham earned Big East player of the week honors for the week of December 7 , 2015 after contributing 24 points in a 78 @-@ 76 road victory over Cincinnati and 19 points in an 85 @-@ 71 win over Indiana State . He suffered a shooting slump in December , shooting 2 @-@ for @-@ 32 on three @-@ point shots and missing 21 three @-@ pointers in a row . His two point shooting fell from 58 @.@ 7 percent in the first eight games of the season to 26 @.@ 2 percent in the next five .
At the conclusion of the regular season , he was an Honorable Mention All @-@ Big East selection .
= Pumpkin bomb =
Pumpkin bombs were conventional aerial bombs developed by the Manhattan Project and used by the United States Army Air Forces against Japan during World War II . The pumpkin bomb was a close replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics , but used non @-@ nuclear conventional high @-@ explosive . It was mainly used for testing and training purposes , which included combat missions flown with pumpkin bombs by the 509th Composite Group . The name " pumpkin bomb " resulted from the large , fat ellipsoidal shape of the munition instead of the more usual cylindrical shape of other bombs and was the actual reference term used in official documents .
= = Development = =
Pumpkin bombs were a means of providing realistic training for the 509th Composite Group 's Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress crews assigned to drop the atomic bomb . The pumpkin bomb was a close , but non @-@ nuclear replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics . Specifications for the bomb required that it be carried in the forward bomb bay of a Silverplate B @-@ 29 bomber and be fuzed to be effective against actual targets .
Pumpkin bombs were produced in both inert and high explosive variants . The inert versions were filled with a cement @-@ plaster @-@ sand mixture that was combined with water to 1 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 68 grams per cubic centimetre ( 0 @.@ 060 to 0 @.@ 061 lb / cu in ) , the density of the Composition B high explosive versions . The filler of both variants had the same weight and weight distribution as the inner sphere of the plutonium bomb . The concept for the high explosive pumpkin bomb was originated in December 1944 by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , the head of the Ordnance Division at Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , and United States Army Air Forces Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , commander of the 509th Composite Group . Prior testing was carried out with an inert version .
The name " pumpkin bomb " was given to the training bombs by Parsons and Dr. Charles C. Lauritsen of the California Institute of Technology , who managed the development team . The name was used in official meetings and documents , and probably referred to its large ellipsoidal shape . Although anecdotal sources attribute the naming of the bombs to painting them a pumpkin color , the bombs were actually painted olive drab or khaki . Photographs indicate that the units delivered to Tinian were painted in the same zinc chromate primer color ( i.e. , yellow ) worn by Fat Man .
While many Manhattan scientists expected that the development of the means of delivery of the atomic bomb would be straightforward , Parsons , with his experience of the proximity fuze program , expected that it would involve considerable effort . The test program was initiated on 13 August 1943 at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia , where a scale model of the Fat Man plutonium bomb was developed . On 3 March 1944 , testing moved to Muroc Army Air Field , California . The initial tests demonstrated that the Fat Man assembly was unstable in flight , and that its fuzes did not work properly .
= = Production = =
The shells of the pumpkin bomb were manufactured by two Los Angeles firms , Consolidated Steel Corporation and Western Pipe and Steel Company , while the tail assembly was produced by Centerline Company of Detroit . After initial development , management of the program was turned over to the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in May 1945 . A total of 486 live and inert training bombs were eventually delivered , at a cost of between $ 1 @,@ 000 and $ 2 @,@ 000 apiece .
All of the inert versions went from the manufacturers directly to Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , by rail , where they were used by the 216th Base Unit in flight testing of the bomb . Some test drop missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron as training exercises . The bombs intended as live ordnance were shipped to the Naval Ammunition Depot , McAlester , Oklahoma , for filling with explosives . The Composition B was poured as a slurry , solidified in a drying facility for 36 hours , sealed , and shipped by railroad to the Port Chicago Naval Magazine , California , for shipment by sea to Tinian .
= = Description = =
The pumpkin bombs were externally similar to the Fat Man bomb in size and shape , and both had the same 52 @-@ inch ( 130 cm ) California Parachute square tail assembly and single @-@ point attachment lug . The pumpkin bomb had three contact fuzes arranged in an equilateral triangle around the nose of the bomb while the atomic bomb had four fuse housings . The atomic bomb had its shell sections bolted together , but most if not all of the pumpkin bombs were welded with a 4 inches ( 100 mm ) hole used for filling the shell . The Fat Man also had four external mounting points for radar antennae which the pumpkin bombs did not have .
The pumpkin bombs were 10 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 25 m ) in length and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) in maximum diameter . They weighed 5 @.@ 26 long tons ( 5 @,@ 340 kg ) , consisting of 3 @,@ 800 pounds ( 1 @,@ 700 kg ) for the shell , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) for the tail assembly , and 6 @,@ 300 pounds ( 2 @,@ 900 kg ) of Composition B filler . The shells were made of .375 @-@ inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel plate and the tail assemblies from .200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 mm ) aluminum plate .
= = Combat missions = =
Combat missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group on 20 , 23 , 26 and 29 July and 8 and 14 August 1945 , using the bombs against individual targets in Japanese cities . A total of 49 bombs were dropped on 14 targets , one bomb was jettisoned into the ocean , and two were aboard aircraft that aborted their missions .
Mission parameters and protocols were similar to those of the actual atomic bomb missions , and all targets were located in the vicinity of the cities designated for atomic attack . The bombs were released at an altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and the aircraft then went into the sharp turn required on a nuclear mission . After the war , the Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that the pumpkin bombs were " a reasonably effective weapon against Japanese plants when direct hits were scored on vital areas , or when the near miss was sufficiently close to important buildings to cause severe structural damage . "
= Barton Aqueduct =
The Barton Aqueduct , opened on 17 July 1761 , carried the Bridgewater Canal over the River Irwell at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell in Greater Manchester , England . Designed largely by James Brindley under the direction of John Gilbert , it was the first navigable aqueduct to be built in England , " one of the seven wonders of the canal age " according to industrial archaeologist Mike Nevell .
Construction proceeded quickly , but disaster almost struck when the aqueduct was first filled with water and one of its three arches began to buckle under the weight . Remedial work took several months , but the aqueduct was still opened to traffic only 15 months after the enabling Act of Parliament had been passed , on 17 July 1761 . It remained in use for more than 100 years , until the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal necessitated its demolition in 1893 , replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct .
= = Background = =
The original intention was for the Bridgewater Canal to reach Salford from the Duke of Bridgewater 's coal mines in Worsley , by remaining on the north bank of the Irwell . Work began in 1759 , but it was quickly decided to alter the route by building a masonry aqueduct to carry the waterway over the Irwell at Barton , and terminate instead in Manchester , to the south of the river . A Bill to authorise the new route was presented to parliament on 13 November 1759 , and in January the following year Brindley travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee in support of the proposal .
Although a gifted engineer Brindley had no formal education and rarely , if ever , committed his designs to paper . When questioned by the parliamentary committee about the composition of the puddle he frequently referred to in his evidence , he had a mass of clay brought into the committee room . He then formed the clay into a trough and showed how it would only form a watertight seal if it had been worked with water to form puddle . " Thus it is " said Brindley " that I form a watertight @-@ trunk to carry water over rivers and valleys wherever they cross the path of the canal . " Later , when asked to produce a drawing of the bridge or aqueduct he proposed to build , he replied that he had no representation of it on paper but would demonstrate his intention by use of a model . He then went out and bought a large round of Cheshire cheese , which he divided into two equal halves saying " Here is my model " . Then , to the amusement of the committee , he used the two halves of cheese to represent the semicircular arches and laid a long , rectangular object over the top to demonstrate the position of the river flowing under the aqueduct and the canal flowing over it .
Although the duke had seen navigable aqueducts in use on canals when travelling abroad on his Grand Tour , the idea of an such a structure carrying a canal over a river was new to England and was ridiculed by contemporary engineers . One brought in to review the plans , at Brindley 's request , commented in a report to the Duke of Bridgewater that " I have often heard of castles in the air , but never before saw where one was to be erected . " The necessary Act of Parliament was passed in March 1760 , and was quite specific about the form the aqueduct had to take , to protect the viability of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation below . There was already a three @-@ arch road bridge , Barton Bridge , passing over the Irwell , and the aqueduct was required not to restrict traffic on the river any more than the road bridge already did . It had to have the same number of arches , the foundations for which had to be fixed in the river bed , and the arches had to be at least as wide and high as those of the road bridge .
= = Construction = =
At about 200 yards ( 180 m ) long , 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide and 39 feet ( 12 m ) above the river at its highest point , the aqueduct was , for its time , an enormous construction . Early illustrations show the aqueduct 's piers to have been flat @-@ faced , but an engraving of 1864 shows them to have pointed cutwaters extending beyond the spring of the arch ; it is likely that the piers were refaced in the early 1820s . The arches were composed of several rings of brickwork , with masonry used for decorative keystones . All the masonry used in the structure was coursed ashlar .
On the day it was first tested the water was allowed to flow in , but one of the arches began to buckle under the weight . Brindley , overcome with anxiety , retired to his bed at the Bishop Blaize tavern in nearby Stretford . Gilbert , realising that Brindley had placed too much weight on the sides of the arch , removed the clay and laid layers of straw and freshly puddled clay ; when the water was allowed to flow in again the masonry held firm . According to a statement by Francis Egerton , 8th Earl of Bridgewater printed in 1820 , his uncle , the duke , had told him that there was a distortion of one of the arches , and that Gilbert had addressed the problem by placing more weight on the crown of the arch and less on the haunches . The arch was then covered with straw and allowed to stand until the following spring , when the mortar was set and the arch had become stable , but its curve remained irregular .
= = Operation and legacy = =
The aqueduct was opened to traffic on 17 July 1761 , only 15 months after the enabling Act had been passed , and it was soon being used by the duke 's barges to carry coal to Manchester from his mines at Worsley . The construction of the aqueduct excited great admiration , and writers of the day often remarked on the strange and novel sight afforded by the canal where it crossed the Irwell . The structure became one of the wonders of the age and crowds came from all over the country to view it , along with the drilling of the sough for the duke 's Worsley navigable levels . Those who saw it were often struck by the advantages of still @-@ water navigation when they saw ten or twelve men slowly hauling a single barge against the flow of the Irwell , while 40 feet ( 12 m ) above a horse , mule , or perhaps two men , could be seen hauling several linked barges across the still waters of the aqueduct .
Although the aqueduct was 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide overall , the waterway it carried was only half that width . The Bridgewater Canal had been built to accommodate the Mersey flat boats then in common use , which had a beam of about 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , making two @-@ way traffic impossible . A signalling system was therefore installed to control access to the aqueduct . A pole 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high in the centre of the arch at the Stretford bank supported a semaphore system with two arms on each side , operated by levers at ground level .
Although Gilbert later had to resurface the aqueduct , the structure remained in use for more than 100 years . In the first volume of his Lives of the Engineers ( 1862 ) Scottish author Samuel Smiles said of the construction that " Humble though it now appears , it was parent of the magnificent aqueducts of Rennie and Telford , and the viaducts of Stephenson and Brunel " .
= = Replacement = =
Barton Aqueduct 's fate was sealed with the passage of the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 , which allowed for the construction of a navigable waterway large enough to accommodate ocean @-@ going vessels from the estuary of the River Mersey the 36 miles ( 58 km ) into Manchester , partly along the Irwell . As the arches of the aqueduct were too small to allow large ships to pass through it was demolished in 1893 , and replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct still in use today . So solidly built was the old aqueduct that dynamite had to be used to expedite its demolition .
Some of the stonework of Brindley 's aqueduct has been preserved in the nearby Barton Memorial Arch , a monument to his " castle in the air " .
= Worlebury Camp =
Worlebury Camp is the name of the place where an Iron Age hill fort once stood atop Worlebury Hill , which is north of the town of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in Somerset , England . This fort was designed for defence , as is evidenced the number of walls and ditches around the site . Archaeologists have found several large triangular platforms around the sides of the fort , lower down on the hillside . They have found nearly one hundred storage pits of various sizes cut into the bedrock , and many of these had human remains , coins , and other artefacts in them . However , in more recent times , the fort has suffered damage and been threatened with complete destruction on multiple occasions . This location has been designated an Scheduled Ancient Monument , and it falls within the Weston Woods Local Nature Reserve which was declared to Natural England by North Somerset Council in 2005 .
= = History = =
In The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps of Gloucestershire , Edward J. Burrow mentions that probably either the Goidel or Brython people initially built Worlebury Camp . The Belgae people subsequently overthrew the initial inhabitants and occupied the camp for a time , but they were finally destroyed at the hands of the Romans .
Worlebury Camp has been explored at various times over a period of 150 years . From 1851 to 1852 , Charles Dymond , Edwin Martin Atkins , and Francis Warre excavated and surveyed Worlebury Camp . Dymond returned in 1880 to continue the excavation , which lasted until 1881 . Another century passed before the Woodspring Museum from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare excavated more of Worlebury camp in 1987 to 1988 . Finally , in 1998 , the Avon Extensive Urban Study team performed the latest ( as of 2008 ) assessment of the site .
= = Hill fort = =
= = = Background = = =
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
= = = Location = = =
The fort is located on the summit of Worlebury Hill , 109 metres ( 358 ft ) above sea level . It is in the present @-@ day North Somerset , above the seaside resort of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and close to the village of Worle .
Its occupants would have had a view of the countryside as well as any potential invaders . They would have been able to see out over to Sugar Loaf Mountain , the Black Mountains , the Mendip Hills , Dunkery Beacon , Sand Point , and Wales . This view is no longer as unobstructed as it once was because there are so many trees spread over the hill .
= = = Triangular stone platforms = = =
There are a number of triangular platforms on the slopes around the hill fort . The apexes of these triangles are flush with the hillside , with the base projecting in the downhill direction . However , the upper surface is approximately level . The front faces of these platforms are about 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) above the hillside , and they have ditches in front of them to improve their defence . In a letter to Warre , Atkins theorised that the structures were slingers ' platforms or archers ' stations . Several sling stones have been found around them , offering some credence to the theory that slingers stood upon these platforms . Dymond mentions the stones in his book :
Several of them were broken , as though they had been used in the attack [ on the fort ] , as , indeed , many of them probably were .
= = = Walls and ditches = = =
Worlebury Hill is bordered on its north and west sides by steep cliffs dropping down into the Bristol Channel between Weston Bay and Sand Bay . These would have rendered the fort nearly invulnerable to attack from those directions . Nevertheless , the fort still has one wall on its north side and one on its west side , both very near the edge of the cliffs . On the south side , a single rampart and a ditch guarded the fort . The level east side was protected by two stone ramparts and five ditches . Parts of these ramparts were over 11 metres ( 35 ft ) high measuring from the bottom of the ditch as of 1875 .
The walls themselves are around 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick . However , because they are dry @-@ laid stone , the removal of a few stones would be sufficient to bring the entire wall collapsing down . To prevent access to the walls themselves , the inhabitants of the fort raised large breastworks around the base of the walls by piling up rock rubble against the bases . These rubble barriers are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) high , and in places they are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) thick . Attackers would have had to clear away the rubble before being able to attack the wall , and all the while they would be under direct fire from defenders on the top of the wall .
= = Archaeological findings = =
= = = Storage pits = = =
The area inside the outer wall has a series of hut circles and 93 storage pits cut directly into the bedrock , which is only around 60 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) beneath the surface of the soil in most places . Eighteen of the Storage pits are in what Dymond calls the " keep " , one is in the transverse fosse ( a fosse is a ditch usually dug for protection ) , and seventy @-@ four of the pits are outside the " keep " but still enclosed within the exterior walls . The average size of the pits is around 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long by 2 metres wide and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) deep . The largest pit is roughly triangular , with sides measuring 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) , and 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The smallest pit is 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long by .7 metres ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) wide . The inhabitants used them to store grain , as is evidenced by the kernels of barley and wheat and the shards of pots that were found in the pits . Several of the pits contained the remnants of peas and the remains of burned woven baskets . In addition , researchers also found sling stones and spindle whorls dated to the 1st or 2nd century BC in them .
Eighteen of these pits were found to contain the remains of human skeletons , which are now stored in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Museum in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Eighteen full skeletons were found , of which ten show evidence of a violent death ( including sword cuts in the skulls ) . It is possible that the Romans or the Belgic raiders attacked the fort and killed the inhabitants .
= = = Artefacts = = =
A cast copper alloy penannular collar of special interest to archaeologists has been found at the campsite . It may indicate that this hilltop site was used even before the Iron Age , since related artefacts tend to be found with Bronze Age items , and it was the first of its type found in Britain . In 2006 , a related copper penannular brooch dating to the 5th or 6th century AD was found in a spring between Brecon Beacons and the Black Mountains in Wales . A gold penannular bracelet was found in the Perry River .
Roman coins have been found at Worlebury Camp since the Romans had established a presence by the end of the 1st century AD . Many of the Roman coins bear the image of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius . This was inside the fort proper . Another coin was located by Trinity Path which leads towards the fort .
Other findings at the Worlebury campsite include animal remains , including the bones of pigs , oxen , horses , deer , goats , and even small birds . Limpet shells have also been found near the bones . Archaeologists found iron objects , adding further credibility to the idea that this fort is from the Iron Age . These objects include a chisel or borer , several spearheads and javelin heads , and an iron cone with charred wood inside and a rivet hole through the cone . Dymond assumes that this cone was once a plowshare . Stone artefacts , mainly slingstones and scrapers , have been discovered at the site . Just less than 36 flint chips have been found , of which some may be arrowheads . One good @-@ quality arrowhead has been found . In addition to these , Dymond recorded finding a lead lump about the size of a walnut that he decided was probably a sling bullet . Glastonbury type bead @-@ rim pottery was also found at this site . A socketed bronze axe from the late Bronze Age , which was found at Worlebury Hill in 1883 , is in the Ashmolean Museum .
= = Damage to the site = =
= = = 19th century = = =
Development of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare since the 19th century has resulted in three episodes of potentially irreversible damage to the site . A quarry started operation in the southern side of Worlebury Hill in 1815 to mine for galena , calamine , and stone . The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1841 , making it profitable to expand the village into a town . In 1842 , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare became a town with the granting of the Improvement and Market Act of May 1842 . This act also proposed developing houses right over the brow of the hill . This would have gone straight through Worlebury Camp ; however , the actual expansion never reached the site . By 1853 , some development had occurred according to the proposed expansion , but it had skirted the hillfort and continued to the east .
= = = 20th century = = =
In the early 20th century , the Worlebury fort itself was damaged by boys rolling stones , including some from the walls of the fort , down the hill on which it stands . The Axbridge District of the Somerset Archaeological Society was taking steps to prevent such damage from happening again .
Some of the trees planted in the early 19th century had become very large , and their roots were growing into the archaeological structures . In 2005 , the Forestry Commission gave permission for North Somerset Council to fell 300 trees to reduce the subsequent risks . A member of the North Somerset Council , Christopher Richards , said : " If we had a storm up here and these trees came down , then the entire hillfort could be destroyed . "
= Daniel Day @-@ Lewis =
Sir Daniel Michael Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 29 April 1957 ) is an English actor . He holds both British and Irish citizenship . Born and raised in London , he excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre , before being accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years . Despite his traditional actor training at the Bristol Old Vic , he is considered to be a method actor , known for his constant devotion to and research of his roles . He often remains completely in character for the duration of the shooting schedules of his films , even to the point of adversely affecting his health . He is one of the most selective actors in the film industry , having starred in only five films since 1998 , with as many as five years between roles . Protective of his private life , he rarely gives interviews and makes very few public appearances .
Day @-@ Lewis shifted between theatre and film for most of the early 1980s , joining the Royal Shakespeare Company and playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , before appearing in the 1984 film The Bounty . He starred in My Beautiful Laundrette ( 1985 ) , his first critically acclaimed role , and gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . He then assumed leading man status with The Unbearable Lightness of Being ( 1988 ) .
One of the most acclaimed actors of his generation , Day @-@ Lewis has earned numerous awards , including three Academy Awards for Best Actor for his performances in My Left Foot ( 1989 ) , There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) and Lincoln ( 2012 ) , making him the only male actor in history to have three wins in the lead actor category and one of only three male actors to win three Oscars . He was also nominated in this category for In the Name of the Father ( 1993 ) and Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) . He has also won four BAFTA Awards for Best Actor , three Screen Actors Guild Awards and two Golden Globe Awards . In November 2012 , Time named Day @-@ Lewis the " World 's Greatest Actor . " In June 2014 , he received a knighthood at Buckingham Palace for services to drama .
= = Early life = =
Day @-@ Lewis was born in Kensington , London , the son of poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis and English actress Jill Balcon . His father , who was born in Ballintubbert , County Laois , Ireland , was of Protestant Anglo @-@ Irish and English background , lived in England from the age of two , and later became the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom . Daniel 's mother was Jewish , and his maternal grandparents ' families had emigrated to England from Latvia and Poland . His maternal grandfather , Michael Balcon , an important figure in the history of British cinema , was the head of Ealing Studios . Two years after his birth , the family moved to Croom 's Hill , Greenwich , south @-@ east London , where Day @-@ Lewis grew up along with his older sister , Tamasin , who became a documentary filmmaker and television chef .
Living in Greenwich , Day @-@ Lewis found himself among tough South London children , and , being partially Jewish and " posh " , he was often bullied . He mastered the local accent and mannerisms and credits that as being his first convincing performance . Later in life , he has been known to speak of himself as very much a disorderly character in his younger years , often in trouble for shoplifting and other petty crimes .
In 1968 , Day @-@ Lewis ' parents , finding his behaviour to be too wild , sent him to the independent Sevenoaks School in Kent as a boarder . At the school , he was introduced to his three most prominent interests : woodworking , acting , and fishing . His disdain for the school grew , and after two years at Sevenoaks , he was transferred to another independent school , Bedales in Petersfield , Hampshire , which his sister attended , and which had a more relaxed and creative ethos . The transfer led to his film debut at the age of 14 in Sunday Bloody Sunday in which he played a vandal in an uncredited role . He described the experience as " heaven " , for getting paid £ 2 to vandalise expensive cars parked outside his local church .
For a few weeks in 1972 , he and his parents and sister lived at Lemmons , the north London home of Kingsley Amis and Elizabeth Jane Howard . Cecil Day @-@ Lewis had cancer and Howard invited the family to Lemmons as a place they could use to rest and recuperate . Cecil died there in May that year .
Leaving Bedales in 1975 , Day @-@ Lewis 's unruly attitude had diminished and he needed to make a career choice . Although he had excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre in London , he applied for a five @-@ year apprenticeship as a cabinet @-@ maker , but was rejected due to lack of experience . He was then accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years , eventually performing at the Bristol Old Vic itself . At one point he played understudy to Pete Postlethwaite , with whom he would later co @-@ star in the film In the Name of the Father . John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic , recalls , " There was something about him even then . He was quiet and polite , but he was clearly focused on his acting – he had a burning quality . He seemed to have something burning beneath the surface . There was a lot going on beneath that quiet appearance . There was one performance in particular , when the students put on a play called Class Energy , when he really seemed to shine – and it became obvious to us , the staff , that we had someone rather special on our hands . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
During the early 1980s , Day @-@ Lewis worked in theatre and television including Frost in May ( where he played an impotent man @-@ child ) and How Many Miles to Babylon ? ( as a World War I officer torn between allegiances to Britain and Ireland ) for the BBC . Eleven years after his film debut , Day @-@ Lewis continued his film career with a small part in Gandhi ( 1982 ) as Colin , a South African street thug who racially bullies the title character , only to be immediately chastised by his high @-@ strung mother . In late 1982 he had his big theatre break when he took over the lead in Another Country . The following year , he had a supporting role as the conflicted , but ultimately loyal first mate in The Bounty , after which he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company , playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
In 1985 , Day @-@ Lewis gave his first critically acclaimed performance playing a gay man in an interracial relationship in the film My Beautiful Laundrette , set in 1980s London during the period when Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister . Day @-@ Lewis gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . Set in the Edwardian period of turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ twentieth @-@ century England , he portrayed an entirely different character : Cecil Vyse , the proper upper class fiancé of the main character . In 1987 , Day @-@ Lewis assumed leading man status by starring in Philip Kaufman 's adaptation of Milan Kundera 's The Unbearable Lightness of Being , where he portrayed a Czech surgeon whose hyperactive sex life is thrown into disarray when he allows himself to become emotionally involved with a woman . During the eight @-@ month shoot he learned Czech and first began to refuse to break character on or off the set for the entire shooting schedule . During this period , Day @-@ Lewis and other young British actors of the time such as Gary Oldman , Colin Firth , Tim Roth , and Bruce Payne , were dubbed the " Brit Pack " .
Day @-@ Lewis threw his personal version of method acting into full throttle in 1989 with his performance as Christy Brown in Jim Sheridan 's My Left Foot , which garnered him numerous awards , including the Academy Award for Best Actor and BAFTA Award for Best Actor . Brown , a writer and painter , was born with cerebral palsy and was only able to control his left foot . Day @-@ Lewis prepared for the role by making frequent visits to Sandymount School Clinic in Dublin , where he formed friendships with several people with disabilities , some of whom had no speech . During filming , he refused to break character . Playing a severely paralysed character on screen , off screen Day @-@ Lewis had to be moved around the set in his wheelchair , and crew members would curse at having to lift him over camera and lighting wires , all so that he might gain insight into all aspects of Brown 's life , including the embarrassments . Crew members were also required to spoon @-@ feed him . It was rumoured that he had broken two ribs during filming from assuming a hunched @-@ over position in his wheelchair for so many weeks , something he denied years later at the 2013 Santa Barbara International Film Festival .
Day @-@ Lewis returned to the stage in 1989 to work with Richard Eyre , in Hamlet at the National Theatre , London , but collapsed during the scene where the ghost of Hamlet 's father appears before him . He began sobbing uncontrollably and refused to go back on stage ; he was replaced by Jeremy Northam who finished the performance word @-@ and @-@ action @-@ perfect and received a standing ovation . Ian Charleson then formally replaced Day @-@ Lewis for the rest of the run , except that ill @-@ health forced Northam to stand in again many times . Although the incident was officially attributed to exhaustion , Day @-@ Lewis later claimed to have seen the ghost of his own father . He has not appeared on stage since . The media attention following his breakdown on @-@ stage contributed to his decision to eventually move from England to Ireland in the mid @-@ 1990s to regain a sense of privacy amidst his increasing fame .
= = = 1990s = = =
In 1992 , three years after his Oscar win , The Last of the Mohicans was released . Day @-@ Lewis 's character research for this film was well @-@ publicized ; he reportedly underwent rigorous weight training and learned to live off the land and forest where his character lived , camping , hunting and fishing . Day @-@ Lewis also added to his wood @-@ working skills and learned how to make canoes . He carried a long rifle at all times during filming to remain in character and learned how to skin animals .
He returned to work with Jim Sheridan on In the Name of the Father , in which he played Gerry Conlon , one of the Guildford Four who were wrongfully convicted of a bombing carried out by the Provisional IRA . He lost 30lbs for the part , kept his Northern Irish accent on and off the set for the entire shooting schedule , and spent stretches of time in a prison cell . He also insisted that crew members throw cold water at him and verbally abuse him . The film earned him his second Academy Award nomination , third BAFTA nomination , and second Golden Globe nomination .
Day @-@ Lewis returned in 1993 , playing Newland Archer in Martin Scorsese 's adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel The Age of Innocence . To prepare for the film , set in America 's Gilded Age , he wore 1870s @-@ period aristocratic clothing around New York City for two months , including top hat , cane and cape .
In 1996 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in The Crucible , a film version of the play by Arthur Miller . During the shoot he met his future wife , Rebecca Miller , the author 's daughter . He followed that with Jim Sheridan 's The Boxer as a former boxer and IRA member recently released from prison . His preparation included training with former boxing world champion Barry McGuigan , and attending professional boxing matches such as the Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan world title fight at London Arena .
Following The Boxer , Day @-@ Lewis took a leave of absence from acting by going into " semi @-@ retirement " and returning to his old passion of woodworking . He moved to Florence , Italy , where he became intrigued by the craft of shoemaking , eventually apprenticing as a shoemaker with Stefano Bemer . For a time his exact whereabouts and actions were not made publicly known .
= = = 2000s = = =
After a five @-@ year absence from filming , Day @-@ Lewis returned to act in Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , directed by Scorsese and produced by Harvey Weinstein . In his role as the villainous gang leader William " Bill the Butcher " Cutting , he starred alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , who played Bill 's young protégé . He began his lengthy , self @-@ disciplined process by taking lessons as an apprentice butcher , hiring a butcher from Peckham , south London to instruct him in carving up carcasses . He also hired circus performers to teach him to throw knives . While filming , he was never out of character between takes ( including keeping his character 's New York accent ) . At one point during filming , having been diagnosed with pneumonia , he refused to wear a warmer coat or to take treatment because it was not in keeping with the period ; however , he was eventually persuaded to seek medical treatment . His performance in Gangs of New York earned him his third Academy Award nomination and won him his second BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role .
After Gangs of New York , Day @-@ Lewis 's wife , director Rebecca Miller offered him the lead role in her film The Ballad of Jack and Rose , in which he played a dying man with regrets over how his life had evolved and over how he had brought up his teenage daughter . During filming he arranged to live separately from his wife to achieve the " isolation " needed to focus on his own character 's reality . The film received mixed reviews .
In 2007 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in director Paul Thomas Anderson 's loose adaptation of the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! , titled There Will Be Blood . Day @-@ Lewis received the Academy Award for Best Actor , BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role , Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role ( which he dedicated to Heath Ledger , saying that he was inspired by Ledger 's acting and calling the actor 's performance in Brokeback Mountain " unique , perfect " ) , and a variety of film critics ' circle awards for the role . In winning the Best Actor Oscar , Day @-@ Lewis joined Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson as the only Best Actor winners awarded an Oscar in two non @-@ consecutive decades .
In 2009 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in Rob Marshall 's musical adaptation Nine as film director Guido Contini . Day @-@ Lewis was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role , as well as sharing nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast and the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Motion Picture with the rest of the cast members .
= = = 2010s = = =
Day @-@ Lewis played Abraham Lincoln in Steven Spielberg 's film Lincoln ( 2012 ) . Based on the book Team of Rivals : The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln , the film began shooting in Richmond , Virginia in October 2011 . Day @-@ Lewis spent a year in preparation for the role , a time he had requested from Spielberg . He read over 100 books on Lincoln , and long worked with the makeup artist to achieve a physical likeness to Lincoln . Lincoln received widespread critical acclaim , much of it directed to Day @-@ Lewis ' performance . It also became a commercial success , grossing over $ 275 million worldwide . In November 2012 , Day @-@ Lewis received the BAFTA Britannia Award for Excellence in Film .
At the 70th Golden Globe Awards on 14 January 2013 , Day @-@ Lewis won his second Golden Globe Award for Best Actor , and at the 66th British Academy Film Awards on 10 February , he won his fourth BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . At the 85th Academy Awards , Day @-@ Lewis became the first three @-@ time recipient of the Best Actor Oscar for his role in Lincoln .
John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic theatre school , lauded his achievement , " Although we have quite an impressive alumni – everyone from Jeremy Irons to Patrick Stewart – I suppose he is now probably the best known , and we 're very proud of all he 's achieved . I certainly hold him up to current students of an example , particularly as an example of how to manage your career with great integrity . He 's never courted fame , and as a result he 's never had his private life impeached upon by the press . He 's clearly not interested in celebrity as such – he 's just interested in his acting . He is still a great craftsman . " Shortly after winning the Oscar for Lincoln , Day @-@ Lewis announced he would be taking a break from acting , retreating back to his Georgian farmhouse in County Wicklow for the next five years , before making another movie .
= = Personal life = =
Day @-@ Lewis rarely discusses his personal life . He had a relationship with French actress Isabelle Adjani , which lasted six years and eventually ended after a split and reconciliation . Their son Gabriel @-@ Kane Day @-@ Lewis was born in 1995 in New York City , several months after the relationship ended .
In 1996 , while working on the film version of the stage play The Crucible , he visited the home of playwright Arthur Miller where he was introduced to the writer 's daughter , Rebecca Miller . They married later that year . The couple have two sons , Ronan Cal Day @-@ Lewis ( born 1998 ) and Cashel Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 2002 ) and divide their time between their homes in New York City and Ireland .
Day @-@ Lewis became an Irish citizen in 1993 and currently holds British and Irish dual citizenship . He has lived in Annamoe , County Wicklow since 1997 . He stated " I do have dual citizenship , but I think of England as my country . I miss London very much but I couldn 't live there because there came a time when I needed to be private and was forced to be public by the press . I couldn 't deal with it " . He is a supporter of South @-@ East London football club Millwall .
On 15 July 2010 , Day @-@ Lewis received an honorary doctorate in letters from the University of Bristol , in part because of his attendance of the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in his youth . Day @-@ Lewis has stated that he had " no real religious education " and that he " suppose [ s ] " he is " a die @-@ hard agnostic " . In October 2012 , he donated to Oxford University papers belonging to his father , the poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , including early drafts of the poet 's work and letters from actor John Gielgud and literary figures such as W. H. Auden , Robert Graves , and Philip Larkin . In July 2015 , he became the Honorary President of the Poetry Archive . A registered UK charity , the Poetry Archive is a free website containing a growing collection of recordings of English @-@ language poets reading their work . Upon accepting , Day @-@ Lewis commented " I so admire what you ’ re doing with the Poetry Archive and I ’ m very happy that you ’ ve invited me to be involved with it . "
In June 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to drama . When , in 2008 , he received the Academy Award for Best Actor from Helen Mirren ( who was on presenting duty having won the previous year 's Best Actress Oscar for playing Queen Elizabeth II in The Queen ) Day @-@ Lewis knelt before her and she tapped him on each shoulder with the Oscar statuette , to which he quipped ; " That 's the closest I 'll come to ever getting a knighthood " . In November 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was formally knighted by Prince William , Duke of Cambridge at Buckingham Palace .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= LW11 =
LW11 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk . For international competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . For sub @-@ international competitions , classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , while para @-@ Nordic skiers use a two ski sit @-@ ski . Skiers in this class use outriggers , and are required to wear special helmets for some para @-@ Alpine disciplines . In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % . This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions including the Paralympics , IPC Alpine World Championships and the IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships . Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .
= = Definition = =
This is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . This classification is for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and includes people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk , the skier " may have loss of buttock sensibility S1 @-@ 25 " . For the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the classification was described as " Disability of lower limbs with a fair sitting balance @-@ paraplegia and standing classes with impairment in the lower limbs together with functional impairment of trunk / hip . " Adapted Physical Education and Sport described this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and fair sitting balance ( e.g. , para classes lower 3 and 4 ) , standing I. classes with impairment of the lower limbs together with significant functional impairment of the trunk and hips , any function in the lower limbs may not be used outside of the equipment at any time during the race ; point score 9 to 15 points . " This classification is comparable to para classes lower 3 and 4 .
Generally to be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification , a skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " a . Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and a fair sitting balance b . CP with | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of the Big Ten Conference , and it is occasionally referred to as " Team 96 " . The team was led by sixth @-@ year head coach John Beilein . As the defending 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season regular season co @-@ champions , the Wolverines finished fourth in the conference in 2012 – 13 and as National Runner @-@ up in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament after losing in the championship game to Louisville . The team achieved a 31 – 8 record , the most wins by the program in 20 seasons .
Following the 2011 @-@ 12 season , the team lost graduating senior captains Zack Novak and Stu Douglass , who moved on to professional basketball careers in Europe . The incoming class of Mitch McGary , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas was ranked among the best classes in the nation by the media . With its new lineup , the team matched the greatest starts in school history . Starting the season with 11 consecutive wins matched the best start since the last Michigan national champions , the 1988 – 89 team . At 16 – 0 , Michigan matched its best start since the last repeat Big Ten Regular season championship , the 1985 – 86 team , tying a school record . Reaching 19 – 1 set a record for the best start in school history . The team also reached the number one position in the AP Poll for the first time since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team . The team entered February with a 20 – 1 record ( 7 – 1 Big Ten ) , but with an injury to eventual B1G All @-@ Defensive selection Jordan Morgan and a stretch of games against its strongest conference opponents , Michigan lost three out of four games . The team closed the season with a 5 – 5 run to finish tied for fourth in the conference and won one game in the Big Ten Tournament before being eliminated .
The team was led by 2013 national player of the year , Big Ten Player of the Year and 2013 Consensus All @-@ American Trey Burke and three additional All @-@ Conference honorees . Tim Hardaway , Jr. was named to the 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten first team by the coaches and to the second team by the media ; Robinson was named an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten by the media , and Morgan was an All @-@ Big Ten Defensive team selection . Stauskas and McGary earned multiple Big Ten Freshman of the Week recognitions during the season . Burke was the second National Player of the Year and eighth first @-@ team consensus All @-@ American in Michigan basketball history .
Michigan entered the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament as the youngest team in the field . The team made its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team did so . The Wolverines appeared in the national championship game for the first time since 1989 – appearances in 1992 and 1993 were vacated due to a scandal . Following the season , at the 2013 NBA Draft , Burke and Hardaway were selected ninth and twenty @-@ fourth , respectively , becoming the first pair of first @-@ round NBA draft choices from Michigan since the 1994 NBA Draft .
= = Preseason roster changes = =
= = = Departures = = =
The team lost both of its captains from the prior season to graduation after they completed their eligibility . Senior two @-@ time captain Douglass turned pro , joining Basket Navarra Club of the Liga Española de Baloncesto . Senior three @-@ time captain Novak graduated to play for Landstede Basketbal in the Dutch Basketball League . In addition to the loss of senior co @-@ captains , the team lost three players who decided to transfer : Evan Smotrycz , Carlton Brundidge and Colton Christian . Smotrycz , who transferred to Maryland , had started in 42 of the 69 games he played during his first two years . He left the program as the fifth @-@ best all @-@ time three @-@ point shooter with a percentage of 40 @.@ 5 . Brundidge transferred to Detroit and Christian transferred to Florida International . The program also announced the departure of walk @-@ on Sai Tummala and the return of walk @-@ on Corey Person for a fifth year .
= = = 2012 – 13 team recruits = = =
Glenn Robinson III , son of former first overall NBA draft pick Glenn Robinson , verbally committed on September 14 , 2010 as the first commitment in Michigan ’ s class of 2012 . On March 26 , 2011 , Michigan received its second verbal commitment of the class of 2012 from Canadian wing guard Nik Stauskas . On November 3 , Mitch McGary , who was ranked as the number two prospect in the nation at the time , announced his verbal commitment to Michigan . Within hours of the commitment , ESPN announced that Michigan ranked as the fifth best class in the nation . Each of the three signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on November 9 . After several other schools announced their commitments , the signing of McGary moved Michigan from outside the top 25 at the end of October to the number 7 class in the nation by mid @-@ November , according to ESPN . That November , McGary , Robinson and Stauskas ranked 3 , 34 , and 79 , respectively , in the Rivals.com Class of 2012 Top 150 .
All three recruits had playoff success : McGary was a member of Brewster Academy 's National Prep Championship team . Stauskas earned the championship game MVP of the NEPSAC Class AA Championship after leading St. Mark 's to victory . Robinson led Lake Central to its first Indiana High School Athletic Association sectional title in 15 years . He earned the Post @-@ Tribune 's Boys basketball player of the year award for Northwest Indiana and the state MVP from the Indiana Basketball News .
McGary was invited to participate in the four @-@ team April 1 , 2012 All @-@ American Championship , along with future teammate Robinson in New Orleans . Robinson was awarded the ESPNHS All @-@ American Championship Player of the Game for his 16 @-@ point , 4 @-@ rebound performance , which included 5 dunks among his 6 @-@ for @-@ 7 shooting night . McGary was also selected to represent USA Basketball at the fifteenth annual Nike Hoops Summit on April 7 as part of the 2012 USA Junior National Select Team .
Michael " Spike " Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6 , 2012 . Albrecht led Northfield Mount Hermon School to the 2012 NEPSAC Class AAA Boys ' Basketball Tournament , defeating McGary 's Brewster Academy in the semifinals . Albrecht was MVP of the tournament . Albrecht was a former AAU teammate of McGary and Robinson . Albrecht 's and outgoing captain Novak 's fathers were collegiate teammates . Albrecht was a 2011 graduate of Crown Point High School . After most of the big signings announced their decisions on the April 11 signing day , Michigan was ranked as the early number 5 preseason selection as a team by ESPN .
= = 2013 – 14 team recruits = =
Zak Irvin was named 2013 Indiana Mr. Basketball , giving Hamilton Southeastern High School the state 's first back @-@ to @-@ back winners ( Gary Harris ) from the same high school . Derrick Walton was runner up in the 2013 Mr. Basketball of Michigan by a 2130 – 2086 margin to Iowa State signee Monte Morris despite having one more first place vote . Both Walton and Irvin were 2013 Parade All @-@ American honorees and were named state Boys Basketball Gatorade Player of the Year .
= = Roster = =
= = Preseason = =
Michigan basketball hosted its on campus media day press conference on October 10 , 2012 at Crisler Center . The team was represented by Burke , Hardaway , Morgan and Beilein at the Big Ten Conference Basketball Media Day press conference on October 24 in Rosemont , Illinois . When the 24 @-@ person Big Ten Media poll was announced , Michigan was predicted to finish second to Indiana . Burke was a preseason All @-@ Conference selection by the same media .
Michigan enjoyed high expectations from the national media as well during the preseason . Sporting News named them to the number 5 position in its preseason poll , while conference foes Indiana and Ohio State were ranked number 1 and 3 , respectively . Michigan also earned the number 5 ranking in both the preseason Coaches ' Poll and preseason Associated Press poll , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 4 ) in both . This was Michigan 's highest preseason ranking since the 1992 – 93 team . Sports Illustrated ranked Michigan number 9 in its October preseason power rankings , again behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 6 ) , but when it printed its November preseason poll listed Michigan at number 6 ahead of Ohio State ( # 7 ) , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) . Prior to the first exhibition game on November 1 , senior Josh Bartelstein was named team captain .
ESPN 's Eamonn Brennan noted that Michigan was a perimeter oriented team with possibly the best one @-@ two guard combination in the country . Burke and Hardaway were both preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selections . Burke was a preseason All @-@ American ( Associated Press first team , CBS Sports second team , Sports Illustrated second team , ESPN second team , Sporting News third team ) as well as a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection .
= = Slogans , nicknames and emblems = =
= = = WE ON = = =
The acronym " WE ON " was the slogan for the whole team for the 2012 – 13 season . The team and coaching staff selected it at the beginning of the season as another way for Michigan to say Bo Schembechler 's famous quote , " the Team , the Team , the Team . " The acronym " WE ON " stands for " When Everyone Operates N 'sync . " Michigan assistant coach Bacari Alexander even tweeted that the acronym summarizes this team @-@ focused mindset . According to David Brandon , assistant coach LaVall Jordan and director of basketball operations Travis Conlan guided the team to develop the slogan .
Adidas warm up shirts were created and were first worn on November 21 , 2012 , before Michigan 's NIT Season Tip @-@ Off game against the Pittsburgh Panthers . The shirts use the school colors with blue with maize lettering . On February 12 , 2013 , when Michigan played the first of two regularly scheduled rivalry games against Michigan State , students in the Izzone at the Breslin Center wore T @-@ shirts with " YOU OFF " printed in Spartan colors ( green and white ) . Michigan State went on to win the game by 23 points .
" WE " – WE is also an acronym for " Wolverine Excellence " , which is chiefly used by the team . Wolverine Excellence calls for players and managers to focus on its five core values : integrity , unity , passion , diligence and appreciation .
" ON " – ON represented each player 's individual commitment to season @-@ long improvement . There was a " U @-@ M Fuse Box " ( mock @-@ University of Michigan set of switches ) in the Men 's Basketball locker room in Crisler Center . Each player had selected one word on which to focus during the season and before every practice and game , each player flipped their switch " on . " This represented each player 's commitment to improvement every day .
= = = Fresh Five = = =
Prior to the season , the five freshman were dubbed the " Fresh Five " , a moniker hearkening remembrance of the incoming freshman class of 1991 , known as the Fab Five , that led Michigan to back @-@ to @-@ back Championship games while starting the majority of games . However , the nickname and its expectations were downplayed most of the season by the team . Nonetheless , during the final two weeks of the regular season The New York Times ran a feature story on the team that reinvigorated the nickname while noting that the current five were the supporting cast rather than the stars of the team like the original five .
= = = Canadian flag = = =
ESPN 's Chantel Jennings tweeted a picture of a Flag of Canada redone in Michigan 's team colors of maize and blue at Crisler Arena on December 4 . One of her followers noted that the big version on the wall was a general Stauskas fan flag and that a little version of the flag was added next to it for each three @-@ pointer Canadian Stauskas made in the game . By mid @-@ December of his freshman season , the students in the Maize Rage ( Michigan student section at Crisler Arena ) had begun cheering Stauskas on with such a flag . The Michigan Public & Media Relations office started mentioning the flag before Christmas . The flag was mentioned widely in the press as he continued his hot shooting into January . Through the first week of January , Stauskas was shooting 53 @.@ 7 % on three @-@ point shots as the team held a 15 – 0 record .
= = = 96 = = =
The team , which represented Michigan Basketball for the ninety @-@ sixth season in the Big Ten Conference , is sometimes referred to as Team 96 or Squad 96 . Although this team represented Michigan for the ninety @-@ sixth consecutive year , there was controversy as to whether the team should in fact be marketed as Team 96 because the 1908 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team was not properly accounted for among the prior teams . The subsequent team was marketed as Team 98 .
= = Schedule = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = = November = = = =
Hardaway began the season with his fourth career double @-@ double by scoring 25 points ( including 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 three @-@ point shooting ) and adding 10 rebounds in a 100 – 62 win over Slippery Rock ; this earned him his second career Big Ten Player of the Week award . The 100 @-@ point November 9 performance was Michigan 's first since the 2007 – 08 team posted 103 points against Oakland on December 12 , 2007 .
Michigan hosted games for the first two rounds of the 2012 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off . The team 's first game of the tournament , a November 12 contest against the IUPUI Jaguars , resulted in a 91 – 54 Michigan victory . The win also gave Michigan its first consecutive 90 @-@ point performances since the 2000 – 01 team recorded three consecutive 90 @-@ point games . The following night , Michigan defeated Cleveland State by a 77 – 47 margin , marking the first time the school opened the season with three consecutive 30 @-@ point victories . The win also marked the first time Michigan had posted three consecutive 30 @-@ point wins since the 1988 – 89 Wolverines team ( the 1989 national champion ) won five consecutive 30 @-@ point games .
In the championship rounds of the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament at Madison Square Garden on November 21 and November 23 , Michigan defeated Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively , to win the tournament . Hardaway , who totaled 39 points at the Garden , was the tournament MVP and was joined on the all @-@ tournament team by Burke , who contributed 27 points and 10 assists . Stauskas earned Big Ten Freshman of the Week honors for his NIT tournament performance in which he averaged 12 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 5 rebounds . On November 27 , Michigan raised its Big Ten championship banner from the season before . Then , the team defeated its first ranked opponent of the season – NC State ( # 18 AP / # 18 Coaches ) – in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . The win was supported by Burke 's first career double @-@ double which included a career @-@ high 11 assists , no turnovers and 18 points as well as a career @-@ high 20 points from Stauskas in a 79 – 72 victory .
= = = = December = = = =
Ranked third in both polls , Michigan established a record as the highest ranked visiting team in the history of Carver Arena on December 1 . Giving Stauskas his first career start , Michigan emerged victorious over Bradley . It was the third game of the season that Michigan never trailed in . Stauskas repeated as Big Ten Freshman of the Week on December 3 for his back @-@ to @-@ back 20 @-@ point performances .
On December 4 , Michigan defeated Western Michigan 73 – 41 , giving the team its first 8 – 0 start since the 1996 – 97 team ; the team never trailed in the game . Michigan defeated Arkansas 80 – 67 in its December 8 matchup . It marked the fourth 9 – 0 start in school history ( 1988 – 89 , 1985 – 86 and 1926 – 27 ) and the third consecutive game that Michigan never trailed . Michigan went to 10 – 0 on December 11 by defeating Binghamton 67 – 39 .
Michigan traveled to play in the December 15 Brooklyn Hoops Winter Festival at the Barclays Center , where they defeated West Virginia ( coach Beilein 's previous employer ) 81 – 66 to move to 11 – 0 for the third time in school history ( 1985 – 86 and 1988 – 89 ) . The team never trailed in the contest . For averaging 23 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 0 steals with only 1 @.@ 0 turnover in the games against Binghamton and West Virginia , Burke earned Player of the Week on December 17 .
On December 20 , the team became the second in school in history ( 1985 – 86 went 16 – 0 ) to reach 12 – 0 when it beat Eastern Michigan . After recording his first career double @-@ double in the game with only 18 minutes of play , McGary was recognized as Big Ten Freshman of the Week . Hardaway suffered an ankle injury that caused him to miss the December 29 game against Central Michigan and that broke his 81 consecutive games played streak that went back to the beginning of his Michigan career . The game also marked the team 's second game without Jon Horford , who dislocated his knee during the West Virginia game . In Hardaway 's absence , Burke posted his second career double @-@ double with 22 points and a career @-@ high tying 11 assists and Robinson posted his second career 20 @-@ point game . Stauskas added career highs with 5 three @-@ pointers and 7 rebounds and earned his third Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on December 31 . The thirteenth win clinched Michigan 's ninth perfect non @-@ conference regular season record . The team never trailed in the contest .
= = = = January = = = =
On January 3 , Michigan opened the 2012 – 13 Big Ten conference schedule with a 94 – 66 win over Northwestern to move to 14 – 0 . Burke had 23 points , 5 assists and a career high 4 steals , while Hardaway added 21 points , Morgan posted a double @-@ double with 12 points and 13 rebounds , while Stauskas and Robinson added 10 points each . Burke and Robinson both posted their third and first career double @-@ doubles , respectively , in a 95 – 67 victory against Iowa on January 6 . It marked the first time that the team scored 90 points in back @-@ to @-@ back conference games since the 1999 – 2000 team and tied for the most points in a conference game since the 1997 – 98 team . On January 7 , Burke was recognized as Big Ten Conference Player of the Week and Robinson was recognized as Conference Freshman of the Week .
The team tied the school record for best start by defeating Nebraska for its 16th straight victory to start the season on January 9 . The victory also marked Beilein 's 400th Division I coaching victory . On January 13 , the team lost to Ohio State ( # 15 AP / # 14 Coaches ) snapping their winning streak . Horford returned to the lineup after missing 5 games . Michigan had been the only remaining unbeaten team and was expected to be ranked # 1 if they had won . The loss was Michigan 's 9th straight in Columbus .
Michigan defeated Minnesota ( # 9 AP / # 12 Coaches ) at Williams Arena on January 17 , marking the first time Michigan defeated a top @-@ 10 team on the road since a December 6 , 1996 , victory by the 1996 – 97 team over Duke . After his performance , in which he scored 21 points while making 7 of 8 shots and 4 of 5 three @-@ point shots , in addition to recording 5 rebounds , 3 assists , 3 steals and 2 blocks , Hardaway earned a second Big Ten Player of the Week Award .
Michigan defeated Purdue 68 – 53 on January 24 and Illinois 74 – 60 on January 27 . This gave Michigan the first 19 – 1 start in school history . Robinson earned his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on January 28 for a pair of 12 @-@ point performances during a week in which he averaged 8 rebounds while maintaining 71 @.@ 4 % field goal percentage . Later that day , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 .
Michigan concluded January by beating Northwestern a second time on January 30 , becoming the first team in the country to reach 20 wins . After enduring an injured ankle against Illinois , starting center Jordan Morgan missed his first game since redshirting a full season for the 2009 – 10 Wolverines when he sat out the Northwestern game . Horford started in his place .
= = = = February = = = =
On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( # 1 AP / # 2 Coaches ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay against Indiana ( # 3 AP / # 3 Coaches ) who hosted the game at Assembly Hall . Michigan lost 81 – 73 , but the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers . Morgan only played two minutes behind replacement starter Horford . Michigan then defeated Ohio State ( # 10 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in overtime in the rematch at home on February 5 . Starting center Morgan only played 4 minutes . Coach Beilein noted that Morgan 's absence affected the team 's ability to match up defensively and substitute as it desired .
Michigan lost to Wisconsin on February 9 in overtime following a half @-@ court buzzer beater by Wisconsin that tied the game in regulation It marked Michigan 's eleventh consecutive loss against Wisconsin on the road . Morgan did not play , but McGary played 32 minutes , totaling 12 points , 3 steals and 8 rebounds . However , dramatically increased play in Morgan 's absence enabled McGary to earn his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on February 11 .
On February 12 , Michigan lost 75 – 52 in its rivalry game against ( # 8 AP / # 8 Coaches ) Michigan State . Among those in attendance were Rick Snyder , Matthew Stafford , Mark Dantonio , Brady Hoke , and Lloyd Carr . It marked the first time both teams were ranked in the top ten of the AP Poll , and resulted in Michigan losing back @-@ to @-@ back games and three consecutive road games for the first time since the 2010 – 11 team did so . Burke 's 18 points , 4 assists and 3 steals were one of Michigan 's few bright spots in their February 12 contest .
On February 17 against Penn State , Burke posted a season @-@ high 29 points along with 5 assists , 3 rebounds and two steals . As a result of his efforts , Burke won his third player of the week award of the season and fourth of his career on February 18 . Morgan returned to the starting lineup in the Penn State contest , but he only played 7 minutes .
After playing only 22 total minutes since January 27 , Morgan played more minutes ( 17 ) than the other low post players ( McGary , Horford , and Max Bielfeldt ) for the first time on February 24 against Illinois . Michigan defeated Illinois 71 – 58 behind 26 points and 8 assists from Burke . In the game , Burke became the seventh Wolverine sophomore to reach 1000 career points . On February 27 , Michigan surrendered a 15 @-@ point second @-@ half lead to give Penn State its only conference win of the season . Following the game , the team called a rare players @-@ only meeting at the Pizza House , with fifth @-@ year reserve Corey Person doing most of the talking .
= = = = March = = = =
On March 3 , Michigan defeated Michigan State ( # 9 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in the Ann Arbor rematch of their rivalry series as Trey Burke made 2 steals in the final 30 seconds to secure the 58 – 57 victory . Michigan snapped a 453 @-@ game streak with at least one made three @-@ point shot and became the first team since February 2009 to defeat a top ten opponent without making one . On March 6 , with its Big 10 Conference Championship destiny in its own hands , Michigan defeated Purdue to set up a championship showdown with Indiana on March 10 . Michigan concluded its road schedule with a 5 – 5 record .
Michigan closed out the season by losing to Indiana ( # 2 AP / # 2 Coaches ) on March 10 , failing its pursuit of defense of its conference co @-@ championship . Michigan led by 5 with 52 seconds to go , but then missed 3 free throws , including the first attempt during 2 one @-@ and @-@ one situations . Burke and Morgan also missed last @-@ second shots at the rim . Michigan wound down its regular season with its fifteenth sellout and five seniors on the roster : Eso Akunne , Josh Bartelstein , Blake McLimans , Corey Person , and Matt Vogrich . The loss kept Michigan from its first undefeated home season since the 1976 – 77 team .
= = = Postseason = = =
Michigan participated in the 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . As the # 5 seed , they defeated Penn State in the opening round on March 14 by an 83 – 66 margin . In the second round , the team lost to Wisconsin , 68 – 59 . Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky , which was left to accept an invitation to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . Among Michigan 's starting lineup , Burke , Robinson , Hardaway , and McGary were all expected to be likely NBA Draft choices , while Stauskas had the potential to be one .
Despite its highly touted lineup , Michigan entered the tournament as the sixth youngest team in the country and the youngest team in the field of 68 teams according to Sports Illustrated , based on weighted minutes played . The game marked Michigan 's first NCAA Championship Monday appearance since 1989 . Some sources claim 1993 as the school 's last appearance , but those results have been vacated by the NCAA due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .
Michigan was entered in the tournament 's South region where it would play its first two games at The Palace of Auburn Hills in nearby Auburn Hills , Michigan . As a number four seed , Michigan opened the tournament by defeating South Dakota State 71 – 56 , giving the team its most wins in 20 years and matching Beilein 's career high as it raised its record to 27 – 7 . Michigan then ousted 5th @-@ seeded VCU by a 78 – 53 margin . That gave Michigan its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team went to the 1994 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
= = = = Sweet Sixteen = = = =
The regional championship rounds for Michigan were at AT & T Stadium in Arlington , Texas . On March 29 against Kansas , Michigan overcame a 14 @-@ point deficit with 6 : 50 remaining and a 10 @-@ point deficit with 2 : 52 remaining to force overtime before an eventual victory . Burke scored eight points in the final 1 : 15 of regulation time , including a game @-@ tying long three @-@ pointer with 4 @.@ 2 seconds remaining . McGary ( 25 points and 14 rebounds ) and Burke ( 23 points and 10 assists ) both posted double @-@ doubles .
In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida , Michigan built a 13 – 0 lead and never led by less than 10 the rest of the game . Several players had career @-@ highs in the game : Stauskas with 6 three @-@ point shots , Burke 8 rebounds , McGary 5 steals and off the bench Albrecht 7 points and 3 steals . Eight of McGary 's 11 points came as Michigan built the initial 13 – 0 lead and 5 of Stauskas ' 6 three @-@ pointers came as Michigan built a 41 – 17 lead and closed the half with a 47 – 30 lead . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . McGary and Stauskas joined Burke on the five @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team . Following the regional championship postgame prayer and with Mrs. Beilein 's consent , McGary and Hardaway gave Beilein a Gatorade shower .
= = = = Final four = = = =
The national championship rounds were held at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta , Georgia . In the April 6 national semifinal against Syracuse , Michigan emerged with its thirty @-@ first victory , the most since the 1992 – 93 team went 31 – 5 . McGary posted 10 points , 12 rebounds and 6 assists , while the bench contributed 22 points , including 6 from Albrecht , who raised his NCAA tournament total to 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 on three @-@ point shots .
Michigan lost the April 8 national championship game against Midwest number one seed Louisville by an 82 – 76 score . Albrecht scored 17 first @-@ half points on 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 three @-@ point shooting . Burke scored 24 points in the championship game and made the seven @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates McGary and Albrecht . The turning point of the game was described as a missed call by the referees when , as Michigan trailed 67 – 64 with 5 minutes left , Burke pinned Peyton Siva 's dunk attempt with a clean , all @-@ ball block , but was called for a foul , resulting in two made free throws by Silva . Michigan never got closer than 4 points the rest of the game .
= = = Results = = =
= = Statistics = =
Statistics come from the team 's website :
Burke 's 260 assists set a school single @-@ season record . He also finished his sophomore season with 1 @,@ 231 career points , surpassing the former school record for sophomore season career point total of 1 @,@ 218 by Chris Webber . Stauskas reached a total of 80 made three @-@ point shots , which surpassed Hardaway 's 2 @-@ year @-@ old school freshman season record of 76 .
= = Rankings = =
= = Watchlists and awards = =
= = = Preseason = = =
= = = In @-@ season = = =
Stauskas also earned recognition from Sports Illustrated 's Seth Davis as National Freshman of the Week on December 3 . On January 9 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week from the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Burke also earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition on April 1 .
The Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Burke , was announced on January 10 . On January 31 , Burke was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Stuaskas and Robinson were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Burke was one of six Big Ten players named among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award when the list was announced on February 26 . Burke was among four Big Ten Players on the March 4 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist . On March 9 , Burke was named among the top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . Burke was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Award on March 24 .
Burke was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News on March 11 , the USBWA on March 18 , Sports Illustrated on March 19 , CBSSports.com on March 20 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) on March 28 , and the Associated Press on April 1 . Burke was one of four Big Ten players named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award on April 1 . On April 1 , Robinson was one of two Big Ten players ( Harris ) named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team . Burke became the fifth Consensus All @-@ American ( Cazzie Russell , Rickey Green , Gary Grant and Webber ) in school history .
SI also named Burke National Player of the Year , making him the second ( Russell , 1966 ) National Player of the Year in school history . On April 4 , Burke won the Bob Cousy Award and was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke won both the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award on April 5 . On April 7 , he won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards , giving him a sweep of the four major player of the year awards .
Burke earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . Hardaway was a 1st team selection by the coaches and second team by the media . Robinson was an honorable mention All @-@ Conference selection and All @-@ freshman honoree by the coaches . Morgan was a coaches All @-@ defensive team selection . On March 12 , the USBWA named Burke and Hardaway to its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . Burke was recognized as District V Player of the Year . Burke and Hardaway were selected to the NABC Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making them eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America team . On that same day , Burke was selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team .
John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Seniors Josh Bartelstein and Matt Vogrich were among the 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages . Trey Burke was named team MVP .
= = 2013 NBA Draft = =
Prior to the final four , McGary stated that he would not enter the 2013 NBA Draft , but a few days later said he had been caught off guard and would prefer to respond after he had time to reflect on his season .
At 12 : 30 PM ET on April 4 , Forbes sports business reporter Darren Heitner tweeted that Burke and teammate Hardaway would declare for the 2013 NBA Draft . According to Heiter , one of Burke 's potential sports agents was Alonzo Shavers , who had known Burke since his birth . Burke 's mother responded at 2 : 15 PM that same day that " He has not made any decision " about going pro , according to Yahoo ! Sports reporter Eric Adelson . At 2 : 23 PM , Heitner tweeted that Hardaway , Sr. said his son was undecided .
On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board had until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players had until April 28 to enter the draft . On that same date , ESPN 's Jason King predicted that if all four players had left for the NBA draft , the 2013 – 14 team would have begun the season unranked . USA Today projected on April 9 that if one of the four possible 2013 NBA draft entrants returned , Michigan could have been ranked number twenty @-@ four , and that if they all returned , Michigan would have been preseason number one . ESPN journalist Myron Medcalf predicted on April 12 that Burke and Hardaway would enter the draft and that McGary and Robinson were on the borderline of doing so .
On April 13 , reports surfaced that Burke would announce that he would enter the NBA Draft at a press conference the following day . He entered the 2013 NBA Draft on April 14 . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . McGary and Robinson announced on April 18 that they had decided not to enter their names in the NBA Draft .
On June 27 , 2013 Burke was selected ninth in the 2013 NBA Draft by the Milwaukee Bucks and then traded to the Utah Jazz for the fourteenth and twenty @-@ first picks , which were used to select Shabazz Muhammad and Gorgui Dieng . Hardaway was drafted twenty @-@ fourth by the New York Knicks . Burke and Hardaway became the first Michigan duo selected in the first round since Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose in the 1994 NBA Draft . Burke became the first top @-@ 10 Wolverine selection since Jamal Crawford in the 2000 NBA Draft , and joined Victor Oladipo and Cody Zeller , who were selected second and fourth , respectively , to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway joined his father , who was picked fourteenth in 1989 NBA Draft , as a first round selection .
= = = Team players drafted into the NBA = = =
Every player that started in the 2013 national championship game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft .
Sources :
= = Postseason roster changes = =
Following the season the team lost five seniors from the roster : guard Eso Akunne , guard Josh Bartelstein ( captain ) , forward Blake McLimans , guard Corey Person and guard Matt Vogrich . The team 's required 10 @-@ year dissociation with players implicated in the University of Michigan basketball scandal ended on May 8 , 2013 . Bartelstein blogged for the team from October 15 , 2010 , until April 11 , 2013 . His blogs from this season were turned into an ebook about the season entitled We On : Behind the Scenes of Michigan 's Final Four Run .
= Prosperity theology =
Prosperity theology ( sometimes referred to as the prosperity gospel , the health and wealth gospel , or the gospel of success ) is a religious belief among some Christians that financial blessing is the will of God for them , and that faith , positive speech , and donations ( possibly to Christian ministries ) will increase one 's material wealth . They are based on interpretations of the Bible traditional in Judaism ( with respect to the Hebrew Bible ) , though less so in Christianity . Prosperity theology views the Bible as a contract between God and humans : if humans have faith in God , he will deliver his promises of security and prosperity . Confessing these promises to be true is perceived as an act of faith , which God will honor .
The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment , proposing that it is God 's will for his people to be happy . The atonement ( reconciliation with God ) is interpreted to include the alleviation of sickness and poverty , which are viewed as curses to be broken by faith . This is believed to be achieved through donations of money , visualization , and positive confession , and is often taught in mechanical and contractual terms .
It was during the Healing Revivals of the 1950s that prosperity theology first came to prominence in the United States , although commentators have linked the origins of its theology to the New Thought movement which began in the 19th century . The prosperity teaching later figured prominently in the Word of Faith movement and 1980s televangelism . In the 1990s and 2000s , it was adopted by influential leaders in the Charismatic Movement and promoted by Christian missionaries throughout the world , sometimes leading to the establishment of mega @-@ churches . Prominent leaders in the development of prosperity theology include E. W. Kenyon , Oral Roberts , TD Jakes , A. A. Allen , Robert Tilton , T. L. Osborn , Joel Osteen , Creflo Dollar , Kenneth Copeland , Reverend Ike and Kenneth Hagin .
Prosperity theology has been criticized by leaders in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements , as well as other Christian denominations . These leaders maintain that it is irresponsible , promotes idolatry , and is contrary to scripture . Some critics have proposed that prosperity theology cultivates authoritarian organizations , with the leaders controlling the lives of the adherents . The doctrine has also become popular in South Korea ; academics have attributed some of its success to its parallels with the traditional shamanistic culture . Prosperity theology has drawn followers from the American middle class and poor , and has been likened to the cargo cult phenomenon , traditional African religion , and black liberation theology .
= = History = =
= = = Late 19th and early 20th @-@ century background = = =
According to historian Kate Bowler , the prosperity gospel was formed from the intersection of three different ideologies : Pentecostalism , New Thought , and " an American gospel of pragmatism , individualism , and upward mobility . " This " American gospel " was best exemplified by Andrew Carnegie 's Gospel of Wealth and Russell Conwell 's famous sermon " Acres of Diamonds " , in which Conwell equated poverty with sin and asserted that anyone could become rich through hard work . This gospel of wealth , however , was an expression of Muscular Christianity and understood success to be the result of personal effort rather than divine intervention .
The New Thought movement , which emerged in the 1880s , was responsible for popularizing belief in the power of the mind to achieve prosperity . While initially focused on achieving mental and physical health , New Thought teachers such as Charles Fillmore made material success a major emphasis of the movement . By the 20th century , New Thought concepts had saturated American popular culture , being common features of both self @-@ help literature and popular psychology .
E. W. Kenyon , a Baptist minister and adherent of the Higher Life movement , is credited with introducing mind @-@ power teachings into early Pentecostalism . In the 1890s , Kenyon attended Emerson College of Oratory where he was exposed to the New Thought movement . Kenyon later became connected with well @-@ known Pentecostal leaders and wrote about supernatural revelation and positive declarations . His writing influenced leaders of the nascent prosperity movement during the post @-@ war American healing revival . Kenyon and later leaders in the prosperity movement have denied that he was influenced by the New Thought movement . Anthropologist Simon Coleman argues that there are " obvious parallels " between Kenyon 's teachings and New Thought .
Kenyon taught that Christ 's substitutionary atonement secured for believers a right to divine healing . This was attained through positive , faith @-@ filled speech ; the spoken word of God allowed believers to appropriate the same spiritual power that God used to create the world and attain the provisions promised in Christ 's death and resurrection . Prayer was understood to be a binding , legal act . Rather than asking , Kenyon taught believers to demand healing since they were already legally entitled to receive it .
Kenyon 's blend of evangelical religion and mind @-@ power beliefs — what he termed " overcoming faith " — resonated with a small but influential segment of the Pentecostal movement . Pentecostals had always been committed to faith healing , and the movement also possessed a strong belief in the power of speech ( in particular speaking in tongues and the use of the names of God , especially the name of Jesus ) . Kenyon 's ideas would be reflected in the teachings of Pentecostal evangelists F. F. Bosworth and John G. Lake ( who co @-@ led a congregation with New Thought author Albert C. Grier prior to 1915 ) .
= = = Postwar Healing Revivals = = =
While Kenyon 's teachings on overcoming faith laid the groundwork for the prosperity gospel , the first generation of Pentecostals influenced by him and other figures , such as Bosworth , did not view faith as a means to attain material prosperity . In fact , early Pentecostals tended to view prosperity as a threat to a person 's spiritual well @-@ being . By the 1940s and 1950s , however , a recognizable form of the doctrine began to take shape within the Pentecostal movement through the teachings of deliverance and healing evangelists . Combining prosperity teaching with revivalism and faith healing , these evangelists taught " the laws of faith ( ' ask and ye shall receive ' ) and the laws of divine reciprocity ( ' give and it will be given back unto you ' ) " .
Oral Roberts began teaching prosperity theology in 1947 . He explained the laws of faith as a " blessing pact " in which God would return donations " seven fold " , promising that donors would receive back from unexpected sources the money they donated to him . Roberts offered to return any donation that did not lead to an equivalent unexpected payment . In the 1970s , Roberts characterized his blessing pact teaching as the " seed faith " doctrine : donations were a form of " seed " which would grow in value and be returned to the donor . Roberts began recruiting " partners " , wealthy donors who received exclusive conference invitations and ministry access in exchange for support .
In 1953 , faith healer A. A. Allen published The Secret to Scriptural Financial Success and promoted merchandise such as " miracle tent shavings " and prayer cloths anointed with " miracle oil " . In the late 1950s , Allen increasingly focused on prosperity . He taught that faith could miraculously solve financial problems and claimed to have had a miraculous experience in which God supernaturally changed one @-@ dollar bills into twenty @-@ dollar bills to allow him to pay his debts . Allen taught the " word of faith " or the power to speak something into being .
In the 1960s , prosperity became a primary focus in healing revivals . T. L. Osborn began emphasizing prosperity in the 1960s and became known for his often ostentatious displays of personal wealth . During that decade , Roberts and William Branham criticized other prosperity ministries , arguing that their fund @-@ raising tactics unfairly pressured attendees . These tactics were prompted in part by the expense of developing nationwide radio networks and campaign schedules . At the same time , leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God denomination often criticized the focus on prosperity taken by independent healing evangelists .
= = = Televangelism = = =
During the 1960s , prosperity gospel teachers embraced televangelism and came to dominate religious programming in the United States . Oral Roberts led the way , developing a syndicated weekly program that became the most watched religious show in the United States . By 1968 , television had supplanted the tent meeting in his ministry .
Reverend Ike , a pastor from New York City , began preaching about prosperity in the late 1960s . He soon had widely aired radio and television programs and became distinguished for his flashy style . His openness about love for material possessions and teachings about the " Science of the Mind " led many evangelists to distance themselves from him .
In the 1980s , public attention in the United States was drawn to prosperity theology through the influence of prominent televangelists such as Jim Bakker . Bakker 's influence waned , however , after he was implicated in a high @-@ profile scandal . In the aftermath , Trinity Broadcasting Network ( TBN ) emerged as the dominant force in prosperity televangelism , having brought Robert Tilton and Benny Hinn to prominence .
= = = Word of Faith = = =
Although nearly all of the healing evangelists of the 1940s and ' 50s taught that faith could bring financial rewards , a new prosperity @-@ oriented teaching developed in the 1970s that differed from the one taught by Pentecostal evangelists of the 1950s . This " Positive Confession " or " Word of Faith " movement taught that a Christian with faith can speak into existence anything consistent with the will of God .
Kenneth Hagin was credited with a key role in the expansion of prosperity theology . He founded the RHEMA Bible Training Center in 1974 , and over the next 20 years , the school trained more than 10 @,@ 000 students in his theology . As is true of other prosperity movements , there is no theological governing body for the Word of Faith movement , and well @-@ known ministries differ on some theological issues . The teachings of Kenneth Hagin have been described by Candy Gunther Brown of Indiana University as the most " orthodox " form of Word of Faith prosperity teaching .
= = = Recent U.S. history = = =
The Neo @-@ Pentecostal movement has been characterized in part by an emphasis on prosperity theology , which gained greater acceptance within charismatic Christianity during the late 1990s . By 2006 , three of the four largest congregations in the United States were teaching prosperity theology , and Joel Osteen has been credited with spreading it outside of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement through his books , which have sold over 4 million copies . Bruce Wilkinson 's The Prayer of Jabez also sold millions of copies and invited readers to seek prosperity .
By the 2000s , adherents of prosperity theology in the United States were most common in the Sun Belt . In the late 2000s , proponents claimed that tens of millions of Christians had accepted prosperity theology . A 2006 poll by Time reported that 17 percent of Christians in America said they identified with the movement . There is no official governing body for the movement , though many ministries are unofficially linked .
In 2007 , U.S. Senator Chuck Grassley opened a probe into the finances of six televangelism ministries that promoted prosperity theology : Kenneth Copeland Ministries , Creflo Dollar Ministries , Benny Hinn Ministries , Bishop Eddie Long Ministries , Joyce Meyer Ministries , and Paula White Ministries . In January 2011 , Grassley concluded his investigation stating that he believed self @-@ regulation by religious organizations was preferable to government action . Only the ministries led by Meyer and Hinn cooperated fully with Grassley 's investigation .
= = Theology = =
Prosperity theology teaches that Christians are entitled to well @-@ being and , because physical and spiritual realities are seen as one inseparable reality , this is interpreted as physical health and economic prosperity . Teachers of the doctrine focus on personal empowerment , promoting a positive view of the spirit and body . They maintain that Christians have been given power over creation because they are made in the image of God and teach that positive confession allows Christians to exercise dominion over their souls and material objects around them . Leaders of the movement view the atonement as providing for the alleviation of sickness , poverty , and spiritual corruption ; poverty and illness are cast as curses which can be broken by faith and righteous actions . There are , however , some prosperity churches which seek a more moderate or reformed paradigm of prosperity . Kirbyjon Caldwell , pastor of a Methodist mega @-@ church , supports a theology of abundant life , teaching prosperity for the whole human being , which he sees as a path to combating poverty .
Wealth is interpreted in prosperity theology as a blessing from God , obtained through a spiritual law of positive confession , visualization , and donations . This process is often taught in almost mechanical terms ; Kenneth Copeland , an American author and televangelist , argues that prosperity is governed by laws , while other teachers portray the process formulaically . Journalists David van Biema and Jeff Chu of Time have described Word of Faith pastor Creflo Dollar 's teachings about prosperity as an inviolable contract between God and humanity .
The prosperity theology teaching of positive confession stems from its proponents ' view of scripture . The Bible is seen as a faith contract between God and believers ; God is understood to be faithful and just , so believers must fulfill their end of the contract to receive God 's promises . This leads to a belief in positive confession , the doctrine that believers may claim whatever they desire from God , simply by speaking it . Prosperity theology teaches that the Bible has promised prosperity for believers , so positive confession means that believers are speaking in faith what God has already spoken about them . Positive confession is practiced to bring about what is already believed in ; faith itself is a confession , and speaking it brings it into reality .
The teaching is often based on non @-@ traditional interpretations of Bible verses , the Book of Malachi often being given special attention . While Malachi has generally been celebrated by Christians for its passages about the messiah , teachers of prosperity theology usually draw attention to its descriptions of physical wealth . Frequently quoted verses include :
Malachi 3 : 10 : " Bring to the storehouse a full tenth of what you earn so there will be food in my house . Test me in this , " says the Lord All @-@ Powerful . " I will open the windows of heaven for you and pour out all the blessings you need " ( NCV ) .
Matthew 25 : 14 – 30 : the Parable of the talents
John 10 : 10 : " I am come that they might have life , and that they might have it more abundantly " ( KJV ) .
Philippians 4 : 19 : " My God shall supply all your need according to his riches in glory by Christ Jesus " ( KJV ) .
3 John 1 : 2 : " Beloved , I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health , even as thy soul prospereth " ( KJV ) .
Prosperity theology casts itself as the reclamation of true doctrine and thus part of a path to Christian dominion over secular society . It contends that God 's promises of prosperity and victory to Israel in the Old Testament apply to New @-@ Covenant Christians today , and that faith and holy actions release this prosperity . C. Peter Wagner , a leader of the New Apostolic Reformation , has argued that if Christians take dominion over aspects of society , the Earth will experience " peace and prosperity " . Some Latin Americans who have embraced prosperity theology argue that Christianity has historically placed an unnecessary focus on suffering . They often view this as a Roman Catholic doctrine that should be discarded and replaced with an emphasis on prosperity . Prosperity theology advocates also argue that biblical promises of blessings awaiting the poor have been unnecessarily spiritualized , and should be understood literally .
= = = Practices = = =
Prosperity churches place a strong emphasis on the importance of giving . Some services include a teaching time focused on giving and prosperity , including Biblical references to tithing ; and then a sermon on another topic which follows the offering . Prosperity church leaders often claim a specific blessing can be exchanged for the money being donated to their ministry ; some have been reported to instruct worshipers to hold their donations above their heads during the prayer .
Congregants in prosperity churches are encouraged to speak positive statements about aspects of their lives that they wish to see improved . These statements , known as positive confessions , ( distinct from confessions of sin ) are said to miraculously change aspects of people 's lives if spoken with faith . Prosperity churches also encourage people to " live without limits " and cultivate optimism about their lives . T. D. Jakes , pastor of The Potter 's House non @-@ denominational mega @-@ church , has argued in favor of prosperity , rejecting what he sees as the demonization of success . He views poverty as a barrier to living a Christian life , suggesting that it is easier to make a positive impact on society when one is affluent .
While some prosperity churches have a reputation for manipulating and alienating the poor , many are involved in social programs . Underlying these programs is a theology of empowerment and human flourishing with the goal of releasing people from a " welfare " or " victim " mentality . Many prosperity churches hold seminars on financial responsibility . Kate Bowler , an academic who studies prosperity theology , has criticized such seminars , arguing that though they contain some sound advice the seminars often emphasize the purchase of expensive possessions . Hanna Rosin of The Atlantic argues that prosperity theology contributed to the housing bubble that caused the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . She maintains that home ownership was heavily emphasized in prosperity churches , based on reliance on divine financial intervention that led to unwise choices based on actual financial ability .
= = = International growth = = =
In the 2000s , churches teaching prosperity theology saw significant growth in the Third World . According to Philip Jenkins of Pennsylvania State University , poor citizens of impoverished countries often find the doctrine appealing because of their economic powerlessness and the doctrine 's emphasis on miracles . One region seeing explosive growth is Western Africa , particularly Nigeria . In the Philippines , the El Shaddai movement , part of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal , has spread prosperity theology outside Protestant Christianity . One South Korean prosperity church , Yoido Full Gospel Church , gained attention in the 1990s by claiming to be the world 's largest congregation .
= = Reception = =
= = = Socioeconomic analysis = = =
Most churches in the prosperity movement are non @-@ denominational and independent , though some groups have formed networks . Prosperity churches typically reject Presbyterian polity ( or governance ) and the idea that a pastor should be accountable to elders ; it is common for pastors of prosperity churches to be the highest organizational authority figure . Critics , including Sarah Posner and Joe Conason , maintain that prosperity teachers cultivate authoritarian organizations . They argue that leaders attempt to control the lives of adherents by claiming divinely bestowed authority . Jenkins contends that prosperity theology is used as a tool to justify the high salaries of pastors .
In the United States , the movement has drawn many followers from the middle class and is most popular in commuter towns and urban areas . In Exporting the American Gospel : Global Christian Fundamentalism Steve Brouwer , Paul Gifford , and Susan Rose speculate that the movement was fueled by a prevailing disdain for social liberalism in the United States that began in the 1970s . Rosin argues that prosperity theology emerged because of broader trends , particularly American economic optimism in the 1950s and 1990s . Tony Lin of the University of Virginia has also compared the teaching to manifest destiny , the 19th @-@ century belief that the United States was entitled to the West . Marvin Harris argues that the doctrine 's focus on the material world is a symptom of the secularization of American religion . He sees it as an attempt to fulfill the American Dream by using supernatural power .
Prosperity theology has become popular among poor Americans , particularly those who seek personal and social advancement . It has seen significant growth in black and Hispanic churches and is particularly popular among immigrants . Apologists for the movement note its ethnic diversity and argue that it encompasses a variety of views . Joel Robbins of Cambridge University notes that most anthropologists attribute the theology 's appeal to the poor — especially in the Global South — to the fact that it promises security and helps explain capitalism . Simon Coleman developed a theory based on the doctrine 's rhetoric and the feeling of belonging it gave parishioners . In a study of the Swedish Word of Life Church , he noted that members felt part of a complex gift @-@ exchange system , giving to God and then awaiting a gift in return ( either from God directly or through another church member ) . Hillsong Church , the largest congregation in Australia , teaches a form of prosperity theology that emphasizes personal success . Marion Maddox has argued that this message has drawn a significant number of upwardly mobile Australians .
In a 1998 interview in Christianity Today , Bong Rin Ro of the Asia Graduate School of Theology suggested that the growth in popularity of prosperity theology in South Korea reflects a strong " shamanistic influence " . Bong pointed to parallels between the tradition of paying shamans for healing and the prosperity theology 's contractual doctrine about giving and blessings . Asia 's economic problems , he argued , encouraged the growth of the doctrine in South Korea , though he claims it ignores the poor and needy . During the interview , he stated that he saw the problem beginning to be reversed , citing calls for renewed faith and other practices . Cho Yong @-@ gi , pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul , has been criticized for shamanising Christianity . This criticism has focused on his healing and exorcism ministries and his promise of material blessings . Malaysian Christian writer Hwa Yung has defended Cho 's healing and exorcism ministries , arguing that he successfully contextualized the gospel in a culture where shamanism was still prevalent . However , Hwa criticizes Cho 's teaching of earthly blessings for not reflecting a trust in God 's daily provision and for their heavy focus on earthly wealth .
= = = Comparisons with other movements = = =
Historian Carter Lindberg of Boston University has drawn parallels between contemporary prosperity theology and the medieval indulgence trade . Coleman notes that several pre @-@ 20th century Christian movements in the United States taught that a holy lifestyle was a path to prosperity and that God @-@ ordained hard work would bring blessing .
Coleman has speculated that modern @-@ day prosperity theology borrows heavily from the New Thought movement , though he admits that the connection is sometimes unclear . Jenkins notes that critics draw a parallel between prosperity theology and the cargo cult phenomenon . While citing the popularity of prosperity theology in agrarian African communities , he argues that it can also bear similarities to traditional African religious rituals . J. Matthew Wilson of Southern Methodist University compares the movement to Black liberation theology owing to its focus on uplifting oppressed groups , though he notes that it differs in its concentration on individual success rather than corporate political change .
= = = Criticism = = =
Mainstream evangelicalism has consistently opposed prosperity theology as heresy and prosperity ministries have frequently come into conflict with other Christian groups , including those within the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements . Critics , such as Evangelical pastor Michael Catt , have argued that prosperity theology has little in common with traditional Christian theology . Prominent evangelical leaders , such as Rick Warren , Ben Witherington III , and Jerry Falwell , have harshly criticized the movement , sometimes denouncing it as heretical . Warren proposes that prosperity theology promotes the idolatry of money , and others argue that Jesus ' teachings indicate a disdain for material wealth . In Mark : Jesus , Servant and Savior , R. Kent Hughes notes that some 1st @-@ century rabbis portrayed material blessings as a sign of God 's favor . He cites Jesus ' statement in Mark 10 : 25 that " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle , than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God " ( KJV ) as evidence to oppose such thinking .
Other critics of the movement assail promises made by its leaders , arguing that the broad freedom from problems they promise is irresponsible . Televangelists are often criticized for abusing the faith of their listeners by enriching themselves through large donations . Prosperity theology has been opposed for not adequately explaining the poverty of the Apostles . For instance , some theologians believe that the life and writings of Paul the Apostle , who is believed to have experienced significant suffering during his ministry , are particularly in conflict with prosperity theology . Cathleen Falsani , religion writer in an opinion piece in the Washington Post , points to the conflict with basic Christian teachings " Jesus was born poor , and he died poor . During his earthly tenure , he spoke time and again about the importance of spiritual wealth and health . When he talked about material wealth , it was usually part of a cautionary tale . "
In their book Health , Wealth and Happiness , theologians David Jones and Russell Woodbridge characterize the doctrine as poor theology . They suggest that righteousness cannot be earned and that the Bible does not promise an easy life . They argue that it is inconsistent with the gospel of Jesus and propose that the central message of the gospel should be Jesus ' life , death , and resurrection . Jones and Woodbridge see Jesus ' importance as vital , criticizing the prosperity gospel for marginalizing him in favor of a focus on human need . In another article , Jones criticizes the prosperity theology interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant , God 's promise to bless Abraham 's descendants , arguing that this blessing is spiritual and should already apply to all Christians . He also argues that the proponents of the doctrine misconstrue the atonement , criticizing their teaching that Jesus ' death took away poverty as well as sin . He believes that this teaching is drawn from a misunderstanding of Jesus ' life and criticizes John Avanzini 's teaching that Jesus was wealthy as a misrepresentation , noting that Paul often taught Christians to give up their material possessions . Although he accepts giving as " praiseworthy " , he questions the motives of prosperity theology and criticizes the " Law of Compensation " , which teaches that when Christians give generously , God will give back more in return . Rather , Jones cites Jesus ' teaching to " give , hoping for nothing in return . " Jones and Woodbridge also note that Jesus instructed followers to focus on spiritual rewards , citing his command in Matthew 6 : 19 – 20 " Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth ... But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven " ( KJV ) . Jones criticizes the doctrine 's view of faith : he does not believe that it should be used as a spiritual force for material gain but seen as selfless acceptance of God .
In 1980 , the General Council of the Assemblies of God criticized the doctrine of positive confession , noting examples of negative confessions in the Bible ( where Biblical figures express fears and doubts ) that had positive results and contrasting these examples with the focus on positive confessions taught by prosperity theology . The Council argues that the biblical Greek word often translated as " confess " literally translates as " to speak the same thing " , and refers to both positive and negative confessions . The statement also criticizes the doctrine for failing to recognize the will of God : God 's will should have precedence over the will of man , including their desires for wealth , and Christians should " recognize the sovereignty of God " . The statement further criticizes prosperity theology for overlooking the importance of prayer , arguing that prayer should be used for all requests , not simply positive confession . The Council noted that Christians should expect suffering in this life . They urge readers to apply practical tests to positive confession , arguing that the doctrine appeals to those who are already in affluent societies but that many Christians in other societies are impoverished or imprisoned . Finally , the paper criticizes the distinction made by advocates of prosperity theology in the two Greek words that mean " speaking " , arguing that the distinction is false and that they are used interchangeably in the Greek text . The Council accused prosperity theology of taking passages out of context to fulfill its own needs , with the result that doctrine of positive confession is contradictory to the holistic message of the Bible .
On the August 16 , 2015 episode of his HBO weekly series Last Week Tonight , John Oliver satirized prosperity theology by announcing that he had established his own tax @-@ exempt church , called Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption . In a lengthy segment , Oliver focused on what he characterized as the predatory conduct of televangelists who appeal for repeated gifts from people in financial distress or personal crises , and he criticized the very loose requirements for entities to obtain tax exempt status as churches under U.S. tax law . Oliver said that he would ultimately donate any money collected by the church to Doctors Without Borders .
= = Notable works advocating prosperity theology = =
Notable works that advocate prosperity theology include :
Oral Roberts ; Montgomery , G. H. ( 1966 ) . God 's Formula for Success and Prosperity . Abundant Life Publication . OCLC 4654539 .
Gordon Lindsay ( 1960 ) . God 's Master Key to Prosperity . Christ For The Nations . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89985 @-@ 001 @-@ 6 .
Bruce Wilkinson ; Kopp , David ( 2000 ) . The Prayer of Jabez : Breaking Through to the Blessed Life . Multnomah Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57673 @-@ 733 @-@ 0 .
Joel Osteen ( 2004 ) . Your Best Life Now : 7 Steps to Living at Your Full Potential . FaithWords . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 53275 @-@ 4 .
Zig Ziglar ( 1975 ) . See You at the Top . Gretna : Pelican Pub . Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 88289 @-@ 126 @-@ X.
Zig Ziglar ( 2006 ) . Better Than Good : Creating a Life You Can 't Wait to Live . Nashville : Thomas Nelson Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7852 @-@ 8919 @-@ 7 .
Zig Ziglar ; Tom Ziglar ( 2012 ) . Born to Win : Find Your Success Code . Dallas : SUCCESS Media . ISBN 9780983156512 .
= Newton House , Llandeilo =
Newton House is a Grade II * listed country house situated just to the west of the market town of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire , Wales . It is owned and maintained by the National Trust and lies within Dinefwr Park ( sometimes anglicised as " Dynevor " ) and the grounds of Dinefwr Castle . The original house was built during the Medieval period on a site which has been occupied for at least two millennia . The current house was built by Edward Rice in the Jacobean style in 1660 , though extensive changes were made in the 1850s in the Venetian Gothic style . The house played a role in the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , when the occupant of the house at the time , Colonel George Rice , received a death threat with an empty grave dug in the ground . After 1956 the property fell into turbulent times when two owners died within the space of a few years . It was sold in 1974 , and later fell into disrepair ; it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture .
The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by the National Trust and Cadw respectively . It is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . Two rooms are open to the public , including a tearoom and exhibition in the basement and ground floor which contain numerous displays related to the history of the estate and occupants . The deer park which surrounds the property was landscaped by Capability Brown in 1775 . The surrounding woodland consists mainly of oak and wych elm . Newton House is cited as one of the most haunted houses in Wales , noted in particular for its ghost of Walter the Butler , a former employee whose tobacco smoke purportedly wafts through the air .
= = History = =
Dinefwr Park has a history of occupation spanning at least two millennia . A polished stone axe dated to the Neolithic period was unearthed on the site in 1976 , and during the Iron Age , a farm existed on the property . The Romans later built a pair of forts here , with one partly overlying the other . There are traces of Roman roads and tracks , some of which may have been part of the Carmarthen @-@ Llandovery Roman road . A Roman milestone and a coin hoard were unearthed near Dinefwr Castle , and pieces of amphorae and Samian items have been excavated near Dinefwr Farm .
During the 12th century , Dinefwr Castle was built by Lord Rhys . The castle and grounds were seized by Henry VIII in 1531 , and the estate owners , who changed their family surname to Rice , subsequently had to buy back their property from the Crown . The family were elevated to the peerage of Great Britain as Baron Dynevor . Mary I is documented to have restored some of the land back to the Rhys family , but it was not until the reign of Charles I that the family fully regained their properties .
Newton House was originally built during the medieval period at some distance from the castle . It is documented to have been later modified in 1595 and 1603 . The current Newton House was completed in 1660 under the command of Edward Rice . In the late 1700s , George Rice and his wife Cecil began the construction of a landscape garden , and hired eminent architect Capability Brown in 1775 to assume responsibility for the development . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 , giving the property a more romanticised appearance . During the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , Colonel George Rice was awoken one night in September and found an empty grave dug in the grounds , warning him that he would be buried in it by October 10 .
Newton House fell into a turbulent period after the death of the 7th Baron Dynevor in 1956 . His son Charles Arthur Uryan , the 8th Baron , died just six years later , and most of the estate and a number of family 's assets had to be sold off to pay duties . In 1974 , the property was sold by the current Baron Dynevor , and later fell into disrepair : it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture . The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by Cadw and the National Trust respectively . The National Trust acquired the deer park in 1987 and Newton House three years later .
= = Architecture = =
Edward Rice ordered the construction of a Jacobean house on the site of an earlier medieval mansion in 1659 , and it was completed the following year . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 . Though the property remains Jacobean , around 1856 , there were significant changes made in the Venetian Gothic style , which today emanate the ambiance of the Victorian period . The tower was added , and alterations were made by R.K. Penson of Oswestry . The National Trust writes of it : " Most of what you see of the grand building today dates back to the 1850s , when it was given a fashionable Gothic facelift , with stone cladding and four impressive turrets " . A limestone refacing occurred at the same time . Newton House is a Grade II * listed property , as are its summer house and the inner and outer courtyard ranges . The nearby dairy cottage , ha @-@ ha , dovecote , fountain , deer abattoir , icehouse , home farmhouse , corn barn and byre / stable range are Grade II listed in their own right .
Newton House is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . The authors of Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion consider the heavily decorated late 17th @-@ century ceilings of the house to be " the finest single architectural legacy among the country houses of the region " . As in Plas Taliaris and several other country houses in the county , the ceilings are panelled , with " thick moulded beams and wreaths in the panels and winged cherubs ' heads in the corners " . The entrance hall contains a columned Doric screen with a 19th @-@ century ribbed and bossed ceiling . The old dining room to the right of this features a coffered ceiling dated to the 17th century , containing " low plaster relief mouldings including guilloché , acanthus and egg and dart " . The chimney piece has been removed . The drawing room to rear of the property also features a richly adorned coffered ceiling with " frieze bearing rosette bands " and a " centre oval with bay leaf design " . The 17th @-@ century staircase features thick balusters and prominent finials , with foliage patterns ingrained in the plasterwork of the handrail . A billiard room was added to the house in 1896 . A strongroom with 18 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 46 cm ) walls and heavy steel fire @-@ proof doors was added in 1914 , for the Dynevors to keep their important documents and valuables . On the upper floors are rooms with 18th @-@ century fittings , including " panelled dados , lugged architraves , low relief plaster ceilings and closets within angled turrets " . The bedroom on the northeast of the house features a particularly detailed coffered ceiling with floral patterns .
The house contains several paintings of note , including William Powell Frith 's Mary , Queen of Scots Bidding Farewell to France ( 1561 ) and Godfrey Kneller 's portrait of the Bishop of Salisbury , William Talbot , dated to 1718 . Two showrooms at the house are open to the public . Aside from the tearoom , the exhibition in the basement and ground floor contains numerous displays related to the Rhys family , the history of the estate and World War II , and is designed as if the year is 1912 .
= = Park and garden = =
The house is surrounded by a deer park which was landscaped by Capability Brown from 1775 . He established a winding path , known as Capability Brown path , through the park and planted deciduous trees in key places to frame the house and castle . The deer park contains notable herds of rare White Park cattle and fallow deer . A small garden behind the house , overlooking the deer park , Moorish in style with a central fountain , has been restored to its former glory . Brown 's beech clumps survive in the present day .
Writing in 1862 , Benjamin Clarje considered the park to exhibit " perhaps a richer display of varied landscape than any spot of similar size in the kingdom " . He notes that the surface in the upper area of the park is " diversified by gentle undulations and has been planted with great judgment and taste " and that the River Towy flows in the vicinity . The Wildlife Trust West Wales acquired the nearby woodland in 1979 . The BBC 's Peter Crawford wrote of it in his book , The Living Isles : " The woodland is primarily oak and wych elm , " he writes . " The shrubs and ground cover are outstanding with cherry , holly , spindle , dog violet and the parasitic toothwort . Lichen communities are of importance and include the rare lungwort . Overlooked by the romantic Castle of Dinefwr the fine old parkland has a herd of fallow deer . The mature trees attract woodpecker , redstarts and pied flycatchers . In winter , the water meadows draw large numbers of ducks " .
= = Haunting = =
The National Trust states that Newton House is " thought to be one of the most haunted houses in Britain " , and Wales Online cites it as one of the most notable ghostly houses of Wales . Over the years , many ghost sightings or paranormal activity have been allegedly witnessed at the house . The servants ' basement is one of the purported centres of activity , with numerous sightings , particularly of a ghost known as Walter the Butler who worked at the house . People have reported smelling his tobacco smoke in the room , muffled voices and lights eerily turning on and off on their own accord . Visitors have reported feeling as if they are being choked when walking up and down the cantilever staircase ; this is believed to be related to the strangling of Lady Elinor Cavendish , the cousin of the lady of Newton House in the 1720s , by a lover whom she had rejected . The alleged hauntings at the property began to be investigated by television journalists in the 1980s , and on one occasion crewmen mysteriously fell ill one after the other while shooting there . During one investigation , the spectre of a young , beautiful girl was said to have glided across the room and disappeared through the cupboard door . The house was later the subject of an investigation in the 11th and 15th series of the Most Haunted programme .
= Codex Zacynthius =
Codex Zacynthius ( designated by siglum Ξ or 040 in the Gregory @-@ Aland numbering ; A1 in von Soden ) is a Greek New Testament codex , dated paleographically to the 6th century . First thought to have been written in the 8th century , it is a palimpsest — the original ( lower ) text was washed off its vellum pages and overwritten in the 12th or 13th century . The upper text of the palimpsest contains weekday Gospel lessons ; the lower text contains portions of the Gospel of Luke , deciphered by biblical scholar and palaeographer Tregelles in 1861 . The lower text is of most interest to scholars .
The manuscript came from Zakynthos , a Greek island , and has survived in a fragmentary condition . It was brought to England in 1821 and transferred to Cambridge University in 1985 . It is often cited in critical editions of the Greek New Testament .
= = Description = =
The lower text of the manuscript contains fragments of the chapters 1 : 1 @-@ 11 : 33 of the Gospel of Luke . The codex comprises 86 thick , coarse parchment leaves and three partial leaves ; it measures 36 x 29 cm . The text was written in a single column with well @-@ formed uncial script . The letters are large , round and narrow , without spiritus asper , spiritus lenis , or accents . The manuscript was written by two scribes .
Abbreviations are rarely used in the codex . The handwriting is very close to that of the Rossano Gospels . The errors of itacism occur , but not so often as in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus . It uses grammatical forms typical of the ancient manuscripts ( e.g. ειπαν , ηλθαν , ευραν ) , which are not used in later medieval manuscripts .
The codex uses a peculiar system of chapter divisions , which it shares with Codex Vaticanus and Minuscule 579 . A more common system divides chapters according to their titles . The capital letters at the beginnings of sections stand out in the margin as in the Codices Alexandrinus and Ephraemi .
The text is surrounded by a marginal commentary ; it is the only codex that has both text and commentary in uncial script . The commentary is a catena of quotations of nine church fathers : Origen , Eusebius , Titus of Bostra , Basil , Isidore of Pelusium , Cyril of Alexandria , Sever from Antioch , Victor from Antioch , and Chrysostom . The commentary surrounds the single @-@ column text of Luke on three sides . Patristic text is written in small uncial letters . Most of the quotations are those of Ciril of Alexandria ( 93 scholia ) ; next comes Titus of Bostra ( 45 scholia ) . The commentary was written in a different kind of uncial script than the biblical text .
= = = Contents = = =
The book contains the following chapters and verses of the Gospel of Luke : 1 : 1 @-@ 9 @,@ 19 @-@ 23 @,@ 27 @-@ 28 @,@ 30 @-@ 32 @,@ 36 @-@ 60 @,@ 77 ; 2 : 19 @,@ 21 @-@ 22 @,@ 33 @-@ 3 ; 3 : 5 @-@ 8 @,@ 11 @-@ 20 ; 4 : 1 @-@ 2 @,@ 6 @-@ 20 @,@ 32 @-@ 43 ; 5 : 17 @-@ 36 ; 6 : 21 ; 7 : 6 @,@ 11 @-@ 37 @,@ 39 @-@ 47 ; 8 : 4 @-@ 21 @,@ 25 @-@ 35 @,@ 43 @-@ 50 ; 9 : 1 @-@ 28 @,@ 32 @-@ 33 @,@ 35 ; 9 : 41 ; 10 : 18 @,@ 21 @-@ 40 ; 11 : 1 @-@ 4 @,@ 24 @-@ 33 .
= = = = Variations and omissions = = = =
Luke 9 : 55b @-@ 56a — καὶ εἶπεν , Οὑκ οἴδατε οἵου πνεύματος ἑστε ὐμεῖς ; ὀ γὰρ υἰὸς τοῦ ἁνθρώπου οὑκ ἦλθεν ψυχὰς ἁνθρώπων ἁπολέσαι ἁλλὰ σῶσαι ( and He said : " You do not know what manner of spirit you are of ; for the Son of man came not to destroy men 's lives but to save them ) is omitted , typical of Alexandrian text @-@ type , as in codices Sinaiticus B C Θ L 33 700 892 1241 syr , and copbo .
Luke 4 : 17 it has the textual variant καὶ ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and opened the book ) together with the manuscripts A , B , L , W , 33 , 892 , 1195 , 1241 , ℓ 547 , syrs , h , pal , and copsa , bo , against variant καὶ ἀναπτύξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and unrolled the book ) supported by א , Dc , K , Δ , Θ , Π , Ψ , f1 , f13 , 28 , 565 , 700 , 1009 , and 1010 .
Luke 9 : 10 it has the textual variant εις πολιν καλουμενην Βηθσαιδα ( to a city called Bethsaida ) , as do codices B , L , and 33 ; but later hand @-@ written in the margin εις τοπον ερημον πολεως καλουμενην Βηδσαιδα ( into a deserted place belonging to the city called Bethsaida ) .
= = Text @-@ type = =
The textual character of the codex is representative of the late Alexandrian text @-@ type , and is similar to the Codex Regius . Kurt and Barbara Aland gave the following textual profile of it : 21 , 82 , 21 / 2 , 3s . This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 2 times , it agrees 8 times with the original text against the Byzantine and it agrees both with the Byzantine and original text 2 times . There are 3 independent or distinctive readings . On the basis of this profile Alands considered the quality of the text to suit his Category III . According to the Claremont Profile Method , it represents the Alexandrian text in Luke 10 and mixed Byzantine text @-@ type in Luke 1 , which probably indicates sporadic Byzantine corrections .
= = Palimpsest = =
The codex is a palimpsest , meaning that the original text was scraped off and overwritten and the parchment leaves folded in half . The upper text was written by a minuscule hand and contains lectionary 299 ( ℓ 299 ) from the 12th or 13th century , though the lectionary text is not complete ; it is written on 176 leaves ( 28 @.@ 7 cm by 18 @.@ 2 cm ) , in one column per page , 33 @-@ 36 lines per page . Three folios are only the lower halves of leaves , one folio was supplied with paper ( folio LXVIII ) . The manuscript contains weekday Gospel lessons ( Evangelistarium ) , but is lacunose . Tregelles did not collate its text because of its secondary value . Scrivener designated it by siglum 200 , Gregory by 299 .
Lectionary 299 in Mark 6 : 33 has textual reading ἐκεῖ καὶ προῆλθον αὐτούς along with Codex Sinaiticus , Codex Vaticanus , 0187 ( omit εκει ) , 892 , ℓ 49 , ℓ 69 , ℓ 70 , ℓ 303 , ℓ 333 , ℓ 1579 , ( ℓ 950 αυτους ) , itaur , vg , ( copsa , bo ) .
The text of the lectionary is cited in some critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 ) in the following places : Matthew 10 : 4 ; 11 : 17 ; 12 : 47 ; 13 : 13 ; 14 : 22 ; 18 : 10 ; 22 : 30 ; 26 : 27 ; 28 : 9 ; Mark 1 : 27 ; 2 : 10 @.@ 26 ; 4 : 16 @.@ 20 ; 6 : 2 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 . It is not cited in UBS4 .
= = History = =
= = = Dating = = =
Tregelles dated the manuscript to the 8th century . Tregelles was aware that the handwriting is typical for the 6th century , but the handwriting of the commentary is much older . The letters ΕΘΟΣ are round , high , and narrow , and could not have been written before the 8th century . C. R. Gregory supported Tregelles 's point of view . According to Nicholas Pocock , the manuscript could not have been written before the 6th century nor after the 8th century .
William Hatch in 1937 , on the basis of palaeographical data , suggested that the codex should be dated to the 6th century . It does not use breathings and accents and the text of the commentary is written in uncial script . Aland supported Hatch 's point of view . This date is accepted by the majority of scholars .
David C. Parker in 2004 argued that manuscript was written later the 6th century , because it has a small number of square letters , and the handwriting is not typical for the 6th century . Some letters were compressed ( Μ , Δ , Ε ) , the bar over the letter Τ is short and the letter Υ is written in several ways . According to Parker the manuscript should be dated to the 7th century .
Currently it is dated by the INTF to the 6th century .
= = = Discovery and further research = = =
The early history of the manuscript is unknown . In 1821 it was brought by general Colin Macaulay to England from the Greek island Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea . The manuscript was placed in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society ( Mss 24 ) in London .
Scholz saw the manuscript in 1845 , and Paul de Lagarde in 1853 , but they did not decipher it . The lower text of the codex was deciphered , transcribed , and edited by Tregelles in 1861 . Tregelles used types originally cast for printing the Codex Alexandrinus , which only approximately represented the shape of the letters of the codex . The hand @-@ written letters are smaller than the type . Tregelles included one page of typographical facsimile in this edition . He did not decipher the small Patristic writing and doubted that it could be read without chemical restoration .
Nicholas Pocock found errors in Tregelles ' edition , but William Hatch thought it satisfactory . J. Harold Greenlee corrected Tregelles ' errors and edited the list of corrections in 1957 , which was examined by William Hatch . In 1959 Greenlee published a commentary . The codex probably needs another examination with modern technology .
Tischendorf cited the codex in his Editio Octava Critica Maior in 564 places . It is often cited in the critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 , UBS4 , NA26 , NA27 ) .
In 1985 it was moved to the Cambridge University Library ( BFBS Ms 213 ) . In December 2013 , the Bible Society announced plans to sell some manuscripts , among them the Codex Zacynthius , to raise funds for a Visitors Centre in Wales . The University was given right of first refusal and has until February 2014 to raise the money to acquire the codex .
= Ernest Deane =
Ernest Cotton Deane MC ( 4 May 1887 – 25 September 1915 ) was a medical officer of the British Indian Army and an Irish international rugby player . Born in the city of Limerick , Ireland , he went to school in Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) in County Dublin and then studied medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland ( RCSI ) , graduating in 1909 . He was selected to play rugby for Ireland in one match , against England in February 1909 . His rugby career was cut short when he broke his leg in a match against Oxford University .
Deane was commissioned into the Royal Army Medical Corps in 1911 , after a period as house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin . In 1913 , he was posted to India and served in Burma . He was stationed in Meerut at the start of the First World War . From there , he travelled to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the Indian Expeditionary Force , landing in Marseille in September 1914 . He was deployed immediately to the Western Front , where he served first with the 20th Field Ambulance and then as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment . His unit saw much active service . On 22 August 1915 , he was awarded the Military Cross after running out under machine gun fire to rescue four men who had been wounded by artillery fire . A month later , his regiment participated in the Battle of Loos , and was almost entirely obliterated . He was shot dead after going to help some injured soldiers : his action earned him a mention in despatches . Deane was one of 60 RCSI doctors to receive the Military Cross in the First World War , and one of 17 to be killed in action .
= = Early life = =
Ernest Deane , born in the city of Limerick , Ireland on 4 May 1887 , was the third of the four sons of Thomas and Aileen Deane of Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) , County Dublin . He went to Corrig School , Kingstown , from 1901 to 1904 then went on to study medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland from 1904 to 1909 . He became house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin .
= = = Rugby = = =
Deane was an all @-@ round sportsman , skilled in golf , lawn tennis , horse @-@ riding and shooting . Furthermore , at Corrig , Deane was captain of the school 's rugby XV , and later he captained the Adelaide Hospital XV , and the Monkstown XV . He was selected to play wing for Ireland in the match against England at Lansdowne Road , Dublin , on 13 February 1909 , which Ireland lost 5 – 11 . It was England 's first victory on Irish soil since 1895 . Deane 's opposite number that day was the New Zealand @-@ born Alexander Palmer of London Hospital FC , whose speed allowed him to get around Deane , and to score two of England 's three tries , and a conversion .
At the start of the next season , on 29 November 1909 , Deane was part of the Monkstown team to play Oxford University . During the game , he collided with Robert Bourne , breaking his own leg and bringing his rugby career to an end .
International appearance
= = Military service = =
At the start of the 20th century , many Irish doctors joined the British armed forces . Deane himself was commissioned temporary lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) on 28 July 1911 , confirmed 9 February 1912 . In October 1913 , he went to India and served in Burma . He was stationed at Meerut when the First World War broke out . He went to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division of the Indian Expeditionary Force , arriving in Marseilles on 26 September 1914 . He was attached to the 20th Field Ambulance , and later served as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment , in active service on the Western Front .
A few days before he died , Deane was awarded the Military Cross , one of 60 awarded to RCSI doctors in the war . Frederick Conway Dwyer , president of the RCSI , proudly read out Deane 's citation in an address to students of the college , and commended recent licentiates to enter the RAMC . The citation in the Gazette said :
For conspicuous gallantry on 22nd August 1915 , near Fauquissart . A standing patrol 120 yards in front of our line was bombed by the enemy at about 10 p.m. , the only notification being two loud bomb explosions . Captain Deane , without any knowledge of the enemy 's strength , at once got over the parapet and ran by himself to the spot under rifle and machine gun fire . Finding four wounded men he returned for stretchers and got them back into safety . This is not the first time that Captain Deane 's gallantry under fire has been brought to notice .
On 25 September , Deane 's battalion , the 2nd Leicesters , took part in the Battle of Loos , in a diversionary attack by the Indian Corps to draw away German reserves from the main attack . According to the personal account of George Wilfred Grossmith , after the battle , the battalion ceased to exist , and most of the other regiments of the Meerut Division were decimated . The artillery bombardment prior to the infantry assault had failed to destroy all of the German barbed wire defences , and some men got caught up in them . Deane went to help . Returning across the open , he was killed instantly by a bullet to the head . His Colonel , who was himself badly wounded , wrote to his family saying :
He was the most gallant fellow I ever met , and we all loved him in the regiment , both officers and men . He was just a part of us , and the few of us left mourn his loss very deeply . We had a big battle on the 25th , and your son went out to try and help some | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
lane gravelled surface , and to make Railroad Avenue and Government Beach Road usable as emergency routes . However the flow stopped just short of entering Pahoa , and by March 2015 the threat to the town was much reduced .
= = = Volcanic Explosivity Index = = =
The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) to all except five of Kīlauea 's ninety @-@ five known eruptions of the last 11 @,@ 700 years . The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4 . The eruptions of 1820 , 1924 , 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2 . The eruptions of 680 , 1050 , 1490 , 1500 , 1610 , 1868 , four eruptions in 1961 and the current eruption since 1983 have a VEI of 1 . The other seventy @-@ four eruptions have a VEI of 0 .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Background = = =
Because of its position more than 2 @,@ 000 miles from the nearest continental landmass , the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth ; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology . The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth , the result of an isolated evolutionary linage sheltered from external biotic influence ; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development , and an estimated third of the island 's natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct .
Kīlauea 's ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself ; lava flows often overrun sections of the volcano 's forests and burns them down , and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life . Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa , and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic " deserts " yet to be recolonized .
Kīlauea 's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominately from the northeast , which , when squeezed upwards by the volcano 's height , results in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank . The volcano 's ecology is further complicated by height , though not nearly as much as with its other , far taller neighbors , and by the local distribution of volcanic products , which make for varied soil conditions . The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) and receives more than 75 in ( 191 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community ; further south , the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in ( 127 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment .
= = = Ecosystems = = =
Much of Kīlauea 's southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , where a ’ e ferns , ʻōhiʻa trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , and hapu ’ u of the genus Cibotium are common . The park hosts a large variety of bird species , including the ' apapane ( Himatione sanguinea ) , the ' amakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , the ' i 'iwi ( Vestiaria coccinea ) , the ‘ ōma ’ o ( Myadestes obscurus ) , the ʻelepaio ( Chasiempis sp . ) , and the endangered ' akepa ( Loxops coccineus ) , ' akiapola 'au ( Hemignathus munroi ) , nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) , ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) , and ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) species . The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) nesting sites on the island .
Some of the area alongside Kīlauea 's southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert . Although not a " true " desert ( rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) a year ) , precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3 @.@ 4 , greatly hampering regional plant growth . The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable . Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent .
Kīlauea 's northern lowland wet forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve . At 27 @,@ 785 acres ( 11 @,@ 244 ha ) , Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiʻi 's largest lowland wet forest reserve , and is home to rare plant species including hāpuʻu ferns ( Cibotium spp . ) , ʻieʻi.e. vines ( Freycinetia arborea ) , and kōpiko ( Psychotria mariniana ) , some of which play a role in limiting invasive species ' spread . ʻOpeʻapeʻa ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) , common ʻamakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , and nananana makakiʻi ( Theridion grallator ) live in the trees . There are thought to be many more as @-@ yet @-@ undocumented species within the forest . Wao Kele 's primary forest tree is ʻōhiʻa lehua ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) .
= = Human history = =
= = = Ancient Hawaiian = = =
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores , where food and water were plentiful . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source . Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem , and caused many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species , as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) .
The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains . Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities . In Hawaiian mythology , the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa , giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands . Kīlauea itself means " spewing " or " much spreading " in Hawaiian , referencing its high state of activity , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaʻa was centered ; Halemaʻumaʻu , " House of the ʻamaʻumaʻu fern " , derives its name from the struggle between the two gods . Kamapuaʻa , hard @-@ pressed by Pele 's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will , covered the feature , a favorite residence of the goddess , with fern fronds . Choked by trapped smoke , Pele emerged . Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction , the others gods called a draw and divided the island between them , with Kamapuaʻa getting the moist windward northeastern side , and Pele directing the drier Kona ( or leeward ) side . The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu is said to be a product of the legendary struggle .
This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century . Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long @-@ term welfare of the environment . These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast .
= = = Modern era = = =
The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778 . The first non @-@ native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis , an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano . He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features , establishing the premise for future explorations of the volcano .
One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana , who , staying with the missionary Titus Coan , studied the island 's volcanoes in detail for decades first @-@ hand . Dana visited Kīlauea 's summit and described it in detail in 1840 . After publishing a summary paper in 1852 , he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano , instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa ; it was not until another geologist , C. E. Dutton , had elaborated on Dana 's research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity .
The next era of Kīlauea 's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano 's rim in 1912 . The first permanent such installation in the United States , the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar , head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy , he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study , and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment . After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii , Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and , whilst its head between 1912 and 1940 , pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes . After initial funding ran out , the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , and the National Park Service , before settling on the USGS , under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947 . The main building has been moved twice since establishment , and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea 's caldera .
= = Tourism = =
The volcano became a tourist attraction from the 1840s onwards , and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim , including Volcano House which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within the borders of the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park . In 1891 , Lorrin A. Thurston , grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcano 's rim , began campaigning for a park on the volcano 's slopes , an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle , Jr. in 1903 . Thurston , who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper , printed editorials in favor of the idea ; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create " Kilauea National Park " . Following endorsements from John Muir , Henry Cabot Lodge , and former President Theodore Roosevelt ( in opposition to local ranchers ) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana 'ole , House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1 , 1916 . It was the 11th National Park in the United States , and the first in a Territory ; a few weeks later , the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law , creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system . Originally called " Hawaii National Park " , it was split from the Haleakala National Park on 22 September 1960 . Today the park , renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction , and , since 1987 , a World Heritage Site .
In its early days tourism was a relatively new concept , but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959 , the year Hawaiʻi became a state . Today tourism is driven by the island 's exotic tropical locations , and Kīlauea , being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption , is a major part of the island 's tourist draw . Today , Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually , most of whom proceed up the volcano from the recently revamped Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance . The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum is also a popular tourist stop ; located at the edge of Kīlauea caldera , the museum 's observation deck offers the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaumau Crater . The Volcano House still provides the nearest lodging , and the nearby Volcano Village the most numerous ; visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp . A number of hiking trails , points of interest , and guided ranger programs exist , and the Chain of Craters Road , Hilina Pali Road , and Crater Rim Drive provide access .
= Gray wolf =
The gray wolf or grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) , also known as the timber wolf or western wolf , is a canid native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America . It is the largest extant member of its family , with males averaging 43 – 45 kg ( 95 – 99 lb ) , and females 36 – 38 @.@ 5 kg ( 79 – 85 lb ) . Like the red wolf , it is distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size and less pointed features , particularly on the ears and muzzle . Its winter fur is long and bushy , and predominantly a mottled gray in color , although nearly pure white , red , or brown to black also occur . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 .
The gray wolf is the second most specialised member of the genus Canis , after the Ethiopian wolf , as demonstrated by its morphological adaptations to hunting large prey , its more gregarious nature , and its highly advanced expressive behavior . It is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species , such as the eastern wolf , coyote , and golden jackal to produce fertile hybrids . It is the only species of Canis to have a range encompassing both the Old and New Worlds , and originated in Eurasia during the Pleistocene , colonizing North America on at least three separate occasions during the Rancholabrean . It is a social animal , travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range , with only humans and tigers posing a serious threat to it . It feeds primarily on large ungulates , though it also eats smaller animals , livestock , carrion , and garbage .
The gray wolf is one of the world 's best known and well researched animals , with probably more books written about it than any other wildlife species . It has a long history of association with humans , having been despised and hunted in most pastoral communities because of its attacks on livestock , while conversely being respected in some agrarian and hunter @-@ gatherer societies . Although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies , the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies . Non @-@ rabid wolves have attacked and killed people , mainly children , but this is rare , as wolves are relatively few , live away from people , and have developed a fear of humans from hunters and shepherds .
= = Etymology = =
The English ' wolf ' stems from the Old English wulf , which is itself thought to be derived from the Proto @-@ Germanic * wulfaz . The Latin lupus is a Sabine loanword . Both derive from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * wlqwos / * lukwos .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Canis lupus was recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758 . The Latin classification translates into English as " dog wolf " . The subspecies of Canis lupus are listed in Mammal Species of the World . The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf ( Canis lupus lupus ) , also known as the common wolf . As of 2005 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 , however the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged .
= = = Evolution and relationship with the dog = = =
The evolution of the wolf occurred over a geologic time scale of 800 thousand years , transforming the first Middle Pleistocene wolf specimen that is recognized as being morphologically similar to Canis lupus into today 's dog , dingo and gray wolf . Ecological factors including habitat type , climate , prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly influence the wolf 's genetic population structure and cranio @-@ dental plasticity . Wolves went through a population bottleneck 20 @,@ 000 years before present ( YBP ) , which indicates that many wolf populations had gone extinct at a time that coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum and the expansion of modern humans worldwide with their technology for capturing large game . The domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore and a descendant from one of those now @-@ extinct wolf populations . Today , the wolf is represented by the many extant subspecies of Canis lupus , which includes the dog and dingo .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Globally , C. lupus taxonomy has been subject to numerous revisions , particularly in North America . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 . Its list includes the domestic dog , dingo , eastern wolf and red wolf , but lists C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as synonyms of C. l. lupus .
= = = Hybridization with other Canis = = =
Dogs and gray wolves do not voluntarily interbreed in the wild , though they can produce fertile wolf @-@ dog offspring . In North America , black colored wolves acquired their coloration from wolf @-@ dog hybridization , which occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Like pure wolves , hybrids breed once annually , though their mating season occurs three months earlier , with pups mostly being born in the winter period , thus lessening their chances of survival . However , one genetic study undertaken in the Caucasus Mountains showed that as many as 10 % of dogs in the area , including livestock guardian dogs , are first generation hybrids . The captive breeding of wolf @-@ dog hybrids has proliferated in the USA , with 300 @,@ 000 such animals being present there .
The gray wolf has interbred extensively with the eastern wolf producing a hybrid population termed Great Lakes boreal wolves . Unlike the red and eastern wolf , the gray wolf does not readily interbreed with coyotes . Nevertheless , coyote genetic markers have been found in some wild isolated gray wolf populations in the southern United States . Gray wolf Y @-@ chromosomes have also been found in Texan coyote haplotypes . In tests performed on a putative chupacabra carcass , mtDNA analysis showed that it was a coyote , though subsequent tests revealed that it was a coyote – gray wolf hybrid sired by a male Mexican gray wolf . In 2013 , a captive breeding experiment in Utah between gray wolves and western coyotes produced six hybrids through artificial insemination , making this the very first hybridization case between pure coyotes and northwestern gray wolves . At six months of age , the hybrids were closely monitored and were shown to display both physical and behavioral characteristics from both species . Although hybridization between wolves and golden jackals has never been observed , evidence of such occurrences was discovered through mtDNA analysis on jackals in Bulgaria . Although there is no genetic evidence of gray wolf @-@ jackal hybridization in the Caucasus Mountains , there have been cases where otherwise genetically pure golden jackals have displayed remarkably gray wolf @-@ like phenotypes , to the point of being mistaken for wolves by trained biologists .
= = Physical description = =
= = = Anatomy and dimensions = = =
Compared to its closest wild cousins ( the coyote and golden jackal ) , the gray wolf is larger and heavier , with a broader snout , shorter ears , a shorter torso and longer tail . It is a slender , powerfully built animal with a large , deeply descending ribcage , a sloping back and a heavily muscled neck . The wolf 's legs are moderately longer than those of other canids , which enables the animal to move swiftly , and allows it to overcome the deep snow that covers most of its geographical range . Females tend to have narrower muzzles and foreheads , thinner necks , slightly shorter legs and less massive shoulders than males .
The gray wolf 's head is large and heavy , with a wide forehead , strong jaws and a long , blunt muzzle . The ears are relatively small and triangular . The teeth are heavy and large , being better suited to crushing bone than those of other extant canids , though not as specialised as those found in hyenas . Its molars have a flat chewing surface , but not to the same extent as the coyote , whose diet contains more vegetable matter . The gray wolf 's jaws can exert a crushing pressure of perhaps 10 @,@ 340 kPa ( 1 @,@ 500 psi ) compared to 5 @,@ 200 kPa ( 750 psi ) for a German shepherd . This force is sufficient to break open most bones . A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators when adjusted for the body mass found that for placental mammals , the bite force at the canines ( in Newtons / kilogram of body weight ) was greatest in the extinct dire wolf ( 163 ) , then followed among the extant canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves : the African hunting dog ( 142 ) , the gray wolf ( 136 ) , the dhole ( 112 ) , and the dingo ( 108 ) .
The gray wolf usually carries its head at the same level as the back , raising it only when alert . It usually travels at a loping pace , placing its paws one directly in front of the other . This gait can be maintained for hours at a rate of 8 – 9 km / h , and allows the wolf to cover great distances . On bare paths , a wolf can quickly achieve speeds of 50 – 60 km / h . The gray wolf has a running gait of 55 to 70 km / h , can leap 5 metres horizontally in a single bound , and can maintain rapid pursuit for at least 20 minutes .
The gray wolf is the largest extant member of the Canidae , excepting certain large breeds of domestic dog . Gray wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide , tending to increase proportionally with latitude as predicted by Bergmann 's Rule , with the large wolves of Alaska and Canada sometimes weighing 3 – 6 times more than their Middle Eastern and South Asian cousins . On average , adult wolves measure 105 – 160 cm ( 41 – 63 in ) in length and 80 – 85 cm ( 32 – 34 in ) in shoulder height . The tail measures 29 – 50 cm ( 11 – 20 in ) in length . The ears are 90 – 110 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) in height , and the hind feet are 220 – 250 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The skull averages 9 – 11 inches in length , and 5 – 6 inches wide . The mean body mass of the extant gray wolf is 40 kg ( 88 lb ) , with the smallest specimen recorded at 12 kg ( 26 lb ) and the largest at 80 kg ( 176 lb ) . Gray wolf weight varies geographically ; on average , European wolves may weigh 38 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 85 lb ) , North American wolves 36 kilograms ( 79 lb ) and Indian and Arabian wolves 25 kilograms ( 55 lb ) . Females in any given wolf population typically weigh 5 – 10 lbs less than males . Wolves weighing over 54 kg ( 120 lbs ) are uncommon , though exceptionally large individuals have been recorded in Alaska , Canada , and the forests of western Russia . The heaviest recorded gray wolf in North America was killed on 70 Mile River in east @-@ central Alaska on July 12 , 1939 and weighed 79 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 175 lb ) .
= = = Fur = = =
The gray wolf has very dense and fluffy winter fur , with short underfur and long , coarse guard hairs . Most of the underfur and some of the guard hairs are shed in the spring and grow back in the autumn period . The longest hairs occur on the back , particularly on the front quarters and neck . Especially long hairs are on the shoulders , and almost form a crest on the upper part of the neck . The hairs on the cheeks are elongated and form tufts . The ears are covered in short hairs , which strongly project from the fur . Short , elastic and closely adjacent hairs are present on the limbs from the elbows down to the calcaneal tendons . The winter fur is highly resistant to cold ; wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at − 40 ° by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail . Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur , and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it . In warm climates , the fur is coarser and scarcer than in northern wolves . Female wolves tend to have smoother furred limbs than males , and generally develop the smoothest overall coats as they age . Older wolves generally have more white hairs in the tip of the tail , along the nose and on the forehead . The winter fur is retained longest in lactating females , though with some hair loss around their nipples . Hair length on the middle of the back is 60 – 70 mm . Hair length of the guard hairs on the shoulders generally does not exceed 90 mm , but can reach 110 – 130 mm .
Coat color ranges from almost pure white through various shades of blond , cream , and ochre to grays , browns , and blacks , with variation in fur color tending to increase in higher latitudes . Differences in coat color between sexes are largely absent , though females may have redder tones . Black colored wolves in North America inherited the Kb allele responsible for melanism from past interbreeding with dogs , while the mutation was found to be naturally occurring in wolves from Iran . Black specimens are more common in North America than in Eurasia , with about half the wolves in Yellowstone National Park being black .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social and territorial behaviors = = =
The gray wolf is a social animal , whose basic social unit consists of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The average pack consists of a family of 5 – 11 animals ( 1 – 2 adults , 3 – 6 juveniles and 1 – 3 yearlings ) , or sometimes two or three such families , with exceptionally large packs consisting of 42 wolves being known . In ideal conditions , the mated pair produces pups every year , with such offspring typically staying in the pack for 10 – 54 months before dispersing . Triggers for dispersal include the onset of sexual maturity and competition within the pack for food . The distance travelled by dispersing wolves varies widely ; some stay in the vicinity of the parental group , while other individuals may travel great distances of 390 km , 206 km , and 670 km from their natal packs . A new pack is usually founded by an unrelated dispersing male and female , travelling together in search of an area devoid of other hostile packs . Wolf packs rarely adopt other wolves into their fold , and typically kill them . In the rare cases where other wolves are adopted , the adoptee is almost invariably an immature animal ( 1 – 3 years of age ) unlikely to compete for breeding rights with the mated pair . In some cases , a lone wolf is adopted into a pack to replace a deceased breeder . During times of ungulate abundance ( migration , calving etc . ) , different wolf packs may temporarily join forces .
Wolves are highly territorial animals , and generally establish territories far larger than they require to survive in order to assure a steady supply of prey . Territory size depends largely on the amount of prey available and the age of the pack 's pups , tending to increase in size in areas with low prey populations or when the pups reach the age of 6 months , thus having the same nutritional needs as adults . Wolf packs travel constantly in search of prey , covering roughly 9 % of their territory per day ( average 25 km / d or 15 mi / d ) . The core of their territory is on average 35 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) , in which they spend 50 % of their time . Prey density tends to be much higher in the territory 's surrounding areas , though wolves tend to avoid hunting in the fringes of their range unless desperate , because of the possibility of fatal encounters with neighboring packs . The smallest territory on record was held by a pack of six wolves in northeastern Minnesota , which occupied an estimated 33 km2 ( 13 sq mi ) , while the largest was held by an Alaskan pack of ten wolves encompassing a 6 @,@ 272 km2 ( 2 @,@ 422 sq mi ) area . Wolf packs are typically settled , and usually only leave their accustomed ranges during severe food shortages .
Wolves defend their territories from other packs through a combination of scent marking , direct attacks and howling ( see Communication ) . Scent marking is used for territorial advertisement , and involves urination , defecation and ground scratching . Scent marks are generally left every 240 metres throughout the territory on regular travelways and junctions . Such markers can last for 2 – 3 weeks , and are typically placed near rocks , boulders , trees or the skeletons of large animals . Territorial fights are among the principal causes of wolf mortality , with one study concluding that 14 – 65 % of wolf deaths in Minnesota and the Denali National Park and Preserve were due to predation by other wolves .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
The gray wolf is generally monogamous , with mated pairs usually remaining together for life , unless one of the pair dies . Upon the death of one mated wolf , pairs are quickly re @-@ established . Since males often predominate in any given wolf population , unpaired females are a rarity . If a dispersing male gray wolf is unable to establish a territory or find a mate , he mates with the daughters of already established breeding pairs from other packs . Such gray wolves are termed " Casanova wolves " and , unlike males from established packs , they do not form pair bonds with the females they mate with . Some gray wolf packs may have multiple breeding females this way , as is the case in Yellowstone National Park . Gray wolves also practice alloparental care , in which a wolf pair may adopt the pup or pups of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . In addition to heterosexual behavior , homosexual behavior has been observed in gray wolves . Male gray wolves often mount each other when the highest ranking female in the pack comes into heat .
The age of first breeding in gray wolves depends largely on environmental factors : when food is plentiful , or when wolf populations are heavily managed , wolves can rear pups at younger ages in order to better exploit abundant resources . This is further demonstrated by the fact that captive wolves have been known to breed as soon as they reach 9 – 10 months , while the youngest recorded breeding wolves in the wild were 2 years old . Females are capable of producing pups every year , with one litter annually being the average . Unlike the coyote , the gray wolf never reaches reproductive senescence . Estrus typically occurs in late winter , with older , multiparous females entering estrus 2 – 3 weeks earlier than younger females . During pregnancy , female wolves remain in a den located away from the peripheral zone of their territories , where violent encounters with other packs are more likely . Old females usually whelp in the den of their previous litter , while younger females typically den near their birthplace . The gestation period lasts 62 – 75 days , with pups usually being born in the summer period .
Wolves bear relatively large pups in small litters compared to other canid species . The average litter consists of 5 – 6 pups , with litter sizes tending to increase in areas where prey is abundant , though exceptionally large litters of 14 – 17 pups occur only 1 % of the time . Pups are usually born in spring , coinciding with a corresponding increase in prey populations . Pups are born blind and deaf , and are covered in short soft grayish @-@ brown fur . They weigh 300 – 500 grams at birth , and begin to see after 9 – 12 days . The milk canines erupt after one month . Pups first leave the den after 3 weeks . At 1 @.@ 5 months of age , they are agile enough to flee from danger . Mother wolves do not leave the den for the first few weeks , relying on the fathers to provide food for them and their young . Pups begin to eat solid food at the age of 3 – 4 weeks . Pups have a fast growth rate during their first four months of life : during this period , a pup 's weight can increase nearly 30 times . Wolf pups begin play fighting at the age of 3 weeks , though unlike young foxes and coyotes , their bites are inhibited . Actual fights to establish hierarchy usually occur at 5 – 8 weeks of age . This is in contrast to young foxes and coyotes , which may begin fighting even before the onset of play behavior . By autumn , the pups are mature enough to accompany adults on hunts for large prey .
= = = Hunting and feeding behaviors = = =
Although social animals , single wolves or mated pairs typically have higher success rates in hunting than do large packs , with single wolves having occasionally been observed to kill large prey such as moose , bison and muskoxen unaided . The gray wolf 's sense of smell is relatively weakly developed when compared to that of some hunting dog breeds , being able to detect carrion upwind no farther than 2 – 3 km . Because of this , it rarely manages to capture hidden hares or birds , though it can easily follow fresh tracks . Its auditory perception is acute enough to be able to hear up to a frequency of 26 kHz , which is sufficient to register the fall of leaves in the autumn period . A gray wolf hunt can be divided into five stages :
Locating prey : The wolves travel in search of prey through their power of scent , chance encounter , and tracking . Wolves typically locate their prey by scent , though they must usually be directly downwind of it . When a breeze carrying the prey 's scent is located , the wolves stand alert , and point their eyes , ears and nose towards their target . In open areas , wolves may precede the hunt with group ceremonies involving standing nose @-@ to @-@ nose and wagging their tails . Once concluded , the wolves head towards their prey .
The stalk : The wolves attempt to conceal themselves as they approach . As the gap between the wolves and their prey closes , the wolves quicken their pace , wag their tails , and peer intently , getting as close to their quarry as possible without making it flee .
The encounter : Once the prey detects the wolves , it can either approach the wolves , stand its ground , or flee . Large prey , such as moose , elk , and muskoxen , usually stand their ground . Should this occur , the wolves hold back , as they require the stimulus of a running animal to proceed with an attack . If the targeted animal stands its ground , the wolves either ignore it , or try to intimidate it into running .
The rush : If the prey attempts to flee , the wolves immediately pursue it . This is the most critical stage of the hunt , as wolves may never catch up with prey running at top speed . If their prey is travelling in a group , the wolves either attempt to break up the herd , or isolate one or two animals from it .
The chase : A continuation of the rush , the wolves attempt to catch up with their prey and kill it . When chasing small prey , wolves attempt to catch up with their prey as soon as possible , while with larger animals , the chase is prolonged , in order to wear the selected prey out . Wolves usually give up chases after 1 – 2 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 1 @.@ 3 mi ) , though one wolf was recorded to chase a deer for 21 km ( 13 mi ) . Both Russian and North American wolves have been observed to drive prey onto crusted ice , precipices , ravines , slopes and steep banks to slow them down .
The actual killing method varies according to prey species . With large prey , mature wolves usually avoid attacking frontally , instead focusing on the rear and sides of the animal . Large prey , such as moose , is killed by biting large chunks of flesh from the soft perineum area , causing massive blood loss . Such bites can cause wounds 10 – 15 cm in length , with three such bites to the perineum usually being sufficient to bring down a large deer in optimum health . With medium @-@ sized prey such as roe deer or sheep , wolves kill by biting the throat , severing nerve tracks and the carotid artery , thus causing the animal to die within a few seconds to a minute . With small , mouse @-@ like prey , wolves leap in a high arc and immobilize it with their forepaws . When prey is vulnerable and abundant , wolves may occasionally surplus kill . Such instances are common in domestic animals , but rare in the wild . In the wild , surplus killing primarily occurs during late winter or spring , when snow is unusually deep ( thus impeding the movements of prey ) or during the denning period , when wolves require a ready supply of meat when denbound . Medium @-@ sized prey are especially vulnerable to surplus killing , as the swift throat @-@ biting method by which they are killed allows wolves to quickly kill one animal and move on to another .
Once prey is brought down , wolves begin to feed excitedly , ripping and tugging at the carcass in all directions , and bolting down large chunks of it . The breeding pair typically monopolizes food in order to continue producing pups . When food is scarce , this is done at the expense of other family members , especially non @-@ pups . The breeding pair typically eats first , though as it is they who usually work the hardest in killing prey , they may rest after a long hunt and allow the rest of the family to eat unmolested . Once the breeding pair has finished eating , the rest of the family tears off pieces of the carcass and transport them to secluded areas where they can eat in peace . Wolves typically commence feeding by consuming the larger internal organs of their prey , such as the heart , liver , lungs and stomach lining . The kidneys and spleen are eaten once they are exposed , followed by the muscles . A single wolf can eat 15 – 19 % of its body weight in a single feeding .
= = Communication = =
= = = Visual = = =
The gray wolf 's expressive behavior is more complex than that of the coyote and golden jackal , as necessitated by its group living and hunting habits . While less gregarious canids generally possess simple repertoires of visual signals , wolves have more varied signals that subtly inter grade in intensity . When neutral , the legs are not stiffened , the tail hangs down loosely , the face is smooth , the lips untensed , and the ears point in no particular direction . Postural communication in wolves consists of a variety of facial expressions , tail positions and piloerection . Aggressive , or self @-@ assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements , high body posture and raised hackles , while submissive ones carry their bodies low , sleeken their fur and lower their ears and tail . When a breeding male encounters a subordinate family member , it may stare at it , standing erect and still with the tails horizontal to its spine . Two forms of submissive behavior are recognized : passive and active . Passive submission usually occurs as a reaction to the approach of a dominant animal , and consists of the submissive wolf lying partly on its back and allowing the dominant wolf to sniff its anogenital area . Active submission occurs often as a form of greeting , and involves the submissive wolf approaching another in a low posture , and licking the other wolf 's face . When wolves are together , they commonly indulge in behaviors such as nose pushing , jaw wrestling , cheek rubbing and facial licking . The mouthing of each other 's muzzles is a friendly gesture , while clamping on the muzzle with bared teeth is a dominance display .
Similar to humans , gray wolves have facial color patterns in which the gaze direction can be easily identified , although this is often not the case in other canid species . In 2014 , a study compared the facial color pattern across 25 canid species . The results suggested that that the facial color pattern of canid species is related to their gaze communication , and that especially gray wolves use the gaze signal in conspecific communication .
= = = Auditory = = =
Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack ( usually before and after hunts ) , to pass on an alarm ( particularly at a den site ) , to locate each other during a storm or unfamiliar territory and to communicate across great distances . Wolf howls can under certain conditions be heard over areas of up to 130 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) . Wolf howls are generally indistinguishable from those of large dogs . Male wolves give voice through an octave , passing to a deep bass with a stress on " O " , while females produce a modulated nasal baritone with stress on " U " . Pups almost never howl , while yearling wolves produce howls ending in a series of dog @-@ like yelps . Howling consists of a fundamental frequency that may lie between 150 and 780 Hz , and consists of up to 12 harmonically related overtones . The pitch usually remains constant or varies smoothly , and may change direction as many as four or five times . Howls used for calling pack mates to a kill are long , smooth sounds similar to the beginning of the cry of a horned owl . When pursuing prey , they emit a higher pitched howl , vibrating on two notes . When closing in on their prey , they emit a combination of a short bark and a howl . When howling together , wolves harmonize rather than chorus on the same note , thus creating the illusion of there being more wolves than there actually are . Lone wolves typically avoid howling in areas where other packs are present . Wolves from different geographic locations may howl in different fashions : the howls of European wolves are much more protracted and melodious than those of North American wolves , whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable . The two are however mutually intelligible , as North American wolves have been recorded to respond to European @-@ style howls made by biologists .
Other vocalisations of wolves are usually divided into three categories : growls , barks and whines . Barking has a fundamental frequency between 320 – 904 Hz , and is usually emitted by startled wolves . Wolves do not bark as loudly or continuously as dogs do , but bark a few times and retreat from perceived danger . Growling has a fundamental frequency of 380 – 450 Hz , and is usually emitted during food challenges . Pups commonly growl when playing . One variation of the howl is accompanied by a high pitched whine , which precedes a lunging attack . Whining is associated with situations of anxiety , curiosity , inquiry and intimacy such as greeting , feeding pups and playing .
= = = Olfactory = = =
Olfaction is probably the wolf 's most acute sense , and plays a fundamental role in communication . The wolf has a large number of apocrine sweat glands on the face , lips , back , and between the toes . The odor produced by these glands varies according to the individual wolf 's microflora and diet , giving each a distinct " odor fingerprint " . A combination of apocrine and eccrine sweat glands on the feet allows the wolf to deposit its scent whilst scratching the ground , which usually occurs after urine marking and defecation during the breeding season . The follicles present on the guard hairs from the wolf 's back have clusters of apocrine and sebaceous glands at their bases . As the skin on the back is usually folded , this provides a microclimate for bacterial propagation around the glands . During piloerection , the guard hairs on the back are raised and the skin folds spread , thus releasing scent . The pre @-@ caudal scent glands may play a role in expressing aggression , as combative wolves raise the base of their tails whilst drooping the tip , thus positioning the scent glands at the highest point . The wolf possesses a pair of anal sacs beneath the rectum , which contain both apocrine and sebaceous glands . The components of anal sac secretions vary according to season and gender , thus indicating that the secretions provide information related to gender and reproductive state . The secretions of the preputial glands may advertise hormonal condition or social position , as dominant wolves have been observed to stand over subordinates , apparently presenting the genital area for investigation , which may include genital licking . During the breeding season , female wolves secrete substances from the vagina , which communicate the females ' reproductive state , and can be detected by males from long distances . Urine marking is the best @-@ studied means of olfactory communication in wolves . Its exact function is debated , though most researchers agree that its primary purpose is to establish boundaries . Wolves urine mark more frequently and vigorously in unfamiliar areas , or areas of intrusion , where the scent of other wolves or canids is present . So @-@ called raised leg urination ( RLU ) is more common in male wolves than in females , and may serve the purpose of maximizing the possibility of detection by conspecifics , as well as reflect the height of the marking wolf . Only dominant wolves typically use RLU , with subordinate males continuing to use the juvenile standing posture throughout adulthood . RLU is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf , making up 60 – 80 % of all scent marks observed .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat = = =
The gray wolf is a habitat generalist , and can occur in deserts , grasslands , forests and arctic tundras . Habitat use by gray wolves is strongly correlated with the abundance of prey , snow conditions , absence or low livestock densities , road densities , human presence and topography . In cold climates , the gray wolf can reduce the flow of blood near its skin to conserve body heat . The warmth of the footpads is regulated independently of the rest of the body , and is maintained at just above tissue @-@ freezing point where the pads come in contact with ice and snow . Gray wolves use different places for their diurnal rest : places with cover are preferred during cold , damp and windy weather , while wolves in dry , calm and warm weather readily rest in the open . During the autumn @-@ spring period , when wolves are more active , they willingly lie out in the open , whatever their location . Actual dens are usually constructed for pups during the summer period . When building dens , females make use of natural shelters such as fissures in rocks , cliffs overhanging riverbanks and holes thickly covered by vegetation . Sometimes , the den is the appropriated burrow of smaller animals such as foxes , badgers or marmots . An appropriated den is often widened and partly remade . On rare occasions , female wolves dig burrows themselves , which are usually small and short with 1 – 3 openings . The den is usually constructed not more than 500 metres away from a water source , and typically faces southwards , thus ensuring enough sunlight exposure , keeping the denning area relatively snow free . Resting places , play areas for the pups and food remains are commonly found around wolf dens . The odour of urine and rotting food emanating from the denning area often attracts scavenging birds such as magpies and ravens . As there are few convenient places for burrows , wolf dens are usually occupied by animals of the same family . Though they mostly avoid areas within human sight , wolves have been known to nest near domiciles , paved roads and railways .
= = = Diet = = =
All social terrestrial mammalian predators feed mostly on terrestrial herbivorous mammals with a body mass similar to the combined mass of the social group members attacking the prey animal , and a pack of timber wolves can bring down a 500 kg moose as their preferred prey . The gray wolf generally specializes in vulnerable individuals of large prey . In Eurasia , many gray wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity , though wild ungulates such as moose , red deer , roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and the more mountainous regions of Eastern Europe . Other prey species include reindeer , argali , mouflon , wisent , saiga , ibex , chamois , wild goats , fallow deer and musk deer . The prey animals of North American wolves have largely continued to occupy suitable habitats with low human density , and cases of wolves subsisting largely on garbage or livestock are exceptional . Animals preferred as prey by North American wolves include moose , white @-@ tailed deer , elk , mule deer , bighorn sheep , Dall 's sheep , American bison , muskox and caribou .
Although wolves primarily feed on medium to large sized ungulates , they are not fussy eaters . Smaller sized animals that may supplement the diet of wolves include marmots , hares , badgers , foxes , weasels , ground squirrels , mice , hamsters , voles and other rodents , as well as insectivores . They frequently eat waterfowl and their eggs . When such foods are insufficient , they prey on lizards , snakes , frogs , rarely toads and large insects as available . In times of scarcity , wolves readily eat carrion , visiting cattle burial grounds and slaughter houses . Cannibalism is not uncommon in wolves : during harsh winters , packs often attack weak or injured wolves , and may eat the bodies of dead pack members . Wolf packs in Astrakhan hunt Caspian seals on the Caspian Sea coastline and some wolf packs in Alaska and Western Canada have been observed to feed on salmon . Humans are rarely , but occasionally preyed upon . Other primates occasionally taken by wolves include grey langurs in Nepal and hamadryas baboons in Saudi Arabia .
Wolves supplement their diet with fruit and vegetable matter . They willingly eat the berries of mountain ash , lily of the valley , bilberries , blueberries and cowberry . Other fruits include nightshade , apples and pears . They readily visit melon fields during the summer months . A well @-@ fed wolf stores fat under the skin , around the heart , intestines , kidneys , and bone marrow , particularly during the autumn and winter . Digestion only takes a few hours , thus wolves can feed several times in one day , making quick use of large quantities of meat .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
Gray wolves typically dominate other canid species in areas where they both occur . In North America , incidents of gray wolves killing coyotes are common , particularly in winter , when coyotes feed on wolf kills . Wolves may attack coyote den sites , digging out and killing their pups , though rarely eating them . There are no records of coyotes killing wolves , though coyotes may chase wolves if they outnumber them . Near identical interactions have been observed in Eurasia between gray wolves and golden jackals , with the latter 's numbers being comparatively small in areas with high wolf densities . Gray wolves are the most important predator of raccoon dogs , killing large numbers of them in the spring and summer periods . Wolves also kill red , arctic and corsac foxes , usually in disputes over carcasses , sometimes eating them . In Asia , they may compete with dholes , though there is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary .
Brown bears typically dominate wolf packs in disputes over carcasses , while wolf packs mostly prevail against bears when defending their den sites . Both species kill each other 's young . Wolves eat the brown bears they kill , while brown bears seem to only eat young wolves . Wolf interactions with American black bears are much rarer than with brown bears , because of differences in habitat preferences . The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species ' northern range , with no interactions being recorded in Mexico . Wolves have been recorded on numerous occasions to actively seek out black bears in their dens and kill them without eating them . Unlike brown bears , black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills . While encounters with brown and black bears appear to be common , polar bears are rarely encountered by wolves , though there are two records of wolf packs killing polar bear cubs . Wolves also kill the cubs of Asian black bears .
Wolves may encounter striped hyenas in Israel , Central Asia and India , usually in disputes over carcasses . Striped hyenas feed extensively on wolf @-@ killed carcasses in areas where the two species interact . One @-@ to @-@ one , hyenas dominate wolves , but wolf packs can drive off single or outnumbered hyenas . However , there was a case of a female striped hyena dominating 12 Arabian wolves . Two cases are known however from southern Israel , where wolves and striped hyenas associated closely with each other in an apparently amicable way .
Large wolf populations limit the numbers of small to medium @-@ sized felines . Wolves encounter cougars along portions of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent mountain ranges . Wolves and cougars typically avoid encountering each other by hunting on different elevations . In winter , however , when snow accumulation forces their prey into valleys , interactions between the two species become more likely . Wolves in packs usually dominate cougars and can steal kills . They have been reported killing mothers and their kittens . Wolves hunt steppe cats , and may scavenge from snow leopard kills . Wolves may also reduce Eurasian lynx populations . Wolves may kill lynxes by running them down , or killing them before they can escape into trees . Similar reports of encounters between wolves and bobcats have been documented .
Leftovers of wolf kills are sometimes scavenged by wolverines . Wolverines usually wait until the wolves are done feeding , but have been known to drive away wolves from kills . However , there have been confirmed reports of wolf packs killing wolverines .
Other than humans , tigers appear to be the only serious predators of wolves . Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote @-@ Alin , where tigers depress wolf numbers , either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem . Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human persecution decreases tiger numbers . Proven cases of tigers killing wolves are rare and attacks appear to be competitive rather than predatory in nature , with at least four proven records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them .
= = Range and conservation = =
The gray wolf was once one of the world 's most widely distributed mammals , living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15 ° N latitude in North America and 12 ° N in India . However , deliberate human persecution has reduced the species ' range to about one third , because of livestock predation and fear over attacks on humans . The species is now extinct in much of Western Europe , in Mexico and much of the United States . In modern times , the gray wolf occurs mostly in wilderness and remote areas , particularly in Canada , Alaska and northern USA , Europe , and Asia from about 75 ° N to 12 ° N. Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s , and have fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range , due to legal protection , changes in land @-@ use and rural human population shifts to cities . Competition with humans for livestock and game species , concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people , and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the species . Despite these threats , because of the gray wolf 's relatively widespread range and stable population , it is classified as least concern by the IUCN .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = Decline = = = =
Although wolf @-@ dog hybridization in Europe has raised concern among conservation groups fearing for the gray wolf 's purity , genetic tests show that introgression of dog genes into European gray wolf populations does not pose a significant threat . Also , as wolf and dog mating seasons do not fully coincide , the likelihood of wild wolves and dogs mating and producing surviving offspring is small .
The extermination of Northern Europe 's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages , and continued until the late 1800s . In England , wolf persecution was enforced by legislation , and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII . Wolves lasted longer in Scotland , where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest , which were subsequently burned down . Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684 . The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course , with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786 . A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647 , after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock . The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives . By 1960 , few wolves remained in Sweden , because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them , with the last specimen being killed in 1966 . The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway 's last wolf was killed in 1973 . The species was decimated in 20th century Finland , despite regular dispersals from Russia . The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900 , though its numbers increased after World War II .
In Central Europe , wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century , because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations . In Bavaria , the last wolf was killed in 1847 , and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899 and largely disappeared in Switzerland before the end of the nineteenth century . In 1934 , Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection , though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point . The last free @-@ living wolf to be killed on the soil of present @-@ day Germany before 1945 was the so @-@ called " Tiger of Sabrodt " , which was shot near Hoyerswerda , Lusatia ( then Lower Silesia ) in 1904 . Today , wolves have returned to the area . Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800 – 813 , when he established the louveterie , a special corps of wolf hunters . The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789 , but was re @-@ established in 1814 . In 1883 , up to 1 @,@ 386 wolves were killed , with many more by poison .
In Eastern Europe , wolves were never fully exterminated , because of the area 's contiguity with Asia and its large forested areas . However , Eastern European wolf populations were reduced to very low numbers by the late nineteenth century . Wolves were extirpated in Slovakia during the first decade of the twentieth century and , by the mid @-@ twentieth century , could only be found in a few forested areas in eastern Poland . Wolves in the eastern Balkans benefitted from the region 's contiguity with the former Soviet Union and large areas of plains , mountains and farmlands . Wolves in Hungary occurred in only half the country around the start of the 20th century , and were largely restricted to the Carpathian Basin . Wolf populations in Romania remained largely substantial , with an average of 2 @,@ 800 wolves being killed annually out of a population of 4 @,@ 600 from 1955 – 1965 . An all @-@ time low was reached in 1967 , when the population was reduced to 1 @,@ 550 animals . The extermination of wolves in Bulgaria was relatively recent , as a previous population of about 1 @,@ 000 animals in 1955 was reduced to about 100 – 200 in 1964 . In Greece , the species disappeared from the southern Peloponnese in 1930 . Despite periods of intense hunting during the eighteenth century , wolves never disappeared in the western Balkans , from Albania to the former Yugoslavia . Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923 , with the setting up of the Wolf Extermination Committee ( WEC ) in Kocevje , Slovenia . The WEC was successful in reducing wolf numbers in the Dinaric Alps .
In Southern Europe , wolf extermination was not as complete as in Northern Europe , because of greater cultural tolerance of the species . Wolf populations only began declining in the Iberian Peninsula in the early 19th @-@ century , and was reduced by a half of its original size by 1900 . Wolf bounties were regularly paid in Italy as late as 1950 . Wolves were exterminated in the alps by 1800 , and numbered only 100 by 1973 , inhabiting only 3 – 5 % of their former Italian range .
= = = = Recovery = = = =
The recovery of European wolf populations began after the 1950s , when traditional pastoral and rural economies declined and thus removed the need to heavily persecute wolves . By the 1980s , small and isolated wolf populations expanded in the wake of decreased human density in rural areas and the recovery of wild prey populations .
The gray wolf has been fully protected in Italy since 1976 , and now holds a population of over 1 @,@ 269 @-@ 1 @,@ 800 . Italian wolves entered France 's Mercantour National Park in 1993 , and at least fifty wolves were discovered in the western Alps in 2000 . By 2013 the 250 wolves in the Western Alps imposed a significant burden on traditional sheep and goat husbandry with a loss of over 5 @,@ 000 animals in 2012 . There are approximately 2 @,@ 000 wolves inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula , of which 150 reside in northeastern Portugal . In Spain , the species occurs in Galicia , Leon , and Asturias . Although hundreds of Iberian wolves are illegally killed annually , the population has expanded south across the river Duero and east to the Asturias and Pyrenees Mountains .
In 1978 , wolves began recolonising central Sweden after a twelve @-@ year absence , and have since expanded into southern Norway . As of 2005 , the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves is estimated to be at least one hundred , including eleven breeding pairs . The gray wolf is fully protected in Sweden and partially controlled in Norway . The Scandinavian wolf populations owe their continued existence to neighbouring Finland 's contiguity with the Republic of Karelia , which houses a large population of wolves . Wolves in Finland are protected only in the southern third of the country , and can be hunted in other areas during specific seasons , though poaching remains common , with 90 % of young wolf deaths being due to human predation , and the number of wolves killed exceeds the number of hunting licenses , in some areas by a factor of two . Furthermore , the decline in the moose populations has reduced the wolf 's food supply . Since 2011 , Netherlands , Belgium and Denmark have also reported wolf sightings presumably by natural migration from adjacent countries .
Wolf populations in Poland have increased to about 800 – 900 individuals since being classified as a game species in 1976 . Poland plays a fundamental role in providing routes of expansion into neighbouring Central European countries . In the east , its range overlaps with populations in Lithuania , Belorussia , Ukraine , and Slovakia . A population in western Poland expanded into eastern Germany and in 2000 the first pups were born on German territory . In 2012 , an estimated 14 wolf packs were living in Germany ( mostly in the east ) and a pack with pups has been sighted within 15 miles of Berlin . The gray wolf is protected in Slovakia , though an exception is made for wolves killing livestock . A few Slovakian wolves disperse into the Czech Republic , where they are afforded full protection . Wolves in Slovakia , Ukraine and Croatia may disperse into Hungary , where the lack of cover hinders the buildup of an autonomous population . Although wolves have special status in Hungary , they may be hunted with a year @-@ round permit if they cause problems .
Romania has a large population of wolves , numbering 2 @,@ 500 animals . The wolf has been a protected animal in Romania since 1996 , although the law is not enforced . The number of wolves in Albania and Macedonia is largely unknown , despite the importance the two countries have in linking wolf populations from Greece to those of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . Although protected , sometimes wolves are still illegally killed in Greece , and their future is uncertain . Wolf numbers have declined in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1986 , while the species is fully protected in neighbouring Croatia and Slovenia .
= = = Asia = = =
= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =
During the 19th century , gray wolves were widespread in many parts of the Holy Land east and west of the Jordan River . However , they decreased considerably in number between 1964 and 1980 , largely because of persecution by farmers . The species was not considered common in northern and central Saudi Arabia during the 19th century , with most early publications involving animals either from southwestern Asir , northern rocky areas bordering Jordan , or areas surrounding Riyadh .
The gray wolf 's range in the Soviet Union encompassed nearly the entire territory of the country , being absent only on the Solovetsky Islands , Franz @-@ Josef Land , Severnaya Zemlya , and the Karagin , Commander and Shantar Islands . The species was exterminated twice in Crimea , once after the Russian Civil War , and again after World War II . Following the two world wars , Soviet wolf populations peaked twice . 30 @,@ 000 wolves were harvested annually out of a population of 200 @,@ 000 during the 1940s , with 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 harvested during peak years . Soviet wolf populations reached a low around 1970 , disappearing over much of European Russia . The population increased again by 1980 to about 75 @,@ 000 , with 32 @,@ 000 being killed in 1979 . Wolf populations in northern inner Mongolia declined during the 1940s , primarily because of poaching of gazelles , the wolf 's main prey . In British @-@ ruled India , wolves were heavily persecuted because of their attacks on sheep , goats and children . In 1876 , 2 @,@ 825 wolves were bountied in the North @-@ Western Provinces ( NWP ) and Bihar . By the 1920s , wolf extermination remained a priority in the NWP and Awadh . Overall , over 100 @,@ 000 wolves were killed for bounties in British India between 1871 and 1916 .
Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period , an extermination known as ōkami no kujo . The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching , which the Meiji government promoted at the time , and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign . The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23 , 1905 near Washikaguchi ( now called Higashi Yoshiro ) . The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves , which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan , before it separated from mainland Asia , 20 @,@ 000 years ago during the Pleistocene . During the Holocene , the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō , thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago . Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures . C. l. hattai ( formerly native to Hokkaidō ) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax , as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey , as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia .
= = = = Modern range = = = =
There is little reliable data on the status of wolves in the Middle East , save for those in Israel and Saudi Arabia , though their numbers appear to be stable , and are likely to remain so . Israel 's conservation policies and effective law enforcement maintain a moderately sized wolf population , which radiates into neighbouring countries , while Saudi Arabia has vast tracts of desert , where about 300 – 600 wolves live undisturbed . The wolf survives throughout most of its historical range in Saudi Arabia , probably because of a lack of pastoralism and abundant human waste . Turkey may play an important role in maintaining wolves in the region , because of its contiguity with Central Asia . The mountains of Turkey have served as a refuge for the few wolves remaining in Syria . A small wolf population occurs in the Golan Heights , and is well protected by the military activities there . Wolves living in the southern Negev desert are contiguous with populations living in the Egyptian Sinai and Jordan . Throughout the Middle East , the species is only protected in Israel . Elsewhere , it can be hunted year @-@ round by Bedouins .
Little is known of current wolf populations in Iran , which once occurred throughout the country in low densities during the mid @-@ 1970s . The northern regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan are important strongholds for the wolf . It has been estimated that there are about 300 wolves in approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of Jammu and Kashmir in northern India , and 50 more in Himachal Pradesh . Overall , India supports about 800 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 wolves , scattered among several remnant populations . Although protected since 1972 , Indian wolves are classed as endangered , with many populations lingering in low numbers or living in areas increasingly used by humans . Although present in Nepal and Bhutan , there is no information of wolves occurring there .
Wolf populations throughout Northern and Central Asia are largely unknown , but are estimated in the hundreds of thousands based on annual harvests . Since the fall of the Soviet Union , continent @-@ wide extermination of wolves has ceased , and wolf populations have increased to about 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 animals throughout the former Soviet Union . In China and Mongolia , wolves are only protected in reserves . Mongolian populations have been estimated at 10 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 , while the status of wolves in China is more fragmentary . The north has a declining population of an estimated 400 wolves , while Xinjiang and Tibet hold about 10 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 respectively .
= = = North America = = =
= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =
Originally , the gray wolf occupied all of North America north of about 20 ° N. It occurred all over the mainland , save for the southeastern United States , California west of the Sierra Nevada , and the tropical and subtropical areas of Mexico . Large continental islands occupied by wolves included Newfoundland , Vancouver Island , southeastern Alaskan islands , and throughout the Arctic Archipelago and Greenland . While Lohr and Ballard postulated that the gray wolf had never been present on Prince Edward Island , analysis of references to the Island ’ s native fauna in unpublished and published historical records has found that gray wolves were resident there at the time of the first French settlement in 1720 . In his 6 November 1721 letter to the French Minister of the Marine , Louis Denys de La Ronde reported that the Island was home to wolves “ of a prodigious size ” , and sent a wolf pelt back to France to substantiate his claim . As the Island was cleared for settlement , the gray wolf population may have been extirpated , or relocated to the mainland across the winter ice : the few subsequent wolf reports date from the mid @-@ nineteenth century and describe the creatures as transient visitors from across the Northumberland Strait .
The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture . By the start of the 20th century , the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA , excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region . In Canada , the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921 , and in Newfoundland around 1911 . It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900 . The gray wolf 's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s – 70s . From 1900 – 1930 , the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada , because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species . The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960 , except in Alaska and northern Minnesota . The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s , particularly in southwestern Canada , because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting . This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada . Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s , mostly because of poisoning . This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = = Modern range = = = =
The species ' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada , with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota , northern Wisconsin and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , and portions of Washington , Idaho , northern Oregon , and Montana . A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials . Canadian wolves began to naturally re @-@ colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979 , and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986 . The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994 . From 1995 @-@ 1996 , wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho . In addition , the Mexican wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998 . The gray wolf is found in approximately 80 % of its historical range in Canada , thus making it an important stronghold for the species .
Canada is home to about 52 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 wolves , whose legal status varies according to province and territory . First Nations residents may hunt wolves without restriction , and some provinces require licenses for residents to hunt wolves while others do not . In Alberta , wolves on private land may be baited and hunted by the landowner without requiring a license , and in some areas , wolf hunting bounty programs exist . Large @-@ scale wolf population control through poisoning , trapping and aerial hunting is also presently conducted by government @-@ mandated programs in order to support populations of endangered prey species such as woodland caribou .
In Alaska , the gray wolf population is estimated at 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 , and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons , with bag limits and other restrictions . As of 2002 , there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone , and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho . The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) protection in Minnesota , Wisconsin , and Michigan in 1974 , and was re @-@ classed from endangered to threatened in 2003 . Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and , as of late 2002 , number 28 individuals in eight packs . A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County , Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times . DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
= = = Viral and bacterial infections = = =
Viral diseases carried by wolves include rabies , canine distemper , canine parvovirus , infectious canine hepatitis , papillomatosis , and canine coronavirus . Wolves are a major host for rabies in Russia , Iran , Afghanistan , Iraq and India . In wolves , the incubation period is 8 – 21 days , and results in the host becoming agitated , deserting its pack , and travelling up to 80 km a day , thus increasing the risk of infecting other wolves . Infected wolves do not show any fear of humans , with most documented wolf attacks on people being attributed to rabid animals . Although canine distemper is lethal in dogs , it has not been recorded to kill wolves , except in Canada and Alaska . The canine parvovirus , which causes death by dehydration , electrolyte imbalance , and endotoxic shock or sepsis , is largely survivable in wolves , but can be lethal to pups . Wolves may catch infectious canine hepatitis from dogs , though there are no records of wolves dying from it . Papillomatosis has been recorded only once in wolves , and likely doesn 't cause serious illness or death , though it may alter feeding behaviors . The canine coronavirus has been recorded in Alaskan wolves , with infections being most prevalent in winter months .
Bacterial diseases carried by wolves include brucellosis , lyme disease , leptospirosis , tularemia , bovine tuberculosis , listeriosis , anthrax and foot and mouth disease . Wolves can catch Brucella suis from wild and domestic reindeer . While adult wolves tend not to show any clinical signs , it can severely weaken the pups of infected females . Although lyme disease can debilitate individual wolves , it does not appear to have any significant effect on wolf populations . Leptospirosis can be contracted through contact with infected prey or urine , and can cause fever , anorexia , vomiting , anemia , hematuria , icterus , and death . Wolves living near farms are more vulnerable to the disease than those living in the wilderness , probably because of prolonged contact with infected domestic animal waste . Wolves may catch tularemia from lagomorph prey , though its effect on wolves is unknown . Although bovine tuberculosis is not considered a major threat to wolves , it has been recorded to have once killed two wolf pups in Canada .
= = = Parasitic infections = = =
Wolves carry ectoparasites and endoparasites , with wolves in the former Soviet Union having been recorded to carry at least 50 species . Most of these parasites infect wolves without adverse effects , though the effects may become more serious in sick or malnourished specimens . Parasitic infection in wolves is of particular concern to people , as wolves can spread them to dogs , which in turn can carry the parasites to humans . In areas where wolves inhabit pastoral areas , the parasites can be spread to livestock .
Wolves are often infested with a variety of arthropod exoparasites , including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites . The most harmful to wolves , particularly pups , is Sarcoptes scabiei ( or mange mite ) , though they rarely develop full blown mange , unlike foxes . Lice , such as Trichodectes canis , may cause sickness in wolves , but rarely death . Ticks of the genus Ixodes can infect wolves with Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . The tick Dermacentor pictus also infests wolves . Other ectoparasites include biting lice , sucking lice and the fleas Pulex irritans and Ctenocephalides canis .
Endoparasites known to infect wolves include protozoans and helminths ( flukes , tapeworms , roundworms and thorny @-@ headed worms ) . Of 30 @,@ 000 protozoan species , only a few have been recorded to infect wolves : Isospora , Toxoplasma , Sarcocystis , Babesia , and Giardia . Wolves may carry Neospora caninum , which is of particular concern to farmers , as the disease can be spread to livestock , with infected animals being 3 – 13 times more likely to miscarry than those not infected . Among flukes , the most common in North American wolves is Alaria , which infects small rodents and amphibians that are eaten by wolves . Upon reaching maturity , Alaria migrates to the wolf 's intestine , but harms it little . Metorchis conjunctus , which enters wolves through eating fish , infects the wolf 's liver or gall bladder , causing liver disease , inflammation of the pancreas , and emaciation . Most other fluke species reside in the wolf 's intestine , though Paragonimus westermani lives in the lungs . Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves , as their primary hosts are ungulates , small mammals , and fish , which wolves feed upon . Tapeworms generally cause little harm in wolves , though this depends on the number and size of the parasites , and the sensitivity of the host . Symptoms often include constipation , toxic and allergic reactions , irritation of the intestinal mucosa , and malnutrition . Infections by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus in ungulate populations tend to increase in areas with high wolf densities , as wolves can shed Echinoccocus eggs in their feces onto grazing areas . Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species , though most roundworm infections appear benign , depending on the number of worms and the age of the host . Ancylostoma caninum attaches itself on the intestinal wall to feed on the host 's blood , and can cause hyperchromic anemia , emaciation , diarrhea , and possibly death . Toxocara canis , a hookworm known to infect wolf pups in utero , can cause intestinal irritation , bloating , vomiting , and diarrhea . Wolves may catch Dioctophyma renale from minks , which infects the kidneys , and can grow to lengths of 100 cm . D. renale causes the complete destruction of the kidney 's functional tissue , and can be fatal if both kidneys are infected . Wolves can tolerate low levels of Dirofilaria immitis for many years without showing any ill effects , though high levels can kill wolves through cardiac enlargement and congestive hepatopathy . Wolves probably become infected with Trichinella spiralis by eating infected ungulates . Although T. spiralis isn 't known to produce clinical signs in wolves , it can cause emaciation , salivation , and crippling muscle pains in dogs . Thorny @-@ headed worms rarely infect wolves , though three species have been identified in Russian wolves : Nicolla skrjabini , Macrocantorhynchus catulinus , and Moniliformis moniliformis .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = In culture = = =
= = = = In personal names = = = =
Old English literature contains several instances of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and warriors taking on wulf as a prefix or suffix in their names . Examples include Wulfhere , Cynewulf , Ceonwulf , Wulfheard , Earnwulf , Wulfmǣr , Wulfstān and Æthelwulf . Wolf @-@ related names were also common among pre @-@ Christian Germanic warriors : Wolfhroc ( Wolf @-@ Frock ) , Wolfhetan ( Wolf Hide ) , Isangrim ( Grey Mask ) , Scrutolf ( Garb Wolf ) , Wolfgang ( Wolf Gait ) and Wolfdregil ( Wolf Runner ) .
Ancient Greek literature is similar : Autolycus ( " the wolf itself " ) , Lycurgus ( " wolf @-@ work " ) .
The Latin for " female prostitute " is lupa , and the most famous brothel in Pompeii was the Lupanar .
= = = = In folklore , religion and mythology = = = =
The wolf is a common motif in the foundational mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout Eurasia and North America ( corresponding to the historical extent of the habitat of the gray wolf ) . The obvious attribute of the wolf is its nature of a predator , and correspondingly it is strongly associated with danger and destruction , making it the symbol of the warrior on one hand , and that of the devil on the other . The modern trope of the Big Bad Wolf is a development of this . The wolf holds great importance in the cultures and religions of the nomadic peoples , both of the Eurasian steppe and of the North American Plains . In many cultures , the identification of the warrior with the wolf ( totemism ) gave rise to the notion of Lycanthropy , the mythical or ritual identification of man and wolf .
= = = = In fable and literature = = = =
Aesop featured wolves in several of his fables , playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece 's settled , sheep @-@ herding world . His most famous is the fable of The Boy Who Cried Wolf , which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms , and from which the idiomatic phrase " to cry wolf " is derived . Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves , as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs . Although Aesop used wolves to warn , criticize and moralize about human behavior , his portrayals added to the wolf 's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal . Isengrim the wolf , a character first appearing in the 12th @-@ century Latin poem Ysengrimus , is a major character in the Reynard Cycle , where he stands for the low nobility , whilst his adversary , Reynard the fox , represents the peasant hero . Although portrayed as loyal , honest and moral , Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard 's wit and cruelty , often dying at the end of each story . The tale of Little Red Riding Hood , first written in 1697 by Charles Perrault , is largely considered to have had more influence than any other source of literature in forging the wolf 's negative reputation in the western world . The wolf in this story is portrayed as a potential rapist , capable of imitating human speech . The hunting of wolves , and their attacks on humans and livestock feature prominently in Russian literature , and are included in the works of Tolstoy , Chekhov , Nekrasov , Bunin , Sabaneyev , and others . Tolstoy 's War and Peace and Chekhov 's Peasants both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and borzois . Farley Mowat 's largely fictional 1963 memoir Never Cry Wolf was the first positive portrayal of wolves in popular literature , and is largely considered to be the most popular book on wolves , having been adapted into a Hollywood film and taught in several schools decades after its publication . Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving , cooperative and noble , it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies .
= = = = In heraldry and symbolism = = = =
The wolf is a frequent charge in English armory . It is illustrated as a supporter on the shields of Lord Welby , Rendel , and Viscount Wolseley , and can be found on the coat of arms of Lovett and the vast majority of the Wilsons and Lows . The demi @-@ wolf is a common crest , appearing in the arms and crests of members of many families , including that of the Wolfes , whose crest depicts a demi @-@ wolf holding a crown in its paws , in reference to the assistance the family gave to Charles II during the battle of Worcester . Wolf heads are common in Scottish heraldry , particularly in the coats of Clan Robertson and Skene . The wolf is the most common animal in Spanish heraldry , and is often depicted as carrying a lamb in its mouth , or across its back . The wolf is featured on the flags of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation , the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin and the Pawnee . In modern times , the wolf is widely used as an emblem for military and paramilitary groups . It is the unofficial symbol of the spetsnaz , and serves as the logo of the Turkish Grey Wolves . During the Yugoslav Wars , several Serb paramilitary units adopted the wolf as their symbol , including the White Wolves and the Wolves of Vučjak .
= = = Conflicts = = =
= = = = Wolf predation on livestock = = = =
Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves , and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation : as well as causing economic losses , the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers , and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found . Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programmes or state insurance . Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves , as they have evolved under constant human protection , and are thus unable to defend themselves very well . Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted : in Eurasia , a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock , while such incidences are rare in North America , where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored . The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period , with untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation . The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep ( Europe ) , domestic reindeer ( northern Scandinavia ) , goats ( India ) , horses ( Mongolia ) , cattle and turkeys ( North America ) . The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species : most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death , while turkeys , sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus . Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing , though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures . In some cases , wolves do not need to physically attack livestock to negatively affect it : the stress livestock experiences in being vigilant for wolves may result in miscarriages , weight loss and a decrease in meat quality .
= = = = Conflicts with dogs = = = =
Being the most abundant carnivores , feral and free @-@ ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves . A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves . Competition would favor the wolf , which is known to kill dogs , however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted , giving them a disadvantage facing large groups of dogs .
Wolves kill dogs on occasion , with some wolf populations relying on dogs as an important food source . In Croatia , wolves kill more dogs than sheep , and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations . Wolves may display unusually bold behavior when attacking dogs accompanied by people , sometimes ignoring nearby humans . Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests . Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin . The most frequently killed hunting breeds in Scandinavia are harriers , with older animals being most at risk , likely because they are less timid than younger animals , and react to the presence of wolves differently . Large hunting dogs such as Swedish elkhounds are more likely to survive wolf attacks because of their better ability to defend themselves .
Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low , it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs . In many cultures , there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members . The loss of a dog can lead to strong emotional responses with demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations .
Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human – wolf conflicts , and are often proposed as one of the non @-@ lethal tools in the conservation of wolves . Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive , but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviors , such as barking , social greeting , invitation to play or aggression . The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation , especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock @-@ guarding dogs . However , shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves .
= = = = Wolf predation on humans = = = =
The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies , though humans are not part of the wolf 's natural prey . How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people : wolves lacking any negative experience of humans , or which are food conditioned , may show little fear of people . Although wolves may react aggressively under provocation , such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities , and the attacks are not pressed . Predatory attacks ( attacks by wolves treating humans as food ) may be preceded by a long period of habituation , in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans . The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face , and are then dragged off and consumed , unless the wolves are driven off . Such attacks typically occur only locally , and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated . Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year , with a peak in the June – August period , when the chances of people entering forested areas ( for livestock grazing or berry and mushroom picking ) increase , though cases of non @-@ rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in Belarus , Kirov and Irkutsk oblasts , Karelia and Ukraine . Also , wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period . The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and , in the rare cases where adults are killed , the victims are almost always women . Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species , as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease , but can be infected by animals such as dogs , jackals and foxes . Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America , though numerous in the eastern Mediterranean , Middle East and Central Asia . Wolves apparently develop the " furious " phase of rabies to a very high degree which , coupled with their size and strength , makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals , with bites from rabid wolves being 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs . Rabid wolves usually act alone , travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals . Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods . Unlike with predatory attacks , the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten , and the attacks generally only occur on a single day . Also , the victims are chosen at random , though the majority of cases involve adult men . In the half @-@ century up to 2002 , there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia , and more than 200 in south Asia . Between 2005 @-@ 2010 , two people were killed in North America .
= = = = Human predation on wolves = = = =
Wolves are notoriously difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness , their sharp senses , their high endurance in the chase and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs . Historically , many methods have been devised to hunt wolves , including the killing of spring @-@ born litters in their dens , coursing with dogs ( usually combinations of sighthounds , bloodhounds and fox terriers ) , poisoning with strychnine , and foothold and deadfall traps . A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with fladry poles carrying a human scent . This method relies heavily on the wolf 's fear of human scents , though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the smell . Some hunters are able to lure wolves by imitating their calls . In Kazakhstan and Mongolia , wolves are traditionally hunted with eagles and falcons , though this practise is declining , as experienced falconers are becoming few in number . Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective , as it allows greater visibility of wolves than hunting on the ground , though this method is controversial , as it allows wolves little chance to escape or defend themselves . Some dog breeds like the Borzoi wolfhound , the Irish wolfhound , or the Kyrgyz Tajgan have been specifically selected for wolf hunting .
= = = As pets and working animals = = =
Wild wolves are sometimes kept as exotic pets , and in some rarer occasions , as working animals . Although closely related to domesticated dogs , wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans , and generally , much more work is required in order to obtain the same amount of reliability . Wolves also need much more space than dogs , about 10 to 15 square miles so they can exercise .
= Irataba =
Irataba ( Mohave : eecheeyara tav [ eːt ͡ ʃeːjara tav ] , also known as Yara tav , Yarate : va , Arateve ; c . 1814 – 1874 ) was a leader of the Mohave Nation , known for his role as a mediator between his people and the United States . He was born near the Colorado River in present @-@ day Arizona . Irataba was a renowned orator and one of the first Mohave to speak English , a skill he used to develop relations with the United States . Early records mention his large physical size and gentle demeanor . Irataba first encountered European Americans in 1851 , when he assisted the Sitgreaves Expedition . In 1854 , he met Amiel Whipple , then leading an expedition crossing the Colorado . Several Mohave aided the group , and Irataba agreed to escort them through the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail , which would take them to southern California . He later helped and protected other expeditions , earning him a reputation among whites as the most important native leader in the region .
Against Irataba 's advice , in 1858 Mohave warriors attacked the first emigrant wagon train to use Beale 's Wagon Road through Mohave country . As a result , the U.S. War Department sent a detachment under Colonel William Hoffman to pacify the tribe . Following a series of confrontations known as the Mohave War , Hoffman succeeded in dominating the natives , and demanded that they allow the passage of settlers through their territory . To ensure compliance , Fort Mohave was constructed near the site of the battle in April 1859 . Hoffman also imprisoned several Mohave leaders . Having been an advocate for friendly relations with the whites , Irataba became the nation 's Aha macave yaltanack , an elected , as opposed to hereditary , leader .
As a result of his many interactions with U.S. officials and settlers , Irataba was invited to Washington , D.C. , in 1864 , for an official meeting with members of the U.S. military and its government , including President Abraham Lincoln . In doing so , he became the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . He received considerable attention during his tours of the U.S. capital , and of New York City and Philadelphia , where he was given gifts , including a silver @-@ headed cane from Lincoln . Upon his return he negotiated the creation of the Colorado River Indian Reservation , which caused a split in the Mohave Nation when he led several hundred of his supporters to the Colorado River valley . The majority of the Mohave preferred to remain in their ancestral homelands near Fort Mohave and under the leadership of their hereditary leader , Homoseh quahote , who was less enthusiastic about direct collaboration with whites . As leader of the Colorado River band of Mohave , Irataba encouraged peaceful relations with whites , served as a mediator between the warring tribes in the area , and during his later years continued to lead the Mohave in their ongoing conflicts with the Paiute and Chemehuevi .
Some consider Irataba a great leader who championed peace , but others feel he should have done more to defend the Mohave way of life . The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in 1970 in Parker , Arizona , where a sports venue , Irataba Hall , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 132 @.@ 51 km2 ) in the Eldorado Mountains as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness . In March 2015 , Mohave Tribal chairman Dennis Patch credited Irataba with ensuring that " the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . "
= = Background = =
Irataba 's name , also rendered as Ireteba , Yara tav , Arateve , Yarate : va , and Yiratewa , derives from the Mohave language phrase eecheeyara tav , which means " beautiful bird " . He was born into the Neolge , or Sun Fire clan of the Mohave Nation c . 1814 . He lived near a rock formation that gave its name to Needles , south of where the Grand Canyon empties into the Mohave Canyon in present @-@ day Arizona , near the Nevada and California border . The Mohave lived in houses along the riverbank in the Mohave Valley , during winter in half @-@ buried dwellings built with cottonwood logs and arrowweed covered in earth , and in the summer in open @-@ air flat @-@ roofed houses called ramadas .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , the Mohave were composed of three geographical groups ; Irataba was the hereditary leader of the Huttoh Pah group , who lived near the east bank of the Colorado River and occupied the central portion of the Mohave Valley . Mohave government consisted of a loose system of hereditary clan leaders with a head of the entire nation . They were often involved in conflicts with the Chemehuevi , Paiute , and Maricopa peoples . Irataba was a member of the Mohave warrior society called kwanami , who led groups of warriors in battle and were dedicated to defending their lands and people .
Little is known of Irataba 's family relations , except for the name of his son Tekse thume , and his nephews Qolho qorau ( Irataba 's sister 's son who succeeded him as leader ) and Aspamekelyeho . Olive Oatman , who lived with the Mohave for five years , later stated that Irataba was the brother of the former chief , presumably Cairook , with whom Irataba clearly had a close relation . One anecdotal description states that Irataba had several wives , among them a Hualapai woman who had been taken as a captive and who is also described as having a young son . He also had at least one daughter , the mother of his granddaughter Tcatc who was interviewed in the 1950s . She stated that Irataba had wanted to leave his land deeds and medals to his brother 's sons , but that they were eventually lost .
In contemporary accounts Irataba was described as an eloquent speaker , and linguist Leanne Hinton suggests that he was among the first Mohave people to become fluent in English , which he learned through his many interactions with Anglo @-@ Americans . Like many Mohave men , Irataba was very tall , particularly by 19th @-@ century standards ; the United States Army estimated his height at 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) in 1861 . American author Albert S. Evans , writing in The Overland Monthly , referred to him as " the old desert giant " . Edward Carlson , a soldier based at Fort Mohave who knew Irataba well in the 1860s , described him as having a powerful frame , but also a " very gentle " and " kind ... demeanor " .
Irataba lived through a tumultuous period of Mohave history where the people went from being a politically independent nation to coming under the political control of the United States , and the events surrounding his role in these encounters are well documented . Most historical sources for the life of Irataba come from descriptions by white explorers or government agents with whom he interacted , or from contemporary newspapers that reported on his visits to the East Coast and California , and on the conflicts in Arizona territory . Some Mohave versions of the events also exist : in the early 20th century anthropologist A. L. Kroeber interviewed Jo Nelson ( Mohave : Chooksa homar ) , a Mohave man who participated in many of the events and knew Irataba personally ; another version was told to ethnographer George Devereux by Irataba 's granddaughter Tcatc , and versions recounted by members of the Fort Mohave band of Mohave , the descendants of Homoseh quahote , were recorded by ethnographer Lorraine Sherer during the 1950s and 1960s .
= = Contact with emigrants and explorers = =
Irataba assisted Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves during his 1851 exploration of the Colorado . On March 19 , 1851 , most of the Oatman family , traveling by wagon train in what is now Arizona , were killed by what are believed to have been members of the Tolkepaya band of Western Yavapai . The Yavapai killed seven members of the family , but spared the lives of 14 @-@ year @-@ old Olive Oatman and her 7 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Mary Ann . After a year with the Yavapai , the girls were sold to the Mohave , and adopted into the Oach clan where they lived with the family of a Mohave man called Tokwatha ( Musk Melon ) . Mary Ann died two years later , and Olive remained with the Mohave until February 22 , 1856 , when Tokwatha , having been warned that having a white girl among them might be seen as an offense by whites , brought her to Fort Yuma carpenter Henry Grinnell , releasing her in return for two horses and some blankets and beads .
= = = Whipple Expedition = = =
On February 23 , 1854 , Irataba , Cairook , and other Mohave people encountered an expedition led by military officers Amiel Whipple and J.C. Ives , as the group approached the Colorado en route to California . Whipple and his men counted six hundred Mohave gathered near their camp , trading corn , beans , squash , and wheat for beads and calico . By the end of their commerce , the party had purchased six bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of flour . The Mohave played a traditional game played with a hoop and pole , and the two groups entertained themselves with target practice , the Mohave using bows and arrows and the whites firing pistols and rifles . When the expedition had difficulty crossing the Colorado on February 27 , several Mohave jumped into the water and helped salvage the supplies .
Irataba and Cairook agreed to escort the group across the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail that would take them to southern California . German artist Balduin Möllhausen accompanied the Whipple expedition , and made drawings of several Mohave , including Irataba . Möllhausen 's drawings were featured in Ives ' 1861 congressional report , making Irataba " among the first named likenesses of California Indians ever published " .
= = = Ives Expedition = = =
In February 1858 , Ives returned to the area in a paddle steamer named Explorer . He was leading an expedition up the Colorado from the south , and he wanted Irataba to guide them . The Mohave gave permission to navigate the river , and Cairook , Irataba , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mohave boy named Nahvahroopa joined them . Möllhausen again accompanied the expedition , and was impressed with the Mohave guides , later noting Irataba 's enthusiastic handshake and lamenting that their only form of communication was sign language . He also noted that Irataba and the Mohave readily began wearing European clothes given to them by members of the expedition , and showed great interest in smoking tobacco . Aside from the friendship shown to him by Irataba and Cairook , Ives noted that the Mohave appeared less friendly than on earlier occasions , a change that he attributed to their contact with Mormons , who were in conflict with the US and had succeeded in converting some Mohave .
Irataba guided the party into the Mohave Canyon , indicating the location of rapids and advising the Explorer 's pilot of convenient places to anchor while camping for the night . When they reached the entrance to the Black Canyon of the Colorado , the ship crashed against a submerged rock , throwing several men overboard , dislodging the boiler , and damaging the wheelhouse . Using their skiff , the crew towed the Explorer to the shore , where they camped for three days while repairing the vessel . The expedition had relied on beans and corn provided by the Mohave during the previous weeks ; as their supplies dwindled they grew increasingly anxious about the arrival of a resupply pack train from Fort Yuma . Irataba volunteered to hike towards the Mohave Valley to try to locate the supplies that had been requested several days earlier . He also warned that the expedition was being watched by Paiutes .
When Irataba returned he informed Ives that he would not venture any deeper into the territory of the Hualapais , but agreed to help them locate friendly guides in the region before parting company . Irataba was reluctant to venture into the canyon because he feared the party would be ambushed by Paiutes aligned with Mormons . After enlisting three Hualapai guides , Irataba prepared to take his leave from the expedition and return to the Mohave community . On April 4 , the Mohave received payment for their services ; Möllhausen described the exchange : " Lieutenant Ives informed Irataba that he had been authorized by the ' Great Grandfather in Washington ' to give him two mules ... for his loyalty and his trustworthiness so that he could take his possessions and those of his companions more conveniently to his home valley . " The next morning , as they were preparing to leave : " Irataba was visibly moved ... and in his sincere eyes expressed so much honesty and loyalty as can only be found in an unspoiled nature ... I maintain that there was not one in our expedition who did not feel a certain sadness to see this huge man with ... a harmless soul leave . "
= = Mohave War and aftermath = =
Following their experiences with the Sitgreaves and Whipple expeditions , and encounters with Mormons and the soldiers at Fort Yuma , the Mohave were aware that whites were immigrating to the region in increasing numbers . It was difficult for the Mohave to predict the behavior of the arriving whites , some of whom , like Whipple , were amiably disposed towards them , whereas others such as the Mormons were hostile . The kwanami were divided on how the situation should be approached ; some advocated an aggressive posture , denying whites all passage through their territory , but others , including Irataba , preferred a peaceful approach , or even an alliance with them that could put the Mohave in a stronger position relative to their traditional enemies the Paiute , Chemehuevi , and Walapai .
On September 1 , 1857 , a joint force of Mohave and Quechan warriors launched a major attack with hundreds of warriors on a Maricopa village close to Maricopa Wells , Arizona , on the Gila river . The Battle of Pima Butte was described by a group of white mail carriers who witnessed it . They stated that the battle was fought mostly with clubs , as well as bows and arrows , and that probably more than 100 warriors died , most of them from the attacking party . It is unknown whether Irataba participated in the attack , but given his status as kwanami , it is likely that he did . The battle has been described as the last major battle involving only Native American nations . This defeat put the Mohave on the defensive , wary of the possibility that whites would take this moment of weakness as an opportunity to begin settling on tribal lands .
= = = Rose – Baley Party attack = = =
In October 1857 , an expedition led by Edward Fitzgerald Beale was tasked with establishing a trade route along the 35th parallel from Fort Smith , Arkansas , to Los Angeles , California . From Fort Smith , his journey continued through Fort Defiance , Arizona , before crossing the Colorado near Needles , California . This route became known as Beale 's Wagon Road , and the location where Beale crossed the river as Beale 's Crossing . Beale 's journal and subsequent report to the United States Secretary of War did not mention any problems with Irataba and the Mohave , but an assistant named Humphrey Stacy recorded that the Mohave had prevented Beale from traveling downriver .
In 1858 , the Rose – Baley Party comprising at least a hundred settlers with wagons and a large herd of cattle , was the first emigrant train to venture onto Beale 's Wagon Road . Upon entering Mohave territory the settlers started cutting down cottonwood trees , which were an important resource for the Mohave . The most warlike of the kwanamis organized an attack on the party , and drove away and slaughtered many of the party 's cattle . On August 30 , three hundred Mohave warriors attacked the emigrants but were repelled , with one member of the party killed in battle and eleven wounded . Another family who were not with the main party during the attack were killed in an event that has often been blamed on the Mohave , but which in Colonel William Hoffman 's opinion was more likely carried out by a band of Walapai , along with seven renegade Mohave . The emigrants killed seventeen Mohave warriors . The incident was widely publicized in the media and labeled " a massacre " , scaring many white Californians who feared being cut off from the eastern US by hostile natives , and it motivated the War Department to quickly subjugate the tribe .
Irataba was away at Fort Yuma during the attack on the settlers , and upon hearing of it he scolded the Mohave . Chooksa homar participated in the events and reported that Irataba told the warriors , " I hear you fought , though I told you not to . And you will have war again : I know it . You used to fight the Maricopa . I want to go [ to Phoenix ] to see the Maricopa and tell them : ' The Mohave will not come any more to attack you ' . " Irataba , weary of the constant fighting and worried that further conflicts with neighboring tribes would draw more attention from the US soldiers , organized a peace expedition to the Maricopa , settling the ancient disputes between the two peoples .
= = = Conflict with the US army = = =
When news of the attack reached California , the US War Department decided to establish a military fort at Beale 's Crossing to keep the Mohave under control and secure white travelers safe passage through Mohave lands . On December 26 , 1858 , Hoffman and fifty dragoons from Fort Tejon were dispatched to cross the desert and confront the Mohave . Irataba attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting , but Hoffman ordered his troops to fire on the warriors , who counterattacked and repelled the force . He returned in April 1859 , by way of Fort Yuma , with four companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment . When they arrived at Beale 's Crossing , the Mohave decided against attacking the army of five hundred soldiers . On April 23 , at Hoffman 's request , he and his officers met with several hundred Mohave warriors and their leaders . The indigenous leaders included Cairook , Irataba , Homoseh quahote ( also called Seck @-@ a @-@ hoot and Asika hota ) , and Pascual , leader of the Quechan . During the meeting the Mohave were surrounded by armed soldiers who prevented them from leaving .
Hoffman gave the Mohave a choice between war and peace , and he demanded that they agree to never again harm white settlers along the wagon trail . He also declared that , as punishment , the Mohave were required to surrender as hostages a member of each clan and three warriors who had taken part in the attack . Hoffman demanded that the chief who had ordered the attack on the settlers offer himself up as a hostage . According to Chooksa homar , the chief who had ordered the attack was Homoseh quahote , who was reluctant to give himself up . Cairook offered himself in his place , along with eight others , including Tokwatha , Irataba 's son Tekse thume , and Irataba 's nephews Qolho qorau , and Aspamekelyeho . Other hostages were named Itsere- ' itse , Ilyhanapau , and Tinyam @-@ isalye . They were transported in the river steamer General Jessup to Fort Yuma . Many soldiers remained to begin construction on the Beale 's Crossing fort , which was named Fort Mohave . Although Irataba visited the garrison several times and argued for their release , the hostages were held for more than a year . On June 21 , 1859 , Cairook and one other captive were killed by soldiers while attempting to escape their incarceration . Most of the other Mohave captives escaped .
In July 1861 , the commander of Fort Mohave , Major Lewis Armistead , ordered soldiers to fire into a group of Mohave who he suspected of having attacked a mail carrier and slaughtered his mule . The Mohave did not respond violently to the attack , but Armistead decided to punish them for harassing the mail party . He arrived at Irataba 's ranch where a group of Mohave boys were planting beans , and from a hidden position he shot one of the planters , killing him . This attack prompted an assault on Armistead 's detachment , who from an advantageous position on the high ground were able to repel the Mohave , killing many of them in a battle that lasted most of the day . Armistead 's report of the assault of Irataba 's ranch reported 23 dead Mohave warriors , but the Mohave remember a much higher number of casualties , including women and children killed by the soldiers . Sherer speculated that , given that 50 soldiers fired around 10 shots each , the casualty count could have been much higher than reported . The attack on Irataba 's ranch is remembered by the Mohave as " the first and last battle with the Federal Troops . "
= = As Aha macave yaltanack = =
After Cairook 's death , whites living near the Colorado River began to view Irataba as the main leader of the Mohave . He had become Aha macave yaltanack ( leader of the Mohave Nation ) or hochoch ( leader elected by the people ) ; " yaltanack " is Mohave for " leader " , and " hochach " means " head of a group " . Homoseh quahote was a hereditary leader of the Malika clan ( " the understanding people " ) , and the position of head of the Mohave was traditionally inherited only by someone from that clan . Because Irataba was of the Huttoh pah , in order for him to become the leader of the Mohave Nation , Homoseh quahote had to step down so Irataba , as an elected leader , could take his place .
Despite the accepted English translations , the words yaltanack and huchach do not mean a " ruler " or " boss " . Devereux describes Mohave government as " one of the least understood segments of Mohave culture " , and notes that while white officials " tended to act on the assumption that Indian chiefs exercised absolute authority " , as an elected leader Irataba was " primarily a servant of the tribe " .
By the mid @-@ 1860s a deep rift had developed between Irataba , who was proactive in cooperating with white settlers , and Homoseh quahote , who passively tolerated but did not approve of white encroachment on Mohave lands . Irataba was Aha macave yaltanack of the Mohave from 1861 to 1866 , but from 1867 to 1869 opinions differ , and by 1870 US government correspondence suggests that Homoseh quahote had succeeded him as leader of the Fort Mohave group .
= = Mining ventures = =
In 1862 , Irataba acted as a guide for the Walker Party Exploration , gold prospectors led by Joseph R. Walker and including Jack Swilling , who later founded Phoenix , Arizona . Irataba brought them to a river that he called Hasyamp , later named the Hassayampa River , where they found plentiful gold . Arizona 's first mining district was established there the following year , which led to the founding of Prescott , Arizona soon afterward . Relations between settlers and the Mohave were positive during this period , but as emigration increased , gold seekers founded a town nearby named La Paz , stirring fear among settlers of a native uprising against further encroachment on Mohave land . The following year a group of soldiers from Fort Mohave discovered an area between Needles , Fort Mohave , and the Colorado River that was abundant in copper ore . The parcel was named Irataba Mining District , and within the year a mining company had been formed to work it . A small mining town named Irataba City was established on a bluff two miles below Fort Mohave .
= = Travels = =
In the early 1860s , Irataba worked with prospectors as a guide . One of them was John Moss , an experienced prospector whom Irataba had shown the location of a gold mine in the Mojave desert , which Moss later sold . Moss suggested Irataba be invited to Washington so that he could see firsthand the United States ' military might . In November 1863 , Irataba traveled with Moss to San Pedro , Los Angeles , where they boarded the steamship Senator , bound for San Francisco . In San Francisco , he stayed at the Occidental Hotel and created a storm as he walked down Jackson Street , dressed in clothing typical of European Americans , which Irataba soon preferred to traditional Mohave clothing . The press documented his every movement and wrote extensively about his physical size and strong features . On December 2 , 1863 , the Daily Evening Bulletin described Irataba as a large man , " granitic in appearance as one of the Lower Coast mountains , with ... a lower jaw massive enough to crush nuts or crush quartz . "
In January 1864 they sailed for the Isthmus of Panama on board the Orizaba , then traveled onwards to New York City . Upon Irataba 's arrival in New York , Harper 's Weekly described him as " the finest specimen of unadulterated aboriginal on this continent " . Here Irataba exchanged his suit and sombrero for the uniform and regalia of a major general , including a bright yellow sash , a gold badge encrusted with precious stones , and a medal with the inscription , " Irataba , Chief of the Mohaves , Arizona Territory " . In February , when The New York Times asked him to explain the nature of his visit , he replied : " to see where so many pale faces come from " . In New York he met with the former Mohave captive Olive Oatman , and the two conversed in Mohave . Irataba told Oatman that her Mohave adoptive sister Topeka , to whom she had grown very close , still missed her and hoped she would return . Oatman described the encounter as a meeting between friends .
Irataba moved on to Philadelphia and Washington , D.C. , where he earned great acclaim ; government officials and military officers lavished him with gifts of medals , swords , and photographs . In Washington he met with President Abraham Lincoln , who gave him a silver @-@ headed cane . He was the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . The tour ended in April , when he and Moss sailed to California , again by way of Panama , and made their way back to Beale 's Crossing from Los Angeles by wagon .
Upon Irataba 's return from Washington D.C. , he met with the Mohave while dressed in his major general 's uniform , with medals . He wore a European @-@ style hat and carried a long Japanese sword , and he told the Mohave about all the things he had seen . He tried to convince them that peace with the United States was in their best interests , and that war against them was futile , stressing their dominant military capabilities . Many Mohave were skeptical of his reports , and reacted with disbelief .
= = Colorado River Indian Reservation = =
The completion of Fort Mohave began the process of military subjugation of the Mohave , and the next step was the establishment of reservations . In 1863 , Charles Debrille Poston , the first Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Arizona Territory , called a conference between the Chemehuevi and Irataba 's faction of the Mohave , in which he convinced them to form an alliance with the US against the Apache . The treaty was never ratified by the US Congress but formed an important step in establishing friendly relations between the Mohave and the US government following the military campaigns and the establishment of Fort Mohave .
Poston promoted the idea of establishing a reservation in the southern portion of Mohave country . Many Mohave opposed the proposed location and instead argued for a smaller parcel further north in the Mohave Valley , which had more fertile land . With Irataba and an engineer , Poston traveled down the Colorado River to survey a location . In August 1864 the post commander at Fort Mohave , Captain Charles Atchisson , stated that Irataba was against the proposed location . In September 1864 , Poston gave the impression that Irataba was in favor of it . In a letter to General Richard C. Drum , Atchisson reported that Irataba and four Mohave leaders were unhappy with how Poston was handling the situation :
Mr. Poston had marked out a reservation for the Mojave Indians in the upper part of the La Paz valley on the East side of the Colorado River ... Iratabu says this reservation is covered with sand and unfit for cultivation and the Indians are opposed to giving up their good lands in the Mojave Valley and moving to it ... Iratabu says if he can have the valley below the Fort Mojave reserved for the home of the Indians , he is willing to give up all claims to lands on other parts of the river , and bring his Indians from La Paz and other points to this valley ... I have full confidence in the friendship of Iratabu towards white men , but not in his tribe , if troubles with any other Indians should occur , while he has more influence over them than any other chief , his control over them is not complete , and they are as likely to lead him ( as he is them ) .
Faced with Irataba 's disagreement , Poston promised that the US government would assist the Mohave with installing an irrigation system at the Colorado that would make most of the reservation arable . This apparently convinced Irataba , who traveled to the Colorado River Valley with about 800 people , almost a fifth of the entire Mohave Nation . General James Henry Carleton thought a reservation was unnecessary , and engineer Herman Ehrenberg disagreed with Poston 's proposed location on the basis that the soil was too alkaline for farming , the need for irrigation too great , and the task of raising the river too insurmountable . Nonetheless , on March 3 , 1865 , Congress established the Colorado River Indian Reservation at Poston 's proposed location . Ehrenberg 's concerns proved valid , and neither Poston nor any subsequent US authority was willing to dedicate the considerable resources required to make the location suitable for farming . The reservation was established without a treaty having been established between the Mohave and the US government . The boundaries were expanded and clarified by executive orders issued by President Grant in 1873 , 1874 and 1867 .
Most of the Mohave refused to leave their ancestral homelands for the reservation , but Irataba 's conviction that the reservation was their best option marked the beginning of a rift between his group and those who stayed behind to follow Homoseh quahote , the nation 's hereditary leader . According to an eyewitness account by Chooksa homar , Irataba explained his decision to move :
" You get angry sometimes ; I know you are brave men and think you can beat anybody . You thought you could beat the whites : you said so . I told you you could not ; the whites have beaten all tribes ; all are friends to them now . You did not listen to what I said when I told you that . You did what you thought , and many have got killed . If the soldiers come , you cannot resist them . You did not know that , but now you know it . The country down river from here , which we took away from another tribe [ the Halchidhoma ] , I will live there . Those of you who want to go on fighting can stay here . I do not want to and will leave you . "
As the promised irrigation assistance was not immediately forthcoming , the first year at the reservation brought a drought that made it necessary for the Mohave to request food assistance . In 1867 , Irataba and the Mohave began to build an irrigation canal , digging by hand a ditch that ran for 9 miles ( 14 km ) . A report by a US official visiting the reservation in 1870 recorded that attempts by the Mohave at agricultural cultivation on the site were restricted to an area of not more than 40 acres ( 16 ha ) .
= = Later years = =
Irataba continued to lead the Colorado River band of Mohave during the 1860s . He pursued peaceful relations with the surrounding tribes and cooperated actively with US authorities . He also helped the Yavapai and Walapai in ongoing conflicts with Paiutes and Chemehuevi .
In March 1865 , Irataba and the Mohave defeated the Chemehuevi after their allies , the Paiutes , killed two Mohave women . The Mohave pushed the Chemehuevi off their traditional territory and into the California desert , but they soon returned . To avoid fighting a two @-@ front war , Irataba attacked the Chemehuevi first , then turned his attention to the Paiutes , who were planning an attack on the Mohave farm and granary on the Colorado 's Cottonwood Island . During a subsequent battle with the Chemehuevi in October 1865 , Irataba was taken prisoner while wearing his major general 's uniform . According to a contemporary news report based on second hand accounts from white travelers , the captors feared that killing him would invite repercussions from the soldiers stationed at Fort Mohave , so they instead stripped him naked and sent him home badly beaten . In the Mohave account of the events as told by Chooksa homar , Irataba surrendered in an effort to make peace with the Chemehuevi , and offered his uniform to their chief as a gesture of peace . In 1867 , a treaty signed by Irataba and the Chemehuevi leader Pan Coyer restored peaceful relations between the two nations .
Irataba also welcomed bands of Yavapai onto the reservation after they had been subject to massacres by US troops , or suffered starvation due to having been driven from their lands . The meager resources of the reservation proved unable to sustain the additional population and eventually the Yavapai had to leave . Irataba frequently served as a mediator between Yavapai and Walapai who had become embroiled in conflicts with the US army , and participated in peace parlays . In 1871 – 72 , General George Crook came to the Mohave reservation looking for a group of Yavapai thought to be responsible for the Wickenburg Massacre , and Irataba had no choice but to turn the war party over to the army . He traveled to the trial proceedings at Fort Date Creek , where he was instructed to hand tobacco to the Yavapai he believed to be responsible , as a way for him to testify against them without their realizing it . As soldiers attempted to arrest the men that Irataba identified , fighting broke out and one of the Yavapai leaders , Ohatchecama , and his brother were shot . Despite having been shot twice and stabbed with a bayonet , Ohatchecama survived and escaped to organize the Tolkepaya Yavapai in resistance against the US army . The Yavapai felt betrayed by Irataba , and plotted to kill him in revenge , but were eventually persuaded that he was not the one who had turned them over to Crook .
The Colorado River band of Mohave never replaced Irataba ; he was their leader when he died at their reservation on May 3 or 4 , 1874 . His cause of death is unknown , but smallpox and natural causes are both cited . The Mohave grieved deeply ; Irataba 's cremation and the rituals of mourning were reported in newspapers as far away as Omaha , Nebraska . Irataba was succeeded as leader on the Colorado Reservation by his nephew , Qolho qorau of the Vemacka clan , who upheld his uncle 's policies .
= = Legacy and influence = =
In 1966 , Sherer commented regarding Irataba 's legacy amongst the Mohave : " Estimation of his position in Mojave history from the Mojave viewpoint differs . To some he is an heroic figure , to others he was a white collaborator who did not stand up for Mojave rights . From the standpoint of white men who were conquering a wilderness , he was indeed the Mojave who worked unswervingly for peace . "
Irataba 's influence as a leader may even have left its mark on the Mohave language . A list of Mohave words that he dictated to an anthropologist during his visit in Washington shows that he was among the first Mohave speakers to shift the sounds [ s ] and [ ʂ ] ( similar to sh as in " shack " ) to [ θ ] ( th as in " thick " ) and [ s ] , respectively . By the late 19th century all Mohave speakers had adopted this change . Linguist Leanne Hinton has suggested that this may be due in part to Irataba 's influence , both because he was a prestigious leader whose ways of speaking may have been emulated by other Mohave , and also because when he led the Mohave onto the reservation the old distinctions between dialect groups were erased through dialect leveling , making new changes spread quickly through the community .
The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in Parker , Arizona , in 1970 . The charity holds an annual pow wow or National Indian Days celebration . Irataba Hall , a sports venue in Parker , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 13 @,@ 251 ha ) of the Eldorado Mountains , contained largely within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area , as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness .
In March 2015 , the Colorado River Indian Tribes celebrated the sesquicentennial history of their reservation with a weekend @-@ long event that included cultural activities and a parade . Speakers at the event stressed the important role that Irataba 's strong leadership played in establishing and preserving the reservation , and the continuing need for Native leaders to protect native language and culture . Tribal chairman Dennis Patch commented : " Some people would think we 're lucky , as we have this river and 220 @,@ 000 acre feet of water ... But we have had great leaders , like Chief Irataba . He made sure the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . " Former CRIT Museum Director Dr. Michael Tsosie stated , " Irataba understood the Mohave people would need to keep fighting to keep what they had . " He noted that the Colorado River Indian Reservation " is unique in American history in that they have not lost any land " .
= Christopher Smart 's asylum confinement =
The English poet Christopher Smart ( 1722 – 1771 ) was confined to mental asylums from May 1757 until January 1763 . Smart was admitted into St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics , Bethnal Green , London , on 6 May 1757 . He was taken there by his father @-@ in @-@ law , John Newbery , although he may have been confined in a private madhouse before then . While in St Luke 's he wrote Jubilate Agno and A Song to David , the poems considered to be his greatest works . Although many of his contemporaries agreed that Smart was " mad " , accounts of his condition and its ramifications varied , and some felt that he had been committed unfairly .
Smart was diagnosed as " incurable " while at St Luke 's , and when they ran out of funds for his care he was moved to Mr. Potter 's asylum . All that is known of his years of confinement is that he wrote poetry . Smart 's isolation led him to abandon the poetic genres of the 18th century that had marked his earlier work and to write religious poetry such as Jubilate Agno ( " Rejoice in the Lamb " ) . His asylum poetry reveals a desire for " unmediated revelation " , and it is possible that the self @-@ evaluation found in his poetry represents an expression of evangelical Christianity .
Late 18th @-@ century critics felt that Smart 's madness justified them in ignoring his A Song to David , but during the following century Robert Browning and his contemporaries considered his condition to be the source of his genius . It was not until the 20th century , with the rediscovery of Jubilate Agno ( not published until 1939 ) , that critics reconsidered Smart 's case and began to see him as a revolutionary poet , the possible target of a plot by his father @-@ in @-@ law , a publisher , to silence him .
= = Background = =
Christopher Smart was an English poet who was confined to asylums during a time of debate about the nature of madness and its treatment . During the 18th century , madness was " both held to reveal inner truth and condemned to silence and exclusion as something unintelligible by reason , and therefore threatening to society and to humanity " . It was commonly held to be an incurable affliction whose sufferers should be isolated from society . Physician William Battie — who later treated Smart — wrote :
[ we ] find that Madness is , contrary to the opinion of some unthinking persons , as manageable as many other distempers , which are equally dreadful and obstinate , and yet are not looked upon as incurable , and that such unhappy objects ought by no means to be abandoned , much less shut up in loathsome prisons as criminals or nuisances to the society .
In particular , Battie defined madness as " deluded imagination " . However , he was attacked by other physicians , such as John Monro , who worked at Bethlem Hospital . In his Remarks on Dr. Battie 's Treatise on Madness , Monro explained that those who were mad had the correct perceptions , but that they lacked the ability to judge properly . Although Monro promoted ideas of reform , his suggested treatment — beating patients — was as harsh on patients as Battie 's preferred option , of completely isolating patients from society .
In 1758 , Battie and others argued that those deemed " mad " were abused under the British asylum system , and they pushed for parliamentary action . Battie 's Treatise on Madness emphasised the problems of treating the hospitals as tourist attractions and the punitive measures taken against patients . The arguments of Battie and others resulted in the passage of the Act for Regulating Private Madhouses ( 1774 ) , but were too late to help Smart .
Modern critics , however , have a more cynical view of the 18th @-@ century use of the term " madness " when diagnosing patients ; psychiatrist Thomas Szasz viewed the idea of madness as arbitrary and unnatural . Agreeing with Szasz 's position , philosopher Michel Foucault emphasised that asylums were used in the 18th century to attack dissenting views and that the idea of madness was a cultural fear held by the British public , rather than a legitimate medical condition . In particular , Foucault considered the 18th century a time of " great confinement " . This description is consistent with Smart 's 1760s writings on the subject in which , according to Thomas Keymer , " the category of madness is insistently relativized , and made to seem little more than the invention of a society strategically concerned to discredit all utterances or conduct that threatens its interests and norms . "
18th century treatment of inpatients was simple : they were to be fed daily a light diet of bread , oatmeal , some meat or cheese , and a little amount of beer , which were inadequate in meeting daily nutritional needs ; they were denied contact with outsiders , including family members ; and they would be denied access to that which was deemed to be the cause of their madness ( these causes ranged from alcohol and food to working outside ) . If their actions appeared " afresh and without assignable cause " , then their condition would be labelled as " original " madness and deemed incurable . An institution like St Luke 's , run by Battie , held both " curable " and " incurable " patients . There were few spots available for patients to receive free treatment , and many | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Liverpool , or military intelligence on Rochdale , or information from Nazi sympathiser William Joyce ( who had lived in Oldham ) , brought the building to his attention . Hitler admired the architecture so much that it is believed he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had German @-@ occupied Europe encompassed the United Kingdom . Rochdale was broadly avoided by German bombers during the Second World War .
= = Features = =
= = = Location = = =
At OS Grid Reference SD895132 ( 53 @.@ 6156 ° , − 2 @.@ 1594 ° ) , Rochdale Town Hall is the centerpiece of Rochdale , located in Town Hall Square to the south of The Esplanade and the River Roch . The Parish Church of St Chad is situated by the wooded hillside behind the Town Hall . In Town Hall Square , opposite the Town Hall , is a statue of John Bright , dated 1891 , and the Rochdale War Memorial . Bright was a Rochdale @-@ born orator , pacifist and Member of Parliament for Birmingham known for his campaigns to repeal the Corn Laws as well as his opposition to slavery in the United States and the Crimean War . Touchstones Rochdale art gallery and local studies centre is across The Esplanade .
= = = Exterior and layout = = =
The frontage and principal entrance of the Town Hall face the River Roch , and comprises a portico of three arches intersected by buttresses . Decorating the main entrance are stone crockets , gargoyles , and finials . Four gilded lions above a parapet around three sides of the portico bear shields carrying the coats of arms of Rochdale Council and the hundred of Salford .
Rochdale Town Hall is 264 feet ( 80 m ) wide , 123 feet ( 37 m ) deep , and is faced with millstone grit quarried from Blackstone Edge and Todmorden . Although now blackened by industrial pollution , the building has been described as a " rich example of domestic Gothic architecture " . Naturalistic carved foliage on the exterior recalls the style of Southwell Minster , and the architecture is influenced by Perpendicular Period and medieval town halls of continental Europe . The building has been likened to Manchester Town Hall , Manchester Assize Courts , the Royal Courts of Justice , and St Pancras railway station , all products of the Gothic Revival architectural movement . The stained glass windows , some of which were designed by William Morris , have been described as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . At each end of the frontage is an octagonal staircase .
In the words of Nikolaus Pevsner , Rochdale Town Hall has " a splendidly craggy exterior of blackened stone " . The building has a roughly symmetrical E @-@ shaped plan , and is broken down into three self @-@ contained segments : a central Great Hall and transverse wings at each end , which have variously been used as debating chambers , corporation @-@ rooms , trade and a public hall . The south @-@ east wing used to house the magistrates ' courts , and the north @-@ west wing the mayor 's rooms . In the north @-@ east is a tower . Access to the main entrance is through a central porte cochere . The façade extends across 14 bays , of which the Great Hall accounts for seven . On both sides , the outermost bays rise to three storeys . They flank asymmetric round @-@ headed arcades — two to the left and three to the right , all of single @-@ storey height — which sit below plain mullioned windows , balconies and ornately decorated gables .
= = = Clock tower = = =
The present clock tower , which has a stone spire , was built to replace the one destroyed in the 1883 fire . It was designed by Alfred Waterhouse in a similar style to one of his earlier works , the clock tower of Manchester Town Hall . The first stone was laid by Thomas Schofield JP , Alderman and Rochdale Borough Councillor , on 19 October 1885 and the tower was declared complete on 20 June 1887 , the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . It contains five bells which ring on the hour and at 15 @-@ minute intervals . The design of the original tower was more elaborate and 50 feet ( 15 m ) higher than its successor , which is 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall .
The tower rises from a plinth and has four stages including the gable @-@ headed clock stage , which is also decorated with pinnacles . A small stone spire completes the composition .
= = = Interior = = =
Murals in the former council chamber depict the inventions that drove the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Hall is adorned with a large fresco of the signing of Magna Carta by artist Henry Holiday , although the painting is dirty . Responsibility for the decoration of the interior was given to Heaton , Butler and Bayne , who incorporated floor tiles that were manufactured by Mintons and decorated with the local insignia and the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom . The stone Grand Staircase , which leads from the vestibule to the Great Hall , is decorated with stained glass ; such glass windows decorate most of the Town Hall and are considered to be the finest example of the work of Heaton , Butler and Bayne . The medieval style Great Hall , described by Pevsner as a room of " great splendour and simplicity " , has a hammerbeam roof flanked by statues of angels , in a design that resembles Westminster Hall .
= = Heritage status and function = =
The Town Hall was listed at Grade I on 25 October 1951 . Such buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . In February 2001 , it was one of 39 Grade I listed buildings , and 3 @,@ 701 listed buildings of all grades , in Greater Manchester . Within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale , it is one of only three Grade I listed buildings , and 312 listed buildings of all grades .
Although the majority of local government functions take place in Rochdale 's Municipal Offices building , Rochdale Town Hall continues to be used for cultural and ceremonial functions . For instance it is used for the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale 's mayoralty , civil registry , and for formal naturalisation in British Citizenship ceremonies .
= Colin McCool =
Colin Leslie McCool ( 9 December 1916 – 5 April 1986 ) was an Australian cricketer who played in 14 Tests from 1946 to 1950 . McCool , born in Paddington , New South Wales , was an all @-@ rounder who bowled leg spin and googlies with a round arm action and as a lower order batsman was regarded as effective square of the wicket and against spin bowling . He made his Test début against New Zealand in 1946 , taking a wicket with his second delivery . He was part of Donald Bradman 's Invincibles team that toured England in 1948 but injury saw him miss selection in any of the Test matches .
A good tour of South Africa in 1949 – 50 was followed by a lack of opportunity in the next two seasons , leading McCool to sign a contract to play professional cricket in the Lancashire League in 1953 . Three years later , Somerset County Cricket Club recruited McCool where he was a success , especially as a middle @-@ order batsman ; he played five seasons and saw the club achieve its highest place in the County Championship since 1892 . He retired from cricket in 1960 and returned to Australia to work as a market gardener . He died in Concord , New South Wales on 5 April 1986 .
= = Early career = =
As a child growing up in Paddington , McCool attended Crown Street State School — earlier students included Victor Trumper and Monty Noble . He played his childhood cricket on concrete wickets in Moore Park and learnt to bowl from reading Clarrie Grimmett 's instructional book , Getting Wickets . McCool played his early grade cricket with Paddington Cricket Club before coming to the notice of the New South Wales selectors . He made his first @-@ class début for New South Wales against " Rest of Australia " in March 1940 , making 19 and 15 and taking one wicket . While the Australian Cricket Board suspended the Sheffield Shield competition at the end of the 1939 – 40 season , at the request of the Australian government , a series of matches were arranged to raise money for wartime charities in the following 1940 – 41 season . McCool played in six of these matches for New South Wales , scoring 416 runs at average of 52 @.@ 00 and taking 24 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 50 .
McCool enlisted on 12 September 1941 and served as a Pilot Officer with the No. 33 Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Stationed in New Guinea , McCool had reached the rank of Flight Lieutenant when he was discharged from the RAAF on 18 September 1945 .
After the war , he moved to Brisbane and was selected in the Queensland cricket team . Playing for Queensland , he formed a formidable partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . He was selected in the Australian team to tour New Zealand in 1945 – 46 , making his Test début at the Basin Reserve in Wellington . He made seven runs in Australia 's only innings and took a wicket with his second ball in Test cricket ; the last man dismissed in the Test , Don McRae .
= = Test player = =
The following season , Wally Hammond 's England cricket team travelled to Australia for the 1946 – 47 Ashes series . In a warm @-@ up match before the series , McCool performed well for Queensland against the English tourists at the Brisbane Cricket Ground ( the ' Gabba ) , taking nine wickets and " the English batsmen seemed like rabbits fascinated in the presence of a snake " . He was selected for the First Test at the same ground the following week . He just missed out on a century on his Ashes debut , scoring 95 and only bowling one over as Australia won the Test by an innings and 332 runs . In the Second Test at Sydney , McCool took eight wickets , including the prize wicket of Hammond twice . Australia won by an innings and 33 runs . The Third Test at Melbourne saw McCool make his maiden Test century , 104 not out in a drawn match . The Melbourne businessman and underworld figure , John Wren had promised McCool one pound for every run he made that innings ; this was at a time when ten pounds was the average weekly wage in Australia . The cheque — given to McCool the next day — allowed him to place a deposit on a house .
He played in the remaining two Tests , making 272 runs at an average of 54 and taking 18 wickets at just over 27 apiece . He took 5 / 44 in the Fifth Test . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack wrote that his batting featured " wristy cuts " and " vigorous hooks " , opining that there were " few better players of spin bowling on a difficult pitch " . Wisden said that his slow and loopy leg spin was " a clever mixture of leg @-@ breaks and googlies " .
India toured Australia for the first time in 1947 – 48 . McCool played in three Tests without much success , scoring only 46 runs and taking only four wickets . Nevertheless , he was selected as part of Australian team to tour England in 1948 that would be known as the Invincibles . He took 57 wickets on the tour but bowling for long periods caused him to continually tear a callus on his third finger , used to impart spin on the ball . As a result , his captain , Don Bradman , felt compelled to leave him out of the Test matches , feeling that his finger would not be able to handle the necessarily long bowling spells . This decision was aided by the then existing rule allowing a new ball to be used every 55 overs , allowing Bradman to use his fast bowlers more often . For the rest of his career , McCool was troubled by the skin rubbing off his spinning finger . McCool and his fellow fringe members of the squad , Ron Hamence and Doug Ring , would refer themselves as the " ground @-@ staff " as it was unlikely that the tour selectors would include them in the Test team that tour . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well in his later cricket career at Somerset , wrote that the omission " distressed him greatly at the time , though he could be philosophical enough about it later " .
He played in all five Tests on tour against South Africa . He took 51 wickets in all matches , including 5 / 41 in the Second Test at Newlands . In 1950 – 51 , McCool was the leading wicket taker in the Sheffield Shield competition , however he was not selected in the Test team against the touring English ; nor against the West Indies the following season .
= = English cricket = =
Prior to the 1953 Australian team to tour England , McCool signed a professional contract with Lancashire League team East Lancashire , replacing fellow Australian leg spinner Bruce Dooland . In his first season in the league , he was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 93 wickets at the low average of 10 @.@ 2 runs per wicket , and he also made 678 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 9 . The following year , he played less often : his 547 runs came at the better average of 42 @.@ 1 but his 52 wickets cost 13 @.@ 1 apiece , and East Lancashire , who had finished either first or second in the Championship ten times in the previous twelve seasons , finished 10th out of 14 . He did not return to East Lancashire for the 1955 season due to being contracted to play county cricket for Somerset . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well , wrote that " after he had made the decision to come , an extension of the qualifying period for overseas cricketers kept him waiting even longer " .
Delayed by the change to the rules , McCool had a five @-@ year stint from 1956 in English county cricket . Somerset , having finished on the bottom of the County Championship table for the four years between 1952 – 1955 , had embarked on a renewal programme . Part of the programme involved a vigorous recruiting campaign , including an offer to McCool that saw him return to first @-@ class cricket at the age of 39 .
At Somerset , McCool was an instant success as a batsman , scoring 1 @,@ 967 runs in his first season , including three centuries and a highest score of 141 . After four seasons , Somerset came off the bottom of the County Championship ( to 15th out of 17 ) , and Wisden was in no doubt of McCool 's influence : " Much of the credit for the all @-@ round improvement went to one man – McCool , " it wrote . " At the start of the season it was hoped that the former Australian Test leg @-@ break bowler would lend power and variety to the attack . From that viewpoint his 45 wickets at over thirty runs apiece might be counted disappointing . But with the bat McCool exceeded all expectations . He was one of the most consistent scorers in the country and he failed by only 34 to reach 2 @,@ 000 runs in his first season of county cricket . McCool was the backbone of a mediocre batting side , and he never departed from his natural attacking style . " Against the touring Australians that season he made 90 and 116 , the first innings 90 coming out of 139 in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours and including 15 fours , the second innings century out of 167 in just 95 minutes , with four sixes and 14 fours . Wisden reported that he was " very severe on [ Ian Johnson ] and [ Jack Wilson ] " .
Over the 1956 / 57 new year , McCool was one of a party of 12 cricketers , all but one of them Test players , who made a brief trip to India to play two first @-@ class matches in celebration of the silver jubilee of the Bengal Cricket Association in a side raised by the Lancashire secretary Geoffrey Howard . McCool did not play in the first match and in the second , he replaced Jock Livingston , the team 's only wicketkeeper , who had been taken ill during the first game . McCool made only 23 and 1 with the bat , but he stumped Vinoo Mankad off the bowling of Dooland , one of only two stumpings in his career as a very occasional wicketkeeper .
Back in England in 1957 he was joined at Taunton by another Australian , Bill Alley , but still finished as the leading scorer for the county with 1 @,@ 678 runs in all matches , to go with 44 wickets . In the wet summer of 1958 Somerset finished third in the Championship , their highest position since 1892 . McCool 's contribution was 1 @,@ 590 runs and 46 wickets at , for him , the low average of 23 runs each . In this season , McCool made his highest score for Somerset – 169 out of a total of 314 against Worcestershire at Stourbridge – and in the last match of the season he produced his best bowling figures of his career , taking eight second @-@ innings Nottinghamshire wickets for 74 runs on what Wisden described as " a sporting pitch " .
In contrast to 1958 , the 1959 season was hot and dry and McCool 's figures improved : he made 1769 runs at an average of more than 40 runs per innings and took 64 first @-@ class wickets , more than in any other Somerset season . McCool 's final season with Somerset before his retirement was 1960 , and he signed off with 1 @,@ 222 runs and 29 wickets .
In 138 matches across the five seasons for Somerset , McCool made 7 @,@ 913 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 82 . He also took 219 wickets at 28 @.@ 05 but in his five years with the county he was never the first @-@ choice spin bowler : in his first two seasons , Somerset used Australian @-@ born slow left @-@ arm orthodox bowler John McMahon as the main spin bowler , with young off @-@ spin bowler Brian Langford also bowling more than McCool . When McMahon left , Langford took over as the top spin bowler , and by 1960 was bowling four times the number of overs that McCool took . But McCool had also lost some of his control at this stage : " He could do beguiling things with the ball , though length and line seemed to become a decreasing consideration , " says the history of Somerset cricket . He also made 146 catches , many of them at first slip , where he stood " rather deeper than usual " . His influence on Somerset 's recovery from the trough of the early 1950s was considerable . A later Somerset history says : " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . But their respect for his competitive approach and sheer experience was undeniable . "
= = Playing style = =
McCool had a round @-@ arm bowling action , releasing the ball with his arm almost parallel to the ground . Before he developed problems with the skin on his spinning finger , he was , in spite of his unorthodox action , able to generate sharp spin . The cricket writer , Jack Pollard said of McCool , " [ McCool ] was almost unplayable on badly prepared pitches , so wide and sharp was the turn of his leg @-@ breaks . " and that he " made even State [ i.e. first @-@ class ] batsmen look inept " . On the advice of coaches and ex @-@ players , McCool attempted to alter his action to a more orthodox style on several occasions but always returned to his natural style .
A short man but with a strong build , as a batsman he was a vigorous hooker and a wristy cutter , scoring mostly square of the wicket . He was particularly good against spin bowling , even on difficult pitches .
During his time at Somerset , he was known for " [ turning ] a match with his cracking strokes in an hour . " Alan Gibson wrote : " We hardly think of him as a stylist , and he was mostly a back @-@ foot player , getting the greater number of his runs in the segments fanning out from point and square @-@ leg . But he was enjoyable to watch , compact , tidy , combining powerful hitting with delicate placing . In the best Somerset tradition , he was always after the bowling , and in the best Australian tradition , he always relished a fight . " But he also adapted his style to suit English pitches : in an early innings for Somerset , he was out trying to hook a ball from Trevor Bailey . " The hook , he decided , was a stroke to be used sparingly on English pitches ... McCool was constantly amending his technique that season [ 1956 ] , whenever he spotted a flaw in his method . Again and again he held the Somerset batting together . Nothing in his previous experience had equipped him for the task of holding up a losing side in a damp English summer . "
He was renowned for his catching , often spending an hour at a time practising catching a ball thrown into the side of a roller normally used to prepare the cricket pitch . Journalist and former team @-@ mate Bill O 'Reilly said after McCool 's death in 1986 : " If Colin had played in the last 10 years , he would have been regarded as one of the greatest all @-@ rounders ever in Australian cricket . He was a great batsman , [ ... ] a wonderful bowler and one of the best slips fieldsmen I have ever seen . "
= = Personality and personal life = =
Accounts of McCool in his Somerset period portray him as a thoughtful but slightly aloof character . " Off the field he was a quiet man , " wrote David Foot . He was " a contemplative pipe @-@ smoker in the corner of the dressing room , " says another account , and somewhat intolerant of others who appeared less committed than he was . " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . "
Alan Gibson wrote about him more volubly : " He thought about the game a lot . Many Australian cricketers do , more than English cricketers probably , but McCool was in some ways an untypical Australian . He had a diffidence and gentleness , which do not always spring to mind as familiar Australian qualities : but he had plenty of Australian determination . "
Gibson wrote that McCool " did not quite come to terms with the West Country " . He went on : " He missed the sunshine . ' There 's no winter , ' he said , ' and the beer 's better . And the f------ off @-@ spinners don 't turn . ' I think an additional reason was that he found some difficulty in accepting the conventions of English cricket as it was then . There was a Somerset committee member , who liked and admired him , and would greet him with , ' Morning , McCool ' . That committee member was seeking to be courteous . He would have thought it pompous to say ' Mr McCool ' , and impertinent to say ' Colin ' . But it infuriated Colin . He thought it a reflection on his status . He would have preferred something like ' Hi , Col , you old bastard . ' The worlds were too far apart . "
McCool was given a testimonial season by Somerset in 1959 after just three years with county and the circumstances were unusual enough for it to be remarked on in the county 's Year Book , published in the winter before the season . " Although Colin McCool has played for the County for three seasons only , this Testimonial is a fitting reward for his valuable services as an all @-@ rounder and off the field , where his influence is most marked . "
After retirement from first @-@ class cricket at the end of the 1960 season in England , McCool returned to Australia , taking up market gardening with a specialty in rare blooms at Umina Beach on the Central Coast of New South Wales . He continued playing club cricket in the Newcastle competition for Belmont until rheumatism forced him to retire from all forms of cricket aged 55 : " Rheumatism in my right hand made it embarrassing for me to continue . It was alarming to an old pro like me who prided himself on length and directions to have the ball slip out of my fingers out of control . "
McCool was the author of two books on cricket : Cricket is a Game , which was an autobiography , and The Best Way to Play Cricket , both published in 1961 . John Arlott , reviewing them in Wisden 1962 , said the first was " full of trenchant good sense , humour , anecdote and shrewd observation " . The second book , Arlott wrote , was " to the best of this reviewer 's knowledge , the first cricket book to be initially published in the modern paper @-@ back format " . It was , he added , " full of good instruction and ... sets down some genuine cricket wisdom with freshness and vitality " .
He married Dorothy Everlyn Yabsley in 1943 in Sydney . His son , Russ McCool , who was born in Taunton , played one first @-@ class match for Somerset in 1982 , in addition to playing for New South Wales Colts and New South Wales Country .
= = Test match performance = =
= Yoshi 's Island =
Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island , known in Japan as Yossy 's Island ( ヨッシーアイランド , Yosshī Airando ) , is a 1995 platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Acting as a prequel to Super Mario World , the game casts players as Yoshi as he escorts Baby Mario through 48 levels in order to reunite him with his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by Baby Bowser 's minions . As a Super Mario series platformer , Yoshi runs and jumps to reach the end of the level while solving puzzles and collecting items . In a style new to the series , the game has a hand @-@ drawn aesthetic and is the first to have Yoshi as its main character . The game introduces his signature abilities to flutter jump , produce eggs from swallowed enemies , and transform into vehicles . It also features 2D graphics with Linear transformations ( similar to Super Mario World ) .
The game 's hand @-@ drawn aesthetic — a style new to the series — descends from producer and Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto 's distaste for the computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of the game 's contemporary Donkey Kong Country . Yoshi 's Island was released in Japan in August 1995 , and worldwide two months later . Some of its special effects were powered by a new Super FX2 microchip . The game was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance with few changes in 2002 under the title Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 . Nintendo later released this version via the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U Virtual Console .
Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to IGN and review aggregator Metacritic , and sold over four million copies . Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , sound , level design , and gameplay , and posited Yoshi 's Island as a masterpiece and the best platformer of all time . The game brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . The distinct art style and Yoshi 's signature characteristics established in Yoshi 's Island would carry throughout a series of cameos , spin @-@ offs , and sequels , including the 1998 Yoshi 's Story , 2006 Yoshi 's Island DS , 2014 Yoshi 's New Island , and 2015 Yoshi 's Woolly World . The next Mario 2D platform game for home consoles was New Super Mario Bros. Wii , released 14 years later .
= = Gameplay = =
Yoshi 's Island is a two @-@ dimensional side @-@ scrolling platformer in which players help friendly dinosaurs known as Yoshis escort Baby Mario safely through 48 levels across six worlds in order to rescue his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by an evil Magikoopa named Kamek .
Each level casts players as a different colored Yoshi , who must escort Baby Mario on his back and reach the end of the level , where he is passed on to the next Yoshi . Similar to Super Mario World , Yoshi can use his tongue to ensnare enemies and put them into his mouth . When something is in his mouth , Yoshi can either spit it out as an attack , or swallow it to turn it into an egg . These eggs can then be thrown at an angle , even bouncing off walls , to attack enemies or reach far away or hard to reach items . Yoshi can carry up to six eggs at a time , with some colored eggs spawning items once they hit something . Yoshi can also eat watermelons that let him spit out seeds , or flaming enemies that let him spit out fire . Yoshi is also able to perform a flutter jump , in which he can kick his legs in mid @-@ air to gain extra height or hover over long distances , and a ground pound , a downward attack that can hammer down on enemies and stumps .
The goal of each level is to protect Baby Mario , who rides on Yoshi 's back . If Yoshi is hit by an enemy or obstacle , Baby Mario will float off into a bubble and a timer will start counting down . If the player fails to recover Baby Mario before the counter reaches zero , Baby Mario will be taken away by Koopas and Yoshi will lose a life . The timer can recover up to ten seconds , and Yoshi can collect stars to increase the amount of time on the counter . However , if Yoshi falls into a bottomless pit , gets crushed , or comes into contact with spikes or lava , he will automatically lose a life . In some areas , players can collect a Starman that transforms Baby Mario into Super Baby Mario . During these areas , players take control of Baby Mario who , for a short period , is invincible , can run on walls and ceilings , and can float using his cape . Additionally , some areas transform Yoshi into various vehicles , such as a helicopter or digger , allowing him to reach otherwise inaccessible areas for a short amount of time .
Each of the game 's worlds feature eight main levels , with a boss appearing at the end of every fourth and eighth level . Hidden throughout each of these levels are five Flowers and twenty Red Coins , the latter of which are hidden behind specific coins in each level . Collecting Flowers adds flowers to the gate at the end of each level ( not including boss levels ) . If the player manages to land on an open flower after jumping through the end gate , they can play a bonus game during which they can earn extra lives or bonus items that can be activated from the pause menu , such as additional stars or maginifying glasses that reveal the location of hidden Red Coins . At the end of each level , players receive a score based on how many Flowers and Red Coins they found , as well as how many stars they have remaining , with a maximum score of 100 awarded for finding all Flowers and Red Coins and ending the level with 30 stars . Completing all levels in a world with a score of 100 unlocks two additional levels for that world .
= = Development and re @-@ release = =
While Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto worked on Super Mario World , he thought to make Yoshi the series ' " next hero " since the game designer did not like the other Yoshi games , including Yoshi 's Safari and Yoshi 's Cookie , and thought he could make something more authentic . When he first brought the game to Nintendo marketing , they declined the game for having Mario @-@ style graphics rather than the vogue , computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of Donkey Kong Country . In comparison , they felt that his game lacked the power to impress . Incensed and opposed to the style , Miyamoto instead further escalated his cartoonish visuals into a hand @-@ drawn , crayon style . Nintendo 's marketing department accepted this revision . Miyamoto later recalled feeling that the marketing department wanted " better hardware and more beautiful graphics instead of ... art " . Around the time of his rejection , Miyamoto allegedly said that " Donkey Kong Country proves that players will put up with mediocre gameplay as long as the art is good " . However , he later clarified his remarks , stating that " recently some rumour got out that I didn 't really like that game ? I just want to clarify that that 's not the case , because I was very involved in that . And even emailing almost daily with Tim Stamper right up until the end . "
Yoshi 's Island was developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . According to Miyamoto , who served as a producer , Yoshi 's Island was in development for four years , which let the team add " lots of magic tricks " . The game cartridge used an extra microchip to support the game 's rotation , scaling and other sprite @-@ changing special effects . Yoshi 's Island was designed to use the Super FX chip , but when Nintendo stopped supporting the chip , the game became the first to use Argonaut Games 's Super FX2 microchip . The chip powered scenes including a drawbridge falling into the foreground , rotation effects like rolling and enlarged rather than reanimated enemies , and a psychedelic effect in a level when Yoshi touches a floating fungus .
Yoshi 's Island was released first in Japan in August 1995 , and two months later in North America and Europe . At the time of release , the Super NES was in its twilight as a console in anticipation of Nintendo 's upcoming console to be released the following year , 1996 . Yoshi 's Island was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance as Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 in North America on September 23 , 2002 . In the game 's preview at E3 2002 , IGN named Yoshi 's Island " Best Platformer " on a handheld console . The Game Boy Advance version is a direct port of the original , apart from few changes . The developers used the Yoshi voice from a subsequent series game , cropped the original display to fit the handheld 's smaller screen , and added exclusive bonus levels . Like the other Super Mario Advance rereleases , the handheld version includes the 1983 game Mario Bros. with support for up to four players via link cable . The new cartridge did not need an extra microchip to support the original 's special effects .
The Game Boy Advance version of the game was released on the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U via Nintendo 's digital Virtual Console platform . The port retains the handheld version 's cropped screen and pack @-@ in Mario Bros. game , though its multiplayer mode is disabled . The 3DS version was released on December 16 , 2011 , as an exclusive reward for early adopters of the Nintendo 3DS . It did not receive a wider release . The Wii U version was released worldwide on April 24 , 2014 . At E3 2010 , Nintendo demoed " classic " 2D titles such as Yoshi 's Island as remastered 3D games with a " pop @-@ up book feel " .
= = Reception = =
Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to an IGN retrospective and video game review aggregator Metacritic , respectively . At the time of its 1995 release , Matt Taylor of Diehard GameFan thought Yoshi 's Island could be " possibly the best platform game of all time " . Nintendo Power too said that the game was " one of the biggest , most beautiful games ever made " . Next Generation was also most impressed by the game 's " size and playability " . Diehard GameFan 's three reviewers gave the game a near perfect score . To wit , Nicholas Dean Des Barres said it was " one of the handful of truly perfect games ever produced " , and lamented that the magazine had given Donkey Kong Country , which he felt was a lackluster game in comparison , the extra single point for a perfect score . Casey Loe removed that one point for Baby Mario 's " annoying screech " . Nintendo Power and Nintendo Life too found Baby Mario 's crying sounds annoying . Major Mike of GamePro called it " a work of art . " He lauded the " almost perfect " control , the variety of techniques , the graphical variety , and the " abundance of hidden items and concealed rooms " , and unlike other reviewers , he found Baby Mario 's cries for help to be very affecting . He concluded that Yoshi 's Island " is one of the last of a dying breed : a 16 @-@ bit game that shows real heart and creativity . " Reviewing the Super NES release over a decade later , Kaes Delgrego of Nintendo Life said the crying and some easy boss battles , while both minor , were the game 's only shortcomings . Delgrego charged Yoshi 's Island with perfecting the genre , calling it " perhaps the greatest platformer of all time " . The game has sold over four million copies .
Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , level design , and gameplay , which became legacies of the game . Some called it " charm " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life would stop mid @-@ game just to watch what enemies would do . Martin Watts of the same publication called it " an absolute pleasure on the eyes and unlike any other SNES game " . Others praised the control scheme , technical effects , and sound design . Nintendo Life 's Delgrego felt " goosebumps and tingles " during the ending theme , and marked the soundtrack 's range from the lighthearted intro to the " epic grandeur of the final boss battle " .
Edge praised the game 's balance of challenge and accessibility . The magazine thought that the new power @-@ ups of Yoshi 's Island gave its gameplay and level design great range , and that the powers were significant additions to the series on par with the suits of Super Mario Bros. 3 or Yoshi 's own debut in Super Mario World . Diehard GameFan 's Taylor wrote that there was enough gameplay innovation to make him cry and listed his favorites as the Baby Mario cape invincibility power @-@ up , the machine gun @-@ style seed spitting , and the snowball hill level . Nintendo Life 's Watts called the egg stockpiling mechanic as " clever " for the way it encourages experimentation with the environment as well as tempered wastefulness . Edge thought of Yoshi 's Island as a " fusion of technology and creativity , each enhancing the other " . The magazine considered the game 's special effects expertly integrated into the gameplay , and described the developer 's handicraft as having an " attention to detail that few games can match " .
Reviewing the Game Boy Advance release in 2002 , Craig Harris of IGN wrote that Yoshi 's Island was both the console 's best platformer as well as " the best damn platformer ever developed " . While acknowledging the game 's roots in the Super Mario series , he said the game created enough gameplay ideas to constitute its own franchise . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that the game 's story was also interesting as the origin story for the Mario brothers . Harris felt that the FX2 sprite @-@ changing effects gave the game " life " and that the Game Boy Advance cartridge could handle the effects just as well . He added that Yoshi 's morphing abilities and sound effects were designed well . Levi Buchanan of IGN said the game struck the right balance of tutorial by trial and error . IGN 's Harris also noted a few Game Boy Advance @-@ specific issues : framerate drop in areas where a lot is happening onscreen , camera panning problems due to the screen 's lower resolution , and a " poor " implementation of the " dizzy " special effect on the handheld release . Critics wrote that the " coloring book " -style graphics held up well . IGN 's Harris felt it was the best of the Super Mario Advance games . Of the similar version for the Wii U , Watts of Nintendo Life also noticed the framerate issues and problems resulting from the screen 's closer crop , which were " not enough to ruin the game , but ... noticeable " . Edge felt that game 's only disappointment was the linearity of its overworld following the exploratory Super Mario World and that the sequel would " inevitably ... have less impact " in comparison .
= = Legacy = =
Multiple retrospective critics declared Yoshi 's Island a " masterpiece " . IGN recalled it as " one of the most loved SNES adventures of all time " . Yoshi 's Island brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Shigeru Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that game marked where Yoshi " came into his own " and developed many of his definitive characteristics : the " signature " flutter jump , and ability to throw eggs and transform shape . Baby Mario , who debuted in the game , went on to have his own career in a number of sports @-@ related titles . Series producer Takashi Tezuka said he consciously continued " the handicraft feel " of the original throughout the series , which later included yarn and similar variations . Official Nintendo Magazine called the art style " a bold step ... that paid off handsomely " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life wrote that the game marked a new era of art in video games that prioritized creativity over graphics technology .
Delgrego continued that the game 's countdown @-@ based life was a " revolutionary " mechanic that would later become ubiquitous in games like the Halo series . Martin Watts also of Nintendo Life considered Super Mario 64 to be a more momentous event in gaming history , but felt that Yoshi 's Island was the " most significant " event in the " Mario Bros. timeline " . In a retrospective , IGN wrote that Super NES owners widely embraced the game alongside Donkey Kong Country .
IGN 's Jared Petty wrote that Yoshi 's Island bested " the test of time far better than many of its contemporaries " . Levi Buchanan of IGN thought Nintendo took a risk with Yoshi 's Island by making Mario passive and giving Yoshi new abilities . Christian Donlan of 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die wrote that the game was a testament to the Mario team 's " staggering confidence " in its development ability . He said the game was " perhaps the most imaginative platformer " of its time . Yoshi 's Island ranked 22nd on Official Nintendo Magazine 's 2009 top 100 Nintendo games as a " bone fide classic " , 15th on IGN 's 2014 top 125 Nintendo games of all time , and 2nd on USgamer 's 2015 best Mario platformers list .
= = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = =
Yoshi 's Island led to a strong year for Yoshi as a character . IGN 's Thomas added that the hand @-@ drawn style of Yoshi 's Island made the computer @-@ generated Donkey Kong Country appear outdated , though both games sold well , and Rareware included a Yoshi cameo in their sequel , Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest , released that same year . Yoshi 's Island graphics and characters were also incorporated into the 1996 Super NES tile puzzle game Tetris Attack .
Following Yoshi 's Island 's success , Nintendo developed Yoshi 's Story , a 1998 platformer for the Nintendo 64 , which " disappointed " audiences and deflated " massive ... anticipation " with fetch quests and the 3D style Miyamoto eschewed in its predecessor . The Nintendo 64 game expanded on Yoshi 's character voice as introduced in Yoshi 's Island , but also " dumbed down Yoshi 's character " . Nintendo created two Yoshi 's Island spin @-@ off games : the tilt sensor @-@ controlled Yoshi Topsy Turvy ( 2004 , Game Boy Advance ) , which was developed by Artoon and critically panned , and the Nintendo @-@ developed minigame Yoshi Touch & Go ( 2005 , Nintendo DS ) . The 1995 original release received a direct sequel in 2006 : Yoshi 's Island DS , also developed by Artoon . Titled Yoshi 's Island 2 until just before it shipped , the game retained the core concept of transporting baby Nintendo characters , and added babies Princess Peach , Bowser , Donkey Kong , and Wario , each with an individual special ability . Yoshi had a similar move set to Yoshi 's Island and added dash and float abilities , but was more passive a character compared to the babies on his back .
About seven years later , series producer Takashi Tezuka decided enough time had passed to make another direct sequel , Yoshi 's New Island ( 2013 , Nintendo 3DS ) . It was developed by former Artoon employees at their new company , Arzest . As in the original , Yoshi carries Baby Mario and throws eggs . The game adds the ability to swallow big foes , which become big eggs that can destroy big obstacles . Yoshi 's Island DS developer Arzest assisted in its development . In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die ( 2010 ) , Christian Donlan wrote that despite the " streamlined " Yoshi 's Story and " brilliant " Yoshi 's Touch and Go , " the original was never bettered and never truly advanced upon " . In Eurogamer 's 2015 preview of Yoshi 's Woolly World , Tom Phillips wrote that it had " been 20 years since the last truly great Yoshi 's Island " . The next console release of a Mario 2D side @-@ scroller , New Super Mario Bros. Wii , was released 14 years later .
= Pierce Brosnan =
Pierce Brendan Brosnan OBE Hon ( born 16 May 1953 ) is an Irish actor and film producer who after leaving comprehensive school at age 16 , began training in commercial illustration . He then went on to train at the Drama Centre in London for three years . Following a stage acting career he rose to popularity in the television series Remington Steele ( 1982 – 87 ) , which blended the genres of romantic comedy , drama , and detective procedural . After the conclusion of Remington Steele , Brosnan appeared in films such as the Cold War spy film The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) and the comedy Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) .
In 1994 , Brosnan became the fifth actor to portray secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series , starring in four films from 1995 to 2002 ( GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , The World Is Not Enough and Die Another Day ) . He lent his likeness for Bond in the video games James Bond 007 : Nightfire and James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , providing his voice too for the latter . During this period , he also took the lead in other films such as the epic disaster adventure film Dante 's Peak ( 1997 ) and the remake of the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) . Since leaving the role of Bond , he has starred in such films as the musical / romantic comedy Mamma Mia ! ( 2008 ) , the Roman Polanski @-@ directed political thriller The Ghost Writer ( 2010 ) and the action spy thriller The November Man ( 2014 ) .
In 1996 , along with Beau St. Clair , Brosnan formed Irish DreamTime , a Los Angeles @-@ based production company . In later years , he has become known for his charitable work and environmental activism . He was married to Australian actress Cassandra Harris from 1980 until her death in 1991 . He married American journalist and author Keely Shaye Smith in 2001 , and became an American citizen in 2004 . He has earned two Golden Globe Award nominations , first for the television miniseries Nancy Astor ( 1982 ) and next for the dark comedy film The Matador ( 2005 ) .
= = Early life = =
Brosnan was born in Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital in Drogheda , County Louth , Ireland , the only child of Thomas Brosnan , a carpenter , and May ( née Smith , born circa 1934 ) . He lived in Navan , County Meath for 12 years and considers it his home town . Brosnan 's father abandoned the family when Pierce was an infant . When he was four years old , his mother moved to London to work as a nurse . From that point on , he was largely brought up by his grandparents , Philip and Kathleen Smith . After their deaths , he lived with an aunt and then an uncle , but was subsequently sent to live in a boarding house run by a woman named Eileen . He was educated at Elliott School , now known as Ark Putney Academy , a coeducational secondary school with academy status in South West London .
According to Brosnan ,
Childhood was fairly solitary . I grew up in a very small town called Navan in County Meath . I never knew my father . He left when I was an infant and I was left in the care of my mother and my grandparents . To be Catholic in the ' 50s , and to be Irish Catholic in the ' 50s , and have a marriage which was not there , a father who was not there , consequently , the mother , the wife suffered greatly . My mother was very courageous . She took the bold steps to go away and be a nurse in England . Basically wanting a better life for her and myself . My mother came home once a year , twice a year .
Brosnan was brought up in a Roman Catholic family and educated in a local school run by the de la Salle Brothers while serving as an altar boy .
Brosnan left Ireland on 12 August 1964 and was reunited with his mother and her new husband , William Carmichael , now living in the Scottish village of Longniddry , East Lothian . Carmichael took Brosnan to see a James Bond film for the first time ( Goldfinger ) , at the age of 11 . Later moving back to London , Brosnan was educated at Elliott School , a state comprehensive school in Putney , south west London . Brosnan has spoken about the transition from Ireland to England and his education in London ; " When you go to a very large city , a metropolis like London , as an Irish boy of 10 , life suddenly moves pretty fast . From a little school of , say , seven classrooms in Ireland , to this very large comprehensive school , with over 2 @,@ 000 children . And you 're Irish . And they make you feel it ; the British have a wonderful way of doing that , and I had a certain deep sense of being an outsider . " When he attended school , his nickname was " Irish " .
After leaving school at 16 , he decided to be a painter and began training in commercial illustration at Saint Martin 's School of Art . While attending a rehearsal for a workshop at the Oval House , a fire eater was teaching people how to eat fire and he decided to join . A circus agent saw him busking and hired him for three years . He later trained for three years as an actor at the Drama Centre London . Brosnan has described the feeling of becoming an actor and the impact it had on his life : " When I found acting , or when acting found me , it was a liberation . It was a stepping stone into another life , away from a life that I had , and acting was something I was good at , something which was appreciated . That was a great satisfaction in my life . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After graduating from the Drama Centre in 1975 , Brosnan began working as an acting assistant stage manager at the York Theatre Royal , making his acting debut in Wait Until Dark . Within six months , he was selected by playwright Tennessee Williams to play the role of McCabe in the British première of The Red Devil Battery Sign . His performance caused a stir in London and Brosnan still has the telegram sent by Williams , stating only " Thank God for you , my dear boy " . In 1977 he was picked by Franco Zeffirelli to appear in the play Filumena by Eduardo De Filippo opposite Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay .
He continued his career making brief appearances in films such as The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) and The Mirror Crack 'd ( 1980 ) , as well as early television performances in The Professionals , Murphy 's Stroke , and Play for Today . He became a television star in the United States with his leading role in the popular miniseries Manions of America . He followed this with his 1982 Masterpiece Theatre documentary that chronicled the life of Lady Nancy Astor , the first woman to sit in British Parliament . His portrayal of Robert Gould Shaw II garnered him a 1985 Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor .
In 1982 , Brosnan moved to Southern California and rose to popularity in the United States playing the title role in the NBC romantic detective series Remington Steele . The Washington Post noted that same year that Brosnan " could make it as a young James Bond . " After Remington Steele ended in 1987 , Brosnan went on to appear in several films , including The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) , a Cold War thriller in which he starred alongside Michael Caine , The Deceivers and James Clavell 's Noble House both in ( 1988 ) , and The Lawnmower Man ( 1992 ) . In 1992 , he shot a pilot for NBC called Running Wilde , playing a reporter for Auto World magazine . Jennifer Love Hewitt played his daughter . The pilot never aired , however . In 1993 he played a supporting role in the comedy film Mrs. Doubtfire . He also appeared in several television films , including Victim of Love ( 1991 ) , Death Train ( 1993 ) and Night Watch ( 1995 ) , a spy thriller set in Hong Kong .
= = = James Bond ( 1994 – 2005 ) = = =
Brosnan first met James Bond films producer Albert R. Broccoli on the sets of For Your Eyes Only because his first wife , Cassandra Harris , starred as Countess Lisl von Schlaf , mistress to Milos Columbo . Broccoli said , " if he can act ... he 's my guy " to inherit the role of Bond from Roger Moore . It was reported by both Entertainment Tonight and the National Enquirer , that Brosnan was going to inherit another role of Moore 's , that of Simon Templar in The Saint . Brosnan denied the rumours in July 1993 but added , " it 's still languishing there on someone 's desk in Hollywood . "
In 1987 , NBC cancelled Remington Steele and Brosnan was offered the role as James Bond , but the publicity revived Remington Steele . His contract with the Remington Steele producers required him to resume his role and he regretfully declined the Bond role . The producers instead hired Timothy Dalton for The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) , and Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) . Legal squabbles between the Bond producers and the studio over distribution rights resulted in the cancellation of a proposed third Dalton film in 1991 and put the Bond series on a hiatus for several years . After the legal issues had been resolved , Dalton decided not to return for a third film . On 7 June 1994 , Brosnan was announced as the fifth actor to play Bond .
Brosnan was signed for a three @-@ film Bond deal with the option of a fourth . The first , 1995 's GoldenEye , grossed US $ 350 million worldwide , the fourth highest worldwide gross of any film in 1995 , making it the most successful Bond film since Moonraker , adjusted for inflation . It holds an 80 % Rotten tomato rating , while Metacritic holds it at 65 % . In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , saying that Brosnan 's Bond was " somehow more sensitive , more vulnerable , more psychologically complete " than the previous ones , also commenting on Bond 's " loss of innocence " since previous films . James Berardinelli described Brosnan as " a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor " with a " flair for wit to go along with his natural charm " , but added that " fully one @-@ quarter of Goldeneye is momentum @-@ killing padding . "
In 1996 , Brosnan formed a film production company entitled " Irish DreamTime " along with producing partner and longtime friend Beau St. Clair . Brosnan and St. Clair released Irish DreamTime 's first production , The Nephew , in 1998 . One year later , the company 's second studio project , The Thomas Crown Affair , was released and met both critical and box office success .
Brosnan returned in 1997 's Tomorrow Never Dies and 1999 's The World Is Not Enough , which were also successful . In 2002 , Brosnan appeared for his fourth time as Bond in Die Another Day , receiving mixed reviews but was a success at the box office . Brosnan himself subsequently criticised many aspects of his fourth Bond movie . During the promotion , he mentioned that he would like to continue his role as James Bond : " I 'd like to do another , sure . Connery did six . Six would be a number , then never come back . " Brosnan asked Eon Productions , when accepting the role , to be allowed to work on other projects between Bond films . The request was granted , and for every Bond film , Brosnan appeared in at least two other mainstream films , including several he produced , playing a wide range of roles , ranging from a scientist in Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks ! , to the title role in Grey Owl which documents the life of Englishman Archibald Stansfeld Belaney , one of Canada 's first conservationists .
Shortly after the release of Die Another Day , the media began questioning whether or not Brosnan would reprise the role for a fifth time . At that time , Brosnan was approaching his 50th birthday . Brosnan kept in mind that both fans and critics were very unhappy with Roger Moore playing the role until he ( Moore ) was 58 , but he was receiving popular support from both critics and the franchise fanbase for a fifth instalment . For this reason , he remained enthusiastic about reprising his role . In October 2004 , Brosnan said he considered himself dismissed from the role . Although Brosnan had been rumoured frequently as still in the running to play 007 , he had denied it several times , and in February 2005 he posted on his website that he was finished with the role . Daniel Craig took over the role on 14 October 2005 . In an interview with The Globe and Mail , Brosnan was asked what he thought of Daniel Craig as the new James Bond . He replied , " I 'm looking forward to it like we 're all looking forward to it . Daniel Craig is a great actor and he 's going to do a fantastic job " . He reaffirmed this support in an interview to the International Herald Tribune , stating that " [ Craig 's ] on his way to becoming a memorable Bond . "
During his tenure on the James Bond films , Brosnan also took part in James Bond video games . In 2002 , Brosnan 's likeness was used as the face of Bond in the James Bond video game Nightfire ( voiced by Maxwell Caulfield ) . In 2004 , Brosnan starred in the Bond game Everything or Nothing , contracting for his likeness to be used as well as doing the voice @-@ work for the character . He also starred along with Jamie Lee Curtis and Geoffrey Rush in The Tailor of Panama in 2001 , and lent his voice to The Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror XII " , as a machine with Pierce Brosnan 's voice .
= = = Post @-@ James Bond = = =
Since 2004 , Brosnan has talked of backing a film about Caitlin Macnamara , wife of poet Dylan Thomas , the title role to be played by Miranda Richardson . Brosnan 's first post @-@ Bond role was that of Daniel Rafferty in 2004 's Laws of Attraction . Garreth Murphy , of entertainment.ie , described Brosnan 's performance as " surprisingly effective , gently riffing off his James Bond persona and supplementing it with a raffish energy " . In the same year , Brosnan starred in After the Sunset alongside Salma Hayek and Woody Harrelson . The film elicited generally negative reviews and a 17 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Brosnan 's next film was 2005 's The Matador . He starred as Julian Noble , a jaded , neurotic assassin who meets a travelling salesman ( Greg Kinnear ) in a Mexican bar . The film garnered generally positive reviews . Roger Ebert for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called Brosnan 's performance the best of his career . Brosnan was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy , but lost to Joaquin Phoenix for Walk the Line . In December 2005 , Brosnan was reported to be starring in The November Man , an adaptation of Bill Granger 's novel , There Are No Spies. but the project was cancelled in 2007 . In 2006 , Brosnan narrated The Official Film of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , directed by Michael Apted .
In 2007 , Brosnan appeared in the film Seraphim Falls alongside fellow Irishman Liam Neeson . The film was released for limited screenings on 26 January 2007 to average reviews . Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times noted that Brosnan and Neeson made " fine adversaries ; " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter thought that they were " hard @-@ pressed to inject some much @-@ needed vitality into their sparse lines . " During the same year , Brosnan spoke of making a western with fellow Irishmen Gabriel Byrne and Colm Meaney . In that same year Brosnan starred as Tom Ryan in Butterfly on a Wheel . The film was released in the United States under the name of Shattered , and in Europe as Desperate Hours .
In 2008 , Brosnan joined Meryl Streep in the film adaption of the ABBA musical Mamma Mia ! . He played Sam Carmichael , one of three men rumoured to be the father of lead Amanda Seyfried , while Streep played her mother . Judy Craymer , producer to the film , said " Pierce brings a certain smooch factor , and we think he 'll have great chemistry with Meryl in a romantic comedy . " Brosnan 's preparation in singing for the role included walking up and down the coast and singing karaoke to his own voice for about six weeks , followed by rehearsals in New York in which he noted he " sounded dreadful . " Brosnan 's singing in the film was generally disparaged by critics , with his singing compared in separate reviews to the sound of a water buffalo , a donkey , and a wounded raccoon . In September 2008 , Brosnan provided the narration for the Thomas & Friends special The Great Discovery . He was originally set to narrate for both US and UK from Season 12 and onward , but withdraw from it for unknown reasons .
In 2009 , Brosnan starred in The Big Biazarro , ( alternative title The Ace ) , an adaptation of the Leonard Wise novel , directed by Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall . Brosnan portrayed a card player who mentors a headstrong protégé . Also in 2009 , Brosnan finished the well @-@ received The Ghost Writer , playing a disgraced British Prime Minister , directed and produced by Roman Polanski . The film won a Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival . He starred as Charles Hawkins in the film Remember Me and as Chiron in Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief , both released in 2010 .
In 2012 , Brosnan played the role of Philip in the Danish romantic comedy Love Is All You Need .
His latest announced project is a role in the Danny DeVito @-@ helmed feature Charlotte Doyle , an adaptation of the novel The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle , in which he will appear alongside Morgan Freeman . His production company Irish DreamTime is developing The Topkapi Affair , a follow @-@ up to The Thomas Crown Affair for MGM . In February 2013 Brosnan was awarded honorary patronage of the Dublin University Players society at Trinity College , Dublin . Brosnan is also said to be playing a " heroic government agent " in an action thriller called The Coup ( later renamed to No Escape ) alongside Owen Wilson . Brosnan will also be headlining Last Man Out , which is an adaptation of Stuart Neville 's crime novel titled The Twelve ( released as Ghosts of Belfast in the US ) , scripted by Craig Ferguson and Ted Mulkerin , with Terry Loan will be helming the project .
In 2013 , Brosnan appeared in television commercials as a tongue in cheek version of himself to promote the launch of Sky Broadband in Ireland . After its cancellation in 2007 , Brosnan 's production company , " Irish DreamTime " resurrected The November Man film project in 2012 with an announcement made on his part that he was jumping back to the spy arena . Filming took place in Serbia a year later , with Brosnan in action as a retired CIA operative called Devereaux , alongside co @-@ star Olga Kurylenko in a supporting role . The film received negative reception with a 34 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a 38 / 100 on Metacritic . In 2015 , he appeared alongside Milla Jovovich in suspense thriller movie written by Phil Shelby , called Survivor , which began filming in January 2014 , with Charles and Irwin Winkler producing , and James McTeigue directing . Brosnan later starred in a revenge thriller called I.T. , which is still yet to be released .
In January 2016 Pierce Brosnan was seen filming The Foreigner in London , co @-@ starring with Jackie Chan , taking on a role of a former IRA man turned government official Liam Hennessy . The film is directed by Martin Campbell , who previously worked with Brosnan on his debut James Bond film , GoldenEye . It was noted that Brosnan bore a strong resemblance to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams . An announcement was made that Brosnan and Campbell will team up once again in a film adaptation of an Ernest Hemingway novel , Across the River and into the Trees , in which Brosnan will play the role of the protagonist , Colonel Cantwell .
Brosnan replaced actor Sam Neill in the role of Eli McCullough in a television miniseries adaptation of Philipp Meyer 's novel The Son , with Kevin Murphy serving as both executive producer and showrunner of a ten @-@ episode miniseries , which begins production in June 2016 , aiming for a 2017 release .
= = Personal life = =
Brosnan married twice , was widowed once and has five children and three grandchildren as of 2015 .
Brosnan met Australian actress Cassandra Harris through her stepson David Harris , one of Richard Harris ' nephews , in 1977 , shortly after he left drama school . On meeting her , he has described his feelings , saying , " What a beautiful looking woman . I never for an instant thought she was someone I 'd spend 17 years of my life with . I didn 't think of wooing her , or attempting to woo her ; I just wanted to enjoy her beauty and who she was . " They began dating , and eventually bought a house in Wimbledon . They married on 27 December 1980 and had one son together , Sean , who was born on 13 September 1983 . They lived with her children , Charlotte ( 1971 @-@ 2013 ) and Christopher , and after their father Dermot Harris died in 1986 , he adopted them and they took the surname Brosnan .
Brosnan supplemented his income by working in West End productions and in a television film about Irish horse racing . After Harris appeared in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only in 1981 , they secured a bank loan and moved to southern California where Brosnan secured a role in the TV series Remington Steele , easing their financial worries .
An episode of Remington Steele that was filmed in Ireland generated significant publicity . One outcome was that Brosnan met his father , who had left when Brosnan was an infant , in a brief get @-@ together at his hotel . Brosnan said he expected to see a very tall man , but described his father as " a man of medium stature , pushed @-@ back silver hair , flinty eyes and a twizzled jaw . He had a very strong Kerry accent . " Brosnan was regretful that they met under such public circumstances . He said he would have preferred more private arrangements that would have given him the opportunity to speak privately with his father .
While filming The Deceivers in Rajasthan , India , in 1987 , Brosnan 's wife Harris became seriously ill . She was later diagnosed with ovarian cancer and died on 28 December 1991 at age 43 . Brosnan struggled to cope with her cancer and death . " When your partner gets cancer , then life changes . Your timetable and reference for your normal routines and the way you view life , all this changes . Because you 're dealing with death . You 're dealing with the possibility of death and dying . And it was that way through the chemotherapy , through the first @-@ look operation , the second look , the third look , the fourth look , the fifth look . Cassie was very positive about life . I mean , she had the most amazing energy and outlook on life . It was and is a terrible loss , and I see it reflected , from time to time , in my children . " Harris had always wanted Brosnan to play the role of James Bond , and in 1995 , four years after her death , Brosnan was given the role in GoldenEye .
In 1994 , Brosnan met American journalist Keely Shaye Smith in Mexico . They were married in 2001 at Ballintubber Abbey in County Mayo , Ireland . They have two sons together , Dylan Thomas Brosnan ( born 13 January 1997 ) and Paris Beckett Brosnan ( born 27 February 2001 ) .
In July 2003 , the Queen made Brosnan an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his " outstanding contribution to the British film industry " . As an Irish citizen , he is ineligible to receive the full OBE honour , which is awarded only to a citizen of the Commonwealth realms , but he is still allowed the letters " OBE " after his name . In 2002 , Brosnan was also awarded an honorary degree from the Dublin Institute of Technology and , a year later , the University College Cork .
On 23 September 2004 , Brosnan became a citizen of the United States , but retained his Irish citizenship . Brosnan said that " my Irishness is in everything I do . It 's the spirit of who I am , as a man , an actor , a father . It 's where I come from . " Brosnan was asked by a fan if it annoyed him when people get his nationality confused . He said : " It amuses me in some respects that they should confuse me with an Englishman when I 'm dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool , born and bred Irishman ... I don 't necessarily fly under any flag . But no , it doesn 't bother me . "
Brosnan has expressed contempt for his education by the Christian Brothers . However , in 2013 he commented , " It always helps to have a bit of prayer in your back pocket . At the end of the day , you have to have something and for me that is God , Jesus , my Catholic upbringing , my faith ... God has been good to me . My faith has been good to me in the moments of deepest suffering , doubt and fear . It is a constant , the language of prayer ... I might not have got my sums right from the Christian Brothers or might not have got the greatest learning of literature from them but I certainly got a strapping amount of faith . " Brosnan attends Mass , but adheres to other spiritual beliefs . In 2008 he said " I also love the teachings of Buddhist philosophy . It 's my own private faith . I don 't preach it , but it 's a faith that is a comfort to me when the night is long . "
Brosnan and wife Keely Shaye Smith were involved in a riparian water rights legal case ( 1999 – 2010 ) . The dispute centred on a parcel of land in Wainiha , Hawaii .
Brosnan 's daughter Charlotte died on 28 June 2013 of ovarian cancer , the same illness that claimed her mother 's life .
= = = Environmental and charitable work = = =
Pierce Brosnan has been an Ambassador for UNICEF Ireland since 2001 and recorded a special announcement to mark the launch of UNICEF 's " Unite for Children , Unite against AIDS " Campaign with Liam Neeson . Brosnan supported John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election and is a vocal supporter of same @-@ sex marriage .
Brosnan first became aware of nuclear disarmament at the age of nine when worldwide condemnation of the 1962 U.S. nuclear tests in Nevada headlined international news . During the 1990s , he participated in news conferences in Washington , D.C. to help Greenpeace draw attention to the issue . Brosnan boycotted the French GoldenEye premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program . From 1997 to 2000 , Brosnan and wife Smith worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council ( NRDC ) and International Fund for Animal Welfare ( IFAW ) to stop a proposed salt factory from being built at Laguna San Ignacio . The couple with Halle Berry , Cindy Crawford and Daryl Hannah successfully fought the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu ; the State Lands Commission eventually denied the lease to build the terminal . In May 2007 , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility . Brosnan is also listed as a member of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 's Board of Advisors . Brosnan was named ' Best @-@ dressed Environmentalist ' by the Sustainable Style Foundation in 2004 .
Brosnan also raises money for charitable causes through sales of his paintings . He trained early on as an artist , but later shifted to theatre ; during his first wife 's terminal illness , he withdrew from acting to be with her and took up painting again for therapeutic reasons , producing colourful landscapes and family portraits . He has continued painting since then , using spare time on set and at home . Profits from sales of giclée prints of his works are given to a trust to benefit " environmental , children 's and women 's health charities . " Since Harris ' death , Brosnan has been an advocate for cancer awareness and , in 2006 , he served as spokesperson for Lee National Denim Day , a breast cancer fundraiser which raises millions of dollars and raises more money in a single day than any other breast cancer fundraiser .
In May 2007 , Brosnan and Smith donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to help replace a playground on the Hawaiian island of Kauai , where they own a house . On 7 July 2007 , Brosnan presented a film at Live Earth in London . He also recorded a television advertisement for the cause . Brosnan lives with his family in Malibu , California and on the island of Kauai .
In April 2016 , a fire ripped through his $ 18 @.@ 5 million Malibu mansion causing $ 1 million in damages to the garage and a nearby guest bedroom .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= Charles Kanaʻina =
Charles Kanaʻina , officially referred to as His Honour and his Highness , ( Kanaʻina II ) ( c . 1801 – March 13 , 1877 ) was an aliʻi ( hereditary noble ) of the Kingdom of Hawaii and father of William Charles Lunalilo , the 6th monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii . Kanaʻina was a descendant of notable figures from ancient Hawaiian history , including Liloa , Hakau and Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa of Hawaiʻi Island as well as Piilani of Maui . He served on both the Privy Counsel and in the House of Nobles . He was named after his uncle Kanaʻina , a name that means " The conquering " in the Hawaiian Language . This uncle greeted Captain James Cook in 1778 and confronted the navigator before he was killed .
His wife Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi was a widow and niece of Kamehameha I. She was also Married to Kamehameha II before he converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi lived in a traditional aliʻi style home in a sacred neighborhood in Honolulu , Oahu , Hawaii called Pohukaina near Kekūanāoa , Kaʻahumanu and their offspring . The compound would eventually become the official Royal Residence of the Hawaiian Royal Family when Kekūanāoa would build Hale Aliʻi in the center of the families estates as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . The site would become the Iolani Palace and Palace Walk . Kanaʻina kept his property at the palace until his death and would be the only original owner to do so while the Palace was in use , living there from Kamehameha II up to Kalakaua .
Kanaʻina 's son , William Charles Lunalilo , was named by Kamehameha III as an heir to the throne of the kingdom and ascended in 1873 while his father still lived . Lunalilo died only a year later , three years before his father 's death . Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 . He had not re @-@ written his will and when produced still left everything to his son Lunalilo . Having died intestate , probate hearings proceeded for 5 years . Final adjudication went to several of Kanaʻina 's cousins including Ruth Keelikōlani and Bernice Pauahi Bishop .
= = Birth , early life and marriage = =
Charles Kanaʻina was born Charles Kanaʻina Eia , circa 1801 at Napoʻopoʻo , Hawaii to [ Eia ] Ka @-@ makakaualii ( father ) and Kauwa Palila ( mother ) . His maternal great grandmother was High Chiefess ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana , the granddaughter of King Keakealanikane and Kaleiheana . His great grandfather , Kauhiahaki ( Kauhiapiiao ) and ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana were cousins , both being descendants of King Piʻilani of Maui . From Keakealanikane , Kanaʻina is descended from Liloa through the ancient rulers son Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa . He is also descended from Liloa 's son Hakau through his great , great , great grandmother Kaleiheana . His paternal grandparents were Makakaualii and Kapulaoa .
He was named Kanaʻina , after the nickname of his uncle Kalaimanokahoowaha , the chief who was drawn by artist John Webber and who later is reputed to have first struck Captain James Cook before he was killed at Kealakekua Bay . In the Hawaiian language , ka naʻina means " the conquering " .
Kanaʻina married Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi in 1821 when Kamehameha II converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kekāuluohi was free to marry the monarch 's friend Kanaʻina on Kauaʻi . Kekāuluohi had been one of several wives of both Kamehameha I and Kamehameha II . However , under the influence of Christian missionaries , Kamehameha II renounced all his other wives except one . Kekāuluohi was then free to marry Kanaʻina after they both took Christian first names .
= = = Residence = = =
The couple lived near their family members . Kekūanāoa had his home just west of Kanaʻina 's called Haliimaile . Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina had their home in the area called Pohukaina . This area was a sacred burial site for aliʻi nobles . The aliʻi style home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes . The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels . The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats . In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror . In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write . Four matching cabinet @-@ bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each . In his book , A visit to the South Seas , in the U.S. Ship Vincennes : during the years 1829 and 1830 , Charles Samuel Stewart states :
They both write with great readiness ; and the husband with a freedom and command of hand that would class him among good penman anywhere . Both are among the most studious and improving of their compeers .
Next to their home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia . This was the spot of an ancient heiau called Kaahaimauli . In July 1844 Kekūanāoa began building a large home here as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . Instead , Kamehameha III would buy the estate and use as his Royal Residence after moving the capitol of the kingdom to Honolulu . It would become the Iolani Palace . As older aliʻi died , the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands . Kekāuluohi 's lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family . When she died , she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son , not her husband Kanaʻina . In 1865 Kamehameha V moved the bodies of the royal family to a new royal mausoleum however , he refused to allow the remains of Kekāuluohi to be moved with the rest of the Kamehamehas . When Lunalilo made out his will he made provisions for a royal tomb to be built across the street from the palace at Kawaiahao Church where he , his mother and Kanaʻina would be buried .
Kanaʻina served as a member of the House of Nobles of Kamehameha III from 1841 to 1876 , on the Privy Council from July 29 , 1845 , to 1855 , and on the Supreme Court from when it was first founded on May 10 , 1842 . In the tradition of European royalty , he was granted the style ( manner of address ) of " His Highness " .
= = Children = =
Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi had two sons . Their first son Davida , died young . They had two hānai ( informal adoption to other family members ) children , Kalama , the wife of Kamehameha III and later Kalama 's second son Keaweaweulaokalani II . Their surviving natural son , William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31 , 1835 , at Pohukaina . He was considered the grandnephew of Kamehameha I , and second cousin to King Kamehameha V , King Kamehameha IV , and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu , through his mother , Kekāuluohi , who was the cousin of Elizabeth Kīnaʻu ( later called Kaʻahumanu II ) . He was declared eligible to succeed by the royal decree of King Kamehameha III and sent to the Chief 's Children 's School ( later called the Royal School ) when it was founded by missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke .
= = = Lunalilo Trust = = =
Kanaʻina acted as trustee of the royal lands that had been inherited by his wife while his son was a minor , and after his son 's death . When Kanaʻina died , the court appointed nine trustees , six of which would take part in the militia that overthrew the monarchy and also take part in the new provisional government . Dole himself had been on the record as supporting the break up of crown lands to promote American style farming in his newspaper in 1872 . Various lawsuits ensued over the property including a suit questioning the validity of the will due to Lunalilo being under the guardianship of his father when he made it out . Lunalilo had requested in his will to use the estate to fund a charity . The trustees favored splitting up the estate by selling it off , while others claimed the value of land was underestimated , and an endowment to run the charity could have been funded by lease income . For example , Kanaʻina leased ( and later his heirs would sell ) thousands of acres of land on the island of Hawaii to businessman ( and son of missionaries ) William Herbert Shipman .
= = Death and legacy = =
Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 , in Honolulu , Oahu , and was buried at Kawaiahaʻo Church in the Lunalilo Mausoleum , next to his son who had died before him . While Kanaʻina had made out a will , he had left everything to his son , and so had died intestate . Petitions to administer the estate began the following day . Probate proceedings were litigated for four years , between 1877 and 1881 , and re @-@ affirmed in 1886 .
Attorney General Alfred S. Hartwell applied for the appointment of trustees shortly after Kanaʻina 's death under the articles of Lunalilo 's will . Article three of that will bequeathed the entirety of his estate to three trustees appointed by the Justices of the Supreme Court of the Hawaiian Kingdom . The property was to be sold and invested until the sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 was raised to fund a home for the poor and destitute . Chief Justice Charles Coffin Harris ordered a hearing for April 5 , 1877 , to hear the petition pertaining to the estate of the late Charles Kanaʻina and anyone who could show reason not to grant it .
= = = Estate probate = = =
A petition was filed by King David Kalakaua and his sisters and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lydia K. Dominis , Miriam K. Cleghorn and Archibald Scott Cleghorn , with a hearing set by Justice Lawrence McCully . In July 1878 , Justices Harris , Judd and McCully heard Kalakaua 's appeal . While the Justices felt that the claim of Kalakaua and his sisters had not been proven , they were impressed with that of Kilinahe ( Kanaʻina 's first cousin ) and other claimants based on testimony and witnesses . The court decreed that the estate be split into four equal shares : one quarter to go to Haalilio ( k ) , Haalelea ( k ) and Kahukaiola ( k ) ; one quarter each to Pahua ( w ) and Kaahua ( k ) ; and one quarter to the widow and children of Kilinahe , who had died before the adjudication of his claim .
Claimants from the line of Moana Wahine made petitions to the court under the act of 1874 to quite land titles . The act was later deemed unconstitutional and a new decree of heirship was made . By December 1879 disbursement of land in trust with William Cooper Parke , ( Marshal of Hawaii from 1853 to 1884 ) and owned by heirs , could not be agreed upon for settlement . Most supported the sale of the lands , so an order was made and all land sold at auction .
= = = Heirs and legacy = = =
Final adjudication of probate found a total of eight parties or groups of relatives , most of whom were descended from Moana and her four husbands , as heirs to the Kanaʻina estate splitting a total of 9 shares , with 2 shares going to one party . The probate records include a great deal of information from the four years of litigation . A great number of people petitioned the courts to claim title as heirs after the initial 1878 judgement . In the final adjudication , Bernice Pauahi Bishop received two of the nine shares . The remaining seven of the nine shares were divided equally in 1 / 9th and distributed to Ruth Keelikōlani , Haalilio and Haalelea ( namesakes of the historic figures ) , Kilinahe ( Who 's grandmother was the older sister of Kanaʻina 's mother ) and 5 other parties . The first three trustees included John Mott @-@ Smith and Sanford B. Dole .
The Hawaii public archives building , built in 1906 on the ʻIolani Palace grounds , in a section that was formerly the Kanaʻina 's estate , was dedicated as the Kanaʻina building . It held state offices in the 1950s , added as a contributing property of the Hawaii Capital Historic District and then restored for the Friends of ʻIolani Palace in 1990 .
= = Family tree = =
= 2 / 3rd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 3rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Raised for service during the Second World War as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , it was formed in October 1939 in Sydney and was attached to the 16th Brigade , 6th Division , the first formation raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war . Deploying to the Middle East in early 1940 , it saw action in North Africa , Greece , Crete , and Syria in 1941 – 42 before returning to Australia following Japan 's entry into the war , and was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all the major Axis powers of the war : the Germans , Italians , Japanese and Vichy French .
In 1942 – 43 , the battalion took part in fighting along the Kokoda Track before returning to Australia where it spent over a year training and being rebuilt . In December 1944 , the 2 / 3rd returned to New Guinea to take part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign and remained there until the war ended . Following the end of hostilities , the battalion was disbanded on 8 February 1946 in Brisbane . The battalion 's battle honours are perpetuated by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Upon the outbreak of the Second World War the Australian government decided to raise an all @-@ volunteer force for service overseas , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which restricted the deployment of the part @-@ time Militia to only those areas considered to be Australian territory . This force was known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , and the 6th Division was the first to be raised . As a unit of this formation , the 2 / 3rd Battalion was formed at Victoria Barracks , Sydney , on 24 October 1939 . Along with the 2 / 1st , 2 / 2nd and 2 / 4th Battalions , the 2 / 3rd was assigned to the 16th Brigade .
Although initially the infantry battalions of the 6th Division adopted the Australian battalion structure of two rifle companies , a support company , a light machine gun platoon and an administrative headquarters , they soon switched to the British structure with four rifle companies – each consisting of three platoons with three sections – and a headquarters company consisting of signals , carrier , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortar platoons .
The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England , an officer who had fought in the First World War and had continued to serve in the Militia after the war , commanding the 55th Battalion . Personnel for the battalion were raised from an area around New South Wales that is known by the Aboriginal name of " The Werriwa " . This area is bounded by a line from Sydney to Bega in the south , and from Bega , west to the Snowy Mountains , Cooma , Canberra , Yass , then north to Sydney through the Goulburn and Liverpool areas . The men were enlisted from 20 October onwards , and by 3 November 1939 the battalion was formed . The colours chosen for the Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 3rd Battalion , a unit which had served during the First World War before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921 . These colours were chocolate over green , in a horizontal rectangle , although a 3 mm border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart , which would also go on to serve with distinction during the war .
Following a brief period of training at Liverpool and Ingleburn , the battalion took part in a farewell march through Sydney . The Sydney Morning Herald of 4 January 1940 gave an account of their farewell march : " The long khaki columns thrilled the hearts of Sydney as it had not been so moved for a quarter of a century since that still , spring day in 1914 when the first A.I.F. marched through the same streets on its way to Anzac and imperishable glory ; the marching was magnificent . " Afterwards , the battalion sailed in the first troop convoy to leave Australia on 10 January 1940 , embarking upon the transport Orcades . They disembarked at El Kantara on the Suez Canal on 14 February 1940 , and from there they were trucked to their camp at Julis in Palestine , where they undertook further training .
= = = First actions : North Africa 1941 = = =
The first engagement that Australian troops were involved in during the Second World War came at Bardia , a major Italian military outpost in the north of Libya . The 16th Brigade broke through Bardia 's western defensive perimeter at dawn on 3 January 1941 , when the 2 / 1st Battalion breached the wire defences and swung left before advancing . The 2 / 2nd Battalion followed suit , swinging to the right , and the 2 / 3rd then moved straight through the breach . Meanwhile , the 17th Brigade led a diversion to the south . Although the 16th Brigade was able to capture Bardia in the late afternoon of 4 January , resistance continued , and fighting did not cease until the next morning . Over 40 @,@ 000 Italians were captured along with significant amounts of equipment and material – including food and ammunition – which was in short supply . A significant amount of alcohol was also captured by the Australians in Italian dugouts inside the 2 / 3rd 's position around Wadi @-@ el @-@ Ghereida . During this period , the 2 / 3rd lost five officers and 56 men killed or wounded .
After this , the Allied forces advanced to the fortified naval outpost of Tobruk . The 6th Division attacked the perimeter defences early on 21 January , following a week of continuous bombardment from both land and sea . The 2 / 3rd Battalion was tasked with breaching the outer Italian defences for the 2 / 1st Battalion to pass through . Following the initial breakthrough , the 2 / 3rd then advanced west along the inner ring of defences , attacking a number of Italian posts as they went . Tobruk fell the next day , with the Italians surrendering to Brigadier Horace Robertson , the commander of the 19th Brigade . The Italian flag was taken down and in the absence of an Australian flag , a signaler from the 2 / 4th Battalion tied his slouch hat to the flag staff and hauled it up to the top . The battalion 's losses during the fighting for Tobruk were seven officers and 50 men killed or wounded .
Following the capture of the town , the 2 / 3rd garrisoned Tobruk , although B Company was detached to the 19th Brigade for its assault on Derna , and remained there after its capture on 30 January . Prime Minister Robert Menzies interrupted his journey from Australia to England to address the troops after the capture of Tobruk . On 7 March 1941 , the battalion left Tobruk , along with the rest of the 6th Division , to bolster the Allied defences in Greece .
= = = Reverses in Greece and Crete 1941 = = =
On 18 March 1941 , the 2 / 3rd Battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard HMS Gloucester , arriving in Greece and landing in the port of Piraeus on the following day , after a 22 @-@ hour voyage during which their convoy had been attacked numerous times by Axis aircraft . After the invasion of the country on 6 April , they were moved north to attempt to turn back the German forces . The following day they occupied Veria , and on 12 April the 6th Division was grouped together with the 2nd New Zealand Division and a lone British brigade to form an Anzac Corps . This formation did not last long , however , as the Greek government requested Allied forces withdraw from Greece on 16 April before ceasing organised resistance on 18 April . Due to a series of withdrawals elsewhere , the battalion was forced to pull back from its positions at Veria and did not come into contact with the Germans until 18 April when they attempted to block passage of the Tempe Gorge . Fighting alongside the 2 / 2nd Battalion and New Zealanders , the rearguard action was successful and enabled the Allies to withdraw to the south . Brigadier Arthur Allen , commander of the 16th Brigade , later wrote of this encounter : " it was a fantastic battle . Everyone was on top , with no time to dig in , and all in the front line , including artillery , Bren carriers and infantry , as well as headquarters , with transport only yards in the rear . Some confusion could be expected in the circumstances , with every weapon firing and aircraft almost continually strafing from above . If you saw it in the cinema you would say the author had never seen battle . "
With the Germans enjoying numerical superiority on the ground , and with the Luftwaffe in total control of the skies , they then captured the township of Tempe . Although fierce rearguard fighting continued while the Australian and New Zealand forces withdrew to a new defensive line at Thermopylae , the situation deteriorated . An official evacuation plan was issued on 21 April , and on 25 April – Anzac Day – parties of evacuating Allied troops marched through Athens on their way to the coast . The 2 / 3rd Battalion embarked from Kalamata on 27 April . The 2 / 3rd 's casualties during the campaign amounted to 14 killed , 31 wounded and 62 captured .
While the majority of the 2 / 3rd Battalion was successfully evacuated to Egypt , a small force of 141 men were evacuated to the island of Crete instead , after the transport ship they were on was sunk . Having formed the rearguard during the withdrawal from Greece , they had embarked separately from the main body , being taken aboard the Costa Rica . During the voyage to Alexandria , the transport had been attacked by German aircraft , and as it sank , they were ordered to abandon ship . After being rescued by Royal Navy destroyers , the troops were transported to Crete , where they were formed into a composite battalion with men from other units of the 16th Brigade , and together the unit became known as the 16th Brigade Composite Battalion .
With only limited small arms and ammunition they moved to positions above Kalives on the shores of Suda Bay to undertake garrison duties in anticipation of a German attack on the island . Following the German invasion on 20 May 1941 , some of these troops saw direct action against German paratroopers . After the Allied evacuation from the island a week later , they undertook active patrols around the island before being evacuated on 31 May 1941 aboard HMS Phoebe . They arrived in Alexandria on 1 June 1941 . Two 2 / 3rd Battalion men were killed during the fighting on Crete , and one was wounded . Fifty became prisoners of war . Meanwhile , the rest of the battalion had concentrated in Palestine , where it was rebuilt in advance of its next campaign .
= = = Securing Syria and Lebanon , 1941 – 42 = = =
Australian troops from the 7th Division were already fighting in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign when the re @-@ formed 2 / 3rd Battalion , along with the 2 / 5th Battalion and the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment , were committed as reinforcements , to help bring the 7th Division up to strength . In a bitter campaign that lasted 28 days , Vichy French forces attempted to resist the Allied invasion , which had been launched in order to deny the Germans the use of Vichy territory to launch attacks against Egypt . Against a modest Allied force with only limited armour and artillery , the well @-@ equipped French force outnumbered the attackers and had the advantage of holding the mountainous terrain . Having contributed a company to garrison duties around Sidon in Lebanon , and provided 100 men to help re @-@ form the shattered 2 / 1st Battalion , the 2 / 3rd was understrength – consisting of only 21 officers and 385 other ranks – when it entrained at Majdal in Palestine on 18 June 1941 to join the campaign .
Initially , after arriving from Palestine , the battalion was committed to forming a block on the road between Damascus and Deraa ; they were later committed to an attack to sever the Beirut road around Mezze , as part of wider fighting around Damascus on 20 – 22 June . Operating with British and Indian forces on the right flank , they then launched an unsuccessful action at Jebel Mazar on 24 – 28 June , where they were tasked with capturing the high ground overlooking the main road , along which the Australians were advancing . The battalion came under command of the re @-@ formed 17th Brigade , which was reconstituted to bring the 7th Division up to full strength as it operated along the coast . Despite being well below strength – consisting of just two companies with a total of 300 men – it joined the fighting at Damour on 6 – 10 July , advancing along the Darmour River and leading the 17th Brigade 's advance . Despite heavy fighting the Allied forces slowly advanced simultaneously along the coast and inland , finally overcoming the Vichy French defences . Following the armistice on 14 July , the troops remained in Syria until January 1942 preparing defences and undertaking other garrison duties . The battalion 's casualties during the short campaign amounted to 16 killed and 77 wounded .
= = = Garrison duties in Ceylon 1942 = = =
Following Japan 's entry into the war in December 1941 the decision was made to bring the 6th Division back to bolster the Allied defences in the Pacific , and the 2 / 3rd Battalion left the Middle East on 10 March 1942 , aboard the steamer Orontes . The original intention was that they would be sent to reinforce Java ; however , while they were at sea concerns about a Japanese attack on Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) prompted the diversion of the 16th and 17th Brigades to Colombo , and they arrived there on 21 March . The freighter Ben Rennies , carrying the battalion 's vehicles , arrived shortly afterwards and the 2 / 3rd took up defensive positions in the southeast part of the island , which was considered to be the most likely location for a Japanese invasion force to land .
On 5 April , a Japanese naval force sortied from the recently captured Andaman Islands and launched a series of attacks by carrier @-@ based aircraft on Colombo and Trincomalee . Another attack occurred on 9 April . Little damage was done on land , but both the British and Australian navies suffered losses . Regardless , the Japanese failed to sustain their initial momentum and the expected invasion did not occur . Nevertheless , men from the 2 / 3rd Battalion were kept busy for the remainder of their time preparing defences , manning anti @-@ aircraft positions and undertaking jungle training , while receiving instruction in lessons learned from operations in Malaya and Singapore . The men were taught how to use the jungle according to author Paul Ham " ... to ' melt ' into the foliage ; to retrace their steps at night ; to use camouflage properly ; to detect human presence by crushed twigs and disturbed leaf mould ; to move silently over undergrowth . To build shelters ; and to discern human from animal sounds . "
In July , British forces were sent from India to relieve the Australian troops in Ceylon . Preparations were made for the 2 / 3rd Battalion to return to Australia , and after embarking upon the SS Westernland , they arrived in Melbourne on 8 August 1942 , having returned via the southern route away from the Japanese submarines patrolling the east coast . After this , the troops all received two weeks home leave , staggered from the time of their arrival . The final group had their leave cut short after only three days , however , when they were recalled by urgent telegram . The 16th Brigade was again on the move , this time to Port Moresby in New Guinea , where the fighting against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track was reaching a critical stage . After a short voyage , the brigade arrived at Port Moresby on 21 September 1942 .
= = = Fighting in New Guinea , 1942 – 43 = = =
Following their arrival at Port Moresby , the 16th Brigade along with the 25th Brigade , prepared to relieve the forces on the Kokoda Track . With the Australians having finally halted the Japanese advance , the fresh troops would be tasked with launching a counterattack to drive the Japanese back to Buna in the north . Consequently , throughout October , November and into December , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in three major actions : Eora Creek ( 22 – 28 October ) , Oivi ( 5 – 12 November ) , and an action on the Sanananda Track ( 21 November – 19 December ) .
On 3 October , General Douglas MacArthur spoke to the 16th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier John Lloyd , at Ower 's Corner , at the foot of the Kokoda Track : " Lloyd , by some act of God your Brigade has been chosen for this job . The eyes of the Western world are upon you . I have every confidence in you and your men . Good luck and don 't stop . " The 16th Brigade arrived at Templeton 's Crossing on 19 October , just three days behind the 2 / 25th and 2 / 33rd Battalions , whom they relieved . The following day the 16th Brigade continued the advance but found that the Japanese had withdrawn to Eora Creek , where they had established a strong defensive position .
Here the Japanese held the high ground in well @-@ concealed positions that had clear fields of fire into the narrow gorge below . With no other options , the 16th Brigade was forced to assault the Japanese defences frontally , advancing straight up the gorge . Amidst torrential rain and stiff defence , progress was slow as each defensive position had to be dealt with individually . As the water level in the creek rose steadily , the troops came under heavy mortar fire and were attacked with grenades lobbed from the heights above . The supply situation grew desperate too , but by 28 October the 2 / 3rd Battalion had managed to work its way around the Japanese right flank in preparation for an attack . In the afternoon , the battalion launched its attack , breaking through the Japanese outposts and into the main position . The defenders were overwhelmed and many of them abandoned their weapons as they fled . That night , the remaining Japanese withdrew from the position . The 16th Brigade lost 72 killed and 154 wounded in this action .
Despite the successful action , the superiors of the 7th Division 's commander , Major @-@ General Arthur Allen , were dissatisfied by the counter @-@ offensive 's rate of progress , and he was relieved of his command the day before the Australian forces won through at Eora Creek . Japanese resistance decreased after that battle , and by 31 September the 16th Brigade was advancing along the eastern fork of the Track through Missima without opposition . On 2 November they passed through the recently abandoned village of Kokoda . Three days later , as the Australians advanced towards the Kumusi River , the 2 / 3rd Battalion went into battle at Oivi , after coming up against an entrenched force holding the high ground from Oivi to Gorari . The Japanese counter @-@ attacked the next day , and as fighting continued through to 6 November , Major General George Vasey , the new divisional commander , sent the 25th Brigade and the 2 / 1st Battalion on a successful attack against the Japanese rear at Gorari . The Japanese at Oivi , their supply and withdrawal route cut , were then forced to retreat .
The 2 / 3rd Battalion 's final involvement in the campaign came as the 16th Brigade advanced towards Sanananda in November . They left the Wairopi area on 16 November , with the battalion second in order of march . Tired and drained from the exertions of the last two months , the advance across the swamps of the coastal plain proved heavy work . On the first day they made 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , but after heavy rains the following day and failures in the resupply effort , a large number of men fell behind due to exhaustion . On 19 November , the 2 / 3rd spearheaded the brigade 's advance to the coast . Several Japanese stragglers were taken prisoner and a number of minor contacts followed , but the Japanese defenders withdrew before the Australians could shake out to conduct an assault .
The following morning , the brigade reached the junction of the Sananada and Cape Killerton trails , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coast . After the 2 / 1st Battalion was attacked , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in a brigade flanking attack around the Japanese position to the right , forcing the Japanese to fall back . The action , however , had severely depleted the brigade to the point where , with less than 1 @,@ 000 fit men , it was unable to continue offensive operations . Thereafter activity was limited to patrolling and maintaining a defensive perimeter . In early December the 16th Brigade was relieved by the 30th Brigade . The 2 / 3rd Battalion itself was relieved on 6 December , returning to Poppondetta with a strength of just six officers and 67 other ranks , before being evacuated back to Port Moresby by plane on 23 December 1942 . They were returned to Australia shortly afterwards for leave and to reorganise . During the fighting along the Kokoda Track and the advance north to the sea , the 2 / 3rd lost 69 men killed and 103 wounded .
= = = Final campaign : Aitape – Wewak 1944 – 45 = = =
After a short period of leave the 6th Division came together again in late January 1943 on the Atherton Tablelands to begin training , and to convert to the more austere jungle establishment . Under this structure , the size of the battalion was reduced by one officer and 106 other ranks , giving the 2 / 3rd Battalion a total of 803 men of all ranks . At this time , a camp was built from scratch at Wondecla , but it was 12 months before the battalion 's ranks were brought to full strength by the return of sick and wounded soldiers . As the battalion began to reform , some who had performed well in the preceding campaigns were recommended for commissioning and were sent to an Officer Training Unit at Woodside , in South Australia . Along with training there was time for recreation including swimming carnivals , boxing tournaments and a 6th Division rugby league championship in which the 2 / 3rd Battalion was victorious , beating the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion in the final . The team captain , Col Windon , later went on to play for and captain the Wallabies .
During this time the battalion received a number of reinforcements from its associated Militia unit , the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) . This unit had been fighting in New Guinea as part of the 30th Brigade , with whom it had served on the Kokoda Track alongside the 2 / 3rd as well as the 39th and 49th Battalions , before being returned to Australia , where it had been disbanded . Other reinforcements also arrived from the 16th Battalion .
Due to a combination of political and strategic decisions , it was almost two years before the battalion went into combat again . In late 1944 , in order to free up American troops for operations in the Philippines , Australian forces were directed to take over responsibility for operations around Aitape in New Guinea . The 6th Division returned to New Guinea in November 1944 , with the final brigade arriving on 31 December 1944 . Although basically cut off from resupply , there were around 35 @,@ 000 Japanese troops in the area , holding the coast past Wewak and into the interior . Supported by food supplies from native gardens in the Torricelli Mountains , the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the Australians ' primary tactic of aggressive patrolling .
Tasked with reducing the Japanese , while remaining available to support operations elsewhere , the 6th Division began a limited offensive in the Wewak area . The 16th Brigade was initially held in divisional reserve , occupying a defensive position west of the Raihu River , until in | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, and the second Fiachnae 's death a year later in battle against the Dál Riata probably eased the way for Edwin 's conquests in the Irish sea province .
The routine of kingship in Edwin 's time involved regular , probably annual , wars with neighbours to obtain tribute , submission , and slaves . By Edwin 's death , it is likely that these annual wars , unreported in the main , had extended the Northumbrian kingdoms from the Humber and the Mersey north to the Southern Uplands and the Cheviots .
The royal household moved regularly from one royal vill to the next , consuming the food renders given in tribute and the produce of the royal estates , dispensing justice , and ensuring that royal authority remained visible throughout the land . The royal sites in Edwin 's time included Yeavering in Bernicia , where traces of a timber amphitheatre have been found . This " Roman " feature makes Bede 's claim that Edwin was preceded by a standard @-@ bearer carrying a " tufa " ( OE thuuf , this may have been a winged globe ) appear to be more than antiquarian curiosity , although whether the model for this practice was Roman or Frankish is unknown . Other royal sites included Campodunum in Elmet ( perhaps Barwick ) , Sancton in Deira , and Goodmanham , the site where the pagan high priest Coifi destroyed the idols according to Bede . Edwin 's realm included the former Roman cities of York and Carlisle , and both appear to have been of some importance in the 7th century , although it is not clear whether urban life continued in this period .
= = Edwin 's conversion to Christianity = =
The account of Edwin 's conversion offered by Bede turns on two events . The first , during Edwin 's exile , tells how Edwin 's life was saved by Paulinus of York . The second , following his marriage to Æthelburg , was the attempted assassination at York , at Easter 626 , by an agent of Cwichelm of Wessex . Edwin 's decision to allow the baptism of his daughter Eanfled and his subsequent promise to adopt Christianity if his campaign against Cwichelm proved successful . Apart from these events , the general character of Bede 's account is one of an indecisive king , unwilling to take risks , unable to decide whether to convert or not .
Along with these events , the influence of Edwin 's half @-@ Merovingian Queen cannot be ignored , and the letters which Bede reproduces , sent by Pope Boniface V to Edwin and Athelburg , are unlikely to have been unique . Given that Kent was under Frankish influence , while Bede sees the mission as being " Roman " in origin , the Franks were equally interested in converting their fellow Germans and in extending their power and influence . Bede recounts Edwin 's baptism , and that of his chief men , on 12 April 627 . Edwin 's zeal , so Bede says , led to Raedwald 's son Eorpwald also converting .
Bede 's account of the conversion is oft @-@ cited . After Paulinus explains the tenets of Christianity , the king asks his counselors what they think of the new doctrine . Edwin 's priest Coifi responds that they may be worthwhile ; after all , he says , no one has been more respectful of and devoted to their gods than he , and he has seen no benefits from his dedication to them . Then , an unnamed counselor stands up and addresses the king , also seeing the benefit of the new faith . Coifi speaks again and announces that they should destroy the idols and temples they had hitherto worshiped . King Edwin agrees and embraces Christianity ; Coifi himself will set fire to the idols. declaring " I will do this myself , for now that the true God has granted me knowledge , who more suitably than I can set a public example , and destroy the idols that I worshipped in ignorance ? ” Bede goes on to describe the scene as Cofi " formally renounces his superstitions , and asked the king to give him arms and a stallion . " Armed with both a sword and spear , Cofi rides Edwin ’ s horse towards the idols , all within view of the crowd gathered to witness Edwin ’ s conversion . Upon reaching the temple , Cofi " cast a spear into it and profaned it . "
In an article titled " How Cofi Pierced Christ ’ s Side " , Julia Barrow examines Bede ’ s Latinate text and pays particular attention to the passage concerning Cofi ’ s attack upon the temple . Barrow notes that Bede 's use of lancea was " not the word medieval writers normally used for spear " , while “ hasta was the usual choice . " Barrow goes on to claim that lancea was likely used by Bede as a reference to the details of the crucifixion of Christ provided in the vulgate book of John , thus Cofi ’ s desecration of the shrine is to be understood " as an inversion of the piercing of the temple of Christ ’ s body . " All of these details support an understanding that Bede had great " warmth and admiration " for Edwin .
The brief speech by the unnamed counselor , a nobleman , has attracted much attention ; suggesting the " wisdom and hopefulness of the Christian message " , it has inspired poets such as William Wordsworth and was called " the most poetic simile in Bede " :
The present life man , O king , seems to me , in comparison with that time which is unknown to us , like to the swift flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in winter amid your officers and ministers , with a good fire in the midst whilst the storms of rain and snow prevail abroad ; the sparrow , I say , flying in at one door and immediately out another , whilst he is within is safe from the wintry but after a short space of fair weather he immediately vanishes out of your sight into the dark winter from which he has emerged . So this life of man appears for a short space but of what went before or what is to follow we are ignorant . If , therefore , this new doctrine contains something more certain , it seems justly to deserve to be followed .
Noteworthy is Bede ’ s summation of the nature of Edwin ’ s reign as King of Northumbria :
“ It is told that at the time there was so much peace in Britannia , that whenever King Edwin ’ s power extended , as is said proverbially right up to today , even if a woman with a recently born child wanted to walk across the whole island , from sea to sea , she could do so without anyone harming her . ”
Kershaw indicates that “ Bede ’ s decision to couch Edwin ’ s peace in proverbial terms offers ... a chilling insight into the levels of lawlessness accepted in eighth @-@ century England ” . Furthermore , a definition of “ peace ” is to be understood as “ freedom from robbery , rape , or violence ; security to travel at will and to literally ‘ go in peace . ’ ”
Edwin 's conversion and Eorpwald 's were reversed by their successors , and in the case of Northumbria the Roman Paulinus appears to have had very little impact . Indeed , by expelling British clergy from Elmet and elsewhere in Edwin 's realm , Paulinus may have weakened the Church rather than strengthening it . Very few Roman clergy were present in Paulinus 's time , only James the Deacon being known , so that the " conversion " can have been only superficial , extending little beyond the royal court . Paulinus 's decision to flee Northumbria at Edwin 's death , unlike his acolyte James who remained in Northumbria for many years afterwards until his death , suggests that the conversion was not popular , and the senior Italian cleric unloved .
= = Edwin as overlord = =
The first challenge to Edwin came soon after his marriage @-@ alliance with Kent , concluded at Canterbury in the summer of 625 . By offering his protection to lesser kings , such as the king of Wight , Edwin thwarted the ambitions of Cwichelm of Wessex . Cwichelm 's response was to send an assassin , as noted already . Edwin did not immediately respond to this insult , suggesting either that he felt unable to do so , or that Bede 's portrayal of him as a rather indecisive ruler is accurate . Following the failed assassination , as noted , Edwin committed himself to Christianity provided only that he was victorious against Cwichelm .
From about 627 onwards , Edwin was the most powerful king among the Anglo @-@ Saxons , ruling Bernicia , Deira and much of eastern Mercia , the Isle of Man , and Anglesey . His alliance with Kent , the subjection of Wessex , and his recent successes added to his power and authority . The imperium , as Bede calls it , that Edwin possessed was later equated with the idea of a Bretwalda , a later concept invented by West Saxon kings in the 9th century . Put simply , success confirmed Edwin 's overlordship , and failure would diminish it .
Edwin 's supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon ap Cadfan enters the record circa 629 , but Cadwallon was defeated and either submitted to Edwin 's authority or went into exile . With the defeat of Cadwallon , Edwin 's authority appears to have been unchallenged for a number of years , until Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon rose against him in 632 – 633 .
Edwin faced Penda and Cadwallon at the Battle of Hatfield in the autumn of 632 or 633 and was defeated and killed . For a time his body was ( allegedly ) hidden in Sherwood Forest at a location that became the village of Edwinstowe ( trans . Edwin 's resting place ) , his head being eventually buried at York and the rest of his body at Whitby . Of his two grown sons by Cwenburh of Mercia , Osfrith died at Hatfield , and Eadfrith was captured by Penda and killed some time afterwards .
After his death , Edwin 's Queen Æthelburg , along with Paulinus , returned to Kent , taking her son Uscfrea , daughter Eanfled , and Osfrith 's son Yffi into exile with her . Uscfrea and Yffi were sent to the court of Æthelburg 's kinsman Dagobert I , king of the Franks , but died soon afterwards . Eanfled , however , lived to marry her first cousin king Oswiu , son of Acha and Æthelfrith .
= = Death and legacy = =
Edwin 's realm was divided at his death . He was succeeded by Osric , son of Edwin 's paternal uncle Ælfric , in Deira , and by Eanfrith , son of Æthelfrith and Edwin 's sister Acha , in Bernicia . Both reverted to paganism , and both were killed by Cadwallon ; eventually Eanfrith 's brother Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon and united Northumbria once more . Thereafter , with the exception of Oswine son of Osric , power in Northumbria was in the hands of the Idings , the descendants of Ida of Bernicia , until the middle of the 8th century .
After his death , Edwin came to be venerated as a saint by some , although his cult was eventually overshadowed by the ultimately more successful cult of Oswald , who was killed in 642 . They met their deaths in battle against similar foes , the pagan Mercians and the British , thus allowing both of them to be perceived as martyrs ; however , Bede 's treatment of Oswald clearly demonstrates that he regarded him as an unambiguously saintly figure , a status that he did not accord to Edwin .
Edwin 's renown comes largely from his treatment at some length by Bede , writing from an uncompromisingly English and Christian perspective , and rests on his belated conversion to Christianity . His united kingdom in the north did not outlast him , and his conversion to Christianity was renounced by his successors . When his kingship is compared with his pagan brother @-@ in @-@ law Æthelfrith , or to Æthelfrith 's sons Oswald and Oswiu , or to the resolutely pagan Penda of Mercia , Edwin appears to be something less than a key figure in Britain during the first half of the 7th century . Perhaps the most significant legacies of Edwin 's reign lay in his failures : the rise of Penda and of Mercia , and the return from Irish exile of the sons of Æthelfrith , which tied the kingdom of Northumbria into the Irish sea world for generations .
= Oubliette ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Oubliette " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and originally aired on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . Written by Charles Grant Craig and directed by Kim Manners , " Oubliette " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 and was watched by 15 @.@ 90 million people on its initial broadcast . The episode received positive reviews . Both the emotional nature of the story and David Duchovny 's performance received positive critical attention .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the installment , a little girl named Amy is kidnapped and imprisoned by a mentally unstable photographer . Mulder discovers a psychic connection between the recently kidnapped victim and Lucy , another girl kidnapped by the same man years ago . He attempts to use the connection to help solve the investigation , but discovers that the event may be too traumatic for Lucy to handle .
" Oubliette " is the only X @-@ Files screenplay written by Craig , who exited the writing staff before the entry was produced . The extensive outdoor filming lead to several difficulties for the production crew . Amy was 12 years old in the original screenplay . The Fox network was concerned her situation was an uncomfortable parallel to the recent Polly Klaas case , resulting in her age being increased before filming could begin . Critics have complimented the thematic resonance of the kidnapping and its effect on Mulder .
= = Plot = =
In Seattle , photography assistant Carl Wade ( Michael Chieffo ) photographs 15 @-@ year @-@ old Amy Jacobs ( Jewel Staite ) for school picture day . He becomes obsessed with her following the event , eventually kidnapping her . Her younger sister is the only witness to the incident , which takes place in their bedroom in the middle of the night . At exactly the same time , fast food worker Lucy Householder ( Tracey Ellis ) collapses with a nosebleed . Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) investigates Amy 's disappearance , drawn to the case because his younger sister was kidnapped in a similar situation . The investigation leads Mulder to Lucy , who was taken from her bedroom at age eight , twenty two years before , and held in a dark basement for five years before she escaped .
Mulder 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) suspects that Lucy may be connected to Amy 's disappearance , based on her long criminal record and the fact that her nosebleed contained not only her blood type , but Amy 's as well . In her room at a halfway house , scratches appear on Lucy 's face and she experiences temporary blindness — injuries identical to Amy 's , who is being tortured in the basement of Wade 's cabin . The two develop an unexplainable psychic connection ; everything that happens to Amy physically also happens to Lucy . Mulder tries to convince Lucy that she can help them find Amy , but she is too afraid to assist . Scully informs Mulder of their new lead in the case , the school photography assistant Wade , who was recently fired under strange circumstances . Mulder is adamant that Lucy , who admits that Wade was the man who abducted her , is not part of the kidnapping , and snaps at Scully when she suggests that Samantha 's disappearance is causing him to become too involved with the case .
The investigation team receives a tip from a tow truck driver concerning Wade 's location , which corresponds to the area where Lucy was found years ago . They find Wade 's cabin in the woods near Easton , Washington , discovering Lucy in the basement with no clear indication of how or why she came there . Lucy begins to feel cold and wet ; Mulder deduces that because of Lucy 's connection to Amy , she must be at the local river . Mulder and Scully rush there to find Wade attempting to drown Amy . Back with the police , Lucy begins to drown despite not even being near water . Mulder shoots Wade while Scully attempts to perform CPR on Amy , but because of the connection it resuscitates Lucy instead . Amy lies on the riverbank , dead . Mulder continues to attempt CPR , despite Scully 's protests .
Suddenly , the process is reversed ; Amy recovers and Lucy dies . Overwhelmed by Lucy 's sacrifice and his inability to save her , Mulder breaks down sobbing over her body . He later tells Scully he suspects that she died not only to save Amy , but to forget what Wade did to her all those years ago .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The screenplay for " Oubliette " was authored by Charles Grant Craig , a writer who at the time had little background or experience within television . Before joining the writing staff of The X @-@ Files during the third season , his most significant writing credits included episodes for Renegade and Booker . His most notable television screenplay was The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents entry " Final Escape " . Though Craig left the staff shortly before " Oubliette " entered production for unknown reasons , he was credited as a supervising producer on several installments for the third season . The title was derived from the French word " oubliette " , which refers to a pit @-@ like dungeon consisting of " total darkness " with a hole that opens from the top .
The narrative centers on Mulder 's identification with Lucy which is based on the abduction of his sister , Samantha . It was decided that time would not be spent on Scully 's sympathy with the victim , despite her own abduction experience in the second season episode " Ascension " . Despite this , Scully is gentle towards Mulder and " wanted to believe " him until the evidence pointed overwhelmingly to Lucy . After that point , Scully takes on an antagonistic role , going against the wishes of her partner . Though not originally included the script , David Duchovny added the line about how his connection to the case was not just because of Samantha .
Series creator Chris Carter stated that in Craig 's original draft Lucy was more " hard @-@ boiled " , but actress Tracey Ellis played her as a more wounded person . Fox 's standards and practices department was uncomfortable with the screenplay , because it featured a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl being kidnapped . The network requested that she be in her late teens and that the plot would not heavily feature Amy 's ordeal or suffering . Jewel Staite had just turned 13 when she was cast , but the producers felt she looked older and even applied make @-@ up to add to that effect .
The reason for the concern was because the original screenplay featured similarities to the Polly Klaas case , which had received large public attention around the time of production . Polly Klaas was a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was kidnapped during a slumber party , and eventually strangled to death . The antagonist of the episode was compared to Richard Allen Davis , the culprit of the case , who was convicted and sentenced to death for his crimes . Ngaire Genge in his novel The Unofficial X @-@ Files Companion commented that " tragically , unlike Amy , Klaas didn 't survive her abduction " .
= = = Filming = = =
" Oubliette " was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia , as were the rest of the episodes of the third season . The location of the antagonist 's house was an important factor during production . Craig 's screenplay called for a remote house in the " middle of nowhere " , but the producers required a site closer to the studio . With a production crew consisting of 60 members , it was decided to use somewhere that could appear " rustic while being next to a parking lot . " A suitable area was found near the peak of Mount Seymour , a location that had previously been used in " Ascension " . The mountain featured both a parking lot and a log cabin that met the needs of the filming crew . An issue arose because the mountain had a ski lift , which needed to be avoided while composing shots . Over 1000 prop trees had to be brought to the filming site to camouflage surroundings , to give the atmosphere a " remote " feel .
The crew encountered a larger issue with the contract with the Provincial Park committee . The park required a seven @-@ day notice before filming of any kind was approved . The production manager had to contact the park Representative directly , who assured him that their needs would be met . For the final sequence , both the Capilano River and Lynn Headwaters were considered ; however , the Seymour River was ultimately chosen because it was the safest filming location . The filming of the episode was plagued by rain and heavy weather conditions . In one example , while directing the climax , the river had risen by four or five inches , causing the crew to move to another position to shoot at a week later . This cost the crew several days worth of production and a large sum of money . Shooting conditions were further complicated because shoots involving water are notably difficult , requiring a new set of costumes for each take .
Because of the extensive outdoor shooting , director Kim Manners hated directing the episode , commenting that " it couldn 't be fucking worse . " Despite a negative experience with shooting on the mountain , the episode " Gethsemane " from the fourth season was filmed there with similar issues . Gillian Anderson 's stand @-@ in Bonnie Hay , who appears in a cameo , previously played a doctor in both " Colony " and " End Game " and a nurse in " D.P.O. " .
= = Themes = =
The kidnapping of Amy shares several similarities with the abduction of Mulder 's sister . Mulder 's sister Samantha was abducted by aliens when Mulder was a child , before the timeline of The X @-@ Files . Both Amy and Lucy are kidnapped and victimized by the same pedophile , who represents the " logic of duplication " . Wade treats both girls in virtually identical ways , kidnapping them and photographing them obsessively in the same manner . David Lavery in Deny All Knowledge asserts that Mulder is capable of seeing beyond " simple equivalents " , caring about each individual girl separately . Lavery argues that this grants Mulder the ability to separate the case from his own personal experience with his sister . The scene that best exemplifies this trait is when Mulder attempts to comfort Amy 's mother following her daughter 's kidnapping . Mulder comments that he " knows how she feels " , not because of what happened to his sister , but because he can identify with her general sense of loss . Thematic elements concerning the concept of " remote viewing " — the paranormal ability to perceive feelings from a distance — are later explored in greater detail in the fifth season installment " Mind 's Eye " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Oubliette " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 15 @.@ 90 million viewers . In the UK it premiered the following year on BBC1 on October 17 , 1996 .
" Oubliette " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club assessed it as a " B + " , commenting that it " belongs to a subcategory of X @-@ Files episodes that can often be more satisfying than the usual categories " due to the villain being a human being . He described it as " impressively dark and occasionally moving " , and praised the cinematography , editing , and storytelling . However , he was critical of Ellis 's performance as Lucy , finding that her characterization did not fit the character , and he noted that the installment fell into the trope of using women as victims . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the program three and a half stars out of four . She felt that Mulder and Lucy 's relationship was " believable " and , in contrast to VanDerWerff , thought that Ellis 's performance was " perfect " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Oubliette " five stars out of five , noting that it was difficult and uncomfortable to watch with its parallels to the real world which made it " nevertheless one of the series ' boldest and greatest achievements " . The two praised the depth of Mulder 's characterization as well as Duchovny 's performance . Entertainment Weekly gave " Oubliette " a grade of " B- " , stating that the plot wasn 't as scary as it could have been considering the subject matter , positively critiquing that the episode was " worth it for Lucy 's channeling sequences " . The review also criticized Scully 's " aggressive I 'm @-@ not @-@ buying @-@ it mode " .
Writer Sarah Stegall awarded the entry five out of five , commenting that the subject matter made it hard for her to watch , as a mother herself . She praised the characterization of Mulder , and the performance by Duchovny , commenting that he brought warmth to the plot . Stegall positively described Mulder as " a truly gentle man who can show compassion without being maudlin about it " , but wrote negatively about Scully , who seemed " antagonistic " towards the well @-@ meaning Mulder , and the scene in which Scully " makes a half @-@ hearted attempt to resuscitate [ Amy ] before giving up " . Duchovny was particularly pleased with his work in the episode , feeling that it was amongst his best acting performance during the entire run of The X @-@ Files . He later cited the episode as one of his favorites .
= 2000 Spanish Grand Prix =
The 2000 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally the XLII Gran Premio Marlboro de España ) was a Formula One motor race held on 7 May 2000 at the Circuit de Catalunya , Montmeló , Barcelona , Catalonia , Spain . It was the fifth round of the 2000 Formula One season and the 42nd Spanish Grand Prix . The 65 @-@ lap race was won by McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen who started from the second position . His team @-@ mate David Coulthard finished second and Rubens Barrichello finished third in a Ferrari .
Michael Schumacher started from the pole position and held off a challenge from Häkkinen on the first lap . He maintained the lead until his first pit stop on lap 24 when a refuller was struck by his rear tyre , allowing Häkkinen to take over the lead until his pit stop two laps later . Michael Schumacher kept the lead for a further twenty @-@ one laps as he and Häkkinen made their second pit stops together , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Schumacher experienced a slow pit stop . Häkkinen kept the lead for the remaining twenty @-@ three laps to win the race .
The victory was Häkkinen 's first of the season , and put him into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , fourteen points behind Michael Schumacher . Coulthard 's second @-@ place finish meant that he dropped to third , and Barrichello third place moved him ahead of Ralf Schumacher . In the World Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish allowed them to move within seven points from leaders Ferrari . Williams remained in third on 15 points , with twelve races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and British American Racing ( BAR ) . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race ; two dry compounds ( soft and medium ) .
Before the race Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 34 points , ahead of David Coulthard ( 14 points ) and Mika Häkkinen ( twelve ) . Rubens Barrichello and Ralf Schumacher were tied in fourth place with nine points each . In the Constructors ' Championship Ferrari led with 43 points , seventeen points ahead of rival McLaren in second . Williams were third with twelve points , while Benetton and Jordan with eight points each contended for fourth place . Ferrari had dominated the championship , winning three out of the previous four races , with Coulthard winning the British Grand Prix . Barrichello , Häkkinen and Giancarlo Fisichella had second @-@ place finishes , and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had finished third .
After the British Grand Prix on 23 April , all teams conducted in @-@ season testing at the Circuit de Catalunya on April 25 – 28 to prepare for the upcoming Spanish Grand Prix . Jos Verstappen was fastest on the first day of testing despite spinning into the gravel early in the session , ahead of McLaren test driver Olivier Panis . Michael Schumacher was quickest on the second day . Michael Schumacher remained the fastest driver on the third day of testing . The session was disrupted because several drivers stopped on the circuit with problems with their cars . On the final day , ( which was held in wet weather conditions in the morning and during the end of the session ) Michael Schumacher stayed the quickest driver on the final day .
In the week leading up to the race , Coulthard was leasing the Learjet of friend David Murray when the aeroplane developed engine trouble en route to Côte d 'Azur International Airport in Nice , and crashed while attempting an emergency landing at Lyon @-@ Satolas Airport , France . Coulthard , his then @-@ girlfriend the American model Heidi Wichlinski and personal trainer / bodyguard Andy Matthews survived ; Murray 's personal pilot David Saunders and co @-@ pilot Dan Worley died . Coulthard suffered from bruises to his right rib cage and severe grazed elbows in the crash . FIA Formula One Safety and Medical Delegate Sid Watkins declared that Coulthard was passed fit to compete in the race .
BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve was passed fit in the days leading up to the race . At the Brazilian Grand Prix , Villeneuve suffered back injury after his seat became loose during the race and the effects became worse and it caused him to withdraw from testing in Barcelona . He was also required to undergo physiotherapy . BAR had their official test driver Darren Manning available to replace Villeneuve should the need arise .
Some teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . Minardi débuted a new gearbox which was constructed out of titanium , the first for a Formula One team . Prost made modifications to their cars oil system to improve the reliability of their engines and made minor aerodynamic changes to the front wing and the floor . The team also used an updated version of their engine the Peugeot A20 EV2 during the Friday practice sessions and reverted to the EV3 for the remainder of the weekend . BAR fitted their cars with a revised aerodynamic package which included new bargeboards and rear wings .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race , two each on Friday and Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour ; the third and fourth sessions , on Saturday morning , lasted 45 minutes each . Conditions were dry and overcast for the Friday practice sessions and was held on a dirty track which was caused by rainfall in the run up to the event . Michael Schumacher set the first session 's fastest time with an early lap of 1 : 21 @.@ 982 , half a second quicker than team @-@ mate Barrichello . Häkkinen had the third fastest time , ahead of Ralf Schumacher and Jean Alesi . The two Benetton drivers were sixth and eighth ( with Fisichella ahead of Alexander Wurz ) ; the two were separated by Johnny Herbert . Eddie Irvine and Verstappen completed the top ten . In the second practice session , Michael Schumacher was unable to improve his time but remained fastest ; Ralf Schumacher had the second fastest time after putting on a new set of tyres towards the end of the session . Barrichello was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Jarno Trulli , Coulthard and Jenson Button . Häkkinen , Pedro Diniz , Frentzen and Alesi followed in the top ten .
The weather remained dry for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Coulthard set the fastest lap of the third session at 1 : 21 @.@ 370 , ahead of team @-@ mate Häkkinen who was two @-@ tenths of a second slower . Ralf Schumacher ( with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 604 ) was third quickest , ahead of Michael Schumacher and Villeneuve . Fisichella and Frentzen followed in sixth and seventh . The two Arrows drivers were eighth and ninth ( with Verstappen ahead of Pedro de la Rosa ) . Mika Salo rounded out the top ten . During the final practice session , Michael Schumacher used a new set of tyres and set the fastest time of 1 : 21 @.@ 088 ; Coulthard finished with the second quickest lap . Barrichello was third fastest , in front of Häkkinen who struggled with a lack of grip and a loose rear end . Ralf Schumacher recorded the fifth fastest time . The Jordan drivers were sixth and seventh ( with Trulli in front of Frentzen ) . de la Rosa , Villeneuve and Button completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session the 107 % rule was in effect , requiring each driver to remain within 107 % of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race . The session was held in sunny and hot conditions , with the ambient temperature 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and the track temperature between 22 to 26 ° C ( 72 to 79 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched the first pole position of the season and the 24th of his career , with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 974 on his second run . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Häkkinen who set a lap 0 @.@ 076 seconds slower in the closing seconds of qualifying . Barrichello qualified third , and felt that his car did not feel good having not made any changes . Coulthard secured fourth position , despite losing time early in qualifying because of a fuel pressure problem . He decided against taking his team 's spare car set up for Häkkinen because he believed it would take up time and had to run more fuel throughout the remainder of the session . Ralf Schumacher qualified fifth and he was suffering from excessive oversteer which prevented him from setting a quicker lap time but was delighted with his starting position . Villeneuve secured sixth position and said he achieved the best from his car . Both Jordan drivers lined up the fourth row of the grid ( with Trulli ahead of Frentzen ) and believed they could have a better starting position because of windy conditions. de la Rosa and Irvine rounded out the top ten fastest drivers , with de la Rosa confident of finishing in a higher position in his home country . Later on Saturday afternoon , a fuel sample from de la Rosa 's car was analysed and declared illegal by the FIA and Arrows announced that it would appeal the decision , allowing de la Rosa to retain his starting position . Button , eleventh , reported his car felt unstable due to the windy conditions . He was ahead of Verstappen in the slower of the two Arrows , Salo in the faster Sauber , and Fisichella . Herbert , fifteenth , lost his front wing mounted camera after hitting a kerb in the early part of qualifying and made a minor mistake which prevented him from starting higher up the field . Diniz had excessive oversteer and managed sixteenth place . Ricardo Zonta managed seventeenth after he was unable to find a set @-@ up which suited him and his fastest time was nine @-@ tenths of a second slower than team @-@ mate Villeneuve . Alesi qualified eighteenth , ahead of Wurz in nineteenth . Heidfeld had engine problems and had to use the spare Prost monocoque and took 20th position . The two Minardi drivers Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane qualified at the rear of the field in positions 21 and 22 .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up in cool and dry weather . Michael Schumacher maintained his good performance , setting a time of 1 : 22 @.@ 855 despite going into the gravel after braking too deep and also drove the spare Ferrari . Häkkinen was the second @-@ fastest driver ; Barrichello was third and Coulthard rounded out the top four . After the session ended , Arrows withdrew their appeal after they accepted the FIA 's findings and de la Rosa was required to start at the back of the field .
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race ; the air temperature ranged between 21 to 30 ° C ( 70 to 86 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 22 to 23 ° C ( 72 to 73 ° F ) .The race started at 14 : 00 local time . A total of approximately 79 @,@ 000 people attended the race . Ralf Schumacher started the race in the spare Williams monocoque because his race car developed a sensor issue with his engine the previous day . When the race started , Häkkinen got a better start than Michael Schumacher but the Ferrari driver moved across the circuit to block Häkkinen . Ralf Schumacher also got a good start and passed Coulthard and Barrichello . At the exit of the first corner , Ralf Schumacher made contact with the rear of Häkkinen 's car , sending him slightly sideways and both drivers were able to continue . Button also made a good start , moving from eleventh to ninth by the end of the first lap , while Irvine dropped three places over the same distance . Diniz spun off into the gravel on the first lap and retired . At the end of the first lap , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Coulthard , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Trulli , Button and Salo .
Michael Schumacher began to pull away from Häkkinen. de la Rosa ran into the rear of Alesi at Wurth corner on lap two causing Alesi to retire , with de la Rosa sustaining a broken front wing and retired after going off at Campsa corner . Further back , Irvine passed Verstappen for twelfth position . The positions at the front were the same for the next sixteen laps with the gap between Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen fluctated from 1 @.@ 6 seconds to 3 @.@ 4 seconds while Coulthard and Barrichello battled Ralf Schumacher for third position . Button became the first driver to make a pit stop on lap 18 and rejoined in front of Mazzacane . Villeneuve made his pit stop on the 21st lap , which promoted Frentzen into the points @-@ scoring positions . After rejoining the circuit , his car caught fire and he pulled off to the side of the track at the exit of Seat corner . Trulli 's pit stop , which dropped him to 17th , proved problematic : he stalled his engine which required his mechanics to restart it . Ralf Schumacher made a pit stop one lap later and re @-@ emerged in fifth . On lap 24 , Michael Schumacher made his pit stop . As he accelerated from his pit box , his rear wheel hit the Ferrari refuller Nigel Stepney who was dragged before being knocked over . Stepney was taken to the circuit 's medical center for observation and he was replaced by reserve refuller Andrea Vacari . Coulthard made a pit stop on the same lap and experienced problems with leaving his pit box because he selected second gear and re @-@ emerged behind Ralf Schumacher .
Häkkinen made his pit stop on the 26th lap and emerged behind Michael Schumacher , while Verstappen retired from the race with an mechanical problem . All of the leaders had taken their stops by the start of lap 28 , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Barrichello , Coulthard , Button , Frentzen , Salo , Zonta and Wurz . Häkkinen set the fastest lap of the race on the same lap , a 1 : 24 @.@ 470 as he started to close the gap to Michael Schumacher , as Ralf Schumacher again became under pressure by Coulthard in fourth . Eleven laps later , Coulthard entered the pit lane , triggering the second round of pit stops . Ralf Schumacher and Barrichello made a pit stop on the following lap and rejoined behind Coulthard . Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen both made their pit stops on the 41st lap , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Michael Schumacher 's pit stop was problematic . Michael Schumacher 's mechanics had started refulling after putting his tyres on causing him to be stationary for ten seconds longer than usual . Salo and Zonta went into the pit lane on lap 45 , allowing Button into sixth .
Coulthard had caught Michael Schumacher ( who had air leaking from his left rear tyre ) by lap 46 . Coulthard attempted to pass the Ferrari driver on the following lap around the outside going into the first corner , but Schumacher drove into Coulthard 's line as a blocking manoevure . Coulthard replicated his move on lap 48 and passed Michael Schumacher around the outside under braking going into turn one . Ralf Schumacher had caught up to Michael Schumacher on lap 50 . Ralf Schumacher tried to overtake Michael Schumacher on the same lap , but the Ferrari driver blocked him . Ralf Schumacher was forced wide and lost momentum , allowing Barrichello to pass both drivers . Ralf Schumacher attempted to reclaim the position and got alongside Barrichello with Michael Schumacher taking the inside line to emerge in front . Michael Schumacher entered the pit lane on the same lap for new tyres and rejoined in front of Button . He immediately set new personal fastest laps in an effort to catch Ralf Schumacher . However , the order was stable at the front of the field as Häkkinen had a comfortable lead over Coulthard , while Ralf Schumacher had dropped back from Barrichello . Button pulled over to the side of the track on lap 62 , with smoke billowing from his engine , and retired . Häkkinen continued to maintain his lead and crossed the finish line on lap 65 to secure his first victory of the season in a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 550 @.@ 390 at an average speed of 122 @.@ 040 miles per hour ( 196 @.@ 404 km / h ) . Coulthard finished second 16 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello who clinched third , Ralf Schumacher in fourth , Michael Schumacher in fifth and Frentzen rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Salo , Zonta , Fisichella , Wurz and Irvine filled the next five finishers , while Trulli , Herbert , Gené , Mazzacane , Heidfeld and Button ( despite his retirement ) completed the final classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in a later press conference . Häkkinen said that he was " pleased " to win the race and admitted that he waited until the pit stop phase to have any chance of overtaking Michael Schumacher . The driver said that his team had more work to do on his car and was looking forward to the next race . Coulthard believed he made the right decision to compete in the Grand Prix despite his injuries and that the result was " the best thing that could have happened for the team and myself . " He also said he was looking forward to resting over the coming days to allow his injuries to heal . Barrichello admitted that the race had not been good for him until his overtake on Michael Schumacher and Ralf Schumacher and said the absence of Stepney caused his second pit stop to be slower than usual .
Attention focused on the battle between Ralf Schumacher and Michael Schumacher during the race . Michael Schumacher blamed his brother for instigating the move and did not understand why he was upset over the incident . Ralf Schumacher did not comment and stated that he would watch a video of the incident before he would say anything . Their father , Rolf talked to the pair in an effort to get them reconciled . One week after the race , Ralf Schumacher said that tensions between him and his brother had eased and that there were no hard feelings for each other , saying , " It 's a lot of fun when we are out there on the track duelling against each other . " There was similar ill @-@ feeling between de la Rosa and Alesi after their collision on lap two. de la Rosa accused Alesi of blocking him , and of causing the crash by not looking in his mirrors , while Alesi said de la Rosa attempted to overtake him in a corner where overtaking is difficult .
After the race , Häkkinen reduced the lead of Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to be seven points behind . Coulthard fell to third , two points behind Michael Schumacher . Barrichello moved up into fourth place on 13 points , and Ralf Schumacher fell to fifth overall . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari maintained their lead but McLaren 's one @-@ two finish moved to within seven points clear of the Italian team . Williams maintained third position with nine points . Frentzen 's sixth @-@ place finish allowed Jordan to move point clear of Benetton in the battle for fourth , with twelve races remaining in the season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Liberty Arming the Patriot =
Liberty Arming the Patriot , sometimes called Freedom Arming the Patriot , is a bronze sculpture at Park Place in Pawtucket , Rhode Island , commemorating the participation of the city 's citizens in the American Civil War . It was designed by William Granville Hastings and cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company in 1897 . Unlike many Civil War memorials , Liberty Arming the Patriot is a dynamic composition , depicting a young farmer setting his plow aside , and reaching to take a sword from a classical female figure clad in breastplate and wielding a pike . The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The sculpture was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = History and design = =
The sculpture was commissioned by the Ladies ' Soldiers ' Memorial Association of Pawtucket , Rhode Island to honor those who served in the American Civil War . The funding for the sculpture came as the result of an 11 @-@ year fundraising campaign that was provided for by donations and entertainment events . The cost of the monument was stated to be $ 13 @,@ 000 by The New York Times , but report stated it to be $ 12 @,@ 000 . William Granville Hastings was chosen as the sculptor to execute the construction of the monument after winning a competition . The sculpture was cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company .
The central feature of the monument depicts the theme of a young man called from civil life to serve his nation in a time of need and it transforms the theme into a contemporary allegory . It captures the decisive moment as farmer is caught mid @-@ transition , with his left hand still on the plow handle , and taking the sword with his right hand from Liberty . The details of the farmer includes realistic work clothes , a yoked shirt with rolled sleeves and work trousers tucked into his boots . Liberty , identified by her Phrygian cap , stands just above the farmer in classical robes with a breastplate , sandals and cloak . Her face is impassive as she bestows the sword upon the farmer with her left hand while her right hand holds her pike .
Beneath the farmer and Liberty is a bronze plaque depicting a Union artillery battery under the command of General Ambrose Burnside capturing a bridge in the Battle of Antietam . Flanked on the sides are two smaller triangular plaques which depict the female figures of History and Eternity . The Scribe of History , alternatively known as Epic Poetry , is writing on a tablet and Eternity both contemplates and is identified by a fern . The monument was dedicated on May 31 , 1897 , in ceremony conducted by the Grand Army of the Republic and an oration given by the Governor of Rhode Island , Elisha Dyer , Jr .. The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide .
According to the National Register of Historic Places , Liberty Arming the Patriot is historically significant as a " good representative of the character of early twentieth century figurative sculpture " and the quality of its design . It is also historically significant for its association with the Gorham Manufacturing Company , a prominent Rhode Island producer of high quality silverware and bronze statuary . Though it is commemorative in intention , the statue is important " because it documents the principal effort of Pawtucket to honor those who served in the Civil War . " The sculpture was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = Inscription = =
In Grateful Recognition
Of The Valiant And Self @-@ Sacrificing Service To Their Country
Of All Persons
Who Went From Pawtucket And It Vicinity To Join
The Forces Of The United States
During The Civil War .
And Especially To The Memory Of Those Who Suffered
And Died In That Service .
This Monument Is Erected By
The Ladies Soldiers Memorial Association
Of Pawtucket , Rhode Island
And By Then Is Consecrated As An Everlasting
Memorial
Anno Domini 1897
= Triaenops menamena =
Triaenops menamena is a bat in the genus Triaenops found on Madagascar , mainly in the drier regions . It was known as Triaenops rufus until 2009 , when it was discovered that that name had been incorrectly applied to the species . Triaenops rufus is a synonym of Triaenops persicus , a Middle Eastern species closely related to T. menamena — the Malagasy species had previously been placed as a subspecies of T. persicus by some authors . Triaenops menamena is mostly found in forests , but also occurs in other habitats . It often roosts in large colonies and eats insects such as butterflies and moths . Because of its wide range , common occurrence , and tolerance of habitat degradation , it is not considered to be threatened .
With a forearm length of 50 to 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) in males and 46 to 53 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 1 in ) in females , this is a medium @-@ sized bat . Its fur color is variable , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray , but it is generally darker than the species in the closely related genus Paratriaenops which also occur on Madagascar . The skull contains a pronounced swelling around the nose and the second upper premolar is displaced outside the toothrow . The maximum frequency of the echolocation call averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz and the species can easily be recognized on the basis of its call .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1881 , Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards described two new species in the genus Triaenops on the basis of specimens supposedly collected by Léon Humblot on Madagascar : the reddish Triaenops rufus and the larger , gray T. humbloti . Jean Dorst , who reviewed Madagascan Triaenops in 1947 , retained both as separate species ; in another review , published in 1982 , John Edwards Hill considered the two to represent the same species . In 1994 , Karl Koopman considered rufus itself to be part of the Middle Eastern and mainland African species Triaenops persicus , a possibility Hill had discussed , but most authors regarded the two as distinct species . In 2006 , Julie Ranivo and Steven Goodman revised Madagascan Triaenops and found little variation among specimens of T. rufus from throughout the dry parts of the island . Three years later , they published another paper which showed that the original material of T. rufus and T. humbloti was distinct from Madagascan specimens identified as " Triaenops rufus " and more similar to T. persicus . On his journey to Madagascar , Humblot had stayed in Somalia and Yemen , and Goodman and Ranivo concluded that he had probably collected the Triaenops there , after which their provenance was incorrectly recorded . Thus , rufus and humbloti cannot be used for the Madagascan species , and Goodman and Ranivo proposed the new name Triaenops menamena for the species formerly known as T. rufus . The specific name menamena is Malagasy for " reddish " , referring to the animal 's coloration . " Rufous trident bat " has been used as a common name for Triaenops rufus .
Triaenops menamena is currently one of four living species in the genus Triaenops ; a 2009 revision by Petr Benda and Peter Vallo split off the African T. afer and the Yemeni T. parvus from T. persicus and removed three other species , including two from Madagascar , to the separate genus Paratriaenops . An extinct species , Triaenops goodmani , is known from northwestern Madagascar . In 2007 and 2008 , Amy Russell and colleagues used phylogenetic and coalescent methodologies to investigate the history of the Triaenops group . They found that T. menamena ( as T. rufus ) was closest to mainland African Triaenops ( but did not study Middle Eastern bats ) and concluded that T. menamena and the species of Paratriaenops ( then still placed in Triaenops ) independently reached Madagascar from Africa ; the colonization of the island by T. menamena was dated to about 660 @,@ 000 years ago . Benda and Vallo also studied phylogenetic relationships in Triaenops and included Middle Eastern T. persicus and T. parvus in their analysis . They found little resolution of relationships within Triaenops , but some evidence suggested that T. menamena is more closely related to the Middle Eastern species than to T. afer in mainland Africa ; therefore , T. menamena may have reached Madagascar from the Middle East or northeastern Africa . They also placed the split between T. menamena and the other species much further back , at around 4 million years ago .
= = Description = =
Triaenops menamena is a medium @-@ sized species with variable fur coloration , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray . It is larger and darker than Paratriaenops auritus and P. furculus . Among living Triaenops species , it is smaller than T. persicus and T. afer , but somewhat larger than T. parvus . The extinct Triaenops goodmani , which is known only from three mandibles ( lower jaws ) , is also larger . In the complexly shaped noseleaf ( a group of fleshy structures around the nose and mouth ) , T. menamena has the trident structure characteristic of Triaenops and Paratriaenops : three adjacent lancets ( projecting structures ) on the posterior leaf . In T. menamena , the two outer lancets are shorter than the middle one and curved , whereas the three lancets are more equal in Paratriaenops . The anterior leaf contains a broad , flat , horizontal process and the intermediate leaf contains a pointed process . The ears are small and broad and contain notches on the inner side . The fur is silky and the hairs on the body are about 5 to 6 mm long . The wing membrane is dark and translucent and the end of the tail usually projects from the uropatagium ( tail membrane ) . Males average slightly larger than females . Wingspan is 270 to 305 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) .
The skull is similar to that of Madagascan Paratriaenops , but the premaxilla is longer . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is well @-@ developed and contains a pronounced nasal swelling , which is less pronounced than in Paratriaenops ; the depression behind the swelling is relatively shallow . Compared to other species of Triaenops , the rostrum is relatively narrow and short , similar to T. parvus ; T. afer and T. persicus have a broader rostrum . The front margin of the rostrum is cast back between the left and right corners . A transverse line passes over the roof of the rostrum . The infraorbital foramen , an opening in the skull , is oblong in shape . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are not broadened towards the sides , are connected to the maxillaries by broad bones , and contain clear crests on their upper sides . In T. menamena , these crests are rectangular in form and larger than in Paratriaenops . The braincase is lower than in other species of Triaenops . The sagittal crest , which is on the roof of the braincase , is poorly developed . In the mandible , the coronoid process is blunt and rounded , but the angular process ( both processes at the back of the bone ) is small .
The upper incisors have two cusps and the upper canine has three — a large central one , a small but well @-@ developed one at the back , and a small cuspule at the front . The front upper premolar is projected outside the toothrow , so that the canine before it and back premolar behind it touch . The first lower incisor has two cusps and the second has three . On the second lower molar , the protoconid cusp is notably taller than the hypoconid ; these cusps are about as high in T. goodmani .
The species can easily be identified from recordings of its echolocation call . The call consists of a component with constant frequency followed by a short one with changing frequency . The call takes 6 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 5 ms , averaging 10 @.@ 1 ms , and the period between two calls is 22 @.@ 7 to 86 @.@ 3 ms , averaging 42 @.@ 7 ms . The maximum frequency averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz , the minimum frequency averages 82 @.@ 0 kHz , and the call emits the most energy at a frequency of 93 @.@ 2 kHz .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Triaenops menamena mainly occurs in the dry regions of western Madagascar , but has also been recorded in humid areas in the far southeast and northeast , and is found up to 1300 m ( 4300 ft ) above sea level . It mainly occurs in forests , but has also been recorded outside forest and is not dependent on it . An obligate cave dweller , it is known to roost in large colonies , with one cave colony estimated to contain over 40 @,@ 000 bats ; this cave also contained an estimated 10 @,@ 000 Paratriaenops furculus . The effective population size of the species is estimated to be about 121 @,@ 000 . Lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) form the main component of its diet , but it also eats Coleoptera ( beetles ) and Hemiptera ( bugs ) and fewer members of some other insect orders . It is unclear how the ecological niches of Triaenops and the less frequently captured Paratriaenops furculus are separated , as both eat lepidopterans and occur in the same regions .
= = Conservation status = =
Under Triaenops rufus , the IUCN Red List lists this species as being of " Least Concern " , citing its common occurrence over a wide distribution and tolerance of human modifications of its habitat , even though its forest habitat is being destroyed in places . It has been recorded in numerous protected areas . Bats , mainly the large Hipposideros commersoni , are sometimes hunted for food in southwestern Madagascar , and T. menamena is also taken incidentally .
= Henry le Despenser =
Henry le Despenser ( c . 1341 – 1406 ) was a 14th @-@ century English nobleman and Bishop of Norwich whose reputation as the ' Fighting Bishop ' was gained for his part in suppressing the Peasants ' Revolt in East Anglia and in defeating the peasants at the Battle of North Walsham in the summer of 1381 .
As a young man he studied at Oxford University and held numerous positions in the English Church . He fought in Italy before being consecrated as a bishop in 1370 . Parliament agreed to allow Despenser to lead a crusade to Flanders in 1383 , which was directed against Louis II of Flanders , a supporter of the antipope Clement VII . The crusade was in defence of English economic and political interests . Although well funded , the expedition was poorly equipped and lacked proper military leadership . After initial successes , a disastrous attempt to besiege the city of Ypres forced Despenser to return to England . Upon his return he was impeached in parliament . His temporalities were confiscated by Richard II of England , but were returned in 1385 , the year he accompanied the king northward to repel a potential French invasion of Scotland .
Despenser was an energetic and able administrator who staunchly defended his diocese against Lollardy . In 1399 , he was among those who stood by Richard , following the landing of Henry Bolingbroke in Yorkshire towards the end of June . He was arrested for refusing to come to terms with Bolingbroke . The following year , he was implicated in the Epiphany Rising , but was pardoned .
= = Birth and ancestry = =
Henry le Despenser was the youngest son of Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) , who married Anne ( died 1367 ) , daughter of Sir Ralph Ferrers of Groby . Henry was born around 1342 , the year that his father was killed at the siege of Vannes . He and his three brothers all grew up to become soldiers . His eldest brother Edward le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer ( around 1335 – 1375 ) was reputed to be one of the greatest knights of his age : he and Henry fought together for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 . Comparatively little is known of his other siblings : Hugh le Despenser fought abroad and died in Padua in March 1374 , Thomas fought in France and died unmarried in 1381 and Gilbert le Despenser died in 1382 . Their sister Joan was a nun at Shaftesbury Abbey until her death in 1384 .
The le Despenser family originated from the lords of Gomiécourt in north @-@ eastern France . Henry 's grandmother Eleanor de Clare was a granddaughter of Edward I of England .
Henry 's great @-@ grandfather Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester ( 1262 – 1326 ) and grandfather Hugh Despenser the Younger ( 1286 – 1326 ) , who was a favourite of Edward II , were both exiled and later executed after the rebellion of Queen Isabella and her lover Mortimer against Edward II of England . Hugh le Despenser had become Edward II 's adviser , holding power until the king 's defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn , but he was later restored to favour . His son was appointed the king 's chamberlain and enjoyed a still larger share of royal favour . The barons were hostile to the Despensers , due to their acquired wealth and perceived arrogance , and in 1321 they were banished . Their sentences were soon afterwards annulled and from 1322 they played an important role in the governing of the country , but in 1326 Isabella acted against them and both men were tried and executed .
In 1375 , Despenser 's nephew Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester succeeded his father Edward . Thomas was captured and killed following the attempt to restore Richard II in the Epiphany Rising .
= = Early career = =
In 1353 ( as an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy ) Henry ' de Exon ' became the canon of Llandaff and a year later he was secured a canonry of Salisbury Cathedral . By the age of nineteen he had become the rector of Bosworth and by February 1361 he was a master at Oxford University , studying civil law . He was ordained on 17 December 1362 . By 20 April 1364 he was archdeacon of Llandaff . Of his early life Capgrave tells us that he spent some time in Italy fighting for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 :
'In this same tyme was Ser Herry Spenser a grete werrioure in Ytaile , or the tyme that he was promoted.'
= = Bishop of Norwich = =
In 1370 Despenser , then the canon of Salisbury , was appointed as Bishop of Norwich by a papal bull dated 3 April 1370 . He was consecrated at Rome on 20 April and returned to England . He received the spiritualities of his see from the Archbishop of Canterbury on 12 July 1370 and the temporalities from the king on 14 August .
= = = Involvement in the suppression of the Peasants ' Revolt = = =
During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels from Kent and Essex marched to London and , once admitted to the city , managed to capture the Tower of London . King Richard , who had promised to agree to all the demands of the peasants , met the rebels outside the city , where the leader of the peasants Wat Tyler was killed and the rebellion was ended . The king 's promises were retracted .
The rebellion quickly spread to other parts of England , including the diocese of Norwich , where it lasted for less than a fortnight . On 14 June a group of rebels reached Thetford and from there the insurrection spread over south @-@ western Norfolk towards the Fens . At the same time the rebels , led by a local dyer , Geoffrey Litster , moved across the north @-@ eastern part of the county , urging insurrection throughout the local area . Over the next few days , the rebels converged on Norwich , Lynn and Swaffham . Norwich , then one of the largest and most important cities in the realm , was taken and occupied by Litster and his followers , who caused considerable damage to the property and possessions of their enemies once they managed to enter the city . The Norwich rebels then travelled to Yarmouth , destroying legal records and landowners ' possessions ; other insurgents moving across north @-@ east Norfolk destroyed court rolls and taxation documents ; there were numerous incidents of pillage and extortion across the whole county .
Despenser first heard news of the rising in his own diocese at a time when he was absent at his manor of Burley in Rutland , 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Norwich . Armed , he hastened back to Norfolk via Peterborough , Cambridge and Newmarket , with a company of only eight lances and a small body of bowmen . His followers increased on the way , and by the time he reached North Walsham , near the Norfolk coast , he had a considerable force under his command . There he found the rebels entrenched and defended by makeshift fortifications . According to Thomas Walsingham , in the Battle of North Walsham the bishop himself led the assault and overpowered his enemies in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Many were slain or captured , including the rebels ' leader , who was hanged , drawn and quartered soon afterwards . Despenser personally superintended Litster 's execution . In the following months he proceeded to deal with other rebels in his diocese . But the rigour with which he put down the rebellion made him highly unpopular in Norfolk and in the following year a plot was organised to murder him . The scheme was betrayed in time by one of the conspirators , and the plotters were dealt with by the authorities .
= = = Norwich Crusade of 1383 = = =
Soon after Urban VI had been elected pope in 1378 , Robert of Geneva was elected as a rival pope , taking the name Pope Clement VII and removing himself to Avignon . The so @-@ called Western Schism subsequently caused a great crisis in the Church and created rivalry and conflict throughout Christian Europe . It was eventually resolved as a result of the Council of Constance ( 1414 – 1418 ) .
In the autumn and winter of 1382 , Flanders had been invaded by Charles VI of France . Philip Van Artevelde had fallen at the Battle of Roosebeke and the country had been compelled to submit to the French king , who obliged all the conquered towns to recognise Clement VII . In response to events in Flanders , Pope Urban issued bulls for the proclamation of a crusade , choosing Bishop Despenser to lead a campaign against the followers of Clement VII in Flanders . He granted Despenser extraordinary powers for the fulfillment of his mission and plenary indulgence to those who should take part in or contribute support to it .
Both the commons and King Richard II were enthusiastic about the launch of a crusade to Flanders , for political and economic reasons : revenues from the English wool staple ( that had ceased following the advance of the French ) could be resumed ; sending the bishop and not the king or his uncles to Flanders would enable John of Gaunt 's unpopular plans for a royal crusade to Castille to be abandoned ; French forces would be drawn away from the Iberian peninsula ; and Anglo @-@ Flemish relations would be strengthened . Another advantage in approving a crusade was that its cost would be borne by the Church and not by means of government levies : ever since the Peasants ' Revolt , the government was fearful of the consequences of imposing a tax to pay for a new war against the French .
On 6 December 1382 , Richard ordered the crusade to be published throughout England . Later that month the bishop and his men took the cross at St. Paul 's Cathedral . In February 1383 Parliament , after hesitating in entrusting the mission to a churchman , ultimately assigned to him the subsidy which it had granted the king in the previous October for carrying on the war in Flanders . The king 's only stipulation was that the crusaders should await the arrival of William Beauchamp before launching offensive operations against the French and their allies .
The bishop issued mandates for the publication of the bulls and the archbishop did the same . The enterprise was ardently seconded by the friars and contributions of immense value were made from all quarters , but especially , according to Henry Knighton , from " the rich ladies of England " . The English landed at Calais in May 1383 and proceeded to attack Gravelines , which was in the hands of the French . Gravelines , Dunkirk and the neighbouring country ( including the towns of Bourbourg , Bergues , Poperinghe , and Nieuport ) soon fell . On 25 May the crusaders put to flight a Franco @-@ Flemish army , under the command of the Count of Flanders , in a pitched battle fought near Dunkirk . Despenser was then persuaded by his followers to attempt to besiege Ypres , which was to prove to be the turning point of the crusade . He was unwilling to attack the city but his Gantois allies and some of his officers insisted that Ypres should be taken .
The inhabitants of Ypres were well prepared for a siege by the time the English and their allies arrived and attacked the city on 8 June 1383 . Dwellings in the outlying suburbs had been abandoned ; the timber from them was used to strengthen the earth ramparts and the stone gates of the city . A mission had been dispatched to Paris to replace artillery powder stocks . The city was well organised under the command of the Castellan of Ypres , John d 'Oultre , and had been divided into different defensive sectors . Although the ramparts were low , they were well protected with a double wet ditch , a high thorny hedge reinforced with stakes and a wooden stockade and fire @-@ step .
The English attacked the Temple Gate on the first day but were beaten off . Over the next three days the city gates were attacked simultaneously , without success . Before the end of the first week of the siege , reinforcements arrived to completely encircle the city walls and the outer ditch was breached using soil . On the eighth day ( 15 June ) Despenser attacked the defences with artillery , firing on the Messines Gate and damaging it , but not enough to cause the city defences to be breached . Over the following days of the siege , sustained artillery attacks had little overall effect and the assaults of Despenser 's troops were all beaten off . An attempt to drain the ditches seriously threatened the Yprois , but the attempt was unsuccessful and the besieged managed to communicate with the Duke of Burgundy through Louis le Mâle , who was able to raise a large French army to come to the aid of the city . On 8 August , after eight weeks of effort , Despenser abruptly decided to abandon the siege , leaving his allies to continue on their own .
After the débâcle at Ypres , the bishop 's forces divided , some going back to England , some remaining with the bishop and others under Sir Thomas Trivet and Sir Hugh Calveley retiring to Bourbourg and Bergues . The bishop and Calveley had wished to advance into France , but Sir William Elmham , Trivet and some of the other commanders refused to go . The bishop , after entering Picardy for some distance , was obliged to fall back upon Gravelines . It turned out that the French had little stomach for a showdown with the English and their allies , preferring instead to negotiate : part of the French army was unwilling to fight when Despenser and Calveley encountered it when moving towards Picardy . It is possible that had King Richard crossed the Channel with a large English army , the campaign would have ended in a famous victory . However , for the demoralised and disease @-@ ridden English forces , the arrival of the French headed by the boy @-@ king Charles VI was decisive . Charles had taken the oriflamme on 2 August and his army was mustered in Arras on 15 August . They advanced into Flanders , reaching Thérou | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@-@ American churches , Calvary Baptist and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal , were founded in 1890 . Just three years after the fire , in 1892 , James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway arrived in the chosen site for Hill 's rail yards , the newly created township of Hillyard ( annexed by Spokane in 1924 ) . Spokane became an important rail shipping and transportation hub for the Inland Empire , connecting mines in the Silver Valley with agricultural areas around the Palouse region . The city 's population ballooned to 19 @,@ 922 in 1890 , and to 36 @,@ 848 in 1900 with the arrival of additional railroads . By 1910 the population had hit 104 @,@ 000 , and Spokane eclipsed Walla Walla as the commercial center of the Inland Empire . In time the city came to be known as the " capital " of the Inland Empire and the heart of a vast tributary region . After the arrival of the Northern Pacific , Union Pacific , Great Northern , and Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific railroads , Spokane became one of the most important rail centers in the western U.S.
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Expansion abruptly stopped in the 1910s and was followed by a period of population decline , due in large part to Spokane 's slowing economy . Control of regional mines and resources became increasingly dominated by national corporations rather than local people and organizations , diverting capital outside of Spokane and decreasing growth and investment opportunities in the city . During this time of stagnation , unrest was prevalent among the area 's unemployed , who became victimized by " job sharks " , who charged a fee for signing up workers in the logging camps . Job sharks and employment agencies were known to cheat itinerant workers , sometimes paying bribes to periodically fire entire work crews , thus generating repetitive fees for themselves . Crime spiked in the 1890s and 1900s , with eruptions of violent activity involving unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) , or " Wobblies " as they were often known , whose free speech fights had begun to garner national attention . Now , with grievances concerning the unethical practices of the employment agencies , they initiated a free speech fight in September 1908 by purposely breaking a city ordinance on soapboxing . With IWW encouragement , union members from many western states came to Spokane to take part in what had become a publicity stunt . Many Wobblies were incarcerated , including feminist labor leader Elizabeth Gurley Flynn , who published her account in the local Industrial Worker .
After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging became the primary influences in the Spokane economy . The population explosion and the building of homes , railroads , and mines in northern Idaho and southern British Columbia fueled the industry . Although overshadowed in importance by the vast timbered areas on the coastal regions west of the Cascades , and burdened with monopolistic rail freight rates and stiff competition , Spokane became a noted leader in the manufacture of doors , window sashes , blinds , and other planing mill products . Rail freight rates were much higher in Spokane than the rates in coastal seaport cities such as Seattle and Portland , so much so that Minneapolis merchants could ship goods first to Seattle and then back to Spokane for less than shipping directly to Spokane , even though the rail line ran through Spokane on the way to the coast . [ f ] Local morale was affected for years by the collapse of the Division Street Bridge early in the morning on December 15 , 1915 , which killed five people and injured over 20 , but a new bridge was built ( eventually replaced in 1994 ) . The 1920 census showed a net increase of just 35 individuals , which actually indicates that thousands left the city when considering the natural growth rate of a population . Growth in the 1920s and 1930s remained slow but less drastically so , forcing city boosters to market the city as a quiet , comfortable place suitable for raising a family rather than a dynamic community full of opportunity . The Inland Empire was heavily dependent on natural resources and extractive goods produced from mines , forests , and farms , which experienced a fall in demand . The situation improved slightly with the start of World War II as aluminum production commenced in Spokane due to the area 's cheap electricity ( produced from regional dams ) and the increased demand for airplanes .
= = = Second half of the 20th century = = =
After decades of stagnation and slow growth , Spokane businessmen formed Spokane Unlimited in the early 1960s , an organization that sought to revitalize downtown Spokane . A recreation park showcasing the Spokane Falls was the preferred option , and after successful negotiation to relocate the railroad facilities on Havermale Island , Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair in Expo ' 74 on May 4 , becoming the smallest city at the time to host a World 's Fair . This event transformed Spokane 's downtown , removing a century of railroad infrastructure and reinventing the urban core . After Expo ' 74 , the fairgrounds became the 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) Riverfront Park .
The growth witnessed in the late 1970s and early 1980s was interrupted by another U.S. recession in 1981 , in which silver , timber , and farm prices dropped . The period of decline for the city lasted into the 1990s and was also marked by a loss of many steady family @-@ wage jobs in the manufacturing sector . Although this was a tough period , Spokane 's economy had started to benefit from some measure of economic diversification ; growing companies such as Key Tronic and other research , marketing , and assembly plants for technology companies helped lessen Spokane 's dependence on natural resources .
= = = 21st century = = =
As of 2014 , Spokane is still trying to make the transition to a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector . Developing the city 's strength in the medical and health sciences fields has seen some success , resulting in the expansion of the University District with a medical school branch . The city faces challenges such as a scarcity of high @-@ paying jobs , pockets of poverty , and areas of high crime .
The opening of the River Park Square Mall in 1999 sparked a downtown rebirth that included the building of the Spokane Arena and expansion of the Spokane Convention Center . Other major projects include the building of the Big Easy concert house ( now the Knitting Factory ) and renovation of the historic Montvale Hotel , the Kirtland Cutter @-@ designed Davenport Hotel ( after being vacant for over 20 years ) , and the Fox Theater ( now home to the Spokane Symphony ) . The Kendall Yards development on the west side of downtown Spokane is one of the largest construction projects in the city 's history . Directly across the Spokane River from downtown , it will blend residential and retail space with plazas and walking trails .
In August 2015 , the city entered a legal battle with international agricultural giant Monsanto , alleging that the company has pumped harmful products into the Spokane River for decades , and insist the company be responsible for cleanup costs . The city also announced it will spend hundreds of millions of dollars to keep harmful products out of the river in the coming years .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Spokane is located on the Spokane River in eastern Washington at an elevation of 1 @,@ 843 feet ( 562 m ) above sea level , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Idaho , 110 miles ( 180 km ) south of the Canadian border , 232 miles ( 373 km ) east of Seattle , and 277 miles ( 446 km ) southwest of Calgary . The lowest elevation in the city of Spokane is the northernmost point of the Spokane River within city limits ( in Riverside State Park ) at 1 @,@ 608 feet ( 490 m ) ; the highest elevation is on the northeast side , near the community of Hillyard ( though closer to Beacon Hill and the North Hill Reservoir ) at 2 @,@ 591 feet ( 790 m ) . Spokane is part of the Inland Northwest region , consisting of eastern Washington , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , and northeastern Oregon . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 60 @.@ 02 square miles ( 155 @.@ 45 km2 ) , of which 59 @.@ 25 square miles ( 153 @.@ 46 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 77 square miles ( 1 @.@ 99 km2 ) is water .
Spokane lies in the Columbia Plateau ecoregion on the eastern edge of the basaltic Channeled Scablands steppe , a plain that then eventually rises sharply to the east towards the rugged , timbered Rocky Mountain foothills , the Selkirk Mountains . It is in a transition area between the barren landscape of the Columbia Basin and the coniferous forests to the east ; to the south are the lush prairies and rolling hills of the Palouse . The highest peak in Spokane County is Mount Spokane , at an elevation of 5 @,@ 883 feet ( 1 @,@ 793 m ) , located on the eastern side of the Selkirk Mountains . The most prominent water feature in the area is the Spokane River , a 111 @-@ mile ( 179 km ) tributary of the Columbia River , originating from Lake Coeur d 'Alene in northern Idaho . The river flows west across the Washington state line through downtown Spokane , meeting Latah Creek , then turns to the northwest , where it is joined by the Little Spokane River on its way to the Columbia River , north of Davenport . The Channeled Scablands and many of the area 's numerous large lakes , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene and Lake Pend Oreille , were formed by the Missoula Floods after the ice @-@ dammed Glacial Lake Missoula ruptured at the end of the last ice age . The Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge south of Cheney is the closest natural reserve , and the closest national park is Glacier National Park , approximately a four @-@ hour drive away from Spokane .
= = = Climate = = =
Spokane has a dry @-@ summer continental climate ( Dsb under the Köppen classification ) , a rare climate due to its elevation and significant winter precipitation ; Spokane , however , is adjacent to and sometimes even classified as a cool @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) because the average temperature for the coldest month is just over 27 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) .
The area typically has a hot , arid climate during the summer months , bracketed by short spring and fall seasons . On average , July and August are equally warm , and the coolest month is December ; July averages 69 @.@ 5 ° F ( 20 @.@ 8 ° C ) while December averages 27 @.@ 5 ° F ( − 2 @.@ 5 ° C ) . Daily temperature ranges are large during the summer , often exceeding 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) , and small during the winter , with a range just above 10 ° F ( 5 @.@ 6 ° C ) . The reason is the very opposite weather existing between the extremely sunny summers and the extremely overcast winters . The record high and low are 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) and − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) , but temperatures of more than 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or less than − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) are rare . Temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) occur an average of 19 days annually , Temperatures above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) occur an average of only 1 day annually , and those below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) average 3 @.@ 5 days a year .
Spokane 's location , between the Cascades Range to the west and the Rocky Mountains to the east and north , protects it from weather patterns experienced in other parts of the Pacific Northwest . The Cascade Mountains form a barrier to the eastward flow of moist and relatively mild air from the Pacific Ocean in winter and cool air in summer . As a result of the rain shadow effect of the Cascades , the Spokane area has 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 420 mm ) average annual precipitation , less than half of Seattle 's 37 inches ( 940 mm ) . The most precipitation occurs in December , and summer is the driest time of the year . The Rockies shield Spokane from some of the winter season 's coldest air masses traveling southward across Canada .
= = Administration and politics = =
The City of Spokane operates under a mayor – council form of government , with executive and legislative branches . In 2011 , David Condon was elected mayor as a non @-@ partisan candidate , taking office on the last business day of the year . The previous mayor was Mary Verner , who succeeded the recalled James " Jim " West . Spokane voters have not reelected a mayor since 1973 , when incumbent David H. Rodgers was granted a second term . The city elected James Everett Chase as its first African @-@ American mayor in 1981 , and after his retirement , elected the city 's first woman mayor , Vicki McNeil . Spokane is the county seat of Spokane County , a position it wrested from Cheney in 1886 .
Democrat Jay Inslee was elected governor of Washington in 2012 . Federally , Spokane is part of Washington 's 5th congressional district , and has been represented by Republican Cathy McMorris Rodgers since 2004 . Washington State is represented nationally in the Senate by Democrat Patty Murray and Democrat Maria Cantwell . In the 2012 general election , Spokane County favored Mitt Romney for President over Barack Obama by 51 @.@ 5 to 45 @.@ 7 percent ; on the state ballot , the county supported the legalization of recreational marijuana ballot measure by 52 @.@ 2 to 47 @.@ 9 percent and opposed the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage by 44 @.@ 1 to 55 @.@ 9 percent . Spokane native Tom Foley was a Democratic Speaker of the House and served as a representative of Washington 's 5th district for 30 years , enjoying large support from Spokane , until his narrow defeat in the " Republican Revolution " of 1994 , the only time U.S. voters have turned out a sitting Speaker of the House since 1860 . Today , Spokane has a slight Democratic tilt , although the county and surrounding metropolitan area as a whole is staunchly conservative , and as a result , Spokane is governed by a strong amount of Republicans .
= = = Crime = = =
The crime rate per 1 @,@ 000 people in the Spokane metropolitan area ( Spokane County ) was 64 @.@ 8 in 2012 , higher than the Washington state average of 38 @.@ 3 ; the violent crime rate of 3 @.@ 8 and property crime rate of 61 also exceed the statewide averages of 2 @.@ 5 and 35 @.@ 8 , respectively . Spokane 's crime rate is also higher for both violent and property crime than in 98 % of communities in the U.S.
Data shows that most crimes reported in the city tend to be focused around the downtown city center and its environs . Half of all property crimes are localized in about 6 @.@ 5 percent of the city . An individual in Spokane has a 1 in 140 chance of becoming a victim of burglary , larceny , motor vehicle theft , or arson . Spokane had the fourth highest rate of auto theft in the U.S. in 2010 and 2011 according to the National Insurance Crime Bureau . Drive @-@ by shootings and drug use , particularly crack cocaine use , became worse in the early 1990s , and four drive @-@ by shootings were recorded in December 1993 alone . In the 1990s , a special gang unit within the Spokane Police Department was established , with an officer " collecting intelligence on gang activity and disseminating it to street officers " . The 1990s also saw Spokane 's most prolific serial killer , Robert Lee Yates , who killed thirteen prostitutes in Spokane 's East Sprague red light district and confessed to two others in Tacoma , Washington . The transition of the Spokane Police Department to a community @-@ policing precinct model has been successful in curbing crime rates since its introduction downtown , and has been expanded citywide .
Spokane and the Spokane Police Department ( SPD ) have received national publicity and scrutiny in the 2000s and 2010s due to many officer @-@ involved shootings and the use of excessive force . The most high @-@ profile of these incidents was the 2006 death of Otto Zehm , a mentally challenged man who was initially suspected of theft at a convenience store . Zehm was later found to have committed no crime , but was struck with batons by several officers and tasered . The increased pressure on the SPD prompted an independent review by a commission of the organization 's use @-@ of @-@ force policies , an internal culture audit , and the purchase of body cameras .
Spokane 's high crime rate is related to its being a major dumping ground for Washington state 's prison system .
= = = Utilities = = =
The City of Spokane provides municipal water , wastewater management , and solid waste management . Spokane operates Washington 's only waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant as well as two solid waste transfer stations as part of the Spokane Regional Solid Waste System , a collaboration between the City of Spokane and Spokane County . Electricity generated by the waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant is used to operate the facility , with excess energy being sold to Puget Sound Energy . Spokane draws its water from the Spokane Valley – Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer ; this 370 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 958 km2 ) " sole source aquifer " is the only water supply for Spokane County in Washington , and for Kootenai and Bonner counties in Idaho .
Natural gas and electricity are provided by the local utility , Avista Utilities , while CenturyLink and Comcast provide television , internet , and telephone service . Spokane hosts three hydroelectric generation facilities on the Spokane River : the Upriver Dam , the Upper Falls Dam , and the Monroe Street Dam . The Upriver Dam is owned and operated by the City of Spokane , and generates the electricity needed to operate the municipal water supply 's pressure pumps . The power generated in excess of that is sold to Avista Utilities . The Upper Falls and Monroe Street dams are owned and operated by Avista Utilities , and have respective generation capacities of 10 and 15 MW .
= = Demographics = =
According to the American Community Survey , the median income for a household in Spokane in 2012 was $ 42 @,@ 274 , and the median income for a family was $ 50 @,@ 268 . Males had a median income of $ 42 @,@ 693 and females had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 795 . The per capita income for the city was $ 24 @,@ 034 . About 13 @.@ 3 % of families and 18 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 23 @.@ 8 % of those under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 8 % of those aged 65 and older .
At the 2010 census , there were 208 @,@ 916 people , 87 @,@ 271 households , and 49 @,@ 204 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 526 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 361 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 94 @,@ 291 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 591 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 614 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 86 @.@ 7 % White , 2 @.@ 29 % African American , 2 @.@ 0 % Native American , 2 @.@ 6 % Asian , and 0 @.@ 6 % Pacific Islander , along with 1 @.@ 3 % from other races and 4 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 5 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 87 @,@ 271 households , of which 28 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , 5 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 43 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . In 2010 , 34 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 11 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 31 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 97 .
The median age in the city was 35 years . In Spokane , 22 @.@ 4 % of residents were under the age of 18 , 12 @.@ 3 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 , 27 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 , 25 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 8 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 8 % male and 51 @.@ 2 % female .
According to the Association of Religion Data Archives ' 2010 Metro Area Membership Report , the denominational affiliations of the Spokane MSA are 64 @,@ 277 Evangelical Protestant , 682 Black Protestant , 24 @,@ 826 Mainline Protestant , 754 Orthodox , 66 @,@ 202 Catholic , 31 @,@ 674 Other , and 339 @,@ 338 Unclaimed . As of 2014 , there are also at least three Jewish congregations . The Emanu @-@ El congregation erected the first synagogue in Spokane and the state of Washington on September 14 , 1892 . The city 's first mosque opened in 2009 as the Spokane Islamic Center .
Spokane , like Washington and the Pacific Northwest region as a whole , is part of the Unchurched Belt , a region characterized by low church membership rates and religious participation . The city serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane , which was established in 1913 , and the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District .
Spokane has been criticized and sometimes derided for its lack of diversity and multicultural offerings , but the city has become more diverse in recent decades . People from countries in the former Soviet Union ( especially Russians and Ukrainians ) form a comparatively large demographic in Spokane and Spokane County , the result of a large influx of immigrants and their families after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . According to the 2000 Census , the number of people of Russian or Ukrainian ancestry in Spokane County was reported to be 7 @,@ 700 ( 4 @,@ 900 residing in the city of Spokane ) , amounting to two percent of the county . Among the fastest @-@ growing demographics in Spokane is the Pacific Islander ethnic group , which is estimated to be the third largest minority group in the county , after the Russian and Ukrainian community and Latinos . Spokane was once home to a sizable Asian community , mostly Japanese , centered in a district called Chinatown from the early days of the city until 1974 . As in many western railway towns , the Asian community started off as an encampment for migrant laborers working on the railroads . The Chinatown Asian community thrived until the 1940s , after which its population decreased and became integrated and dispersed , losing its Asian character ; urban blight and the preparations leading up to Expo ' 74 led to Chinatown 's eventual demolition .
= = = Metropolitan area = = =
The Spokane metropolitan area consists of Spokane , Stevens , and Pend Oreille counties . As of the 2013 census estimates , the Spokane metropolitan area had a population of 535 @,@ 724 . Directly east of Spokane County is the Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Area , which consists of Kootenai County , Idaho , anchored by the city of Coeur d 'Alene . The urban areas of the two MSAs largely follow the path of Interstate 90 between Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene . The Spokane area has suffered from suburbanization and urban sprawl in past decades , despite Washington 's use of urban growth boundaries ; the city ranks low among major Northwest cities in population density and smart growth . The Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Areas ( MSA ) are now included in a single Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) by the Office of Management and Budget . The Spokane – Coeur d 'Alene CSA had around 679 @,@ 989 residents in 2013 .
= = Economy = =
Spokane became an important rail and shipping center because of its location between mining and farming areas . In the early 1880s , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Empire ; as a regional shipping center , the city furnished supplies to the miners who passed through on their way to the mineral @-@ rich Coeur d 'Alene , Colville and Kootenay districts . The mining districts are still considered among the most productive in North America .
Natural resources have historically been the foundation of Spokane 's economy , with the mining , logging , and agriculture industries providing much of the region 's economic activity . After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging replaced mining as the primary influences in the economy . Lumberjacks and millmen working in the hundreds of mills along the railroads , rivers , and lakes of northern Washington and Idaho were provisioning themselves in Spokane . Agriculture has always been an important sector in the local economy ; the surrounding area , especially to the south , is the Palouse , a productive agricultural region that supports many vineyards and microbreweries as well . By the early 20th century Spokane was primarily a commercial center rather than an industrial center .
In Spokane , wood and food processing , printing and publishing , primary metal refining and fabrication , electrical and computer equipment , and transportation equipment are leaders in the manufacturing sector . Gold mining company Gold Reserve , and Fortune 1000 company Potlatch Corporation – a forest products company that operates as a real estate investment trust – are headquartered in the city proper . Mining , forestry , and agribusiness remain important to the local and regional economy , but Spokane 's economy has diversified to include other industries , including the high @-@ tech and biotech sectors . Spokane is becoming a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector , particularly as a medical and biotechnology center ; Fortune 1000 technology company Itron , for instance , is headquartered in the area . Avista Corporation , the holding company of Avista Utilities , is the only company in Spokane that has been listed in the Fortune 500 , ranked 299 on the list in 2002 . Other companies with head offices in the Spokane area include technology company Key Tronic , hotelier Red Lion Hotels Corporation , and microcar maker Commuter Cars .
As of 2013 , the top five employers in Spokane are the State of Washington , Spokane Public Schools , Providence Sacred Heart Medical Center and Children 's Hospital , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , and Spokane County . The largest military facility and employer , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , is stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base near Airway Heights . The leading industries in Spokane for the employed population 16 years and older were educational services , health care , and social assistance ( 26 @.@ 5 percent ) , retail trade ( 12 @.@ 7 percent ) , and arts , entertainment , recreation , and accommodation food services ( 10 @.@ 4 percent ) . As the metropolitan center of the Inland Northwest , as well as parts of southern British Columbia and Alberta , Spokane serves as a commercial , manufacturing , transportation , medical , shopping , and entertainment hub . In 2010 , the Spokane – Spokane Valley MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $ 19 @.@ 48 billion .
As of 2014 , economic development in the Spokane area primarily focuses on promoting the following industries : manufacturing ( especially aerospace manufacturing ) , health sciences , professional services , information science and technology , finance and insurance as well as clean technology , and digital media . To aid economic development , the eastern branch of Innovate Washington , a state @-@ supported business incubator was placed in the city .
Despite diversification to new industries , Spokane 's economy has struggled in recent decades . Spokane was ranked the # 1 " Worst City For Jobs " in America in both 2012 and 2015 , while also ranking # 4 in 2014 . Additionally , Forbes named Spokane the " Scam Capital of America " in 2009 due to widespread business fraud . Trends of fraud were noted as far back as 1988 , again in 2002 , and continuing through 2011 .
= = Cityscape = =
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Spokane 's neighborhoods range from the Victorian @-@ style South Hill and Browne 's Addition , to the Davenport District of Downtown , to the more contemporary neighborhoods of North Spokane . Spokane 's neighborhoods are gaining attention for their history , as illustrated by the city being home to 18 recognized National Register Historical Districts .
Some of Spokane 's most prominent neighborhoods are Riverside , Browne 's Addition , and Hillyard . The Riverside neighborhood consists primarily of downtown Spokane and is the central business district of Spokane . The neighborhoods south of downtown Spokane are generally known as the South Hill . Downtown Spokane contains many of the city 's public facilities , including City Hall , Riverfront Park ( site of Expo ' 74 ) , and the Spokane Convention Center and INB Performing Arts Center , as well as the Spokane Arena and Spokane County Courthouse across the river in the historic West Central neighborhood . The Monroe Street Bridge , a city icon , connects the two areas . To the east of downtown is East Central and the adjacent University District and International District . To the west of downtown is one of Spokane 's oldest and densest neighborhoods , Browne 's Addition .
A National Historic District west of Downtown , Browne 's Addition was Spokane 's first prestigious address , notable for its array of old mansions built by Spokane 's early elite in the Queen Anne and early American Craftsman styles . The area houses the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture . In northeast Spokane , the Hillyard neighborhood began in 1892 as the chosen site for James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway yard , placed outside Spokane city limits to avoid " burdensome taxes . " The downtown Hillyard Business District , located on Market Street , was the Spokane neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places . Many of the former town 's houses were built to house railroad workers , mainly immigrant laborers working in the local yard , who gave Hillyard an independent , blue @-@ collar character . Hillyard has become a home for much of Spokane 's growing Russian , Ukrainian , and Southeast Asian communities .
= = = Architecture = = =
= = = = Commercial and public buildings = = = =
Spokane neighborhoods contain a patchwork of architectural styles that give them a distinct identity and illustrate the changes throughout the city 's history . Most of Spokane 's notable buildings and landmarks are in the Riverside neighborhood and the downtown commercial district , where many of the buildings were rebuilt following the Great Fire of 1889 in the Romanesque Revival style . Examples include the Great Northern clock tower , Review Building , Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes , First Congregational Church , Washington Water Power Post Street substation , Peyton Building , and The Carlyle . The principal architect of many buildings of this period was Kirtland Kelsey Cutter . Self @-@ taught , he came to Spokane in 1886 and began by designing " Chalet Hohenstein " for himself and other residences for his family while also working as a bank teller . Other structures designed by Cutter include the Spokane Club , Washington Water Power Substation , Monroe Street Bridge ( featured in the city seal ) , Central Steam Plant , and the Davenport Hotel . Built in renaissance and Spanish revival style , the Davenport Hotel cost two million dollars to complete , and included new technologies at the time of its opening in September 1914 , such as chilled water , elevators , and air cooling .
Other well @-@ represented architectural styles downtown include art deco ( Spokane City Hall , Paulsen Center , Fox Theater , City Ramp Garage ) , renaissance revival ( Steam Plant Square , Thomas S. Foley Courthouse , San Marco ) , neoclassical ( Masonic Center , Hutton Building , Bing Crosby Theater ) , and Chicago school ( U.S. Bank Building , Liberty Building ) . The tallest building in the city , at 288 feet ( 88 m ) , is the modernist Bank of America Financial Center . Also of note is the Spokane County Courthouse in West Central ( the building on the seal of Spokane County ) , the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist in Rockwood , the Benewah Milk Bottles in Riverside and Garland , Mount Saint Michael in Hillyard , and the Cambern Dutch Shop Windmill in South Perry .
= = = = Residential = = = =
As an early affluent Spokane neighborhood , the Browne 's Addition neighborhood and residences contain the largest variety of residential architecture in the city . These residences are lavish and personalized , featuring many architecture styles that were popular and trendy in the Pacific Northwest from the late 19th century to 1930 , such as the Victorian and Queen Anne styles . In high demand following his firms ' design of the Idaho Building at the Chicago World 's Fair in 1893 , Cutter found work constructing many mansions for mining and railroad tycoons such as Patrick " Patsy " Clark and Daniel and Austin Corbin .
The older neighborhoods of the early 20th century , such as West Central , East Central , Logan , Hillyard , and much of the lower South Hill , feature a large concentration of American Craftsman style bungalows . In Hillyard , the most architecturally intact neighborhood in Spokane , 85 percent of these buildings are historic . As the city expanded mainly to the north in the middle of the 20th century , the bungalows in the " minimal traditional " style commonplace from the 1930s to the 1950s tend to predominate in the Northwest , North Hill , and Bemiss neighborhoods . This architectural style occupies the neighborhoods where the integrity of Spokane 's street grid pattern is largely intact ( especially the areas north of downtown and south of Francis Ave . ) , and the houses have backyard alleys for carports , deliveries , and refuse collection . Contemporary suburbs and architecture are prevalent at the north and south edges of Spokane as well as in the new Kendall Yards neighborhood north of downtown .
= = = Parks and recreation = = =
In 1907 , Spokane 's board of park commissioners retained the services of the Olmsted Brothers to draw up a plan for Spokane 's parks . Much of Spokane 's park land was acquired by the city prior to World War I , establishing it early on as a leader among Western cities in the development of a city @-@ wide park system . Spokane has a system of over 87 parks totaling 4 @,@ 100 acres ( 17 km2 ) and includes six neighborhood aquatic centers . Some of the most notable parks in Spokane 's system are Riverfront Park , Manito Park and Botanical Gardens , Riverside State Park , Mount Spokane State Park , Saint Michael 's Mission State Park , John A. Finch Arboretum , and the Dishman Hills Conservation Area .
Riverfront Park , created after Expo ' 74 and occupying the same site , is 100 acres ( 40 ha ) in downtown Spokane and the site of some of Spokane 's largest events . The park has views of the Spokane Falls and holds a number of civic attractions , including a skyride , a rebuilt gondola lift that carries visitors across the falls from high above the river gorge . The park also includes the historic hand @-@ carved Riverfront Park Looff carousel created in 1909 by Charles I. D. Looff . Manito Park and Botanical Gardens on Spokane 's South Hill features the Duncan Gardens , a classical European Renaissance @-@ style garden and the Nishinomiya Japanese Garden designed by Nagao Sakurai . Riverside State Park , close to downtown , is a site for outdoor activities such as hiking , mountain biking , and horseriding .
The Spokane area has many trails and rail trails , the most notable of which is the Spokane River Centennial Trail , which features over 37 @.@ 5 miles ( 60 @.@ 4 km ) of paved trails running along the Spokane River from Spokane to the Idaho border . This trail continues on towards Coeur d 'Alene for 24 miles ( 39 km ) as the North Idaho Centennial Trail and is often used for alternative transportation and recreational use . In the summer , it has long been popular to visit North Idaho 's " Lake Country " , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene , Lake Pend Oreille , Priest Lake , or one of the other nearby bodies of water and beaches . In the winter , the public has access to five ski resorts within a couple hours of the city . The closest of these is the Mt . Spokane Ski and Snowboard Park , which has trails for cross @-@ country skiing , snowshoeing , snowmobiling , and dog sledding .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts and theater = = =
Spokane 's main art districts are located in the Davenport Arts District , the Garland Business District , and East Sprague . The First Friday Artwalk , which occurs the first Friday of every month , is dedicated to local vendors and performers displaying art around downtown . The two most important Artwalk dates ( the first Friday of February and October ) attract large crowds to the art districts . The Davenport Arts District has the largest concentration of art galleries and is home to many of Spokane 's main performing arts venues , including the Knitting Factory , Fox Theater , and Bing Crosby Theater . The Knitting Factory is a concert house that serves as a setting for many mainstream touring musicians and acts . The Martin Woldson Theater at the Fox , restored to its original 1931 Art Deco state after years of being derelict , is home to the Spokane Symphony Orchestra . The Metropolitan Performing Arts Center was restored in 1988 and renamed the Bing Crosby Theater in 2006 to honor the former Spokanite . Theater is provided by Spokane 's only resident professional company , The Modern Theater , though there are also the Spokane Civic Theatre and several other amateur community theaters and smaller groups . The INB Performing Arts Center is often host to large traveling exhibitions , shows , and tours . Spokane was awarded the All @-@ America City Award by the National Civic League in 1974 , 2004 and 2015 .
Spokane offers an array of musical performances catering to a variety of interests . Spokane 's local music scene , however , is considered somewhat lacking by the Spokane All @-@ Ages Music Initiative and other critics , who have identified a need for a legitimate all @-@ ages venue for music performances . The Spokane Symphony presents a full season of classical music , and the Spokane Jazz Orchestra , a full season of jazz music . The Spokane Jazz Orchestra , formed in 1962 , is a 70 @-@ piece orchestra and non @-@ profit organization .
= = = Museums = = =
There are several museums in the city , most notably the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , located a few blocks from the center of downtown in Browne 's Addition , amid the mansions of Spokane 's late 19th @-@ century " Age of Elegance " . A Smithsonian affiliate museum , it houses a large collection of Native American artifacts as well as regional and national traveling art exhibits .
The Mobius Science Center and the related Mobius Kid 's Museum in downtown Spokane seek to generate interest in science , technology , engineering , and math among the youth in a hands @-@ on experience . The Jundt Art Museum at Gonzaga University features 2 @,@ 800 square feet ( 260 m2 ) of exhibition space and contains sizable collections of prints from the Bolker , Baruch , Jacobs , and Corita Kent collections . The museum houses glass art by Dale Chihuly , bronze sculptures by Auguste Rodin , tapestries , paintings , ceramics , photographs , and a wide range of gifts , including from the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Foundation and Collections . On the campus of Gonzaga University , the Crosby House , Bing Crosby 's childhood home houses , the Bing Crosby Memorabilia Room , the world 's largest Crosby collection with around 200 pieces .
= = = Events and activities = = =
Spokane is known as the birthplace of the national movement started by Sonora Smart Dodd that led to the proposal and eventual establishment of Father 's Day as a national holiday in the U.S. The first observation of Father 's Day in Spokane was on June 19 , 1910 . Sonora conceived the idea in Spokane 's Central Methodist Episcopal Church while listening to a Mother 's Day sermon .
The Lilac Bloomsday Run , held in summer on the first Sunday of May , is a 7 @.@ 46 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 01 km ) race for competitive runners as well as walkers that attracts international competition . Also in May is the Lilac Festival , which honors the military , celebrates youth , and showcases the region . Spokane 's nickname , the " Lilac City " , refers to a flowering shrub that has flourished since its introduction to the area in the early 20th century . In June the city hosts Spokane Hoopfest , a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball tournament , among the largest of its kind . One of Spokane 's most popular local events is Pig Out in the Park , an annual six @-@ day food and entertainment festival where attendees may eat a variety of foods and listen to free live music concerts featuring local , regional , and national recording artists in Riverfront Park .
Other notable events in Spokane include the Spokane Interstate Fair , Spokane Comic @-@ Con , and Japan Week . The Spokane Interstate Fair is held annually in September at the Spokane Fair and Expo Center . Japan Week is held in April and celebrates the sister @-@ city relationship with Nishinomiya , Hyogo , demonstrating the many commonalities shared between the two cities . Students from the Spokane campus of Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , Gonzaga , Whitworth , and other area schools organize an array of Japanese cultural events . The gay and lesbian Spokane Pride Parade is held each June .
= = Education = =
Serving the general educational needs of the local population are two public library districts , the Spokane Public Library ( within city limits ) and the Spokane County Library District . Founded in 1904 with funding from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie , the Spokane Public Library system comprises a downtown library overlooking the Spokane Falls and five branch libraries . Special collections focus on Inland Pacific Northwest history and include reference books , periodicals , maps , photographs , and other archival materials and government documents .
Spokane Public Schools ( District 81 ) is the largest public school system in Spokane and the second largest in the state as of 2014 , serving roughly 30 @,@ 000 students in six high schools , six middle schools , and thirty @-@ four elementary schools . Other public school districts in the Spokane area include the Mead School District in north Spokane County , outside city limits . A variety of state @-@ approved , independent charter schools and private and parochial elementary and secondary schools augment the public school system . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane manages 11 such schools in Spokane .
Spokane is home to many higher education institutions . They include the private universities Gonzaga and Whitworth University , and the public Community Colleges of Spokane system ( Spokane Community College and Spokane Falls Community College ) as well as a variety of technical institutes . Gonzaga University and Law School were founded by the Italian @-@ born priest Joseph Cataldo and the Jesuits in 1887 . Whitworth , founded in 1890 , is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church , and had 2 @,@ 500 students studying in 53 different undergraduate and degree programs as of 2011 . While Spokane is one of the larger cities in the U.S. to lack a main campus of a state @-@ supported university within its city limits , Eastern Washington University ( EWU ) and Washington State University ( WSU ) have operations at the Riverpoint Campus in the University District , just adjacent to downtown and across the Spokane River from the Gonzaga campus . Washington State University Spokane is WSU 's health sciences campus and houses the school 's College of Medical Sciences , College of Nursing , and College of Pharmacy . The main EWU campus is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Spokane in nearby Cheney , and WSU is located 65 miles ( 105 km ) to the south in Pullman . In addition to WSU 's health science presence in Spokane , there is also a four @-@ year medical school branch affiliated with the University of Washington 's WWAMI program . An international branch campus of the Mukogawa Women 's University , the Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , is located in Spokane .
= = Sports = =
Spokane is close to dozens of lakes and rivers . People use these for swimming , boating , rafting , and fishing . Nearby mountains provide skiing , hiking , biking and sightseeing . Spokane 's professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in indoor football , the Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey and Spokane Anarchy Wrestling . Collegiate sports in Spokane focus on the local teams such as the Gonzaga Bulldogs that compete in the NCAA 's Division I West Coast Conference and the Whitworth Pirates playing in the Division III Northwest Conference as well as other regional teams , including the Washington State Cougars , Eastern Washington Eagles , and the Idaho Vandals .
The Spokane Indians are a Class @-@ A @-@ Short @-@ Season baseball team in the Northwest League ( NWL ) and have been a farm team of the Texas Rangers since 2003 . The Indians play their home games at the 6 @,@ 803 @-@ seat Avista Stadium and have won seven NWL titles since their Short @-@ Season @-@ A debut in 1982 . Prior to 1982 , the Indians played at the Triple @-@ A level . The team achieved considerable success in the early 1970s , winning the Pacific Coast League championship in 1970 , and having a 94 – 52 record . In the 1920s and 1930s the Spokane City League , a semiprofessional baseball league of teams of the Inland Empire , reached its peak .
The Spokane Shock was an indoor football franchise awarded to the city in August 2005 in the AF2 league . The team was quickly placed into the Arena Football League ( AFL ) after winning championships in two of their four seasons in the Arenafootball2 league , all while setting league records for attendance . The Shock were crowned AFL champions in their inaugural season after defeating the Tampa Bay Storm 69 – 57 in ArenaBowl XXIII . After the 2015 season , the owner of the Shock , Nader Naini , decided to have the team leave the AFL to join the Indoor Football League in order to have a geographic rival in the Tri @-@ Cities Fever . The AFL decided to retain the rights the Shock 's franchise , so Naini was forced to rename the team and it became the Spokane Empire beginning with the 2016 season .
The Spokane Chiefs are a major junior ice hockey team that play in the Canadian Hockey League 's Western Hockey League . They play their home games in the Spokane Arena and have a regional rivalry with the Tri @-@ City Americans . They have won the CHL 's top prize , the Memorial Cup , two times in club history , first in 1991 and again in 2008 .
The Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena is the city 's premier sports venue . In the years since the Spokane Arena opened , it has played host to several major sporting events . The first major event was the 1998 Memorial Cup , the championship game of the Canadian Hockey League . Four years later in 2002 , the city hosted the 2002 Skate America figure skating competition and then the 2007 U.S. Figure Skating Championships in the Spokane Arena . The latter event set an attendance record , selling nearly 155 @,@ 000 tickets . Spokane later hosted the 2010 U.S. Figure Skating Championships – ending eighteen days before the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia .
= = Transportation = =
= = = City streets = = =
Spokane 's streets use a street grid that is oriented to the four cardinal directions ; generally , the east – west roads are designated as avenues , and the north – south roads are referred to as streets . Major east – west thoroughfares in the city include Francis , Wellesley , Mission , Sprague , and 29th Avenues . Major north – south thoroughfares include Maple – Ash , Monroe , Division , Hamilton , Greene – Market ( north of I @-@ 90 ) , and Ray – Freya ( south of I @-@ 90 ) Streets . Division Street divides the city into East and West , while Sprague Avenue splits the city into North and South . Division Street is Spokane 's major retail corridor ; Sprague Avenue serves the same purpose in Spokane Valley . With over 40 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in average daily traffic from Interstate 90 north to the US 2 – US 395 junction , North Division is Spokane 's busiest corridor .
= = = Walkability = = =
Spokane has an average Walk Score of 45 , indicating most errands require a car , and an average Transit Score of 36 . The extensive skywalk system covers thirteen blocks in the downtown area and is among the largest in the United States ; it is used for pedestrian travel in cold and inclement weather and retail space as well .
= = = Freeways and highways = = =
Spokane is primarily served by interstate freeway I @-@ 90 and highways US 195 , US 395 , and US 2 .
Interstate 90 runs east – west from Seattle , through Spokane and suburban areas to the east , onward to Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho and Montana .
US 195 , also known as the Inland Empire Highway , connects Spokane with the Palouse region to the south and intersects Interstate 90 just west of Spokane near Latah Creek
US 395 enters Spokane from the west concurrently with I @-@ 90 , splitting off at Division St. , and continues northward to Deer Park , Colville and Canada . Its route designation will move from Division St. to the limited @-@ access North Spokane Corridor upon completion of that project .
US 2 , also enters Spokane from the west and runs concurrently US 395 until they reach " The Y " in north Spokane , where US 2 branches off to the northeast , continuing to Mead , Newport , and Sandpoint .
The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) is tasked with improving local highways to keep up with the region 's growth and to try to prevent congestion problems that plague many larger cities . The WSDOT is constructing the North Spokane Corridor . When completed , the corridor will be a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) limited @-@ access highway that will run from I @-@ 90 , in the vicinity of the Thor / Freya interchange , northward through Spokane , meeting the existing US 395 just south of the Wandermere Golf Course .
= = = Mass transportation = = =
Before the influx of automobiles , Spokane 's electric streetcar and interurban lines played a dominant role in moving people and goods around Spokane . Streetcars were installed as early as 1888 , when they were pulled by horses . Many older side streets in Spokane still have visible streetcar rails embedded in them . Streetcar service was reduced due to declining ridership beginning in 1922 , and by August 1936 , all lines had been abandoned or converted to motor buses . Mass transportation throughout the Spokane area is provided by the Spokane Transit Authority ( STA ) , which operates a fleet of 156 buses . Its service area covers roughly 248 square miles ( 640 km2 ) and reaches 85 percent of the county 's population . A large percentage of STA bus routes originate from the central hub , the STA Plaza in downtown Spokane . Spokane has rail and bus service provided by Amtrak and Greyhound via the Spokane Intermodal Center . The city is a stop for Amtrak 's Empire Builder on its way to and from Chicago 's Union Station en route to Seattle and Portland . Amtrak 's through service to Seattle and Portland is a legacy of BNSF Railway 's old Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway trackage . Spokane is a major railway junction for the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad and is the western terminus for the Montana Rail Link .
= = = Airports = = =
Spokane International Airport ( IATA : GEG , ICAO : KGEG ) serves as the primary commercial airport for Spokane , Eastern Washington , and Northern Idaho . It is the second largest airport in the state of Washington and is recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration as a small hub , with service from six airlines and two air cargo carriers . The 4 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 19 @.@ 42 km2 ) airport is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of downtown Spokane and is approximately a 10 @-@ minute drive away . The international airport 's three @-@ letter designation is " GEG " , a result and legacy of the Geiger Field days prior to 1960 , when the airport was named after Army aviator Major Harold Geiger in 1941 .
Felts Field is a general aviation airport serving the Spokane area and is located in east Spokane along the south bank of the Spokane River . Aviation at Felts Field dates back to 1913 and the strip served as Spokane 's primary airport until commercial air traffic was redirected to Geiger Field after World War II . In 1927 , the strip was one of the first in the western U.S. to receive official recognition as an airport by the U.S. Department of Commerce and is now named in honor of James Buell Felts , a Washington Air National Guard pilot .
= = Healthcare = =
The Spokane area has six major hospitals , four of which are full @-@ service facilities . The healthcare industry is a large and increasingly important industry in Spokane ; the city provides specialized care to many patients from the surrounding Inland Northwest and as far north as the Canadian border . The city 's healthcare needs are served primarily by non @-@ profit Seattle @-@ based Providence Health & Services and for @-@ profit Tennessee @-@ based Community Health Systems , which run the two biggest hospitals , Sacred Heart Medical Center , and Deaconess Medical Center , respectively . These two hospitals , along with most of Spokane 's major health care facilities , are located on Spokane 's Lower @-@ South Hill , just south of downtown , in what is known as the " Medical District " of Spokane . The Sacred Heart Hospital , opened originally , with just 31 beds , on Spokane Falls Boulevard on January 27 , 1887 , but later moved to its present location at 101 West Eighth Avenue . As of 2014 it had 642 beds , with 28 @,@ 319 admissions , 71 @,@ 543 emergency room visits , and 2 @,@ 982 births annually , and a full @-@ time staff of 29 doctors and dentists and 583 registered nurses . Deaconess Medical Center , the smaller of the two main hospitals , had 388 beds as of 2014 . Other hospitals in the area include the Spokane Veterans Affairs Medical Center in the northwest part of town , Holy Family Hospital on the north side , and Valley Hospital and Medical Center in the Spokane Valley . One of 20 specialty orthopedic Shriners Hospitals in the U.S. is also located in Spokane . One of Washington 's two state psychiatric hospitals , Eastern State Hospital , is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) away in Medical Lake .
= = Media = =
Newspaper service in Spokane is provided by its only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , which has a daily circulation of 76 @,@ 291 and Sunday circulation of 95 @,@ 939 . The Spokesman @-@ Review was formed from the merger of the Spokane Falls Review ( 1883 – 1894 ) and the Spokesman ( 1890 – 1893 ) in 1893 and was first published under the present name on June 29 , 1894 . It later absorbed the competing afternoon paper The Spokane Daily Chronicle , a significant newspaper historically that existed from 1890 until the merger in 1982 . More specialized publications include the weekly alternative newspaper The Pacific Northwest Inlander , the bi @-@ weekly business journal The Spokane Journal of Business , the student @-@ run The Gonzaga Bulletin , the monthly GLBT newsmagazine Q View Northwest , and a monthly newspaper for parents , Kids newspaper . The city also has several community magazines , such as the monthly paper covering the Garland neighborhood , The Garland Times , and Spokane Coeur d 'Alene Living , a monthly home and lifestyle magazine .
According to Arbitron , Spokane is the 94th largest radio market in the U.S. , with 532 @,@ 100 listeners aged 12 and over . There are 28 AM and FM radio stations broadcast in the city . The five most listened @-@ to stations are KKZX @-@ FM ( classic rock ) , KQNT @-@ AM ( news / talk ) , KXLY @-@ FM ( country ) , KISC @-@ FM ( adult contemporary ) , and KZZU @-@ FM ( Hot AC ) . Spokane 's primary sources of non @-@ commercial and community radio include Spokane 's NPR @-@ affiliate station KPBX @-@ FM and KYRS , a full @-@ power community radio station .
Spokane is the 73rd largest television market in the U.S. , accounting for 0 @.@ 366 % of the total TV households in the U.S. The city has six television stations , representing the major commercial networks and public television . Spokane is the television broadcast center for much of eastern Washington ( except the Yakima and Tri @-@ Cities area ) , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , northeastern Oregon , and parts of southern Canada ( by cable television ) . Spokane receives broadcasts in the Pacific Time Zone , with weekday prime time beginning at 8 pm . Montana and Alberta , Canada are in the Mountain Time Zone and receive Spokane broadcasts one hour later by their local time . The major network television affiliates include KREM ( TV ) 2 ( CBS ) , KXLY @-@ TV 4 ( ABC ) , KHQ @-@ TV 6 ( NBC ; Spokane 's first television station , on air on December 20 , 1952 ) , KAYU 28 ( FOX ) , KSKN 22 ( The CW ) , KSPS @-@ TV 7 ( PBS ) and KCDT @-@ TV 26 ( PBS ; operating out of Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho ) .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Spokane has five current sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
Nishinomiya , Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan – since September 1961 ( Spokane 's first sister city )
Jecheon , South Korea
Jilin City , China
Limerick , Ireland
= Fortifications of Xi 'an =
The fortifications of Xi 'an ( Chinese : 西安城墙 ) , also known as Xi 'an City Wall , in Xi 'an , an ancient capital of China , represent one of the oldest , largest and best preserved Chinese city walls . It was built under the rule of the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang as a military defense system . It exhibits the " complete features of the rampart architecture of feudal society " . It has been refurbished many times since it was built in the 14th century , thrice at intervals of about 200 years in the later half of 1500s and 1700s , and in recent years in 1983 . The wall encloses an area of about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi )
The Xi 'an City Wall is on the tentative list of UNESCO 's World Heritage Site under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " . Since 2008 , it is also on the list of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China . Since March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall is a heritage National Historical and Cultural Town .
= = Location = =
Xi 'an City Wall is located in the urban district of Xi 'an City , which at one time was an imperial city during the periods of the Sui and Tang dynasties . It is situated at the end of the ancient Silk Road .
= = History = =
Zhu Yuanzhang , the first Emperor of the Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , was advised by Zhu Sheng , a sage , to build a fortified high wall around the city , create storage facilities for food and then establish his empire by unifying all the other states . Following the hermit 's advice , Zhu established the Ming dynasty , and then built a highly fortified wall over a previously existing wall of the Tang dynasty ( 618 -907 ) . He started building the Xian City Wall , as the capital of northwestern Shaanxi Province in 1370 . He incorporated the ancient fortified embankments built by the Sui and Tang Dynasties by including them in the wall 's western and southern parts , enlarging the eastern and northern parts . The edifice was built over an eight @-@ year period and was well maintained during both the Ming Dynasty , and the Qing Dynasty , which followed .
The wall was initially built solely from tamped earth . During the Longqing Emperor 's period ( 1568 ) the wall was strengthened by laying blue bricks on the top and exterior faces of the earthen walls . During the reign of Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty ( 1781 ) , the wall was enlarged ; drainage features , crenels and other modifications were made ; and the structure as it is now seen came into existence . By the end of the Qing dynasty rule , the structure had begun to deteriorate . In a limited degree the Republican Authorities carried out maintenance of the wall , which was in a poor state . In the first decade of the 20th century , the wall 's defense system was considered to be of strategic importance , even though demolishing of similar walls in other regions of the country was undertaken following the 1911 Revolution . In 1926 , the wall was attacked with bombs by enemy forces resulting in serious structural damage , but the city within the wall was not affected . During the Second World War , when the Japanese carried out air bombings from 1937 to 1940 , the residents built around 1 @,@ 000 bunkers , as anti @-@ aircraft shelters within the wide base ( thickness of more than 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ) of the wall . A few escape openings were also made through the wall as passageways . Even later , new gates to allow traffic through the Xian Wall were constructed during the Republican rule .
According to the Shenboo Atlas of 1933 , in the 1930s most people lived within the perimeter of the Xi 'an Wall but still there were a lot of unoccupied open areas . Among the visitors who came to see the Xian Wall were American captain ( later general ) Stilwell in 1922 and the Czech sinologist Jaroslav Průšek ( 1906 – 1980 ) in 1933 . In 1983 , the administration of the Xi 'an municipality carried out more renovations and additions to the wall . At that time , the Yangmacheng tower , the Zhalou sluice tower , the Kuixinglou dipper tower , the Jiaolou corner tower and the Dilou defense tower were all refurbished ; the crumbling parts of the rampart were changed into gates ; and the moat was restored . In May 2005 , all of Xi 'an 's ramparts were inter @-@ connected .
The Xi 'an City Wall was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China in 2008 . UNESCO included the site in the tentative List of World Heritage Sites under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " as a cultural heritage designee under Criterion iii & iv . In March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall was fully approved as a heritage site as a National Historical and Cultural Town .
Michelle Obama , the first lady of the United States , visited the Xi 'an City Wall on 24 March 2014 , describing it as " a wall that has withstood war and famine and the rise and fall of dynasties " .
= = Features = =
The Xi 'an Wall is rectangular in shape and has a total length of 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) , with almost all stretches subjected to some kind of restoration or rebuilding . Along the top of the wall is a walkway , which would typically take four hours to cover . It is built in the Chinese architecture style . As a defense fortification , it was constructed with a moat , drawbridges , watch towers , corner towers , parapet walls and gate towers . The wall is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in height with a width of 12 – 14 metres ( 39 – 46 ft ) at the top and base width of 15 – 18 metres ( 49 – 59 ft ) . Ramparts are built at intervals of 120 metres ( 390 ft ) , projecting from the main wall . There are parapets on the outer side of the wall , built with 5 @,@ 984 crenels , which form " altogether protruding ramparts " . There are four watch towers , located at the corners and the moat that surrounds the wall has a width of 18 metres ( 59 ft ) and depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . The area within the wall is about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) , enclosing the small area of 14 square kilometres ( 5 @.@ 4 sq mi ) occupied by the city .
The southern embrasured watchtower constructed in 1378 , was destroyed by fire in 1926 during the civil war of 1926 , and was restored in September 2014 . This was done after a careful historical review of documents related to the historical features that existed before it was damaged . The other three watchtowers forming the northern , eastern and western gates of the wall were also examined during the planning phase of the modifications done for the South Tower . They were modified , without affecting the integrity of the wall , by an encompassing hall offering protection to the structures by using steel , wood work and the ancient @-@ type tiles and bricks structure . Major gates have ramp access except the South Gate which has entry outside the walls .
There is an " Archery Tower " , which provides security to one of the four gates of the Xi 'an wall . Created as a large trap @-@ like chamber , capped by a tower filled with windows , it gave an advantageous position for archers to shoot arrows ( in the initial years of building the wall ) and later cannon balls at the opposing revolutionary forces . In the event that the enemy was able to breach the walls through the main gate they would become trapped in the small chamber that faced yet another gate and thus be easy targets for the defending troops .
= Radio ( LL Cool J album ) =
Radio is the debut studio album by American rapper LL Cool J , released November 18 , 1985 on Def Jam Recordings in the United States . It serves as the label 's first full @-@ length album release . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1984 to 1985 at Chung King House of Metal in New York City . The album was primarily produced by Rick Rubin , who provided a sparse and minimal production style . Radio also features a sound that is punctuated by DJ scratching , mostly brief samples , and emphasis of the downbeat . LL Cool J 's b @-@ boy lyricism conveys themes of inner city culture , teenage promiscuity , and braggadocio raps .
The album experienced a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time , earning U.S. Billboard chart success and selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies within its first five months of release . On April 19 , 1989 , Radio was certified platinum in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , following sales in excess of one million copies in the United States . Initial criticism of the album was generally positive , as LL Cool J 's lyricism and Rick Rubin 's production were praised by several music critics . It has since been recognized by critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work .
Reflecting the new school and ghettoblaster subculture in the U.S. during the mid @-@ 1980s , Radio belongs to a pivotal moment in the history and culture of hip hop . Its success contributed to the displacement of the old school with the new school form and to the genre 's mainstream success during the period . Its success also served as a career breakthrough for LL Cool J and Rick Rubin . Radio has been recognized by music writers as one of the first cohesive and commercially successful hip hop albums .
= = Background = =
In March 1984 , when NYU student Rick Rubin and promoter @-@ manager Russell Simmons founded the then @-@ independent Def Jam label , 16 year – old St. Albans , Queens native James Todd Smith was creating demo tapes in his grandparents ' home . His grandfather , a jazz saxophonist , purchased him $ 2 @,@ 000 worth of stereo equipment , including two turntables , an audio mixer and an amplifier . Smith later discussed his childhood background and rapping , stating that " By the time I got that equipment , I was already a rapper . In this neighborhood , the kids grow up in rap . It 's like speaking Spanish if you grow up in an all @-@ Spanish house . I got into it when I was about 9 , and since then all I wanted was to make a record and hear it on the radio . " By using the mixing table he had received from his grandfather , Smith produced and mixed his own demos and sent them to various record companies throughout New York City , including Simmons ' and Rubin 's own Def Jam Recordings .
Under his new stage name , LL Cool J ( an acronym for Ladies Love Cool James ) , Smith was signed by Def Jam , which led to the release of his first official record , the 12 @-@ inch single " I Need a Beat " ( 1984 ) . The single was a hard @-@ hitting , streetwise b @-@ boy song with spare beats and ballistic rhymes . Smith later discussed his search for a label , stating " I sent my demo to many different companies , but it was Def Jam where I found my home . " That same year , Smith made his professional debut concert performance at Manhattan Center High School . In a later interview , LL Cool J recalled the experience , stating " They pushed the lunch room tables together and me and my DJ , Cut Creator , started playing . ... As soon as it was over there were girls screaming and asking for autographs . Right then and there I said ' This is what I want to do ' . " LL 's debut single sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and helped establish both Def Jam as a label and Smith as a rapper . The commercial success of " I Need a Beat " , along with the Beastie Boys ' single " Rock Hard " ( 1984 ) , helped lead Def Jam to a distribution deal with Columbia Records the following year .
LL Cool J dropped out of Andrew Jackson High School in Queens to record his first studio album , also the first LP to be issued by Def Jam . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chung King Studios in Manhattan 's Chinatown under Rubin 's direction throughout 1984 and 1985 . Notable from the personnel line @-@ up was LL 's DJ Jay Philpot , better known as " Cut Creator " . A Queens native and former trombonist , Philpot met LL at a block party and they began performing together . The audio mastering was handled by engineer Herb Powers at 130 West 42nd Street in the Frankford Wayne Mastering Labs and the album was set for release as Radio in November 1985 , containing a dedication in the liner notes from LL Cool J to his mother and his grandparents . The album 's release had been anticipated by many rap fans following LL Cool J 's appearance in the hip hop movie Krush Groove , which was based on the beginnings of the Def Jam label and featured the single " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " from Radio .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album 's production , handled entirely by Rick Rubin with a remix by DJ Jazzy Jay , has been noted by critics and music writers for Rubin 's minimalist style and stripped @-@ down aggressiveness . Steve Huey of AllMusic described the production for Radio as " bare @-@ bones " and " skeletal " , while calling the instrumentation " basically just a cranked @-@ up beatbox . " The sound of Radio is mostly punctuated by DJ scratching and features occasional brief samples , which emphasize a downbeat . In summing up the musical style of Radio , Huey stated " The result is rap at its most skeletal , with a hard @-@ hitting , street @-@ level aggression that perfectly matches LL 's cocksure teenage energy . "
The lyrical themes regarding the culture and the way of life of inner city youth that surface in Radio , including the growing and popular b @-@ boy attitude ( " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , " Rock the Bells " ) and teenage promiscuity ( " Dear Yvette " ) , along with LL 's " teenage energy " , as described by writer Nelson George , helped appeal to a younger music audience and were essential in the album 's commercial success . LL Cool J 's lyricism on Radio is highlighted by clever disses , playful boasts and braggadocio raps . Columnist Stephen Holden of The New York Times described LL Cool J as " a brawny young giant with the animal magnetism and amiable self @-@ assurance of the young Muhammad Ali . " " I Want You " and " I Can Give You More " have been recognized by listeners of hip hop as the first hip @-@ hop ballads , and have been cited likewise by several music writers and critics .
Author of the 1985 book Fresh : Hip Hop Don 't Stop , writer Nelson George further elaborated on the appeal of Radio to listeners at the time , describing LL Cool J as a " minimalist homeboy who knows his beats " , and stating " You can call it rap , hip hop or street , but it really is a way of hearing music — and partying hard — that expresses the experiences and attitudes of a great many inner city kids . L.L. Cool J is one of the best young talkologists around , because he speaks directly to and about his generation over large beats that recall Run @-@ D.M.C. , Trouble Funk , James Brown , and funky little bits of AC / DC and Yes ... This teenage music is built around beats , but not just any old beats . It is all about a beat with style , with personality , and L.L. Cool J has plenty of both . "
= = Release and reception = =
Released November 18 , 1985 , on Def Jam Recordings in the United States , Radio earned a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time . Shortly after its release , the album sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first five months , eventually selling over 1 million copies by 1988 , according to the Recording Industry Association of America . Radio peaked at number 6 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and at number 46 on the Billboard 200 albums chart . It entered the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart on December 28 , 1985 , and remained there for forty @-@ seven weeks , while also entering the Pop Albums chart on January 11 , 1986 . Radio remained on the chart for thirty @-@ eight weeks . By 1989 , the album had earned platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , after earning a gold certification in the United States on April 14 , 1986 , with sales exceeding one million copies .
Radio received positive reviews from both " street and dance music " aficionados and mainstream music critics , including Robert Christgau from The Village Voice , who described it in a January 1986 article as " the most engaging and original rap album of the year " . LL Cool J 's aggressive rapping and Rick Rubin 's stripped @-@ down production were praised by critics who also agreed that LL 's lyrics set a new standard for MC 's at the time . The songs ' lyrics were favored by critics who described LL 's song @-@ writing as clever and fun . Connie Johnson of the Los Angeles Times said that he is an integral artist of hip hop 's " second generation " because of his " razor @-@ sharp wit " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Debby Bull was impressed by his songwriting and how its originality lies in the ballads , even though " it 's the sassier , dance @-@ worthy songs that make this record such an irresistible party . " The critical success of the album would later result in its comparison to other LL Cool J albums , which were not as critically successful as Radio . In his review for the Trouser Press , Ira Robbins called the album a " primary classic of hip @-@ hop 's original commercial surge " and went on to write :
Since its initial reception , Radio has been viewed by fans and critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work , as well as one of hip hop 's best albums . In retrospect , some critics and music writers have given more praise to producer Rick Rubin 's contributions to Radio , as well as note the importance of his production on the album . Yahoo ! Music 's Frank Meyer said that the album was " one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ DMC , to combine the vocal approach of rap with the musical arrangements and riffing of rock ' n ' roll . ' I Can 't Live Without My Radio ' is a hip @-@ hop classic and this album set the standard for East Coast rap for a long time . "
Radio was later ranked at number 2 on ego trip magazine 's " Hip Hop 's 25 Greatest Albums ( 1980 @-@ 98 ) " , number 69 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Best LPs of the 80s " , and number 71 on Blender 's " 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time " list . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 478 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ; it was ranked number 470 in a revised list in 2012 . The album was also included in Rolling Stone magazine 's 1997 issue of " The Essential 200 Rock Records " . In 1998 , Radio was selected as one of The Source magazine 's " 100 Best Rap Albums " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
With the breakthrough success of his hit single " I Need a Beat " and the Radio LP , LL Cool J became one of the first hip @-@ hop acts to achieve mainstream success along with Kurtis Blow and Run @-@ D.M.C. Gigs at larger venues were offered to LL as he would join the 1986- ' 87 Raising Hell tour , opening for Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Beastie Boys . Another milestone of LL 's popularity was his appearance on American Bandstand as the first hip hop act on the show .
The album 's success also helped in contributing to Rick Rubin 's credibility and repertoire as a record producer . Radio , along with Raising Hell ( 1986 ) and Licensed to Ill ( 1986 ) , would form a trilogy of New York City @-@ based , Rubin @-@ helmed albums that helped to diversify hip @-@ hop . Rubin 's production credit on the back cover reads " REDUCED BY RICK RUBIN " , referring to his minimalist production style , which gave the album its stripped @-@ down and gritty sound . This style would serve as one of Rubin 's production trademarks and would have a great impact on future hip @-@ hop productions . Rubin 's early hip hop production work , before his exit from Def Jam to Los Angeles , helped solidify his legacy as a hip hop pioneer and establish his reputation in the music industry .
Radio 's release coincided with the growing new school scene and subculture , which also marked the beginning of hip @-@ hop 's " golden age " and the replacement of old school hip hop . This period of hip hop was marked by the end of the disco rap stylings of old school , which had flourished prior to the mid @-@ 80s , and the rise of a new style featuring " ghetto blasters " . Radio served as one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ D.M.C. ' s debut album , to combine the vocal approach of hip hop and rapping with the musical arrangements and riffing sound of rock music , pioneering the rap rock hybrid sound .
The emerging new school scene was initially characterized by drum machine @-@ led minimalism , often tinged with elements of rock , as well as boasts about rapping delivered in an aggressive , self @-@ assertive style . In image as in song , the artists projected a tough , cool , street b @-@ boy attitude . These elements contrasted sharply with the 1970s P @-@ Funk and disco @-@ influenced outfits , live bands , synthesizers and party rhymes of acts prevalent in 1984 , rendering them old school . In contrast to the lengthy , jam @-@ like form predominant throughout early hip hop ( " King Tim III " , " Rapper 's Delight " , " The Breaks " ) , new school artists tended to compose shorter songs that would be more accessible and had potential for radio play , and conceive more cohesive LPs than their old school counterparts ; the style typified by LL Cool J 's Radio . A leading example of the new school sound is the song " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , a loud , defiant declaration of public loyalty to his boom box , which The New York Times described as " quintessential rap in its directness , immediacy and assertion of self " . It was featured in the film Krush Groove ( 1985 ) , which was based on the rise of Def Jam and new school acts such as Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Fat Boys .
The energy and hardcore delivery and musical style of rapping featured on Radio , as well as other new school recordings by artists such as Run @-@ D.M.C. , Schooly D , T La Rock and Steady B , proved to be influential to hip hop acts of the " golden age " such as Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy . The decline of the old school form of hip hop also led to the closing of Sugar Hill Records , one of the labels that helped contribute to early hip @-@ hop and that , coincidently , rejected LL 's demo tape . As the album served as an example of an expansion of hip hop music 's artistic possibilities , its commercial success and distinct sound soon led to an increase in multi @-@ racial audiences and listeners , adding to the legacy of the album and hip hop as well .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Isaac Newton =
Sir Isaac Newton PRS ( / ˈnjuːtən / ; 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726 / 27 ) was an English physicist and mathematician ( described in his own day as a " natural philosopher " ) who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution . His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy " ) , first published in 1687 , laid the foundations for classical mechanics . Newton made seminal contributions to optics , and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for the development of calculus .
Newton 's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation , which dominated scientists ' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries . By deriving Kepler 's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity , and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets , the tides , the precession of the equinoxes , and other phenomena , Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System . This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles . His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis , La Condamine , and others , which helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes .
Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum . He formulated an empirical law of cooling , studied the speed of sound , and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid . In addition to his work on calculus , as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series , generalised the binomial theorem to non @-@ integer exponents , developed a method for approximating the roots of a function , and classified most of the cubic plane curves .
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge . He was a devout but unorthodox Christian , and , unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day , he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England , perhaps because he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity . Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences , Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy , but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death . In his later life , Newton became president of the Royal Society . Newton served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Isaac Newton was born according to the Julian calendar ( in use in England at the time ) on Christmas Day , 25 December 1642 ( NS 4 January 1643 ) , at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire . His father , also named Isaac Newton , had died three months before . Born prematurely , he was a small child ; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug . When Newton was three , his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband , the Reverend Barnabas Smith , leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother , Margery Ayscough . The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him , as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19 : " Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them . " Newton 's mother had three children from her second marriage .
From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen , Newton was educated at The King 's School , Grantham which taught Latin and Greek but no mathematics . He was removed from school , and by October 1659 , he was to be found at Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , where his mother , widowed for a second time , attempted to make a farmer of him . Newton hated farming . Henry Stokes , master at the King 's School , persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education . Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully , he became the top @-@ ranked student , distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills .
In June 1661 , he was admitted to Trinity College , Cambridge , on the recommendation of his uncle Rev William Ayscough . He started as a subsizar — paying his way by performing valet 's duties — until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664 , which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M.A. At that time , the college 's teachings were based on those of Aristotle , whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers such as Descartes , and astronomers such as Galileo and Thomas Street , through whom he learned of Kepler 's work . He set down in his notebook a series of ' Quaestiones ' about mechanical philosophy as he found it . In 1665 , he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus . Soon after Newton had obtained his B.A. degree in August 1665 , the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague . Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student , Newton 's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus , optics , and the law of gravitation .
In April 1667 , he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity . Fellows were required to become ordained priests , although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient . However , by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way . Nevertheless , Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II ( see " Middle years " section below ) .
His studies had impressed the Lucasian professor , Isaac Barrow , who was more anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential ( he became master of Trinity two years later ) , and in 1669 , Newton succeeded him , only one year after he received his M.A. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1672 .
= = = Middle years = = =
= = = = Mathematics = = = =
Newton 's work has been said " to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied " . His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus , seen in a manuscript of October 1666 , is now published among Newton 's mathematical papers . The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas , sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669 , was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as :
Mr Newton , a fellow of our College , and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things .
Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus ( the Leibniz – Newton calculus controversy ) . Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently , although with very different notations . Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693 , and did not give a full account until 1704 , while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684 . ( Leibniz 's notation and " differential Method " , nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations , were adopted by continental European mathematicians , and after 1820 or so , also by British mathematicians . ) Such a suggestion , however , fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton 's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton 's Principia itself ( published 1687 ) and in its forerunner manuscripts , such as De motu corporum in gyrum ( " On the motion of bodies in orbit " ) , of 1684 . The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton 's ( later ) ' dot ' notation would write it . His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities : in the Principia itself , Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of ' the method of first and last ratios ' and explained why he put his expositions in this form , remarking also that ' hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles ' .
Because of this , the Principia has been called " a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus " in modern times and " lequel est presque tout de ce calcul " ( ' nearly all of it is of this calculus ' ) in Newton 's time . His use of methods involving " one or more orders of the infinitesimally small " is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684 and in his papers on motion " during the two decades preceding 1684 " .
Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism . He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier . In 1691 , Duillier started to write a new version of Newton 's Principia , and corresponded with Leibniz . In 1693 , the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed .
Starting in 1699 , other members of the Royal Society ( of which Newton was a member ) accused Le | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
foiled by bad weather , but a German convoy was successfully attacked on 1 June . One ammunition ship was sunk and two others were set on fire .
Furious and the fleet carriers Formidable and Indefatigable made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July , in Operation Mascot . For this attack the carrier embarked 880 Squadron with three Seafire L.IICs , 20 Grumman Hellcats of 1840 Squadron , Barracudas of 830 Squadron and three Swordfish of 842 Flight . The Barracudas , heavily loaded with bombs of up to 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) , launched using a wooden ramp : an early example of what was to be later named the ski @-@ jump . The attack was unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences as a smokescreen covered the German battleship so that the Barracudas had to drop their bombs blindly through the smoke . Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August under the name of Operation Goodwood in a concerted effort to sink her . Furious carried twelve Seafire F.IIIs of 801 Squadron , another twelve Seafire L.IICs of 880 Squadron and nine Barracudas of 827 Squadron for this operation . The first attack on 20 August was recalled because of bad weather , but the attack on 22 August was spotted by the Germans and 11 aircraft were lost . Another attack was made two days later ; one armour @-@ piercing bomb penetrated Tirpitz 's armoured deck but failed to detonate , and another 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb did only superficial damage . A fourth attack was made on 29 August , but inflicted no damage .
By this time the ship 's age and limitations became increasingly apparent and she was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944 . The ship was paid off in April 1945 and , berthed at Loch Striven , was used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship 's structure . Furious was sold in 1948 for scrap , and had been completely broken up in Troon by 1954 .
= Warning from Space =
Warning from Space ( 宇宙人東京に現わる , Uchūjin Tokyo ni arawaru , Spacemen Appear in Tokyo ) is a Japanese science fiction tokusatsu film released in January 1956 by Daiei , and was the first Japanese science fiction film to be produced in color . In the film 's plot , starfish @-@ like aliens disguised as humans travel to Earth to warn of the imminent collision of a rogue planet and Earth . As the planet rapidly accelerates toward Earth , a nuclear device is created at the last minute and destroys the approaching world .
The film , directed by Koji Shima , was one of many early Japanese monster films quickly produced after the success of Toho 's Godzilla in 1954 . The film was loosely based on a novel by Gentaro Nakajima . After release , the film was met with negative reviews , with critics calling it " bizarre " and accusing it of using science fiction clichés . Warning from Space influenced many other Japanese science fiction films , such as Gorath . The film , along with other 1950s science fiction films , influenced director Stanley Kubrick , who would later direct 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = Plot = =
A small ship travels to a rotating space station . Aboard the station , a group of starfish @-@ like beings discuss how to warn humans of an impending disaster , deciding on contacting Japanese scientist Dr. Kumara . Meanwhile , flying saucers are spotted over the skies of Tokyo , baffling scientists . A journalist tries to get a statement from Dr. Kumara about the sightings , but Kumara replies that there is not enough evidence to formulate a hypothesis . At an observatory , Professor Isobe spots an object in his telescope apparently releasing smaller objects .
Isobe discusses his findings with Kumara and a physician , Dr. Matsuda , who believes they should get photographs via a rocket . The photographs they retrieve , however , turn out to be unclear , though they deduce the object has a high energy output . In the meantime , the extraterrestrials have been unsuccessfully attempting to contact humans . They begin appearing in lakes and rivers , frightening local fishermen and sailors . One of the aliens manages to secure a photo of Hikari Aozora , a famous Japanese entertainer . Their plan is for one of the aliens to mutate into the form of Aozora . Back aboard the space station , one of the Pairan leaders , Ginko , volunteers herself . Her starfish form is slowly mutated into a human form .
On Earth , Toru , Isobe 's son , discovers the disguised alien floating in the water . After her rescue , she exhibits superhuman characteristics such as jumping ten feet and materializing in different places without walking . Soon , she disrupts Dr. Matsuda 's work on a nuclear device , explaining she understands the complex equations he was writing and warning against the effects of a device , leading him to believe she is not human . Shortly afterwards , as the team of scientists discuss her abnormal traits , the camouflaged Ginko appears and reveals her true identity , explaining she is from Paira , a world on the same orbit as Earth but on the opposite side of the Sun . She then continues to reveal her mission , to warn Earth of an imminent collision of a rogue planet , which is dubbed " Planet R " by the media . They appeal to the World Congress about the situation , but are swiftly rejected . Only after they show Planet R and its rapid acceleration in the telescope does the World Congress launch its nuclear weapons , which ineffectively explode on its surface .
In the meantime , a group of spies have abducted Matsuda and are attempting to steal his formula to the nuclear device the disguised Pairan warned him about . Matsuda does not comply and is eventually tied to a chair in a remote building . As the Earth 's atmosphere heats up due to the approaching world , Ginko again arrives to learn why Planet R is not yet destroyed . They locate Matsuda through Pairan technology and gather the formula for the device . The scientists then all watch as the nuclear device is shot from the space station and destroys Planet R , cooling the atmosphere and removing the threat . Ginko then changes back to her original form aboard the space station .
= = Production = =
After the success of Toho 's 1954 film Godzilla , which depicted a giant dinosaur attacking Tokyo , many Japanese film studios began to produce similar monster films , including Warning from Space . Along with other films such as Shintōhō 's Terrifying Attack of the Flying Saucers and the American Forbidden Planet , Warning from Space became part of a fledgling subgenre of films based around science fiction creatures . The film also used the theme of atomic bombs that was present in many films at the time , but showed how the weapons , which devastated the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki a decade earlier , could be put to good use . Still others noted the film used another common theme of cosmic collisions in the style of earlier films such as the 1931 film End of the World , which depicted a comet on a collision course with the Earth .
The Pairan aliens were designed by the prominent avant @-@ garde artist Tarō Okamoto , which used a single eye that is common among science fiction aliens . Although official film posters showed the Pairan aliens towering over buildings , the actual cinematic version of the aliens were on the scale of humans , at about two meters . Walt Lee reports that Gentaro Nakajima 's novel , on which this film was based , was in turn based on the Japanese folktale Kaguya @-@ hime . The film was one of fourteen Japanese color pictures produced in early 1956 , but the first color Japanese science @-@ fiction film .
= = Release = =
Warning From Space was released in Japan in 1956 . Daiei also hoped to find a foreign market for Warning from Space , though the company found difficulty in selling it . Nevertheless , the film played at both King Cinema in Rangoon , Burma and Tai Khoon Theatre in Sandakan , Malaysia , in 1958 . The film did help Daiei achieve some success in the genre . It was passed for release , anglicized as Warning from Space , by the BBFC in the United Kingdom in 1957 , and later in the United States in 1963 . It was picked up by American International Television later in the 1960s . The film was released in Spain as Asalto a la Tierra , and in France as Le Satellite Mystérieux . Warning from Space has since fallen into the public domain , allowing companies to distribute the free film on DVD .
= = Reception = =
From retrospective reviews , a review included in the book A Guide to Apocalyptic Cinema , author Charles P. Mitchell called the film " bizarre " and gave it two stars . Similarly , in a 1978 issue of the magazine Cue , viewers were warned " don 't watch it . " In the 1986 Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies by Phil Hardy and Denis Gifford , the film is accused of using the science fiction clichés of flying saucers and atomic bombs . Gyan Prakash , in his book Noir Urbanisms : Dystopic Images of the Modern City , called the film " charming . " The film was noted for its misleading characterization of astronomers , with one author observing that it advanced the cinematic portrayal of astronomers as scientists in lab coats peering through an enormous telescope .
In his biography of Stanley Kubrick , author John Baxter traces Kubrick 's interest in science fiction films , which led to his 2001 : A Space Odyssey , to the Japanese kaiju eiga films of the 1950s , including Warning from Space , with its " nameless two @-@ metre @-@ tall black starfish with a single central eye , who walk en pointe like ballet dancers . " Baxter notes that despite their " clumsy model sequences , the films were often well @-@ photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well @-@ designed and well @-@ lit sets . "
= = Legacy = =
Warning from Space influenced Toho 's Gorath , a 1963 film which depicts a rogue planet on a collision course with Earth . The planet Paira in Warning from Space may have been an influence in the Daiei films Gamera vs. Guiron and Gamera : Super Monster , which feature the planet Tera , another planet on the opposite of Earth 's orbit . Critics have also noted plot similarities to the later Toho film Monster Zero , in that a friendly planet warns Japan of the atom bomb and subsequently assists in celestial defense . The Pairans ' asteroidean appearance is similar to that of a later pentagrammic creation , Starro , a villain from DC Comics ' Justice League .
= Fatbeard =
" Fatbeard " is the seventh episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 188th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and in the United Kingdom on April 24 , 2009 . It was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode for six months . In the episode , Cartman misinterprets news reports about piracy in the Indian Ocean to mean the return of the classic era of swashbuckling pirates , and misleads a handful of South Park boys to voyage to Mogadishu to start a pirate crew .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States for strong to extreme language . " Fatbeard " was a reference to increasing international media attention to piracy in the Indian Ocean , and the script depicted the pirates in a sympathetic light . The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the South Park creators to praise them for the episode . " Fatbeard " received generally positive reviews and was seen by 2 @.@ 59 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Having misunderstood the news about an upsurge of piracy in the Indian Ocean , Cartman excitedly tells his friends the classic era of piracy has returned , and asks the boys to join him in becoming a pirate in what he describes as a responsibility @-@ free life in a warm tropical paradise . Sensing an opportunity to get rid of Cartman once and for all , Kyle encourages him to go , even offering to help pay for his ticket . Although Butters , Ike , Clyde and Kevin are the only students who agree to join his crew , an undaunted Cartman uses his mother 's credit card to book a trip to Somalia . After a long flight and a 49 @-@ hour bus ride , the boys arrive in Mogadishu dressed as stereotypical pirates . Once there , however , they are shocked to find themselves in a desolate land , the complete opposite of their expectations .
They quickly find the pirates , who are shocked that anyone would knowingly venture into their base . The pirates decide to ransom the boys to the first European vessel they find . The boys confidently go with them , believing they are being taken to a pirate ship , but are once again disappointed when they are taken to a small motorboat . Eventually , the pirates find a French schooner and demand a ransom of five thousand euros in exchange for the boys ' lives . Meanwhile in South Park , Kyle happily claims partial credit for sending Cartman to Somalia and expects things will be better without Cartman around . But when his parents discover a farewell letter from Ike , Kyle realizes his brother has run off with Cartman to Somalia , and he sets off for Mogadishu to bring his brother home . Back in Somalia , the ransom is paid and the boys are surrendered . Once on board , however , Cartman assumes control of the schooner and orders the crew to get onto the lifeboat . Although the captain initially refuses , Kevin brandishes a toy lightsaber , frightening the French crew into abandoning ship . Cartman and the boys return to Mogadishu with the captured vessel , giving several bundles of Euros to the pirates . The pirates are initially shocked , but begin to respect Cartman . Unimpressed by their lack of " pirate " traits , he in turn leads them in raiding ships via a traditional sea shanty called " Somalian Pirates , We " , and starts fashioning them into a stereotypical pirate crew .
Meanwhile , the French crew is rescued by a cargo ship , and the U.S. Navy is deployed by NATO after getting word from the cargo ship captain that the pirates now have " advanced weaponry " ( which was really just Kevin 's toy lightsaber , that the French crew thought was real ) . Kyle arrives in Mogadishu , but is immediately taken captive by the pirates and held hostage . He pleads with Cartman to let him and his brother leave , but Cartman refuses , believing that Kyle is simply jealous of his new pirate life . Meanwhile , an English @-@ speaking pirate named Guleed asks Butters and Ike why they decided to become pirates . When they say that they left because they were tired of things like school , chores , homework , and being yelled at by adults , Guleed responds by telling them that he dreamed of a simple life going to school , and that his mother is suffering with AIDS but cannot be treated , and his father was killed in an attempt to find food for his family . He never set out to be a pirate , but was forced into piracy to support his family . Realizing how close @-@ minded they 've been , Butters and Ike admit that a life of piracy is one of hardship and suffering , not fun and adventure like normal life can be . They then tell Cartman that they want to return home , but he refuses to give up his romantic delusions of grandeur and threatens the boys with death by calling the real pirates to hold them at gunpoint . However , Cartman 's vision is quickly disrupted when a U.S Navy ship hired by NATO appears off the coast carrying snipers , who shoots all of Cartman 's pirate colleagues with a single gunshot to each of their heads . This leaves Cartman dumbfounded and annoyed .
= = Production = =
" Fatbeard " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode until October 2009 . " Fatbeard " is based on real @-@ life piracy in the Indian Ocean , which began receiving increasing international media attention in 2008 until its demise in 2012 / 2013 .
The episode began production two weeks before its airdate , with the intention to broadcast it on April 15 , 2009 . The writing team had developed the idea for Cartman mistaking Somalian piracy for classic piracy amid the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama at the time . Captain Richard Phillips was taken hostage in the event , and Parker and Stone decided to hold the episode indefinitely , although animation had begun . Realizing the severity of the situation — if Phillips were killed and the South Park episode seemed to mock the situation — they decided to resume work on the episode " Pinewood Derby " , which had been in production for a while , as the creators had no idea to where to go with its story . When Phillips was rescued over the weekend , they wanted to resume work on " Fatbeard " , but as animation work on the episode proved difficult , including new sets depicting Somalia , it was decided it would be unfeasible .
The episode 's ending was unusual , as many episodes of South Park tend to resolve the episode 's events ; in " Fatbeard " , the main characters don 't return home and are shown at the end still in Somalia . An alternate ending made it to the animatic stage , in which Cartman , in a self @-@ referential manner , congratulates the show on the conclusion of the season and invites the season 's celebrity parodies ( among those the Jonas Brothers and Kanye West ) . The ending , which Parker likened to that of a variety show , was something he felt was funny in writing but didn 't succeed visually .
While most South Park episodes feature Parker and Stone providing almost all the voice acting , " Fatbeard " included several French @-@ speaking actors providing the lines of the schooner crew . Outside voice actors were also brought in for the role of the Somalian pirates , including Abdi Fatah Adawe , Dahir Ali , Abdullahi Prime , and Julien Zeitouni . The week after its original broadcast , in response to requests by fans , the full 90 @-@ second version of episode 's sea shanty song , " Somalian Pirates , We " was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . Shortly after " Fatbeard " was originally broadcast , the site also featured six different types of T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode .
= = Themes = =
The ending , in which the pirates are each shot to death by American snipers , reflects the resolution of the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama in April 2009 , where U.S. Navy SEALs rescued the captain after three snipers simultaneously killed three pirates with one shot each . They are portrayed in a particularly sympathetic light when they are killed during the ending . Travis Fickett of IGN said , " It 's one of those moments where South Park feels the need to give voice to a side the media is ignoring — and points out that things aren 't quite as cut and dry [ sic ] as we might like . " The episode has also been described as a commentary on the way in which Americans tend to take their relative wealth and comfort for granted . A U.S. Navy SEAL ordering another to " not hit the white ones " has also been described as an indictment of the American approach to foreign policy .
= = Cultural references = =
Ike indicates he will " vomit my balls out through my mouth " if he has to hear anything more about Susan Boyle , the Scottish amateur singer who gained worldwide attention around the time of the episode 's airing for her performance of the song " I Dreamed a Dream " from Les Misérables on the show Britain 's Got Talent . The Boyle reference in particular received a great deal of media attention the week " Fatbeard " first aired . Cartman says that Jewish people , Mexicans , and ginger @-@ haired people are not allowed to be pirates . The French schooner crew members are portrayed as pretentious cowards , a stereotype of the French based on the government 's surrender during World War II . The schooner itself strongly resembles the French luxury yacht Le Ponant , which was seized by Somali pirates in April 2008 . Cartman refers to Blackbeard , the famous English pirate from the 17th and 18th centuries , from whom the episode derives its name . Much of the décor and music in the episode is influenced by the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride and associated film franchise . Kevin wields a toy lightsaber , the Jedi weapon from the Star Wars films ; this is also a reference to the sixth season episode " The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers " , in which he dresses as an Imperial stormtrooper while the rest of the boys are in Lord of the Rings attire .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fatbeard " was watched by 2 @.@ 59 million overall households , according to the Nielsen ratings , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of If magazine , who gave the episode an A- grade , particularly praised the Cartman and Ike characters and called the ending " perfect " . Delgado said of the show 's creators , " These guys see episode potential in nearly everything that passes through the news desk . And because South Park can be made in like a week — and I ’ m talking start to finish , from concept to finished product — they end up being the most socially conscious and timely show on television today . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode and the Somalian pirate song , and complimented the show for presenting the pirates as sympathetic human beings . Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said the portrayal of Somalian pirates was a predictable storyline , but said he enjoyed the episode because of the pacing : " Rather than a cobbled @-@ together collection of gags , everything progressed very organically . " IGN writer Travis Fickett said the episode was amusing but not exceptional . Fickett enjoyed the takeover of the French vessel and the extent to which Cartman 's delusion about pirates takes him , but he said the pirate plot " isn 't entirely in good taste ( and ) it never really gathers a full head of steam " .
The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of Richard Phillips from the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the creators of South Park to commend them on the episode . Ensign Jonathan Sieg , the Bainbridge public relations officer , wrote : " Pretty much everyone onboard our ship — from Captain to seaman — is a huge fan of South Park , and when we heard about the episode Fatbeard , as you can imagine , we were thrilled and very interested to watch . " Sieg requested copies of the episode because the streaming online video was difficult to watch on the ship , and the South Park staff in return sent them a care package including several copies of the episode . On the official South Park Studios FAQ , they wrote back , " No , sir , thank you . We were honored to read that , and making an episode about you kicking pirate booty was our pleasure . "
= = Home release = =
" Fatbeard " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
= Ain 't It Fun ( Paramore song ) =
" Ain 't It Fun " is a song by American rock band Paramore , released as the fourth single from their self @-@ titled fourth studio album Paramore ( 2013 ) . Produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen , the song was recorded in Los Angeles . Development for it began with a keyboard loop recorded by its guitarist , Taylor York . Instruments including xylophone and bass guitar were later brought , along with a six @-@ member gospel choir . York and the band 's vocalist , Hayley Williams , wrote the song based on her experience of relocating and the latter 's subsequent attitude .
The song received critical acclaim from music critics , who hailed its musical diversity . It was serviced to mainstream radio in the United States and Italy ; a 12 @-@ inch vinyl of the single was released for Record Store Day 2014 . The song became Paramore 's highest peaking single on the US Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 10 and received ' double platinum ' certification from the RIAA having sold over two million singles . Internationally , the song garnered moderate commercial outcomes , reaching the top 40 of Australian , Canadian and Venezuelan charts . On February 8 , 2015 , the song won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song at the 57th ceremony , becoming Paramore 's first Grammy win , and making Williams the first woman to score that honor since Alanis Morissette in 1999 .
" Ain 't It Fun " was performed on television several times , including on The Voice , Late Night with Seth Meyers and American Idol . It was also included in the band 's The Self @-@ Titled Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . After the original music video directed by Jonathan Desbiens was cancelled , a second visual was directed by Sophia Peer . The latter , released in January 2014 , documents the band attempting to break a series of world records .
= = Recording and development = =
The first song completed in Los Angeles for Paramore , " Ain 't It Fun " was produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen . Development for the song started in a hotel room , where Taylor York created an audio loop with his keyboard , which Williams likened to works by Siouxsie and the Banshees and Paula Abdul . Upon hearing it , Hayley Williams proposed that they should write lyrics to it . Later , Williams and York started layering their voices to imitate those of gospel choir members . Six months later , they recorded with a gospel choir composed of six individuals : Brandon Hampton , Joslyn James , Katherine and Sean Dancy , Talitha Manor and Yolanda Harris @-@ Dancy . Williams , who was familiarized with gospel music , linked the inclusion of a gospel choir in the song to her upbringing , in which she frequently went to churches . Williams stated that the song was inspired by the band 's " roots " , explaining that she had grown up with " pop , funk and soul " .
Jeremy Davis — the band 's bassist — expounded on what they felt before releasing the song , " After we started writing weird stuff like ' Ain 't It Fun ' , we got nervous . But that was a comfort . We 've grown and we don 't like the same music we liked , so why would [ our fans ] not ? That idea kept us pushing ourselves . " York considered that the decision to bring a gospel choir would have been difficult to approve if the original lineup of the band had remained . The track was mixed by Ken Andrews , and mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound Studios .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
Written in the key of E major , " Ain 't It Fun " paces at a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song features instrumentation from a " happy " xylophone and a " rubbery " bass guitar . An editor of the Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times described its melody as " cheery " and " propulsive " , while Sean Adams from Drowned in Sound called it " infectious " . Although its main genre is pop rock , Adams and Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian denoted the song as delving into pop , more than the band 's previous material . The former also compared it to the works of Incubus , while Nicholson stated , " [ it ] sounds as if Alexander O 'Neal has just discovered Refused 's back catalogue " . Theon Weber of Spin labeled it as " bouncy " while denoting it as a new wave song . Writing for The A.V. Club , Annie Zaleski described the song as a mixture of rhythm and blues and pop ; Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone characterized it as " soul @-@ powered " . Cameron Adams from News.com.au described it as a funk rock song , while Scott Heisel from Alternative Press classified it as a " blast of new jack swing " . Barbara Schultz at Common Sense Media categorized it as a " funky alt @-@ rock arrangement " .
The gospel choir first appears in the song during its bridge . Referencing the choir 's feature , David Renshaw of NME commented that the song " pull [ s ] a Sister Act 2 . " The vocal ranges of Williams and the gospel choir spans from B3 to C ♯ 5 . The former 's vocal performance was described by Stereogum 's Chris DeVille as having influences of Michael Jackson , whereas Zaleski compared Williams ' vocal style in " Ain 't It Fun " to that of Mariah Carey . Heisel considered that the participation of the choir helped Williams sing " some of her most soulful vocals ever . " Joseph R. Atilano of the Philippine Daily Inquirer further analyzed Williams ' vocal performance in the song :
[ ... ] lead vocalist Hayley Williams is starting to show more of her musical chops – from her crooning to the soulful “ touches ” in her singing style , particularly in this single . These nuances in her voice signify to me that , vocally , she has entered her prime already . You can hear these changes specifically in the chorus and refrain sections of this single wherein she sings with greater confidence . Here , the versatility of her voice takes shape and we begin to take serious notice of what she can do more behind the mic .
The track 's lyrics , structured in verse – chorus form and written in second person narrative , predominantly feature a sarcastic tone . They were inspired by Williams ' decision to move from Nashville to Los Angeles . She considered this idea after feeling overwhelmed by the repercussion , in Nashville , of Josh and Zac Farro 's departure from Paramore . Williams said , " I took off for L.A. as if it was going to be some kind of paradise or saving grace . I got there and realized that my problems were following me . Okay , so I was having a bad six months ? Get over it . [ sic ] " The song was penned as a message regarding her behavior , in order for her to cope with her decision . She stated , " No one else was saying that to me , so I had to say it to myself . " musicOMH 's Thomas Ingham interpreted its lyrics as focusing on a " serious ' all alone in the world ' " theme , while Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times 's journalist called them " blunt " and wrote that they discuss " growing up " . The writer also believed that its theme would make the song a prominent track at graduation ceremonies . Atilano viewed a contrast between the song 's melody and lyrical content . However , he noted that its " sunny " sonority made it " pleasant " to hear .
= = Release and live performances = =
" Ain 't It Fun " was issued as a promotional CD single in the United Kingdom on August 26 , 2013 . The track was serviced to American mainstream stations on February 4 , 2014 , serving as Paramore 's fourth single . In the following month , it was announced that Paramore would participate in the 2014 Record Store Day with the release of a 12 @-@ inch single for " Ain 't It Fun " . The single , designed by Williams to look like a broken vinyl , was released on April 19 . It contains the original version of the song , along with a Dutch Uncles @-@ produced remix of it . In Italy , the song was serviced to contemporary hit radio on March 30 , 2014 by Atlantic . On June 24 , 2014 , Atlantic released an extended play ( EP ) featuring the song 's radio edit as well as three remixes of the song .
The song was included in the setlist of the band 's third worldwide tour , The Self @-@ Titled Tour . For each performance of the song , the band was accompanied by a gospel choir , who sang alongside Williams . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented , " Williams kept conjuring the refrain [ of " Ain 't It Fun " ] , appearing as if she never wanted the moment to end . Could you really blame her ? " The New Zealand Herald 's Rachel Bache stated that the track " had everyone dancing " .
The inaugural televised performance of the song was done on the 2013 iHeartRadio Jingle Ball , wherein it was selected as second song on the band 's setlist . [ a ] The band played the track on the season finale of The Voice 's fifth season , which aired on December 17 of that year . On April 23 , 2014 , they sang it on the Late Night with Seth Meyers program . On May 21 , 2014 , the band performed the song on the American Idol season 13 finale . During the performance , Williams was dressed in a white crop tank , floral @-@ printed pants and platform shoes . Finalist Jena Irene , who preceded Paramore with a live cover of the band 's single " Decode " , sang the second verse of " Ain 't It Fun " alone . She also sang the chorus and bridge of the song with Paramore . The band hosted a concert on Good Morning America , on June 13 , 2014 , in which they performed " Ain 't It Fun " as well .
= = Critical reception = =
" Ain 't It Fun " garnered critical acclaim from music critics . Writing for Alternative Press , Scott Heisel felt the song was one of the " moments of diversity that really make Paramore shine " . Billboard 's Brad Wete remarked that the song 's instrumentation helped it pass an " average rock song " status . Matt Collar of AllMusic billed the song as an " immediate classic " . For Stereogum , Chris DeVille opined that the song was " crack " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone commented that , on " Ain 't It Fun " , Williams transitions to a new musical genre on Paramore with an " I @-@ will @-@ survive warrior priestess " attitude . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly , Brian Mansfield from the USA Today newspaper and Consequence of Sound 's Amanda Koellner selected " Ain 't It Fun " as a standout from the album . Koellner commented that " when the band allows each track a little more breathing room , they show some growth and have a good time doing it . " On behalf of The Arts Desk , Lisa @-@ Marie Ferla classified it as Paramore 's " strongest moment " .
Melissa Locker of Time described it as having potential for the " perfect summer anthem " . Writing for Drowned in Sound , Sean Adams joked that he would eat his modem if the song did not top " all the major charts worldwide " , receive a Grammy Award and amount a high number of views on YouTube . In contrast , Thomas Ingham of musicOMH criticized its lyrics , deeming it inferior to the track 's composition ; The Observer 's Phil Mongredien wrote that the song 's gospel influences did it " no favours " . Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman quipped that previous band members Josh and Zac Farro had left the band upon hearing a demo of " Ain 't It Fun " . Freeman also described the song 's lyrics as " ridiculous " and denounced the inclusion of the gospel choir . The Irish Times ' Tony Clayton @-@ Lea dubbed the song " woefully generic " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Ain 't It Fun " debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated March 15 , 2014 . On its fifth week of charting , the song entered the top 40 of the Hot 100 , at number 34 . In doing so , Paramore became the band 's first album to yield two top 40 hits , after " Still Into You " peaked at number 24 . The song reached its peak of number 10 on the issue of May 24 , 2014 , becoming Paramore 's highest @-@ peaking song on the chart . According to Billboard , it is Williams ' sixth biggest US commercial success . On the magazine 's component charts , " Ain 't It Fun " reached higher positions — except for its peak of number 23 on the Adult Contemporary chart . For the week ending May 15 , the song topped the Hot Rock Songs chart , displacing " Pompeii " by Bastille — which had remained at the top for 12 weeks . The track also topped the Adult Top 40 , while peaking at number two on the Mainstream Top 40 , only behind " Fancy " by Iggy Azalea and Charli XCX . The song has sold over a million copies in the US as of June 2014 .
Internationally , the song attained moderate success . The song entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 41 , on the week of September 8 , 2013 . Two weeks later , the track reached its peak of number 32 , having left the chart three weeks later . " Ain 't It Fun " spent nine weeks on the Canadian chart , where it reached a peak of number 15 . Not having been released as a single in the United Kingdom , the song became Paramore 's second lowest @-@ peaking track there — reaching number 147 . The song reached the top five on the country 's Rock Chart . In Ireland , the song peaked at number 61 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
Pre @-@ production for the first version of the " Ain 't It Fun " music video started in early July 2013 . Alternative Press reported that Jonathan Desbiens , also known as Jodeb , was commissioned to direct the video . The video shoot continued into August , when Williams posted a picture of the band in the set . Two months later , however , the band posted a statement where they revealed that the video had been cancelled . Williams cited " unhappiness with the direction the video was headed " as an explanatory factor ; in replacement , a video for " Daydreaming " was filmed .
A new visual for the song , directed by Sophia Peer , was shot on December 2 of that year in Franklin , Tennessee . Peer stated that she wanted the video to " reflect " the message she retained from the song — " you had to push yourself out of your comfort zone and challenge yourself " . She began by brainstorming ideas for the visual , and she talked to Alexandra Young and the video 's editor Winston Case , who suggested her the concept of breaking world records . Peer selected 30 records for the band to break , nonetheless , they reduced the number due to the short length of the video shoot . The records selected were picked to match " different sections of the song " and were based on other already @-@ existent records .
To promote the video , Paramore associated with RecordSetter , convincing fans to create their own world records . No partnerships were established with Guinness World Records ; Peer commented , " RecordSetter is much more inclusive than Guinness , therefore cooler . [ The former 's CEO ] , Dan Rollman , is an inspired individual who has dedicated himself to helping people legitimize their talents and specialties . It is definitely the right place for Paramore fans to play along . " The video was released on January 29 , 2014 ; a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip was released on March 3 of that year .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with Paramore holding electric guitars , heading towards the side of a bridge . They begin smashing clock guitars on a roadside , and a title screen appears , announcing that the band broke the record of smashing 30 clocks with guitars — [ b ] at a time of 31 @.@ 33 seconds . The camera shifts to a room where the group attempts to catch flying feathers ; Davis breaks the record of catching the most ( 18 ) feathers in 30 s . The next scene shows the group wearing eye goggles , in a room with white walls , destroying vinyl records in several ways — such as ripping them , stepping on them or punching them . The band breaks another record , after smashing 58 vinyl records in a minute , the highest number of broken records for that time . While the band is destroying more records , York makes a record as an individual by spinning a record on his finger for 32 @.@ 81 s — the least time ever for that accomplishment .
As the second rendition of the chorus begins , they go to an open field where they run through 10 banners in the quickest time ever of 9 @.@ 19 s . Quickly after breaking their sixth world record , Williams breaks her only individual record , of doing the " most cartwheels while wearing boots for 20 seconds " by doing 7 . The band members reunite and start walking backwards for 30 feet , while blindfolded and holding stuffed animals . This achievement is done by York in the fastest time ever of 6 @.@ 14 seconds . For the penultimate record , Davis and York break the record of unwrapping a " mummy " in the least time ; they unwrap Williams , who is covered in toilet paper , in 9 @.@ 75 s . During the closing scene , Williams , York and Davis stand on a moving convertible , with Williams breaking the last record of screaming for the maximum time while in a convertible — for 8 @.@ 48 s . The video concludes as it is revealed that " Ain 't It Fun " itself holds the world record of depicting the most world records — 10 — broken in a music video .
= = = Response = = =
MTV 's James Montgomery compared the video to the visual of " Still Into You " — the second single of Paramore . He wrote , " That clip was a revelation , the beginning of a bold new chapter for the band , and [ the video for " Ain 't It Fun " ] keeps that winning streak alive . Montgomery went on to call it " blissed out and buzzy , born of a brilliant concept , and an absolute blast to watch " . Fuse 's Nicole James surmised that the world records were " adorable " , while Steff Yotka of Nylon deemed them " crazy , funny , weird " and concluded that they " make for a truly excellent viewing experience " On the critical side , Mish Way — writing for Vice — opined that the video 's concept did not relate to the song 's theme . Way dubbed the clip a " major fuck @-@ up " but called Williams an " irresistible charm " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = = Additional information = = =
^ a The iHeart Radio Jingle Ball 2013 occurred on December 14 , 2013 . However , it was not broadcast live — it was recorded and " highlights " of the performances were aired on a special program aired by The CW ( on December 18 ) .
^ b Once Paramore — being one of its members or the entire group — breaks a world record in the " Ain 't It Fun " video , a title screen appears stating the record they have established , as well as displaying the time it took .
= Fishsticks ( South Park ) =
" Fishsticks " is the fifth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 186th overall episode of the series , it was originally broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on April 8 , 2009 . In the episode , Jimmy writes a joke that becomes a national sensation , and Cartman tries to steal the credit while Rapper Kanye West is the only person in the country who fails to get the joke , but cannot admit that he does not get it because he believes himself to be a genius .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The episode was conceived from a joke among Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone about a fish dressed as motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually turned into a joke about Kanye West not understanding a joke about why liking fishsticks made him a gay fish . The way Cartman tries to steal credit for the joke was inspired by real people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business .
Parker provided the voice of West in the episode and during the song " Gay Fish " , a parody of West 's song " Heartless " . " Fishsticks " received largely positive reviews , and generated a great deal of media attention when West wrote in a blog that the episode hurt his feelings , although he said it was funny and admitted that he needed to work on his ego problem . The episode also spoofed comedian Carlos Mencia , who praised the episode after it was broadcast .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Fishsticks " was seen by more than 3 @.@ 1 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received even further attention after West famously interrupted Taylor Swift during her acceptance speech at the September 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , after which Comedy Central replayed the episode four times back @-@ to @-@ back . " Fishsticks " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Jimmy works on writing jokes for his comedy routine while Cartman sits on his couch , eating potato chips . Jimmy comes up with a joke with almost no assistance from Cartman ( he only helped Jimmy originate the joke by telling Jimmy he was hungry for something more substantial than fruit , and Jimmy suggested there might be some fishsticks in the freezer ) :
Jimmy : Do you like fishsticks ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : Do you like putting fishsticks in your mouth ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : What are you , a gay fish ?
The joke , which plays on the similarity of the phrases " fishsticks " and " fish dicks " when spoken , becomes a hit throughout South Park . When Cartman begins taking half credit for the joke , Kyle tells Jimmy he should stand up to Cartman . When Jimmy tells Cartman he feels he wrote most of the joke , Cartman fears Jimmy will try to take full credit and asks Kyle for advice on how to deal with Jimmy . Kyle instead says he believes Jimmy wrote the entire joke , and suggests that Cartman 's ego is so big that he subconsciously remembers things incorrectly to make himself feel more important . This is supplemented by Cartman 's flashbacks to the creation of the joke , which become more overblown and ridiculous as the episode goes on , showing him to truly believe that he deserves credit .
Meanwhile , the joke becomes a national sensation . Comedian Carlos Mencia goes on Conan O 'Brien 's show claiming credit for the joke . The joke is played on rapper Kanye West , who does not understand it . West grows angry when others say he does not get it , and will not allow anyone to explain it to him , because he claims to be a genius and " the voice of a generation " . Kanye abducts Carlos Mencia , who admits he stole the joke to compensate for not being funny and claiming that his " dick don 't work " in a parody of Viggo Mortensen 's character Lalin in Carlito 's Way , but Kanye doesn 't believe him and beats him to death with the help of his hired thugs . Cartman and Jimmy go on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and claim they invented the joke , prompting Kanye to go after them . Jimmy confronts Cartman , asking how he can live with himself for taking credit for a joke he did not write . They are interrupted by Kanye , who threatens to kill them . By now , Cartman has not only convinced himself he wrote the whole joke without Jimmy 's help , but believes he also saved his life from a black widow , slew a dragon , defeated an army of Jew robots , and has powers similar to the Human Torch . Cartman thinks he realizes what Kyle was trying to tell him , but he gets it completely backwards : Cartman believes that Jimmy 's ego is the one that is twisted and Jimmy 's ego trying to convince itself that he wrote the joke , while not accepting that Cartman wrote the whole thing , and Jimmy believes him . Kanye has an epiphany about his own massive ego and believes he finally understands the joke . However , he incorrectly thinks it means he is , in fact , a gay fish . The episode ends with Kanye donning a wetsuit and diving off the Santa Monica Pier into the ocean to embrace his new identity as a gay fish in the form of a music video , in which he happily swims around the sea , kissing and humping random fish .
However , in a deleted scene , West drowns and his body is picked up and discovered by the US coast guards .
= = Production = =
" Fishsticks " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The concept for " Fishsticks " began when Parker , fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone , and actor Bill Hader attended a writers ' retreat in Seattle , Washington and they visited a body of water where they could watch salmon jump . They started joking about a salmon wearing an outfit like the motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually reminded them of the music video for rapper Kanye West 's song " Touch the Sky " , in which West himself dresses like Knievel . This led to them picturing a scene with West on a news program , angrily denying reports that he is a fish , shouting " No , I am not a salmon ! " During a four @-@ hour ride in a car , Stone and Parker discussed the joke further , and eventually thought of the " fishsticks " joke that featured prominently in the final episode . The duo said they found it hilarious and told variations of the joke back and forth to each other for the rest of the ride . Stone said , " The van driver we hired was just so bummed because we just kept talking about fishsticks , ' You 're a gay fish ' , over and over . We thought it was so funny , and just the fact that he didn 't get it . "
Although the joke originally stemmed from Evel Knievel and not Kanye West , Parker and Stone said they realized West would probably be extremely humorless about the joke and not understand it , so they decided the episode should revolve mostly around him . After coming up with the idea , Parker and Stone waited a long time before they finally wrote the script because , Stone said , " It just seemed too dumb . Are we really going to do a whole episode about this ? " Stone said the jokes about Carlos Mencia were " just a complete afterthought " that came about during the writing process . During one scene in " Fishsticks " , Cartman steals credit from Jimmy for a joke he did not write . This was inspired by people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business who were present for discussions the duo had , then later claimed credit for the idea even though they had nothing to do with it . Stone said , " They truly believe they did it . That 's the really sinister part . It 's not where they 're trying to steal part of the glory . ... They actually fully believe that they came up with it . "
Parker provided the voice of Kanye , both in the episode and in " Gay Fish " , a full @-@ length song featured at the end of the episode about West 's realization that he actually is a gay fish . Parker used a large amount of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing , which he had never used before . Parker said he eventually discovered he had to sing off @-@ key on purpose in order to get the desired effect . Parker said , " You had to be a bad singer in order for that thing to actually sound the way it does . " The day after " Fishsticks " was broadcast , the full two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute version of the Kanye West spoof , " Gay Fish " , was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . The site also featured T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode . One featured Jimmy asking , " Do you like fishsticks ? " The other features text from Kanye West 's whiteboard in the episode : " Fishsticks + Me = Gayfish " .
= = Cultural references = =
A Kanye West song in the episode about the fact that he is indeed a " gay fish " is a parody of the West song " Heartless " , from his 2008 recording 808s & Heartbreak and satirizes the rapper 's usage of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing . When West first confronts Cartman and Jimmy , Cartman mistakes him for Puff Daddy , another rapper and record producer .
Carlos Mencia , host of the former Comedy Central show Mind of Mencia , is portrayed in " Fishsticks " as knowingly stealing credit for a joke he did not write ; this is a reference to accusations other comedians have made that Mencia plagiarizes jokes from other people . Mencia 's death scene in the episode , as well as his claims that he uses a catheter to relieve himself , are a reference to Lalin , a character who uses a wheelchair in the 1993 crime film Carlito 's Way .
Talk show hosts Jimmy Kimmel , David Letterman , Conan O 'Brien , Jay Leno and Ellen DeGeneres were featured in the episode . Kimmel is voiced by his real @-@ life brother Jonathan Kimmel , who previously served as a writer and voice actor on South Park .
During a fantasy sequence , Cartman says " flame on " and turns into a fiery , flying superhero ; this is a reference to the Human Torch , a superhero and member of the Fantastic Four .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fishsticks " was watched by 3 @.@ 1 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . It had over 1 @.@ 2 million more household viewers than the second most @-@ watched Comedy Central show that week , the April 8 episode of The Daily Show . In June 2009 , " Fishsticks " was announced to be the most watched South Park episode on South Park Studios , the official South Park website , which has all but 3 episodes of South Park to date available for viewing .
Both Kanye West and Carlos Mencia responded within one day of the episode 's original broadcast and said they enjoyed the parodies of themselves , although Kanye West said on his blog that his feelings were hurt . After the episode was broadcast , Mencia wrote on his Twitter feed , " They just made fun of me on South Park . I thought it was hysterical . Catch the rerun . " Dave Itzkoff , arts reporter for The New York Times , complimented Mencia for his response . West wrote on his blog , " South Park murdered me last night and it 's pretty damn funny . It hurts my feelings but what can you expect from South Park ! " West thanked the South Park writers in his blog entry and acknowledged he has a problem with his ego , but said he was trying to change . Parker and Stone said they were extremely surprised by West 's reaction , and felt Mencia was treated far more harshly in the episode than West . Parker said , " It was like , dude , we just said you were a gay fish . What are you talking about ? It was so dumb . "
Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly said the post was " a fascinating look at where Kanye 's head is at these days " , and complimented West for his " humility and honesty " . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said : " Many have tried , all have failed , but in the end it only took four animated children from Colorado to topple Kanye West 's ego . ... One day , we 'll all look back on this day and thank South Park for ushering in this historic moment in the life of Kanye . " Kerrie Mitchell of Entertainment Weekly suggested West 's modest response was actually a marketing stunt to help sell his upcoming personal fragrance and energy drink . Mitchell wrote , " Did he just get the last laugh on South Park ? Conspiracy ! " In response to the media coverage , West wrote another blog entry on April 10 claiming he had only seen part of the episode and found it funny , but he had been working on his arrogance problem for some time and that South Park did not lead to his " ego epiphany " . The next day , he said in another blog entry that while visiting The Cheesecake Factory restaurant , the manager brought him a plate of fishsticks as a joke .
The episode received positive , if slightly mixed reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN declared it the best episode of the season , calling it a " beautiful Kanye West spoof that was so well @-@ timed , so hilarious and so spot @-@ on " that it became a " phenomenon " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post said of the episode , " Best . ' South Park . ' Ever . " He particularly praised the West song parody and the fact that " a simple running joke can hold a full episode ; brilliant " . Carlos Delgado of If Magazine said the episode was " another South Park classic " which " takes full advantage of Cartman 's monumental ego " . Delgado , who gave the episode a B + grade , described the West parody as " awesome " and the final scene with the " gay fish " West song as " spell binding " . TV Guide listed the episode at number five on the top ten television moments of the week .
Travis Fickett of IGN said the episode included some good laughs but " never kicks into high gear " and said the themes might have worked better as subplots than a full episode : " ' Fishsticks ' is one of those episodes that typically occur around now in the South Park season . It 's not great , not bad – hovering somewhere around amusing towards forgettable . " Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said he was disappointed by the episode and thought the message about celebrity self @-@ delusion might have been better if it focused on only West or Mencia , rather than both . Although O 'Neal liked the West song in the episode 's final scene , O 'Neal said " cramming ( West and Mencia ) together — even mixed in with Cartman 's very funny fantasy sequences — felt too cobbled to me , and the time limits imposed by cutting back and forth between it all made the respective digs start to feel a little too one @-@ note . "
= = Legacy = =
On September 13 , 2009 during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , Kanye West interrupted an acceptance speech from Taylor Swift by walking onto stage , grabbing the microphone and praising her fellow nominee , Beyoncé Knowles . The incident received considerable press attention and drew further attention to " Fishsticks " , which Comedy Central re @-@ broadcast for two straight hours on September 15 , 2009 .
Kanye West referenced this episode in his song " Gorgeous " from the 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy where he says " choke a South Park writer with a fishstick " . He similarly referenced the episode on his album Watch the Throne in the song " Made in America " when he says " South Park had them all laughin ' / Now all my niggas designing and we all swaggin ' . "
Following a controversial 2008 performance at music festival Bonnaroo , many concertgoers have since sprayed graffiti around the festival grounds , as well as making signs , deriding the rapper as a " gay fish . "
= = = Coinye = = =
A cryptocurrency called Coinye was created in January 2014 . Under legal pressure , the developers had to change the logo from resembling West to resembling " a half @-@ man @-@ half @-@ fish hybrid " instead .
= = Home release = =
" Fishsticks " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
= Beatriz Michelena =
Beatriz Michelena ( February 22 , 1890 – October 10 , 1942 ) was a Venezuelan American actress during the silent film era , known at the time for her operatic soprano voice and appearances in musical theatre . She was one of the few Latina stars visible on the silver screen in the United States in the 1910s . She was the leading lady in each film project she was involved in , and co @-@ founded a production company with her husband , producing four of her own movies .
She wrote popular articles for newspapers , including an advice column for girls , describing what it was like to be an actress , and answering questions from readers . For adult readers , Michelena wrote other pieces such as a history of the moving picture industry . In 1920 when she stopped making films , she returned to her career as a singer .
Michelena faded from historiography for many years , but her place in history has recently been re @-@ examined ; she was mentioned in 2002 in a presidential proclamation and her 1914 film Salomy Jane is enjoying a limited re @-@ release .
= = Early life = =
Beatriz Michelena was reportedly born in New York City in 1890 , six years after her sister Vera Michelena , and around the same time that her father , Fernando Michelena ( 1858 @-@ 1921 ) , a noted Venezuelan @-@ born tenor , was singing the title role of the opera Ernani with a traveling theatre company that performed famous operas translated to English for American audiences . ( She listed her birthplace as New York in the 1920 US Census , but in the 1930 census she said California . ) Over much of her childhood , Michelena ’ s parents toured with the Emma Abbott Grand Opera Company . Beatriz 's father in later life taught music and worked as a vocal coach and , at the time of his death , was serving as president of Arrillaga Musical College , San Francisco . Beatriz and her sister Vera were trained by their father in classical voice and drama studies , and they followed in his footsteps by beginning singing careers of their own . Vera first appeared onstage in the Princess Chic Opera company ( 1901 ) at 17 , taking a leading role in The Man from China ( 1904 ) . Beatriz , too , performed with Princess Chic in 1901 , taking chorus roles suitable for a child of 11 . By mid @-@ 1904 , with Vera busy pursuing her career in New York , Fernando Michelena settled in San Francisco , California to teach voice . There , he raised Beatriz and continued to train her , a soprano , in operatic vocal techniques . He passed his stage experience to his daughter : the way to move as another person , the way to make simple but authoritative gestures , and the way to build intensity over the span of a performance . Maria Antonia Field , a Californian writer , would later chronicle her time as a student of Michelena ’ s father in her book , Five Years of Vocal Study under Fernando Michelena .
= = Marriage and stage career = =
On Sunday , March 3 , 1907 , Michelena married George E. Middleton , a prominent San Francisco automobile dealer , the " happy culmination " of a romance that had begun in their school days . The private wedding took place at 232 Divisadero Street , the home of the parents of bridesmaid Margaret McGovern , " a lifelong friend of the bride " . Judge Thomas F. Graham performed the ceremony . The couple spent a few weeks in Los Angeles for their honeymoon .
Middleton was the manager of the local Middleton Motor Car Company and the son of a California timber baron . He introduced Michelena to his society friends and business partners , including the trustees of Charles Crocker 's estate who had rebuilt the St. Francis Hotel after the 1906 earthquake and fire .
After two years spent absent from the stage , in October 1910 , " Beatriz Michelena Middleton " received a " full ovation " at the Garrick Theater for her role in The White Hen , a musical comedy set in Austria . Rotund comedian Max Dill , leader of the acting company , was the star of the show , given 14 minutes of applause upon entering the stage . For her performance , Michelena was sent flowers worth " a small fortune " , according to the San Francisco Call 's theater writer , Walter Anthony . Starring actress Lora Lieb , native to San Francisco but unknown as a performer , took less applause .
Middleton and Michelena gave an interview to Anthony after The White Hen was an established hit . Middleton said that he had kept his wife off the stage , that he " didn 't like the idea of musical comedy " , but would not have objected to her appearance in " grand opera " . Nonetheless , he agreed to an offer from Max Dill . Michelena said that she had so far spent her married life studying to perform three operatic roles : Carmen and Micaëla in Carmen , and Violetta Valéry in La traviata . She said that prior to appearing at the Garrick Theater , she had been afraid that her stage training had been lost . Michelena said she had to overcome her own fears as well as her husband 's objections .
At the end of November , Michelena quit Dill 's company , reporting that she had been billed underneath Lora Lieb in theater publicity , against the arrangement she had made with company manager Nat A. Magner . She said she refused to put her famous family name in second place .
On December 6 , 1910 , a story in the Call talked about Michelena and her sister having been " discovered " seven years previously by John Slocum , the manager who worked with the girls in the Princess Chic company . According to the story , Slocum had been trying to get Michelena to sign a long @-@ term contract , but was beaten out in that regard by Middleton , " the athlete and clubman about town " , whom she had married . A week earlier , Michelena had " caused a sensation " by resigning from the Max Dill company , but subsequently agreed to appear for four performances in Slocum 's traveling production of The Kissing Girl , normally featuring Michelena 's good friend , the actress Texas Guinan , who was willing to step down for a few days while Michelena covered the starring role of Christina . Michelena was quoted as saying ,
" Leo Cooper , seven years ago , insisted that Mr. Slocum should hear two youngsters sing . The youngsters were Vera and myself . He was good enough to have confidence in us and gave us positions in his ' Princess Chic ' company , where we rose afterward , through his encouragement and help , to prima donna posts . In memory of these kindnesses of the past and because I love the work , I have been happy to say ' yes ' to his request that I appear with his company a few times for auld lang syne before ' The Kissing Girl ' goes on her osculatory way . "
Following the three performances in San Francisco and one in Oakland , Michelena and her husband took seats in the audience to watch Guinan perform the play 's title role in San Jose 's Victory Theater on December 15 .
Michelena excelled in a singing role in The Tik @-@ Tok Man of Oz in 1913 . That year , during the autumn season , Michelena was a featured star of the Mechanics ' Fair , an engineering and auto show in San Francisco . Following that , she sang at the inauguration of the Lincoln Highway , the nation 's first transcontinental road . The western terminus celebration at the Valencia Theatre in San Francisco was organized by the Motor Car Dealers ' Association , October 31 , 1913 .
= = California Motion Picture Company = =
Middleton set up the California Motion Picture Company ( CMPC ) in San Rafael in 1912 for the purpose of shooting promotional footage of the automobiles he was selling . He determined that his pretty wife could star in movies made by his company . By 1914 , Middleton and Michelena were making three major films at the same time .
The first feature completed by CMPC was Salomy Jane , screened initially at the St. Francis Hotel by invitation only . Michelena 's role was Bret Harte 's Salomy Jane Clay , an energetic daughter of an emigrant miner . She is wooed by four men but prefers a fifth played by British heartthrob House Peters . The movie saw limited nationwide distribution and was judged a hit by viewers who were impressed by the wild California scenery : giant redwood trees , winding roads hugging rocky bluffs and the Russian River Michelena 's dominant portrayal of the title role was also an appeal . Journalist Josephine Clifford McCracken wrote of her in the June 1915 issue of Overland Monthly :
" Daughter of a renowned tenor of San Francisco 's pioneer days , herself a prima donna with an assured place on the modern operatic stage , a girl with a wealth of artistic tradition behind her , Miss Michelena 's gifts do not stop there . She has rare beauty , vivacity , wit , intellectual attainments and athletic grace . "
One CMPC shooting location was on family property near Boulder Creek , California where Middleton 's father had established a timber holding now known as the Middleton Tract . Other filming locations included undeveloped portions of Sonoma , Santa Cruz and Marin counties . In San Rafael , the studio boasted a large glass @-@ walled and -roofed building that let in light but not wind so that shooting for indoor scenes could take place in full light without the telltale flapping of tablecloths and clothing blown by gusts . Considered expensive at the time , the company used a US $ 1 @,@ 250 Bell & Howell movie camera , worth about $ 29 @,@ 200 in current value . The camera held two reels of film so that two negatives were made of each scene . A second $ 700 camera provided a third reel of the same scene , from another perspective .
Even though Salomy Jane didn 't return a profit ( likely due to second @-@ string distribution channels ) , its favorable reception convinced Middleton that his wife could challenge the world 's top movie star , Mary Pickford . Every CMPC movie was from that time forward intended to be a star vehicle for Michelena . Unfortunately , Michelena 's ego expanded with the glowing reviews of her skill , and her demands for star treatment brought heavier expenses to productions that continued to lose money . Mignon , The Lily of Poverty Flat , A Phyllis of the Sierras , Salvation Nell and The Rose of the Misty Pool all failed to turn a profit , and a lavish production of Faust which was in production in 1915 was given until the end of the year to be completed . Faust wasn 't done by January 1916 , and CMPC president Herbert Payne shut the film company down and filed for bankruptcy . Faust was never released .
= = Writer = =
In 1915 and 1916 , Michelena wrote the regular newspaper column " Talks with Screen @-@ struck Girls " , carried at first by the San Rafael Independent on Tuesdays but then appeared on Sundays in other newspapers : San Francisco Examiner and the Prescott Journal @-@ Miner ( Arizona ) . She wrote about the ideal qualities found in an actress , and what girls might do to develop them . She received a torrent of letters from readers — many were from girls asking " Must I be able to ride " and " Must I be able to swim " . In response , Michelena described in the column how those skills were helpful to a movie actress , but not absolutely necessary ; she said they " are accessories to , rather than the substance of the thing ... I would advise every girl entering motion pictures to learn to ride and swim and do all the rest of it , but I would have her realize their subordination to the really artistic side of the profession . " '
On May 7 , 1916 , Michelena wrote to caution girls wishing for fame on the silver screen that many like themselves ended up " broken in spirit " , with shattered expectations . She advised them to stay home and avoid " bitter disappointment " in movie making . In July , she discussed some of the specifics of the mental challenges of acting :
" There are a hundred little peculiarities that index the character of practically every type of person , and it is the effectiveness with which one grasps , understands and utilizes these peculiarities that makes him or her a great dramatic artist ... The truly great actress ... must not only recognize the traits as she sees them outwardly manifested , but she must also get beneath the skin and recognize the conditions of thought or emotion that give rise to them . Then , and this is the really great test of her talents , she must so lose herself in those conditions of thought and emotion , and feel through them , that her mimicry of their outward manifestations comes naturally and without conscious endeavor . "
In addition to her column , Michelena wrote occasional articles intended for a wider readership . She wrote in October 1916 about the history of the moving picture industry in a multiple @-@ article series , beginning her account with a retelling of Eadweard Muybridge 's action photograph of Governor Leland Stanford 's racehorse named Occident . She defined this high @-@ speed image as essential to the development of moving pictures .
= = Michelena Studios = =
Middleton and Michelena bought their bankrupt film company for " a few thousand dollars " in 1917 and renamed it Michelena Studios . Their new company was called Beatriz Michelena Features , and shooting began on their next feature @-@ length film , Just Squaw . Michelena 's lead character was a white woman raised by American Indians , a woman who does not realize her racial heritage until after she falls into forbidden love with a white man . The movie played for only a week in San Francisco in 1919 , and did not return a profit .
The moviemakers ' new distributor , Robertson @-@ Cole , was unable to find the right market for Heart of Juanita and The Flame of Hellgate in 1920 . American audiences had grown more sophisticated , yet Michelena Studios was still employing their earlier production techniques . After shooting The Flame of Hellgate , Middleton and Michelena stopped making movies altogether . She returned to her singing performances and he returned to his car sales . They reportedly divorced in the mid @-@ 1920s , though Middleton told the 1930 US Census that they were married . The union produced no children .
= = Retirement = =
After leaving film work , Michelena continued with her singing career , and toured Latin America ( 1927 ) where she was warmly received as part of a 30 @-@ person troupe of singers and dancers performing the operas Carmen and Madama Butterfly . The San Francisco Chronicle reported that this was " the first invasion of those countries by an American operatic star in repertoire performances " . Afterward , she retired from singing , and returned to San Rafael to live near her old film studio . Between 1937 and 1941 , she sold 10 of the 26 real estate parcels that together had formed her studio lot . On October 10 , 1942 , after a surgical operation in San Francisco , she died at the age of 52 . Her sister Vera Michelena and her ex @-@ husband George Middleton survived her .
= = Legacy = =
The Michelena Features studio facility in San Rafael sat empty through the 1920s with its solitary metal @-@ clad brick vault housing all the company 's nitrate films , including the earlier ones shot by CMPC . In 1931 , boys playing with a firecracker at the deserted lot set the vault and all of its flammable contents spectacularly on fire . Every known copy of Michelena 's movies was destroyed , a loss that Middleton estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 ; worth about $ 3 @.@ 1 million today . In 1996 , an 82 @-@ year @-@ old nitrate copy of Salomy Jane was found in Australia ; it was sent to the Library of Congress for preservation . Awareness of Michelena 's contribution to early film , and her role as a groundbreaking Hispanic star , rose in 2002 with a proclamation made by President George W. Bush upon the occasion of National Hispanic Heritage Month in which he listed her as one of America 's influential Latino actors . In 2008 , a new print of Salomy Jane was released for limited distribution .
= = Filmography = =
= Lou Groza =
Louis Roy Groza ( January 25 , 1924 – November 29 , 2000 ) , nicknamed " The Toe " , was an American football placekicker and offensive tackle who played his entire career for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Groza was professional football 's career kicking and points leader when he retired after the 1967 season . He played in 21 seasons for the Browns , helping the team to win eight league championships in that span . Groza 's accuracy and strength as a kicker influenced the development of place @-@ kicking as a specialty ; he could kick field goals from beyond 50 yards ( 46 m ) at a time when attempts from that distance were a rarity . He set numerous records for distance and number of field goals kicked during his career .
Groza grew up in an athletic family in Martins Ferry , Ohio . He enrolled at Ohio State University on a scholarship in 1942 , but enlisted in the U.S. Army and was sent to serve in World War II after just one year in college . Groza deployed as an army surgical technician in the Pacific theater , where he stayed until returning in 1946 to play for the Browns . Helped by Groza 's kicking and play at offensive tackle , the Browns won the AAFC championship every year between 1946 and 1949 , when the league disbanded and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Cleveland won the NFL championship in its first year in the league on a last @-@ minute field goal by Groza . Groza set NFL records for field goals made in 1950 , 1952 and 1953 . Sporting News named him the league 's Most Valuable Player in 1954 , when the Browns won another championship . The team repeated as NFL champions in 1955 .
Groza retired briefly after the 1959 season due to a back injury , but returned in 1961 . He was part of a 1964 team that won another NFL championship . Groza retired for good after the 1967 season . Later in life , he ran an insurance business and served as a team ambassador for the Browns . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission named the Lou Groza Award after him . The award is given annually to the country 's best college placekicker . Groza died in 2000 of a heart attack .
= = Early life = =
Born in eastern Ohio in Martins Ferry , just north and across the Ohio River from Wheeling , West Virginia , Groza 's parents were immigrants from Transylvania , part of modern @-@ day Romania . His Hungarian mother Mary and Romanian father John ( Ioan ) Groza owned and ran Groza 's Tavern on Main Street . Lou was the smallest in stature of four boys in an athletic family ; his brother Alex became a star basketball player at the University of Kentucky , a member of two national championship teams .
Groza lettered in football , basketball , and baseball at Martins Ferry High School . The Purple Riders won the state basketball championship in 1941 , when Groza was its captain . He was also captain of the baseball team . Groza learned placekicking from his older brother Frank , and practiced by trying to kick balls over telephone wires when he and his friends played touch football in the street .
= = College career and military service = =
Groza graduated from high school in 1942 and enrolled on an athletic scholarship at Ohio State University in Columbus , where he played as a tackle and placekicker on the Buckeyes ' freshman team . Groza played in three games and kicked five field goals , including one from 45 yards ( 41 m ) away . In 1943 , he enlisted in the U.S. Army as World War II intensified . He first went for basic training to Abilene , Texas , and then to Brooks General Hospital in San Antonio .
After a stint with the short @-@ lived Army Service Training Program , Groza was sent with the 96th Infantry Division to serve as a surgical technician in Leyte , Okinawa , and other places in the Pacific theater in 1945 . The day he landed in the Philippines , Groza saw a soldier shot in the face . He was stationed in a bank of tents about five miles from the front lines and helped doctors tend to the wounded . " I saw a lot of men wounded with severe injuries , " he later said . " Lose legs , guts hanging out , stuff like that . It 's a tough thing , but you get hardened to it , and you accept it as part of your being there . "
While he was in the Army , he received a package from Paul Brown , the Ohio State football coach . It contained footballs and a contract for him to sign to play on a team Brown was coaching in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . He signed the contract in May 1945 and agreed to join the team , called the Cleveland Browns , after the war ended in 1946 . Groza got $ 500 a month stipend until the end of the war and a $ 7 @,@ 500 annual salary .
= = Professional career = =
Following his discharge from military service , Groza reported to the Browns ' training camp in Bowling Green , Ohio . He showed up in army fatigues carrying all his clothes in a duffel bag . There , he joined quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie to form the core of the new team 's offense . Groza was mainly a placekicker in his first two years with the Browns , but he played a big part in the team 's early success . In his first season , he set a professional football record for both field goals and extra points . The Browns , meanwhile , advanced to the AAFC championship against the New York Yankees . Groza sprained his ankle in the game and missed three field goals , but Cleveland won 14 – 9 . Behind a powerful offense led by Graham , Motley and Lavelli , the Browns finished the 1947 season with a 12 – 1 – 1 record and made it back to the championship game . Groza , however , was injured and could only watch as the team won its second championship in a row .
Further success followed for the Browns and Groza , who was nicknamed " The Toe " by a sportswriter for his kicking abilities . Groza led the league in field goals and the team won all of its games in 1948 , recording professional football 's first perfect season . As he grew into a star placekicker , Groza began playing regularly at offensive tackle beginning in 1948 . One highlight of that year for Groza was a 53 @-@ yard field goal against the AAFC 's Brooklyn Dodgers that was then the longest kick in pro football history . With Groza , the Browns could attempt field goals at a range many other teams could not . " Anywhere from 40 to 50 yards ( 37 to 46 m ) , he was a weapon , " Tommy James , Groza 's holder for eight years , later said . Another championship win followed in 1949 , but the AAFC dissolved after the season , and the Browns were among three teams absorbed by the more established National Football League ( NFL ) .
The war had shortened Groza 's college career , so he continued to study at Ohio State in the offseason in his early years with the Browns . He graduated with a degree in business in 1949 . Groza married that year , to Jackie Lou Robbins , a girl from Martins Ferry who was working as a model in New York City when they first dated .
The Browns ' debut in the NFL in the 1950 season was closely watched ; while the team dominated the AAFC in its short existence , some sportswriters , NFL owners and coaches considered the league inferior . Cleveland put all doubts to rest in its first game against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles , winning 35 – 10 . In a game against the Washington Redskins later in the season , Groza broke a 24 @-@ year @-@ old NFL record by kicking his 13th field goal of the season . He also scored the only touchdown of his career in that game on a reception from Graham . The Browns ended the regular season with a 10 – 2 record in the American Conference , tied with the New York Giants . That forced a playoff against the Giants in which Groza kicked the winning field goal for the Browns with under a minute to play .
The Browns next faced the Los Angeles Rams in the championship game . Groza came into the game as the NFL 's leading kicker , both in terms of points scored and accuracy . He had a success rate of 68 @.@ 4 % in an era when most teams made fewer than half of their attempts . The Rams went ahead early in the game on a touchdown pass from star quarterback Bob Waterfield and a scoring run by Dick Hoerner . But Graham and the Browns came back with four touchdowns , two to receiver Dante Lavelli . As time wound down in the fourth quarter , however , the Rams were ahead 28 – 27 , and Cleveland had a final chance to win the game . Graham drove the offense to the Rams ' nine @-@ yard line and set up a Groza field goal attempt . The 16 @-@ yard try sailed through the uprights with 28 seconds left , giving the Browns a 30 – 28 victory . It was the biggest kick of Groza 's career . " I never thought I would miss , " he said later . After the season , Groza was named to the first @-@ ever Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game .
Cleveland again reached the championship game in 1951 , but lost this time in a rematch against the Rams . Groza had a 52 @-@ yard field goal in the game , a record for a championship or Super Bowl that stood for 42 years . He was again named to the Pro Bowl after the season . The same scenario was repeated in 1952 and 1953 : the Browns reached the championship both years , but lost both times to the Detroit Lions . Groza was playing with cracked ribs in the 1952 championship loss , and he missed three field goals . Groza set a record in 1953 when he made 23 field goals and had an 88 @.@ 5 % success rate , a single @-@ season mark that stood for 28 years . He made the Pro Bowl again in 1952 and 1953 , and was a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection both years .
The Browns came back in 1954 to win another championship . That year , Groza was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player by Sporting News . Cleveland won the championship again in 1955 , beating the Rams 38 – 14 . Groza was named to the Pro Bowl and sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro teams in 1954 and 1955 .
Hurt by Graham 's retirement before the season , Cleveland had its first @-@ ever losing season in 1956 . Groza 's kicking continued to be a strength through the ensuing three years : he reached the Pro Bowl in 1957 , 1958 and 1959 , and tied Sam Baker for league leader in points scored in 1957 . Cleveland reached the championship game in 1957 but lost to the Lions . The Browns lost to the New York Giants in a single @-@ elimination playoff in 1958 , and failed to reach the postseason in 1959 . Groza sat out after the 1959 season due to a back injury and was presumed to be retired . While his kicking was his most visible contribution to the team , Groza was also an offensive tackle up until his injury , when Brown replaced him with Dick Schafrath . " Lou never got all the credit he deserved for his tackle play , probably because his great kicking skills got him more notoriety , " Andy Robustelli , a defensive end who played against Groza , later said .
Groza took 1960 off and did some scouting for the team . He also focused on an insurance business he started . " I was 36 and I thought I had retired , " he said . The following year , however , he came back to the team at the urging of Art Modell , who bought the Browns that year . Not wanting to use a roster spot on a kicking specialist ( Groza 's back injury prevented him from playing on the line ) , Brown had signed Sam Baker to kick and play halfback . But Groza was eager to return and Modell insisted . Groza stayed with the team as a placekicker until 1967 , and was on a Browns team that won the 1964 championship . Groza scored the first points in that game on a third @-@ quarter field goal . He also kicked four kickoffs more than 70 yards ( 64 m ) and out of the Baltimore Colts end zone , preventing a return . Cleveland won 27 – 0 .
When Groza retired for good in 1968 after 21 seasons in professional football , he held NFL career records for points scored , field goals made and extra points made . He had 234 field goals , 641 extra points and 1 @,@ 349 total points in the NFL . Counting his AAFC years , his career point total was 1 @,@ 603 . He was the last of the original Browns still on the team . Groza , who was 44 years old when he quit the game , said in his memoir that retiring was " the saddest day of my football life . " His top salary was $ 50 @,@ 000 in his final year .
= = Later life and death = =
After Groza retired , he entertained an offer to play for the San Francisco 49ers , but was reluctant to do so because he did not want to move his family and insurance business to the West Coast . He was offered a spot with the Browns as a kicking coach , helping mentor the young Don Cockroft , but he declined . Later in life , he became an ambassador and father figure for the Browns , inviting rookies over for dinner and helping them find apartments . He continued to run a successful insurance business and lived in Berea , Ohio near the Browns ' headquarters and training facility . He and his wife Jackie were known as the team 's First Family .
Modell relocated the Browns to Baltimore in 1995 and renamed the team the Ravens , provoking a wave of anger and disbelief from fans and former players . Groza was a leading critic of the move , saying it was " like some man walking off with your wife . " In 1996 , Groza wrote a memoir titled The Toe : The Lou Groza Story . The Browns restarted as an expansion team in 1999 .
Groza was hobbled in the late 1990s by back and hip surgeries and Parkinson 's disease . He suffered a heart attack in 2000 after dinner with his wife at Columbia Hills Country Club in Columbia Station , Ohio . He was taken to a hospital in Middleburg Heights , Ohio , where he died . He was buried in Sunset Memorial Park in North Olmsted , Ohio . Groza and his wife had three sons and a daughter . Following Groza 's death , the Browns wore his number 76 on their helmets for the 2001 season .
= = Legacy and kicking style = =
While field goals had long been viewed as an important part of football strategy , kicking specialists were a rarity before Groza 's time . Groza 's success from distances of 40 yards ( 37 m ) and beyond raised the bar for kickers across the league . He set single @-@ season NFL records for accuracy , distance and number of field goals in his first three years in the league , marks that went unbeaten until kicking specialists became a common feature of the game in the early 1970s . Groza 's kicking was the difference in 15 % of the Browns ' games during the AAFC years , and teams began to take notice when his field goals made the difference in both the NFL playoffs and the championship game in 1950 . " Everybody started to pay attention to field goals when the Browns started to win games with them , " Pat Summerall said . Groza led the NFL in field goals made five times in his career .
Groza was a straight @-@ ahead kicker . He approached the football in a straight line and booted it with the top of his foot , aiming for the middle of the ball . Early in his career , Groza scraped the ground with his cleats in a straight line to help guide his kicks . Later he put down a piece of one @-@ inch adhesive tape rolled up inside his helmet . The " Lou Groza Rule " in 1950 banned the use of artificial kicking aids , including the tape . The straight @-@ ahead style used by Groza and other kickers of his era has since been supplanted by soccer @-@ style kicking with the side of the foot . " I don 't know why all the kids kick soccer @-@ style , " he said in 1997 . " They kick the ball with the side of their foot , which is supposed to give them better control . I don 't know , I never tried it . "
Groza was named to the National Football League 1950s All @-@ Decade Team in 1969 and inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . The Browns retired his number 76 ; he is also in the team 's Ring of Honor , a grouping of the best players in the club 's history whose names are displayed below upper @-@ deck seats at FirstEnergy Stadium . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission established the Lou Groza Award , given to the best National Collegiate Athletic Association Football Bowl Subdivision ( formerly Division I @-@ A ) kicker . The Browns ' training facility in Berea , Ohio is located at 76 Lou Groza Boulevard . One of his kicking shoes is part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C ..
= O 'Brien Schofield =
O 'Brien Schofield ( born April 3 , 1987 ) is an American football outside linebacker who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Arizona Cardinals in the fourth round of the 2010 NFL Draft and played for them for three seasons . He was also a member of the Seattle Seahawks during their Super Bowl XLVIII championship season and the Atlanta Falcons . He played college football at Wisconsin .
As a fifth year redshirt senior defensive end for the 2009 Wisconsin Badgers he ranked second in the nation in tackles for a loss ( TFLs ) and second in the Big Ten Conference in quarterback sacks . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he earned several second team and honorable mention All @-@ American recognitions by various publications . He was a first @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He earned the defensive MVP award at the 2010 East – West Shrine Game , but was injured during practice for the 2010 Senior Bowl the subsequent week .
= = High School = =
Schofield attended North Chicago Community High School . In high school Schofield was a Lake County , Illinois 2003 All @-@ county second team selection and 2004 first team selection in football . He was also a special mention All @-@ state selection in 2004 . In basketball , he was an All @-@ county honorable mention for 2004 – 05 . In high school he played wide receiver as a sophomore , defensive end as a junior and end , linebacker , receiver , fullback , placekicker , kick returner and punt returner as a senior . He also ran track . Scout.com rated him as the 55th best high school football linebacker in the country . Rivals.com ranked him as the 24th best defensive end in the country and the 24th best football prosepect in Illinois .
= = College career = =
Schofield did not appear in any games for the 2005 Badgers and recorded no statistics although he appeared in five games for the 2006 Badgers . He recorded his first tackle on September 15 for the 2007 Badgers against The Citadel Bulldogs and his first sack and TFL on August 30 for the 2008 team against the Akron Zips . He concluded his career with a total of 17 sacks and 33 TFLs . He also accumulated 4 forced fumbles . On June 7 , 2007 , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Schofield lost his 19 @-@ year @-@ old brother , Joshua , who drowned on a beach in Zion , IL .
He was the 2009 Big Ten Conference runner @-@ up in sacks with 12 to Ryan Kerrigan and runner @-@ up in TFLs with 24 @.@ 5 to Brandon Graham . He ranked second in the nation in TFLs / game . At the conclusion of the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season he was a 2009 First @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and media .
He concluded his career for Wisconsin Badgers football with the 2009 team in the December 29 , 2009 Champs Sports Bowl . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he was a second team All @-@ American selection by Scout.com and an honorable mention by College Football News , Sports Illustrated , and Pro Football Weekly . During the season he was the October 4 , 2009 Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week for his October 3 performance against the Minnesota Golden Gophers . He was selected as a midseason semifinalists for the Bednarik Award .
The January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game , in which he earned defensive MVP , was his last game . He recorded an interception on a Max Hall pass and made three solo tackles in the game . Schofield was projected to play linebacker in the NFL . During the week of practice at the Shrine Game , he performed with the linebackers in order to demonstrate his NFL potential for scouts . However , in the subsequent week of practice for the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl , Schofield tore his anterior cruciate ligament .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
Schofield was drafted in the 4th round of the 2010 NFL Draft , 130th overall , by the Arizona Cardinals . Since Schofield was injured , he was considered a good value because his talent level was near first round draft choice level . He was expected to begin the 2010 NFL season on the physically unable to perform list but return late in the year as an outside linebacker . Although he played on the defensive line in college , he was projected to play outside linebacker for the Cardinals who had Joey Porter and Will Davis on their roster . Schofield signed a 4 @-@ year contract on July 27 , 2010 . On August 31 , he was placed on the reserve / non @-@ football injury list .
He made his NFL debut on October 31 , 2010 in Week 8 , against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Schofield forced a fumble against the Minnesota Vikings on November 7 on kick coverage that was recovered for a touchdown . Schofield recorded his first NFL sack on December 25 , 2010 , when he sacked QB Stephen McGee for an 11 @-@ yard loss in a 27 @-@ 26 Arizona win over the Dallas Cowboys . In the Cardinals January 2 , 2011 regular season finale against the San Francisco 49ers , Schofield sacked QB Alex Smith for a 5 @-@ yard loss .
He had his first two @-@ sack game on December 18 , 2011 , against Seneca Wallace on back @-@ to @-@ back fourth quarter plays of an overtime victory over the Cleveland Browns . He became a starter during the 2012 NFL season .
On July 25 , 2013 , he was released by the Arizona Cardinals .
= = = Seattle Seahawks = = =
On July 27 , 2013 , Schofield was claimed off waivers by the Seattle Seahawks . He posted a sack of Cam Newton in his debut with the 2013 Seahawks against the Carolina Panthers . After helping the Seahawks win Super Bowl XLVIII , he became a free agent . On March 11 , 2014 , Schofield and the New York Giants agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract . However the deal was called off due to a problem with his physical . He re @-@ signed with the Seahawks on May 2 , 2014 .
= = = Atlanta Falcons = = =
On March 12 , 2015 , Schofield signed with the Atlanta Falcons .
= = Personal = =
Schofield is the eldest of five children of Anthony and Dawn Schofield . Younger brother Admiral Schofield plays basketball at the University of Tennessee . His uncle Andre Carter played safety at Clemson . Schofield is a cousin of both Vonnie Holliday and Bobby Engram who both have had long National Football League careers .
= Paralympic Games =
The Paralympic Games is a major international multi @-@ sport event , involving athletes with a range of physical disabilities , including impaired muscle power ( e.g. paraplegia and quadriplegia , muscular dystrophy , post @-@ polio syndrome , spina bifida ) , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency ( e.g. amputation or dysmelia ) , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games , which since the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul , South Korea , are held almost immediately following the respective Olympic Games . All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) .
The Paralympics has grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sporting events by the early 21st century . Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non @-@ disabled Olympic athletes , but there is a large funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes .
The Paralympic Games are organized in parallel with the Olympic Games , while the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games include athletes with intellectual disabilities , and the Deaflympics include deaf athletes .
Given the wide variety of disabilities that Paralympic athletes have , there are several categories in which the athletes compete . The allowable disabilities are broken down into ten eligible impairment types . The categories are impaired muscle power , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . These categories are further broken down into classifications , which vary from sport to sport . The classification system has led to cheating controversies revolving around athletes who over @-@ stated their disabilities , in addition to the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs seen in other events .
= = History = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Athletes with disabilities did compete in the Olympic Games prior to the advent of the Paralympics . The first athlete to do so was German American gymnast George Eyser in 1904 , who had one artificial leg . Hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics . He was a right @-@ arm amputee and could shoot left @-@ handed . Another disabled athlete to appear in the Olympics prior to the Paralympic Games was Lis Hartel , a Danish equestrian athlete who had contracted polio in 1943 and won a silver medal in the dressage event .
The first organized athletic day for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , United Kingdom . German born Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital , who had been helped to flee Nazi Germany by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics ( CARA ) in 1939 , hosted a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries . The first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games , and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics . Dr. Guttman 's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games . The games were held again at the same location in 1952 , and Dutch veterans took part alongside the British , making it the first international competition of its kind . These early competitions , also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games , have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games .
= = = Milestones = = =
There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement . The first official Paralympic Games , no longer open solely to war veterans , was held in Rome in 1960 . 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games . Since 1960 , the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games . The Games were initially open only to athletes in wheelchairs ; at the 1976 Summer Games , athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics . With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1 @,@ 600 athletes from 40 countries . The 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , South Korea , was another milestone for the Paralympic movement . It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games , in the same host city , and using the same facilities . This set a precedent that was followed in 1992 , 1996 and 2000 . It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) and the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 2001 , and was recently extended through 2020 . The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics .
= = = Winter Games = = =
The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden . This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete . The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart , just as the Olympics were . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics have been held in those even numbered years separate from the Summer Games .
= = = Recent games = = =
The Paralympic games were designed to emphasize the participants ' athletic achievements and not their disability . Recent games have emphasized that these games are about ability and not disability . The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example , the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3 @,@ 900 athletes from 146 countries in Beijing in 2008 . Both the Paralympic Summer and Winter Games are recognized on the world stage . The Paralympics is no longer held solely for British war veterans or just for athletes in wheelchairs , but for elite athletes with a wide variety of disabilities from all over the world . The paralympics allow people with special needs a chance to heal their injuries and take part in the games .
= = International Paralympic Committee = =
= = = Forerunners ( 1964 – 1989 ) = = =
The first organization dedicated to advancement of athletic opportunities for people with a disability was the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , founded in 1964 . The founders of this organization intended it to be a governing body to disability sports what the IOC was to the Olympic Games . This committee eventually became the International Coordinating Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled ( ICC ) , which was established in 1982 . The ICC was tasked with advocating for the rights of athletes with a disability in front of the IOC . After the success of the cooperative effort between the ICC and the IOC , which resulted in the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , the ICC determined the need to expand and include representatives from all nations that had disability sports programs . They also deemed it necessary to include athletes in the decisions of the Paralympic governing body . Consequently , this body was reorganized as the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) in 1989 .
= = = IPC ( since 1989 ) = = =
The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement . It comprises 176 National Paralympic Committees ( NPC ) and four disability @-@ specific international sports federations . The president of the IPC is Philip Craven , a former Paralympian from Great Britain . In his capacity as head of the IPC , Craven is also a member of the International Olympic Committee . The IPC 's international headquarters are in Bonn , Germany . The IPC is responsible for organizing the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games . It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports ( Paralympic athletics , Paralympic swimming , Paralympic shooting , Paralympic powerlifting , Para @-@ alpine skiing , Paralympic biathlon , Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing , ice sledge hockey and Wheelchair DanceSport ) . This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates . IPC membership also includes National Paralympic Committees and international sporting federations . International Federations are independent sport federations recognized by the IPC as the sole representative of a Paralympic Sport . International Federations responsibilities include technical jurisdiction and guidance over the competition and training venues of their respective sports during the Paralympic Games . The IPC also recognizes media partners , certifies officials , judges , and is responsible for enforcing the bylaws of the Paralympic Charter .
The IPC has a cooperative relationship with the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Delegates of the IPC are also members of the IOC and participate on IOC committees and commissions . The two governing bodies remain distinct , with separate Games , despite the close working relationship .
= = Name and symbols = =
Although the name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining " paraplegic " ( due to its origins as games for people with spinal injuries ) and " Olympic , " the inclusion of other disability groups meant that this was no longer considered very accurate . The present formal explanation for the name is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά , pará ( " beside " or " alongside " ) and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games . The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term " Paralympic " came into official use .
“ Spirit in Motion ” is the motto for the Paralympic movement . The symbol for the Paralympics contains three colours , red , blue , and green , which are the colours most widely represented in the flags of nations . The colours are each in the shape of an Agito ( which is Latin for " I move " ) , which is the name given to an asymmetrical crescent specially designed for the Paralympic movement . The three Agitos circle a central point , which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe . The motto and symbol of the IPC were changed in 2003 to their current versions . The change was intended to convey the idea that Paralympians have a spirit of competition and that the IPC as an organization realizes its potential and is moving forward to achieve it . The vision of the IPC is , " To enable Paralympic athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world . " The Paralympic anthem is " Hymn de l 'Avenir " or " Anthem of the Future " . It was composed by Thierry Darnis and adopted as the official anthem in March 1996 .
= = Ceremonies = =
= = = Opening = = =
As mandated by the Paralympic Charter , various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games . Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . Unlike the Olympic Games , after the national anthem , the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation.Since the 1994 Winter Paralympics.The nations enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language , though with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter . Since the 1988 Summer Paralympics , the host nation presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theatre representative of its culture .
Speeches are given , formally opening the games . Finally , the Paralympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier — often a Paralympic athlete from the host nation — who lights the Paralympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron .
= = = Closing = = =
The closing ceremony of the Paralympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded . Flag @-@ bearers from each participating country enter , followed by the athletes who enter together , without any national distinction . The Paralympic flag is taken down . Since the 2002 Winter Paralympics the national flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Paralympic Games is hoisted while the corresponding national anthem is played . The games are officially closed , and the Paralympic flame is extinguished . After these compulsory elements , the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture .
= = = Medal presentation = = =
A medal ceremony is held after each Paralympic event is concluded . The winner , second and third @-@ place competitors or teams stand on top of a three @-@ tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals . After the medals are given out by an IPC member , the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallists country plays . Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies , as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag @-@ bearers . For every Paralympic event , the respective medal ceremony is held , at most , one day after the event 's final .
= = Equality = =
= = = Relationship with the Olympics = = =
In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . This agreement was to remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics , but was extended , encompassing all Summer and Winter games up until the 2020 Summer Olympics .
The IOC has written its commitment to equal access to athletics for all people into its charter , which states ,
While the charter is silent on discrimination specifically related to disability ; given the language in the charter regarding discrimination it is reasonable to infer that discrimination on the basis of disability would be against the ideals of the Olympic Charter and the IOC . This is also consistent with the Paralympic Charter , which forbids discrimination on the basis of political , religious , economic , disability , gender , sexual orientation or racial reasons .
Chairman of the London organising committee , Sebastian Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and 2012 Summer Olympics in London , England , that
The 2014 Winter Paralympic Games is the first such Paralympics hosted by Russia . Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities during that period . Notably at 2010 Vancouver their Paralympic team topped the medal table at the Winter Paralympics , while their Olympic team performed well below expectations at the Winter Olympics . This led the media to highlight the contrast between the achievements of the country 's Olympic and Paralympic delegations , despite the greater attention and funding awarded to the Olympic athletes . The Russian Federation organizers of the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games have , since 2007 , made efforts to make the host city Sochi more accessible .
= = = = Paralympians at the Olympics = = = =
Paralympic athletes have sought equal opportunities to compete at the Olympic Games . The precedent was set by Neroli Fairhall , a Paralympic archer from New Zealand , who competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles .
In 2008 Oscar Pistorius , a South African sprinter , attempted to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Pistorius had both his legs amputated below the knee and races with two carbon fibre blades manufactured by Ossur . He holds Paralympic world record in the 400 meter event . Pistorius missed qualifying for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 400 meter race , by 0 @.@ 70 seconds . He qualified for the 2008 Summer Paralympics where he won gold medals in the 100 , 200 , and 400 meter sprints . In 2011 , Pistorius qualified for the 2012 Summer Olympics and competed in two events : he made the semi @-@ final in the 400 metres race ; and his team came 8th in the final of the 4 × 400 metres relay race .
Some athletes without a disability also compete at the Paralympics ; The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team , and both athletes are medal candidates .
= = = = Funding = = = =
There has been criticism for not providing equal funding to Paralympic athletes as compared to Olympic athletes . An example of this criticism was a lawsuit filed by Paralympic athletes Tony Iniguez , Scot Hollonbeck and Jacob Heilveil of the United States , in 2003 . They alleged that the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) , which also include the USOC Paralympic Division ( the National Paralympic Committee ) , was underfunding American Paralympic athletes . Iniguez cited the fact that the USOC made healthcare benefits available to a smaller percentage of Paralympians , the USOC provided smaller quarterly training stipends and paid smaller financial awards for medals won at a Paralympics . US Paralympians saw this as a disadvantage for the US Paralympic athletes , as nations such as Canada and Britain supported Paralympians and Olympians virtually equally . The USOC did not deny the discrepancy in funding and contended that this was due to the fact that it did not receive any government financial support . As a result , it had to rely on revenue generated by the media exposure of its athletes . Olympic athletic success resulted in greater exposure for the USOC than Paralympic athletic achievements . The case was heard by lower courts , who ruled that the USOC has the right to allocate its finances to athletes at different rates . The case was appealed to the Supreme Court , where on September 6 , 2008 it announced that it would not hear the appeal . However , during the time the lawsuit lasted ( from 2003 to 2008 ) , the funding from the USOC had nearly tripled . In 2008 $ 11 @.@ 4 million was earmarked for Paralympic athletes , up from $ 3 million in 2004 .
As with the Olympics , recent Paralympics have also been supported by contributions from major sponsors . Unlike the Olympics , where the IOC mandates that arenas be clean of sponsor logos , the Paralympics do allow the logos of official sponsors to be displayed inside arenas and on uniforms .
= = = Media coverage = = =
While the Olympic Games have experienced tremendous growth in global media coverage since the 1984 Summer Olympics , the Paralympics have been unable to maintain a consistent international media presence .
Television broadcasts of Paralympic Games began in 1976 , but this early coverage was confined to taped @-@ delay releases to one nation or region . At the 1992 Summer Paralympics there were 45 hours of live coverage but it was available only in Europe . Other countries broadcast highlight packages during the Games . No meaningful improvements in coverage occurred until the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney .
The 2000 Paralympics represented a significant increase in global media exposure for the Paralympic Games . A deal was reached between the Sydney Paralympic Organizing Committee ( SPOC ) and All Media Sports ( AMS ) to broadcast the Games internationally . Deals were reached with Asian , South American , and European broadcast companies to distribute coverage to as many markets as possible . The Games were also webcast for the first time . Because of these efforts the Sydney Paralympics reached a global audience estimated at 300 million people . Also significant was the fact that the organizers did not have to pay networks to televise the Games as had been done at the 1992 and 1996 Games . Despite these advances consistent media attention has been a challenge , which was evidenced in the coverage in Great Britain of the 2010 Winter Paralympics .
The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) was criticized for its minimal coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics as compared to its coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics . The BBC announced it would stream some content on its website and show a one @-@ hour highlight program after the Games ended . For the Winter Olympics the BBC aired 160 hours of coverage . The response from the BBC was that budget constraints and the " time zone factor " necessitated a limited broadcast schedule . The reduction in coverage was done in spite of increased ratings for the 2008 Summer Paralympics , which was watched by 23 % of the population of Great Britain . In Norway , the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) broadcast 30 hours of the 2010 Winter Games live . NRK @-@ sport were critical of parts of the TV production from Vancouver , and notified the EBU of issues such as the biathlon coverage excluding the shooting , and cross @-@ country skiing with skiers in the distance , making it hard to follow the progress of the competition . NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events , which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games .
Commercial broadcaster Channel 4 acquired the rights to the Paralympics in the United Kingdom for the 2012 Summer Paralympics , and planned to air extensive coverage of the games ; Channel 4 aired 150 hours of coverage , and also offered mobile apps , and three dedicated streaming channels of additional coverage on Sky , Freesat , Virgin Media and Channel 4 's website . " Channel 4 also made a push to heighten the profile of the Paralympics in the country by producing a 2 minute trailer for its coverage , " Meet the Superhumans " ; which premièred simultaneously on over 70 commercial channels in the UK on 17 July 2012 . Channel 4 have also acquired the rights to the 2014 Winter Paralympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics .
American broadcaster NBC Sports , who also owns the broadcast rights to the Olympics , has been criticised by athletes and IPC officials for airing only a bare minimum of coverage from the Paralympics ; the lack of coverage from NBC in Athens was a cause for concern from senior IPC officials , especially given that the United States was bidding for the 2012 Games . In 2012 NBC only produced around 5 hours of tape delayed highlights from the Games , airing on the pay TV channel NBC Sports Network , and did not cover the ceremonies at all .
IPC president Philip Craven was vocal about NBC 's reluctance to air coverage in 2012 , expressing his disappointment for American athletes and viewers who would miss the " amazing images " the games would bring , and remarking that " some people think that North America always lead [ s ] on everything , and on this they don 't . It 's about time they caught up . " Following the closing ceremonies , Craven hinted that the IPC might put greater scrutiny on broadcasters at future editions of the Paralympics ( or may strip NBC of its broadcast rights ) , by stating that " if we find our values don ’ t fit , we ’ ll have to go somewhere else . " NBC would pick up broadcast rights to the 2014 and 2016 Paralympics , promising a significantly larger amount of coverage than before .
= = = Outside the games = = =
A 2010 study by the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) on the Olympic Games Impact ( OGI ) , showed that of roughly 1 @,@ 600 Canadian respondents , 41 – 50 percent believed the 2010 Paralympic and Olympic Games in Vancouver , Canada triggered additional accessibility of buildings , sidewalks and public spaces . 23 percent of employers said the Games had increased their willingness to hire people with disabilities .
Chief Executive Officer for the International Paralympic Committee , Xavier Gonzalez , said about the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , China , that
= = Classification = =
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) has established ten disability categories . Athletes are divided within each category according to their level of impairment , in a functional classification system which differs from sport to sport .
= = = Categories = = =
The IPC has established ten disability categories , including physical , visual , and intellectual impairment . Athletes with one of these disabilities can compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category . These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics .
Physical Impairment - There are eight different types of physical impairment :
Impaired muscle power - With impairments in this category , the force generated by muscles , such as the muscles of one limb , one side of the body or the lower half of the body is reduced , e.g. due to spinal @-@ cord injury , spina bifida or polio .
Impaired passive range of movement - Range of movement in one or more joints is reduced in a systematic way . Acute conditions such as arthritis are not included .
Loss of limb or limb deficiency - A total or partial absence of bones or joints from partial or total loss due to illness , trauma , or congenital limb deficiency ( e.g. dysmelia ) .
Leg @-@ length difference - Significant bone shortening occurs in one leg due to congenital deficiency or trauma .
Short stature - Standing height is reduced due to shortened legs , arms and trunk , which are due to a musculoskeletal deficit of bone or cartilage structures .
Hypertonia - Hypertonia is marked by an abnormal increase in muscle tension and reduced ability of a muscle to stretch . Hypertonia may result from injury , disease , or conditions which involve damage to the central nervous system | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
, 1980 , I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 were returned to their original alignments , with I @-@ 895 decommissioned . US 202 was designated concurrent with I @-@ 95 through Wilmington in 1984 .
In 2000 , I @-@ 95 was completely rebuilt between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . The reconstruction completely tore apart the concrete pavement and replaced it with asphalt and also improved drainage and rebuilt bridges . In April 2000 , the southbound lanes were closed , with the lanes between DE 3 and US 202 reopening in May and the remainder reopening in mid @-@ summer . In July , the northbound lanes were closed , with the lanes reopening between US 202 and DE 3 in September and the remainder reopening in October . During the closure , through traffic was detoured to I @-@ 495 .
In 2003 , work began on rebuilding the bridge carrying DE 58 over the highway to allow for future improvements to I @-@ 95 , with completion in fall 2006 , a year behind schedule . In May 2007 , construction began to widen I @-@ 95 between the DE 1 / DE 7 and DE 141 interchanges from eight to ten lanes due to rising traffic levels and increased development . The widening project was completed in November 2008 . Traffic congestion at the cloverleaf interchange with DE 1 / DE 7 in Christiana led to DelDOT to improve the interchange . The project included adding flyover connecting ramps from northbound DE 1 to northbound I @-@ 95 and from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 which allowed for easier merging patterns and the elimination of lengthy backups on the former ramp design . Construction of a new " ring access road " around Christiana Mall began in February 2011 and was completed in March 2012 , with a newly built bridge over DE 1 , just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT secretary Shailen Bhatt .
In December 2011 , a project began to improve the interchange between I @-@ 95 and US 202 / DE 202 in order to reduce congestion . The project widened the ramp between northbound I @-@ 95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes , the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I @-@ 95 was extended to modern standards , and the ramp between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection . In addition , the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated . The project was finished in July 2015 , months behind schedule due to the closure of I @-@ 495 in 2014 . On August 7 , 2015 , a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held , with Governor Markell , Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance . The project , which cost over $ 33 million , was 80 @-@ percent funded by the federal government .
On June 2 , 2014 , the I @-@ 495 bridge over the Christina River was closed after it was discovered that four support columns were tilting . During this closure , traffic from I @-@ 495 was detoured onto I @-@ 95 , and several major roads in the Wilmington area experienced increased traffic congestion . The southbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on July 31 , a month earlier than expected , and the northbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on August 23 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
I @-@ 95 has two auxiliary routes that are located within the state of Delaware . I @-@ 295 runs from I @-@ 95 near Newport east to the Delaware Memorial Bridge , where it crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey . Once in New Jersey , I @-@ 295 intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues northeast a bypass route of Philadelphia . I @-@ 295 reaches its northern terminus at I @-@ 95 near Trenton , New Jersey . I @-@ 495 is a bypass of Wilmington to the east . I @-@ 495 runs from I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington near Newport , passing through the Port of Wilmington and running along the Delaware River , before merging back in with I @-@ 95 at the Pennsylvania state border in Claymont .
= Vengeance ( 2005 ) =
Vengeance ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by THQ 's Juiced , which took place on June 26 , 2005 , at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas , Nevada . It was the fifth annual Vengeance event . Professional wrestling is a type of sports entertainment in which theatrical events are combined with a competitive sport . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : storyline expansions of the promotion where employees are assigned to wrestling brands under the WWE banner .
The main event was a Hell in a Cell match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Batista and Triple H , which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb . One of the predominant matches on the card was John Cena versus Chris Jericho versus Christian in a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship . Cena won the match and retained the title after pinning Christian . Another primary match on the undercard was Kurt Angle versus Shawn Michaels in a rematch of their bout at WrestleMania 21 . Michaels won the match by pinfall after executing Sweet Chin Music .
Many of the existing feuds were settled following the event . Notably , Batista was drafted to the SmackDown ! brand , thus ending his feud with Triple H. The feud between Kane and Edge also concluded after the event , as Edge entered an angle with Matt Hardy . The feud between Cena and Jericho , however , continued and led to a match at SummerSlam , which Cena won .
= = Background = =
The event featured six professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . The name of a wrestler 's character was not always the person 's birth name , as wrestlers often use a stage name to portray their character . All wrestlers were from the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being SmackDown ! .
The main feud heading into Vengeance was between Batista and Triple H , with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . After Batista defeated Triple H at WrestleMania 21 , they continued to fight over the World title at the next Raw pay @-@ per @-@ view , Backlash , which saw Batista retain the title . Following Backlash , a series of Gold Rush Tournament matches to determine a number one contender to face Batista for the World title took place with Kane , Shawn Michaels , Edge , and Chris Benoit winning in the first round of the tournament . In this round , Benoit forced Triple H to submit to the Crippler Crossface , Benoit 's submission finisher . On the May 23 , 2005 episode of Raw , Batista faced Edge , who had beat out Michaels and Kane for an opportunity at the World title . Batista retained the title after he pinned Edge following a Batista Bomb . Following the match , Triple H attacked Batista with a sledgehammer and challenged him to a Hell in a Cell match . After making the challenge , Triple H performed a Pedigree to Batista on the World title . Batista accepted Triple H 's challenge , which led to a contract signing for their scheduled match at Vengeance , which would be for the World Heavyweight title in a Hell in a Cell match at Vengeance .
The other main feud heading into the event was between John Cena , Chris Jericho and Christian , with the three battling over the WWE Championship . On the June 6 episode of Raw , John Cena 's SmackDown ! tenure came to an end when he became the first wrestler selected by the Raw brand General Manager , Eric Bischoff , in the draft lottery . Cena was introduced as Raw 's newest member in Chris Jericho 's segment , the Highlight Reel , but Christian interrupted and called Cena a poser . This built on their existing rivalry , as Cena and Christian had an encounter at the Royal Rumble , in which Christian claimed that he was a better rapper than Cena . At the time , Cena was a member of the SmackDown ! brand and Christian was part of the Raw brand . Over the next months , Christian began cutting promos denouncing Cena as a ' poser ' . Cena rebutted Christian 's comments by performing a freestyle rap about Christian , which quickly led to the two brawling in the ring . The same evening , Cena entered a feud with Bischoff by refusing to participate in Bischoff 's " war " against the upcoming Extreme Championship Wrestling reunion show . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Bischoff booked a WWE title match between Christian and Cena at Vengeance , although Jericho protested the idea of Christian being the contender to face Cena for the title . Later that night , Cena and Jericho were placed in a tag team match and faced off against Christian and Tyson Tomko . Cena and Jericho won the match after Cena got the pinfall . After the match , Jericho turned on Cena and attacked him . Bischoff then changed the original match between Cena and Christan to a Triple Threat match at Vengeance that also included Jericho .
One of the main matches on the undercard was between Kurt Angle and Shawn Michaels . At the start of the year , Angle and Michaels both participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2005 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view event . During the match , Michaels eliminated Angle . In retaliation , Angle returned to the match and eliminated Michaels and then attacked him outside the ring . The two engaged in a feud , which led to an Interpromotional match at WrestleMania 21 , as Angle was part of the SmackDown ! roster and Michaels belonged to the Raw roster . At WrestleMania 21 , Angle got the win over Michaels by forcing him to submit to the Ankle Lock . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Angle was revealed to be the second draft pick for the Raw brand . That same evening , Michaels challenged Angle to a rematch at Vengeance , which Angle accepted .
The Divas match set for Vengeance was between Victoria and Christy Hemme . On the May 30 edition of Raw , Christy Hemme won a bikini contest ; defeating Victoria , Candice Michelle , Maria , and Lilian Garcia . After the contest ended , Victoria turned into a villainess by attacking all of the participants , saving Hemme for last . In a backstage interview following her heel turn , the evil Victoria expressed jealousy of Hemme , stating that she was tired of Hemme getting all of the attention . On the June 20 episode of Raw , it was announced in a backstage interview that Hemme and Victoria would face each other at Vengeance . Hemme stated that she couldn 't wait to get her hands on Victoria , but during the segment , Victoria interrupted the interview by smashing a glass jar on the back of Hemme 's head .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rosey and The Hurricane ( with Super Stacy ) defeated The Heart Throbs ( Antonio and Romeo ) in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Carlito and Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship . After back and forth action , Carlito removed the padding from one of the turnbuckles . Benjamin then hit his head on the exposed metal while performing a Stinger splash . Carlito pinned Benjamin with a roll @-@ up , allowing Carlito to retain the Intercontinental Championship .
Next was a match between Victoria and Christy Hemme . The match saw Victoria lift Hemme in the air and drop her down with force . Control of the match went back and forth , but the bout came to an end when Victoria countered Hemme 's sunset flip . Victoria got the pinfall by using the ring ropes for leverage .
The third match of the night saw Kane in a match with Edge , during which both men took the upper hand . Snitsky interfered in the match , hitting Kane with a big boot . Moments later , Snitsky was quickly taken out by Edge after he hit him with his Money in the Bank briefcase . Following the events in the match , Kane performed a chokeslam and pinned Edge .
This bout was followed by a WrestleMania 21 rematch that involved Shawn Michaels and Kurt Angle . In a brawling match , Angle had an Ankle Lock hold applied on Michaels . Moments later , however , Michaels recuperated and performed Sweet Chin Music on Angle before pinning Angle for the win . After the match , both men were given a standing ovation . An in @-@ ring segment took place next between Raw 's ring announcer , Lilian Garcia and Viscera . During the segment , Garcia proposed to Viscera . Before Viscera could have given an answer , he was interrupted by The Godfather . The Godfather gave Viscera advice about the life he would miss out on if he got married . This led to Viscera rejecting Garcia 's marriage proposal and leaving the ring with the Godfather 's hos and abandoning a crying Garcia in the ring .
The fifth match was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John Cena , Christian , and Chris Jericho . The match saw all three wrestlers take the advantage over one another . A spot in the match included Jericho applying the Walls of Jericho on Cena , but he released the move and performed a springboard dropkick on Christian , after Christian got up on the ring apron . Late in the match , Jericho reversed an Unprettier attempt by Christian by tossing Christian directly to Cena . Cena hoisted Christian onto his shoulders , performed an FU , and pinned Christian to retain the WWE title .
The final match of the event was a Hell in a Cell bout between Batista and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship . During the match , Triple H choked Batista with a chain and hit him in the back with a steel chair wrapped with barbed wire . Batista regained the momentum by grabbing Triple H 's sledgehammer and hitting him in the mouth . Batista retained the World title after he performed a spinebuster on Triple H onto the steel steps , which was followed with a Batista Bomb and a cover for the win . After the Hell in a Cell match , Triple H stood to his feet and was given a standing ovation by the audience .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after their Hell in a Cell match as an exclusive to WWE Home Video , Triple H ( with Ric Flair ) and Batista encountered backstage to put their differences aside and embraced with Triple H quipping " This is Evolution , baby " , referring to their past as a stable , which had disbanded until 2014 .
In June 2005 , the 2005 WWE Draft Lottery took place , in which wrestlers were drafted and traded between the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . On the June 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Batista 's tenure on the Raw brand ended , when he was SmackDown ! ' s final pick in the draft lottery . SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a six @-@ man elimination match between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , The Undertaker , Muhammad Hassan , Chris Benoit , Booker T and Christian , in which the winner would receive the SmackDown ! Championship , as the WWE Championship had been moved to the Raw brand . JBL won the match , but Teddy Long informed JBL that he did not win the SmackDown ! championship . As the winner of the match , however , he would face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 7 episode of SmackDown ! , it was revealed that the match between JBL and Batista would take place at The Great American Bash . At The Great American Bash , Batista was disqualified for attacking JBL with a chair . JBL won the match , but did not win the title because a title never changes hands by countout or disqualification .
Following Vengeance , Eric Bischoff vowed to make John Cena 's stint on Raw difficult , he " hand picked " Chris Jericho to take the WWE title off Cena by booking a match between Cena and Jericho at SummerSlam . During their feud , even though Cena was portrayed as the face and Jericho as the heel , a vocal section of live crowds nonetheless chose to boo Cena during their matches , including at SummerSlam where Cena retained the title after executing an FU .
After a successful tag team win at Backlash , in which Shawn Michaels and Hulk Hogan defeated Muhammad Hassan and Daivari . Michaels and Hogan were placed in tag team match against Kurt Angle and Carlito on an episode of Raw . The match saw Hogan and Michaels get the victory . During the post @-@ match pose , Michaels superkicked Hogan , which knocked Hogan to the ground and turning Michaels heel for the first time since returning to the company in 2002 . The following week , Michaels challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam , which Hogan accepted . In this match , Hogan maintained his perfect record at SummerSlam by defeating Michaels .
The feud between Edge and Kane came to an end when Edge was put in an angle with Matt Hardy . On the July 11 episode of Raw , Hardy , who at the time was unemployed by WWE , made a surprise appearance , interfering in a match between Edge and Kane . The following week , as both Edge and Lita were walking towards the ring before a scheduled Steel cage match against Kane , Hardy attacked Edge from behind . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon officially announced Hardy 's return to WWE , adding that Hardy would face Edge at SummerSlam . The following week , Hardy made his in @-@ ring return , defeating Snitsky . After the victory , Hardy was attacked by Edge , and was carried backstage . In retaliation , Hardy counterattacked Edge in the locker room . At SummerSlam , Edge was given the win in the match after Hardy hit the ring post and began to bleed profusely , which caused the referee to stop the match .
After a four @-@ month hiatus , Triple H returned on the WWE Homecoming episode of Raw on October 3 . He took part in a match , teaming up with Ric Flair , who was wrestling as a face , to take on Chris Masters and Carlito . The duo defeated Masters and Carlito ; after the match , Triple H turned on Flair and hit him with a sledgehammer . This led to an angle between Triple H and Flair . At Taboo Tuesday , Triple H and Flair met in a Steel cage match , a stipulation chosen by the fans , for the Intercontinental Championship . The match saw Flair retain the Intercontinental Championship , after escaping through the cage door .
= = Results = =
= Elizabeth Rona =
Elizabeth Rona ( 20 March 1890 – 27 July 1981 ) was a Hungarian nuclear chemist , known for her work with radioactive isotopes . After developing an enhanced method of preparing polonium samples , she was internationally recognized as the leading expert in isotope separation and polonium preparation . Between 1914 and 1918 , during her postdoctoral study with George de Hevesy , she developed a theory that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . As only a few atomic elements had been identified , her confirmation of the existence of Uranium @-@ Y was a major contribution to nuclear chemistry . She was awarded the Haitinger Prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1933 .
After emigrating to the United States in 1941 , she was granted a Carnegie Fellowship to continue her research and provided technical information on her polonium extraction methods to the Manhattan Project . Later in her career , she became a nuclear chemistry professor at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies and after 15 years there transferred to the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of Miami . At both Oak Ridge and Miami , she continued her work on the geochronology of seabed elements and radiometric dating . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Early life and education = =
Elizabeth Rona was born on 20 March 1890 in Budapest , Hungary , to Ida , ( née Mahler ) and Samuel Róna . Her father was a prosperous Jewish physician who worked with Louis Wickham and Henri @-@ August Dominici , founders of radium therapy , to introduce the techniques to Budapest , and installed one of the first x @-@ ray machines there . Elizabeth wanted to become a physician like her father , but Samuel believed that it would be too difficult for a woman to attain . Though he died when she was in her second year of university , Rona 's father had encouraged her and spurred her interest in science from a young age . She enrolled in the Philosophy Faculty at the University of Budapest , studying chemistry , geochemistry , and physics , receiving her PhD in 1912 .
= = Early career = =
Rona began her postdoctoral training in 1912 at the Animal Physiology Institute in Berlin and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , studying yeast as a reagent . In 1913 she transferred to Karlsruhe University , working under the direction of Kasimir Fajans , the discoverer of isotopes , for the next eight months . During the summer of 1914 , she studied at University College London , but returned to Budapest at the outbreak of World War I. Taking a position at Budapest 's Chemical Institute , she completed a scientific paper on the " diffusion constant of radon in water " . Working with George de Hevesy , she was asked to verify a new element — at the time was termed Uranium @-@ Y , now known as Th @-@ 231 . Though others had failed to confirm the element , Rona was able to separate the Uranium @-@ Y from interfering elements , proving it was a beta emitter ( β @-@ emission ) with a half @-@ life of 25 hours . The Hungarian Academy of Sciences published her findings . Rona first coined the terms " isotope labels " and " tracers " during this study , noting that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . Though contained in a footnote , this was the basis for the development of the mass spectrographic and heavy water studies later performed by other scientists . In addition to her scientific proficiency , Rona spoke English , French , German , and Hungarian .
When Hevesy left Budapest , in 1918 Franz Tangl , a noted biochemist and physiologist of the University of Budapest , offered Rona a teaching position . She taught chemistry to selected students whom Tangl felt had insufficient knowledge to complete the course work , becoming the first woman to teach chemistry at university level in Hungary .
The apartment in which Rona and her mother were living was seized when the communists invaded Hungary in 1919 . Owing to political instability and the persecution of those with communist sympathies during the countering White Terror , an increasing amount of work at the Institute fell to Rona . When offered a position in 1921 to return to Dahlem and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , by Otto Hahn , Rona resigned . She joined Hahn 's staff in Berlin to separate ionium ( now known as Th @-@ 230 ) from uranium . Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic forced her transfer to the Textile Fiber Institute of Kaiser Wilhelm , as practical research was the only work permitted at the time . Theoretical research with no essential application was not a priority . Her training allowed her to return to a more stable Hungary and accept a position in a textile factory there in 1923 . She did not care for the work and soon left , joining the staff of the Institute for Radium Research of Vienna in 1924 at the request of Stefan Meyer . Her research there focused on measuring the absorption and range of hydrogen rays , as well as on developing polonium as an alternative radioactive material to radium .
= = Austria = =
As early as 1926 , Meyer had written to Irène Joliot @-@ Curie suggesting that Rona work with her to learn how his laboratory could make their own polonium samples . Once Hans Pettersson was able to secure funds to pay Rona 's expenses , Joliot @-@ Curie allowed her to come and study polonium separation at the Curie Institute in Paris . Rona developed an enhanced method of preparing polonium sources and producing alpha @-@ emissions . ( α @-@ emission ) . Gaining recognition as an expert in the field , she took those skills back to the Radium Institute along with a small disc of polonium . This disc allowed Rona to create lab specimens of polonium , which were used in much of the Institute 's subsequent research .
Her skills were in high demand and she formed many collaborations in Vienna , working with Ewald Schmidt on the modification of Paul Bonét @-@ Maury 's method of vaporizing polonium ; with Marietta Blau on photographic emulsions of hydrogen rays ; and with Hans Pettersson . In 1928 , Pettersson asked her to analyze a sample of sea bottom sediment to determine its radium content . Because the lab she was working in was contaminated , she took the samples to the oceanographic laboratory at Bornö Marine Research Station on Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden , Sweden , which would become her summer research destination for the next 12 years . Her analyses with Berta Karlik on the half @-@ lives of uranium , thorium , and actinium decay identified radiometric dating and elemental alpha particle ranges . In 1933 , Rona and Karlik won the Austrian Academy of Sciences Haitinger Prize .
In 1934 , Rona was back in Paris studying with Joliot @-@ Curie , who had discovered artificial radioactivity . Soon after , Curie died and Rona became ill , but she was able to return to Vienna late the following year to share what had been learned with a group of researchers made up of Pettersson , Elizabeth Kara @-@ Michailova , and Ernst Føyn , who was serving as an assistant to Ellen Gleditsch at that time . Their studies centered on research of the effect caused by bombarding radionuclides with neutrons . In 1935 Rona consolidated some of these relationships , working on Stora Bornö , then visiting Gleditsch in Oslo , then traveling to Copenhagen to see Hevesy , and later to Kålhuvudet , Sweden to meet with Karlik and Pettersson . One of the projects the group had been working on for several years was to determine if there was any correlation between water depth and radium content , and their seawater research evaluated the concentration of elements in seawater collected from different locations .
After the 1938 Anschluss , Rona and Marietta Blau left the Radium Institute because of their Jewish heritage and the antisemitic persecution they experienced in the laboratory . Rona first returned to Budapest and worked in an industrial laboratory , but within a few months , the position was eliminated . She worked from October to December 1938 in Sweden , and then accepted a temporary position for one year at the University of Oslo , which had been offered by Gleditsch . Reluctant to leave her home , at the end of her year in Oslo , Rona returned to Hungary . She was appointed to a position at the Radium @-@ Cancer Hospital in Budapest , preparing radium for medicinal purposes .
= = Emigration = =
Faced with encroaching Russians on one side and the Nazi involvement in Hungary during World War II on the other , in early 1941 Rona obtained a visitor 's visa and fled to the United States . For three months she was unemployed and suspected of being a spy , though she sought help from scientists she had worked with in Europe to find employment . At a meeting of the American Physical Society , she met Austrian physicist Karl Herzfeld , who helped her secure a teaching post at Trinity College in Washington , D.C. During this period , she was awarded a Carnegie Fellowship to research at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute , working on analysis of seawater and sediments . Between 1941 and 1942 , she conducted work at Carnegie in conjunction with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , measuring the amount of radium in seawater and river water . Her study , completed in 1942 , showed that the ratio of radium to uranium was lower in seawater and higher in river water .
After returning from a summer visit to Los Altos , California , Rona received a vague telegram from the Institute of Optics at the University of Rochester referencing war work and polonium , but no details of an assignment . When Rona responded that she would be interested in helping with the war effort but had immigration issues , a man identifying himself as Brian O 'Bryen appeared in her office and explained the nature of the confidential work for the Manhattan Project . They proposed buying her method of polonium extraction and gave specific instructions for the type of assistants she might use — someone unfamiliar with chemistry or physics . Her non @-@ citizen status did not preclude her from working for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , to which she gave her methods without compensation . Before the Manhattan Project , polonium had been used only in small samples , but the project proposed to use both polonium and beryllium to create a reaction forcing neutrons to be ejected and ignite the fission reaction required for the atom bomb . Plutonium plants , based on her specifications for what was needed to process element , were built in the New Mexico desert at Los Alamos National Laboratory , but Rona was given no details .
Rona 's methods were also used as part of the experiments conducted by the Office of Human Radiation Experiments to determine the effects of human exposure to radiation . Early in her career , she had been exposed to the dangers of radium . Rona 's requests for protective gas masks were denied , as Stefan Meyer downplayed the hazards of exposure . She purchased protective gear with her own money , not believing there was no danger . When vials of radioactive material exploded and the laboratory became contaminated , Rona was convinced her mask had saved her . Gleditsch had also warned her of the dangers the year Rona was sick and living in Paris , when Joliot @-@ Curie died , emphasizing the risk of radium @-@ related anemia . In her 1978 book about her experiences , Rona wrote about the damage to bones , hands , and lungs of the scientists studying radioactivity . Since they wore no gloves and frequently poured substances between vials without protection , she noted that their thumbs , forefingers , and ring fingers were often damaged . The secrecy surrounding the project makes it difficult to know if any of the scientists not directly working on any project knew specifically what their contributions were being used for .
= = Later career = =
Rona continued teaching until 1946 at Trinity . In 1947 , she began working at the Argonne National Laboratory . Her work there focused on ion exchange reactions and she published several works for the United States Atomic Energy Commission . In 1948 , she became a naturalized U.S. citizen . In 1950 , she began research work at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies as a chemist and senior scientist in nuclear studies . During this period , she collaborated with Texas A & M University on the geochronology of seabed sediments , dating core samples by estimating their radioactive decay . She retired from Oak Ridge in 1965 and then went to work at the University of Miami , teaching at the Institute of Marine Sciences where she worked for a decade . Rona retired for a second time in 1976 and returned to Tennessee in the late 1970s , publishing a book in 1978 on her radioactive tracer methods .
Rona died on 27 July 1981 in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = Selected works = =
Róna , Erzsébet ( 1912 ) . A bróm és az egyértékű aliphás alkoholok ( PhD ) ( in Hungarian ) . Budapest , Hungary : Budapesti Tudományegyetem .
Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " Az urán átalakulásairól " . Mathematikai és Természettudományi Értesítő ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 35 : 350 .
Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " I. Über die Reduktion des Zimtaldehyds durch Hefe . II . Vergärung von Benzylbrenztraubensäure " . Biochemische Zeirschrift ( in German ) 67 : 137 – 142 .
Róna , E. ( 1917 ) . " A rádium @-@ emanáczió diffúzióállandója és atomátmérője " . Magyar Chemiai Folyóirat ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 23 : 156 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 11 February 1922 ) . " Über den Ionium @-@ Gehalt in Radium @-@ Rückständen " . Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft ( A and B Series ) ( in German ) 55 ( 2 ) : 294 – 301 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 1926 ) . Absorptions- und Reichweitenbestimmungen an " natürlichen " H @-@ Strahlen ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698422 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A W ( 1927 ) . Untersuchungen über das Eindringen des Poloniums in Metalle ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698433 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A. W. ( 1928 ) . " Eine Methode zur Herstellung von hochkonzentrierten Poloniumpräparaten " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 103 – 115 .
Róna , Elisabeth ( 1928 ) . " Zur Herstellung von Polonium aus Radiumverbindungen und aktiven Bleisalzen ( Mitteilungen des Institutes für Radiumforschung 217 " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 227 – 234 .
Blau , Marietta ; Róna , Elisabeth ( 1930 ) . " Anwendung der Chamié ’ schen photographischen Methode zur Prüfung des chemischen Verhaltens von Polonium " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 139 ) : 276 – 279 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Rieder , Fritz ( 1932 ) . Untersuchungen über Reichweiten von Alpha @-@ Strahlen der Actinium @-@ Folgeprodukte ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky . OCLC 457925762 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Hoffer , Margarete ( 1935 ) . Verdampfungsversuche an Polonium in Sauerstoff und Stickstoff ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698437 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Neuninger , Elisabeth ( 1936 ) . Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698423 .
Róna , Elisabeth ; Scheichenberger , Herta ; Stangl , Robert ( 1938 ) . Weitere Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698425 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Föyn , Ernst ; Karlik , Berta ; Pettersson , Hans ( 1939 ) . The Radioactivity of seawater . Göteborg , Sweden : Elanders boktryck . OCLC 459915451 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1948 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Exchange reactions of uranium ions in solution . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 702211487 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1949 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Some aspects of isotopic exchange reactions . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 794877518 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Gilpatrick , L O ; Jeffrey , Lela M , et. al . ( December 1956 ) . " Uranium determination in sea water " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 37 ( 6 ) : 697 – 701 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( October 1957 ) . " A method to determine the isotopic ratio of Thorium @-@ 232 to Thorium @-@ 230 in minerals " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 38 ( 5 ) : 754 – 759 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Hood , Donald W ; Muse , Lowell ; Buglio , Benjamin ( April 1962 ) . " Activation Analysis of Manganese and Zinc in Sea Water " . Limnology and Oceanography ( Washington , D.C. : Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography , Inc . ) 7 ( 2 ) : 201 – 206 . ISSN 1939 @-@ 5590 .
Rona , Elizabeth ; Akers , L K ; Noakes , John E ; Supernaw , Irwin ( 1963 ) . " Geochronology in the Gulf of Mexico . Part I " . Progress in Oceanography ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : Elsevier ) 3 : 289 – 295 . ISSN 0079 @-@ 6611 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 26 June 1964 ) . " Geochronology of Marine and Fluvial Sediments " . Science ( Washington , D.C. : American Association for the Advancement of Science ) 144 ( 3626 ) : 1595 – 1597 . ISSN 0036 @-@ 8075 .
Rona , Elizabeth ( July 1967 ) . Natural radioactive elements in marine environment ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : Atomic Energy Commission .
Rona , Elizabeth ( 1978 ) . How it came about : radioactivity , nuclear physics , atomic energy . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : Oak Ridge Associated Universities . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 930 @-@ 78003 @-@ 6 .
= Interstate 94 in Michigan =
Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Billings , Montana , to the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that enters the state south of New Buffalo and runs eastward through several metropolitan areas in the southern section of the state . The highway serves Benton Harbor , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek on the west side of the peninsula . From there it also runs through Jackson and Ann Arbor , and portions of Metro Detroit , before angling northeasterly to Port Huron , where it terminates on the Blue Water Bridge at the Canadian border .
The first segment of what later became I @-@ 94 within the state , the Willow Run Expressway , was built near Ypsilanti and Belleville in 1941 , with an easterly extension to Detroit in 1945 . This expressway was initially numbered M @-@ 112 . By 1960 , the length of I @-@ 94 was completed from Detroit to New Buffalo . Subsequent extensions in the 1960s completed most of the rest of the route . The last segment opened to the public in 1972 when Indiana completed their connection across the state line . The routing of I @-@ 94 is notable for containing the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States , connecting to the Lodge Freeway ( M @-@ 10 ) , and for comprising the first complete border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free freeway in a state in the United States . The highway has one auxiliary route , Interstate 194 , which serves downtown Battle Creek , and eight business routes .
= = Route description = =
The entire length of I @-@ 94 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway carries 154 @,@ 800 vehicles on average between I @-@ 75 and Chene Street in Detroit and 15 @,@ 370 vehicles immediately east of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron ; the highest and lowest traffic counts in 2013 , respectively . As the state trunkline highway closest to the lake shore in these areas , I @-@ 94 carries the Lake Michigan Circle Tour south of Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and the Lake Huron Circle Tour in the Port Huron area . Sections through the Detroit area are named the Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways . I @-@ 94 in the state is either a four- or six @-@ lane freeway for most of its length ; one segment in the Detroit area has up to ten lanes total near the airport .
= = = Southwestern Michigan = = =
I @-@ 94 crosses into Michigan south of New Buffalo and parallels the Lake Michigan shoreline about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) inland . The freeway runs northeasterly through rural Michiana farmland in the southwestern corner of the Lower Peninsula . I @-@ 94 traverses an area just east of the Warren Dunes State Park as the freeway runs parallel to the Red Arrow Highway . I @-@ 94 crosses its companion highway south of St. Joseph ; Red Arrow turns northward carrying the business loop for Benton Harbor and St. Joseph . The freeway curves further inland to cross the St. Joseph River near Riverview Park . East of Benton Harbor , I @-@ 94 meets the Napier Avenue where US 31 merges onto the freeway . East of the Southwest Michigan Regional Airport , I @-@ 94 / US 31 meets the southern end of I @-@ 196 ; US 31 departs the I @-@ 94 freeway to follow I @-@ 196 , and I @-@ 94 continues its course away from Lake Michigan .
South of Coloma , I @-@ 94 turns eastward and roughly follows the Paw Paw River on a course that takes it south of Watervliet and Hartford . Between the latter two cities , the freeway crosses from northeastern Berrien County into western Van Buren County . It curves around and between Lake Cora and Threemile Lake near the junction with the northern end of M @-@ 51 . About four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further east , I @-@ 94 crosses M @-@ 40 south of Paw Paw . Continuing eastward , I @-@ 94 runs south of Mattawan before crossing into western Kalamazoo County .
In Texas Township , the freeway enters the western edges of the Kalamazoo suburbs . South of the campus for Western Michigan University 's College of Engineering & Applied Sciences in Portage , I @-@ 94 intersects US 131 . That freeway also carries Kalamazoo 's business loop northward . Near the Kalamazoo / Battle Creek International Airport , I @-@ 94 crosses into the southeastern corner of Kalamazoo before entering Comstock Township . The freeway intersects the eastern end of the business loop at a partial interchange near Morrow Lake in the township . I @-@ 94 continues eastward out of the eastern Kalamazoo suburbs . It parallels the Kalamazoo River through the Galesburg area . Before crossing into Calhoun County on the east side of Battle Creek , I @-@ 94 has the only driveway on any of Michigan 's Interstate Highways for a gate providing access for military vehicles into the Fort Custer Training Center .
I @-@ 94 crosses into Calhoun County southwest of the W. K. Kellogg Airport and enters the city of Battle Creek . Immediately east of the county line , the freeway has an interchange with the western end of Battle Creek 's business loop . Next to the Lakeview Square Mall , I @-@ 94 meets its own auxiliary Interstate in Michigan : I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 94 turns to the northwest to round Beadle Lake , intersecting M @-@ 294 before crossing the Kalamazoo River . East of the river crossing , the freeway meets an interchange for M @-@ 96 , M @-@ 311 and the eastern end of the Battle Creek business loop near the FireKeepers Casino in Emmett Township . Turning back eastward , I @-@ 94 exits the eastern Battle Creek suburbs and continues to an interchange with I @-@ 69 near Marshall ; the business loop for Marshall follows I @-@ 69 southward .
= = = Into Metro Detroit = = =
Continuing eastward I @-@ 94 traverses rural land on the north side of Marshall . The freeway runs north of , and parallel to , the Kalamazoo River through eastern Calhoun County . It angles southeasterly toward Albion before returning to an easterly course on the north side of town . I @-@ 94 crosses into western Jackson County before intersecting M @-@ 99 . From there , it runs generally due east with a jog around Parma on a course to Jackson . West of the Jackson County Airport , the Jackson business loop follows M @-@ 60 southward and I @-@ 94 travels through the north side of Jackson . North of downtown , US 127 merges in from the north and runs concurrently with I @-@ 94 around the city . Southeast of the Michigan State Prison , US 127 departs to the south , and I @-@ 94 continues eastward through eastern Jackson County .
The freeway runs north of a racetrack complex in Chelsea next to the M @-@ 52 interchange . As I @-@ 94 continues easterly , it passes into the western edge of the Ann Arbor area . West of downtown , the M @-@ 14 freeway splits off to the northeast , and I @-@ 94 turns to the south and southeast to curve around the south side of the city . The freeway passes between the Briarwood Mall and the Ann Arbor Municipal Airport . On the southeastern corner of Ann Arbor , I @-@ 94 intersects US 23 and continues around the south side of Ypsilanti . South of that city , the freeway also carries US 12 and crosses the Huron River north of its entry into Ford Lake . I @-@ 94 jogs southeasterly around the south side of the Willow Run Airport complex and crosses into Wayne County .
South of Willow Run , I @-@ 94 parallels Belleville Lake . East of the lake , it intersects I @-@ 275 near the northwest corner of Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and angles northeasterly through the southwestern Detroit suburbs along the Detroit Industrial Freeway . I @-@ 94 used the Gateway Bridge over the single @-@ point interchange at US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in Taylor ; these bridges were inspired by Super Bowl XL and provide a western gateway to the city . Further east , the freeway intersects M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and passes the Uniroyal Giant Tire in Allen Park . I @-@ 94 then turns to the northeast through the Ford River Rouge Complex in Dearborn before turning back easterly on the Edsel Ford Freeway into Detroit .
I @-@ 94 crosses Detroit in an east – west direction well inland of , and parallel to , the Detroit River . The freeway intersects I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) on the West Side , passing the main campus of Wayne State University before crossing onto the East Side at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . Immediately east of the interchange with I @-@ 75 ( Chrysler Freeway ) , I @-@ 94 forms the southern border of the Milwaukee Junction district . The Edsel Ford Freeway continues through residential neighborhoods of Detroit 's East Side . I @-@ 94 turns more northerly , mimicking the shoreline of Lake St. Clair , and exits Detroit for Harper Woods . Just north of the interchange for M @-@ 102 ( Vernier Road ) , the freeway crosses 8 Mile Road and enters Macomb County .
= = = North to Canada = = =
Running northward through Macomb County , I @-@ 94 meets the eastern end of I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the county line in St. Clair Shores . The freeway continues to parallel the lakeshore , and travels to the west of Selfridge Air National Guard Base in Harrison Township . I @-@ 94 turns back to the northwest at 23 Mile Road at the interchange with M @-@ 3 and M @-@ 29 . North of 26 Mile Road , the freeway exits the northern suburbs and crosses into farmland in The Thumb region .
South of Michigan Meadows Golf Course , I @-@ 94 crosses County Line Road and enters St. Clair County . The freeway continues northeasterly as far as Marysville before turning northward near the St. Clair County International Airport . From there , it runs roughly parallel to the St. Clair River . I @-@ 94 runs along the western edge of residential areas for Marysville and Port Huron as it continues northward . Immediately west of downtown Port Huron , I @-@ 94 intersects with I @-@ 69 ; the two freeways merge and turn first east and then north through an interchange that also features connections to BL I @-@ 69 .
I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 turns back to the east about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their confluence to cross the Black River north of downtown . On the eastern bank of the river , there is one final interchange for M @-@ 25 and BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 before the freeway reaches the toll and customs plazas for the twin @-@ span Blue Water Bridge . Past these plazas , I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 ascends the approach to the bridge which cross the St. Clair River to Point Edward ( Sarnia ) , Ontario . At the international boundary at the center of the river , the I @-@ 94 designation jointly terminates with I @-@ 69 .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessor highways = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . One of these , the St. Joseph Trail , followed the path of the modern I @-@ 94 . The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , Division 6 corresponded to the rough path of today 's I @-@ 94 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and three different highways followed sections of the modern I @-@ 69 corridor . The original M @-@ 11 ran from the Indiana state line north to Coloma where M @-@ 17 connected easterly to Detroit . The third highway was M @-@ 19 from Detroit northeast to Port Huron .
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the original route of US 12 replaced the highways from the state line northeasterly to Detroit ; US 31 overlapped the highway between St. Joseph and Watervliet . The remainder of the future I @-@ 94 corridor was served by US 25 between Detroit and Port Huron . The first span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario , in 1938 .
= = = Early conversions to freeways = = =
The first segments of upgraded highways along the future route of I @-@ 94 were added during World War II . Construction on the Willow Run Expressway started in 1941 before the US entered the war . It was opened on September 12 , 1942 , to provide improved access to Ford 's Willow Run bomber plants . The highway was given the M @-@ 112 designation at the time . The expressway was extended eastward as the Detroit Industrial Expressway into Detroit ; the first section opened in 1943 and the remainder was completed in March 1945 . Land acquisition for the Edsel Ford Freeway started in 1945 . Originally referred to as the Crosstown Freeway , the freeway became known as the Edsel Ford Freeway following an April 1946 petition . The interchange between the Lodge Freeway and the Edsel Ford Freeway was built in 1953 as the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States . In mid @-@ 1956 , the M @-@ 112 designation was decommissioned and replaced by a rerouted US 12 . During the mid @-@ 1950s , the Detroit Streets and Rails campaign proposed a high @-@ speed rail line in the median of the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways ; instead of building the rail line , special boarding stations adjacent to dedicated bus lanes in the interchanges along the highway were used .
In other parts of the state , other segments of highway were built to bypass the cities along the future I @-@ 94 corridor . In 1940 , a southern bypass of Battle Creek opened along Columbia Avenue , and the former routing through downtown on Michigan Avenue became a Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In late 1951 or early 1952 , a northerly bypass of Jackson opened , and the former route through downtown on Michigan Avenue became another Bus . US 12 . By the next year , the western half of the Jackson bypass opened , including a bypass of Parma . In 1954 , a new bypass of Kalamazoo and Galesburg opened ; US 12 was rerouted to follow the new highway while M @-@ 96 replaced part of the old route and US 12A in the area .
The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System included a highway along I @-@ 94 's route in Michigan . This highway was included on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " with a proposed spur in the Battle Creek area . The modern I @-@ 94 was numbered I @-@ 92 between Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and Detroit with I @-@ 77 from Detroit to Port Huron in the August 1957 plans .
In April 1958 , the MSHD wanted to provide a single number for a more direct routing of a Detroit @-@ to – Chicago freeway ; the state proposed rerouting I @-@ 94 to replace I @-@ 92 in the state , but retained the I @-@ 77 designation . On June 27 , 1958 , AASHO adopted their original numbering plan for Michigan , minus the state 's proposed changes . Around the same time , a section of M @-@ 146 near Port Huron was converted into an approach freeway for the Blue Water Bridge .
= = = Interstate Highway era = = =
In January 1959 , officials announced that sections of US 12 , the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford expressways were to be given the I @-@ 94 designation , temporarily co @-@ designated with US 12 . These sections connected Ann Arbor to Detroit , along with a bypass of Kalamazoo to Galesburg and a bypass of Jackson . Later that year , additional segments of I @-@ 94 were opened , starting with a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section from Hartford to Coloma , then another from Paw Paw to Kalamazoo which connected with a segment between Galesburg to Battle Creek . The overall 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) section from Paw Paw to Battle Creek was dedicated on December 7 , 1959 . In addition , a new northwest – southeast section of freeway was built east of Ypsilanti to create a more gradual curve in the routing between present @-@ day exits 185 and 186 , the original routing of the Willow Run Expressway having followed present @-@ day Wiard Road . Signage for the state 's Interstate Highways was placed on hold pending finalization of the numbering scheme , and by late 1959 that signage was being added starting with I @-@ 75 and followed by the other open segments of freeway in the state .
Sections of freeway opened in southwestern Michigan in 1960 between the Benton Harbor – St Joseph area and between Jackson and Ann Arbor ; the latter was built over existing portions of US 12 . In this year Michigan became the first state to complete a border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free Interstate within their state , running for 205 miles ( 330 km ) from Detroit toward New Buffalo , the longest toll @-@ free freeway in the country at the time .
In January 1962 , the US 12 designation was removed from the I @-@ 94 freeway . In the process , the designation was transferred to replace the US 112 designation in its entirety . After this transfer , I @-@ 94 was no longer concurrent with US 12 , except for the Ypsilanti bypass . In 1963 the freeway was extended south of New Buffalo to end at M @-@ 239 . Traffic was diverted down M @-@ 239 into Indiana where State Road 39 carried traffic the rest of the way to the Indiana Toll Road . By the end of the year , a section of highway opened between Mount Clemens and Marysville , and US 25 was rerouted to run concurrently along the freeway from the New Baltimore area northward .
The eastern terminus of I @-@ 94 in the Port Huron area was dedicated on October 14 , 1964 , signaling the completion of the highway between Marysville and the Blue Water Bridge . Two years later , the gap between the Wayne – Macomb county line and the end of the freeway near Mount Clemens was filled in when another section of freeway opened . North of Albion , the route of the freeway previously crossed a branch of the New York Central Railroad at @-@ grade ; the crossing was eliminated when the tracks were removed in 1968 .
The sections originally designated as the Willow Run Expressway were rebuilt from Rawsonville Road in Belleville to Ozga Road in Romulus starting in 1972 . As part of this reconstruction , the segment between Haggerty Road and Ozga Road was widened from four to six lanes , and the eastbound lanes were realigned to facilitate construction of an interchange with I @-@ 275 , a western bypass of Detroit which was under construction at the time . The Willow Run segment was also resurfaced at this point , as the old road bed did not contain steel mesh . Construction of this interchange also obliterated a partial interchange with Huron River Drive .
The final section of I @-@ 94 in Michigan opened to traffic on November 2 , 1972 , when the connection across the state line into Indiana was dedicated . This last segment in Michigan between M @-@ 239 and the state line opened when Indiana completed an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) segment of freeway in their state .
= = = Since completion = = =
On August 16 , 1987 , Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashed after attempting to take off from Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport , killing all but one passenger , Cecilia Cichan , upon exploding at an overpass at Middlebelt Road . A decade later , in July 1997 , the second span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario .
The original interchange with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) had only two bridges and left hand exits were used throughout . This interchange was reconfigured in 2005 to a single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) design that was completed in December of that year . A pair of bridges called the Gateway Arch Bridges ( alternately " Gateway to Detroit " ) was incorporated in the new interchange .
In 2011 , construction was started to widen I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 approaching the Blue Water Bridge allowing for dedicated lanes for local traffic and for Blue Water Bridge traffic . The lane configuration changes have confused drivers in the area , especially motorists with outdated GPS devices ; because of this , MDOT installed updated signs complete with American and Canadian flags to help prevent drivers from heading to Canada by mistake .
Additional construction in the Port Huron area started in late 2013 to rebuild and reconfigure the I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 interchange outside the city . The project improved 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway , replaced several bridges and ramps and cost $ 76 million . In June 2014 , MDOT closed the ramps from I @-@ 69 eastbound to BL I @-@ 69 through the interchange until later in the year . The project is slated to be completed in 2015 .
= = Memorial highway names = =
As the original expressway through the center of Detroit was being planned in the 1940s , it was unofficially named the Harper – McGraw Expressway after the streets along which it was to run . Some initial support surfaced to name it after Roy Chapin , the late president of the Hudson Motor Car Company and a former United States Secretary of Commerce under President Herbert Hoover . On April 23 , 1946 , the Detroit Common Council voted instead to name the highway after Edsel Ford , the son of Henry Ford and president of the Ford Motor Company from 1918 until his death in 1943 .
Two other original sections of I @-@ 94 's predecessor highways in the Detroit area were given early names . The westernmost of these is the Willow Run Expressway , named for the Willow Run complex . The plants at Willow Run produced B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers by Ford Motor Company during World War II . The second , the Detroit Industrial Expressway , continued the route of the Willow Run Expressway eastward into Detroit . Both highways were built to move workers from Detroit to the industrial plants at Willow Run during the war and were later incorporated into I @-@ 94 in the 1950s as part of a Detroit – Chicago highway .
The section of I @-@ 94 northeast of Detroit was named after former Congressman James G. O 'Hara by the Michigan Legislature . O 'Hara was a World War II veteran who served in the United States House from 1959 until 1977 . During his tenure in Congress , he procured federal funds for the construction of I @-@ 94 through his district . The first attempt to name the highway after him failed in 1991 , but the honor was included in a budget bill passed in 1997 . The section of I @-@ 94 was dedicated on October 16 , 1998 , after donors privately raised nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 16 @,@ 945 in 2015 ) to pay for the highway signs .
A segment of I @-@ 94 in Battle Creek between the exits for Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 194 was named the 94th Combat Infantry Division Memorial Highway by the Michigan Legislature in 2002 . The name honors a unit of the US Army which was activated at the nearby Fort Custer in 1942 and served with distinction in the European theatre of World War II . Because the unit originated in Battle Creek , and its number matched that of the freeway , the Legislature thought it only fitting to name the section of highway for the unit . The name was dedicated in ceremonies at a rest stop along the section of I @-@ 94 on September 28 , 2002 .
Another piece of I @-@ 94 in Calhoun County was designated in 2004 as part of the Underground Railroad Memorial Highway . Starting in 1990 , the National Park Service started working to identify routes of the Underground Railroad . The Battle Creek area was active in the railroad during the Civil War , and the section of I @-@ 94 between exits 98 and 110 east of Battle Creek was included in the memorial designation .
In June 2012 , after a resolution passed by the Michigan Legislature was signed by Gov. Rick Snyder , a portion of I @-@ 94 in Taylor between Inkster and Pelham roads was named the " Auxiliary Lt. Dan Kromer Memorial Highway " after a 20 @-@ year veteran of the Taylor Police Department , who was killed in 2010 while helping motorists who had car trouble .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunklines = =
There are nine highways related to I @-@ 94 in Michigan . The first is the spur into downtown Battle Creek numbered I @-@ 194 and nicknamed " The Penetrator " and officially called the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " . This auxiliary Interstate Highway runs for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to connect I @-@ 94 northward into downtown . The other eight highways are business loops of I @-@ 94 that connect various cities ' downtowns with the main freeway . Unlike I @-@ 194 , these loops are not freeways . Located from west to east along I @-@ 94 's routing in Michigan , they serve Benton Harbor – St. Joseph , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Marshall , Albion , Jackson , Ann Arbor , and Port Huron .
= SMS Karlsruhe =
SMS Karlsruhe was a light cruiser of the Karlsruhe class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Rostock ; the ships were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1911 , launched in November 1912 , and completed by January 1914 . Armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , Karlsruhe had a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , which allowed her to escape from British cruisers during her career .
After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British ships located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil . Here , she captured or sank sixteen ships . While en route to attack the shipping lanes to Barbados on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew . The survivors used one of Karlsruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .
= = Construction = =
Karlsruhe was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Seeadler " and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel on 21 September 1911 . She was christened by Karl Siegrist , the mayor of Karlsruhe , and launched on 11 November 1912 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 January 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 2 meters ( 467 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) in service . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . Karlsruhe carried 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Karlsruhe had a crew of 18 officers and 355 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Karlsruhe 's first commanding officer was Fregattenkapitän Fritz Lüdecke . Following her commissioning in January 1914 , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas service , under the command of Fregattenkapitän Erich Köhler . At the outbreak of World War I the following August , the ship was based in the Caribbean , along with the cruiser Dresden . She had anchored in Cay Sal Bank in the Florida Strait when she received warnings that war in Europe was imminent . Karlsruhe 's standing orders in the event of war saw the ship conducting a commerce raiding campaign against British merchant traffic . To hunt down Karlsruhe and any merchant ships she might arm as auxiliary cruisers , the Royal Navy deployed five cruiser squadrons , the most powerful were those commanded by Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock and Rear Admiral Archibald Stoddart . The British were forced to disperse their ships to cover the areas in which the two German cruisers , and any auxiliary cruisers they might arm , could operate .
On 6 August , Karlsruhe rendezvoused with the passenger ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) north of Watling Island . Karlsruhe was in the process of transferring guns and equipment to the liner when Craddock , in his flagship HMS Suffolk , appeared to the south . The Germans had only managed to transfer two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , a machine gun , and some sailors by the time Suffolk arrived . The two ships quickly departed in different directions ; Suffolk followed Karlsruhe and other cruisers were ordered to intercept her . Karlsruhe 's faster speed allowed her to quickly outpace Craddock , but at 20 : 15 , Bristol joined the pursuit and briefly fired on the German cruiser . The German gunners scored two hits on Bristol during the short engagement . Karlsruhe turned east and again used her high speed to evade the British ships . The British failed to relocate her , and by 9 August , Karlsruhe reached Puerto Rico with only 12 tons of coal in her bunkers .
With limited options for coal in the Caribbean , Köhler took his ship down to the northeast coast of Brazil , off Pernambuco . The area was not as heavily patrolled by the British . Here , Karlsruhe had easy access to coal supplies , either from chartered colliers or captured vessels . Köhler frequently kept one or two prizes to assist in the search for targets . In the course of her patrols off the Brazilian coast , Karlsruhe sank or captured sixteen merchant ships . These merchantmen , fifteen British ships and one Dutch vessel , totaled 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Köhler then decided to move to another area , as remaining in one area would increase his chances of being tracked down by the British . He turned his ship toward the West Indies to attack Barbados and Fort @-@ de @-@ France and the shipping lanes between Barbados and Trinidad .
As Karlsruhe steamed to Barbados on the night of 4 November , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship . The hull was split in half ; the bow section quickly sank and took with it Köhler and most of the crew . The stern remained afloat long enough for 140 of the ship 's crew to escape onto the attending colliers . Commander Studt , the senior surviving officer , took charge and placed all of his men aboard the liner Rio Negro . He scuttled the second collier and steamed north for Iceland . The ship used the cover of a major storm to slip through the British blockade of the North Sea , and put in at Ålesund , Norway . Rio Negro then returned to Germany by early December . The Admiralstab , unaware of the loss of Karlsruhe , coincidentally radioed the ship to order her to return to Germany . Germany kept the loss of the ship a secret , and the British continued searching for her until they learned of her fate in March 1915 . Köhler 's widow christened the cruiser Karlsruhe , the third to bear the name , at her launching in August 1927 .
= Hurricane Guillermo ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Guillermo was the ninth most intense Pacific hurricane on record , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 919 hPa ( 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) . Forming out of a tropical wave on July 30 , 1997 , roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico , Guillermo tracked in a steady west @-@ northwestward direction while intensifying . The system reached hurricane status by August 1 before undergoing rapid intensification the following day . At the end of this phase , the storm attained its peak intensity as a powerful Category 5 hurricane . The storm began to weaken during the afternoon of August 5 and was downgraded to a tropical storm on August 8 . Once entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , Guillermo briefly weakened to a tropical depression before re @-@ attaining tropical storm status . On August 15 , the storm reached an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants persisted for more than a week as they tracked towards the northeast and later south and east before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system off the coast of California on August 24 .
Throughout Guillermo 's track , the storm never threatened any major landmass , resulting in little impact on land . However , because of its extreme intensity , it produced large swells across the Pacific Ocean , affecting areas from Hawaii to coastal Mexico . Along the American Pacific coast , three people drowned amid high waves , two in Baja California and one in California . At its peak , Guillermo was the second strongest known Pacific hurricane on record ; however , it has since been surpassed by five other storms , including Linda later that year . The effects of Guillermo were not deemed severe enough to justify retirement of its name .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Guillermo began its extensive track as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 16 , 1997 . Initially disorganized and weak , the system tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean for several weeks . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that they had issues monitoring the system as it moved through the Caribbean ; however , they interpreted through satellite data that the wave crossed Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean between July 27 and 28 . Once in the Pacific , convection , areas of thunderstorm activity , and banding features began to form . Additionally , a low pressure system developed within the disturbance by July 29 . The following day , the system became sufficiently organized for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E ; at this time the depression was situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico . In response to a deep @-@ layer ridge to the north , the depression tracked at a steady pace towards the west @-@ northwest , and this motion persisted through the first week of August . Within a day of being classified , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Guillermo , the seventh named storm of the 1997 season .
By the afternoon of August 1 , a strong central dense overcast , an area of high , thick clouds , developed over the center of circulation , prompting the NHC to upgrade it to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Throughout the next day , the system gradually developed an eye within the central dense overcast , leading to further strengthening . Operationally , Guillermo was thought to have briefly leveled out in intensity on August 2 ; however , in post @-@ storm analysis , the NHC discovered that a steady period of rapid intensification took place . Unlike most hurricanes in the eastern Pacific , Guillermo was investigated by Hurricane Hunters reconnaissance aircraft during its rapid intensification stage . The aircraft released several dropsondes into the storm to gather meteorological data . This mission marked the first time the Hurricane Hunters recorded high @-@ resolution wind data from flight level to within several meters of the ocean surface inside the eyewall of a major hurricane .
Radar was also employed to determine the size of the hurricane 's eye , stated to be roughly 13 mi ( 20 km ) in diameter , following a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) decrease due to the strengthening . Light wind shear surrounding the hurricane allowed further strengthening to take place . Late on August 2 , the system attained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 storm . During the afternoon of August 3 , Guillermo nearly attained Category 5 intensity as it reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) along with a barometric pressure estimated at 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . A brief period of weakening took place later that day before further strengthening ensued . Late on August 4 , Guillermo intensified into a Category 5 hurricane , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Operational analysis of satellite information indicated a minimum pressure of 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; however , post @-@ storm studies stated that the pressure was more likely around 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) .
At its peak , cloud temperatures within the eyewall were estimated to be as low as − 79 ° C ( − 110 ° F ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method used to estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones , a value of 7 @.@ 6 was obtained . This indicated that maximum winds at the surface could have been as high as 181 mph ( 291 km / h ) ; however , this was not used as the reported intensity as six- to twelve @-@ hour averages indicated sustained winds around 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . After maintaining this intensity for roughly 18 hours , the system began to weaken as it moved into a less favorable environment with moderate wind shear . Cloud temperatures within the eyewall also began to increase , indicating that the hurricane was losing intensity .
Steady weakening took place over the following several days , and the storm dropped below major hurricane status on August 6 . By August 8 , Guillermo moved over colder waters and was downgraded to a tropical storm as sustained winds dropped below 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Around this time , the storm started to move along the western edge of the ridge that previously steered it towards the west @-@ northwest , causing Guillermo to turn northwest . On August 9 , the storm crossed longitude 140 ° W , denoting a shift in warning responsibility from the NHC to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . Not long after crossing into the CPHC 's area of responsibility , the storm further weakened to a tropical depression as it moved over 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) waters .
Although most tropical cyclones generally weaken as they increase in latitude , warm waters of 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) allowed Guillermo to re @-@ intensify into a tropical storm on August 11 . Gradually , the storm attained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) before succumbing to cooler waters further north . The storm weakened to a tropical depression once more on August 15 , situated well to the north of the Hawaiian islands . Later that day , Guillermo transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N , roughly 850 mi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ) south @-@ southeast of Unalaska , Alaska . Over the following days , the remnants of the hurricane turned northeastward towards the Pacific coast of North America . On August 19 , the system moved within 575 mi ( 925 km ) of Vancouver Island , British Columbia before Guillermo tracked southward . Over the following few days , the system slowed significantly and turned towards the east . By August 20 , moisture from the remnants of Tropical Storm Ignacio were entrained into the eastern portion of Guillermo 's circulation . On August 24 , the low was finally absorbed by a larger extratropical system while situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) off of the northern California coastline .
= = Impact and records = =
Along the Pacific coast of Mexico , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) surf produced by Hurricane Guillermo affected numerous beaches . From Cabo San Lucas to San José del Cabo , the storm sent waves from the Gulf of California over the grounds of beachside resorts . Tourists were driven off some of Cabo 's most popular beaches by the rough ocean conditions which flooded homes situated along the coast . Two sightseers were killed after being swept out to sea .
Due to accurate forecasts , emergency officials across California were able to close off swimming zones and warn the public about dangerous rip currents prior to their arrival . Guillermo generated heavy surf across the beaches of Southern California . Heights from the surf averaged 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) with local areas reaching above 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , favorable to around 500 surfers at an annual competition at Huntington Beach . According to the Los Angeles Times , some waves reached heights of 15 to 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) . Over 100 rescues were reported by local lifeguards . Waves ranging from 6 to 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) also affected Orange County . Hundreds of people were rescued , but rip currents were blamed for three injuries and one death . On August 5 , about a mile north of Huntington Beach pier , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old man was swept away . His body was recovered several days later . On August 6 , a teenage boy and girl were injured on a beach in Corona Del Mar , while an 18 @-@ year @-@ old was pulled ashore and sent to the hospital with neck injuries . In Newport Beach , lifeguards made nearly 300 rescues on August 5 and 6 alone .
In addition to coastal impacts , the system brought a surge of warm , moist air into southern California , bringing temperatures in some areas as high as 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) . Between August 15 and 17 , large waves generated while it was at peak intensity came ashore in Hawaii . The swells caused no damage and reached heights of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in eastern @-@ facing shores of the state .
Hurricane Guillermo 's central pressure of 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) established it as the second most intense Pacific hurricane on record behind Hurricane Ava of 1973 . However , later in the 1997 season , Hurricane Linda set a new intensity record , and in subsequent years hurricanes Kenna , Ioke , Rick , Marie , Odile and Patricia all achieved lower pressures , leaving Guillermo in ninth place . Guillermo persisted for 16 @.@ 5 days from its classification as a tropical depression to its transition into an extratropical storm , making it the sixth longest @-@ lasting storm in the basin .
= 1st Army Group ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =
The 1st Army Group was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II . It consisted of the 4th Army , 7th Army , and the 1st Cavalry Division , which was the army group reserve . It was responsible for the defence of northwestern Yugoslavia , with the 4th Army defending the western sector along the Yugoslav @-@ Hungarian border , and the 7th Army defending the eastern sector along the Reich and Italian borders .
The 1st Army Group was weakened by fifth column activities within its major units , and the chief @-@ of @-@ staff and chief of operations of the headquarters of 1st Army Group aided both Croat Ustaše and Slovene separatists in the 4th and 7th Army sectors respectively . The Germans seized bridges over the Drava river in both sectors and several mountain passes in the 7th Army sector on the first day . In the 4th Army sector , the formation and expansion of German bridgeheads across the Drava were facilitated by fifth column elements of the Ustaše and sympathetic units of the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party . Revolts of Croat soldiers broke out in all three divisions of the 4th Army in the first few days , causing significant disruption to mobilisation and deployment . The revolts within the 4th Army were of great concern to the commander of the 7th Army , but Petrović did not permit him to withdraw from border areas until the night of 7 / 8 April , which was followed by the German capture of Maribor as they continued to expand their bridgeheads .
The 4th Army also began to withdraw southwards on 9 April , and on 10 April it quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation in the face of two determined armoured thrusts by the XLVI Motorised Corps , one of which captured Zagreb that evening . Italian offensive operations also began , with thrusts towards Ljubljana and down the Adriatic coast , capturing over 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops near Delnice . On 12 April , a German armoured column linked up with the Italians near the Adriatic coast , encircling the remnants of the withdrawing 7th Army . When fifth column elements arrested the staffs of 1st Army Group , 4th Army and 7th Army at Petrinja , the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist . Remnants of the 4th Army attempted to establish defensive positions in northeastern Bosnia , but were quickly brushed aside by German armour as it drove towards Sarajevo . The Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered on 18 April .
= = Background = =
The Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) was formed after World War I as the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Kingdom of SCS ) , when that country was created on 1 December 1918 . To defend the new kingdom , an army was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army combined with armed formations raised in the former parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire that joined with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the new state . Many former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army . From its beginning , the army , like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom , was dominated by ethnic Serbs , who saw the army as a means by which to secure Serb hegemony in the new kingdom .
The development of the army was hampered by the poor economy of the kingdom , and this continued through the 1920s . In 1929 , King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , at which time the army became the VKJ . The army budget remained tight , and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s , it became hard to secure weapons and munitions from other countries . Consequently , at the time World War II broke out in September 1939 , the VKJ had several serious weaknesses , which included reliance on draught animals for transport , and the large size of its formations . For example , infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26 @,@ 000 – 27 @,@ 000 men , as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength . These characteristics resulted in slow , unwieldy formations , and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower . Older generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I , were combined with an army that was not equipped or trained to resist the fast @-@ moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in Poland and France .
The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy , structure , equipment , mobility and supply were exacerbated to a significant degree by the lack of unity across Yugoslavia which had resulted from two decades of Serb hegemony , and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government . Attempts to address the lack of unity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force . Fifth column activity was also a serious concern , not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše , but from the Slovene and ethnic German minorities in the country .
= = Structure = =
The 1st Army Group was commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović , and consisted of the 4th Army , commanded by Armijski đeneral Petar Nedeljković , the 7th Army , commanded by Diviziski General Dušan Trifunović , and the 1st Cavalry Division . The 4th Army consisted of three divisions , a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , one horsed cavalry regiment and one infantry regiment , and was supported by artillery , anti @-@ aircraft artillery , border guards , and air reconnaissance elements of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force . The troops of the 4th Army included a high percentage of Croats . The 7th Army consisted of two divisions , one divisional @-@ strength mountain detachment , one brigade @-@ strength mountain detachment and a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , which was supported by artillery and anti @-@ aircraft artillery , and also had air reconnaissance support . The 1st Army Group did not control any additional support units .
= = Planned deployment = =
The deployment plan for 1st Army Group saw the 4th Army deployed in a cordon behind the Drava between Varaždin and Slatina , with formations centred around the towns of Ivanec , Varaždin , Koprivnica and Virovitica . The 7th Army deployment plan saw its formations placed in a cordon along the border region from the Adriatic coast near Senj north into the Julian Alps and along the Reich border to Maribor . Of the formations of the 1st Army Group , the mountain detachments and infantry detachment of the 7th Army were largely mobilised , one infantry division of the 4th Army was partly mobilised , and the remaining four infantry divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division had only commenced mobilisation . To the right of the 4th Army was the 2nd Army Group . On the right flank of the 1st Army Group was the 2nd Army of the 2nd Army Group , with the army group boundary running from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . On the left flank , the Adriatic coast was defended by Coastal Defence Command .
= = Operations = =
= = = 6 – 9 April = = =
= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =
German Army headquarters wanted to capture the bridges over the Drava intact , and from 1 April had issued orders to the German 2nd Army to conduct preliminary operations aimed at seizing the bridge at Barcs and the railway bridge northeast of Koprivnica by coup de main . As a result , limited objective attacks were launched along the line of the Drava by the XLVI Motorised Corps , despite the fact that they were not expected to launch offensive operations until 10 April . Similar operations occurred on the extreme left flank of the 4th Army , where raiding parties and patrols from LI Infantry Corps seized the high ground on the south side of the Drava .
In the early hours of 6 April 1941 , units of the 4th Army were located in their mobilisation region or were marching toward the Hungarian border . LI Infantry Corps seized the intact bridge over the Drava at Gornja Radgona , and a bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division captured Murska Sobota without encountering resistance . By the evening it had become clear to the Germans that the Yugoslavs would not be resisting stubbornly at the border . XLVI Motorised Corps was then ordered to begin seizing bridges over the Drava at Mursko Središće , Letenye , Zákány and Barcs . These local attacks were sufficient to inflame dissent within the largely Croat 4th Army , who refused to resist Germans they considered their liberators from Serbian oppression during the interwar period . On 7 April , reconnaissance units of XLVI Motorised Corps crossed the Drava and attacked towards Koprivnica . In the afternoon , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters caught the Breguet 19s of the 4th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Velika Gorica , destroying most of them . Elements of the 27th Infantry Division Savska unsuccessfully attacked the bridgehead throughout the day , and by nightfall had resolved to counter @-@ attack on the morning of 8 April . Also on 7 April , the few remaining Breguet 19s of 4th Air Reconnaissance Group mounted attacks on a bridge over the Drava at Gyékényes .
On the afternoon of 7 April , further German units began to cross the Drava near Barcs and established a second bridgehead there . Fifth column activities within units of the 4th Army were fomented by the Croatian fascist organisation , the Ustaše , which facilitated German establishment of the bridgehead at Barcs , and resulted in a number of significant revolts within units . Of two regiments of the 42nd Infantry Division Murska , all but two battalions revolted and refused to deploy into their allocated positions . Similarly , the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska , which had mobilised in Bjelovar , was marching towards Virovitica to take up positions . On the night of 7 / 8 April , the Croats of the 108th Regiment revolted , arrested their Serb officers , non @-@ commissioned officers and soldiers . The regiment then marched back to Bjelovar , where it joined up with other rebellious units about noon on 8 April .
On 8 April , Josip Broz Tito and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , then located in Zagreb , along with the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia , sent a delegation to the headquarters of the 4th Army urging them to issue arms to workers to help defend Zagreb . Pavle Gregorić , who was a member of both Central Committees , went to 4th Army headquarters twice , and was able to speak briefly with Nedeljković , but could not convince him to do so . On that same day , the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party , Vladko Maček who had returned to Zagreb after briefly joining the post @-@ Yugoslav coup d 'état government of Dušan Simović , agreed to send an emissary to the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska urging them to obey their officers , but they did not respond to his appeal .
When the Germans began to expand their bridgehead at Barcs , the rebel Croat troops at Bjelovar made contact with them , and the 4th Army began to withdraw southwards on 9 April . On the night of 9 / 10 April , those Croats that had remained with their units began to desert or turn on their commanders . The 27th Infantry Division Savska suffered from similar revolts , which eased the German capture of Koprivnica .
= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =
The border between the Reich and Yugoslavia was unsuitable for motorised operations . Due to the short notice of the invasion , the elements of the invading 2nd Army that would make up LI Infantry Corps and XLIX Mountain Corps had to be assembled from France , Germany and the Slovak Republic , and nearly all encountered difficulties in reaching their assembly areas . In the interim , the Germans formed a special force under the code name Feuerzauber ( Magic Fire ) . This force was initially intended to merely reinforce the 538th Frontier Guard Division , who were manning the border . On the evening of 5 April , one of the aggressive Feuerzauber detachment commanders , Hauptmann Palten led his Kampfgruppe Palten across the Mura from Spielfeld and , having secured the bridge , began attacking bunkers and other Yugoslav positions on the high ground , and sent patrols deep into the Yugoslav border fortification system . Due to a lack of Yugoslav counter @-@ attacks , many of these positions remained in German hands into 6 April .
LI Infantry Corps were tasked with attacking towards Maribor then driving towards Zagreb , while the XLIX Mountain Corps was to capture Dravograd then force a crossing on the Sava . On the first day of the invasion , LI Infantry Corps captured the Drava bridges at Mureck and Radkersburg ( opposite Radgon ) undamaged , and the 183rd Infantry Division captured 300 prisoners . A bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division reached the extreme left flank of the Yugoslav 4th Army at Murska Sobota without striking any resistance . The 132nd Infantry Division also pushed south along the Sejanski valley towards Savci .
Late that day , mountain pioneers destroyed some isolated Yugoslav bunkers in the area penetrated by Kampfgruppe Palten . On that day , the governor of the Drava Banovina , Marko Natlačen met with representatives of the major Slovene political parties , and created the National Council of Slovenia , whose aim was to establish a Slovenia independent of Yugoslavia . When he heard the news of fifth column @-@ led revolts within the 4th Army , Trifunović was alarmed , and proposed withdrawal from the border areas , but this was rejected by Petrović . The front along the border with Italy was relatively quiet , with only patrol clashes occurring . The Yugoslav High Command ordered that the 7th Army capture Fiume , across the Rječina river from Sušak , but the order was soon rescinded .
Over the next three days , LI Corps held the lead elements of its two divisions back while the rest of each division detrained in Graz and made their way to the border . All elements of both divisions had unloaded by 9 April . On the afternoon of 7 April , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters also caught the Breguet 19s of the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Cerklje , destroying most of them . As a result of the revolts in the 4th Army , on the night of 7 / 8 April , Petrović ordered the 7th Army to begin to withdraw , first to a line through the Dravinja river , Zidani Most bridge and the right bank of the Krka river . This was subsequently moved back to the line of the Kupa river . On 8 April , disregarding orders from above , Palten led his Kampfgruppe south towards Maribor , and crossed the Pesnica river in pneumatic boats , leaving his unit vehicles behind . In the evening , Palten and his force entered Maribor unopposed , taking 100 prisoners . Kampfgruppe Palten was ordered to return to Spielfeld , and spent the rest of the invasion guarding the border . In the meantime , the forward elements of the two divisions consolidated their bridgeheads , with the 132nd Infantry Division securing Maribor , and the 183rd Infantry Division pushing past Murska Sobota .
The activities of Natlačen and his council continued from the day the invasion commenced , and the Yugoslav High Command soon ordered their arrest . However , the chief of staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , Armiski General Leon Rupnik and the head of the operations staff , Pukovnik Franjo Nikolić did not carry out the orders . On 9 April , the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group airfield at Cerklje was again attacked by German aircraft .
= = = 10 – 11 April = = =
= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =
Early on 10 April , Nikolić left his post and visited the senior Ustaše leader Slavko Kvaternik in Zagreb . He then returned to the headquarters and redirected 4th Army units around Zagreb to either cease operations or to deploy to innocuous positions . These actions reduced or eliminated armed resistance to the German advance .
On the same day , the Germans broke out of the bridgeheads they had established , with the 14th Panzer Division , supported by dive bombers , crossing the Drava and driving southwest towards Zagreb on snow @-@ covered roads in extremely cold conditions . Initial air reconnaissance indicated large concentrations of Yugoslav troops on the divisional axis of advance , but these troops proved to be withdrawing towards Zagreb . Ustaše and their sympathisers in the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party disarmed and captured the staff of several 4th Army units , including the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 4th Army effectively ceased to exist as a formation . Soon after the 14th Panzer Division commenced its attack , the main thrust of the XLVI Motorised Corps , consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs . The 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers , and meeting almost no resistance , had reached Slatina by evening .
About 17 : 45 on 10 April , Kvaternik and SS @-@ Standartenführer ( Colonel ) Edmund Veesenmayer went to the radio station in Zagreb and Kvaternik proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Croatia . By 19 : 30 on 10 April , despite initial resistance , lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb , having covered nearly 160 kilometres ( 99 miles ) in a single day . By the time it entered Zagreb , the 14th Panzer Division was met by cheering crowds , and had captured 15 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops , and 22 generals , including both Petrović and Trifunović . Held up by freezing weather and snow storms , on 10 April , on the following day LI Corps was approaching Zagreb from the north , and bicycle @-@ mounted troops of the 183rd Infantry Division had turned east to capture Varaždin , along with an entire Yugoslav brigade including its commanding general . On the same day , the German @-@ installed interim Croatian government called on all Croats to stop fighting , and in the evening , LI Infantry Corps entered Zagreb and relieved the 14th Panzer Division . In the face of the assault by the 14th Panzer Division , the 4th Army quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation . The disintegration of the 4th Army was caused largely by fifth column activity , as it was involved in little fighting .
= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =
During the night of 9 / 10 April , lead elements of the XLIX Mountain Corps , consisting of the 1st Mountain Division de @-@ trained and crossed the border near Bleiburg and advanced southeast towards Celje , reaching a point about 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the town by evening . Luftwaffe reconnaissance sorties revealed that the main body of the 7th Army was withdrawing towards Zagreb , leaving behind light forces to maintain contact with the German bridgeheads . When it received this information , 2nd Army headquarters ordered LI Corps to form motorised columns to pursue the 7th Army south , but extreme weather conditions and flooding of the Drava at Maribor on 10 April slowed the German pursuit .
About 06 : 00 on 11 April , LI Corps recommenced its push south towards Zagreb , with lead elements exiting the mountains northwest of the city in the evening of the same day , while the 1st Mountain Division captured Celje after some hard marching and difficult fighting . Emissaries from the newly formed National Council of Slovenia approached the commander of XLIX Mountain Corps , General der Infanterie Ludwig Kübler to ask for a ceasefire . Also on 11 April , the Italian 2nd Army commenced offensive operations around 12 : 00 , with the XI Corps pushing through Logatec towards Ljubljana , VI Corps advancing in the direction of Prezid , while strong formations attacked south through Fiume towards Kraljevica and towards Lokve . By this stage , the 7th Army was withdrawing , although some units took advantage of existing fortifications to resist . To assist the Italian advance , the Luftwaffe attacked Yugoslav troops in the Ljubljana region , and the 14th Panzer Division , which had captured Zagreb on 10 April , drove west to encircle the withdrawing 7th Army . The Italians faced little resistance , and captured about 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops waiting to surrender near Delnice .
= = = Fate = = =
On 10 April , as the situation had become increasingly desperate throughout the country , Dušan Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff , had broadcast the following message :
All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .
On 12 April , the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians at Vrbovsko , closing the ring around the remnants of the 7th Army , before thrusting southeast towards Sarajevo . The remaining elements of the 4th Army had organised defences around the towns of Kostajnica , Bosanski Novi , Bihać and Prijedor , but the 14th Panzer Division quickly broke through at Bosanski Novi and captured Banja Luka , and by 14 April it had captured Jajce . In the wake of the panzers , the 183rd Infantry Division pushed through Zagreb and Sisak to capture Kostajnica and Bosanska Gradiška . On 15 April , the 14th Panzer Division was closing on Sarajevo . The Ustaše arrested the staffs of the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist as a formation . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals and papers = = =
= = = Web = = =
= Open Your Heart ( Madonna song ) =
" Open Your Heart " is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . It was released as the album 's fourth single in November 12 , 1986 by Sire Records . It has since appeared remixed on the compilation albums The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . Originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " , it was written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . Since Madonna 's management was looking for new songs for True Blue , she accepted it . Madonna altered some of the lyrics and changed the composition to suit the dance @-@ pop genre , giving her a co @-@ writer credit for the song . Lyrically " Open Your Heart " is a love song , talking about innocent feelings of boy @-@ meets @-@ girl romance and Madonna expressing her sexual desire .
The song was well received by critics who commended it for being a simple love song . It was also successful commercially , reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , and the United Kingdom , also reaching the top of Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , thus making it Madonna 's fifth US number @-@ one single . The music video , however , portrayed a different concept of the song . Madonna played an exotic dancer in a peep @-@ show club , who befriends a little boy and subsequently escapes . It was critically acclaimed for portraying a completely opposite perspective of " voyeuristic male gaze and object " , and depicting innocence rather than sexual overtones , although the entry of a child in a strip club was negatively criticized . The video was an homage to actresses Liza Minnelli and Marlene Dietrich .
" Open Your Heart " has been performed by Madonna in three of her world tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , where Madonna wore her infamous conical bra during the song , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . The performances were included in the respective video release of the tours . " Open Your Heart " has been covered a number of times by different artists , and appeared in the Britney Spears film , Crossroads ( 2002 ) .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Open Your Heart " was originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " and had been written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . The Temptations were also considered for the song . Their manager Benny Medina decided that they wanted to record the song after all , but upon hearing that Madonna had already recorded it , changed their mind . The original title according to Cole , was from a local health food restaurant called Follow Your Heart in Canoga Park , California , where he was in love with a waitress named Lisa and she was the original inspiration for the lyrics . In Fred Bronson 's book The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Cole explained ,
" Peter and I usually write very quickly . It 's usually a day or two a song , but for some reason this didn 't really hit us as a hit song . We didn 't give up on it . We just kept working on it over the course of a year . Thank God we did . [ ... ] It was the first song that was cut on the True Blue album . It made me nervous as a writer , because a lot of times the very first song that gets cut doesn 't make it in the long run . But the song ended up making the album , which really opened up a lot of doors for me . "
Cole 's manager Bennett Freed was working with Madonna 's management and they were looking for new material for her album . Three of Cole 's songs were chosen for reviewing , including " Open Your Heart " . Madonna 's manager Freddy DeMann overheard the song and thought it would be a hit for Madonna and he asked Cole to re @-@ demo a female demo version . Her female backup singer , Donna De Lory was Cole 's girlfriend and he immediately asked her to sing the demo . Despite the fact that it did not fit exactly with the choice and genre of songs Madonna was singing at that time , she nevertheless accepted it . Madonna recorded " Open Your Heart " , altered the lyrics thus earning a co @-@ writing credit , and along with Patrick Leonard added a bassline underneath the song which turned it into a rock @-@ dance track rather than the original rock ' n roll genre . The song was the first recorded cut for the True Blue album in late 1985 and ultimately made it to the final released tracklist .
= = Composition = =
" Open Your Heart " has a continuous percussion filled structure and a chorus sounding like Belinda Carlisle , according to author Rikky Rooksby in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna . Lyrically , " Open Your Heart " is a simple love song . The song speaks of earnest innocent notions of boy meets girl kind of feelings . According to Professor Mavis Tsai , the phrase " Open Your Heart " is a metaphor for the act of being vulnerable that corresponds to the behavior involved in developing an intimate or close relationship . The following lines in the song , " Open Your Heart , I 'll make you love me ; It 's not that hard , if you just turn the key " illustrate this metaphor vividly . The concept of the song places Madonna as a victim of love .
The lyrics puts Madonna in a more direct position expressing her sexual desires for her man according to author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in the line " If you gave me half a chance you 'd see ; My desire burning inside of me . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Open Your Heart " is written in the time signature of common time with a medium funk tempo of 112 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F major with Madonna 's voice spanning from A3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of F – E ♭ 9 – E ♭ / G – Gm7 – F as its chord progression .
= = Critical response = =
Author Susan McClary in Culture / power / history reviewed the song saying that , it was more upbeat than previous single " Live to Tell " and " the play with closure in ' Open Your Heart ' creates the image of open ended jouissance — an erotic energy that continually escapes containment " . Author Taraborrelli called it as one of her most " earnest " songs and compared it with Aretha Franklin 's song " Respect " as well as Barbra Streisand 's " A House is Not a Home " . According to him " it was a tune people could understand and latch on to , which is what makes a pop song memorable " . The New York Times writer Stephen Holden compared the song with sweeter post @-@ Motown valentine songs . Houston Chronicle writer Joey Guerra called the song " perfect " for dancefloor strut . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called it a perfect dance song with deepened dance grooves . Slant Magazine named the song as one of Madonna 's most " robust " songs . Robert Christgau said of the song , " I 'm not saying her flair is pleasureless — the generosity she demands in the inexhaustible ' Open Your Heart ' is a two @-@ way street and then some . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Open Your Heart " debuted at number 51 the week ending December 6 , 1986 , on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It had a gradual rise and subsequently topped the chart on February 7 , 1987 , becoming Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single also had success on Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , reaching number @-@ one on February 14 , 1987 . It also became Madonna 's sixth entry on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart where it reached a peak of number 12 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 83 on the RPM chart on December 13 , 1986 , and reached a peak position of number eight for the chart dated February 21 , 1987 . It placed at number 68 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .
Internationally , it became a top ten hit in several European countries including the United Kingdom , Italy , Ireland , Netherlands , and Belgium . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number eight and subsequently reached a peak of number four on December 13 , 1986 . The single was on the chart for nine weeks in total , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on December 1 , 1986 . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 195 @,@ 000 copies there . It also peaked at number four in Europe , thus becoming the only single from True Blue not to top the Eurochart Hot 100 . In Australia , it only reached a peak of number 16 , breaking a run of nine consecutive top ten singles for Madonna in that country . Elsewhere like in Switzerland , Austria , Germany and France , it reached within the top 40 of the singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video was shot at Echo Park in Los Angeles , California . Madonna portrays an exotic dancer who befriends a young boy , played by child actor Felix Howard . This video was originally set to be directed by Madonna 's then @-@ husband Sean Penn , but in the end the final honors went to Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who went on to work with Madonna on her videos for " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) , " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " ( 1996 ) , " Don 't Tell Me " ( 2000 ) and " Hollywood " ( 2003 ) . The video was shot in July 1986 and was released in December 1986 . It was produced by David Naylor . The video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards in 1987 . In the Best Female Video category , " Open Your Heart " lost to another Madonna video , when the music video for " Papa Don 't Preach " won the award . The video has been ranked at number 35 on VH1 's " 50 Sexiest Video Moments " of all time .
The video is structured as a cinematic peep show and voyeurism that portrays Madonna as a stripper . According to Mondino , the peep show was his idea since at that time , " we were into a period where we were experimenting [ with ] some kind of freedom about the body , about sexuality and stuff " . He wanted to have a " naive and sweet " feel with the portrayal of a boy waiting outside for Madonna . They built the set from scratch , including the frontal part with the ticket booth . Although it looked fake , Mondino liked it saying " I like the fakeness of it . I haven 't seen it for a long time , but when I saw it once again , I said , ' It 's so naïve ' . It 's kind of badly done , which I like , compared to today . We didn 't have the same equipment , people are more skillful today , but there 's something sweet about it . " Madonna was initially asked by him to wear a black wig , and the initial reaction to the whole wardrobe was positive . But Madonna wanted Mondino 's opinion on the whole ensemble , who replied that she would look better as a blonde . So the wig was kept for the initial scenes of the video only .
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The " Open Your Heart " music video presents an early version of Madonna 's musings about her Italian @-@ American heritage and focus on her feminocentric street theology , which was also explicitly brought out by 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour . It starts with the little boy trying to go inside a peep show , where Madonna is the star performer , but gets rebuffed by an old man at the ticket booth . Inside Madonna starts singing the song from the center of a carousel that revolves to display her to the gaze of the customers who are sitting safely in their cubicles . Madonna is dressed in a black bustier , spike heels , fishnets , revealing her new slimmed down body at that time . She begins the video wearing a black wig which she subsequently removes , revealing her short bleached hair . The bluish and dark lighting reveals her look as a mix of actresses Marlene Dietrich in the movie The Blue Angel as well as Liza Minnelli as the character Sally Bowles in the Bob Fosse @-@ directed musical film , Cabaret .
The dancing is restrained with a single prop : that of a solitary chair . At one point in the first segment of the video , she is filmed dancing but the camera is almost still and the motions of the dance are confined within the small range of the camera . As the screens inside the viewing booths open and close , the camera slices the shots of Madonna each with its own angle and duration . The same imagery is exhibited by the little boy outside who tries to frame Madonna 's playbill image into different angles . There are four other men in the booths who are made of wood with paintings of artist Tamara de Lempicka on them . Madonna at one point takes off her gloves like Rita Hayworth in Gilda and points towards one of the wooden paintings . It collapses and she blows on her finger .
The video is similar in thematic content to Mötley Crüe 's video for the single " Girls , Girls , Girls " . But in contrast , this video tells the story from Madonna 's point of view . She looks down into the cubicles to make eye contact with the men but they are unable to return it . She also looks assertively into the camera , making eye contact with the viewer . With these scenes Madonna portrays her holding power over the men and the ability to pursue them . Madonna represents an assertive woman searching for a lover who can accept her as a human being . Author Bruce Forbes notes that the men in the cubicles are proved unworthy of her and there is an undertone of mockery when Madonna addresses them as ' baby ' while shaking her body .
By the end of the video the isolated and sad men depart with the doors closing on them . As the final chorus breaks into dance grooves , Madonna comes out of the theater and gives the boy a quick kiss on his lips . Both are clad in loose @-@ fitting gray suits , which gives Madonna an androgynous look . They stroll away playfully in the sunrise , reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin and Jack Coogan in The Kid with the old boss pursuing them and shouting " Come back , come back , we still need you " in Italian . The tension between the visual and the musical dimensions of the video is extremely unsettling according to author Nicholas B. Dirks . Only when she disappears from the carousel and reappears to run away from her patriarchal boss with the young boy , then the music and visuals become comparable .
= = = Reception = = =
Feminist writer Susan Bordo gave a negative review of the video , saying that the leering and pathetic men in the cubicles and Madonna 's escape with the boy is " cynically and mechanically tacked on [ as ] a way of claiming trendy status for what is just cheesecake – or , perhaps , pornography " . MTV also had some reservations initially before airing the video , which was later resolved after a meeting with Warner Officials . However socio @-@ critic Mary Harron in her book McRock : Pop as Commodity said that the underlying message in the video is that though Madonna sells sexuality , she is free . There is no overt representation of anything besides friendship with the boy . Their escape together avoids Madonna the sexual overtones that would have been stronger if she would have escaped with an adult male . This , according to author Richard Dienst , seems to suggest a repudiation of the adult labor of the stage in favor of childhood , androgyny , authenticity and nomadic play . The video is also acclaimed for reviving and re @-@ creating the hard glamor of the studio @-@ era of Hollywood stars and also for representing women as the dominant sex . Author Donn Welton pointed out that the usual power relationship between the " voyeuristic male gaze and object " is destabilized by the portrayal of the male patrons of the peep show as leering and pathetic . At the same time , the portrayal of Madonna as " porno queen object " is deconstructed by the escape at the end of the video . Maura Johnston from Rolling Stone found influences of the work of Italian film director Federico Fellini and American musical theater chroeographer Bob Fosse . Johnston added , " ' Open Your Heart ' was gorgeous , from the paintings of art deco artist Tamara de Lempicka on the club exterior , to the colorfully cold cast of characters . " She noticed that at one point in the video , Madonna titled her head to re @-@ create the Herb Ritts shot album cover for True Blue .
= = Live performances = =
" Open Your Heart " has been featured as a full song in the set lists of three Madonna tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . It served as the opening song on 1987 Who 's That Girl Tour . It started off with then young dancer Chris Finch , imitating Felix Howard from the video . Howard did not receive a working license for the tour hence Finch was taken for his part . He went on to become an integral part of most of the songs performed on the tour . After Finch , two other dancers are introduced , before Madonna herself appears on stage . She wore the same black pointy corset and fishnets as in the music video . She first sings the song alone , then Finch joins her again and they dance together till the song ends . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .
On the Blond Ambition World Tour , " Open Your Heart " follows the opening number " Express Yourself " . This time , it included a hunky dancer watching from a distance as Madonna entered the stage with her hair stretched into a topknot and fake blond ponytail , which was replaced by short peroxide tangles in the European leg of the tour . She wore a double breasted suit with the outer jacket cut in slits so that the conical bra underneath could point through . Showing off the satin pink bodysuit and her monocle chain , Madonna performed the song on a chair . Playing a dominatrix role , Madonna got on top of one of the dancers before carrying off an exhibitionist dance routine with the chair as a prop . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
The opening musical introduction of the song served as a brief twenty @-@ six seconds musical interlude on the Drowned World Tour in 2001 . As Madonna finished a performance of " Frozen " in the Geisha inspired segment of the show , she sat in a cross @-@ legged position in front of the stage . The musical intro for " Open Your Heart " would start with a dancer in a Japanese costume dancing behind her on a raised podium . As the music ends , Madonna starts singing " Nobody 's Perfect " from her 2000 album Music . In 2008 , Madonna sang the first verse and chorus at two dates — Las Vegas and East Rutherford — of her Sticky & Sweet Tour . Madonna forgot the lyrics at the Vegas show and refused to sing the song in Boston ; she performed " Express Yourself " instead .
Madonna also performed an excerpt of the song at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show in 2012 , where she was joined by Cee Lo Green and by a large marching band . The same year , the song was included on The MDNA Tour . Following an 8 @-@ minute monologue against intolerance , the song was reinvented and performed in a Basque , folk acoustic version , relying only on drums , which were played by the Basque band Kalakan , and Madonna 's vocal harmony . Madonna 's outfit during the performance consisted of an all @-@ leather look , a custom design by Hervé Léger and Max Azria , with knee @-@ high boots and a mini fur bolero , while her dancers were dressed as soldiers . Towards the end of the performance Madonna proceeded to dance and engage in a sing @-@ along with the members of the audience . On certain shows , her son Rocco Ritchie joined her onstage . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the performances of " Open Your Heart " and " Like a Prayer " were a reminder that " ... for both Madonna and her fans , it always comes back to the music " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour . On January 26 , 2014 , Madonna performed " Open Your Heart " and " Same Love " at the 56th Grammy Awards along with Macklemore , Ryan Lewis and Mary Lambert , in support of gay and lesbian rights . During the Rebel Heart Tour in Manchester , in December 2015 , Madonna performed an a cappella version of " Open Your Heart " .
= = Cover versions = =
Despite being originally written in English , a Spanish version of the song titled " Abre Tu Corazón " was recorded by Venezuelan rock singer Melissa , who released it in March 1986 on her " Melissa III " album . Considering Madonna first released the song on the " True Blue " album three months afterwards , Melissa 's " Abre Tu Corazón " can be considered the first released version of the song , although it is possible that Madonna 's version ( for which she received a co @-@ writer 's credit ) was recorded first . The Madonna tribute compilation Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 contained a cover by the late Israeli singer Ofra Haza . A eurodance version was recorded by the group Mad 'House for the album " Absolutely Mad " . A hi @-@ NRG dance version was recorded by Who 's That Girl for the album Exposed , released through Almighty Records . In 2004 Platinum Blonde NRG , Vol . 2 : Nrgised Madonna Classics , a hi @-@ NRG cover is performed by In @-@ Deep . The song appears in the opening of the 2002 film Crossroads . Britney Spears ' character lip syncs to the song in her room with a brush in her hand , pretending its a microphone . A Madonna poster is visible during the scene . In 2010 , the TV show Glee covered it in the episode " The Power of Madonna " as a mash @-@ up with the song " Borderline " , performed by Cory Monteith and Lea Michele .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter
Jonathan Moffett – drums
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
David Williams – guitar
Patrick Leonard – keyboards
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
characters in The X @-@ Files . The UGO review , in particular , noted that the character was " One of the series ' more blatant allegories [ ... ] , as a legless Indian Mystic [ ... ] literally climbs into his victims to travel where he will . [ ... ] Scully and Doggett investigate the bloody goings @-@ on [ ... ] and a gut @-@ wrenching climax , though not entirely successful , still opens up some thorny issues over how we view weakness , deformity , race , and ' otherness.'
= Jonathan Jennings =
Jonathan Jennings ( March 27 , 1784 – July 26 , 1834 ) was the first governor of Indiana and a nine @-@ term congressman from Indiana . Born in either Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , he studied law before immigrating to the Indiana Territory in 1806 . Jennings initially intended to practice law , but took jobs as an assistant at the federal land office at Vincennes and assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature to support himself , and pursued interests in land speculation and politics . Jennings became involved in a dispute with the territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , that soon led him to enter politics and set the tone for his early political career . In 1808 Jennings moved to the eastern part of the Indiana Territory and settled near Charlestown , in Clark County . He was elected as the Indiana Territory 's delegate to the U.S. Congress by dividing the pro @-@ Harrison supporters and running as an anti @-@ Harrison candidate . By 1812 he was the leader of the anti @-@ slavery and pro @-@ statehood faction of the territorial government . Jennings and his political allies took control of the territorial assembly and dominated governmental affairs after the resignation of Governor Harrison in 1812 . As a congressional delegate Jennings aided passage of the Enabling Act in 1816 , which authorized the organization of Indiana 's state government and state constitution . He was elected president of the Indiana constitutional convention , held in Corydon in June 1816 , where he helped draft the state 's first constitution . Jennings supported the effort to ban slavery in the state and favored a strong legislative branch of government .
In August 1816 Jennings was elected to serve as the first governor of Indiana at age 32 , and re @-@ elected for an additional term . He pressed for the construction of roads and schools , and negotiated the Treaty of St. Mary 's to open up central Indiana to American settlement . His opponents attacked his participation in the treaty negotiations as unconstitutional and brought impeachment proceedings against him , a measure that was narrowly defeated by a vote of 15 to 13 after a month @-@ long investigation and the resignation of the lieutenant governor . During his second term and following the panic of 1819 , Jennings encountered financial problems , a situation exacerbated by his inability to keep up with his business interests and run the state government simultaneously . Ineligible for another term as Indiana governor under the state constitution , Jennings looked for other means of financial support . Shortly before completion of his second term as governor in 1822 , Jennings was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , before retiring from public service in 1831 . In Congress Jennings promoted federal spending on internal improvements .
Jennings had been a heavy drinker of alcohol for much of his life . His addiction worsened after the death of his first wife , Ann , and his development of rheumatism . Jennings 's alcoholism led to defeat in his reelection campaign in 1830 . In retirement his condition worsened and he was unable to work his farm . When his finances collapsed , his creditors sought to take his land holdings and Charlestown farm . To protect his friend , U.S. Senator John Tipton purchased Jennings 's farm and permitted him to continue living there . After Jennings 's death , his estate was sold , but it left no funds to purchase a headstone for his grave , which remained unmarked for fifty @-@ seven years .
Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and impact on the development of Indiana . Early state historians , Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr. and William Wesley Woollen , gave Jennings high praise and credited him with the defeat of the pro @-@ slavery forces in Indiana and with laying the foundation of the state . More critical historians during the prohibition era , such as Logan Eseray , described Jennings as a crafty and self @-@ promoting politician and focused on his alcoholism . Among the modern historians , Randy Mills places Jennings 's importance between the two extremes , but agreed with Woolen 's assessment that the state " owes him more than she can compute . "
= = Early life = =
= = = Family background = = =
Jonathan Jennings , the son of Jacob and Mary Kennedy Jennings , was born in either Readington Township , Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , on March 27 , 1784 . He was the sixth of the Jennings 's eight children . His father was a doctor , Presbyterian missionary , and an ordained minister in the Dutch Reformed Church . His mother , who was well educated and practiced medicine , was the daughter of Samuel Kennedy , a Presbyterian minister at Basking Ridge , New Jersey . Mary , who may have had a medical degree , assisted her husband in his practice . Around 1790 Jennings 's father moved the family to Dunlap Creek in Fayette County , Pennsylvania , where Jennings remained until his adulthood . After his mother 's death in 1792 , Jennings was raised by his older sister , Sarah , and his brother , Ebenezer . Jennings was particularly close to Ebenezer and his younger sister , Ann , and her husband , David G. Mitchell , who was a physician . Jennings was schooled at home , then attended the nearby grammar school in Canonsburg , Pennsylvania , where he received a basic education . Two of his classmates , William Hendricks and William W. Wick , would later become his political allies . Jennings studied law in Washington , Pennsylvania . By 1806 Jennings had left Pennsylvania and moved to Steubenville , Ohio , where his brother , Obadiah , had a law office . Jennings helped Obadiah in cases before the Ohio Supreme Court .
In 1806 Jennings headed west to Jeffersonville in the Indiana Territory , but stayed only briefly . He moved to Vincennes , the capital of the Indiana Territory , in early 1807 to open his own law practice and was admitted to the bar in April . Jennings had difficulty earning an income as a lawyer , finding there were too few clients in the territory to keep him busy . In July 1807 Nathaniel Ewing , the federal land receiver at Vincennes and a friend from Pennsylvania , invited Jennings to take a job as assistant to John Badollet , the registrar at the federal land office in Vincennes . Along with Badollet , Jennings engaged in land speculation . He obtained significant land holdings and made substantial profits . In 1807 Jennings became an assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature and continued to speculate on the sale of public lands .
= = = Confrontation with Harrison = = =
In August 1807 Jennings was appointed clerk of the Vincennes University board of trustees and began to be drawn into ongoing political disputes going on territory . The territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , was a member and president of the board . As governor of the Indiana Territory , Harrison wielded considerable influence through his political appointments and veto powers . Jennings received the university appointment after General Washington Johnston resigned as clerk of the board following a dispute over Harrison 's proposal to ban the French residents of Vincennes from using the university 's commons . The board defeated Harrison 's proposal , but Johnston resigned as its clerk and Jennings was selected as his replacement over Henry Hurst , one of Harrison 's loyal supporters . Harrison was outraged and promptly resigned from the board , but later reconsidered his decision . In September 1807 Harrison was easily reelected to the board and selected as its president . In the meantime , Johnston wrote a pamphlet describing the board 's proceedings , which Jennings certified without the board 's knowledge or approval . Jennings further angered Harrison when he attempted to secure a clerkship in the territorial legislature . Jennings 's opponent for the clerkship was the anti @-@ slavery candidate Davis Floyd , an enemy of Harrison . After Jennings dropped out of the race , Floyd was selected for the position and became an important political ally to Jennings . In April 1808 , with Harrison reelected as president of the Vincennes University board , a commission was appointed to investigate Jennings 's conduct . The committee 's inquiry concerned Jennings 's certification of Johnston 's pamphlet dealing with board proceedings without their knowledge . The incident led to Jennings 's resignation in 1808 and created a considerable amount of animosity between the two that prevailed for many years .
By March 1808 , Jennings believed that his future in the Harrison @-@ dominated western part of the territory was bleak . By November he had left Vincennes and moved to Jeffersonville , in Clark County , Indiana Territory , before settling in nearby Charlestown . Jennings may have believed his political future would have more success in the eastern part of the territory . Settlements in the southeast and eastern portion of the territory opposed slavery and Harrison 's aristocratic manner , which were similar to Jennings 's beliefs , while the western portion of the territory and Vincennes area remained proslavery . Although petitions to allow slavery were received before the formation of the Indiana Territory , the issue attracted widespread attention in 1807 when Harrison and his supporters in the territorial legislature revived efforts to allow slavery in the territory . Jennings and his supporters who opposed slavery wrote writing articles appearing in the Vincennes Western Sun newspaper attacking Harrison 's administration , its pro @-@ slavery sentiments , and aristocratic policies .
In 1808 , when Congressman Benjamin Parke resigned from office , Harrison ordered a special election to fill the vacancy . Jennings entered the race against Harrison 's candidate , Thomas Randolph , the attorney general for the territory , and John Johnson , a Vincennes native who had the support of the antislavery group . Randolph promised not to introduce slavery into the territory unless the majority of his constituents agreed , while Johnson remained silent on the issue . Jennings , an antislavery candidate from the eastern portion of the territory , rode from settlement to settlement to give speeches against slavery . Jennings spoke against what he believed to be Randolph 's aristocratic tendencies , ties to Harrison 's territorial government , and the issue of slavery in the territory . Jennings found his greatest support among the growing Quaker community in the eastern part of the territory .
On November 27 , 1809 , Jennings was elected as a delegate to the Eleventh Congress . The election was close . Jennings beat Randolph , 428 votes to 402 , with Johnson taking 81 votes . Randolph challenged the election results and traveled to Washington D.C. to take his case to the U.S. House of Representatives . Randolph claimed that election officials in Dearborn County did not follow proper procedures for certifying ninety @-@ one votes in the county 's seventh district and argued that the votes should be deducted from the vote totals . Once discarded , the revised totals would make Randolph the winner . A House committee took up the case , issued a resolution in Randolph 's favor , and recommended that a new election be held . Randolph immediately left for the Indiana Territory to launch a new campaign for the seat , but the House defeated the committee 's recommendation by an 83 to 30 vote margin and Jennings was permitted to take his seat . As a territorial delegate in Congress , Jennings learned the legislative process , served on House committees , introduced legislation , debated issues , and continued his ongoing crusade against Governor Harrison . Jennings did not play a major role in congressional discussions , but he did make an effort to represent the interests of his constituents . He was reelected in 1811 , 1812 , and 1814 .
= = = Courtship and marriage = = =
During his first session in Congress , Jennings had a small portrait of himself made , which he later gave to Ann Gilmore Hay , the daughter of a prominent Charlestown politician , whom he had recently begun courting . Hay was born in Harrodsburg , Kentucky , in 1792 . Her family moved to Clark County in Indiana Territory , and settled in Charlestown . Jennings first met her when he was campaigning for Congress in 1809 . After his first session in Congress ended , Jennings returned to Indiana Territory and married eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Ann on August 8 , 1811 . Ann 's father had just died leaving her with no family or means of support . Following his reelection to Congress in 1811 , the couple returned to Washington , where she remained briefly , before traveling to Pennsylvania to live with Jennings 's sister , Ann Mitchell , for the remainder of the session . Jennings 's wife suffered from ill health , which deteriorated after he became governor of Indiana in 1816 , and she died after a protected illness in 1826 . Later that year Jennings married Clarissa Barbee , who had come from Kentucky to teach at the Charlestown seminary . Jennings had no children from either marriage .
= = Congressman = =
= = = Battle with Harrison = = =
Angered over his electoral loss , Randolph harangued anti @-@ Harrison supporters , even challenging one to a duel . He was stabbed three times , but recovered and challenged Jennings in his bid for reelection in 1810 . Harrison came out to personally stump on Randolph 's behalf . Jennings focused on the slavery issue and tied Randolph to Harrison 's continued attempts to legalize the institution . The congressional election coincided with the first popular election of delegates to the territorial legislature . In 1809 , a year prior to the election , the territory 's pro @-@ slavery faction suffered a significant setback when Illinois was separated from the Indiana Territory , cutting Harrison off from his supporters in the western portion of the territory . Harrison suggested that Jennings further expanded his political base by stumping among the disaffected French residents of the territory . Jennings 's defeat of Randolph in 1810 repudiated Harrison 's pro @-@ slavery policies . Following his triumph in the election , Jennings 's and his anti @-@ slavery allies were successful in enacting a legislative agenda that limited the territorial governor 's authority and repealed an 1805 act regarding indentured service .
In his first full term in Congress , Jennings stepped up his attacks on Harrison , accusing him of using his office for personal gain , of taking part in questionable land speculation deals , and needlessly raising tensions with the Native American tribes on the frontier . Jennings presented a congressional resolution that intended to reduce Harrison 's authority to make political appointments and opposed his policy of purchasing lands from the Indians . When Harrison was up for reappointment as territorial governor in 1810 , Jennings sent a scathing letter to President James Madison that argued against his reappointment . Harrison 's allies in Washington argued on his behalf and aided in securing his reappointment .
After hostilities broke out on the frontier between the Americans and the native tribes , culminating in the Battle of Tippecanoe in November 1811 , Jennings successfully promoted passage of a bill to grant compensation to veterans of the battle and to give pensions for five years to the widows and orphans of those who were killed . Privately , Jennings lamented the battle , while his friends in the territory faulted Harrison for agitating the situation and causing the needless loss of life . As calls for war with Great Britain increased , Jennings was not among the war hawks , but ultimately accepted the arrival of the War of 1812 . Early in the war , Harrison was commissioned as a military general and dispatched to defend the frontier and invade Canada , which caused him to resign from his post as territorial governor in 1812 . Prior to Harrison 's resignation , Jennings and his allies moved quickly to take advantage of the situation and initiated efforts to weaken the governor 's authority . In 1811 the territorial legislature voted to move the capital away from Vincennes , a pro @-@ Harrison stronghold , and began a shift in political power from the territorial governor to the delegates in the territorial legislature and its elected officials . John Gibson , the elderly , acting governor , whose territorial duties largely dealt with military affairs , did not challenge the territorial legislature . When Harrison 's successor , Thomas Posey , was confirmed on March 3 , 1813 , Jennings 's party in the territorial legislature had become entrenched and began to advance their request for statehood .
Jennings ran for reelection to Congress in 1811 against another pro @-@ slavery candidate , Waller Taylor . The campaign was the most divisive in Jennings 's career . Taylor derided Jennings as a " pitiful coward " and went so far as to challenge Jennings to a duel , but he refused . Jennings ran on the slavery issue again , fielding his new motto , " No slavery in Indiana " . Jennings 's supporters tied Taylor , a territorial judge , to the pro @-@ slavery movement . Jennings easily won reelection , thanks to an expanding base of support that included the growing community of Harmonists . Following his reelection , Jennings developed jaundice , an illness often caused by alcoholism , but he recovered . During his third term in Congress , Jennings began advocating that statehood be granted to Indiana , but held off formally introducing legislation until the end of the War of 1812 . Jennings ran against Elijah Sparks in his 1814 reelection campaign and easily won .
= = = Push for statehood = = =
By 1815 Jennings and the territorial legislature were ready to embark on a course for statehood . In December 1815 Jennings 's introduced a petition from the territorial legislature to Congress that requested statehood for Indiana . The 1815 census showed the territory had a population exceeding 63 @,@ 000 , more than the minimum requirement for statehood under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 . The House began a debate on the measure and passed the Enabling Act on April 11 , 1816 . The act granted Indiana the right to form a government and elect delegates to a constitutional convention that would create a state constitution . The territorial governor , Thomas Posey , expressed concern that the territory was too under @-@ populated to provide sufficient tax revenue to fund a state government . In a letter to President Madison , he recommended that the president veto the bill and delay statehood for another three years , which would allow him to finish his term as governor . Madison signed the bill , ignoring Posey 's plea .
Dennis Pennington , a leading member of the territorial legislature , was able to secure the election of many anti @-@ slavery delegates to the constitutional convention . Jennings was a delegate from Clark County . At the convention , held in June 1816 in the new territorial capital of Corydon , Jennings was elected president of the assembly , which permitted him to appoint the convention 's committee chairmen . Although the delegates drafted a new constitution for Indiana , the majority of the content was copied from other state constitutions , most notably Ohio and Kentucky . A few items were new and unique to Indiana . Slavery , which was already prohibited in territorial legislation , was banned in the Indiana constitution ; however , contracts for indentured servants , if they were already in existence , were preserved . The new state government , divided into legislative , executive , and judicial branches , gave the governor limited powers and concentrated authority in the hands of the Indiana General Assembly and county officials . Shortly after the convention , Jennings publicly announced his candidacy for governor .
= = Governor = =
= = = Campaign and election = = =
At the state convention in June 1816 Jennings may have informed some of the delegates that he intended to run for governor and by early July 1816 he had publicly announced his candidacy . Thomas Posey , Indiana 's last territorial governor , was Jennings 's opponent . Posey announced his own candidacy for governor prior to the convention 's adjournment on June 29 , 1816 . With just five weeks before the August 5 election , there was little active campaigning . Posey , who thought Indiana statehood was premature , was not a popular candidate and suffered from health issues . Jennings won by a large majority , 5 @,@ 211 votes to 3 @,@ 934 . Most of Jennings 's votes probably came from the eastern portion of the state , where his support was particularly strong , while Posey 's probably came from the western portion . Jennings moved to the new state capital at Corydon , where he served the duration of his term as governor .
Jennings 's salary as governor , which was the highest for an elected official in the state , was $ 1 @,@ 000 . Under the constitution , the governor served a three @-@ year term and was prohibited from serving more that six years in a nine @-@ year period . Jennings 's agenda called for establishing court proceedings to secure justice , organizing a state @-@ funded educational systems , creating a state banking system , preventing unlawful seizure and enslavement of free blacks , organizing a state library , and planning internal improvements . His efforts had limited success , due , in part , to the state 's limited financial resources and Jennings 's limited powers as governor .
Jennings strongly condemned slavery in his inauguration speech and as governor , he refined his stance on the institution . On November 7 , 1816 , Jennings encouraged the state legislature to enact laws to prevent " unlawful attempts to seize and carry into bondage persons of color legally entitled to their freedom " while preventing " those who rightfully owe service to the citizens of any other State or Territory , from seeking , within the limits of this state , a refuge from the possession of their lawful owners . " In 1817 Jennings acknowledged a moderation of his earlier position regarding fugitive slaves by claiming it was needed to " preserve harmony " among the states . Jennings agreed to allow citizens " the means of reclaiming any slave escaping to this State that may rightfully belong to them … with as little delay as possible " after citizens of Kentucky had difficulty reclaiming their slaves who had escaped to Indiana .
= = = Internal improvements = = =
In 1818 , Jennings began promoting a large @-@ scale plan for internal improvements in the state . Most of the projects were directed toward construction of roads , canals , and other projects to enhance the commercial appeal and economic viability of the state . During Jennings 's second term the state government continued to support public improvements , with new road construction and expanded settlement into central Indiana . After Indianapolis became the site for the state 's permanent capital in 1821 and new settlers arrived in the area , the Indiana General Assembly appropriated $ 100 @,@ 000 for new road construction and improvements to some of the more important routes , but it was considerably short of the amount needed .
The state experienced budget shortages because of low tax revenues , which forced Jennings to pursue other means of financing the projects . The main sources of funds came from issuing government bonds to the state bank and sales of public lands . The state 's spending and borrowing led to short @-@ term budget problems , but despite early setbacks ( poor access to capital eventually halted improvement programs and caused the Indiana Canal Company to fold because of lack of funds ) , the infrastructure improvements initiated by Jennings attracted new settlers to the state . By 1810 the Indiana Territory 's population within the boundaries of the new state was 24 , 520 . In the decades following his governorship , Indiana 's population grew from sixty @-@ five thousand in 1816 to 147 @,@ 178 in 1820 and surpassed one million by 1850 .
In his first inaugural speech in August 1816 , Jennings called attention to the need for an educational plan . In his 1817 annual message to the state legislature , he encouraged the establishment of a free , state @-@ funded education system , as called for in the state constitution , but few of the state 's citizens were willing to impose taxes to fund public schools . The state legislature believed priority should be given to creating government infrastructure . Lack of public funds postponed creation of a state library system until Governor James B. Ray 's administration in 1826 .
From the beginning the state 's banking institutions were closely tied to the state government 's fiscal affairs , made even more challenging due to the state 's " extremely limited economic and population base " , the economic depression of the late teens and early twenties , a lack of experience in banking on the part of state politicians and citizens , and other factors . " Indiana banking rested on shaky foundation even in the prosperous years preceding the Panic of 1819 . " To remedy the problem , Jennings signed legislation in 1817 to create the First State Bank of Indiana by converting the Bank of Vincennes , established under a territorial charter in 1814 , into the new bank 's main headquarters and established three new branches at Corydon , Brookville , and Vevay . The First State Bank soon became a depository of federal funds and was involved in land speculation . The Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison , established in 1814 , chose to remain separate from the state bank under a territorial charter that was valid until 1835 .
When state expenditures exceeded its revenues , Jennings preferred to secure the state 's debts with bank loans to cover the shortfall rather than issuing treasury notes . Although taxes were levied and the state borrowed from the First State Bank of Indiana , the state 's fiscal status remained bleak , worsened by the economic depression of 1819 . Around 1820 federal deposits at the First State Bank were suspended and the bank 's notes were no longer accepted for purchases from federal land offices . Numerous reports of corruption at the Bank of Vincennes and the collapse of land values , brought on by the panic of 1819 , put the bank in further financial distress . By 1821 the bank was insolvent . In June 1822 the Knox County circuit court declared the First State Bank had forfeited its charter . In November 1823 the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the termination of the bank 's charter and concluded that the First State Bank had " embezzled " $ 250 @,@ 000 of federal deposits , issued more paper than it could redeem , had debt exceeding the limited allowed under its charter , established more branches than its capital and specie could support , paid shareholders large dividends , and took steps to dissolve without paying debts owed . For several years after the First State Bank 's failure , Indiana citizens depended on the Bank of the United States , with a branch in Louisville , and the Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison for financial services . Farmers and Mechanics Banks fared better than the First State Bank of Indiana , but its charter expired on January 1 , 1835 , and its paper passed at depreciated rates for several years . Jennings was criticized for not monitoring the state 's banks more carefully and investigating bank officials for potential wrongdoing .
Most of Jennings second term was spent grappling with the state 's continuing financial difficulties . When tax revenues and land sales remained low , the state 's revenue was not sufficient to repay the bonds it used to finance internal improvements . The Indiana General Assembly was forced to significantly depreciate the value of its bonds , harming the state 's credit and making it difficult to secure new loans .
During his tenure as governor Jennings nominated three candidates to the Indiana Supreme Court : John Johnson , James Scott , and Jesse Lynch Holman . All three were quickly confirmed by the state legislature .
= = = Treaty of St. Mary 's = = =
In late 1818 , Jennings was appointed as a federal commissioner , along with Lewis Cass and Benjamin Parke , to negotiate a treaty with the Native Americans ( Potawatomi , Wea , Miami , and Delaware ) , who lived in the northern and central parts of Indiana . The Treaty of St. Mary 's allowed the State of Indiana to purchase millions of acres of land north of an 1809 treaty line and extending west to the Wabash River and two more parcels of land , which opened most of central Indiana to American settlement . The appointment created a crisis in Jennings 's political career . Because the state constitution prohibited a person from holding a federal government position while exercising duties as the state 's governor , Jennings 's political enemies seized the opportunity to force him from office by arguing that he had vacated the governor 's office when he accepted the federal appointment .
Lieutenant Governor Christopher Harrison claimed that Jennings had " abandoned " his elected office and took over as the state 's acting governor in Jennings 's absence . In the meantime the Indiana House of Representatives launched an investigation . When Jennings learned of the situation , he was " mortified " that his actions were being questioned and burned the documents he received from the federal government that related to his assignment . The legislature called Jennings and Harrison to appear for questioning ; however , Jennings declined , stating the assembly did not have the authority to interrogate him , and Harrison refused to appear unless the assembly recognized him as the acting governor . Because neither of the two men would meet with the legislature , the assembly demanded copies of the documents that Jennings received from the federal government to prove he was not acting as its agent . Jennings responded :
If I were in possession of any public documents calculated to advance the public interest , it would give me pleasure to furnish them , and I shall at all times be prepared to afford you any information which the constitution or laws of the State may require .... If the difficulty , real or supposed , has grown out of the circumstances of my having been connected with the negotiation at St Mary 's , I feel it my duty to state to the committee that I acted from an entire conviction of its propriety and an anxious desire , on my part , to promote the welfare and accomplish the wishes of the whole people of the State in assisting to add a large and fertile tract of country to that which we already possess .
The legislature summoned everyone in the surrounding area who had any knowledge of the events at Saint Mary 's , but found that no one was certain of Jennings 's role in the commission . After a short debate , the House passed a resolution , voting 15 to 13 , to recognize Jennings as governor and dropped it proceedings against him . The House votes opposing Jennings came largely from the state 's western counties . Harrison was outraged by the decision and resigned as lieutenant governor .
In 1820 Harrison ran against Jennings in his reelection bid . Jennings won the election by a large majority , 11 @,@ 256 votes to Harrison 's 2 @,@ 008 . Jennings 's win by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin suggests he remained a popular politician and the state 's voters were not overly concerned by attacks on the governor 's character .
= = = Personal financial problems = = =
Jennings 's personal finances suffered from the panic of 1819 , while the Indiana governorship continued to increase his financial burden . Jennings was never able to recover from his debts . One historian suggests that Jennings 's financial situation may arisen from the expenses incurred during his political campaigns , his long @-@ time service in state government , and being too busy to adequately manage his farm . Jennings and his wife frequently entertained visitors , legislators , and other dignitaries at their Corydon home . At a high @-@ profile dinner in 1819 , he hosted President James Monroe and General Andrew Jackson at a dinner held in their honor in Jeffersonville , when the two leaders were making a tour of the frontier states . In 1822 Jennings solicited a $ 1 @,@ 000 personal loan from the Harmonists in a letter to his political ally , George Rapp , but his request was denied . Jennings was able to secure personal loans from friends by granting mortgages on his land . Earlier in his career as a land speculator at Vincennes , when land prices decreased significantly , he was forced to sell several tracts of land at a loss .
By the late 1820s Jennings was critically short of cash . He depended on income from political office to pay his expenses . His farm was not likely to provide sufficient financial support . Because the thirty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old Jennings was prohibited by law from running for reelection to a third term as Indiana governor in 1823 , he was forced to consider other political options . Jennings decided to return to Congress .
= = = Return to Congress = = =
In September 1822 , shortly before his second term as governor expired , Jennings became a candidate for Congress after William Hendricks resigned his seat to run for Indiana governor . A special election was held on August 5 , 1822 , to fill Hendricks 's vacant seat in Congress . At the same time , the state 's increased population gave Indiana three congressional seats . A regular congressional election was held on the same day to elect three Indiana congressmen . Jennings and Davis Floyd were the principal candidates in the special election , which Jennings won . In the regular election to fill the seat for Indiana 's Second Congressional District , Jennings easily won , defeating James Scott by a wide margin . Jennings became a Democratic @-@ Republican to the 17th Congress and Lieutenant Governor Ratliff Boon succeeded him as governor . Hendricks ran unopposed and was subsequently elected as governor to succeed Boon . Jennings won reelection to Congress and represented Indiana 's Second District until in 1830 . He became a Jacksonian Republican in the 18th Congress , but switched his allegiance , becoming an Adams Republican in the 19th and 20th Congresses , and then aligned with the Anti @-@ Jacksonians in the 21st Congress .
Jennings continued to promote internal infrastructure improvements throughout his term in Congress . He introduced legislation to build more forts in the northwest , to grant federal funding for improvement projects in Indiana and Ohio , and led the debate in support of using federal funds to build the nations longest canal , Wabash and Erie Canal , through Indiana . He introduced a legislative amendment that made a provision to locate and survey the National Road to the west , toward the Mississippi River , so the people living in Indiana and Illinois would have some assurance that the road 's large federal appropriation would benefit them directly . Jennings helped secure appropriation of funds to survey the Wabash River and make it more accessible to year @-@ round steamboat travel .
In his reelection as the Second District congressman , Jennings supported tariff protection and internal improvements and vowed to support the presidential candidate that his constituents preferred if the election went to the House to decide the winner . Jennings won reelection to Congress in a close race , beating Jeremiah Sullivan of Madison . In the presidential election of 1824 American political parties organized around three candidates : Andrew Jackson running against John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . Jennings favored Adams , and later , Clay ; however , when the contested presidential election passed to the House in 1825 , Jennings voted with the majority and gave his political support to Jackson , but he was defeated in the House and Adams became president . Indiana voters who supported Jackson hoped for a victory in the next election .
Jennings , seeking to advance his political career , ran for the Senate twice , but was defeated in both attempts . In 1825 he was a senate candidate at a time when the Indiana General Assembly elected the state 's senators to Congress . On the first ballot Isaac Blackford came in first , the incumbent governor , William Hendricks , came in second , and Jennings was third . On the fourth ballot Hendricks won the senate seat . In his second attempt Jennings lost to James Noble .
Jennings 's wife died in 1826 after a protected illness ; the couple had no children . Jennings was deeply saddened by her loss and began to drink liquor more heavily . Later that year he married Clarissa Barbee , but his drinking condition only worsened and he was frequently inebriated .
While serving in Congress , Jennings 's health continued to decline as he struggled with alcohol addiction and suffered from severe rheumatism . In 1827 ceiling plaster from Jennings 's Washington D.C. boarding room fell on his head , severely injuring him , and ill health limited his ability to visit his constituents , but he continued to remain a popular politician in Indiana . In the congressional election of 1826 , Jennings ran unopposed . He won reelection in 1828 , soundly defeating his opponent , Indiana 's lieutenant governor , John H. Thompson . Jennings did not publicly favor a presidential candidate and won the Second District seat with support from voters who favored Jackson and Adams . During Jennings 's final term in office House journals show that he introduced no legislation , was frequently not present to vote on matters , and only once delivered a speech . Jennings 's friends , led by Senator John Tipton , took note of his situation and took action to block Jennings 's reelection bid when his drinking became a political liability . John Carr , anti @-@ Jackson man , opposed Jennings in a six @-@ way race for the congressional seat and won the election . Tipton had arranged for others to enter the race and divide Jennings 's supporters . Jennings left office on March 3 , 1831 .
= = Later years = =
Jennings was twice @-@ elected Grand Master of the Indiana Grand Lodge of Freemasons , serving in 1824 and 1825 . He declined reelection in 1825 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Jennings retired with his wife , Clarissa , to his home in Charlestown . Tipton may have felt it had been mistake to force Jennings out of public service and hoped that work would force him to give up alcohol . In 1831 Tipton secured Jennings an appointment to negotiate a treaty with native tribes in northern Indiana . Jennings attended the negotiations of the Treaty of Tippecanoe , but the delegation failed in their attempt . Afterwards , Jennings returned to his farm , where his health steadily declined . He continued drinking alcohol , spending considerable time a local tavern , and was frequently discovered sleeping in streets or in roadside ditches . Jenning 's alcoholism worsened to the point where he was no longer able to tend his farm . Without a steady income Jennings 's creditors began moving to seize his estate . In 1832 Tipton acquired the mortgage on Jennings 's farm and enlisted the help of a local financier , James Lanier , to acquire the debts on Jennings 's other holdings . Tipton allowed Jennings to remain on his mortgaged farm for the remainder of Jennings 's life and encouraged Lanier to grant the same permission .
Jennings died of a heart attack , most likely brought on by another bout with jaundice , on July 26 , 1834 , at his farm near Charlestown . He was fifty years old . Jennings was buried after a brief ceremony in an unmarked grave . His estate lacked the funds to purchase a headstone . Jennings 's creditors , many of whom were his neighbors , were left unpaid and disgruntled . Following Jennings 's death , Tipton sold the Jennings farm to Joseph Carr and gave Jennings 's widow a $ 100 gift from the proceeds .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Memorials = = =
In the late nineteenth century several attempts were made to erect a monument honoring Jennings 's public service . On three separate occasions , in 1861 , 1869 and 1889 , petitions were brought before the Indiana General Assembly to erect a marker for Jennings 's grave , but each attempt failed . In 1892 the state legislature finally granted the petition to erect a monument in his honor . Around the same time , after Jennings 's unmarked gravesite was independently verified by three witnesses to his burial , his body was exhumed and reinterred at a new site at the Charlestown cemetery .
Jonathan Jennings Elementary School in Charlestown and Jennings County are both named in his honor .
= = = Political impact = = =
Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and his impact on the development of Indiana . The state 's early historians , William Wesley Woollen and Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr . , wrote of Jennings in an almost mythical manner , focusing on the strong positive leadership he provided Indiana in its formative years . Dunn referred to Jennings as the " young Hercules " , praising his crusade against Harrison and slavery . Woolen 's assessment was also positive : " Indiana owes him a debt more than she can compute . " During the prohibition era in the early twentieth century , historians Logan Esarey and Arthur Blythe were more critical of Jennings . Esarey , who wrote about Jennings during the height of Prohibition , when attitudes towards alcohol consumption was particularly harsh , was highly critical of Jennings 's alcoholism and destitution . Blythe described Jennings 's abilities as " mediocre . " Esarey argued that Jennings " took no decisive stand " on the important issues and dismissed his importance and impact on Indiana , saying the legislature and its leading men set the tone of the era . In 1954 John Barnhart and Donald Carmony described Jennings as a " shrewd politician rather than a statesman " , whose leadership was " not evident " at the 1816 convention . Carmony argued that Jennings 's " intemperance and poverty , should not obscure his significant contributions as territorial delegate to Congress , president of the Corydon Constitutional Convention , first state governor , and congressman . "
Modern historians , Howard Peckham , Randy Mills , Andrew R. L. Cayton , and Dorothy Riker , argue that Jennings 's legacy may lie " somewhere between the two extremes " of Dunn 's and Esarey 's assessments . Mills agrees with Woollen that Indiana owes Jennings a debt of gratitude . Although Jennings 's accomplishments were not extensive , he did a " commendable " job for his stewardship of a state in " transition to a more democratic form of government " . Cayton describes Jennings as " ambitious " , " passionate " , " hot @-@ tempered " , and " moody " . He argues that Jennings was a successful campaigner , but an " indifferent " statesman and governor who was " not very good at laying out an agenda and achieving its implementation " .
Jennings believed in popular democracy , opposed slavery , and despised aristocrats , especially William Henry Harrison , for " trampling on the rights of his fellow Americans . " His service as Indiana 's governor and representative to Congress came at the end of one political era and the beginning of another , when governmental power and authority shifted from the governor and his patronage appointments to the state legislature and elected officials .
= = Electoral history = =
= = = Territorial delegate = = =
= = = Gubernatorial elections = = =
= = = Indiana 's 2nd Congressional district = = =
= A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights =
A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights or simply A More Perfect Union is non @-@ fiction political analysis written by United States Congressman Jesse Jackson , Jr. in collaboration with Frank E.Watkins. Watkins is a political theorist , activist and was the press secretary to Jackson at the time . It was released in hardcover format on October 15 , 2001 and in paperback format on April 25 , 2008 . The material for Jackson 's book , his third , came from three trips he took in 1997 – 98 to American Civil War battlefields . Although Watkins is credited , the biographical content of the book is written as a first person narrative as if written solely by Jackson .
The National Park Service has twenty @-@ eight national Civil War historic sites . Jackson and White visited approximately twenty battlefields in August 1997 , December 1997 and the spring of 1998 . Jackson 's wife , Sandi Jackson , participated in the third trip . The trips heightened a belief of Jackson 's that race as it relates to African Americans has been the focal point of social and political existence in American history . Since Jackson is not the first to present such a realization , he presents a North @-@ South schism lens through which to view the congressional politics of race .
The book contains about 75 pages of biographical / autobiographical content which provide context for the subsequent political analysis . Critical reviews do not analyze the biographical content . Instead , the reviews focus on the political analysis of race , economic issues , geographical divide , and states ' rights as well as the constitutional amendments proposed in this book .
= = Summary = =
The title of the book comes from the Preamble to the United States Constitution . The preamble includes the phrase " in Order to form a more perfect Union " as the first specifically mentioned purpose of the United States Constitution .
The book has several sections . The first four chapters relate autobiographical details to his experience in touring the Civil War battle sites . In the subsequent section , he discusses federalism . In the third section he describes his economic plan . Then , Jackson outlines eight constitutional amendments . In the final section , he discusses achieving these policy goals set forth in the third and fourth sections . On March 4 , 2003 , Jackson proposed these eight amendments . The book includes full chapters for each amendment . The eight amendments are as follows :
the right to public education of equal high quality ;
the right to health care of equal high quality ;
equal rights for women ;
the right to decent , safe , sanitary and affordable housing ;
the right to a clean , safe and sustainable environment ;
the right . . . to full employment and balanced economic growth ;
the explicit fundamental right of citizens to vote ; and
an amendment regarding taxing the people of the United States progressively .
The Education Amendment which reads " ( 1 ) All persons shall enjoy the right to a public education of equal high quality ; and ( 2 ) The Congress shall have the power to enforce and implement this article by appropriate legislation , " has received public attention for several years . Jackson feels that his amendment is a natural response to San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez , 411 U.S. 1 ( 1973 ) , which determined that an education is not a constitutionally protected fundamental right .
An important theme of the book is the North @-@ South relationship as it influences the extent of federalism in the United States . The book describes how from before the Civil War to well after the Civil Rights Movement the balance of power between protectors of state 's rights and defenders of the federal government have battled over resources and power along North @-@ South alliances . Jackson is a detractor of state 's rights and feels that the extensive power given to states has slowed our broad distribution of social goods by perpetuating inequality and thus unrest . Dyson also notes that Jackson attempts to bring class to the forefront of the discourse in an effort to offer a political vision toward social equity and equality . He says Jackson views race as the lens to optimally view American history and views economic issues as the hearing aid through which the politics of today can best be heard .
= = Reviews = =
In a review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Michael Eric Dyson described the book as " intellectually accomplished and remarkably insightful " . He views Jackson 's eight new amendments as " the political backbone and intellectual infrastructure for the expression of a new politics of race and class that strengthen the status of all suffering Americans . " He encourages understanding the book because it provides a fresh social perspective to addresses current fundamental American political and racial problems .
Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Playboy editor John Thomas described the amendments as sensible , but pointed out that some view them as an attempt to legislate policy decisions . Thomas perceived the benefit of the plan to be the fact that the force of the constitution would uphold the amendments , and that this would compel actions to support both political promises and the constitutional tenets .
At one stop on the book tour associated with the publication and release of the book at the David A. Clarke School of Law of the University of the District of Columbia , Jackson 's message was perceived as saying that American history can be studied as an analysis of race , but that economics and the tension between states ’ rights and federal rights are the true basis of a domestic history revolving around pursuit of economic development , political power , and personal freedom . He then advanced the theory that these pursuits would most be most readily attained by adopting a set of new constitutional amendments , guaranteeing rights primarily grounded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , which the U.S. has ratified . Each is discussed in a separate chapter : the rights to quality health care , housing , education , a clean environment , fair taxes , full employment , equality for women , and the right to vote .
= = Related issues = =
During the promotion of the book there was a controversy when a book @-@ signing party in Dolton , Illinois morphed into a fundraiser without Jackson 's knowledge . When Jackson realized what happened he wrote to the Federal Election Commission and the House Ethics Committee to explain what happened and seek their advice . Jackson decided to return the entire $ 1300 that was raised .
An outgrowth of Jackson 's trip was the realization that the National Park Service does not represent the underlying issue of slavery contextually in its battlefield displays and presentations . Instead of presenting the battles as political and moral issues , Jackson felt racial context and relevance needed to be presented in a more forward way . As a result , in 2000 , he recrafted the United States Department of the Interior 's appropriation to include a directive to have United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt use his influence over the superintendents of the national parks to encourage greater inclusion of slavery and social issues in Civil War presentations .
= Typhoon Nangka ( 2015 ) =
Typhoon Nangka was a large and strong tropical cyclone that impacted central Japan in July 2015 . Nangka started its long @-@ living journey as a tropical disturbance over the Marshall Islands and west of the International Dateline , becoming the eleventh named storm of the annual typhoon season on July 3 . It quickly intensified while moving to the west @-@ northwest , attaining typhoon status on July 6 . Nangka moved through the Northern Marianas Islands , passing directly over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon attained peak winds ; the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , while the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . Nangka later weakened as it curved to the north , moving across central Japan on July 16 as a minimal typhoon . The storm weakened soon after , dissipating in the Sea of Japan on July 18 .
The storm first affected the Marshall Islands , bringing strong winds to the capital Majuro . Half of the city lost power , and several boats were sunk . Minimal effects were reported in the Northern Marianas Islands , and later the storm 's flow enhanced the monsoon over the Philippines . Effects were worst in Japan , where rainfall reached 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Total damage across the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) . Nangka killed two people in Japan , injured 55 , and damaged or flooded 220 houses .
= = Meteorological history = =
A westerly wind burst spawned Typhoon Chan @-@ hom and Tropical Storm Linfa across the western Pacific Ocean , as well as the system that would become Typhoon Nangka . On July 1 , an area of pulsing convection persisted east of the Marshall Islands , associated with a poorly @-@ defined circulation . Low wind shear , water sea surface temperatures , and good outflow favored further development . The circulation gradually became more defined as the convection organized more . At 18 : 00 UTC on July 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression , about 80 km ( 50 mi ) east of Aur Atoll . Based on the increasing organization , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 11W at 12 : 00 UTC on July 3 . About six hours later , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Nangka .
When Nangka was upgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC early on July 4 , convective bands were wrapping into the center , but limited by dry air to the west . By that time , the storm was moving to the west @-@ northwest , steered by the subtropical ridge to the north . On July 5 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . By that time , the circulation had become exposed due to moderate wind shear , although the outflow had improved . On July 6 after shear diminished , Nangka began to quickly intensify as it developed an eye in the center of the blossoming convection . As a result , the JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status at 06 : 00 UTC , followed by the JMA at 12 : 00 UTC . Nangka reached its first peak intensity at 12 : 00 UTC on July 7 , when JMA estimated 10 minute sustained winds 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon was aided by excellent radial outflow enhanced by a TUTT cell to the northwest , and it developed a well @-@ defined eye 48 km ( 30 mi ) in diameter .
After its first peak in intensity , Nangka slightly weakened as convection along the west side of the system was restricted due to the TUTT cell , and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . Decreasing wind shear and increasing sea surface temperatures allowed the intensification trend to resume , and the structure became more symmetric late on July 8 as it moved toward the Northern Marianas Islands . A well @-@ defined inner eye re @-@ developed inside of an outer eyewall . On July 9 , the JTWC upgraded Nangka to a super typhoon , estimating peak 1 minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . The JMA also assessed a 10 minute peak of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the eye of Nangka passed over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . The typhoon later weakened while turning more to the west due to increased wind shear . The eye became cloud @-@ filled and was no longer visible by July 11 , although the organization was sustained by good outflow to the south . However , the convection reorganized the next day and the eye reformed . By that time , Nangka was slowing and nearly stationary as the subtropical ridge receded to the east .
On July 13 , Typhoon Nangka began moving northward toward Japan through a break in the ridge . The typhoon completed an eyewall replacement cycle , and according to the JTWC attained a secondary peak of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . The re @-@ intensification was also aided by a decrease in wind shear , but was short @-@ lived due to drier air from the north and west . As the eye became more ragged , the winds continued to decrease . At 14 : 00 UTC on July 16 , Nangka made landfall along the Japanese island of Shikoku near Muroto , Kōchi , still at typhoon status . Four hours later , the typhoon weakened into a severe tropical storm , and after crossing the Seto Inland Sea , Nangka made a second landfall on Honshu near Kurashiki , Okayama at 21 : 00 UTC . The convection greatly weakened as it crossed Honshu into the Sea of Japan , and the storm deteriorated further due to lower water temperatures . At 12 : 00 UTC on July 17 , the JMA downgraded Nangka to a tropical depression , and early the next day the JTWC discontinued advisories . On July 18 , Nangka dissipated in the central Sea of Japan .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On Majuro atoll in the Marshall Islands , the developing Nangka produced strong westerly winds near gale force , producing high waves and flooding along the lagoon . At least 25 vessels in the island 's lagoon broke loose from or were dragged by their moorings . High winds from Nangka tore roofs from homes and downed trees and power lines . Nearly half of the nation 's capital , Majuro , was left without power . Tony deBrum , the Marshall Island 's foreign minister , stated " Majuro [ is ] like a war zone . " Some coastal flooding was also noted , which resulted in crop damage .
Ahead of the storm , the Guam National Weather Service issued a typhoon watch for Agrihan , Pagan , and Alamagan , as well as a high surf advisory for Guam . The watch was later upgraded to a warning , and was canceled after the typhoon exited the region . Flights were delayed or canceled to the region due to the storm and problems with the local aircraft communication system . During the storm , there were minor power outages on Saipan in two villages that were quickly restored . On Alamagan where the storm struck , six people rode out the storm in a concrete bunker .
In the Philippines , the flow from the storm increased the southwest monsoon , causing flash floods and landslides in some areas . The outskirts of the storm later brushed the east coast of South Korea , producing 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in rainfall , and wind gusts of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) .
= = = Japan = = =
Due to the threat of the storm , nine airlines canceled 214 flights across Japan . Meanwhile , rail service and highways were disrupted , with a portion of the Chūō Expressway closed , and ferry rides were canceled . The Shikoku Railway Company canceled service during the storm and limited rides along the West Japan Railway Company . About 860 @,@ 000 people were advised or ordered to evacuate their homes , including 88 @,@ 100 people from 15 @,@ 400 homes who were forced to leave . After the storm passed , residents were allowed to return home .
While moving through Japan , Nangka produced peak wind gusts of 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) in Muroto , Kōchi . Heavy rains impacted much of central Japan , peaking at 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Owase , Mie recorded 357 @.@ 5 mm ( 14 @.@ 07 in ) over 24 hours . The highest hourly rainfall was 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in Saijō , Ehime . Kawauchi , Fukushima recorded 77 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 05 in ) over one hour , setting a record for the month of July .
The rains from Nangka caused rivers to exceed their banks . In Tokushima Prefecture , the Naka River flooded to the second story of nearby school buildings . Flooding stranded 1 @,@ 600 passengers on a train for four hours , which had been traveling from Tsuruga , Fukui to Himeji , Hyōgo . Across Japan , strong waves and high winds killed over 11 @,@ 000 bluefin tuna on a fish farm in Kushimoto , accounting for ¥ 1 @.@ 29 billion ( $ 10 @.@ 4 million ) in losses . About 15 @,@ 000 people lost power across the country . The storm damaged 30 homes and flooded another 190 , and also damaged farming equipment . There were 55 injuries and two deaths related to the typhoon , including an elderly man who drowned after falling into a ditch . Total damage in the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) , including ¥ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 58 @.@ 9 million ) in Wakayama Prefecture and ¥ 4 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 40 @.@ 7 million ) in Hyogo Prefecture . Total economic losses are estimated to be in excess of ¥ 24 billion ( US $ 200 million ) .
= River Rother , West Sussex =
The River Rother flows from Empshott in Hampshire , England , to Stopham in West Sussex , where it joins the River Arun . The upper river , from its source to Midhurst , has been used to power watermills , with the earliest recorded use being in 1086 , when the Domesday survey was conducted . Although none are still operational , many of the buildings which housed the mills still exist , and in some cases , still retain their milling machinery . This upper section is also noted for a number of early bridges , which have survived since their construction in the fifteenth , sixteenth and seventeenth centuries .
The lower river , from Midhurst to its junction with the River Arun , has been used for navigation . Boats used the section from the Arun to Fittleworth following improvements made to the Arun in 1615 , and after the Arun Navigation was completed in 1790 , the Earl of Egremont made the river navigable up to Midhurst by constructing eight locks and some small cuts . The work was completed in 1794 , and many of the bridges built at that time still survive . With the opening of the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway branch to Midhurst in 1859 , traffic declined , and commercial use of the river had ceased by the 1880s . Pleasure boats continued to be used on the river for many years , and published accounts of journeys along the decaying navigation appeared in 1914 and 1920 . The navigation was officially abandoned in 1936 , after an undergraduate pointed out that it was still a public right of way .
The river flows through the South Downs National Park , and is a designated Site of Nature Conservation Importance , in recognition of its value for wildlife . It supports a wide range of fish , and its upper reaches are the only location in Sussex where native white clawed crayfish can be found . The quality of the water is generally good , and the river is measured at four gauging stations , three on the main channel , and one of the River Lod , just before its junction with the Rother . Water from the underlying Lower Greensand aquifer and the adjacent chalk aquifer helps to maintain the flows during the summer months , despite the fact that large volumes are abstracted from both the aquifers and the river for the public water supply .
= = History = =
Following improvements to the River Arun in 1615 , which allowed boats to reach Pallingham , they could also navigate part of the Rother , as far upstream as Fittleworth . The canal engineer William Jessop was asked to survey the river below Petworth Mills in 1783 , and was recalled in 1790 , when he surveyed it below Midhurst . In the same year , the construction of the Arun Navigation was finished , and in 1791 , George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont , who was based at Petworth House , obtained an Act of Parliament which would enable him to improve the Rother . The Act also authorised a branch canal to Petworth . Since he owned most of the land adjacent to the river , the precise route of the navigation was not specified , and he was free to improve the channel or make cuts as he saw fit . The only restriction was that cuts could not be made through gardens or enclosed grounds . Compared to most other canals at the time , the charges for using the navigation were low , as the Earl wanted to develop the region rather than make a profit .
The river 's lower section , below Midhurst , was made navigable by the construction of the Western Rother Navigation in 1794 . The length of the navigation was 11 @.@ 25 miles ( 18 @.@ 11 km ) of which less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) consisted of new cuts , with the rest following the existing channel . It rose through 54 feet ( 16 m ) from Stopham to Midhurst by a series of eight locks , and cost £ 13 @,@ 300 to build . Traffic consisted of coal transported up @-@ river , with cargoes of timber , corn and Petworth marble in the other direction . A branch connected it to Petworth by the short Petworth Canal , which was 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) long with two locks , and terminated at Haslingbourne to the south of the town . It was opened in 1793 , having cost the Earl £ 5 @,@ 000 to build , but only lasted for a few years , until a turnpike road was diverted . This made access to Petworth easier , and the canal ceased to be used .
Unlike many canals , where navvies were brought into the neighbourhood to carry out the work , the Earl employed local men on the project , most of them already employed by him , and a clergyman praised him for this when writing in 1808 , as it led to much less disruption , but provided increased income for those who worked on the scheme . Wages rose from 8 or 9 shillings ( 40 @-@ 45p ) per week to 14 or 15 shillings ( 70 @-@ 75p ) . During his life , the Earl invested some £ 100 @,@ 000 in waterways , some in his native county of Sussex , but also in attempts to build a canal from London to Portsmouth . Between 1802 and 1831 , the average income from the canal was around £ 550 per year . Competition arrived in 1859 , when the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway opened a line from Horsham through Pulborough to Petworth . Traffic declined , and by the 1880s , the navigation was no longer used by commercial boats , although it was not officially abandoned until 1936 .
= = = Closure = = =
Despite the navigation being closed , a guide to Midhurst published in 1895 advertised that skiffs could be hired , and fishing could be enjoyed . The boats were hired out by a plumber called William Port , and his business continued to prosper until 1912 , when his boathouse burned down . Rowing boats were also available for hire at Coultershaw and Fittleworth . Another book called A New Oarsman 's Guide , published in 1896 , suggested that the river could be canoed from Iping to the Arun , a distance of 19 miles ( 31 km ) , when there was sufficient water . By that time , none of the locks were workable , and boats had to be carried around them .
In 1887 , part of the river bank near Todham Lock , which bordered the Cowdray estate of the Earl of Egmont , had collapsed , and the Earl suggested that Lord Leconfield of Petworth , a successor to the Earl of Egremont , should pay for its repair . After some disagreement , a compromise was reached , under which the bank was repaired and a floodgate was fitted at the upper end of the lock , with both men paying half of the cost . Lord Leconfield assumed that when the Arun Navigation finally obtained an Act of Abandonment in 1896 , his responsibilities for the maintenance of the River Rother had ended . However , in 1903 heavy rain and floods destroyed the floodgate and part of the adjacent weir , resulting in river levels though the 8th Earl of Egmont 's estate dropping by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) . The Earl , Augustus Arthur Perceval , issued a writ against Lord Leconfield for damages . The case was heard in the High Court , at which it was agreed that the navigation was now useless , but that the two men would share the costs of rebuilding the floodgate , after which responsibility for its maintenance would pass to the Earl , who could also dredge the river above the lock .
P Bonthron , who published a book entitled My Holidays on Inland Waterways in 1916 , described a journey down the river that he had made with friends in 1908 , in a boat hired from William Port at Midhurst . They reached Arundel on the River Arun after two days , from where the boat was sent back to Midhurst by train . Another account of a similar journey made in 1914 by Eleanor Barnes and a friend appeared in As the Water Flows , first published in 1920 , which described canoe journeys on the rivers of southern England made by her over a period of seven or eight years . The warrant of abandonment was obtained jointly by the estates at Petworth and Cowdray after an Oxford undergraduate called Roger Sellman pointed out that the river was still officially a right of way , and that anyone could therefore offer to pay the appropriate tolls to use a boat on it , and expect the owners to rebuild the locks . The powers of the Railway & Canal Traffic Act 1888 were invoked to declare that the navigation was no longer necessary , and despite objections from the River Arun Catchment Board and a canoe club , the warrant was granted on 15 April 1936 . However , the Environment Agency noted in 2003 that although there used to be navigation rights on the river , " the existing status of the navigation is unknown . "
= = Hydrology = =
The river flows through the South Downs , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and since 2011 , a designated national park . There are two large aquifers in the area , one consisting of chalk , to the south of the river valley , and the other the Lower Greensand Group , underlying the whole of the river . The aquifers are separated by a Gault Formation , which consists of clay . At the western edge of the region , both the chalk and the gault turn to the north , creating a scarp slope . The base flow of the river consists of water from the Lower Greensand aquifer , and from springs along the bottom of the chalk scarp slope . These help to maintain the flows in the river during the summer months , although there have been significant periods where flows have been low , notably in the drought of the early 1990s , and again in 1995 / 96 . These led to declines in the populations of the macro @-@ invertebrates which are used to measure the health of a river , but these have subsequently recovered . In order to monitor the hydrology , the Environment Agency has a series of observation boreholes along the valley , and maintains gauging stations at Princes Marsh , close to the source , at Iping Mill , at Halfway Bridge on the River Lod just above its junction with the Rother , and at Hardham , just before the river joins the Arun .
Flows in the river are swelled by discharges from several sewage treatment works . The three largest are at Princes Marsh , Petersfield and Ambersham , all of which have outflows between 0 @.@ 22 and 1 @.@ 10 million imperial gallons ( 1 and 5 Ml ) per day , with another three discharging between 0 @.@ 022 and 0 @.@ 220 million imperial gallons ( 0 @.@ 1 and 1 Ml ) per day at Rogate , Coultershaw and Fittleworth . The entire river , including parts of some of its tributaries , is designated as a Site of Nature Conservation Importance by the local authorities through which it flows , in recognition of its value for wildlife . The upper reaches of the Rother are important for their fish populations of brown trout , grayling , juvenile sea trout , and the spawning and early development of salmonids . There are also populations of bullhead , eel , lamprey , minnow and stone loach . There has been some concern about declining fish stocks , thought to be partly caused by soil erosion , leading to silt and sediments being deposited on the river bed , which has been exacerbated by low flows in the river . Parts of the lower river support the same types of fish , but there are areas , particularly immediately upstream of weirs , where the major species are bream , pike and roach , with chubb , dace and perch on the lowest reaches . In order to assist the movement of fish along the river , particularly those that migrate to the headwaters to spawn , fish passes have been constructed around the gauging stations . The only known population of native white clawed crayfish in Sussex is located in the upper reaches of the Rother .
The quality of the water is generally good , helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality . However , some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed , and there are areas where the water in the aquifer , and hence the river , has raised levels of nitrates , largely caused by agricultural fertilisers . The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution . Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply . There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river , including a site in the upper reaches where more than 1 @.@ 1 million imperial gallons ( 5 Ml ) per day is abstacted from the aquifer , and another where the volume exceeds 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) . Just above the junction with the River Arun , the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) per day from the river .
= = Etymology = =
The river takes its name from Rotherbridge , not the other way round . Rotherbridge is derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Redrebruge , meaning cattle bridge , which was also the name of the Saxon Hundred or administrative group of parishes . Before this the river was known as the Scir .
= = Route = =
The route description has been split into two sections . From its source to Midhurst , the river has powered several mills , but has never been navigable . Below Midhurst , it was navigable until the navigation closed in the 1880s . There were eight locks on this section , some of which bypassed additional water mills .
= = = Source to Midhurst = = =
The River Rother rises from several springs near Empshott in Hampshire . The main one supplies watercress beds , before passing under Mill Lane , to the south of the village . It continues eastwards , to reach Greatham Mill . The mill , together with the mill house and an attached barn , date from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries , and are built of brick . Now Grade II listed . All of the original machinery of the mill is still in situ , but is not operational , as the water supply has been diverted . The stream turns to the south @-@ east , and passes under the A3 West Liss bypass , and Greatham Bridge , on the old route . It is joined by other streams , and turns south to reach Liss railway station . The railway and the river follow the same general route , and the river crosses under the railway five times before reaching Sheet . At the northern edge of the village , the river is joined by the Ashford Stream , and there is another mill . After passing under the A272 road , to the east of the village , it reaches Sheet Mill .
Tillmore Brook joins from the west , and the course turns to the east . At Durleighmarsh , a hamlet which forms part of the civil parish of Rogate , it passes the ruins of Durford Abbey , a Premonstratensian monastery situated on the north bank . It is a scheduled ancient monument , and the site includes a threshing barn with a water wheel and associated drive shafts . On the south bank is Durford Mill . This mill house is a grade II listed structure , and was built of clunch in 1770 . The mill itself has been modernised and enlarged , and is not listed . A little further downstream , Harting Road crosses the river at Durford Bridge , build in the early 1600s with four semi @-@ circular arches . It was restored in 1924 . To the north of Habin , another hamlet in Rogate , North Lane crosses the river on Habin Bridge , which has four round @-@ headed arches , and was probably built in the seventeenth century , but might be earlier . It is built of stone , and was restored in the eighteenth century .
To the north of Dumpford , a hamlet in the civil parish of Trotton with Chithurst , is Terwick Mill . It is a grade II * listed structure , and consists of two mills , side by side . They were operational until 1966 . The north mill is a timber @-@ framed building , clad with weatherboarding , dating from the sixteenth century . The south mill was built of coursed stone rubble around 1750 . Although it has been converted into a house , it still contains two iron waterwheels , one for each mill , and its machinery . The earliest documentary evidence for the mill dates from 1635 . The adjacent mill house , parts of which date from the eighteenth century , is also a listed building . The river turns to the north to pass to the east of Trotton , and is crossed by Trotton Bridge , dating from the early 1600s , which has five ribbed arches . The river then turns to the east again at Chithurst , where Abbey House , an L @-@ shaped timber @-@ framed building dating from the fifteenth century , and the parish church , much of which dates from the eleventh century , are located on the north bank . An eighteenth century stone and brick bridge with two arches carries Chithurst Lane over the river .
Continuing eastwards , the river is crossed by Iping Bridge at Iping , a narrow stone bridge with five arches dating from the seventeenth century . To the west of the bridge is the site of Iping watermill . A mill was recorded there in the Domesday survey , completed in 1086 . By 1665 , there were the remains of a fulling mill at the site , and a wheat @-@ mill and malt @-@ mill , both part of the same building . It became a paper mill in the eighteenth century , and continued to operate until it was destroyed by fire in 1930 . At Stedham , part of the civil parish of Stedham with Iping , Stedham Lane crosses the river on a stone bridge with six segmental arches . Five of them date from the seventeenth century , with one later addition . The river then makes a large loop to the north , where Stedham Mill was situated . The mill building has been demolished , but the mill house is a listed structure . After the loop , Woolbeding Bridge , on the northern Edge of Midhurst , dates from the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries . It has four segmental arches , was restored in 1919 , and is a grade II * listed structure .
After another loop to the north , the river passes between Easebourne to the north east and Midhurst to the south west . The bridge which carries the A272 road has two wide arches , and was of ashlar construction . Although this structure is still in situ , it is difficult to see , as a pedestrian bridge has been built on the north west side , attached to the original bridge by cantilevers , and one of the two arches was widened in 1912 by the addition of another arch outside it . Below the bridge is the mill house and adjoining water mill of North Mill . The mill carries the date 1840 , and the house is of a similar age , although built in two stages . The river flows briefly to the south , passing Cowdray on the east bank , which is a scheduled ancient monument . It consists of a medieval fortified house , which is partly ruined , although some of it has been reused . It is situated within Cowdray Park , a grade II * listed landscaped park , which forms the grounds for Cowdray House , a nineteenth @-@ century mansion some 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) further east . On the opposite bank is a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle , dating from the twelfth century . Below this point , the river was navigable .
= = = Midhurst to mouth = = =
The terminus of the Rother Navigation was on a side stream , at the southern edge of Midhurst . There was a wharf and basin , close to a road which is still called The Wharf , and an ashlar bridge crosses the navigation between the wharf and the junction with the main river . It was built in 1794 , and was restored in 1977 to commemorate the silver jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . The first lock was near Little Topham farm . There was a lock cut across a loop to the north . Costers Brook , which flows north from springs near Cocking , and then alongside the river for a short distance , joins below the site of the lock . The bridge at South Ambersham was built of stone rubble in 1791 , with a main arch across the navigation and a smaller arch to the north , which has been repaired with brick . Moorland Lock was on a straight cut across a large meander to the south , close to Moorlands Farm . Lodsbridge Lock also bypasses a meander to the south , which fed Lodsbridge Mill . The mill building dates from the eighteenth century , and has been converted into a house . The seventeenth @-@ century timber @-@ framed mill house is also a listed building . There was a motte castle immediately to the south of the mill . A modern timber yard and saw mill is located to the north of the lock site , and Lods Bridge , which carries a minor road over the river , dates from the construction of the navigation . The River Lod joins on the north bank just below the bridge .
A widening in the modern river , close to the dismantled Midhurst branch of the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway , marks the site of Ladymead Lock , with a weir to the south and the lock structure to the north . The fourth lock was Coultershaw Lock . The river at this point runs to the south , and there was a large meander to the west with a weir at its head . The mill stream ran to the east , and the lock was built just to the west of the mill . Coultershaw Bridge now carries the A285 road over the mill stream , near which is Coultershaw Beam Pump ; it was built in 1782 to provide a better water supply to Petworth House . The pump is powered by a water wheel , cast at Cocking Foundry , which is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in diameter . There were two corn mills and a malt mill recorded on the site in 1534 . The mill was modernised in 1910 , when turbines replaced the wheels , and standby engines were installed in 1919 . It was destroyed by fire in 1923 , and a steel @-@ framed concrete building replaced it . When it ceased to operate in 1972 , the building was demolished , but the beam pump , which was located beneath the building , was rescued and has been restored . The pump no longer performs its original function , but supplies a fountain near the visitor centre .
Shopham Lock was another where the lock cut was built across a large meander to the north . The bridge at the tail of the lock is built from red and grey brick , and has a single , round @-@ headed arch . It dates from the construction of the navigation , and is virtually unaltered . Nearby , the Petworth Canal headed northwards to Haslingbourne Bridge . Below the end of the cut , the river is joined by the stream from Burton Mill Pond , which supplied an iron forge built in 1789 . It is crossed by Shopham Bridge , built in the nineteenth century from red brick with grey headers and a parapet in stone , with three segmental arches . At Lower Fittleworth , there is another mill building , although it is unused and in poor condition . It was built in 1628 and enlarged in 1742 . It stands in the grounds of the mill house , which was rebuilt in 1913 . The lock cut ran along the south @-@ western edge of the site . Fittleworth Bridge consists of a southern section , originally built in the sixteenth century , which was rebuilt between 1717 and 1739 , and modified when the navigation was built , to enable boats to pass through the centre arch . A north section , adjacent to the millpond , dates from 1811 @-@ 12 .
Near its junction with the River Arun , the river loops to the south in a large meander . A cut ran from the start of the meander to join the Arun above the original junction , with a lock towards the downstream end . The meander fed Hardham Corn Mill . A lock bypassed the mill and the millstream , to enable boats to reach the Hardham Tunnel cut , which headed south from a junction above the mill . The Tunnel Branch was destroyed by the construction of a water treatment works , and the modern weir near the mouth is much closer to the junction than the lock was .
= = Conservation = =
The Arun & Rother Rivers Trust ( ARRT ) was set up in 2011 with the objective of enhancing and protecting the river and other connected waterways . It is a charity with further objectives concerning education , fisheries , biodiversity , access and pollution . The organisation is registered as a limited company , and has been asked to produce a Catchment Management plan by the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It is working with the Arun and Rother Connections ( ARC ) Partnership and the South Downs National Park Authority to ensure that local opinion is adequately represented in the document .
= = Points of interest = =
= I Hear You , I See You =
" I Hear You , I See You " is the second season premiere of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Parenthood , and the fourteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 14 , 2010 . In the episode , Sarah feels Adam has stolen one of her ideas , Julia and Joel try to talk to their daughter about sex , and Crosby tries to cope with missing Jasmine and Jabbar .
The episode was written by Jason Katims and directed by Lawrence Trilling , and featured the first of several appearances by William Baldwin as Adam 's boss , Gordon Flint . Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in the first season , also returned to her recurring role as Gaby , Max 's therapist . " I Hear You , I See You " received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was seen by an average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , a decline from the first season premiere in March 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Adam ( Peter Krause ) is stressed about work because his boss Gordon ( William Baldwin ) feels he is too distracted by family issues . Sarah ( Lauren Graham ) , frustrated with her children for losing their shoes , off @-@ handedly remarks to Adam about her desire for a LoJack to help locate missing shoes . Put on the spot for new ideas at work , Adam pitches the LoJack idea and Gordon loves it , insisting Adam start developing it . When Sarah learns this later she is excited , but feels upset she is not given credit . When Zeek ( Craig T. Nelson ) encouraged her to stand up for herself , Sarah confronts Adam , but claims he has made many sacrifices for Sarah in the past and never asked for anything in return . Later , however , Adam tells Gordon it was Sarah 's idea . That night , Adam apologizes to Sarah and offers her an internship at the company 's design department , which she happily accepts .
Kristina ( Monica Potter ) is teaching Haddie ( Sarah Ramos ) how to drive , but is so over @-@ worried she stresses her daughter out . Haddies tries to convince Adam to teach her instead , but he refuses . Later , during another lesson , Kristina distresses Haddie so much she crashes into a garbage can , damaging a side mirror . The two later argue , but they eventually reconcile , and Kristina explains she dreads the idea of her daughter dying in an accident . Meanwhile , Crosby ( Dax Shepard ) meets and seems attracted to Gaby ( Minka Kelly ) , the therapist helping Max ( Max Burkholder ) . Crosby is trying to cope with missing his son Jabbar ( Tyree Brown ) and girlfriend Jasmine ( Joy Bryant ) , who is in New York City pursuing her dancing career . Jabbar plans to visit Crosby , who promises Max the two boys can have a sleepover , much to Max 's excitement . However , Jasmine later tells Crosby she cannot visit after all due to an audition . When Crosby tells Max , he grows hysterical due to his Asperger syndrome . He is calmed by Gaby while Crosby watches , realizing the extent of Max 's problems . Haddie later has a sleepover with a now @-@ happy Max .
Zeek is in therapy with his wife Camille ( Bonnie Bedelia ) , and whenever he starts to speak disrespectfully , he stops himself and tells her , " I hear you and I see you . " The roof in Zeek 's barn is leaking and he tries to fix it , but only makes it worse due to his poor handyman skills . Sarah recruits Joel ( Sam Jaeger ) , a licensed contractor , to help Zeek , but tells him he must let Zeek believe he is doing all the work . Joel tries to help , but Zeek constantly interferes and declares himself in charge . Eventually , Joel loses his temper and yells at Zeek , who is impressed with the usually timid Joel . Meanwhile , Sydney ( Savannah Paige Rae ) asks her parents if she came " out of a vagina " . Joel is uncomfortable discussing sex with her child , but Julia ( Erika Christensen ) insists on telling her the truth . The topic eventually leads Julia to conclude she wants another child and , in her excitement , she does not notice Joel seems conflicted about the idea .
= = Production = =
" I Hear You , I See You " was directed by Lawrence Trilling and written by Jason Katims , one of the executive directors of Parenthood . It marked the first appearance of William Baldwin , who is set to appear in at least eight episodes in the first half of the second season in his recurring role as Gordon Flint . Trilling said the characters will serve not only as Adam 's boss , but also an eventual love interest for Sarah , so they wanted an actor with both stature and comedic talent . Baldwin previously starred in the drama television series Dirty Sexy Money along with Parenthood co @-@ star Peter Krause , and Trilling felt their past experience working together helped Krause and Baldwin develop a quick rapport on Parenthood . " I Hear You , I See You " also included the return of Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in first season episodes as Gaby , Max 's therapist .
= = Cultural references = =
Crosby and Jasmine communicate long distance via Skype , a software application that allows users to make voice calls and video chat over the Internet . At one point , they attempt to have cybersex using Skype , but are interrupted when the software freezes . In preparing for his sleepover , Max talks excitedly about his Sun Chips , a brand of potato chips by Frito @-@ Lay , and goes so far as to count each chip out individually . Several songs were featured in " I Hear You , I See You " , including " Smile " by Evil Twins , " Well Runs Dry " by Peter Case , " Quick Canal " by Atlas Sound , " Older Guys " by The Flying Burrito Brothers , " It Takes a Muscle " by M.I.A. and " Take a Bow " by Greg Laswell .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " I Hear You , I See You " was seen by an estimated average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with 8 @.@ 45 million viewers during the first half hour . The second half hour 's viewership was 6 @.@ 93 million , which was considered a major mid @-@ episode drop . It received a 2 @.@ 7 rating among adults between age 18 and 49 , an eight percent viewership drop compared to the first season premiere on March 2 , 2010 . This was despite a boost Parenthood was expected as a result of debuting after the season finale of NBC 's America 's Got Talent . The episode received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly television writer Ken Tucker praised Jason Katims ' script and felt the episode gave all the actors adequate screen @-@ time while contributing to the overall shape of the series . Tucker particularly praised the new link formed between Sarah and Adam , the infusion of comic relief into Julia and Joel , and Sarah Ramos , who he said gave " the best acting of the night " as Haddie .
Mandi Bierly , also of Entertainment Weekly , also praised the premiere and drew particular attention to the scene with Sarah confronting Adam about stealing her idea . She said the scene shows the writers and actors " are not people afraid of letting an awkward , tension @-@ filled scene breathe " , and that kind of realism illustrates the strength of the show 's writing and acting . Camille Wright Felton of CNN said she loved the show , and particularly praised the subplot about Haddie learning to drive , as well as Adam 's response when Haddie asked if whether he and his wife had an agreement to ignore each other 's flaws : " Yeah , it 's called marriage . " However , Felton criticized Baldwin 's character , which she described as a " single @-@ minded boss who apparently exists as an island and doesn 't get that people have families and need to tend to family crises " . HitFix television columnist Alan Sepinwall felt the first half of the episode was too uneven in its mix of comedy and drama , but that it was later redeemed mainly by the scenes featuring Max , who he said " is the one character on the show who never feels inauthentic , and he kind of pulls everyone toward him " . Sepinwall praised the performance of Max Burkholder as Max , but described William Baldwin 's character as a " caricatured playboy boss " .
Tood VanDerWerff , of The A.V. Club , also felt the first half was " a little too giggly and chaotic [ with ] every plotline devolving into the most obvious comedy possible " , and felt Baldwin 's boss character was too stereotypical . But he praised several later scenes , like the fight between Joel and Zeek , Crosby 's reaction to max 's tantrum , and Joel 's ambivalence about having another child . Not all reviews of " I Hear You , I See You " were positive . Movieline writer Julie Miller felt most of the episode 's subplots were unoriginal and uninteresting , including Sydney 's inquiries about where babies come from and Zeek making the roof worse by trying to repair it . Miller sarcastically wrote , " The show proved that it is not screwing around in its sophomore year by immediately tackling completely original family issues . "
= William Blake 's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity =
William Blake drew and painted illustrations for John Milton 's nativity ode On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity between 1803 and 1815 . A total of 16 illustrations are extant : two sets of six watercolours each , and an additional four drawings in pencil .
The dating of the sets is unknown , as is Blake 's intended sequence for the illustrations . The two sets of watercolours are known as the " Butts set " and the " Thomas set " , after their respective patrons , or as the " Huntington set " and the " Whitworth set " after the Huntington Library and the Whitworth Art Gallery , which now hold the sets in their collections .
= = Provenance = =
There is little record of the provenance of the Thomas set or the Butts set before 1852 and 1872 , which has led to disputes about the dating . What is known is that the " Thomas set " was commissioned by the Reverend Joseph Thomas , who had also commissioned illustrations to Milton 's Comus and Paradise Lost from Blake . No contract for the commission is extant , but the commissioning probably took place in 1809 , which is the year in which the illustrations were completed . Blake was eager to accept the commission , according to G. E. Bentley , because " Milton illustrations were a kind of work which Blake could not resist . " They presumably stayed in the Revd Thomas 's family until they were bought at Sotheby 's from an anonymous seller in 1872 . By 1876 they were in the collection of J.E. Taylor , who gave them to the Whitworth in 1892 .
Even less is known about the dates of composition for the " Butts set " - between 1811 and 1820 , Blake created at least thirty three designs for Thomas Butts , which included the illustrations of " On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity " . Later , they passed from Butts to his son , who sold them at Sotheby 's in 1852 , passed through several more hands , were sold at Christie 's in 1912 , and in 1916 were sold to Henry Huntington .
= = Dating and sequence = =
The illustrations themselves do not make the dating any easier- the edges of the " Thomas set " were trimmed before sale at Sotheby 's , leaving " 18 " or " 180 " on most of the sheets . Only The Night of Peace bears the full date of 1809 . The Butts set is entirely undated- dates from 1803 to 1817 have been proposed for it . Behrendt argues that the Butts set predates the Thomas set by six years , and Collins Baker and R.R. Wark place it in 1809 , but earlier than the Thomas set .
The sequence of the illustrations is also a topic of scholarly dispute : the mountings of the Thomas set were inscribed on their backs with numbers 1 @-@ 6 , but these were added during or after the 1872 Sotheby 's sale , and so are unlikely to follow Blake 's intended order . This " original " order ran thus :
The Descent of Peace
The Annunciation to the Shepherds
The Flight of Moloch
The Old Dragon
The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods
The Night of Peace
Geoffrey Keynes placed them in 1 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 order , so that The Night of Peace followed The Descent of Peace , because of their similar subjects . Butlin , and nearly all subsequent scholars , have rejected this , as much commentary has centered upon Blake 's use of similar images to frame the sequence . Butlin instead rearranges the " original " sequence as 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 6 , moving The Flight of Moloch to second to last , so that it matches the order of corresponding verses in Milton 's poem . Dunbar also follows Butlin 's order . Behrendt adopts a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 6 order , seeing a thematic progression from the destruction of classical aesthetics , to the old testament cruelty of Moloch ( who resembles Blake 's Urizen ) , to Satan himself . This order is followed by Werner in her Blake 's Vision of the Poetry of Milton .
= = Analysis = =
Blake 's literary debt to Milton is key to understanding his illustrations of the earlier poet 's writings . In general , Milton : a Poem is a guide to Blake 's idea of Milton : that he possessed true spiritual vision , but fell by his adherence to the moralistic and repressive tenets of puritanism and by his preference for the cruel and distant Jehovah of the Old testament over the redemptive figure of Christ . In that regard the Nativity Ode is to Blake the rebirth of Milton 's poetry into the creative imagination of Christ . Blake also sees a return to prophetic , Christian ideals of poetry , rather than the " pagan " classical aesthetic represented in The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods by the figure of Apollo , who is modeled on the Apollo Belvedere .
Blake 's prophetic book Europe : a Prophecy was especially influenced by On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity . In that poem , the messianic Orc , a symbol of pure creative energy , rises against the repressive institutions of Church and state . Orc is part of a doomed cycle- his rebellion is inevitably countered by the increased institutional repression of Urizen . Europe in that light is seen as a pessimistic parody of Milton 's poem . Orc is often associated with fire , and the closest parallel with him is found in The Flight of Moloch , where a child is about to be given to the god of sacrifice . The similarity of the orifice that frames the child to the shape of the stable in the other illustrations underscores the purpose of Christ 's birth , and foreshadows the harrowing of hell .
The illustrations emphasize the simultaneous occurrence of the events they depict by the presence of the stable in almost every image , and by framing the set with two very similar images that focus on the peaceful victory of Christ over darkness . The Descent of Peace also has neo @-@ platonic implications- it represents the descent of the soul into the body , which is symbolized by the cramped stable .
= = Table of Illustrations = =
The order followed here is that given by Butlin .
= L 'Hermite 's expedition =
L 'Hermite 's expedition was a French naval operation launched in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars . The operation was intended as both a commerce raiding operation against the British trading posts of West Africa and as a diversion to the Trafalgar campaign . Sailing from Lorient in October 1805 with one ship of the line , two frigates and a corvette , Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite was under orders to intercept and destroy British traders and slave ships off the West African coast and await reinforcements under Jérôme Bonaparte which were to be used in the invasion and capture of one of the British trading forts for use as a permanent French naval base from which further raiding operations could be conducted . It was also hoped by the French naval command that L 'Hermite might draw some of the large British fleet maintained off Cadiz away from the blockade to allow the French and Spanish allied fleet trapped in the harbour to escape .
Although L 'Hermite achieved minor successes against individual British shipping , his force was too small to have a serious impact on British trade in the region and the promised reinforcements failed to materialise in the aftermath of the destruction of the Cadiz fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805 , ten days before L 'Hermite sailed although before news of the battle had reached Lorient . In early January 1806 , L 'Hermite managed to capture a small British naval brig but was still unable to make any significant impact on British trade operations . In the spring of 1806 L 'Hermite withdrew across the Atlantic , taking on supplies and effecting repairs in neutral Brazil . During the return journey to France in August 1806 , the squadron was caught in a major hurricane and one frigate was severely damaged , limping to a port in the United States for repairs . The rest of the squadron continued on to France , L 'Hermite reaching Brest in his flagship Régulus . The other frigate was intercepted by a British blockade squadron on 27 September 1806 and captured in the Bay of Biscay .
= = Background = =
By the summer of 1806 , the Napoleonic Wars were two years old and the first major campaign at sea , the Trafalgar campaign , was nearing its climax . A French fleet had departed Toulon in March 1805 under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , gathered Spanish ships from the Spanish Mediterranean ports and then crossed the Atlantic , under orders to disrupt British trade in the region and seize British colonies . Closely pursuing the Allied fleet was an equivalent British Royal Navy force under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson , which reached the Caribbean on 11 June and found that Villeneuve had already begun the return journey to Europe . On 22 July 1805 the Allied fleet had fought the Battle of Cape Finisterre against a British force under Sir Robert Calder and been forced to divert south , seeking shelter in the Spanish fleet anchorage of Cadiz . Appearing off Cadiz a few days after Villeneuve 's arrival , Nelson began a blockade of the Allied fleet , awaiting their emergence and preparing for battle .
Although the French Atlantic Fleet , principally based at the major seaport of Brest , had played no significant part in the campaign , it was decided that in order to relieve some of the pressure on the fleet in Cadiz , minor squadrons would be sent to prey on British trade in the Atlantic , hopefully drawing off some of Nelson 's ships in pursuit . One such squadron was a force under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , consisting of five ships of the line , two frigates and two corvettes , which sailed from Brest for operations in the North Atlantic on 12 July . A second squadron was placed under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite , with the ship of the line Régulus , frigates Président and Cybèle and corvette Surveillant . L 'Hermite was ordered to sail to West Africa , raiding merchant vessels and slave ships that operated among the numerous British trading posts along the coastline . At an undetermined point in the cruise , L 'Hermite would be joined by a larger squadron under Captain Jérôme Bonaparte , Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother . The reinforced squadron would include over 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers who would be used in an attack on one of the British West African trading posts . If the post could be successfully captured , it could be turned into a naval base for use by French commerce raiders and would force the British to deploy a full squadron from the Channel Fleet in response , at a time when every ship of the line was needed for the Trafalgar campaign .
= = Expedition = =
L 'Hermite 's squadron sailed from Lorient on 31 October , avoiding contact with the British blockading squadron and heading for the West African coast . Although the news had not yet reached Brittany , Villeneuve 's fleet had already been destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar ten days earlier and L 'Hermite 's role as a diversion to the main campaign was no longer required . Cruising in the Gulf of Guinea during November and December , L 'Hermite succeeded in capturing and burning a number of small merchant vessels and slave ships . The intended reinforcements never appeared however — in the aftermath of Trafalgar Napoleon diverted resources to the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , a major raiding operation to the Caribbean and South Atlantic launched in December 1805 . Among the vessels detailed for this operation was Jérôme Bonaparte 's ship Vétéran , which cruised as part of the squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez .
Without reinforcements , L 'Hermite could not make any significant impact on British trade off West Africa or make any attempt to capture a British trading fort . On 6 January , he achieved a minor success when he seized the 18 @-@ gun British sloop HMS Favourite under Commander John Davie . The prize was fitted out as part of the squadron and Surveillant was sent back to France with despatches . In the spring of 1806 , with supplies running low , L 'Hermite left the African coast and crossed the Atlantic , seeking fresh supplies in Brazil , a colony of neutral Portugal . After several months refitting and taking on stores , L 'Hermite crossed the Caribbean Sea in July 1806 , unknowingly passing though the same area that Willaumez was operating in but meeting only a handful of small merchant ships before passing into the Atlantic in early August . Favourite was left behind in the West Indies , and on 27 January 1807 was recaptured by the British frigate HMS Jason off Surinam . On 20 August , L 'Hermite was caught in a hurricane at 22 ° 26 ′ N 55 ° 00 ′ W , the same storm that had dispersed and badly damaged Willaumez 's squadron two days earlier . The damage was severe , with Cybèle suffering the most with the loss of her topmasts , rendering her slower than the rest of the squadron . Concerned by the frigate 's weakness , L 'Hermite ordered her to separate and sail for a harbour in the neutral United States , arriving at Hampton Roads on 1 September . Cybèle was later repaired and returned to France in 1807 , joining the squadron based at Rochefort .
= = Capture of Président = =
L 'Hermite 's three other ships all survived the hurricane relatively intact and were able to continue their journey to Europe unimpeded , the British squadrons in the area also dispersed by the summer storms . In late September the squadron broke up , Régulus sailing for Brest and arriving on 5 October , the only French ship of the line to enter or leave the port all year . Président was less successful : at 03 : 30 on 27 September , while sailing in the Bay of Biscay at 47 ° 17 ′ N 06 ° 52 ′ W , Captain Labrosse sighted six ships of the line . This overwhelming force was a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Louis , which had been sent to the Bay of Biscay to await the return of Willaumez from the Caribbean . Immediately giving chase , Louis found that his ships of the line were not fast enough to catch the French frigate , which began to outdistance the main body of the squadron . However one of the small 18 @-@ gun sloops attached to the squadron , HMS Despatch under Captain Edward Hawkins was able to keep pace with the frigate , coming within firing range at 18 : 45 .
Although Hawkins only had two small guns that would bear on the frigate he kept up a steady rate of fire during the next hour , avoiding fire from the frigate 's bow guns during the chase . By 19 : 45 it was obvious that Despatch 's fire was successfully delaying the frigate and Labrosse turned towards the approaching squadron , moving as if to attack the nearest British frigate HMS Blanche under Sir Thomas Lavie . Seeing the French ship change direction , Louis ordered his flagship HMS Canopus to fire a gun at extreme range . This alerted Labrosse to the rapidly approaching squadron and he decided to surrender rather than be destroyed by the combined firepower of the British ships . No man had been hurt in the exchange of fire but Despatch had suffered severe damage to her rigging and one shot through her hull . The French ship had suffered minor damage in the engagement and was subsequently taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Presidente , renamed in 1815 to HMS Piemontaise . The frigate was much admired in the Royal Navy and a number of later frigates were built to a similar design .
= = Order of battle = =
= Biblical Hebrew =
Biblical Hebrew ( Hebrew : עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית Ivrit Miqra 'it or לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא Leshon ha @-@ Miqra ) , also called Classical Hebrew , is an archaic form of Hebrew , a Canaanite Semitic language spoken by the Israelites in the area known as Israel , roughly west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea . The term " Hebrew " was not used for the language in the Bible , which referred to Canaanite or Judahite , but the name was used in Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts . Biblical Hebrew is attested from about the 10th century BCE , and persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period ( which ended in the siege of Jerusalem ( AD 70 ) ) .
Biblical Hebrew eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew , which was spoken until the second century CE .
Biblical Hebrew is best @-@ attested in the Hebrew Bible , the collection of Judaic religious and historical texts which reflect various stages of the Hebrew language in its consonantal skeleton , as well as a vocalic system which was added in the Middle Ages by the Masoretes . There is also some evidence of regional dialectal variation , including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah .
Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems . The Hebrews adopted the Phoenician alphabet around the 12th century BCE , which developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet . This was retained by the Samaritans , who use the descendent Samaritan alphabet to this day . However , the Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet for the Jews , and it became the source for the modern Hebrew alphabet . All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew , though these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions / translations of the time . These scripts originally only indicated consonants , but certain letters , known by the Latin term matres lectionis , became increasingly used to mark vowels . In the Middle Ages , various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts ; of these , only the Tiberian vocalization is still in wide use .
Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of " emphatic " consonants whose precise articulation is disputed , likely ejective or pharyngealized . Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the writing system , but over time they merged with other consonants . The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic , and these sounds eventually became marginally phonemic . The pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects , as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition . The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed dramatically over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions , medieval vocalization systems , and modern reading traditions .
Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology , arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words . Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders ( masculine , feminine ) , three numbers ( singular , plural , and uncommonly , dual ) . Verbs were marked for voice and mood , and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and / or tense ( a matter of debate ) . The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation ו , in the so @-@ called waw @-@ consecutive construction . Default word order was verb – subject – object , and verbs inflected for the number , gender , and person of their subject . Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs ( to indicate object ) or nouns ( to indicate possession ) , and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions .
= = Nomenclature = =
The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew by the name of the land in which it was spoken : שפת כנען ' the language of Canaan ' ( see Isaiah 19 : 18 ) . The Hebrew Bible also shows that the language was called יהודית ' Judaean , Judahite ' ( see , for example , 2 Kings 18 : 26 @,@ 28 ) . In the Hellenistic period Greek writings use the names Hebraios , Hebraïsti ( Josephus , Antiquities I , 1 : 2 , etc . ) , and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find עברית ' Hebrew ' and לשון עברית ' Hebrew language ' ( Mishnah Gittin 9 : 8 , etc . ) . The origin of this term is obscure ; suggested origins include the biblical Eber , the ethnonyms Ḫabiru , Ḫapiru , and ˁApiru found in sources from Egypt and the near east , and a derivation from the root עבר " to pass " alluding to crossing over the Jordan River . Jews also began referring to Hebrew as לשון הקדש " the Holy Tongue " in Mishnaic Hebrew .
The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre @-@ medieval dialects of Hebrew , including Mishnaic Hebrew , or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible . The term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre @-@ Mishnaic dialects ( sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew ) . The term ' Biblical Hebrew ' may or may not include extra @-@ biblical texts , such as inscriptions ( e.g. the Siloam inscription ) , and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible 's consonantal text , most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization .
= = History = =
The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself . Early Northwest Semitic ( ENWS ) materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE , the end of the Bronze Age . The Northwest Semitic languages , including Hebrew , differentiated noticeably during the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from Ugaritic and the Canaanite of the Amarna letters .
Hebrew developed during the latter half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea , an area known as Canaan . The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE , which later split into the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south after a dispute of succession . The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa and dates to the 10th century BCE .
The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE . The kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE , its higher classes were exiled into the Babylonian captivity and Solomon 's Temple was destroyed . Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple . According to the Gemara , Hebrew of this period was similar to Imperial Aramaic ; in Pesahim , Tractate 87b , Hanina bar Hama said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because " [ the Babylonian ] language is akin to the Leshon Hakodesh " .
Aramaic became the common language in the north , in Galilee and Samaria . Hebrew remained in use in Judah ; however the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence , and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period . Alexander conquered Judah in 332 BCE , beginning the period of Hellenistic ( Greek ) domination . During the Hellenistic period Judea became independent under the Hasmonean dynasty , but later the Romans ended their independence , making Herod the Great their governor . One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE , and the second Bar Kokhba revolt in 132 – 135 led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea .
Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew , which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE . Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of Medieval Hebrew , and Hebrew began a revival process in the 19th century , culminating in Modern Hebrew becoming the official language of Israel . Currently , Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in Israel , and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature , much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature . Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements , Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers .
The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible. epigraphic materials from the area of Israelite territory are written a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew , although this is meagerly attested . According to Waltke & O 'Connor , Inscriptional Hebrew " is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text . " The damp climate of Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents , in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt , and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying . No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE , although two silver rolls ( the Ketef Hinnom scrolls ) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the Priestly Blessing . Vowel and cantillation marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century . The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the Masoretes . The most well @-@ preserved system that was developed , and the only one still in religious use , is the Tiberian vocalization , but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested . The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in piyyutim , which contain biblical quotations .
= = Classification = =
Biblical Hebrew is a Northwest Semitic language from the Canaanite subgroup .
As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the Proto @-@ Semitic language it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages . There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet .
As a Northwest Semitic language , Hebrew shows the shift of initial * / w / to / j / , a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages ( with third person pronouns never containing / ʃ / ) , some archaic forms , such as / naħnu / ' we ' , first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya , and / n / commonly preceding pronominal suffixes . Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE , but disappear almost totally afterwards . Mimation is absent in singular nouns , but is often retained in the plural , as in Hebrew .
The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , with Phoenician and Aramaic on each extreme . Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup , which also includes Ammonite , Edomite , and Moabite . Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect , though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features . Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure , vocabulary , and some grammar , it lacks some Canaanite features ( like the Canaanite shift and the shift * / ð / > / z / ) , and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism .
Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift , where Proto @-@ Semitic / aː / tended to shift to / oː / , perhaps when stressed . Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts * / ð / > / z / , * / θʼ / and * / ɬʼ / > / sʼ / , widespread reduction of diphthongs , and full assimilation of non @-@ final / n / to the following consonant if word final , i.e. בת / bat / from * bant . There is also evidence of an rule of assimilation of / y / to the following coronal consonant in pre @-@ tonic position , shared by Hebrew , Phoenician and Aramic .
Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include : גג " roof " שלחן " table " חלון " window " ישן " old ( thing ) " זקן " old ( person ) " and גרש " expel " . Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker -ם , first person singular pronoun אנכי , interrogative pronoun מי , definite article ה- ( appearing in the first millennium BCE ) , and third person plural feminine verbal marker ת- .
= = Eras = =
Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the Hebrew Bible is composed of multiple linguistic layers . The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient , while the vocalization and cantillation are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language . These additions were added after 600 CE ; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE . Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra @-@ biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era .
The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew , Archaic Hebrew , is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE , the early Monarchic Period . This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew . The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the Tanakh , including the Song of Moses ( Exodus 15 ) and the Song of Deborah ( Judges 5 ) . Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items , for example חזה for prose ראה ' see ' , כביר for גדול ' great ' . Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages , for example פעל ' do ' and חָרוּץ ' gold ' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic . Grammatical differences include the use of זה , זוֹ , and זוּ as relative particles , negative בל , and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax .
Later pre @-@ exilic Biblical Hebrew ( such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch , Nevi 'im , and some Ketuvim ) is known as ' Biblical Hebrew proper ' or ' Standard Biblical Hebrew ' . This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE . In contrast to Archaic Hebrew , Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article ה- , | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
century BCE , as found in the Gezer calendar ( c . 10th century BCE ) . This script developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE . The Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet 's main differences from the Phoenician script were " a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the " long @-@ legged " letter @-@ signs ... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top , [ and an ] x @-@ shaped Taw . " The oldest inscriptions in Paleo @-@ Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE , the most famous being the Mesha Stele in the Moabite language ( which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew ) . The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE , the end of the First Temple period . In the Second Temple Period the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse , and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed Bar Kochba revolt . The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet , which evolved into the modern Samaritan alphabet .
By the end of the First Temple period the Aramaic script , a separate descendant of the Phoenician script , became widespread throughout the region , gradually displacing Paleo @-@ Hebrew . The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus , Samuel , and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls , dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE . It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script , while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script . Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the tetragrammaton and some other divine names in Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and this practice is also found in several Jewish @-@ Greek biblical translations . While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into Mishnaic Hebrew , the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed . A number of regional " book @-@ hand " styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works , distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes . The Mizrahi and Ashkenazi book @-@ hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press . The modern Hebrew alphabet , also known as the Assyrian or Square script , is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet .
The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE , reflecting the language 's twenty @-@ two consonantal phonemes . As a result , the 22 letters of the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew ; in particular , the letters 〈 ח , ע , ש 〉 could each mark two different phonemes . After a sound shift the letters ח , ע could only mark one phoneme , but ( except in Samaritan Hebrew ) ש still marked two . The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript ס above the ש to indicate it took the value / s / , while the Masoretes added the shin dot to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter .
The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants , but gradually the letters א , ה , ו , י , also became used to indicate vowels , known as matres lectionis when used in this function . It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development : for instance , * bayt ( ' house ' ) shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling . While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found , older Phoenician and Moabite texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written . Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word , for example לפנ and ז for later לפני and זה , similarly to the Hebrew Gezer Calendar , which has for instance שערמ for שעורים and possibly ירח for ירחו . Matres lectionis were later added word @-@ finally , for instance the Mesha inscription has בללה , בנתי for later בלילה , בניתי ; however at this stage they were not yet used word @-@ medially , compare Siloam inscription זדה versus אש ( for later איש ) . The relative terms defective and full / plene are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis , respectively .
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today . Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible , the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis , with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters . The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels , showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word @-@ internal / aː / . In the Qumran tradition , back vowels are usually represented by 〈 ו 〉 whether short or long . 〈 י 〉 is generally used for both long [ iː ] and [ eː ] ( אבילים , מית ) , and final [ iː ] is often written as יא- in analogy to words like היא , הביא , e.g. כיא , sometimes מיא . 〈 ה 〉 is found finally in forms like חוטה ( Tiberian חוטא ) , קורה ( Tiberian קורא ) while 〈 א 〉 may be used for an a @-@ quality vowel in final position ( e.g. עליהא ) and in medial position ( e.g. יאתום ) . Pre @-@ Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories ( e.g. כוחי vs. Masoretic כחי in Genesis 49 : 3 ) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type .
In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text , but various sources attest them at various stages of development . Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels . In particular , there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint ( 3rd – 2nd centuries BCE ) and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the Secunda ( 3rd century CE , likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE ) . In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text . The most prominent , best preserved , and the only system still in use , is the Tiberian vocalization system , created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE . There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems ( Babylonian and Palestinian ) , known as superlinear vocalizations because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters . In addition , the Samaritan reading tradition is independent of these systems , and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system . These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development ; for example , the name of the Judge Samson is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών Sampsōn with the first vowel as / a / , while Tiberian שִמְשוֹן / ʃimʃon / with / i / shows the effect of the law of attenuation whereby / a / in closed unstressed syllables became / i / . All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew .
At an early stage , in documents written in the paleo @-@ Hebrew script , words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots , as reflected by the Mesha Stone , the Siloam inscription , the Ophel inscription , and paleo @-@ Hebrew script documents from Qumran . Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions ; however , there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division , as suggested by Nahmanides in his introduction to the Torah . Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script . In addition to marking vowels , the Tiberian system also uses cantillation marks , which serve to mark word stress , semantic structure , and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text .
While the Tiberian , Babylonian , and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct , various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time , notably the Yemenite , Sephardi , Ashkenazi , and Samaritan traditions . Modern Hebrew pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts . The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system ; for instance , the Sephardic tradition 's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is pre @-@ Tiberian . However , the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization .
= = Phonology = =
The phonology as reconstructed for Biblical Hebrew is as follows :
= = = Consonants = = =
Consonants lost and gained during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew are color @-@ coded respectively .
The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed . The so @-@ called " emphatics " were likely ejective , but possibly pharyngealized or velarized . Some argue that / s , z , sʼ / were affricated ( / ts , dz , tsʼ / ) .
Originally , the Hebrew letters 〈 ח 〉 and 〈 ע 〉 each represented two possible phonemes , uvular and pharyngeal , with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography . However the uvular phonemes / χ / ח and / ʁ / ע merged with their pharyngeal ones / ħ / ח and / ʕ / ע respectively c . 200 BCE .
This is observed by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the Septuagint of the Pentateuch ( e.g. Isaac יצחק
= Ἰσαάκ versus Rachel רחל =
Ῥαχήλ ) , but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in Ezra and Nehemiah .
The phoneme / ɬ / , is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments : It is written with 〈 ש 〉 ( also used for / ʃ / ) but later merged with / s / ( normally indicated with 〈 ס 〉 ) . As a result , three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation : / s / written 〈 ס 〉 , / ʃ / written 〈 ש 〉 , and / ś / ( pronounced / s / but written 〈 ש 〉 ) . The specific pronunciation of / ś / as [ ɬ ] is based on comparative evidence ( / ɬ / is the corresponding Proto @-@ Semitic phoneme and still attested in Modern South Arabian dialects ) as well as early borrowings ( e.g. balsam < Greek balsamon < Hebrew baśam ) . / ɬ / began merging with / s / in Late Biblical Hebrew , as indicated by interchange of orthographic 〈 ש 〉 and 〈 ס 〉 , possibly under the influence of Aramaic , and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew . In all Jewish reading traditions / ɬ / and / s / have merged completely ; however in Samaritan Hebrew / ɬ / has instead merged with / ʃ / .
Allophonic spirantization of / b ɡ d k p t / to [ v ɣ ð x f θ ] ( known as begadkefat spirantization ) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic . This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes / θ , ð / disappeared in the 7th century BCE , and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew / χ , ʁ / c . 200 BCE . It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE . After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word @-@ medial and final position ( though bearing low functional load ) , but in word @-@ initial position they remained allophonic . This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization 's consistent use of word @-@ initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi , as well as Rabbi Saadia Gaon 's attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE .
The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / , e.g. חמר ħmr for Masoretic אָמַר / ʔɔˈmar / ' he said ' . However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal . Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic ( see Eruvin 53b ) . In Samaritan Hebrew , / ʔ ħ h ʕ / have generally all merged , either into / ʔ / , a glide / w / or / j / , or by vanishing completely ( often creating a long vowel ) , except that original / ʕ ħ / sometimes have reflex / ʕ / before / a ɒ / .
Geminate consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew . In the Secunda / w j z / are never geminate . In the Tiberian tradition / ħ ʕ h ʔ r / cannot be geminate ; historically first / r ʔ / degeminated , followed by / ʕ / , / h / , and finally / ħ / , as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel .
= = = Vowels = = =
The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew has changed considerably over time . The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew , those attested by the Secunda , those of the various vocalization traditions ( Tiberian and varieties of Babylonian and Palestinian ) , and those of the Samaritan tradition , with vowels absent in some traditions color @-@ coded .
= = = = Sound changes = = = =
The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent , in approximate chronological order .
= = = = = Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic = = = = =
Proto @-@ Semitic is the ancestral language of all the Semitic languages , and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants ; 6 monophthong vowels , consisting of three qualities and two lengths , * / a aː i iː u uː / , in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables ; and two diphthongs * / aj aw / . The stress system of Proto @-@ Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of Classical Latin or the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic : If the penultimate ( second last ) syllable is light ( has a short vowel followed by a single consonant ) , stress goes on the antepenultimate ( third last ) ; otherwise , it goes on the penultimate .
Various changes , mostly in morphology , took place between Proto @-@ Semitic and Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic , the language at the root of the Central Semitic languages . The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged , but the emphatic consonants may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from ejectives to pharyngealized consonants .
The morphology of Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto @-@ Semitic , especially in its verbs , and is much like in Classical Arabic . Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases : / -u / ( nominative ) , / -a / ( accusative ) or / -i / ( genitive ) . In some circumstances ( but never in the construct state ) , nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending : nunation ( final / -n / ) occurred in some languages , mimation ( final / -m / ) in others . The original meaning of this marker is uncertain . In Classical Arabic , final / -n / on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a definite article or otherwise becomes definite in meaning . In other languages , final / -n / may be present whenever a noun is not in the construct state . Very Early Biblical Hebrew ( pre @-@ 1500 BCE ) had mimation , of uncertain meaning , in an occurrence of the word urušalemim ( Jerusalem ) .
Broken plural forms in Arabic are declined like singulars , and often take singular agreement as well . Dual and " strong plural " forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong , declined in only two cases : nominative and objective ( combination accusative / genitive ) , with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings . Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation / mimation that co @-@ occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state . The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and , as a result , are still used . Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural -ūna ( nominative ) , -īna ( objective ) , and dual endings -āni ( nominative ) , -ayni ( objective ) ; corresponding construct @-@ state endings are -ū , -ī ( strong masculine plural ) , -ā , -ay ( dual ) . ( The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are -ātu nominative , -āti objective , marked with a singular @-@ style -n nunation in the indefinite state only . )
Hebrew has almost lost the broken plural ( if it ever had it ) , and any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings . The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point , with only the objective @-@ case forms ultimately surviving . Dor example , dual -ayim is probably from * -aymi with an extended mimation ending ( cf . Arabic -ayni above ) , while dual construct -ē is from * -ay without mimation . Similarly , -īm < * -īma , -ōt < * -āti . ( Note that expected plural construct state * -ī was replaced by dual -ē . )
Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix / -at- / or / -t- / and took normal case endings . ( When the ending / -at- / became final because of loss or non @-@ presence of the case ending , both Hebrew and Arabic show a later shift to / -ah / and then / -aː / . )
= = = = = Canaanite shift = = = = =
Hebrew shows the Canaanite shift whereby * / aː / often shifted to / oː / ; the conditions of this shift are disputed . This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE , as demonstrated by its presence in the Amarna letters ( c . 1365 BCE ) .
= = = = = Proto @-@ Hebrew = = = = =
As a result of the Canaanite shift , the Proto @-@ Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as * / a aː oː i iː u uː / ( and possibly rare * / eː / ) . Furthermore , stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate ( next to last ) syllable , and was still non @-@ phonemic . The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables ( see below ) .
= = = = = Loss of final unstressed vowels = = = = =
Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words , making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables . This appears to have proceeded in two steps :
Final short mood , etc. markers dropped in verbal forms .
Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms .
Vowel lengthening in stressed , open syllables occurred between the two steps , with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs . This is most noticeable with short / a / : e.g. * kataba ( ' he wrote ' ) > / kɔˈθav / but * dabara ( ' word ' acc . ' ) > / dɔˈvɔr / .
The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions , but also some gender distinctions ; however , unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions . For example , in the suffix conjugation , first @-@ singular * -tu appears to have been remade into * -tī already by Proto @-@ Hebrew on the basis of possessive -ī ( likewise first singular personal pronoun * ʔana became * ʔanī ) .
Similarly , in the second @-@ singular , inherited * -ta -ti competed with lengthened * -tā -tī for masculine and feminine forms . The expected result would be -t or -tā for masculine , -t or -tī for feminine , and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible ( with -h marking the long -ā and -y marking the long -ī ) . The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries , with -t and -tā / tī forms found in competition both in writing and in speech ( cf. the Secunda ( Hexapla ) of Origen , which records both pronunciations , although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us ) . Ultimately , writing stabilized on the shorter -t for both genders , while speech choose feminine -t but masculine tā . This is the reason for the unexpected qamatz vowel written under the final letter of such words .
The exact same process affected possessive * -ka ( ' your ' masc. sing . ) and * -ki ( ' your ' fem. sing . ) , and personal pronouns * ʔanta , * ʔanti , with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution .
= = = = = Short vowel lengthening ( esp. pretonic ) , lowering = = = = =
The short vowels * / a i u / tended to lengthen in various positions .
First , short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position ( i.e. directly before the stressed syllable ) .
Later , short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables .
In the process of lengthening , the high vowels were lowered . In the Secunda , the lengthened reflexes of / a i u / are / aː eː oː / ; when kept short they generally have reflexes / a e o / .
= = = = = Reduction of short open stressed syllables = = = = =
Stressed open syllables with a short vowel ( i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel ) had the vowel reduced to / ǝ / and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word ( usually to the last syllable of the word ) . Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress . However , words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point . This change did not happen in pausal position , where the penultimate stress is preserved , and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs .
The previous three changes occurred in a complex , interlocking fashion :
Shift of stress to be universally penultimate .
Loss of final short vowels in verbs , pre @-@ stress lengthening in open syllables . Pre @-@ stress lengthening / lowering becomes a surface filter that remains as a rule in the language , automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear ( but ultra @-@ short vowels are unaffected ) .
Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in pausa , with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa .
Tonic lengthening / lowering in open syllables .
Loss of final short vowels in nouns .
Examples :
Note that many , perhaps most , Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift .
This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate @-@ stressed words to have final stress . The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties :
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become final @-@ stressed ( e.g. / qɔˈṭal / ( ' he killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭala / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an closed penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become penultimate due to segholate rule ( e.g. / ˈmɛlɛx / ( ' king ' ) < * / malku / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending : Become final @-@ stressed due to sress shift ( e.g. / qɔṭǝˈlu / ( ' they killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaluː / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending : Remain penultimate ( e.g. / qɔˈṭalti / ( ' I killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaltiː / ) .
Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending : ? ? ?
= = = = = Pre @-@ stress reduction of short vowel = = = = =
* / a i u / were reduced to / ə / in the second syllable before the stress , and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position , especially when initial ( e.g. σεμω = שמו / ʃəˈmo / ' his name ' ) . Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was / a e eː iː o oː uː ə / .
= = = = = Later developments = = = = =
The later Jewish traditions ( Tiberian , Babylonian , Palestinian ) show similar vowel developments . By the Tiberian time , all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened , making vowel length allophonic . Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length ( e.g. / a / in יְרַחֵם / jǝraˈħem / [ jǝraːˈħeːm ] ( ' he will have mercy ' ) < previously short [ jǝraˈħeːm ] < [ jǝraħˈħeːm ] by Tiberian degemination of / ħ / < PSem * / juraħˈħimu / ) . The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length . In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems , * / aː / and lengthened * / a / become the back vowel / ɔ / . In unaccented closed syllables , * / i u / become / ɛ ~ i ɔ ~ u / ( Tiberian ) , / a ~ i u / ( Babylonian ) , or / e ~ i o ~ u / ( Palestinian ) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates ( e.g. לִבִּי ) and the first otherwise . In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda . It does not occur for / * a / , but is occasional for / * i / ( e.g. מסמְרים / masmǝˈrim / ' nails ' < * / masmiriːm / ) , and is common for / * u / ( e.g. רְחוֹב / rǝˈħoβ ' open place ' < * / ruħaːb / ) . In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic / * u / is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant , e.g. אדֻמּים / ăðumˈmim / ( ' red ' pl . ) ( cf . / ăˈðom / ' red ' sg . ) ; this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like אַסִּיר ~ אָסִיר / ɔˈsir / ~ / asˈsir / ( ' prisoner ' ) .
The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme / ə / like the Secunda , though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation [ ɛ ] . However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels / ă ɔ ̆ ɛ ̆ / of which / ɛ ̆ / has questionable phonemicity . / ă / under a non @-@ guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural , e.g. וּבָקְעָה [ uvɔqɔ ̆ ˈʕɔ ] , and as [ ĭ ] preceding / j / , e.g. תְדֵמְּיוּ ֫ נִי [ θăðamːĭˈjuni ] , but was always pronounced as [ ă ] under gutturals , e.g. שָחֲחו , חֲיִי . When reduced , etymological * / a i u / become / ă ɛ ̆ ~ ă ɔ ̆ / under gutturals ( e.g. אֲמרתם ' you [ mp . ] said ' cf . אָמר ' he said ' ) , and generally / ă / under non @-@ gutturals , but * / u / > / ɔ ̆ / ( and rarely * / i / > / ɛ ̆ / ) may still occur , especially after stops ( or their spirantized counterparts ) and / sʼ ʃ / ( e.g. דֳּמִי / dɔ ̆ ˈmi / ) . Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew .
Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length ; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length , e.g. / rɒb / רב ( ' great ' ) vs. / rɒːb / רחב ( ' wide ' ) . Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened ( to a lesser degree ) in open syllables , e.g. המצרי [ ammisˤriˑ ] , היא [ iˑ ] , though this is less strong in post @-@ tonic vowels . Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew , but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew , e.g. גמלים TH / ɡămalːim / SH / ɡɒmɒləm / ; שלמים TH / ʃălɔmim / SH / ʃelamːəm / . While Proto @-@ Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew , in Samaritan Hebrew * / iː / may have reflex / e / in closed stressed syllables , e.g. דין / den / , * / aː / may become either / a / or / ɒ / , and * / oː / > / u / . The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels , though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction . Samaritan / ə / results from the neutralization of the distinction between / i / and / e / in closed post @-@ tonic syllables , e.g. / bit / בית ( ' house ' ) / abbət / הבית ( ' the house ' ) / ɡer / גר / aɡɡər / הגר .
Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred . Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized , but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects . In particular , the Samaria ostraca show / jeːn / < * / jajn / < * / wajn / for Southern / jajin / ( ' wine ' ) , and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift * / aj / > / iː / . Original * / u / tended to shift to / i / ( e.g. אֹמֶר and אִמְרָה ' word ' ; חוץ ' outside ' and חיצון ' outer ' ) beginning in the second half of the second millennium BC . This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions . Philippi 's law is the process by which original * / i / in closed stressed syllables shifts to / a / ( e , g , / * bint / > בַּת / bat / ' daughter ' ) , or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition / ɛ / ( e.g. / * ʔamint / > אֱמֶת / ɛ ̆ mɛt / ' truth ' ) . This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda , but there is evidence that the law 's onset predates the Secunda . In the Samaritan tradition Philippi 's law is applied consistently , e.g. * / libː @-@ u / > / lab / ( ' heart ' ) . In some traditions the short vowel / * a / tended to shift to / i / in unstressed closed syllables : this is known as the law of attenuation . It is common in the Tiberian tradition , e.g. * / ʃabʕat / > Tiberian שִבְעָה / ʃivˈʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , but exceptions are frequent . It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization , e.g. / ʃabʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late . Attenuation generally did not occur before / i ~ e / , e.g. Tiberian מַפְתֵּחַ / mafˈteaħ / ( ' key ' ) versus מִפְתַּח / mifˈtaħ / ( ' opening [ construct ] ' ) , and often was blocked before a geminate , e.g. מתנה ( ' gift ' ) . Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew , e.g. מקדש / maqdaʃ / . In the Tiberian tradition / e i o u / take offglide / a / before / h ħ ʕ / . This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome . In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort echo vowel is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural , e.g. יַאֲזִין / jaʔăzin / ( ' he will listen ' ) פָּעֳלוֹ / pɔʕɔ ̆ lo / ( ' his work ' ) but יַאְדִּיר / jaʔdið / ( ' he will make glorious ' ) רָחְבּוֹ / ʀɔħbo / ' its breadth ' .
The following charts summarize the most common reflexes of the Proto @-@ Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew :
= = = Stress = = =
Proto @-@ Hebrew generally had penultimate stress . The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words , preserving the location of proto @-@ Semitic stress . Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress , e.g. בָּנוּ ֫ / bɔˈnu / ( ' they built ' ) vs. בָּ ֫ נוּ / ˈbɔnu / ( ' in us ' ) ; stress is most commonly ultimate , less commonly penultimate , and antipenultimate stress exists marginally , e.g. הָאֹ ֫ הֱלָה / hɔˈʔohɛ ̆ lɔ / ( ' into the tent ' ) . There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition . Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew , Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto @-@ Semitic stress , and has predominantly penultimate stress , with occasional ultimate stress . There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew .
= = Grammar = =
Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three parts of speech : Arabic ism ( ' noun ' ) , fiʻl ( ' verb ' ) , and ḥarf ( ' particle ' ) ; other grammarians have included more categories . In particular , adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages . Biblical Hebrew has a typical Semitic morphology , characterized by the use of roots . Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a root , a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning . Roots are usually triconsonantal , with biconsonantal roots less common ( depending on how some words are analyzed ) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots . Roots are modified by affixation to form words . Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent , while noun patterns are less predictable .
= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =
The most common nominal prefix used is / m / , used for substantives of location ( מושב ' assembly ' ) , instruments ( מפתח ' key ' ) , and abstractions ( משפט ' judgement ' ) . The vowel after / m / is normally / a / , but appears sometimes as / i / , or in the case of מושב as / o / ( contracted from * / aw / ) . The prefix / t / is used to denote the action of the verb it is derived from , more common for initial- / w / verbs , e.g. תודה ( ' thanksgiving ' ; < ydy ) . Prefixed / ʔ / is used in adjectives , e.g. אכזב ( ' deceptive ' ) , and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants , e.g. אצבע ( ' finger ' ) . In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons , and the א prefix is called either " prothetic " or " prosthetic " . Prefixed ע often occurs in quadriliteral animal names , perhaps as a prefix , e.g. עֳטלף ( ' bat ' ) , עכבר ( ' mouse ' ) , עקרב ( ' scorpion ' ) .
In proto @-@ Semitic nouns were marked for case : in the singular the markers were * / -u / in the nominative , * / -a / in the accusative ( used also for adverbials ) , and * / -i / in the genitive , as evidenced in Akkadian , Ugaritic , and Arabic . The Amarna letters show that this was probably still present in Hebrew c . 1350 BCE . In the development of Hebrew , final * / -u , -i / were dropped first , and later * / -a / was elided as well . Mimation , a nominal suffix * / -m / of unclear meaning , was found in early Canaanite , as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions ( c . 1800 BCE ) of Jerusalem as Urušalimim , but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE . Final * / -a / is preserved in לַ ֫ יְלָה / ˈlajlɔ / , originally meaning ' at night ' but in prose replacing לַ ֫ יִל / ˈlajil / ( ' night ' ) , and in the " connective vowels " of some prepositions ( originally adverbials ) , e.g. עִמָּ ֫ נוּ ( ' with us ' ) ; nouns preserve * / -i / in forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ . Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period ( similar to Akkadian ) , as shown by the reflexes of * / ɬadaju / ( שָֹדֶה in absolute but שְׂדֵה in construct ) and the reflexes of * / jadu / ( יָד and יַד ) However forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ show that this was not yet a feature of Proto @-@ Hebrew .
Biblical Hebrew has two genders , masculine and feminine , which are reflected in nouns , adjectives , pronouns , and verbs . Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers , and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics . Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that naturally occur in pairs , and for units of measurement and time this contrasts with the plural ( יום ' day ' יומים ' two days ' ימים ' days ' ) . A widespread misconception is that Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects . In truth , Hebrew plural denotes two or more objects . However adjectives , pronouns , and verbs do not have dual forms , and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals ( שש כנפַים ' six wings ' from Isaiah 6 : 2 ) . Finite verbs are marked for subject person , number , and gender . Nouns also have a construct form which is used in genitive constructions .
Nouns are marked as definite with the prefix / ha- / followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun . In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become / ɛ / or / ɔ / in certain phonetic environments , for example החכם / hɛħɔˈxɔm / ( ' the wise man ' ) , האיש / hɔˈʔiʃ / ( ' the man ' ) .
The traditions differ on the form of segolate nouns , nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants . The anaptyctic / ɛ / of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint ( 3rd century BCE ) but not the Hexapla ( 2nd century CE ) , e.g. גֶּתֶר / ˈɡɛθɛr /
= Γαθερ versus כֵּסֶל / ˈkesɛl / =
Χεσλ ( Psalms 49 : 14 ) . This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions . Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates , / e / in the Palestinian tradition ( e.g. / ʔeresʼ / ' land'
= Tiberian אֶרֶץ Deuteronomy 26 : 15 ) and / a / in Babylonian ( e.g. / ħepasʼ / ' item ' =
Tiberian חֵפֶץ Jeremiah 22 : 28 ) . The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back , e.g. 〈 אוהול 〉 for Tiberian 〈 אֹהֶל 〉 / ˈʔohɛl / ( ' tent ' ) .
Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns : the free @-@ standing independent pronouns have a nominative function , while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative . Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms ( -י and -ני ) .
= = = Verbs = = =
Verbal consonantal roots are placed into verbal conjugations patterns , known as בנינים binyanim in Hebrew ; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate grammatical voice . This includes various distinctions of reflexivity , passivity , and causativity . Verbs of all binyanim have three non @-@ finite forms ( one participle , two infinitives ) , three modal forms ( cohortative , imperative , jussive ) , and two major conjugations ( prefixing , suffixing ) . The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation ו , and their meaning with respect to tense and aspect is a matter of debate .
= = = Word order = = =
The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be VSO , though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a wayyiqtol verb form compared to other less marked forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree . Attributive adjectives normally follow the noun they modify . In Biblical Hebrew , possession is normally expressed with status constructus , a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced , " construct " form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal , " absolute " form . Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object @-@ marking pronoun את .
= = Sample text = =
The following is a sample from Psalm 18 as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the Hexapla along with its reconstructed pronunciation .
= Carl Tanzler =
Carl Tanzler , or sometimes Count Carl von Cosel ( February 8 , 1877 – July 3 , 1952 ) , was a German @-@ born radiologic technologist at the United States Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida who developed a morbid obsession for a young Cuban @-@ American tuberculosis patient , Elena Milagro " Helen " de Hoyos ( July 31 , 1909 – October 25 , 1931 ) , that carried on well after the disease had caused her death . In 1933 , almost two years after her death , Tanzler removed Hoyos 's body from its tomb , and lived with the corpse at his home for seven years until its discovery by Hoyos 's relatives and authorities in 1940 .
= = Name = =
Tanzler went by many names ; he was listed as Georg Karl Tänzler on his German marriage certificate . He was listed as Carl Tanzler von Cosel on his United States citizenship papers , and he was listed as Carl Tanzler on his Florida death certificate . Some of his hospital records were signed Count Carl Tanzler von Cosel .
= = Early life = =
He was born as Karl Tänzler or Georg Karl Tänzler on February 8 , 1877 in Dresden , Germany . Around 1920 he married Doris Anna Shafer ( 1889 – 1977 ) and he was listed as " Georg Karl Tänzler " on the marriage certificate . Together they had two children : Ayesha Tanzler ( 1922 – 1998 ) , and Crystal Tanzler ( 1924 – 1934 ) , who died of diphtheria .
Tanzler grew up in Germany . The following “ Editorial Note “ accompanying the autobiographical account “ The Trial Bay Organ : A Product of Wit and Ingenuity ” by “ Carl von Cosel , “ in the Rosicrucian Digest of March and April 1939 , gives details about his stay in Australia before and during World War I and his return to Germany after the war :
Many years ago , Carl von Cosel travelled from India to Australia with the intention of proceeding to the South Seas Islands . He paused in Australia to collect equipment and suitable boats , and to become acquainted with prevailing weather and sea conditions . However , he became interested in engineering and electrical work there , bought property , boats , an organ , an island in the Pacific — so that he was still in Australia at the end of ten years . He had just begun to build a trans @-@ ocean flyer when the war broke out and the British military authorities placed him in a concentration camp for ' safe @-@ keeping ' along with many officers India and China who were prisoners of war . Later he was removed to Trial Bay to a castle @-@ like prison on the cliffs , and there the work in this narrative was accomplished . At the end of the war no prisoner was permitted to return to his former residence , but all were shipped to the prisoner 's exchange in Holland . When Carl von Cosel was released he set out to find his mother from whom he had not heard since the beginning of the war . Finding her safe , he remained with her for three years , witnessing the chaos that followed in the wake of the war . ... Finally , she suggested that her son return to his sister in the United States ...
Tanzler 's account of Trial Bay Gaol , his secret building of a sailing boat , etc . , is confirmed by Nyanatiloka Thera , who mentions that he planned to escape from the Gaol with ” Count Carl von Cosel ” in a sailing boat , and provides other information about the interment of Germans in Australia during WWI .
Tanzler emigrated to the United States in 1926 , sailing from Rotterdam on February 6 , 1926 to Havana , Cuba . From Cuba he settled in Zephyrhills , Florida , to where his sister had already emigrated , and was later joined by his wife and two daughters . Leaving his family behind in Zephyrhills in 1927 , he took a job as a radiologic technologist at the U.S. Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida under the name Carl von Cosel .
During his childhood in Germany , and later while traveling briefly in Genoa , Italy , Tanzler claimed to have been visited by visions of a dead ancestor , Countess Anna Constantia von Cosel , who revealed the face of his true love , an exotic dark @-@ haired woman , to him .
= = Maria Elena Milagro de Hoyos = =
On April 22 , 1930 , while working at the Marine Hospital in Key West , Tanzler met Maria Elena " Helen " Milagro de Hoyos ( 1909 – 1931 ) , a local Cuban @-@ American woman who had been brought to the hospital by her mother for an examination . Tanzler immediately recognized her as the beautiful dark @-@ haired woman that had been revealed to him in his earlier " visions . " By all accounts , Hoyos was viewed as a local beauty in Key West .
Elena was the daughter of local cigar maker Francisco " Pancho " Hoyos ( 1883 – 1934 ) and Aurora Milagro ( 1881 – 1940 ) . She had two sisters , Florinda " Nana " Milagro Hoyos ( 1906 – 1944 ) , who married Mario Medina ( c.1905 – 1944 ) and also succumbed to tuberculosis ; and Celia Milagro Hoyos ( 1913 – ? ) . Medina , Nana 's husband , was electrocuted trying to rescue a coworker who hit a powerline with his crane at a construction site .
On February 18 , 1926 , Hoyos married Luis Mesa ( 1908 – ? ) , the son of Caridad and Isaac Mesa . Luis left Hoyos shortly after Hoyos miscarried the couple 's child , and moved to Miami . Hoyos was legally married to Mesa at the time of her death .
Hoyos was eventually diagnosed with tuberculosis , a typically fatal disease at the time , that eventually claimed the lives of almost all of her entire immediate family . Tanzler , with his self @-@ professed medical knowledge , attempted to treat and cure Hoyos with a variety of medicines , as well as x @-@ ray and electrical equipment , that were brought to the Hoyoses ' home . Tanzler showered Hoyos with gifts of jewelry and clothing , and allegedly professed his love to her , but no evidence has surfaced to show that any of his affection was reciprocated by Hoyos .
= = Morbid obsession = =
Despite Tanzler 's best efforts , Hoyos died of terminal tuberculosis at her parents ' home in Key West on October 25 , 1931 . Tanzler paid for her funeral , and with the permission of her family he then commissioned the construction of an above ground mausoleum in the Key West Cemetery , which he visited almost every night .
One evening in April , 1933 , Tanzler crept through the cemetery where Hoyos was buried and removed her body from the mausoleum , carting it through the cemetery after dark on a toy wagon , and transporting it to his home . He reportedly said that Elena 's spirit would come to him when he would sit by her grave and serenade her corpse with a favorite Spanish song . He also said that she would often tell him to take her from the grave . Tanzler attached the corpse 's bones together with wire and coat hangers , and fitted the face with glass eyes . As the skin of the corpse decomposed , Tanzler replaced it with silk cloth soaked in wax and plaster of paris . As the hair fell out of the decomposing scalp , Tanzler fashioned a wig from Hoyos 's hair that had been collected by her mother and given to Tanzler not long after her burial in 1931 . Tanzler filled the corpse 's abdominal and chest cavity with rags to keep the original form , dressed Hoyos 's remains in stockings , jewelry , and gloves , and kept the body in his bed . Tanzler also used copious amounts of perfume , disinfectants , and preserving agents , to mask the odor and forestall the effects of the corpse 's decomposition .
In October , 1940 , Elena 's sister Florinda heard rumors of Tanzler sleeping with the disinterred body of her sister , and confronted Tanzler at his home , where Hoyos 's body was eventually discovered . Florinda notified the authorities , and Tanzler was arrested and detained . Tanzler was psychiatrically examined , and found mentally competent to stand trial on the charge of " wantonly and maliciously destroying a grave and removing a body without authorization . " After a preliminary hearing on October 9 , 1940 at the Monroe County Courthouse in Key West , Tanzler was held to answer on the charge , but the case was eventually dropped and he was released , as the statute of limitations for the crime had expired .
Shortly after the corpse 's discovery by authorities , Hoyos 's body was examined by physicians and pathologists , and put on public display at the Dean @-@ Lopez Funeral Home , where it was viewed by as many as 6 @,@ 800 people . Hoyos 's body was eventually returned to the Key West Cemetery where the remains were buried in an unmarked grave , in a secret location , to prevent further tampering .
The facts underlying the case and the preliminary hearing drew much interest from the media at the time ( most notably , from the Key West Citizen and Miami Herald ) , and created a sensation among the public , both regionally and nationwide . The public mood was generally sympathetic to Tanzler , whom many viewed as an eccentric " romantic " .
Though not reported contemporaneously , research ( most notably by authors Harrison and Swicegood ) has revealed evidence of Tanzler 's necrophilia with Hoyos 's corpse . Two physicians ( Dr. DePoo and Dr. Foraker ) who attended the 1940 autopsy of Hoyos 's remains recalled in 1972 that a paper tube had been inserted in the vaginal area of the corpse that allowed for intercourse . Others contend that since no evidence of necrophilia was presented at the 1940 preliminary hearing , and because the physicians ' " proof " surfaced in 1972 , over 30 years after the case had been dismissed , the necrophilia allegation is questionable . While no existing contemporary photographs of the autopsy or photographs taken at the public display show a tube , the necrophilia claim was repeated by the HBO Autopsy program in 2005 .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1944 , Tanzler moved to Pasco County , Florida close to Zephyrhills , Florida , where he wrote an autobiography that appeared in the Pulp publication , Fantastic Adventures , in 1947 . His home was near his wife Doris , who apparently helped to support Tanzler in his later years . Tanzler received United States citizenship in 1950 in Tampa .
Separated from his obsession , Tanzler used a death mask to create a life @-@ sized effigy of Hoyos , and lived with it until his death on July 3 , 1952 . His body was discovered on the floor of his home three weeks after his death . He died under the name " Carl Tanzler " .
It has been recounted that Tanzler was found in the arms of the Hoyos effigy upon discovery of his corpse , but his obituary reported that he died on the floor behind one of his organs . The obituary recounted : " a metal cylinder on a shelf above a table in it wrapped in silken cloth and a robe was a waxen image " .
It has been written ( most notably by Swicegood ) that Tanzler had the bodies switched ( or that Hoyos 's remains were secretly returned to him ) , and that he died with the real body of Elena .
= = In popular culture = =
Several bands have released musical interpretations of the Tanzler story , such as And You Will Know Us By the Trail of Dead 's The Secret of Elena 's Tomb album , and Sleep Station 's Von Cosel album , both released in 2003 .
In 2010 , the electroindie band Fiordmoss released a song titled Cold Night which is sung from Tanzler 's perspective .
The band " Through The Strip " released a song called " One Moment In Time ( Carl Von Cosels Requiem ) " Which featured sound clips from documentaries in the intro . The song is told from the points of view of both Elena and Carl Tanzler .
The band The Black Dahlia Murder released a song titled Deathmask Divine which tells the story .
The band Loch Lomond 's song Wax & Wires tells the story of Tanzler 's love for Elena .
In 2008 , ChansoNoir released the single Count Von Cosels Obsession , with the b @-@ side A Cemetery Serenade presenting an instrumental piece reenacting Carl Tanzler 's organ playing in the tomb .
The Ripley 's Believe It or Not museum In Key West , Florida , has an exhibit recreating Elena 's body being cared for by Tanzler .
Portions of the original memorial plaque that was commissioned by Tanzler and affixed to Elena Hoyos 's mausoleum have been reassembled and are on display at the Martello Gallery @-@ Key West Art and Historical Museum in Key West .
Sharon Needles wrote " Dead Girls Never Say No " inspired by Tanzler on her album PG @-@ 13
The novel Buried by Tom Baker , is a fictionalized horror novel based on Carl Tanzler .
The story of Dr. Von Cosel and Elena Hoyos was featured in an episode Investigation Discovery series " True Nightmares " entitled " Overstay Your Welcome " .
" It Happened in Key West " , the musical , co @-@ written by Jill Santoriello , Jason Huza and Jeremiah James , is currently in production for 2017 . < http : / / www.keywestmusical.com / # ! story / cfvg >
= = Timeline = =
= You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home =
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is a country pop song written for the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song is performed by Hannah Montana , a character Miley Cyrus portrays in the film . A karaoke version of the song is available in the soundtrack 's karaoke series . The song is musically country pop and pop rock . Lyrically , the track is about staying grounded and going back to one 's roots .
The song received critical success for its use in the film . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was met with average @-@ to @-@ low commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . It reached its highest international peak in the Canadian Hot 100 , at number thirty @-@ six . The song received a music video to coincide with the home release of Hannah Montana : The Movie .
= = Development = =
Singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift became involved with Hannah Montana : The Movie when filmmakers emailed her specifically to request the use of her music in the film . Swift agreed to make a cameo appearance in the film to sing " Crazier " as well as to co @-@ write a song with Boys Like Girls lead singer Martin Johnson . In an interview with MTV , Johnson described working with Swift :
" She 's awesome . She 's one of the most talented songwriters to work with , if not , the best . For such a young girl , she 's so creative and spot @-@ on . She knows the audience , she truly understands the kind of pop music that is from the heart and done in a tasteful way . She knows ways to make things pop and also make you feel it at the same time . We wrote a bunch of songs together and it was a lot of fun . "
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is used as the closing number of Hannah Montana : The Movie . In the film , Cyrus performs as popstar Hannah Montana onstage at an outdoor fundraiser to save her hometown 's treasured park from developers . More than 2 @,@ 000 extras were used to film the scene .
= = Composition = =
" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " , according to Allmusic , embodies the album 's theme of merging country and pop music . It is set in common time with a fast rock tempo of 160 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of E ♭ major . Cyrus ' vocals span one octave , from B ♭ 3 to B4 . The song has the following chord progression , E ♭ 5 — D5 — E ♭ 5 . Like the film , the lyrics discuss importance of one 's roots . Warren Truitt of About.com believed it conveyed " the sentiment that even pop stars find safe haven in their home town " . The first few lyrics of the song 's chorus are almost identical to the opening verse in Hilary Duff 's song So Yesterday , which was released in 2003 .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received positive reviews from critics . Simon Weaving of Screenwize.com said the film 's conflicts are " mostly expressed in the simple , sugared lyrics of a series of pop hits that seamlessly find their way into the story – including ' The Best of Both Worlds ' and ' You ’ ll Always Find a Way Back Home ' . " James Plath of Dvdtown.com described the song as being " integrated pretty well into the narrative " . Peter Canavese of Grouncho Reviews said " the story makes way for [ ... ] ' You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home ' " , which would attract " the film 's target audience of pre @-@ teen girls " . Warren of Truitt of About.com listed the song as the third best song by Hannah Montana . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
The song made its debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ seven on the week ending April 11 , 2009 . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " fell one spot to number eighty @-@ eight in the following week , but on the week ending May 2 , 2009 it reached its peak on the Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ one due to digital downloads that placed it at number fifty @-@ two on Hot Digital Songs . In the Canadian Hot 100 , " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " debuted at eighty @-@ eight on the week ending April 11 , 2009 and reached its peak at number seventy @-@ six on the week ending May 2 , 2009 .
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video for " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was filmed in correlation to the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack . The video , part of a series of promotional videos titled The Miley Sessions , was released in March 2009 on Disney.com and features Cyrus singing in a vacant recording studio .
An excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie premiered as the song 's music video in August 2009 on Disney Channel to promote the home release of the film . The video begins with Cyrus and her backup dancers atop a stage in a crowded outdoor concert . Cyrus is dressed as Hannah Montana and is wearing a business suit . As Cyrus begins singing , she and the dancers engage in intricate choreography . The video then transitions to a clip from Hannah Montana : The Movie in which Cyrus ' character is getting down from a private airplane . The video continues to alternate between Cyrus performing and more film clips ; scenes include Stewart taking off her Hannah Montana wig and interacting with Travis Body , her love interest in the film , portrayed by actor Lucas Till . Midway through the video , Cyrus and her dancers exit the stage through a back door and instantly enter sporting western clothing with Cyrus in a western teal button up shirt , a checkered red and white table cloth with purple ruffles pettiskirt or a petticoat , and cowboy boots .
= = Charts = =
= Marjory Stoneman Douglas =
Marjory Stoneman Douglas ( April 7 , 1890 – May 14 , 1998 ) was an American journalist , writer , feminist , and environmentalist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land for development . Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for The Miami Herald , Douglas became a freelance writer , producing over a hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines . Her most influential work was the book The Everglades : River of Grass ( 1947 ) , which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as a treasured river instead of a worthless swamp ; its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson 's influential book Silent Spring ( 1962 ) . Her books , stories , and journalism career brought her influence in Miami , which she used to advance her causes .
Even as a young woman Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of many issues that included women 's suffrage and civil rights . She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was 79 years old . For the remaining 29 years of her life she was " a relentless reporter and fearless crusader " for the natural preservation and restoration of the nature of South Florida . Her tireless efforts earned her several variations of the nickname " Grande Dame of the Everglades " as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interests looking to benefit from land development in Florida . Numerous awards were given to her , including the Presidential Medal of Freedom , and she was inducted into several halls of fame .
Douglas lived until age 108 , working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration . Upon her death , an obituary in The Independent in London stated , " In the history of the American environmental movement , there have been few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas . "
= = Early life = =
Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7 , 1890 , in Minneapolis , Minnesota , the only child of Frank Bryant Stoneman ( 1857 – 1941 ) and Lillian Trefethen ( 1859 – 1912 ) , a concert violinist . One of her earliest memories was her father reading to her The Song of Hiawatha , at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the tree had to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for a canoe . She was an early and voracious reader . Her first book was Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , which she kept well into adulthood until " some fiend in human form must have borrowed it and not brought it back " . She visited Florida when she was four years old , and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking an orange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel . From there she and her parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana .
When she was six years old , Marjory 's parents separated . Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurial ventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton , Massachusetts . She lived there with her mother , aunt , and grandparents who did not get along well and consistently spoke ill of her father , to her dismay . Her mother , whom Marjory characterized as " high strung " , was committed to a mental sanitarium in Providence several times . Her parents ' separation and the contentious life with her mother 's family caused her to suffer from night terrors . She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her " a skeptic and a dissenter " for the rest of her life .
As a youth , Marjory found solace in reading , and eventually she began to write . At sixteen years old she contributed to the most popular children 's publication of the day , St. Nicholas Magazine — also the first publisher of 20th century writers F. Scott Fitzgerald , Rachel Carson , and William Faulkner — with a puzzle titled " Double Headings and Curtailings " . In 1907 , she was awarded a prize from the Boston Herald for a story titled " An Early Morning Paddle " , about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe . However , as her mother 's mental health deteriorated , Marjory took on more responsibilities , eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposed upon her by circumstance .
= = = Education and marriage = = =
Marjory left for college in 1908 , despite having grave misgivings about her mother 's mental state . Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns , but recognized that she needed to leave in order to begin her own life . She was a good student without having to study too much . She attended Wellesley College , graduating with a BA in English in 1912 . She found particular gifts in a class on elocution , and joined the first suffrage club with six of her classmates . She was elected as " Class Orator " at Wellesley , but was unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities . During her senior year while visiting home , her mother showed her a lump on her breast . Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed . After the graduation ceremony , her aunt informed her it had metastasized , and within months her mother was dead . The family left making the funeral arrangements up to Marjory .
After drifting with college friends through a few jobs for which she did not feel she was well @-@ suited , Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914 . She was so impressed with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months . He portrayed himself as a newspaper editor , and was 30 years her senior , but the marriage quickly failed when it became apparent he was a con artist . The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal , despite her honesty in all other manners . Marjory may have unwittingly married Douglas while he was already married to another woman . While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check , she remained faithful to him . However , his scheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory 's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman 's attention . Marjory 's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and for the marriage to end . In the fall of 1915 , Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father , whom she had not seen since her parents ' separation when she was six years old . Shortly before that time , her father had remarried Lillius ( " Lilla " ) Eleanor Shine , whose great @-@ great grandfather was Thomas Jefferson . ( Her grandfather was Francis W. Eppes . ) Marjory later wrote that Lilla Shine " remained my first and best friend all my life in Florida . "
= = Writing career = =
= = = The Miami Herald = = =
Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5 @,@ 000 people were recorded on the census in Miami and it was " no more than a glorified railroad terminal " . Her father , Frank Stoneman , was the first publisher of the paper that later became The Miami Herald . Stoneman passionately opposed the governor of Florida , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , and his attempts to drain the Everglades . He infuriated Broward so much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge , Governor Broward refused to validate the election , so Stoneman was referred to as " Judge " for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one .
She joined the staff of the newspaper in 1915 , originally as a society columnist writing about tea parties and society events , but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories : " Somebody would say , ' Who 's that Mrs. T.Y. Washrag you 've got in your column ? ' And I would say , ' Oh , you know , I don 't think she 's been here very long ' " . When her father went on vacation less than a year after her appearance in Miami , he left her the responsibility of the editorial page . She developed a rivalry with an editor at The Miami Metropolis whose greater familiarity with the history of Miami gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing . Her father scolded her to check her facts better .
Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman to join the US Naval Reserve from Miami . When the woman did not show up for the interview , Douglas found herself joining the Navy as a Yeoman ( F ) first class . It did not suit her ; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting their grammar as a typist , so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross , where she was stationed in Paris . She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed , and she cared for war refugees ; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock , she wrote , " helped me understand the plight of refugees in Miami sixty years later " .
Following the war , Douglas took on duties as assistant editor at The Miami Herald . She gained some renown through her daily column entitled " The Galley " , and had enough influence through the newspaper that she became somewhat of a local celebrity . She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem . " The Galley " was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose . She promoted responsible urban planning when Miami saw a population boom of 100 @,@ 000 people in a decade . She wrote supporting women 's suffrage , civil rights , and better sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs .
Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the wealth of the region being in its " inevitable development " , and she supplemented her income with $ 100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of South Florida , something she would reconsider later in her life . She wrote a ballad in the 1920s lamenting the death of a 22 @-@ year @-@ old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp , titled " Martin Tabert of North Dakota is Walking Florida Now " . It was printed in The Miami Herald , and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature , which passed a law banning convict leasing , in large part due to her writing . " I think that 's the single most important thing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I 've written " , she wrote in her autobiography .
= = = Freelance writer = = =
After quitting the newspaper in 1923 , Douglas worked as a freelance writer . From 1920 to 1990 , Douglas published 109 fiction articles and stories . One of her first stories was sold to the pulp fiction magazine Black Mask for $ 600 ( equivalent to $ 8 @,@ 330 in 2015 ) . Forty of her stories were published in The Saturday Evening Post ; one titled " Story of a Homely Woman " was reprinted in 1937 in the Post 's best short stories compilation . Recurring motifs in her fiction were their settings in South Florida , the Caribbean , or Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent , quirky women or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices . The people and animals of the Everglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings . " Plumes " , originally published in the Saturday Evening Post in 1930 , was based on the murder of Guy Bradley , an Audubon Society game warden , by poachers . " Wings " was a nonfiction story , also first appearing in the Post in 1931 , that addressed the slaughter of Everglades wading birds for their feathers . Her story " Peculiar Treasure of a King " was a second @-@ place finalist in the O. Henry Award competition in 1928 .
During the 1930s , Douglas was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called " An argument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida . " Its success caused her to be in demand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area , then to serve on the board to support the Fairchild Garden . She called the garden " one of the greatest achievements for the entire area " .
Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater , and wrote some one @-@ act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s . One , entitled " The Gallows Gate " , was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character of their son who is sentenced to hang . She got the idea from her father , who had witnessed hangings when he lived in the West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body . The play won a state competition , and eventually $ 500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts . With William W. Muir , husband of reporter Helen Muir , she authored a play called " Storm Warnings " loosely based on the life of mobster Al Capone . Some of Capone ’ s henchmen showed up at the theater , “ add [ ing ] an extra tingle for the audience that night ” , though no actual problems arose . Douglas wrote the foreword to the Work Projects Administration 's guide to Miami and environs , published in 1941 as part of the Federal Writers ' Project 's American Guide Series .
Douglas served as the book review editor of The Miami Herald from 1942 to 1949 , and as editor for the University of Miami Press from 1960 to 1963 . She released her first novel , entitled Road to the Sun , in 1952 . She wrote four novels , and several non @-@ fiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild , the entomologist turned biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami . Her autobiography entitled Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River was written with John Rothchild in 1987 . She had been working on a book about W. H. Hudson for years , traveling to Argentina and England several times . It was incomplete when she died in 1998 .
= = = The Everglades : River of Grass = = =
Early in the 1940s Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writing about the Miami River . Unimpressed with it , she called the Miami River about " an inch long " , but in researching it became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher instead to allow her to write about them . She spent five years researching what little scientific knowledge was recorded about the ecology and history of the Everglades and South Florida . Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker , who discovered that all of South Florida 's fresh water source was the Biscayne Aquifer , and it was filled by the Everglades . Parker confirmed the name of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas , trying to capture the essence of the Everglades , asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river of grass .
The Everglades : River of Grass was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing a month after being released . The first line of the book , " There are no other Everglades in the world " , has been called the " most famous passage ever written about the Everglades " , and the statement welcomes visitors to the Everglades National Park website . Douglas characterized the Everglades as ecosystems surrounding a river worthy of protecting , that was inescapably connected to the people and cultures of South Florida . She outlined its imminent disappearance in the last chapter titled " The Eleventh Hour " :
Cattlemen 's grass fires roared uncontrolled . Cane @-@ field fires spread crackling and hissing in the saw grass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy , cream @-@ colored , purple @-@ shadowed smoke . Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts , and the fires exploded in the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness ... There was no water in the canals with which to fight [ the fires ] ... The sweet water the rock had held was gone or had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages .
The Everglades : River of Grass galvanized people to protect the Everglades and is compared to Rachel Carson 's 1962 exposé of the harmful effects of DDT , Silent Spring , as both books are " groundbreaking calls to action that made citizens and politicians take notice " . Its impact is still relevant as it is claimed to be a major reason Florida receives so many tourists , and " remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades " . It has gone through numerous editions , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies since its original publication . The Christian Science Monitor wrote of it in 1997 , " Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature , it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world " . The downside to the book 's impact , according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades , is that her metaphor is so prevailingly dominant that it is inaccurate in describing the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades : " River of Grass " describes one . David McCally wrote that despite Douglas ' " appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system " she described , popular conception of the Everglades shared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations .
= = Activism = =
Women 's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas , and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her early work at The Miami Herald , on her third day as a society columnist , she chose suffrage and began to focus on writing about women in leadership positions . In 1917 , she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan , William Jennings Bryan 's wife , and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women 's right to vote . Douglas was not impressed with the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature . She wrote about her experience later : " All four of us spoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats . Talking to them was like talking to graven images . They never paid attention to us at all . " Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920 .
Using her influence at The Miami Herald , Douglas wrote columns about poverty :
You can have the most beautiful city in the world as appearance goes , the streets may be clean and shining , the avenues broad and tree lined , the public buildings dignified , adequate and well kept ... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department , or a public opinion lax on the subject , all the splendors of your city will have not value .
In 1948 Douglas served on the Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee , with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick , who was horrified to learn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove . They helped pass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs . In the two years it took them to get the referendum passed , they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove , who borrowed the money interest @-@ free to pay for the plumbing work . Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid .
= = = Everglades work = = =
Douglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s , when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee , a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades . By the 1960s , the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever because of gross mismanagement in the name of progress and real estate and agricultural development . Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups , in 1969 — at the age of 79 — Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades . She justified her involvement saying , " It is a woman 's business to be interested in the environment . It 's an extended form of housekeeping . "
She toured the state giving " hundreds of ringing denunciations " of the airport project , and increased membership of Friends of the Everglades to 3 @,@ 000 within three years . She ran the public information operation full @-@ time from her home and encountered hostility from the jetport 's developers and backers , who called her a " damn butterfly chaser " . President Richard Nixon , however , scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of many Everglades watchdog groups .
Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that " Conservation is now a dead word ... You can 't conserve what you haven 't got . " Her criticism was directed at two entities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades . A coalition of sugarcane growers , named Big Sugar , she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals , human waste , and garbage back into the lake , which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area . She compared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies , which , she claimed , was more environmentally sound , had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients , and was less expensive for consumers due to the higher sugar content .
Besides Big Sugar , Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades by diverting the natural flow of water . The Corps was responsible for constructing more than 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947 . When the Central & South Florida Project ( C & SF ) , run by former members of the Corps of Engineers , was proposed to assist the Everglades , Douglas initially gave it her approval , as it promised to deliver much @-@ needed water to the shrinking Everglades . However , in application , the project instead diverted more water away from the Everglades , changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers ' irrigation needs , and flat @-@ out refused to release water to Everglades National Park , until much of the land was unrecognizable . " What a liar I turned out to be ! " remarked Douglas , then suggested the motivation behind all the digging and diversion in saying , " Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies , so now they take it out on us by playing with cement " .
Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the Army Corps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor . As he was stooping to pick it up , Douglas stopped her speech and said to him , " Colonel ! You can crawl under that table and hide , but you can 't get away from me ! "
In 1973 , Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City , and was observed by John Rothchild :
Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses , which along with the huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O 'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky . When she spoke , everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order . She reminded us all of our responsibility to nature and I don 't remember what else . Her voice had the sobering effect of a one @-@ room schoolmarm 's . The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers , plus the developers , and the lawyers on both sides . I wonder if it didn 't also intimidate the mosquitoes ... The request for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down . This was no surprise to those of us who 'd heard her speak .
Douglas was not well received by some audiences . She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County named East Everglades . After the county approved building permits in the Everglades , the land flooded as it had for centuries . When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods , she was the only opposing voice . At the hearing in 1983 , she was booed , jeered , and shouted at by the audience of residents . " Can 't you boo any louder than that ? " she chided , eventually making them laugh . " Look . I 'm an old lady . I 've been here since eight o 'clock . It 's now eleven . I 've got all night , and I 'm used to the heat , " she told them . Later , she wrote , " They 're all good souls — they just shouldn 't be out there . " Dade County commissioners eventually decided not to drain .
Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact , saying , " Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of us up to what we were doing to our quality of life . She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement , she was a prophet , calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren . "
= = = Other causes = = =
Douglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the South in the 1950s . She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment , speaking to the legislature in Tallahassee urging them to ratify it . In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services , a group that worked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered on Belle Glade , and who were primarily employed by the sugarcane industry . She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions the migrant workers endured . The same year , Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted that the Biscayne Nature Center , which had been housed in hot dog stands , needed a building of its own . The center received a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $ 1 @.@ 8 million for the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park . Douglas co @-@ founded the Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries with her longtime friend Helen Muir , and served as its first president .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Religious views = = =
Although Douglas grew up in an Episcopalian household , she described herself as agnostic throughout her life , and forbade any religious ceremony at her memorial . Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers when her mother was dying . However , she credited the motivation for her support of women 's suffrage to her Quaker paternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired , and proudly claimed Levi Coffin , an organizer of the Underground Railroad , was her great @-@ great @-@ uncle . She wrote that his wife was a friend of Harriet Beecher Stowe , and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in Uncle Tom 's Cabin fleeing slavery because Douglas ' great @-@ great @-@ aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape . Frank Stoneman grew up in a Quaker colony , and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life , even after converting to Episcopalianism . Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas ' use of " Friends " in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries .
= = = Mental health = = =
As a child , Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents ' separation . She witnessed her mother 's emotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized , and even long after her mother returned to live with her , she exhibited bizarre , childlike behaviors . Following her mother 's death , her relocation to Miami , and her displeasure in working as the assistant editor at The Miami Herald , in the 1920s , she suffered the first of three nervous breakdowns .
Douglas suggested she had had " blank periods " before starting during her marriage , but they were brief . She connected these lapses to her mother 's insanity . She eventually quit the newspaper , but after her father 's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown , when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming . She admitted she had a " father complex " , explaining it by saying , " Having been brought up without him and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect " .
= = = Personal habits = = =
Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades , Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic , driving there for occasional picnics . " To be a friend of the Everglades is not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there ... It 's too buggy , too wet , too generally inhospitable " , she wrote . Instead , she understood that the health of the environment indicated the general well @-@ being of humanity .
Despite Douglas ' demure appearance — she stood at 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) and weighed 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) , and was always immaculately dressed in pearls , a floppy straw hat and gloves — she had an uncanny ability to get her point across . She was known for speaking in perfect , precise paragraphs , and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects ; even her critics admitted her authority on the Everglades . Jeff Klinkenberg , a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times who interviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas , wrote of her , " She had a tongue like a switchblade and the moral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen . " Douglas was known for haughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions .
She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry ; as friend and neighbor Helen Muir remembered her , " She would come up and have a sherry , and then I would walk her home , and then she 'd walk me back , and we would have another sherry . What fun she was . " Novelist Hervey Allen called Marjory Stoneman Douglas and Muir , " the Stewart Avenue Gang " . The two were fond of having sherry together and gossiping , but those moments were followed by serious talk of the future of libraries , and the role of women in South Florida . They were confidants , and often shared their work with one another . Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car . Her house also had no air conditioning , electric stove , or dishwasher .
She was attached to several men after her divorce , counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross , as he had already gone to France as a soldier . However , she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and would not have dishonored her father by being promiscuous . She told Klinkenberg in 1992 , frankly , that she had not had sex since her divorce , saying " I wasn 't a wild woman " . However , she was fond of saying she used the emotion and energy instead on her work . " People don 't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex , all the emotion that surrounds it , can be well employed in other ways " , she wrote in her autobiography .
= = Awards , death , and legacy = =
= = = Honors = = =
Douglas began accruing honors since her early days writing for The Miami Herald . In the 1980s , however , the awards became more prestigious , and her reactions to them mixed . The Florida Department of Natural Resources ( now the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980 , which she considered a dubious honor . She told a friend she would have rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building . During her polite acceptance speech , she railed against Ronald Reagan and the then @-@ Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lackluster approach to environmental conservation . The National Parks Conservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Award in 1986 , that " honor ( s ) individuals who often must go to great lengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National Park System " . Despite blindness and diminished hearing , Douglas continued to be active into her second century , and was honored with a visit from Queen Elizabeth II , to whom Douglas gave a signed copy of The Everglades : River of Grass in 1991 . Instead of gifts and celebrations , Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday , resulting in over 100 @,@ 000 planted trees across the state and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor 's mansion . The South Florida Water Management District began removing exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102 .
In 1993 , President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest honor given to a civilian . The citation for the medal read , " Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment . Her crusade to preserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation 's respect for our precious environment , reminding all of us of nature 's delicate balance . Grateful Americans honor the ' Grandmother of the Glades ' by following her splendid example in safeguarding America 's beauty and splendor for generations to come . " Douglas donated her medal to Wellesley College . Most of the others she received she stored on the floor of her home .
Douglas was inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999 , and the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 2000 . John Rothchild declared her a feminist before the word existed , but not entirely . Upon hearing that she was to be inducted , she questioned , " Why should they have a Women 's Hall of Fame , as I heard they wanted to put me in the other day ? Why not a Citizen 's Hall of Fame ? " Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneering women when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier @-@ mâché bust of her with Georgia O 'Keeffe and Susan B. Anthony in an early episode of The Simpsons .
Some of Douglas ' stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two edited collections : Nine Florida Stories in 1990 and A River In Flood in 1998 . McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas ' short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her fame as an environmentalist , but many did not know about her career as a freelance writer . " Probably no other person has been as important to the environmental well @-@ being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove " , McCarthy wrote in the introduction of A River in Flood .
= = = Remembrances = = =
Marjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14 , 1998 . John Rothchild , who helped write her autobiography , said that her death was the only thing that could " shut her up " but added , " The silence is terrible . " Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in The Miami Herald , writing that The Everglades : River of Grass was " monumental " , and praised her passion and her resolve ; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited her for a photo opportunity , she still provoked them to do more and do it faster .
The National Wildlife Federation described her as " a passionate , articulate , and tireless voice for the environment " . Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her , saying , " She kept a clear vision of the way things ought to be , and she didn 't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they 're not like that . She would give these wonderful , curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response . You can 't holler back to grandmotherly scolding . All you can do is shuffle your feet and say , ' Yes , Ma 'am . ' " She was aware of it ; she was reported saying , " People can 't be rude to me , this poor little old woman . But I can be rude to them , poor darlings , and nobody can stop me . " Her ashes were scattered over the 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 km2 ) of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park .
In 2000 , a Naples , Florida @-@ based composer named Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15 @-@ minute orchestra piece to be performed by the Naples Philharmonic entitled Voice of the Everglades ( Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas ) . Heitzeg explained his motivation for the piece , saying , " She was outspoken , she was direct , she had the energy and belief to make the world a better place . " Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor : Broward County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and Miami @-@ Dade County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas Elementary School .
= = = Douglas home = = =
Douglas ' cottage , located in Coconut Grove at 3744 – 3754 Stewart Avenue , was built in 1924 . She wrote all of her major books and stories in the cottage , and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995 , not only for its famous owner but also for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture . After Douglas ' death , Friends of the Everglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life , but neighbors protested , citing issues with parking , traffic , and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood . The house , which had an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees , had fallen further into disrepair . For a while , the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables , which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts , was considered . The State of Florida owns Douglas ' house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of the Florida Park Service , a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection . Restoration of the floors and counters took place in the following months . Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical system was updated for safety purposes . All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources . A park ranger was placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property .
On April 22 , 2015 , while giving an Earth Day speech in the Everglades , President Barack Obama announced that Interior Secretary Sally Jewell had designated the house a National Historic Landmark .
= = Notable works = =
= = = Books = = =
The Everglades : River of Grass . Rinehart , 1947 .
Road to the Sun . Rinehart , 1952 .
Freedom River Florida 1845 . Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1953 .
Hurricane . Rinehart , 1958 .
Alligator crossing . John Day , 1959 .
The Key to Paris . Keys to the Cities Series . Lippincott , 1961 .
Florida the Long Frontier . Harper & Row , 1967 .
The Joys of Bird Watching in Florida . Hurricane House , 1969 .
Adventures in a Green World – the Story of David Fairchild and Barbour Lathrop . Field Research Projects . 1973 .
Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River. with John Rothchild . Pineapple Press , Inc . 1987 .
= = = Short story collections = = =
Nine Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University of North Florida , 1990 .
" Pineland "
" A Bird Dog in the Hand "
" He Man "
" Twenty Minutes Late for Dinner "
" Plumes "
" By Violence "
" Bees in the Mango Bloom "
" September @-@ Remember "
" The Road to the Horizon "
A River in Flood and Other Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University Press of Florida , 1998 .
" At Home on the Marcel Waves "
" Solid Mahogany "
" Goodness Gracious , Agnes "
" A River in Flood "
" The Mayor of Flamingo "
" Stepmother "
" You Got to Go , But You Don 't Have to Come Back "
" High @-@ Goal Man "
" Wind Before Morning "
= Icelanders =
Icelanders are a Germanic ethnic group and nation , native to Iceland .
On 17 June 1944 , when the Icelandic republic was founded , the Icelanders became independent from the Danish monarchy . The language spoken is Icelandic , a North Germanic language , and Lutheranism is the predominant religion . Historical and DNA records indicate that around 60 to 80 percent of the settlers were of Norse origin ( primarily from Western Norway ) and the rest were of Celtic stock from Ireland and peripheral Scotland .
= = Iceland = =
Icelanders have had a tumultuous history . Development of the island was slow due to a lack of interest from the countries controlling it for most of its history : Norway , Denmark – Norway , and ultimately Denmark . Through this time , Iceland had relatively little contact with the outside world . The island became independent in union with Denmark in 1918 . Since 1944 , Iceland has been a republic , and Icelandic society has undergone a rapid modernisation process in the post @-@ independence era .
= = History = =
Iceland is a geologically young land mass , having formed an estimated 20 million years ago due to volcanic eruptions on the Mid @-@ Atlantic ridge . One of the last larger islands to remain uninhabited , the first human settlement date is generally accepted to be 874 , although there is some evidence to suggest human activity prior to the Norse arrival .
= = = Initial migration and settlement = = =
The first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson , who went off course due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands . His reports led to the first efforts to settle the island . Flóki Vilgerðarson ( b . 9th century ) was the first Norseman to sail to Iceland intentionally . His story is documented in the Landnámabók manuscript , and he is said to have named the island Ísland ( Iceland ) . The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfur Arnarson . He settled with his family in around 874 , at a place he named " Bay of Smokes " , or Reykjavík in Icelandic .
Following Ingólfur , and also in 874 , another group of Norwegians set sail across the North Atlantic Ocean with their families , livestock , slaves and possessions , escaping the domination of the first King of Norway , Haraldur Harfagri . They traveled 1 @,@ 000 km ( 600 mi ) in their Viking longships to the island of Iceland . These people were primarily of Norwegian , Irish or Gaelic Scottish origin . The Irish and the Scottish Gaels were either slaves or servants of the Norse chiefs , according to the Icelandic sagas , or descendants of a " group of Norsemen who had settled in Scotland and Ireland and intermarried with Gaelic @-@ speaking people " . Genetic evidence suggests that approximately 62 % of the Icelandic maternal gene pool is derived from Ireland and Scotland , which is much higher than other Scandinavian countries , although comparable to the Faroese , while 37 % is of Nordic origin . About 20 @-@ 25 % of the Icelandic paternal gene pool is of Gaelic origin , with the rest being Nordic .
The Icelandic Age of Settlement ( Icelandic : Landnámsöld ) is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930 , at which point most of the island had been claimed and the Alþingi ( English : Althing ) , the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth , was founded at Þingvellir .
= = = Hardship and conflict = = =
In 930 , on the Þingvellir ( English : Thingvellir ) plain near Reykjavík , the chieftains and their families met and established the Alþingi , Iceland 's first national assembly . However , the Alþingi lacked the power to enforce the laws it made . In 1262 , struggles between rival chieftains left Iceland so divided that King Haakon IV of Norway was asked to step in as a final arbitrator for all disputes , as part of the Old Covenant . This is known as the Age of the Sturlungs .
Iceland was under Norwegian leadership until 1380 , when the Royal House of Norway died out . At this point , both Iceland and Norway came under the control of the Danish Crown . With the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark , the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown , including the right to initiate and consent to legislation . This meant a loss of independence for Iceland , which led to nearly 300 years of decline : perhaps largely because Denmark and its Crown did not consider Iceland to be a colony to be supported and assisted . In particular , the lack of help in defense led to constant raids by marauding pirates along the Icelandic coasts .
Unlike Norway , Denmark did not need Iceland 's fish and homespun wool . This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland 's trade , and no new ships were built as a result . In 1602 Iceland was forbidden to trade with other countries by order of the Danish Government , and in the 18th century climatic conditions had reached an all @-@ time low since Settlement .
In 1783 – 84 Laki , a volcanic fissure in the south of the island , erupted . The eruption produced about 15 km ³ ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ³ ) of basalt lava , and the total volume of tephra emitted was 0 @.@ 91 km ³ . The aerosols built up caused a cooling effect in the Northern Hemisphere . The consequences for Iceland were catastrophic , with approximately 25 @-@ 33 % of the population dying in the famine of 1783 and 1784 . Around 80 % of sheep , 50 % of cattle , and 50 % of horses died of fluorosis from the 8 million tons of fluorine that were released . This disaster is known as the Mist Hardship ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ) .
In 1798 – 99 the Alþingi was discontinued for several decades , eventually being restored in 1844 . It was moved to Reykjavík , the capital , after being held at Þingvellir for over nine centuries .
= = = Independence and prosperity = = =
The 19th century brought significant improvement in the Icelanders ' situation . A protest movement was led by Jón Sigurðsson , a statesman , historian , and authority on Icelandic literature . Inspired by the romantic and nationalist currents from mainland Europe , Jón protested strongly , through political journals and self @-@ publications , for ' a return to national consciousness ' and for political and social changes to be made to help speed up Iceland 's development .
In 1854 , the Danish government relaxed the trade ban that had been imposed in 1602 , and Iceland gradually began to rejoin Western Europe economically and socially . With this return of contact with other peoples came a reawakening of Iceland 's arts , especially its literature . Twenty years later in 1874 , Iceland was granted a constitution . Icelanders today recognize Jón 's efforts as largely responsible for their economic and social resurgence .
Iceland gained near @-@ full independence in 1918 after World War I , and retained only formal ties with the Danish Crown . This move to independence was completed on 17 June 1944 on what would have been Jón Sigurðsson 's 133rd birthday . After a national referendum , Iceland broke all ties with Denmark , after nearly six centuries of Danish rule , and declared itself independent .
= = Demographics and society = =
= = = Genetics = = =
Most mitochondrial DNA lineages found today in contemporary Icelanders can be traced to the native populations in Ireland and Scotland and Scandinavia . Another study shows that a tiny proportion of samples of contemporary Icelanders carry a more distant lineage , which belongs to the haplogroup C1 , which can possibly be traced to the settlement of the Americas around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . The same study used preliminary genealogical analyses which revealed that C1 lineage was present in the Icelandic mtDNA pool at least 300 years ago . Due to their small founding population and considerable history of relative isolation , Icelanders have often been considered highly genetically homogeneous as compared to other European populations . For this reason , along with the extensive genealogical records for much of the population that reach back to the settlement of Iceland , Icelanders have been the focus of considerable genomics research by both biotechnology companies and academic and medical researchers . However , one study of mitochondrial DNA , blood groups , and isozymes revealed a more variable population than expected from these genetic standpoints , comparable to the diversity of some other Europeans . Another study shows that quite a big group of Scandinavian males , in particular Norwegians and Icelanders ( up to 31 % of samples ) , carry Haplogroup R1a1a ( Y @-@ DNA ) .
Results of the mitochondrial DNA studies have been consistent with the genealogical records that trace the ancestry of most Icelanders to Scandinavia , Ireland and Scotland , though there may have been a minor contribution from other European groups . Founder effects and the effects of genetic drift are more pronounced for the Icelandic gene pool than other nearby populations , supporting the assumed genetic isolation of the population .
= = = Emigration = = =
= = = = Greenland = = = =
Greenland was first settled by some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red in the late 10th century , CE . Isolated fjords in this harsh land offered sufficient grazing to support cattle and sheep , though the climate was too cold for cereal crops . Royal trade ships from Norway occasionally went to Greenland to trade for walrus tusks and falcons . The population eventually reached a high point of perhaps 3 @,@ 000 in two communities and developed independent institutions before fading away during the 15th century . A papal legation was sent there as late as 1492 , the year Columbus attempted to find a shorter spice route but instead found the Americas .
= = = = North America = = = =
According to the Saga of Eric the Red , Icelandic immigration to North America dates back to 1006 , when Icelandic Snorri was born in Vinland . This colony was short @-@ lived though and by the 1020s the Icelanders abandoned it . Icelandic immigration to North America would not resume for some 800 years .
One of the first new instances of Icelandic immigration to North America occurred in 1855 , when a small group settled in Spanish Fork , Utah . Another Icelandic colony is Washington Island , Wisconsin . Immigration to the United States and Canada began in earnest in the 1870s , with most migrants initially settling in the Great Lakes area . These settlers were fleeing famine and overcrowding on Iceland . Today , there are sizable communities of Icelandic descent in both the United States and Canada . Gimli , in Manitoba , Canada , is home to the largest population of Icelanders outside of the main island of Iceland .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language and literature = = =
Icelandic , a North Germanic language , is the official language of Iceland ( de facto ; the laws are silent about the issue ) . Icelandic has inflectional grammar comparable to Latin , Ancient Greek , more closely to Old English and practically identical to Old Norse .
Old Icelandic literature can be divided into several categories , of which three are best known to foreigners : Eddic poetry , skaldic poetry , and saga literature , if saga literature is understood broadly . Eddic poetry is made up of heroic and mythological poems . Poetry that praises someone is considered skaldic poetry or court poetry . Finally Saga literature is prose , ranging from pure fiction to fairly factual history .
Written Icelandic has changed little since the 13th century . Because of this , modern readers can understand the Icelanders ' sagas . The sagas tell of events in Iceland in the 10th and early 11th centuries . They are considered to be the best @-@ known pieces of Icelandic literature .
The elder or Poetic Edda , the younger or Prose Edda , and the sagas are the major pieces of Icelandic literature . The Poetic Edda is a collection of poems and stories from the late 10th century , whereas the younger or Prose Edda is a manual of poetry that contains many stories of Norse mythology .
= = = Religion = = =
Iceland embraced Christianity in c . AD 1000 , in what is called the kristnitaka , and the country , while mostly secular in observance , is still predominantly Christian culturally . The Lutheran church claims some 84 % of the total population . While early Icelandic Christianity was more lax in its observances than traditional Catholicism , Pietism , a religious movement imported from Denmark in the 18th century , had a marked effect on the island . By discouraging all but religious leisure activities , it fostered a certain dourness , which was for a long time considered an Icelandic stereotype . At the same time , it also led to a boom in printing , and Iceland today is one of the most literate societies in the world .
While Catholicism was supplanted by Protestantism during the Reformation , most other world religions are now represented on the island : there are small Protestant Free Churches and Catholic communities , and even a nascent Muslim community , composed of both immigrants and local converts . Perhaps unique to Iceland is the fast @-@ growing Ásatrúarfélag , a legally recognized revival of the pre @-@ Christian Nordic religion of the original settlers . According to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Reykjavík , there were only approximately 30 Jews in Iceland as of 2001 . The First Lady of Iceland Dorrit Moussaieff is an Israeli @-@ born Bukharian Jew .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Icelandic cuisine consists mainly of fish , lamb , and dairy . Fish was once the main part of an Icelander 's diet but has recently given way to meats such as beef , pork , and poultry .
Iceland has many traditional foods called Þorramatur . These foods include smoked and salted lamb , singed sheep heads , dried fish , smoked and pickled salmon , and cured shark . Andrew Zimmern , a chef | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
cosmological redshift is not found using the relativistic Doppler equation which is instead characterized by special relativity ; thus v > c is impossible while , in contrast , v > c is possible for cosmological redshifts because the space which separates the objects ( for example , a quasar from the Earth ) can expand faster than the speed of light . More mathematically , the viewpoint that " distant galaxies are receding " and the viewpoint that " the space between galaxies is expanding " are related by changing coordinate systems . Expressing this precisely requires working with the mathematics of the Friedmann @-@ Robertson @-@ Walker metric .
If the Universe were contracting instead of expanding , we would see distant galaxies blueshifted by an amount proportional to their distance instead of redshifted .
= = = Gravitational redshift = = =
In the theory of general relativity , there is time dilation within a gravitational well . This is known as the gravitational redshift or Einstein Shift . The theoretical derivation of this effect follows from the Schwarzschild solution of the Einstein equations which yields the following formula for redshift associated with a photon traveling in the gravitational field of an uncharged , nonrotating , spherically symmetric mass :
<formula>
where
G is the gravitational constant ,
M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field ,
r is the radial coordinate of the source ( which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object , but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate ) , and
c is the speed of light .
This gravitational redshift result can be derived from the assumptions of special relativity and the equivalence principle ; the full theory of general relativity is not required .
The effect is very small but measurable on Earth using the Mössbauer effect and was first observed in the Pound – Rebka experiment . However , it is significant near a black hole , and as an object approaches the event horizon the red shift becomes infinite . It is also the dominant cause of large angular @-@ scale temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation ( see Sachs @-@ Wolfe effect ) .
= = Observations in astronomy = =
The redshift observed in astronomy can be measured because the emission and absorption spectra for atoms are distinctive and well known , calibrated from spectroscopic experiments in laboratories on Earth . When the redshift of various absorption and emission lines from a single astronomical object is measured , z is found to be remarkably constant . Although distant objects may be slightly blurred and lines broadened , it is by no more than can be explained by thermal or mechanical motion of the source . For these reasons and others , the consensus among astronomers is that the redshifts they observe are due to some combination of the three established forms of Doppler @-@ like redshifts . Alternative hypotheses and explanations for redshift such as tired light are not generally considered plausible .
Spectroscopy , as a measurement , is considerably more difficult than simple photometry , which measures the brightness of astronomical objects through certain filters . When photometric data is all that is available ( for example , the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field ) , astronomers rely on a technique for measuring photometric redshifts . Due to the broad wavelength ranges in photometric filters and the necessary assumptions about the nature of the spectrum at the light @-@ source , errors for these sorts of measurements can range up to δz
= 0 @.@ 5 , and are much less reliable than spectroscopic determinations . However , photometry does at least allow a qualitative characterization of a redshift . For example , if a Sun @-@ like spectrum had a redshift of z =
1 , it would be brightest in the infrared rather than at the yellow @-@ green color associated with the peak of its blackbody spectrum , and the light intensity will be reduced in the filter by a factor of four , ( 1 + z ) 2 . Both the photon count rate and the photon energy are redshifted . ( See K correction for more details on the photometric consequences of redshift . )
= = = Local observations = = =
In nearby objects ( within our Milky Way galaxy ) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line @-@ of @-@ sight velocities associated with the objects being observed . Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure velocities and parametrize the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries , a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer William Huggins . Similarly , small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters . Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun . Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets , velocities of interstellar clouds , the rotation of galaxies , and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts . Additionally , the temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening – effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line . By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21 @-@ centimeter hydrogen line in different directions , astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas , which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way . Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies , such as Andromeda . As a diagnostic tool , redshift measurements are one of the most important spectroscopic measurements made in astronomy .
= = = Extragalactic observations = = =
The most distant objects exhibit larger redshifts corresponding to the Hubble flow of the Universe . The largest observed redshift , corresponding to the greatest distance and furthest back in time , is that of the cosmic microwave background radiation ; the numerical value of its redshift is about z
= 1089 ( z =
0 corresponds to present time ) , and it shows the state of the Universe about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , and 379 @,@ 000 years after the initial moments of the Big Bang .
The luminous point @-@ like cores of quasars were the first " high @-@ redshift " ( z > 0 @.@ 1 ) objects discovered before the improvement of telescopes allowed for the discovery of other high @-@ redshift galaxies .
For galaxies more distant than the Local Group and the nearby Virgo Cluster , but within a thousand megaparsecs or so , the redshift is approximately proportional to the galaxy 's distance . This correlation was first observed by Edwin Hubble and has come to be known as Hubble 's law . Vesto Slipher was the first to discover galactic redshifts , in about the year 1912 , while Hubble correlated Slipher 's measurements with distances he measured by other means to formulate his Law . In the widely accepted cosmological model based on general relativity , redshift is mainly a result of the expansion of space : this means that the farther away a galaxy is from us , the more the space has expanded in the time since the light left that galaxy , so the more the light has been stretched , the more redshifted the light is , and so the faster it appears to be moving away from us . Hubble 's law follows in part from the Copernican principle . Because it is usually not known how luminous objects are , measuring the redshift is easier than more direct distance measurements , so redshift is sometimes in practice converted to a crude distance measurement using Hubble 's law .
Gravitational interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant scatter in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram . The peculiar velocities associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the mass of virialized objects in the Universe . This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies ( such as the Andromeda Galaxy ) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common barycenter , and redshift maps of clusters showing a Fingers of God effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution . This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the mass to light ratio ( the ratio of a galaxy 's mass in solar masses to its brightness in solar luminosities ) , an important tool for measuring dark matter .
The Hubble law 's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant . However , when the Universe was much younger , the expansion rate , and thus the Hubble " constant " , was larger than it is today . For more distant galaxies , then , whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times , the approximation of constant expansion rate fails , and the Hubble law becomes a non @-@ linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question . Observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship can be used , then , to determine the expansion history of the Universe and thus the matter and energy content .
While it was long believed that the expansion rate has been continuously decreasing since the Big Bang , recent observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship using Type Ia supernovae have suggested that in comparatively recent times the expansion rate of the Universe has begun to accelerate .
= = = Highest redshifts = = =
Currently , the objects with the highest known redshifts are galaxies and the objects producing gamma ray bursts . The most reliable redshifts are from spectroscopic data , and the highest confirmed spectroscopic redshift of a galaxy is that of GN @-@ z11 , with a redshift of z
= 11 @.@ 1 , corresponding to 400 million years after the Big Bang . The previous record was held by UDFy @-@ 38135539 at a redshift of z =
8 @.@ 6 , corresponding to 600 million years after the Big Bang . Slightly less reliable are Lyman @-@ break redshifts , the highest of which is the lensed galaxy A1689 @-@ zD1 at a redshift z
= 7 @.@ 5 and the next highest being z =
7 @.@ 0 . The most distant observed gamma ray burst with a spectroscopic redshift measurement was GRB 090423 , which had a redshift of z
= 8 @.@ 2 . The most distant known quasar , ULAS J1120 + 0641 , is at z =
7 @.@ 1 . The highest known redshift radio galaxy ( TN J0924 @-@ 2201 ) is at a redshift z
= 5 @.@ 2 and the highest known redshift molecular material is the detection of emission from the CO molecule from the quasar SDSS J1148 + 5251 at z =
6 @.@ 42
Extremely red objects ( EROs ) are astronomical sources of radiation that radiate energy in the red and near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . These may be starburst galaxies that have a high redshift accompanied by reddening from intervening dust , or they could be highly redshifted elliptical galaxies with an older ( and therefore redder ) stellar population . Objects that are even redder than EROs are termed hyper extremely red objects ( HEROs ) .
The cosmic microwave background has a redshift of z
= 1089 , corresponding to an age of approximately 379 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang and a comoving distance of more than 46 billion light years . The yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ observed first light from the oldest Population III stars , not long after atoms first formed and the CMB ceased to be absorbed almost completely , may have redshifts in the range of 20 < z < 100 . Other high @-@ redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the cosmic neutrino background from about two seconds after the Big Bang ( and a redshift in excess of z > 1010 ) and the cosmic gravitational wave background emitted directly from inflation at a redshift in excess of z > 1025 .
In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z =
6 @.@ 60 . Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , at high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it .
= = = Redshift surveys = = =
With advent of automated telescopes and improvements in spectroscopes , a number of collaborations have been made to map the Universe in redshift space . By combining redshift with angular position data , a redshift survey maps the 3D distribution of matter within a field of the sky . These observations are used to measure properties of the large @-@ scale structure of the Universe . The Great Wall , a vast supercluster of galaxies over 500 million light @-@ years wide , provides a dramatic example of a large @-@ scale structure that redshift surveys can detect .
The first redshift survey was the CfA Redshift Survey , started in 1977 with the initial data collection completed in 1982 . More recently , the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey determined the large @-@ scale structure of one section of the Universe , measuring redshifts for over 220 @,@ 000 galaxies ; data collection was completed in 2002 , and the final data set was released 30 June 2003 . The Sloan Digital Sky Survey ( SDSS ) , is ongoing as of 2013 and aims to measure the redshifts of around 3 million objects . SDSS has recorded redshifts for galaxies as high as 0 @.@ 8 , and has been involved in the detection of quasars beyond z = 6 . The DEEP2 Redshift Survey uses the Keck telescopes with the new " DEIMOS " spectrograph ; a follow @-@ up to the pilot program DEEP1 , DEEP2 is designed to measure faint galaxies with redshifts 0 @.@ 7 and above , and it is therefore planned to provide a high redshift complement to SDSS and 2dF .
= = Effects due to physical optics or radiative transfer = =
The interactions and phenomena summarized in the subjects of radiative transfer and physical optics can result in shifts in the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation . In such cases the shifts correspond to a physical energy transfer to matter or other photons rather than being due to a transformation between reference frames . These shifts can be due to such physical phenomena as coherence effects or the scattering of electromagnetic radiation whether from charged elementary particles , from particulates , or from fluctuations of the index of refraction in a dielectric medium as occurs in the radio phenomenon of radio whistlers . While such phenomena are sometimes referred to as " redshifts " and " blueshifts " , in astrophysics light @-@ matter interactions that result in energy shifts in the radiation field are generally referred to as " reddening " rather than " redshifting " which , as a term , is normally reserved for the effects discussed above .
In many circumstances scattering causes radiation to redden because entropy results in the predominance of many low @-@ energy photons over few high @-@ energy ones ( while conserving total energy ) . Except possibly under carefully controlled conditions , scattering does not produce the same relative change in wavelength across the whole spectrum ; that is , any calculated z is generally a function of wavelength . Furthermore , scattering from random media generally occurs at many angles , and z is a function of the scattering angle . If multiple scattering occurs , or the scattering particles have relative motion , then there is generally distortion of spectral lines as well .
In interstellar astronomy , visible spectra can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as interstellar reddening – similarly Rayleigh scattering causes the atmospheric reddening of the Sun seen in the sunrise or sunset and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color . This phenomenon is distinct from redshifting because the spectroscopic lines are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional dimming and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the line @-@ of @-@ sight .
For a list of scattering processes , see Scattering .
= = = Articles = = =
Odenwald , S. & Fienberg , RT . 1993 ; " Galaxy Redshifts Reconsidered " in Sky & Telescope Feb. 2003 ; pp31 – 35 ( This article is useful further reading in distinguishing between the 3 types of redshift and their causes . )
Lineweaver , Charles H. and Tamara M. Davis , " Misconceptions about the Big Bang " , Scientific American , March 2005 . ( This article is useful for explaining the cosmological redshift mechanism as well as clearing up misconceptions regarding the physics of the expansion of space . )
= = = Book references = = =
Nussbaumer , Harry ; Lydia Bieri ( 2009 ) . Discovering the Expanding Universe . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 51484 @-@ 2 .
Binney , James ; Michael Merrifeld ( 1998 ) . Galactic Astronomy . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 02565 @-@ 7 .
Carroll , Bradley W. & Dale A. Ostlie ( 1996 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Addison @-@ Wesley Publishing Company , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 54730 @-@ 9 .
Feynman , Richard ; Leighton , Robert ; Sands , Matthew ( 1989 ) . Feynman Lectures on Physics . Vol . 1 . Addison @-@ Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 51003 @-@ 0 .
Grøn , Øyvind ; Hervik , Sigbjørn ( 2007 ) . Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity . New York : Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 69199 @-@ 2 .
Kutner , Marc ( 2003 ) . Astronomy : A Physical Perspective . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 52927 @-@ 1 .
Misner , Charles ; Thorne , Kip S. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1973 ) . Gravitation . San Francisco : W. H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 0344 @-@ 0 .
Peebles , P. J. E. ( 1993 ) . Principles of Physical Cosmology . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 01933 @-@ 9 .
Taylor , Edwin F. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1992 ) . Spacetime Physics : Introduction to Special Relativity ( 2nd ed . ) . W.H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2327 @-@ 1 .
Weinberg , Steven ( 1971 ) . Gravitation and Cosmology . John Wiley . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 92567 @-@ 5 .
See also physical cosmology textbooks for applications of the cosmological and gravitational redshifts .
= Trans @-@ Europe Express ( album ) =
Trans @-@ Europe Express ( German : Trans Europa Express ) is the sixth studio album by German electronic music band Kraftwerk . Recorded in mid @-@ 1976 in Düsseldorf , Germany , the album was released in March 1977 on Kling Klang Records . The album 's themes were influenced by friends who suggested writing songs about the Trans Europ Express to reflect Kraftwerk 's electronic music style . Critics have described the album as having two specific themes : celebration of Europe and the disparities between reality and image . Musically , the songs on this album differ from the group 's earlier Krautrock style with a focus on electronic mechanized rhythms , minimalism , and occasional manipulated vocals .
Trans @-@ Europe Express charted at 119 on the American charts and was placed number 30 on the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll . Two singles were released from Trans @-@ Europe Express : " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " . The album has been re @-@ released in several formats and continued to receive acclaim from modern critics .
= = Background = =
After the release and tour for the album Radio @-@ Activity , Kraftwerk continued to move further away from their earlier Krautrock style of improvised instrumental music , refining their work more into the format of melodic electronic songs . During the tour for Radio @-@ Activity the band began to make performance rules such as not to be drunk on stage or at parties . Karl Bartos wrote that about these rules , stating that " it 's not easy to turn knobs on a synthesizer if you are drunk or full of drugs . ... We always tried to keep very aware of what we were doing while acting in public . " During this tour , early melodies that would later evolve into the song " Showroom Dummies " were being performed .
In mid @-@ 1976 , Kraftwerk began to work on the album which was then called Europe Endless . Paul Alessandrini suggested that Kraftwerk write a song about the Trans @-@ Europ Express to reflect their electronic music style . Hütter and Schneider met with musicians David Bowie and Iggy Pop prior to recording which influenced song lyrics . Maxime Schmitt encouraged the group to record a French language version of the song " Showroom Dummies " which led the group to later record several songs in French . The album was recorded at Kling Klang Studio in Düsseldorf . Artistic control over the songs was strictly in the hands of members Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider with Bartos and Wolfgang Flür contributing sequenced electronic percussion . Kraftwerk went to railway bridges to listen to the sounds the train would actually produce . The group found the sound the train made was not danceable and changed it slightly .
= = Recording = =
An important piece of new equipment used on the album was the Synthanorma Sequenzer , a customized 32 @-@ step 16 @-@ channel analogue sequencer made for the band by Matten & Wiechers . This allowed the construction of more elaborate sequenced synthesizer lines , which are featured prominently in the tracks " Europe Endless " , " Franz Schubert " and " Endless Endless " , and liberated the player from the chore of playing repetitive keyboard patterns .
Whereas Radio @-@ Activity had featured a mixture of German and English lyrics throughout the album , Trans @-@ Europe Express went further and was mixed as two entirely separate versions , one sung in English , the other in German . At the recommendation of Maxime Schmitt , a French version of the song " Showroom Dummies " , titled " Les Mannequins " , was also recorded . " Les Mannequins " was the group 's first song in French and would influence decisions to record songs in French on later albums . After recording the album in Düsseldorf , Hütter and Schneider visited Los Angeles to mix the tracks at the Record Plant Studio . Elements of the mixing sessions that were done in Los Angeles were dropped from the album , including the use of more upfront vocals in order to do more mixing in Düsseldorf and Hamburg later .
The artwork for the album cover of Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally going to be a monochrome picture of the group reflected in a series of mirrors . This idea was dropped for a photo by New York @-@ based celebrity photographer Maurice Seymour , with the group dressed in suits to resemble mannequins . J. Stara 's image of the group was taken in Paris and is a highly retouched photo @-@ montage of Kraftwerk from their shoulders up again posed as mannequins which is shown on the cover of the English version of the album . On the inside sleeve , a color collage of the group sitting at a small cafe table designed by Emil Schult was used . The photo for this scene was from the session by Maurice Seymour , taken on the group 's American tour . Other photos were taken by Schult that show the group laughing and smiling . These were not used for the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
Wolfgang Flür has stated Kraftwerk were influenced by music of the Weimar Germany era : " we were children who were born straight after World War Two ... we had no musical or pop culture of our own ... there was the war , and before the war we had only the German folk music . In the 1920s or 1930s melodies were developed and these became culture that we worked from " . Karl Bartos also spoke of post @-@ war influence as the group thought that they " had this development in the 1920s which was very , very strong and was audio visual . We had the Bauhaus school before the war and then after the war we had tremendous people like Karlheinz Stockhausen and the development of the classical and the electronic classical . This was very strong and it all happened very close to Düsseldorf in Cologne and all the great composers at that time came there . " Paul Alessandrini is credited for helping contribute to the album 's concept . Alessandrini told Hütter and Schneider that " with the kind of music you do , which is kind of like an electronic blues , railway stations and trains are very important in your universe , you should do a song about the Trans Europe Express " . Kraftwerk believed critics in the United Kingdom and United States associated them with Nazi Germany , with tracks such as " Autobahn " inextricably linked with the Nazis who built the high @-@ speed roads in the 1930s and 1940s . At the same time the band were keen to move away from their German heritage towards a new sense of European identity and felt that the Trans Europ Express could be used to symbolize this . Allmusic referred to Trans @-@ Europe Express as a concept album with two different themes . The first being the disparities between reality and image , represented by the songs " Hall of Mirrors " and " Showroom Dummies " , and the others about the glorification of Europe . Slant Magazine described the album as " a sonic poem to Europe " .
The musical style of Trans @-@ Europe Express was described by AllMusic as melodic themes which are " repeated often and occasionally interwoven over deliberate , chugging beats , sometimes with manipulated vocals " and " minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies " . Hütter has commented on the minimalist nature of the album , stating that " If we can convey an idea with one or two notes , it is better than to play a hundred or so notes " . The first side of Trans @-@ Europe Express has three songs . The song " Hall of Mirrors " has been described as containing deadpan vocals with lyrics that speculate how stars look at themselves in a looking glass . Hütter and Schneider have described the song as auto @-@ biographical . The third track " Showroom Dummies " was described by Allmusic as " bouncily melodic in a way that most of Trans @-@ Europe Express isn 't " and with lyrics which are " slightly paranoid " . The idea for the song came from Flür and Bartos being compared to showroom dummies in a British concert review . Some versions of the song contain a spoken introduction starting with a count @-@ in of " eins zwei drei vier " as a parody of the band Ramones who started some songs with a quick count @-@ in of " one two three four " . The second side of Trans @-@ Europe Express is a suite with " Trans @-@ Europe Express " continuing through to " Metal on Metal " and " Franz Schubert " before closing with a brief reiteration of the main theme from " Europe Endless " . Allmusic described the musical elements of the suite as having a haunting theme with " deadpan chanting of the title phrase " which is " slowly layered over that rhythmic base in much the same way that the earlier " Autobahn " was constructed " . The song 's lyrics reference the album Station to Station and meeting with musicians Iggy Pop and David Bowie . Hütter and Schneider had previously met up with Bowie in Germany and were flattered with the attention they received from him . Ralf Hütter was interested in Bowie 's work as he had been working with Iggy Pop , who was the former lead singer of The Stooges ; one of Hütter 's favorite groups .
= = Release = =
Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally released in March 1977 . With the help of Günther Fröhling , Kraftwerk made a promotional music video for the song " Trans @-@ Europe Express " . The video features the group wearing long coats on a train trip from Düsseldorf to nearby Duisburg . Photo stills from this video were later used on the single sleeve for " Showroom Dummies " . Fröhling would work with Kraftwerk again on their album The Man @-@ Machine doing the photography for the album cover . To promote the album to the press in France , EMI Records hired a train with old fashioned carriages from the 1930s to travel from Paris to Rheims while the songs from the album were played over the train 's announcement system for the critics .
In October 2009 , a remastered edition of the album was released by EMI Records in Germany , Mute Records in the European Union and Astralwerks Records in the United States . This re @-@ release was available on compact disc , digital download and vinyl and features a different album cover from previous versions of the album . This new version features a black background with white Trans Europ Express train in the center . The track listing on the 2009 re @-@ release amends the titles of the songs to match the original German release . This change has " Metal on Metal " being credited for two minutes of the music with the remainder being a track titled " Abzug " ( English : " Departure " ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
Trans @-@ Europe Express charted higher in the United States than Kraftwerk 's previous album Radio @-@ Activity by peaking at number 117 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " were released as singles from the album . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " charted in the Billboard Hot 100 in 1977 where it peaked at number 67 . Trans @-@ Europe Express began charting in the United Kingdom in the 1980s . The album entered the charts on February 6 , 1982 , staying in the charts for seven weeks and peaking at number 49 . The single for " Showroom Dummies " entered the charts on February 20 , 1982 , staying in the charts for five weeks and peaking at number 25 .
= = Critical reception = =
Initial reviews for the Trans @-@ Europe Express were positive . Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A- rating , stating that the album 's " textural effects sound like parodies by some cosmic schoolboy of every lush synthesizer surge that 's ever stuck in your gullet — yet also work the way those surges are supposed to work " . Trans @-@ Europe Express charted in the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll , placing at number 30 .
Modern reception has been very favorable . Trans @-@ Europe Express has the highest possible ratings from publications including AllMusic , Mojo , Rolling Stone and Slant Magazine . Steve Huey of Allmusic wrote that the album " is often cited as perhaps the archetypal ( and most accessible ) Kraftwerk album ... Overall , Trans @-@ Europe Express offers the best blend of minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies in the group 's catalog " . The British press also looked favorably on the album . Q gave the album four stars out of five , stating that the album " changed the face of American dance music " and that it was one of the most compelling beats of this or any other era " . In 2009 Drowned in Sound gave the album a perfect rating of 10 out of 10 , stating that " Trans @-@ Europe Express is all at once antique , timeless , retro and contemporary . Its status as modern electronic music 's birth certificate is well @-@ earned , but its hallowed reputation should never be allowed to disguise its true value and power as a work of art . Nor should it obscure a longevity that , 32 years on , we might as well start calling by its real name : immortality " .
Trans @-@ Europe Express has also appeared on top album lists from a variety of sources . In 2001 , TV network VH1 placed Trans @-@ Europe Express at number 56 on their list of " 100 Greatest Albums ( of Rock & Roll ) of All Time " . In 2002 , Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of the greatest electronic albums of the 20th century . In 2003 , Rolling Stone placed the album at number 253 on their list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Channel 4 placed the album at number 71 on their list of top 100 Greatest albums . In 2004 , the online music website Pitchfork Media listed Trans @-@ Europe Express as 6th best album of the 1970s , stating that " the day will soon come , if it hasn 't already , that Trans @-@ Europe Express joins the ranks of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Exile on Main Street as a record that simply cannot be written about " .
= = = Legacy = = =
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the album 's influence as " unprecedented , reaching as wide as rock ( Radiohead 's Kid A ) , hip @-@ hop ( Afrika Bambaataa 's classic " Planet Rock " , Jay Dee 's recent " Big Booty Express " ) and pop ( Madonna 's Drowned World Tour , which incorporated samples of " Metal on Metal " ) " .
In the late 1970s , the album had an impact on post @-@ punk band Joy Division as bassist Peter Hook related it : " We were introduced to Kraftwerk by [ singer ] Ian Curtis , who insisted we play Trans Europe Express before we went on stage every time . The tape was played in the venue over the PA system , to be heard by everyone . The first time was Pips [ a Manchester club well known for its ‘ Bowie Room ’ ] . Ian got thrown out for kicking glass around the dance floor in time to the track . It took us ages of pleading to get him back in . " Drummer Stephen Morris also confirmed that Joy Division " used to play Trans @-@ Europe Express before we went on stage , to get us into the zone . It worked because it gets up a lot of momentum . Trans @-@ Europe Express just seemed to express an optimism - even if people see it as machine music " . Morris also said : " It reminds me of Cabaret , the film , with all of the 1920s singing . [ ... ] When you get that marriage between humans and machines , and you get it right , it 's fantastic . I have to say it 's my favourite Kraftwerk album . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Trans @-@ Europe Express is adapted from Acclaimed Music , except where otherwise noted .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] While " Abzug " ( English meaning " trigger " or " departure " ) appeared originally as a separate track on all pressings of Trans Europa Express , later releases of Trans @-@ Europe Express combined " Abzug " and " Metal on Metal " together under the latter track 's title , at a running time of 6 : 52 . On both 2009 reissues of Trans Europa Express and Trans @-@ Europe Express , however , " Abzug " is presented as a separate track .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from Trans @-@ Europe Express liner notes .
= = Charts positions = =
= Gabriel García Márquez =
Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez ( / ɡɑːrˈsiːə ˈmɑːrkɛs / ; American Spanish : [ ɡaˈβɾjel ɣarˈsi.a ˈmarkes ] ; 6 March 1927 – 17 April 2014 ) was a Colombian novelist , short @-@ story writer , screenwriter and journalist , known affectionately as Gabo or Gabito throughout Latin America . Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century and one of the best in the Spanish language , he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . He pursued a self @-@ directed education that resulted in his leaving law school for a career in journalism . From early on , he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics . In 1958 , he married Mercedes Barcha ; they had two sons , Rodrigo and Gonzalo .
García Márquez started as a journalist , and wrote many acclaimed non @-@ fiction works and short stories , but is best known for his novels , such as One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 ) , The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) , and Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 ) . His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success , most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism , which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations . Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo ( the town mainly inspired by his birthplace Aracataca ) , and most of them explore the theme of solitude .
On his death in April 2014 , Juan Manuel Santos , the President of Colombia , described him as " the greatest Colombian who ever lived . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gabriel García Márquez was born on 6 March 1927 in Aracataca , Colombia , to Gabriel Eligio García and Luisa Santiaga Márquez Iguarán . Soon after García Márquez was born , his father became a pharmacist and moved , with his wife , to Barranquilla , leaving young Gabito in Aracataca . He was raised by his maternal grandparents , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán and Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía . In December 1936 , his father took him and his brother to Sincé , while in March 1937 , his grandfather died ; the family then moved first ( back ) to Barranquilla and then on to Sucre , where his father started up a pharmacy .
When his parents fell in love , their relationship met with resistance from Luisa Santiaga Márquez 's father , the Colonel . Gabriel Eligio García was not the man the Colonel had envisioned winning the heart of his daughter : he ( Gabriel Eligio ) was a Conservative , and had the reputation of being a womanizer . Gabriel Eligio wooed Luisa with violin serenades , love poems , countless letters , and even telephone messages after her father sent her away with the intention of separating the young couple . Her parents tried everything to get rid of the man , but he kept coming back , and it was obvious their daughter was committed to him . Her family finally capitulated and gave her permission to marry him ( The tragicomic story of their courtship would later be adapted and recast as Love in the Time of Cholera . )
Since García Márquez 's parents were more or less strangers to him for the first few years of his life , his grandparents influenced his early development very strongly . His grandfather , whom he called " Papalelo " , was a Liberal veteran of the Thousand Days War . The Colonel was considered a hero by Colombian Liberals and was highly respected . He was well known for his refusal to remain silent about the banana massacres that took place the year after García Márquez was born . The Colonel , whom García Márquez described as his " umbilical cord with history and reality , " was also an excellent storyteller . He taught García Márquez lessons from the dictionary , took him to the circus each year , and was the first to introduce his grandson to ice — a " miracle " found at the United Fruit Company store . He would also occasionally tell his young grandson " You can 't imagine how much a dead man weighs " , reminding him that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man , a lesson that García Márquez would later integrate into his novels .
García Márquez 's political and ideological views were shaped by his grandfather 's stories . In an interview , García Márquez told his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza , " my grandfather the Colonel was a Liberal . My political ideas probably came from him to begin with because , instead of telling me fairy tales when I was young , he would regale me with horrifying accounts of the last civil war that free @-@ thinkers and anti @-@ clerics waged against the Conservative government . " This influenced his political views and his literary technique so that " in the same way that his writing career initially took shape in conscious opposition to the Colombian literary status quo , García Márquez 's socialist and anti @-@ imperialist views are in principled opposition to the global status quo dominated by the United States . "
García Márquez 's grandmother , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes , played an equally influential role in his upbringing . He was inspired by the way she " treated the extraordinary as something perfectly natural . " The house was filled with stories of ghosts and premonitions , omens and portents , all of which were studiously ignored by her husband . According to García Márquez she was " the source of the magical , superstitious and supernatural view of reality " . He enjoyed his grandmother 's unique way of telling stories . No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements , she always delivered them as if they were the irrefutable truth . It was a deadpan style that , some thirty years later , heavily influenced her grandson 's most popular novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude .
= = = Journalism = = =
García Márquez began his career as a journalist while studying law at the National University of Colombia . In 1948 and 1949 he wrote for El Universal in Cartagena . Later , from 1950 until 1952 , he wrote a " whimsical " column under the name of " Septimus " for the local paper El Heraldo in Barranquilla . García Márquez noted of his time at El Heraldo , " I 'd write a piece and they 'd pay me three pesos for it , and maybe an editorial for another three . " During this time he became an active member of the informal group of writers and journalists known as the Barranquilla Group , an association that provided great motivation and inspiration for his literary career . He worked with inspirational figures such as Ramon Vinyes , whom García Márquez depicted as an Old Catalan who owns a bookstore in One Hundred Years of Solitude . At this time , García Márquez was also introduced to the works of writers such as Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner . Faulkner 's narrative techniques , historical themes and use of rural locations influenced many Latin American authors . The environment of Barranquilla gave García Márquez a world @-@ class literary education and provided him with a unique perspective on Caribbean culture . From 1954 to 1955 , García Márquez spent time in Bogotá and regularly wrote for Bogotá 's El Espectador . He was a regular film critic which drove his interest in film .
In December 1957 García Márquez accepted a position in Caracas in the newspaper El Momento . He arrived to the Venezuelan capital on 23 December 1957 , and began working right away at El Momento . García Márquez also assisted in the 1958 Venezuelan coup d 'état , leading to the exile of the president Marcos Pérez Jiménez . Following this event , García Márquez wrote an article , " The participation of the clergy in the struggle " , describing the Church of Venezuela opposition against Jiménez 's regime . In March 1958 he made a trip to Colombia , where he married Mercedes Barcha and together they came back to Caracas . In May 1958 , disagreeing with the owner of Momento , he resigned and became shortly afterwards editor of the newspaper Venezuela Gráfica .
= = = = The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor = = = =
Ending in controversy , his last domestically written editorial for El Espectador was a series of fourteen news articles in which he revealed the hidden story of how a Colombian Navy vessel 's shipwreck " occurred because the boat contained a badly stowed cargo of contraband goods that broke loose on the deck . " García Márquez compiled this story through interviews with a young sailor who survived the shipwreck . The publication of the articles resulted in public controversy , as they discredited the official account of the events , which had blamed a storm for the shipwreck , and glorified the surviving sailor .
In response to this controversy El Espectador sent García Márquez away to Europe to be a foreign correspondent . He wrote about his experiences for El Independiente , a newspaper which had briefly replaced El Espectador during the military government of General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla and was later shut down by Colombian authorities . García Márquez 's background in journalism provided a foundational base for his writing career . Literary critic Bell @-@ Villada noted , " Owing to his hands on experiences in journalism , García Márquez is , of all the great living authors , the one who is closest to everyday reality . "
= = = QAP = = =
García Márquez was one of the original founders of QAP , a newscast that aired between 1992 and 1997 . He was attracted to the project by the promise of editorial and journalistic independence .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
García Márquez met Mercedes Barcha while she was at school ; they decided to wait for her to finish before getting married . When he was sent to Europe as a foreign correspondent , Mercedes waited for him to return to Barranquilla . Finally they married in 1958 . The following year , their first son , Rodrigo García , now a television and film director , was born . In 1961 , the family traveled by Greyhound bus throughout the southern United States and eventually settled in Mexico City . García Márquez had always wanted to see the Southern United States because it inspired the writings of William Faulkner . Three years later the couple 's second son , Gonzalo , was born in Mexico . Gonzalo is currently a graphic designer in Mexico City .
= = = Leaf Storm = = =
Leaf Storm ( La Hojarasca ) is García Márquez 's first novella and took seven years to find a publisher , finally being published in 1955 . García Márquez notes that " of all that he had written ( as of 1973 ) , Leaf Storm was his favorite because he felt that it was the most sincere and spontaneous . " All the events of the novella take place in one room , during a half @-@ hour period on Wednesday 12 September 1928 . It is the story of an old colonel ( similar to García Márquez 's own grandfather ) who tries to give a proper Christian burial to an unpopular French doctor . The colonel is supported only by his daughter and grandson . The novella explores the child 's first experience with death by following his stream of consciousness . The book also reveals the perspective of Isabel , the Colonel 's daughter , which provides a feminine point of view .
= = = One Hundred Years of Solitude = = =
Since García Márquez was eighteen , he had wanted to write a novel based on his grandparents ' house where he grew up . However , he struggled with finding an appropriate tone and put off the idea until one day the answer hit him while driving his family to Acapulco . He turned the car around and the family returned home so he could begin writing . He sold his car so his family would have money to live on while he wrote , but writing the novel took far longer than he expected , and he wrote every day for eighteen months . His wife had to ask for food on credit from their butcher and their baker as well as nine months of rent on credit from their landlord . During the eighteen months of writing , García Márquez met with two couples , Eran Carmen and Álvaro Mutis , and María Luisa Elío and Jomí García Ascot , every night and discussed the progress of the novel , trying out different versions . Fortunately , when the book was finally published in 1967 it became his most commercially successful novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude , which sold more than 30 million copies ( Cien años de soledad ) ( 1967 ; English translation by Gregory Rabassa 1970 ) and was dedicated “ Para ( to ) Jomí García Ascot y María Luisa Elío ” . The story chronicles several generations of the Buendía family from the time they founded the fictional South American village of Macondo , through their trials and tribulations , instances of incest , births and deaths . The history of Macondo is often generalized by critics to represent rural towns throughout Latin America or at least near García Márquez 's native Aracataca .
This novel was widely popular and led to García Márquez 's Nobel Prize as well as the Rómulo Gallegos Prize in 1972 . William Kennedy has called it " the first piece of literature since the Book of Genesis that should be required reading for the entire human race , " and hundreds of articles and books of literary critique have been published in response to it . Despite the many accolades the book received , García Márquez tended to downplay its success . He once remarked : " Most critics don 't realize that a novel like One Hundred Years of Solitude is a bit of a joke , full of signals to close friends ; and so , with some pre @-@ ordained right to pontificate they take on the responsibility of decoding the book and risk making terrible fools of themselves . "
= = = Fame = = =
After writing One Hundred Years of Solitude García Márquez returned to Europe , this time bringing along his family , to live in Barcelona , Spain , for seven years . The international recognition García Márquez earned with the publication of the novel led to his ability to act as a facilitator in several negotiations between the Colombian government and the guerrillas , including the former 19th of April Movement ( M @-@ 19 ) , and the current FARC and ELN organizations . The popularity of his writing also led to friendships with powerful leaders , including one with former Cuban president Fidel Castro , which has been analyzed in Gabo and Fidel : Portrait of a Friendship . It was during this time that he was punched in the face by Mario Vargas Llosa in what became one of the largest feuds in modern literature . In an interview with Claudia Dreifus in 1982 García Márquez notes his relationship with Castro is mostly based on literature : “ Ours is an intellectual friendship . It may not be widely known that Fidel is a very cultured man . When we ’ re together , we talk a great deal about literature . ” This relationship was criticized by Cuban exile writer Reinaldo Arenas , in his 1992 memoir Antes de que Anochezca ( Before Night Falls ) .
Due to his newfound fame and his outspoken views on U.S. imperialism Garcia Márquez was labeled as a subversive and for many years was denied visas by U.S. immigration authorities . After Bill Clinton was elected U.S. president , he lifted the travel ban and cited One Hundred Years of Solitude as his favorite novel .
= = = Autumn of the Patriarch = = =
García Márquez was inspired to write a dictator novel when he witnessed the flight of Venezuelan dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez . He shares , " it was the first time we had seen a dictator fall in Latin America . " García Márquez began writing Autumn of the Patriarch ( El otoño del patriarca ) in 1968 and said it was finished in 1971 ; however , he continued to embellish the dictator novel until 1975 when it was published in Spain . According to García Márquez , the novel is a " poem on the solitude of power " as it follows the life of an eternal dictator known as the General . The novel is developed through a series of anecdotes related to the life of the General , which do not appear in chronological order . Although the exact location of the story is not pin @-@ pointed in the novel , the imaginary country is situated somewhere in the Caribbean .
García Márquez gave his own explanation of the plot :
My intention was always to make a synthesis of all the Latin American dictators , but especially those from the Caribbean . Nevertheless , the personality of Juan Vicente Gomez [ of Venezuela ] was so strong , in addition to the fact that he exercised a special fascination over me , that undoubtedly the Patriarch has much more of him than anyone else .
After Autumn of the Patriarch was published García Márquez and his family moved from Barcelona to Mexico City and García Márquez pledged not to publish again until the Chilean Dictator Augusto Pinochet was deposed . However , he ultimately published Chronicle of a Death Foretold while Pinochet was still in power as he " could not remain silent in the face of injustice and repression . "
= = = Chronicle of a Death Foretold = = =
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( Crónica de una muerte anunciada ) recreates a murder that took place in Sucre , Colombia in 1951 . The character named Santiago Nasar is based on a good friend from García Márquez 's childhood , Cayetano Gentile Chimento . Pelayo classifies this novel as a combination of journalism , realism and detective story .
The plot of the novel revolves around Santiago Nasar 's murder . The narrator acts as a detective , uncovering the events of the murder second by second . Literary critic Ruben Pelayo notes that the story " unfolds in an inverted fashion . Instead of moving forward ... the plot moves backwards . " In the first chapter , the narrator tells the reader exactly who killed Santiago Nasar and the rest of the book is left to unfold why .
Chronicle of a Death Foretold was published in 1981 , the year before García Márquez was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . The novel was also adapted into a film by Italian director Francesco Rosi in 1987 .
= = = Love in the Time of Cholera = = =
Love in the Time of Cholera ( El amor en los tiempos del cólera ) was first published in 1985 . It is considered a non @-@ traditional love story as " lovers find love in their ' golden years ' — in their seventies , when death is all around them " .
Love in the Time of Cholera is based on the stories of two couples . The young love of Fermina Daza and Florentino Ariza is based on the love affair of García Márquez 's parents . However , as García Márquez explains in an interview : “ The only difference is [ my parents ] married . And as soon as they were married , they were no longer interesting as literary figures . " The love of old people is based on a newspaper story about the death of two Americans , who were almost 80 years old , who met every year in Acapulco . They were out in a boat one day and were murdered by the boatman with his oars . García Márquez notes , " Through their death , the story of their secret romance became known . I was fascinated by them . They were each married to other people . "
= = = News of a Kidnapping = = =
News of a Kidnapping ( Noticia de un secuestro ) was first published in 1996 . It is a non @-@ fiction book that examines a series of related kidnappings and Narco @-@ terrorist actions committed in the early 1990s in Colombia by the Medellín Cartel , a drug cartel founded and operated by Pablo Escobar . The text recounts the kidnapping , imprisonment , and eventual release of prominent figures in Colombia , including politicians and members of the press . The original idea of the book was proposed to García Márquez by the former minister for education Maruja Pachón Castro and Colombian diplomat Luis Alberto Villamizar Cárdenas , both of whom were among the many victims of a Pablo Escobar 's attempt to pressure the government to stop his extradition by committing a series of kidnappings , murders and terrorist actions .
= = = Living to Tell the Tale and Memories of My Melancholy Whores = = =
In 2002 , García Márquez published the memoir Vivir para contarla , the first of a projected three @-@ volume autobiography . Edith Grossman 's English translation , Living to Tell the Tale , was published in November 2003 . October 2004 brought the publication of a novel , Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( Memoria de mis putas tristes ) , a love story that follows the romance of a 90 @-@ year @-@ old man and a pubescent concubine . Memories of My Melancholy Whores caused controversy in Iran , where it was banned after an initial 5 @,@ 000 copies were printed and sold .
= = = Film and opera = = =
Critics often describe the language that García Márquez 's imagination produces as visual or graphic , and he himself explains each of his stories is inspired by " a visual image , " so it comes as no surprise that he had a long and involved history with film . He was a film critic , he founded and served as executive director of the Film Institute in Havana , was the head of the Latin American Film Foundation , and wrote several screenplays . For his first script he worked with Carlos Fuentes on Juan Rulfo 's El gallo de oro . His other screenplays include the films Tiempo de morir ( 1966 ) , ( 1985 ) and Un señor muy viejo con unas alas enormes ( 1988 ) , as well as the television series Amores difíciles ( 1991 ) .
García Márquez also originally wrote his Eréndira as a third screenplay . However , this version was lost and replaced by the novella . Nonetheless , he worked on rewriting the script in collaboration with Ruy Guerra and the film was released in Mexico in 1983 .
Several of his stories have inspired other writers and directors . In 1987 , the Italian director Francesco Rosi directed the movie Cronaca di una morte annunciata based on Chronicle of a Death Foretold . Several film adaptations have been made in Mexico , including Miguel Littin 's La Viuda de Montiel ( 1979 ) , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo 's Maria de mi corazón ( 1979 ) , and Arturo Ripstein 's El coronel no tiene quien le escriba ( 1998 ) .
British director Mike Newell ( Four Weddings and a Funeral ) filmed Love in the Time of Cholera in Cartagena , Colombia , with the screenplay written by Ronald Harwood ( The Pianist ) . The film was released in the U.S. on 16 November 2007 .
His novel Of Love and Other Demons was adapted and directed by a Costa Rican filmmaker , Hilda Hidalgo , who is a graduate of the Film Institute at Havana where García Márquez would frequently impart screenplay workshops . Hidalgo 's film was released in April 2010 . The same novel was adapted by Hungarian composer Péter Eötvös to form the opera Love and Other Demons , premiered in 2008 at Glyndebourne Festival .
= = = Later life and death = = =
= = = = Declining health = = = =
In 1999 , García Márquez was diagnosed with lymphatic cancer . Chemotherapy provided by a hospital in Los Angeles proved to be successful , and the illness went into remission . This event prompted García Márquez to begin writing his memoirs : " I reduced relations with my friends to a minimum , disconnected the telephone , canceled the trips and all sorts of current and future plans " , he told El Tiempo , the Colombian newspaper , " ... and locked myself in to write every day without interruption . " In 2002 , three years later , he published Living to Tell the Tale ( Vivir para Contarla ) , the first volume in a projected trilogy of memoirs .
In 2000 , his impending death was incorrectly reported by Peruvian daily newspaper La República . The next day other newspapers republished his alleged farewell poem , " La Marioneta , " but shortly afterwards García Márquez denied being the author of the poem , which was determined to be the work of a Mexican ventriloquist .
He stated that 2005 " was the first [ year ] in my life in which I haven 't written even a line . With my experience , I could write a new novel without any problems , but people would realise my heart wasn 't in it . "
In May 2008 , it was announced that García Márquez was finishing a new " novel of love " that had yet to be given a title , to be published by the end of the year . However , in April 2009 his agent , Carmen Balcells , told the Chilean newspaper La Tercera that García Márquez was unlikely to write again . This was disputed by Random House Mondadori editor Cristobal Pera , who stated that García Márquez was completing a new novel called We 'll Meet in August ( En agosto nos vemos ) .
In December 2008 , García Márquez told fans at the Guadalajara book fair that writing had worn him out . In 2009 , responding to claims by both his literary agent and his biographer that his writing career was over , he told Colombian newspaper El Tiempo : " Not only is it not true , but the only thing I do is write " .
In 2012 , his brother Jaime announced that García Márquez was suffering from dementia .
In April 2014 , García Márquez was hospitalized in Mexico . He had infections in his lungs and his urinary tract , and was suffering from dehydration . He was responding well to antibiotics . Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto wrote on Twitter , " I wish him a speedy recovery " . Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos said his country was thinking of the author and said in a tweet " All of Colombia wishes a speedy recovery to the greatest of all time : Gabriel García Márquez " .
= = = = Death and funeral = = = =
García Márquez died of pneumonia at the age of 87 on 17 April 2014 in Mexico City . His death was confirmed by his relative Fernanda Familiar on Twitter , and by his former editor Cristóbal Pera .
The Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos mentioned : " One Hundred Years of Solitude and sadness for the death of the greatest Colombian of all time " . The former Colombian president Álvaro Uribe Vélez said : " Master García Márquez , thanks forever , millions of people in the planet fell in love with our nation fascinated with your lines " . At the time of his death , he had a wife and two sons .
Garcia Marquez was cremated at a private family ceremony in Mexico City . On 22 April , the presidents of Colombia and Mexico attended a formal ceremony in Mexico City , where Garcia Marquez had lived for more than three decades . A funeral cortege took the urn containing his ashes from his house to the Palacio de Bellas Artes , where the memorial ceremony was held . Earlier , residents in his home town of Aracataca in Colombia 's Caribbean region held a symbolic funeral .
= = Style = =
While there are certain aspects readers can almost always expect in García Márquez 's writing , like instances of humour , he did not stick to any clear and predetermined style template . In an interview with Marlise Simons , García Márquez noted :
In every book I try to make a different path [ ... ] . One doesn 't choose the style . You can investigate and try to discover what the best style would be for a theme . But the style is determined by the subject , by the mood of the times . If you try to use something that is not suitable , it just won 't work . Then the critics build theories around that and they see things I hadn 't seen . I only respond to our way of life , the life of the Caribbean .
García Márquez was also noted for leaving out seemingly important details and events so the reader is forced into a more participatory role in the story development . For example , in No One Writes to the Colonel , the main characters are not given names . This practice is influenced by Greek tragedies , such as Antigone and Oedipus Rex , in which important events occur off @-@ stage and are left to the audience 's imagination .
= = = Realism and magical realism = = =
Reality is an important theme in all of García Márquez 's works . He said of his early works ( with the exception of Leaf Storm ) , " Nobody Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Big Mama 's Funeral all reflect the reality of life in Colombia and this theme determines the rational structure of the books . I don 't regret having written them , but they belong to a kind of premeditated literature that offers too static and exclusive a vision of reality . "
In his other works he experimented more with less traditional approaches to reality , so that " the most frightful , the most unusual things are told with the deadpan expression " . A commonly cited example is the physical and spiritual ascending into heaven of a character while she is hanging the laundry out to dry in One Hundred Years of Solitude . The style of these works fits in the " marvellous realm " described by the Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier and was labeled as magical realism . Literary critic Michael Bell proposes an alternative understanding for García Márquez 's style , as the category magic realism is criticized for being dichotomizing and exoticizing , " what is really at stake is a psychological suppleness which is able to inhabit unsentimentally the daytime world while remaining open to the promptings of those domains which modern culture has , by its own inner logic , necessarily marginalised or repressed . " García Márquez and his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza discuss his work in a similar way ,
" The way you treat reality in your books ... has been called magical realism . I have the feeling your European readers are usually aware of the magic of your stories but fail to see the reality behind it ... . " " This is surely because their rationalism prevents them seeing that reality isn 't limited to the price of tomatoes and eggs . "
= = Motifs = =
= = = Solitude = = =
The theme of solitude runs through much of García Márquez 's works . As Pelayo notes , " Love in the Time of Cholera , like all of Gabriel García Márquez 's work , explores the solitude of the individual and of humankind ... portrayed through the solitude of love and of being in love " .
In response to Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza 's question , " If solitude is the theme of all your books , where should we look for the roots of this over @-@ riding emotion ? In your childhood perhaps ? " García Márquez replied , " I think it 's a problem everybody has . Everyone has his own way and means of expressing it . The feeling pervades the work of so many writers , although some of them may express it unconsciously . "
In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech , Solitude of Latin America , he relates this theme of solitude to the Latin American experience , " The interpretation of our reality through patterns not our own , serves only to make us ever more unknown , ever less free , ever more solitary . "
= = = Macondo = = =
Another important theme in many of García Márquez 's work is the setting of the village he calls Macondo . He uses his home town of Aracataca , Colombia as a cultural , historical and geographical reference to create this imaginary town , but the representation of the village is not limited to this specific area . García Márquez shares , " Macondo is not so much a place as a state of mind , which allows you to see what you want , and how you want to see it . " Even when his stories do not take place in Macondo , there is often still a consistent lack of specificity to the location . So while they are often set with " a Caribbean coastline and an Andean hinterland ... [ the settings are ] otherwise unspecified , in accordance with García Márquez 's evident attempt to capture a more general regional myth rather than give a specific political analysis . " This fictional town has become well known in the literary world . As Stavans notes of Macondo , " its geography and inhabitants constantly invoked by teachers , politicians , and tourist agents ... " makes it " ... hard to believe it is a sheer fabrication . " In Leaf Storm García Márquez depicts the realities of the Banana Boom in Macondo , which include a period of great wealth during the presence of the US companies and a period of depression upon the departure of the American banana companies . As well , One Hundred Years of Solitude takes place in Macondo and tells the complete history of the fictional town from its founding to its doom .
In his autobiography , García Márquez explains his fascination with the word and concept Macondo . He describes a trip he made with his mother back to Aracataca as a young man :
The train stopped at a station that had no town , and a short while later it passed the only banana plantation along the route that had its name written over the gate : Macondo . This word had attracted my attention ever since the first trips I had made with my grandfather , but I discovered only as an adult that I liked its poetic resonance . I never heard anyone say it and did not even ask myself what it meant ... I happened to read in an encyclopedia that it is a tropical tree resembling the Ceiba .
= = = Violence = = =
In several of García Márquez 's works , including No One Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Leaf Storm , he referenced La Violencia ( the violence ) , " a brutal civil war between conservatives and liberals that lasted into the 1960s , causing the deaths of several hundred thousand Colombians " . Throughout all of his novels there are subtle references to la violencia . For example , characters live under various unjust situations like curfew , press censorship , and underground newspapers . In Evil Hour , while not one of García Márquez 's most famous novels , is notable for its portrayal of la violencia with its " fragmented portrayal of social disintegration provoked by la violencia " . Although García Márquez did portray the corrupt nature and the injustices of times like la violencia , he refused to use his work as a platform for political propaganda . " For him , the duty of the revolutionary writer is to write well , and the ideal novel is one that moves its reader by its political and social content , and , at the same time , by its power to penetrate reality and expose its other side .
= = Legacy = =
Whether in fiction or nonfiction , in the epic novel or the concentrated story , Márquez is now recognized in the words of Carlos Fuentes as " the most popular and perhaps the best writer in Spanish since Cervantes " . He is one of those very rare artists who succeed in chronicling not only a nation 's life , culture and history , but also those of an entire continent , and a master storyteller who , as The New York Review of Books once said , " forces upon us at every page the wonder and extravagance of life . "
García Márquez 's work is an important part of the Latin American Boom of literature . His work has challenged critics of Colombian literature to step out of the conservative criticism that had been dominant before the success of One Hundred Years of Solitude . In a review of literary criticism Robert Sims notes ,
García Márquez continues to cast a lengthy shadow in Colombia , Latin America , and the United States . Critical works on the 1982 Nobel laureate have reached industrial proportion and show no signs of abating . Moreover , García Márquez has galvanized Colombian literature in an unprecedented way by giving a tremendous impetus to Colombian literature . Indeed , he has become a touchstone for literature and criticism throughout the Americas as his work has created a certain attraction @-@ repulsion among critics and writers while readers continue to devour new publications . No one can deny that García Márquez has helped rejuvenate , reformulate , and recontextualize literature and criticism in Colombia and the rest of Latin America .
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
García Márquez received the Nobel Prize in Literature on 8 December 1982 " for his novels and short stories , in which the fantastic and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination , reflecting a continent 's life and conflicts " . His acceptance speech was entitled " The Solitude of Latin America " . García Márquez was the first Colombian and fourth Latin American to win a Nobel Prize for Literature . After becoming a Nobel laureate , García Márquez stated to a correspondent : " I have the impression that in giving me the prize , they have taken into account the literature of the sub @-@ continent and have awarded me as a way of awarding all of this literature " .
= = List of works = =
= = = Novels = = =
In Evil Hour ( 1962 )
One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 )
The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 )
Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 )
The General in His Labyrinth ( 1989 )
Of Love and Other Demons ( 1994 )
= = = Novellas = = =
Leaf Storm ( 1955 )
No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1961 )
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1981 )
Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2004 )
= = = Short story collections = = =
Eyes of a Blue Dog ( 1947 )
Big Mama 's Funeral ( 1962 )
One of These Days ( 1962 )
The Incredible and Sad Tale of Innocent Eréndira and Her Heartless Grandmother ( 1978 )
Collected Stories ( 1984 )
Strange Pilgrims ( 1993 )
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor ( 1970 )
The Solitude of Latin America ( 1982 )
The Fragrance of Guava ( 1982 , with Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza )
Clandestine in Chile ( 1986 )
News of a Kidnapping ( 1996 )
A Country for Children ( 1998 )
Living to Tell the Tale ( 2002 )
= = = Films = = =
= = = Adaptations based on his works = = =
There Are No Thieves in This Village ( 1965 , Alberto Isaac )
Patsy , My Love ( 1969 , Manuel Michel , based on a non @-@ published story )
The Widow of Montiel ( 1979 , Miguel Littín )
The Sea of Lost Time ( 1980 , Solveig Hoogesteijn )
One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1981 , Shūji Terayama )
Farewell to the Ark ( 1984 , Shūji Terayama )
Time to Die ( 1984 , Jorge Alí Triana )
Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1987 , Francesco Rosi )
The Summer of Miss Forbes ( 1989 , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo )
I 'm the One You 're Looking For ( 1989 , Jaime Chávarri )
Only Death Is Bound to Come ( 1992 , Marina Tsurtsumia )
Bloody Morning ( 1993 , Shaohong Li )
No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1999 , Arturo Ripstein )
In Evil Hour ( 2005 , Ruy Guerra )
Love in the Time of Cholera ( 2007 , Mike Newell )
Of Love and Other Demons ( 2009 , Hilda Hidalgo )
Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2011 , Henning Carlsen )
= = García Márquez in fiction = =
A year after his death , García Márquez appears as a notable character in Claudia Amengual 's novel Cartagena , set in Uruguay and Colombia
In Dexter ( season 3 ) , episode 10 ( " Go Your Own Way " ) , the title character gains access to Miguel Prado 's personal study by telling Prado 's housekeeper , Norma , he wants to give Prado a best man gift of a García Márquez limited edition book Prado doesn 't already have , that Dexter needs to see which books are already in Prado 's library , and Norma should keep the gift and visit a secret .
In John Green 's famous novel " Looking for Alaska " , Gabriel García Márquez is mentioned several times .
= = = Movies = = =
Interview with Gabriel García Márquez in 1998 .
Gabo – The Creation of Gabriel García Márquez . Documentary , Germany , 2015 , 90 min .
= Lola ( song ) =
" Lola " is a song written by Ray Davies and performed by English rock band the Kinks on their album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One . The song details a romantic encounter between a young man and a possible transvestite , whom he meets in a club in Soho , London . In the song , the narrator describes his confusion towards a person named Lola who " walked like a woman and talked like a man " . Although Ray Davies claims that the incident was inspired by a true encounter experienced by the band 's manager , alternate explanations for the song have been given by drummer Mick Avory .
The song was released in the United Kingdom on 12 June 1970 , while in the United States it was released on 28 June 1970 . Commercially , the single reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . Due to its controversial subject matter and use of the brand name Coca @-@ Cola , the single received backlash and even bans in Britain and Australia . The British version of the song uses the phrase " cherry cola " while the US version uses the name " Coca @-@ Cola . " The track has since become one of The Kinks ' most iconic and popular songs , later being ranked number 422 on " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " as well as number 473 on the " NME 's 500 Greatest Songs Of All Time " list .
Since its release , " Lola " has appeared on multiple compilation and live albums . In 1980 , a live version of the song from the album One for the Road was released as a single in America and some European countries , becoming a minor hit . Other versions include live renditions from 1972 's Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz and 1996 's To the Bone . The " Lola " character also made an appearance in the lyrics of the band 's 1981 song , " Destroyer " .
= = Background = =
Ray Davies has claimed that he was inspired to write " Lola " after Kinks manager Robert Wace spent a night in Paris dancing with a transgender woman . Davies said of the incident , " In his apartment , Robert had been dancing with this black woman , and he said , ' I 'm really onto a thing here . ' And it was okay until we left at six in the morning and then I said , ' Have you seen the stubble ? ' He said ' Yeah , ' but he was too pissed [ intoxicated ] to care , I think . "
Drummer Mick Avory has offered an alternate explanation for the song 's lyrics , claiming that " Lola " was partially inspired by Avory 's frequenting of transgender bars in west London . Avory said , " We used to know this character called Michael McGrath . He used to hound the group a bit , because being called The Kinks did attract these sorts of people . He used to come down to Top of the Pops , and he was publicist for John Stephen 's shop in Carnaby Street . He used to have this place in Earl 's Court , and he used to invite me to all these drag queen acts and transsexual pubs . They were like secret clubs . And that 's where Ray [ Davies ] got the idea for ' Lola . ' When he was invited too , he wrote it while I was getting drunk . "
Despite claims that the song was written about a supposed date between Ray Davies and trans woman actress Candy Darling , Davies has since claimed this rumour to be false , saying that the two only went out to dinner together and that he had known the whole time of Darling 's gender identity .
In his autobiography , Dave Davies said that he came up with the music for what would become " Lola " , noting that brother Ray added the lyrics after hearing it . In a 1990 interview , Dave Davies claimed that " Lola " was written in a similar fashion to ' You Really Got Me ' in that the two worked on Ray 's basic skeleton of the song , saying that the song was more of a collaborative effort than many believed .
= = Writing and recording = =
Written in April 1970 , " Lola " was cited by Ray Davies as the first song he wrote following a break he took to act in the 1970 Play for Today film The Long Distance Piano Player . Davies said that he had initially struggled with writing an opening that would sell the song , but the rest of the song " came naturally . "
Initial recordings of the song began in April 1970 , but , as the band 's bassist John Dalton remembered , recording for " Lola " took particularly long , stretching into the next month . During April , four to five versions were attempted , utilizing different keys as well as varying beginnings and styles . In May , new piano parts were added to the backing track by John Gosling , the band 's new piano player that had just been auditioned . Vocals were also added at this time . The song was then mixed during that month . Mick Avory remembered the recording sessions for the song positively , saying that it " was fun , as it was the Baptist 's [ John Gosling 's ] first recording with us . "
The guitar opening on the song was produced as a result of combining the sound of a Martin guitar and a vintage Dobro resonating guitar . Ray Davies cited this blend of guitar sounds for the song 's unique guitar sound .
= = Release and controversy = =
Despite the chart success " Lola " would achieve , its fellow Lola vs. Powerman track " Powerman " was initially considered to be the first single from the album . However , " Lola " , which Ray Davies later claimed was an attempt to write a hit , was eventually decided on as the debut single release .
" Lola " was released as a single in 1970 . In the UK , the B @-@ side to the single was the Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society outtake " Berkeley Mews " while the Dave Davies @-@ penned " Mindless Child of Motherhood " was used in the US . It became an unexpected chart smash for the Kinks , reaching number two in Britain and number nine in the United States . The single also saw success worldwide , reaching the top of the charts in Ireland , New Zealand , and South Africa , as well as the top 5 in Germany , Austria , Belgium , and Switzerland . The success of the single had important ramifications for the band 's career at a critical time , allowing them to negotiate a new contract with RCA Records , construct their own London Studio , and assume more creative and managerial control . In a 1970 interview , Dave Davies claimed that , if " Lola " had been a failure , the band would have " gone on making records for another year or so and then drifted apart . "
Although the track was a major hit for the band , Dave Davies did not enjoy the success of " Lola " , saying , " In fact , when ' Lola ' was a hit , it made me feel a bit uncomfortable . Because it was taking us out of a different sort of comfort zone , where we 'd been getting into the work , and the writing and the musicality was more thought about . It did have that smell of : ' Oh blimey , not that again . ' I found it a bit odd , that period . And then it got odder and weirder . " Mick Avory said that he " enjoyed the success " the band had with " Lola " and its follow @-@ up , " Apeman . "
= = = Censorship = = =
Originally , " Lola " received backlash for its controversial lyrics . Talks of censorship began to arise , with some radio stations fading the track out before Lola 's biological sex was revealed . On 18 November 1970 , the song was even banned in Australia because of " controversial subject matter . " In a then @-@ current Record Mirror article entitled " Sex Change Record : Kink Speaks " , Ray Davies refused to tell Lola 's biological sex , saying , " It really doesn 't matter what sex Lola is , I think she 's alright . "
Despite its subject matter , the BBC banned the track for a different reason . The original song recorded in stereo had the word " Coca @-@ Cola " in the lyrics , but because of BBC Radio 's policy against product placement , Ray Davies was forced to make a round @-@ trip flight from New York to London and back — interrupting the band 's American tour — to change those words to the generic " cherry cola " for the single release .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" Lola " received positive reviews from critics . Upon the single 's release , the NME praised the song as " an engaging and sparkling piece with a gay Latin flavour and a catchy hook chorus . " Billboard said of the song at the time of its US release , " Currently a top ten British chart winner , this infectious rhythm item has all the ingredients to put the Kinks right back up the Hot 100 here with solid impact . " Rolling Stone critic Paul Gambaccini called the song as " brilliant and a smash . " Music critic Robert Christgau , despite his mixed opinion on the Lola vs. Powerman album , praised the single as " astounding . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic lauded the song for " its crisp , muscular sound , pitched halfway between acoustic folk and hard rock . " Ultimate Classic Rock ranked " Lola " as The Kinks ' third best song , saying " the great guitar riff that feeds the song is one of Dave 's all @-@ time greatest . " Paste Magazine listed the track as the band 's fourth best song .
The song was also well @-@ liked by the band . Mick Avory , who noted the song as one of the songs he was most proud to be associated with , said " I always liked ' Lola ' , I liked the subject . It 's not like anything else . I liked it for that . We 'd always take a different path . " In a 1983 interview , Ray Davies said , " I 'm just very pleased I recorded it and more pleased I wrote it . " The band revisited the " Lola " character in the lyrics of their 1981 song , " Destroyer " , a minor chart hit in America .
Satirical artist " Weird Al " Yankovic created a parody of the song called " Yoda " , featuring lyrics about the Star Wars character of the same name , on his 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .
= = Live versions = =
Since its release , " Lola " became a mainstay in The Kinks ' live repertoire , appearing in the majority of the band 's subsequent set @-@ lists until the group 's break @-@ up . In 1972 , a live performance of the song recorded at Carnegie Hall in New York City appeared on the live half of the band 's 1972 album , Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz , a double @-@ LP which contained half new studio compositions and half live versions of previously released songs .
A live version of " Lola " , recorded on 23 September 1979 in Providence , Rhode Island , was released as a single in the US in July 1980 to promote the live album One for the Road . The B @-@ side was the live version of " Celluloid Heroes " . The single was a moderate success , reaching number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was also released in some countries in Europe ( although not the UK ) in April 1981 . It topped the charts in both the Netherlands , matching the number one peak of the original version , and in Belgium , where it exceeded the original 's peak of three . It also charted in Australia , peaking at number 69 and spending 22 weeks on the charts . Although not released as a stand @-@ alone single in the UK , it was included on a bonus single ( backed with a live version of " David Watts " from the same album ) with initial copies of " Better Things " in June 1981 . This live rendition , along with the live versions of " Celluloid Heroes " and " You Really Got Me " from the same album , also appeared on the 1986 compilation album Come Dancing with The Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 – 1986 .
Although it did not appear on the original 1994 version , another live version of " Lola " was included on the 1996 US double @-@ album release of To the Bone , the band 's final release of new material before their dissolution .
= = Personnel = =
1970 studio version
Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar
Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals
Mick Avory – drums
John Dalton – bass
John Gosling – piano
Ken Jones – maracas
1980 live version
Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar
Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals
Mick Avory – drums
Jim Rodford – bass , backing vocals
Ian Gibbons – keyboards
= = Chart performance = =
= South Forty @-@ Foot Drain =
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , also known as the Black Sluice Navigation , is the main channel for the land @-@ drainage of the Black Sluice Level in the Lincolnshire Fens . It lies in eastern England between Guthram Gowt and the Black Sluice pumping station on The Haven , at Boston . The Drain has its origins in the 1630s , when the first scheme to make the Fen land available for agriculture was carried out by the Earl of Lindsey , and has been steadily improved since then . Water drained from the land entered The Haven by gravity at certain states of the tide until 1946 , when the Black Sluice pumping station was commissioned .
The Drain was navigable until 1971 , when improvements to the pumping station led to the entrance lock being removed . It is currently being upgraded to navigable status by the Environment Agency , as part of the Fens Waterways Link , with a new entrance lock being completed in December 2008 , giving access to the first 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the drain , and the upgrading of the southern section , including a link to the River Glen to allow navigation to Spalding forming phase 2 of the project .
= = History = =
The Lincolnshire Fens are an area of low @-@ lying land which have been subject to flooding and attempts to prevent it for centuries . In medieval times , the Midfen Dyke was built to drain the area , but by 1500 , this was regarded less as a drain for the land than as a boundary marker between the Parts of Holland and the Parts of Kesteven , two of the three medieval subdivisions of Lincolnshire which functioned as county councils until their abolition in 1974 . The first serious attempt to drain the area to the south west of Boston , now known as the Black Sluice Area but formerly known as the Lindsey Level , was from 1635 to 1638 , when the Earl of Lindsey agreed with the Commissioners of Sewers for Lincolnshire to carry out drainage works which would make 36 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 km2 ) of land available for agricultural use . The Earl and a group of Adventurers paid for the works , in return for land grants .
The cost of the work was £ 45 @,@ 000 , and involved the construction of a sluice near Boston , called Skirbeck Sluice , the construction of the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , from Boston to Great Hale , the construction of two drains from there to Guthram , which were called the Double Twelves , and the construction of the Clay Dyke Drain .. The scheme was not popular with the local fenmen , who made a living from fishing and wildfowling , or with the Commoners , who had a right to graze animals on the common land when it was not flooded . They attempted to get Parliament to rule in their favour , but after three years of trying , they abandoned the idea of legal redress , and took direct action . They destroyed much of the work , as well as buildings and crops , and burnt Skirbeck Sluice . The Earl of Lindsey 's contract with the Commissioners of Sewers was revoked by parliament , and it was another hundred years before the next attempt to drain the area .
In an attempt to drain Holland Fen , and prevent flooding from the River Witham , an adventurer called Earl Fitzwilliam constructed a drain in 1720 , which runs broadly parallel to the River Witham , and terminated at Lodewick 's Gowt , a sluice which he constructed on the Witham close to the location of the present Grand Sluice . The drain was for many years called Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain , but is now called the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The scheme was not entirely successful .
= = = Second Sluice = = =
In 1762 , the Witham Drainage Act was passed by Parliament , and among other things constituted the Commissioners of Sewers for the Second and Sixth District , which covered the area including Asgarby , Ewerby , Great Hale , Heckington , Holland Fen , Howell , Little Hale and South Kyme . Much of the area to the south and west of Boston , some 91 square miles ( 240 km2 ) , was inundated by the Great Flood of 1763 , and against this background , the Black Sluice Drainage and Navigation Act 1765 was obtained which created the Black Sluice Commissioners , giving them power to raise taxes and authority to carry out drainage works . The scheme largely revived the Earl of Lindsey 's original scheme . The initial design work was carried out by the civil engineer Langley Edwards , on loan from the Witham Commissioners . Some of the surveying was performed by John Landen , who was the steward of the estate of Earl Fitzwilliam at Peterborough , and a proficient amateur mathematician . The two men were jointly appointed Surveyors of the Works , acting as engineers for the scheme , while John Chapman and Richard Strattard were assistants . A new sluice , called the Black Sluice , was built at Boston as a direct replacement for the Skirbeck Sluice , having three openings with a total width of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the drain were scoured from Boston to Great Hale , beyond which the Main Drain was upgraded by cutting a new 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) channel , effectively extending the South Forth @-@ Foot Drain to Guthram , on the banks of the River Glen . A total of 65 miles ( 105 km ) of highland streams were improved by scouring and raising of the banks . The estimated cost of £ 16 @,@ 000 was raised by issuing bonds , but the project overran , and another Act of Parliament was obtained in 1770 to authorise the raising of the drainage taxes , to cover the difference . By mid @-@ 1769 , when Landen and Edwards left the project , because the work was largely complete , the scheme had cost £ 24 @,@ 000 . They were replaced by Edward Hare as Surveyor of Works , with Chapman and Strattard continuing as assistants . A historian called W. H. Wheeler , who chronicled the Lincolnshire fens , wrote that " the works were efficiently carried out and , being well @-@ designed , entirely answered expectation . "
On the River Witham , the Grand Sluice was constructed and opened on 15 October 1766 , and this prevented tidal water from entering the river , and hence flooding the Holland Fen . The Boston Harbour Commissioners were created by the Boston Port Act 1766 , and they carried out improvement works to The Haven , which resulted in lower water levels at the Black Sluice , and hence more efficient draining from the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Water was pumped into the drain by a series of windmills driving scoop wheels . Maps of the area produced in 1783 by Edward Hare show 46 such mills , which provided drainage for 32 @,@ 000 acres ( 130 km2 ) of agricultural land . Extreme high tides in 1810 and again in 1820 resulted in widespread flooding , and further thought was given to improving the flood defences .
With the improvements to the River Witham , the final section of Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain to Lodewick Gowt was filled in , and the channel was diverted to join the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Renamed the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain , it now supplies Cook 's Lock and Holland Fen pumping stations .
= = = Third Sluice = = =
Reports on improvements to the system were produced in 1843 by the surveyor Mr W Lewin and in 1845 by Sir John Rennie . Rennie 's scheme involved the provision of a catchwater drain to collect water draining from the higher ground to the west before it entered the fenlands , but an Act of Parliament to authorise its construction was defeated , and so in 1846 a report by Mr W Cubit which proposed improvements to the existing infrastructure was accepted by the Commissioners . A new Black Sluice , including a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide navigation lock , was constructed to the south of the original one , with the cill level 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) lower , which enabled the gradient of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain to be increased to 3 inches per mile ( 5 cm / km ) . Many of the tributary drains were also improved . 1846 also marked the beginning of the use of steam engines for pumping . Ten years later , a map covering 18 @,@ 000 acres ( 73 km2 ) of the Black Sluice area showed nine steam @-@ powered and eight wind @-@ powered drainage engines in use .
The River Witham Outfall Improvement Act 1880 authorised further improvements to the mouth of the Witham , to which the Black Sluice Commissioners contributed £ 65 @,@ 000 . This work led to a further drop of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in the low water level at the Black Sluice . Oil and paraffin engines began to replace steam and wind engines from 1910 , and by 1935 there were 15 such engines pumping water into the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 resulted in the Commissioners being replaced by the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , while responsibility for the rivers in the area passed to the Witham and Steeping Rivers Catchment Board . With war imminent , the Rivers Board took over the Black Sluice and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain in 1939 , and although progress was interrupted by the Second World War , a £ 374 @,@ 000 scheme to construct the Black Sluice pumping station and to widen 11 miles ( 18 km ) of the drain from Boston to Donington Bridge was completed in 1946 . The pumping station contained three 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) pumps , each powered by a 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) 5 @-@ cylinder vertical diesel engine manufactured by Ruston .
= = = Modern era = = =
Paraffin and oil engines gave way to electrically powered pumping stations in the 1950s , with the Board constructing six electric and one diesel pumping station to improve drainage to an extra 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) of land . In 1960 , the decision was taken to further improve drainage of an area of 70 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 km2 ) , as part of a £ 1 @.@ 4 million scheme which included the addition of two extra pumps at the Black Sluice , replacement of existing pumps elsewhere , and the widening of 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington Bridge to Rippingale Running Dyke . Jurisdiction for the Drain and the sluice passed to the Lincolnshire River Board at this time . The work , which began in 1962 and was completed in 1968 , proved successful in preventing flooding during severe wet weather in the winter of 1968 / 9 . With three 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) and two 925 @-@ horsepower ( 690 kW ) diesel engines , the upgraded pumping station can pump 800 thousand gallons per minute ( 60 m3 / s ) . Responsibility for the drain and the sluice passed to the National Rivers Authority in 1990 , and to the Environment Agency in 1995 .
Despite all the improvements , serious flooding occurred in 1999 when the bank of the drain was breached near Pinchbeck . Staff from the Environment Agency and the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board successfully repaired the breach before properties were flooded , and a review of the flood defences was then carried out . The report recommended improvements to some of the banks , but funding for the work was not available , and so no work was done at the time .
= = Functions = =
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain serves as a district boundary over the length where it runs roughly south to north . South of Donington High Bridge , the Drain separates South Kesteven to the west from South Holland to the east . The boundary then continues southwards along the River Glen . North of Donington , the boundary between the borough of Boston to the east and North Kesteven to the west follows the line of the Drain . As the Drain crosses the line of the Midfen Dyke , just before the Nottingham to Boston railway joins it at Great Hale pumping station , the boundary turns northwards , following its medieval course .
The main job of the Drain is to gather the waters pumped from the Kesteven Fens , the Holland Fens and the Weir Dyke , a soak dike in Bourne North Fen , alongside the Bourne Eau and River Glen , northwards and eastwards to the Black Sluice at Boston , where they are discharged to the tidal waters of The Haven . The Weir Dyke takes its name from a weir in the bank of the Bourne Eau at Tongue End , which was constructed by the Black Sluice Commissioners , to allow water from the Bourne Eau to overflow the bank when excess water could not flow into the River Glen in times of flood . The overfall weir became redundant when the Tongue End pumping station was constructed in 1966 .
The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the Black Sluice pumping station , together with most of the side channels which run into the drain are the responsibility of the Environment Agency . Management of the drainage ditches which drain the Fens are the responsibility of the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , who maintain 34 pumping stations and three gravity stations in the region . Of these , 21 are situated on the banks of the Drain , and pump directly into it , while one , the Black Hole Drove pumping station , is constructed over the channel , and acts as a boundary between the part of the Drain managed by the Environment Agency , and that managed by the Drainage Board .
= = Navigation = =
Prior to 1971 , the Drain had been navigable , but this privilege was removed at that time . It is unclear whether there was ever a right of navigation , or whether the Black Sluice Commissioners simply allowed it . The entrance lock was 72 by 20 feet ( 21 @.@ 9 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and most trade was between Boston and Donnington Bridge , with pleasure boating not being allowed prior to 1962 . The lock was closed and removed in 1971 , with little protest being made . More recently , the East Anglian Waterways Association promoted the idea that the Drain could again be made navigable as part of a larger scheme to improve leisure facilities . The local authorities which were part of the Fens Tourism consortium conducted a feasibility study , and this report was formally adopted as the Fens Waterways Link by the Environment Agency in 2004 , with the support of the local authorities , the East Anglian Waterways Association and the Inland Waterways Association .
The scheme involved a total of 150 miles ( 240 km ) of waterway , of which 50 miles ( 80 km ) would be new cruiseway , while the rest would be existing waterways which could be upgraded or have their access improved . When completed , it would connect the Rivers Witham , Glen , Welland , Nene and Great Ouse , and was heralded as the biggest waterway enhancement project in Europe by the Environment Agency . In 2007 they obtained funding for the link between Boston and Spalding . Work on a new lock beside the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston - to connect The Haven and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain - was formally started on 8 February 2008 , and was completed in December 2008 , with the official opening ceremony being held on 20 March 2009 . The lock project formed phase 1 of the scheme , and the cost of £ 8 @.@ 5 million was jointly funded by the European Regional Development Fund , the East Midlands Development Agency , and Lincolnshire County Council . The lock is designed to be used for a period either side of high tide , and so there is a rise from the Drain to the Haven . It has conventional mitre gates at one end , but uses rotating sector gates at the tidal end , each one weighing 12 @.@ 1 tonnes .
The lock opened up nearly 12 miles ( 19 km ) of waterway . As part of the upgrade , new 48 @-@ hour moorings were constructed on The Haven , for boats about to enter the Drain , and on the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain near the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston , at Swineshead Bridge and at Hubbert 's Bridge . The upper limit of navigation was initially Donington High Bridge , where the Swaton Eau joins the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and provides a wider section where boats can be turned . Beyond the bridge , the drain was officially only suitable for canoes and kayaks . However , eight narrow boats cruised on the waterway at Easter 2009 , and although the channel was narrower and not as deep after Donington Bridge , all of them successfully reached Kingston 's Bridge , some 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) further on , where the outlets from Dowsby Fen and Gosberton pumping stations provided enough width to turn a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) boat . Further progress was blocked by scaffolding erected so that the bridge could be re @-@ decked , rather than by lack of water .
The drain has been renamed as the Black Sluice Navigation by the Environment Agency . In order to use the navigation , an Environment Agency licence is required , and as there are no permanent moorings available on the drain , these are available for one day or seven days . Water levels are maintained at a lower level during the winter months , when flows are high , and the Drain needs to be able to cope with higher volumes of rainfall , than during the summer months , when navigable levels are maintained . As on the neighbouring River Witham , the switch between winter and summer levels is normally made at the beginning of April .
= = = Development = = =
Phase 2 of the Fens Waterway project involves the link between Donington Bridge and Crowland and Cowbit Washes , which are located on the River Welland near Spalding . In order to make the financing of the phase more viable , it was split into two halves , with phase 2a covering the section from Donington to Surfleet Seas End on the River Glen , and phase 2b covering from there onwards . The initial technical assessment and obtaining of planning permission for phase 2 , which involved widening of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to a new road crossing under the A151 , a new lock and a junction with the River Glen at Guthram Gowt was funded by the East Midlands Development Agency . This section would involve changes at Black Hole Drove pumping station , which has been built across the drain and hence would prevent navigation . Major contracts for this phase were expected to be awarded in April 2009 , but appraisal of the technical assessment revealed that more than one route needed to be considered before the best solution could be selected . While the obvious solution would be to connect the Glen and the drain where they are only a short distance apart , the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership also considered the creation of new channels up to 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) long to form the link . In the meantime , the economic situation changed , so that sources of funding were not so freely available , and by the end of 2010 , no clear dates had been set for the next construction phase .
By late 2011 , there were ten different routes under consideration , and an assessment of them was expected to be delivered in spring 2012 . Halcrow Group , the engineering consultancy , were responsible for carrying out the assessment , which looked at the benefits that each route might provide , not only for navigation but also for water quality , water resources and habitat for wildlife . The study was expected to provide a short @-@ list of routes , which would then be the subject of further consultation . By mid @-@ 2012 , the merits of the ten routes had been considered , including the economic , environmental and technical issues involved , and a broad outline of the corridor for the link was scheduled to be published in September . After that , consultation with landowners and stakeholders took place , to establish the final route , for which design of the channel and the associated locks , bridges , moorings and pumping stations could then begin . By the end of the assessment process for the ten routes , two remained . One was route 1 , the original suggestion which used the existing course of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain for most of its length , while the second was a new route , designated as route 11 . Route 11 had become the preferred route by the summer of 2014 . It involves widening the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to Surfleet , to a point near to the Black Hole Drove pumping station . A new lock would be needed at this location , but would connect to a new channel , rather than to the rest of the drain . It would pass under a new bridge on the A151 , and the connection to the River Glen would involve another new lock . An environmental survey of other watercourses near to the route revealed that several provide habitat for nationally important plants and invertebrates .
= = = Precursors = = =
The idea of a link between the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the River Nene is not new , as the first plans for such a connection were proposed in 1809 . In that year , proposals for a new canal between the Oakham Canal at Oakham and the Stamford Canal at Stamford , which had been discussed in 1785 , were revived , as part of a larger plan for a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) link from Stamford to the River Nene at Peterborough , and a connection from near Market Deeping , where the Stamford Canal rejoined the River Welland , northwards to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . A bill for this , together with one for a rival scheme to link Stamford to the Grand Junction Canal , which also included a connection to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , were put before Parliament in 1811 , but neither met with any success . The idea was raised again in 1815 and 1828 , but no further action was taken .
= = Route = =
= American Tragedy ( album ) =
American Tragedy is the second studio album by American rap rock band Hollywood Undead . Production for the album began following the induction of Daniel Murillo into the band in early 2010 and lasted until December . Don Gilmore and Ben Grosse , who helped produce the band 's debut album , Swan Songs ( 2008 ) , also returned to produce the album along with several other producers including Kevin Rudolf , Sam Hollander , Dave Katz , Griffin Boice , Jeff Halavacs , and Jacob Kasher . The album is musically heavier and features darker lyrical content than the band 's previous effort . Originally set to release in March , American Tragedy was released on April 5 , 2011 in the United States and was released on various other dates that month in other countries . A remix of the album , American Tragedy Redux , was released on November 21 , 2011 .
The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , selling approximately 67 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States , and ended up becoming the 142nd best selling album of 2011 in the US . It also charted in a few other countries , including Canada and the UK , a first for the band . The album also had five singles : " Hear Me Now " , " Been to Hell " , " Coming Back Down " , " Comin ' in Hot " , and " My Town " , with music videos being made for all of them except " Coming Back Down " as it was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " . The band participated in three headlining tours : the Revolt Tour , the Endless Summer Tour , and the World War III Tour , as well as other supporting tours throughout 2011 to promote the album . Upon release , American Tragedy received mixed reviews . Critics consistently noted the darker and more serious tone of the album , but to mixed reception . Lyrics were widely criticized while the energy and instruments were praised in most reviews .
= = Singles and promotion = =
To promote the album , the band participated in three headlining tours and several other supporting tours . The first headlining tour , the Revolt Tour , began on April 6 and spanned across the spring until May 27 , playing with Drive @-@ A , New Medicine , 10 Years , and others at various House of Blues venues across North America . The second headlining tour for the album was the Endless Summer Tour with All That Remains and Hyro Da Hero which began in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and ended in Knoxville , Tennessee . The third tour was the World War III Tour , which the band called the biggest tour they had done yet . The tour was co @-@ headlined with Asking Alexandria with support acts We Came As Romans , D.R.U.G.S. , and Borgore , with different local openers for each location . For supporting tours , the band began with the Nightmare After Christmas Tour with headliners Avenged Sevenfold and supporters Stone Sour and New Medicine on January 20 , 2011 , which was the first supporting tour for the album . Outside of official tours , the band played several festivals throughout 2011 including UFEST in Mesa , Arizona , Rockfest , and Summerfest in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The band also played various holiday shows , such as a Cinco De Mayo show in Salt Lake City , Utah , with Flogging Molly and others .
The album spawned five singles in total . On December 8 , 2010 , the band released the artwork for the album 's first single , titled " Hear Me Now " . The track was released on December 13 for radio and was made available online a week later on December 21 . " Hear Me Now " was the album 's most successful single , charting variously on the Billboard Heatseeker charts , Alternative charts , and the Rock charts . On March 22 , the band appeared live on the late night talk show Lopez Tonight as a musical guest where they performed the single " Hear Me Now " to promote the album . The band reportedly almost drank the entire bar behind the Turner Broadcasting System set , with George Lopez saying to J @-@ Dog , " Drink all of it . Go ahead , I don ’ t care . But I 've never seen anyone drink that much . " The album 's second and third official singles , " Been to Hell " and " Coming Back Down " , were both released on March 15 , 2011 . " Been to Hell " was previously released as a promotional single with a lyric video on February 6 , but was then released as a single with a music video , leading to it chart on Billboard 's Heatseeker and Bubbling Under Hot 100 charts . Because " Coming Back Down " was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " , the track did not get a music video . " Coming Back Down " previously surfaced due to a leak on February 18 and was later confirmed to be on the album and was produced by Kevin Rudolf . Brian Voerding noted that the song showed the band 's strength in both singing and rapping while comparing the sound to Linkin Park . The album 's fourth single , " Comin ' in Hot " , was released on April 9 with a music video to celebrate the album 's release . Similar to " Been to Hell " , " Comin ' in Hot " was originally a free promotional single released on January 21 , but was later released as an album single following the release of American Tragedy . The track was reviewed by Evigshed along with " Hear Me Now " after it was released as a promotional single , who gave both " Comin ' in Hot " and " Hear Me Now " a perfect ten out of ten score , noting that " Comin ' in Hot " was much more upbeat and was extremely catchy . On July 8 , it was announced the fifth single for the album would be " My Town " . The band began shooting the music video in early July and announced that fans would be featured in the video if they recorded themselves performing the song in front of a famous landmark . The video has no release date yet .
= = Music and lyrical themes = =
American Tragedy opens with the single " Been to Hell " . J @-@ Dog said that the song is , " the truth about what really happens to people when they move to L.A. , to be actors or models or God knows what other delusions people have ... failure . It 's all too true , but most people aren 't there to see it first @-@ hand . But we are , so it 's our interpretation of it all . " The track is followed by " Apologize " , a track that directly addresses critics and states the band 's defiance in the face of negative opinions , as evident by the chorus , " We don 't apologize and that 's just the way it is , but we can harmonize even if we sound like shit . " Third is " Comin ’ in Hot " , a party song and the album 's fourth single that uses humor to describe what happens in night clubs . " My Town " is the fifth single and a mid @-@ tempo song talking about Los Angeles and Hollywood . Next is " I Don 't Wanna Die " , a song about the fear of death fueling the need to kill another person . " Hear Me Now " was the lead single from the album and is about the troubles each band member was going through at the time the song was written . The song 's lyrics tell the story of a person who is depressed and hopeless , taking a very somber tone to the track . Despite this , the instruments and melodies contrast to make an uptempo track . Next is " Gangsta Sexy " , a party anthem song about heading to nightclubs and pursuing women . The following track , " Glory " , is a metal @-@ inspired song which drew influence from war and fighting . " Lights Out " , the ninth song on the album , is about Deuce , ex @-@ vocalist of Hollywood Undead . It is a response to " Story of a Snitch " . " Coming Back Down " , the third single released from the album , is a rock ballad song with acoustic guitars on the track . The lyrics describes about a story of an unknown loved one who has recently died , with the narrator having difficulty trying to live without them . " Bullet " , the eleventh track from the album , is an uptempo pop song about suicide . It is played in an upbeat tempo with energetic vocals , which gives contrast to the dark lyrical content . Rick Florino called the track , " heart @-@ wrenching genius " . " Levitate " is an uptempo discothèque song about sex , while the verses of the song talk about suicide and alcoholism . It was also featured in the Need For Speed : Shift 2 Unleashed trailer , " Autolog Drift Challenge " , as well as on the game 's soundtrack , where it was ranked eighth on ProGamist 's list of " Top ten songs featured in racing games " .
" Pour Me " , the last soft song on the album , is a dark ballad that has been often compared to Eminem 's " Stan " . Johnny 3 Tears stated that , " We were messing around with chord progressions and that came out like a more major chord style than we were used to it . It 's melodic and poppy sounding . We 're talking about drinking obviously because all of us sometimes drink too much . It 's one of those basic every day things that people go through but they don 't know how to voice it or others around them don 't know to voice it . It 's almost like you 're looked down upon , but no one actually talks about it . " " Tendencies " , which is the closing track for the standard edition of the album , is a high tempo alternative metal song about murder . Johnny 3 Tears said , " When we wrote Tendencies , I wanted to make a song that kids would just go nuts to when we played it . Kids start moshpits at our shows . Not every song we have is the best mosh song , so I wanted to make a song kids could go crazy for . "
While the band was touring with Avenged Sevenfold , the guitarist Synyster Gates spoke about " S.C.A.V.A. " stating " Holy shit , that 's the craziest verse I 've ever heard ! The lyrics are insane . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Prior to release , American Tragedy was projected by several publications to sell about 65 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release in the United States , and was expected to reach number three on the Billboard 200 . When the official sales week ended , the album exceeded expectations and sold about 67 @,@ 000 copies , but was outsold by Radiohead 's The King of Limbs and so debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . Weekly sales topped albums such as Wiz Khalifa 's Rolling Papers and Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. , and was right behind Adele 's 21 , Britney Spears 's Femme Fatale , and Radiohead 's The King of Limbs .
Upon learning of the album 's first @-@ week sales , Jordan Terrel , also known to fans of the band as " Charlie Scene . " jokingly remarked , " I gotta be honest with everyone : I was really looking forward to the opportunity to be on top of Britney this week , but being right behind her and Adele is a memory we ’ ll relish forever . " The album also debuted at number one on the US Hard Rock charts , number two on the US Rock , Digital , and Alternative charts , and number 11 on the Tastemaker Albums charts . Outside of the US , American Tragedy charted number five in Canadian albums charts and number 43 in the UK albums charts .
= = = Critical response = = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 59 , based on 6 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " .
Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave American Tragedy 5 out of 5 , particularly praising the band 's choice to avoid duplicating their debut album , Swan Songs , and instead choosing to create a , " darker , deeper , and far deadlier ride this time around . " Florino compared various elements of the album to the Wu Tang Clan and Nine Inch Nails , particularly comparing the album 's production ( which was done by various producers with executive producer Don Gilmore ) to Nine Inch Nails ' second album The Downward Spiral ( 1994 ) . He also lauded the irony of the quality singing on , " Apologize " , combined with the lyrics , " But we can harmonize , even if we sound like shit . " Florino concluded that , " Hollywood Undead 's genius lies — in that dangerous space between unforgettable and unsettling , " pointing this out in the track , " Bullet " , for it being the , " sunniest and catchiest tune on American Tragedy , " while still telling , " a potent and poignant tale of longing for suicide . " The other track Florino pointed out for being unforgettable is , " Pour Me " , calling it , " an evil power ballad that everyone who hears it will feel . "
Revolver magazine reviewer Jeremy Borjon gave the album four out of five in his review , calling American Tragedy , " one hell of an album that will leave fans ’ heads buzzing long after the clubs have let out and the hangover sets in . " Borjon complimented the shift in moods throughout the album and the lyrical quality compared to Swan Songs . He praised several tracks including " Been to Hell " , " Apologize " , " Comin ' in Hot " , " Bullet " , " Levitate " , and " Tendencies " as numerous outstanding points in the album . Borjon did criticize the slower songs , " Coming Back Down " and " Pour Me " but dismissed that that were , " easily forgotten among the album 's many undeniably addictive future hits . " Richard Solomon of The Minaret proclaimed that , " If you ’ re a Hollywood Undead fan , you 'll love American Tragedy . As for people who didn ’ t care for Swan Songs , you 'll probably still love American Tragedy . " Instrumentally , Solomon noted one of his only complaints of the album , being that , " At times , the synthesizer seems a little too heavy handed , but it succeeds more often than not . " Solomon complimented the album being different and further encouraged the Deluxe Edition tracks in addition to the album itself .
Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was more critical in his review . He praised the energy of the album , pointing out the , " Booming groove , " of " Apologize " , and the " disco @-@ metal urgency , " of " Levitate " . Wood 's biggest complaint of the album was that the band has , " filtered out any sense of humor from its music , which makes American Tragedy virtually impossible to listen to for longer than a few songs at a time . " Alistair Lawrence of BBC Music said that the album is , " The result is that they ’ ve ditched some of the early , growling quirkiness that at least gave them an initial , oddball appeal . " Lawrence finishes his review noting , " Hollywood Undead are content to deliver clichés – more out of a lack of imagination than cynical opportunism , but it still smacks of both . That 's why to seasoned ears or any genre fan requiring more than more of the same , they ’ re very , very boring . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Track listing = =
All tracks are written and performed by Hollywood Undead , with specific writers detailed for each track .
= = = Production = = =
= = Release history = =
= Karlsruhe @-@ class cruiser =
The Karlsruhe class of light cruisers was a pair of two ships built for the German Imperial Navy before the start of World War I. The ships — SMS Karlsruhe and Rostock — were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers , mounting the same armament and similar armor protection , though they were larger and faster than the earlier ships . Both vessels were laid down in 1911 , and launched one day apart , on 11 and 12 November 1912 . Karlsruhe joined the fleet in January 1914 , but fitting out work lasted slightly longer on her sister ; Rostock was commissioned the following month .
Both of the ships had short service careers . Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duty in the Caribbean , arriving on station in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could raid British shipping . After a moderately successful commerce raiding career , during which Karlsruhe sank sixteen merchant ships and successfully evaded British cruisers , she sank after an accidental internal explosion on 4 November 1914 . Most of her crew were killed in the sinking , but the survivors returned to Germany on one of Karlsruhe 's attendant colliers by December .
Rostock served as a torpedo boat flotilla leader with the High Seas Fleet following her commissioning ; her flotilla frequently screened for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group , including during the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 and operations off the British coast in early 1916 . She saw heavy action during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as part of the screen for the main battle fleet . In the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the German fleet punched through the British rear @-@ guard , Rostock was torpedoed by a British destroyer , which immobilized the ship . She was taken under tow by several torpedo boats , but early on the morning of 1 June , the cruiser HMS Dublin located the cruiser . To prevent her capture by the British , the Germans scuttled the ship after taking off her crew .
= = Design = =
The design for the Karlsruhe class was prepared in 1910 , and was an incremental improvement over the previous Magdeburg class . Karlsruhe and Rostock were faster and had a larger , more raked hull and greater displacement , but had the same armament and armor protection . Karlsruhe was ordered as Ersatz Seeadler and laid down in 1911 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , under construction number 181 . She was launched on 11 November 1912 and commissioned into the fleet on 15 January 1914 . Rostock was ordered as Ersatz Geier and laid down in 1911 at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel , under construction number 560 . Launching ceremonies took place on 12 November 1912 , a day after her sister . She was completed on 5 February 1914 , the date she joined the fleet .
= = = Dimensions and machinery = = =
The Karlsruhe class ships were 139 meters ( 456 ft ) long at the waterline and 142 @.@ 2 m ( 467 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 2 m ( 20 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 800 long tons ; 5 @,@ 400 short tons ) at designed load and 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat loading . The hull was constructed with longitudinal steel frames and incorporated fifteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 45 percent of the length of the hull . The ships had a crew of eighteen officers and 355 enlisted men . Karlsruhe and Rostock carried a number of smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . After 1915 , Rostock had spotting tops installed on her masts . The German Navy regarded the two ships as good sea boats . They suffered from slight weather helm in a swell and made severe leeway . They were maneuverable but were slow steering into a turn . With the rudder hard over , they lost up to 60 percent speed . Their transverse metacentric height was .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
Karlsruhe and Rostock were powered by two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in diameter . Each turbine was divided into its own engine room ; steam was supplied by twelve coal @-@ fired water tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended water tube boilers split into five boiler rooms . The propulsion system was rated at 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 27 @.@ 8 knots ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ; 32 @.@ 0 mph ) , but both ships significantly exceeded these figures on speed trials . Karlsruhe made 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) at 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) and Rostock reached 43 @,@ 628 shp ( 32 @,@ 533 kW ) and 29 @.@ 3 knots ( 54 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 7 mph ) . Designed coal and oil storage was 400 t ( 394 long tons ; 441 short tons ) and 70 t ( 69 long tons ; 77 short tons ) , respectively , though internal voids could accommodate up to 1 @,@ 300 t ( 1 @,@ 279 long tons ; 1 @,@ 433 short tons ) and 200 t ( 197 long tons ; 220 short tons ) , respectively . Electrical power was supplied by two turbo generators rated at 240 and 200 kilowatts , respectively , at 220 volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Karlsruhe and Rostock were armed identically to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . They carried twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The ships were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . They could also carry 120 mines .
The ships ' armor was also identical to the preceding class . They were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships ; the belt was reduced to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not armored . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) amidships , and 20 mm aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor .
= = Service history = =
= = = SMS Karlsruhe = = =
After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean , where she was to relieve the cruiser Dresden . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could operate as a commerce raider , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British cruisers located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil .
Karlsruhe refueled at Puerto Rico , a possession of the then neutral United States before steaming to Brazil . Off the Brazilian coast , she captured or sank sixteen ships totaling 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) while eluding her pursuers . The ship 's captain then decided to operate against the shipping lanes to Barbados . While en route on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew , including her captain . The survivors used one of Karlruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .
= = = SMS Rostock = = =
Rostock served with the High Seas Fleet as a leader of torpedo boat flotillas for the duration of her career . She served with the screens for both Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on operations against the British coast and the Battle of Dogger Bank . During the battle , British battlecruisers ambushed the German squadron and sank the armored cruiser Blücher . In April 1916 , she again screened the battlecruisers during the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft , during which Rostock and five other cruisers briefly engaged the British Harwich Force .
She was assigned to the screen for the battle fleet during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She saw major action at Jutland and frequently engaged British light forces , including assisting in the destruction of the destroyers HMS Nomad and Nestor . Rostock 's participation in the battle culminated in her torpedoing by destroyers shortly after midnight . She was taken under tow by German torpedo boats , but the following morning the cruiser HMS Dublin came upon the retreating ships . To prevent Rostock 's capture , the Germans set scuttling charges aboard her and took off the crew before firing torpedoes into the disabled cruiser to ensure she sank .
= Chakotay =
Chakotay / tʃəˈkoʊteɪ / is a fictional character who appears in each of the seven seasons of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Robert Beltran , he is First Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . The character was suggested at an early stage of the development of the series . He is the first Native American main character in the Star Trek franchise . This was an intended move by the producers of the series , who sought to provide an inspiration as with Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series for African Americans . To develop the character , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater . Despite first being named as a Sioux , and later a Hopi , Chakotay was given no tribal affiliation at the start of the series , something that was later resolved in the episode " Tattoo " .
The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . He was featured in an ongoing storyline throughout the first and second seasons which featured the betrayal of his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) until her death in " Basics " . Following his experience with disconnected Borg in " Unity " , Chakotay was against an alliance with the Borg in " Scorpion " , nearly leading to the death of Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) . Despite this , by the end of the series , the two characters were in a romantic relationship together . In the Voyager relaunch novels set after the vessel 's return to the Alpha Quadrant , Chakotay is promoted to Captain of the ship but the relationship with Seven is ended .
Reviewers of Chakotay were critical of the stereotypical nature of Chakotay 's Native American heritage . This led to comparisons with Tonto from The Lone Ranger , and that the inclusion of " Hollywood " versions of vision quests and meditation techniques were contrary to the character 's in @-@ universe tribal background . However , he was praised as a role model for Native American science fiction and called " ground @-@ breaking " , as well as the most prominent example of a Native American character within this genre .
= = Concept and development = =
The inclusion of a Native American character in Star Trek : Voyager was suggested at an early stage in the development of the series . The producers were looking for an ethnic background which had not been seen before as a main character in the franchise . It was hoped that a Native American character would prove to be an inspiration in the same way that the appearance of Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series later inspired Whoopi Goldberg and other African Americans . Executive producer Jeri Taylor said , " It seemed to us that Native Americans needed that same kind of role model and that same kind of boost ... the future looks good , you have purpose , you have worth , you have value , you will be leaders , you will be powerful . That was one character choice we had early on . " Taylor 's notes from the early production in July 1993 describe the character as " First Officer – a human native American male , a ' Queequeg ' person who has renounced Earth and lives as an expatriate on another planet . A mystical , mysterious man with whom the Captain has some prior connection , not explained . " A month later , this description was expanded with the line , " This man has made another choice – to re @-@ enter the world of Starfleet . " Chakotay was not the first Native American character to appear in the franchise , with " The Paradise Syndrome " in the third season of Star Trek : The Original Series showing a group of displaced | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
it can diverge . For example , the functions below are of the form f ( t ) g ( t ) with f ( t ) , g ( t ) → 0 as t → 0 + , but the limits are different :
<formula> .
Thus , the two @-@ variable function xy , though continuous on the set { ( x , y ) : x > 0 } , cannot be extended to a continuous function on any set containing ( 0 , 0 ) , no matter how one chooses to define 00 . However , under certain conditions , such as when f and g are both analytic functions and f is positive on the open interval ( 0 , b ) for some positive b , the limit approaching from the right is always 1 .
= = = Complex exponents = = =
In the complex domain , the function zw may be defined for nonzero z by choosing a branch of log z and defining zw as ew log z . This does not define 0w since there is no branch of log z defined at z = 0 , let alone in a neighborhood of 0 .
= = = History of differing points of view = = =
The debate over the definition of <formula> has been going on at least since the early 19th century . At that time , most mathematicians agreed that <formula> , until in 1821 Cauchy listed <formula> along with expressions like <formula> in a table of indeterminate forms . In the 1830s Libri published an unconvincing argument for <formula> , and Möbius sided with him , erroneously claiming that <formula> whenever <formula> . A commentator who signed his name simply as " S " provided the counterexample of <formula> , and this quieted the debate for some time . More historical details can be found in Knuth ( 1992 ) .
More recent authors interpret the situation above in different ways :
Some argue that the best value for <formula> depends on context , and hence that defining it once and for all is problematic . According to Benson ( 1999 ) , " The choice whether to define <formula> is based on convenience , not on correctness . If we refrain from defining <formula> then certain assertions become unnecessarily awkward . The consensus is to use the definition <formula> , although there are textbooks that refrain from defining <formula> . "
Others argue that <formula> should be defined as 1 . Knuth ( 1992 ) contends strongly that <formula> " has to be 1 " , drawing a distinction between the value <formula> , which should equal 1 as advocated by Libri , and the limiting form <formula> ( an abbreviation for a limit of <formula> where <formula> ) , which is necessarily an indeterminate form as listed by Cauchy : " Both Cauchy and Libri were right , but Libri and his defenders did not understand why truth was on their side . "
= = = Treatment on computers = = =
= = = = IEEE floating point standard = = = =
The IEEE 754 @-@ 2008 floating point standard is used in the design of most floating point libraries . It recommends a number of functions for computing a power :
pow treats 00 as 1 . This is the oldest defined version . If the power is an exact integer the result is the same as for pown , otherwise the result is as for powr ( except for some exceptional cases ) .
pown treats 00 as 1 . The power must be an exact integer . The value is defined for negative bases ; e.g. , pown ( − 3 @,@ 5 ) is − 243 .
powr treats 00 as NaN ( Not @-@ a @-@ Number – undefined ) . The value is also NaN for cases like powr ( − 3 @,@ 2 ) where the base is less than zero . The value is defined by epower × log ( base ) .
= = = = Programming languages = = = =
Most programming language with a power function are implemented using the IEEE pow function and therefore evaluate 00 as 1 . The later C and C + + standards describe this as the normative behaviour . The Java standard mandates this behavior . The .NET Framework method System.Math.Pow also treats 00 as 1 .
= = = = Mathematics software = = = =
Sage simplifies b0 to 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . It takes 00 to be 1 , but does not simplify 0x for other x .
Maple distinguishes between integers 0 , 1 , ... and the corresponding floats 0 @.@ 0 , 1 @.@ 0 , ... ( usually denoted 0 . , 1 . , ... ) . If x does not evaluates to a number , then x0 and x0.0 are respectively evaluated to 1 ( integer ) and 1 @.@ 0 ( float ) ; on the other hand , 0x is evaluated to the integer 0 , while 0.0x is evaluated as 0.x. If both the base and the exponent are zero ( or are evaluated to zero ) , the result is Float ( undefined ) if the exponent is the float 0 @.@ 0 ; with an integer as exponent , the evaluation of 00 results in the integer 1 , while that of 0 @.@ 0 results in the float 1 @.@ 0 .
Macsyma also simplifies b0 to 1 even if no constraints are placed on b , but issues an error for 00 . For x > 0 , it simplifies 0x to 0 .
Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha simplify b0 into 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . While Mathematica does not simplify 0x , Wolfram Alpha returns two results , 0 for x > 0 , and " indeterminate " for real x . Both Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha take 00 to be " ( indeterminate ) " .
Matlab , Python , Magma , GAP , singular , PARI / GP and the Google and iPhone calculators evaluate 00 as 1 .
= = Limits of powers = =
The section § Zero to the power of zero gives a number of examples of limits that are of the indeterminate form 00 . The limits in these examples exist , but have different values , showing that the two @-@ variable function xy has no limit at the point ( 0 , 0 ) . One may consider at what points this function does have a limit .
More precisely , consider the function f ( x , y )
= xy defined on D =
{ ( x , y ) ∈ R2 : x > 0 } . Then D can be viewed as a subset of R2 ( that is , the set of all pairs ( x , y ) with x , y belonging to the extended real number line R
= [ − ∞ , + ∞ ] , endowed with the product topology ) , which will contain the points at which the function f has a limit .
In fact , f has a limit at all accumulation points of D , except for ( 0 , 0 ) , ( + ∞ , 0 ) , ( 1 , + ∞ ) and ( 1 , − ∞ ) . Accordingly , this allows one to define the powers xy by continuity whenever 0 ≤ x ≤ + ∞ , − ∞ ≤ y ≤ + ∞ , except for 00 , ( + ∞ ) 0 , 1 + ∞ and 1 − ∞ , which remain indeterminate forms .
Under this definition by continuity , we obtain :
x + ∞ =
+ ∞ and x − ∞
= 0 , when 1 < x ≤ + ∞ .
x + ∞ =
0 and x − ∞
= + ∞ , when 0 ≤ x < 1 .
0y =
0 and ( + ∞ ) y
= + ∞ , when 0 < y ≤ + ∞ .
0y =
+ ∞ and ( + ∞ ) y
= 0 , when − ∞ ≤ y < 0 .
These powers are obtained by taking limits of xy for positive values of x . This method does not permit a definition of xy when x < 0 , since pairs ( x , y ) with x < 0 are not accumulation points of D.
On the other hand , when n is an integer , the power xn is already meaningful for all values of x , including negative ones . This may make the definition 0n =
+ ∞ obtained above for negative n problematic when n is odd , since in this case xn → + ∞ as x tends to 0 through positive values , but not negative ones .
= = Efficient computation with integer exponents = =
Computing bn using iterated multiplication requires n − 1 multiplication operations , but it can be computed more efficiently than that , as illustrated by the following example . To compute 2100 , note that 100
= 64 + 32 + 4 . Compute the following in order :
22 =
4
( 22 ) 2
= 24 =
16
( 24 ) 2
= 28 =
256
( 28 ) 2
= 216 =
65 @,@ 536
( 216 ) 2
= 232 =
4 @,@ 294 @,@ 967 @,@ 296
( 232 ) 2
= 264 =
18 @,@ 446 @,@ 744 @,@ 073 @,@ 709 @,@ 551 @,@ 616
264 232 24
= 2100 =
1 @,@ 267 @,@ 650 @,@ 600 @,@ 228 @,@ 229 @,@ 401 @,@ 496 @,@ 703 @,@ 205 @,@ 376
This series of steps only requires 8 multiplication operations instead of 99 ( since the last product above takes 2 multiplications ) .
In general , the number of multiplication operations required to compute bn can be reduced to Θ ( log n ) by using exponentiation by squaring or ( more generally ) addition @-@ chain exponentiation . Finding the minimal sequence of multiplications ( the minimal @-@ length addition chain for the exponent ) for bn is a difficult problem for which no efficient algorithms are currently known ( see Subset sum problem ) , but many reasonably efficient heuristic algorithms are available .
= = Exponential notation for function names = =
Placing an integer superscript after the name or symbol of a function , as if the function were being raised to a power , commonly refers to repeated function composition rather than repeated multiplication . Thus , f 3 ( x ) may mean f ( f ( f ( x ) ) ) ; in particular , f − 1 ( x ) usually denotes the inverse function of f . Iterated functions are of interest in the study of fractals and dynamical systems . Babbage was the first to study the problem of finding a functional square root f 1 / 2 ( x ) .
For historical reasons , this notation applied to the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions has a specific and diverse interpretation : a positive exponent applied to the function 's abbreviation means that the result is raised to that power , while an exponent of − 1 denotes the inverse function . That is , sin2 x is just a shorthand way to write ( sin x ) 2 without using parentheses , whereas sin − 1 x refers to the inverse function of the sine , also called arcsin x . Each trigonometric and hyperbolic has its own name and abbreviation both for the reciprocal ; for example , 1 / ( sin x )
= ( sin x ) − 1 =
csc x , as well as for its inverse , for example cosh − 1 x = arcosh x . A similar convention applies to logarithms , where log2 x usually means ( log x ) 2 , not log log x .
= = In programming languages = =
The superscript notation xy is convenient in handwriting but inconvenient for typewriters and computer terminals that align the baselines of all characters on each line . Many programming languages have alternate ways of expressing exponentiation that do not use superscripts :
x ↑ y : Algol , Commodore BASIC
x ^ y : BASIC , J , MATLAB , R , Microsoft Excel , Analytica , TeX ( and its derivatives ) , TI @-@ BASIC , bc ( for integer exponents ) , Haskell ( for nonnegative integer exponents ) , Lua and most computer algebra systems
x ^ ^ y : Haskell ( for fractional base , integer exponents ) , D
x * * y : Ada , Bash , COBOL , CoffeeScript , Fortran , FoxPro , Gnuplot , OCaml , F # , Perl , PHP , PL / I , Python , Rexx , Ruby , SAS , Seed7 , Tcl , ABAP , Mercury , Haskell ( for floating @-@ point exponents ) , Turing , VHDL
pown x y : F # ( for integer base , integer exponent )
x ⋆ y : APL
Many programming languages lack syntactic support for exponentiation , but provide library functions .
In Bash , C , C + + , C # , D , Go , Java , JavaScript , Perl , PHP , Python and Ruby , the symbol ^ represents bitwise XOR . In Pascal , it represents indirection . In OCaml and Standard ML , it represents string concatenation .
= = List of whole @-@ number powers = =
= Fellows v. Blacksmith =
Fellows v. Blacksmith , 60 U.S. ( 19 How . ) 366 ( 1857 ) , is a United States Supreme Court decision involving Native American law . John Blacksmith , a Tonawanda Seneca , sued agents of the Ogden Land Company for common law claims of trespass , assault , and battery after he was forcibly evicted from his sawmill by the Company 's agents . The Court affirmed a judgement in Blacksmith 's favor , notwithstanding the fact that the Seneca had executed an Indian removal treaty and the Company held the exclusive right to purchase to the land by virtue of an interstate compact ratified by Congress .
Citing the trust relationship between the federal government and the tribes , the Court held that removal treaties could only be enforced against the tribes by the federal government , not private parties ( whether through self @-@ help or through the courts ) . In other words , the federal government retained the discretion not to enforce such treaties . At the same time , the Court held that enrolled treaties are conclusively valid , and refused to consider the plaintiffs claim that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was fraudulent .
Fellows was one of several encounters of the Taney Court with the aboriginal title . It was the first litigation of aboriginal title in the United States in the Court by an indigenous plaintiff since Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) . According to a contemporary New York Times article : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " In Fellows , the court found " its first opportunity to consider the power of the federal government over Indian lands in New York . " Following the precedents of the Marshall Court , Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . "
The plaintiffs ' lawyer John H. Martindale ( future New York Attorney General ) also represented the interests of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians in three companion cases in the New York state courts . The third such case , New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) , also reached the Supreme Court , which held that state nonintercourse acts ( U.S. state laws prohibiting non @-@ Indians from acquiring Indian lands ) are not preempted by the Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or federal treaties . Ely S. Parker , one of the administrators of the Blacksmith estate , went on to draft the surrender at Appomattox and to become the first indigenous Commissioner of Indian Affairs .
= = Background = =
= = = Precedent = = =
The Marshall Court ( 1801 — 1835 ) had repeatedly taken up the issue of aboriginal title in the United States . However , with the exception of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) , which was dismissed for lack of original jurisdiction , all the disputes had been between non @-@ Indians — typically between those who derived their title from the government and those who derived their title from private purchases from Indians . The uniform rule of these cases , enunciated most clearly in Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) , was that non @-@ Indians could not acquire valid land title from such private purchases . However , the purchase at issue in Fellows , the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) , had been ratified by the federal government .
The Court had not yet encountered a party claiming to actually possess aboriginal title in a case in which it had jurisdiction , so it had not yet definitively resolved the question of whether the holders of aboriginal title could avail themselves of the common law causes of action of trespass or ejectment . At the end of his opinion in Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) , Marshall had stated that ejectment could not be obtained against the holder of aboriginal title . The Taney Court ( 1836 — 1864 ) , in Marsh v. Brooks ( 1850 ) , went further in declaring that the holder of aboriginal title could obtain ejectment , stating : " That an action of ejectment could be maintained on an Indian right to occupancy and use , is not open to question . " In the oral arguments of that case , Cherokee Nation had been cited as authority for the argument that " Indians cannot sue on their aboriginal title in court of the United States . " The plaintiffs in Fellows had sued under the related cause of action of trespass .
An 1821 opinion of U.S. Attorney General William Wirt , interpreting Fletcher and Johnson , argued that : " The Seneca Indians must be protected in the enjoyment of exclusive possession of their lands , as defined and bounded in the Treaty of Canandaigua , until they have voluntarily relinquished it . "
= = = Dispute = = =
Both the sovereignty over and land title to modern @-@ day western New York was disputed between the colonies , and then states , of New York and Massachusetts , both claiming the lands by virtue of their colonial charters . This dispute was resolved on December 16 , 1786 by the Treaty of Hartford , an interstate compact providing that the lands would be part of the territory of New York , but Massachusetts would retain the pre @-@ emption rights , the exclusive right to purchase the Indian lands . The compact was approved by the Congress of the Confederation on October 8 , 1787 .
Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham acquired the right of pre @-@ emption to the lands at issue in Fellows v. Blacksmith from Massachusetts in 1788 as part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase . However , Phelps and Gorham only consummated the right of pre @-@ emption for a tract east of the Genesee River in 1788 . Phelps and Gorham defaulted on their payments to Massachusetts in 1790 , causing the pre @-@ emption rights to return to the state . Massachusetts then conveyed the pre @-@ emption rights to Samuel Ogden on behalf of Robert Morris on May 12 , 1791 . Morris retained the pre @-@ emptive right to the Morris Reserve for himself , but sold the pre @-@ emptive right to the lands in question to the Holland Land Company on July 20 , 1793 ( the Holland Purchase ) .
The Holland Land Company consummated much of its pre @-@ emptive right in the Treaty of Big Tree ( 1797 ) , extinguishing all Seneca aboriginal title west of the Genesee River except in ten reservations . The dispute concerned one of those reservations . The Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) had provided for the relocation of the Seneca people from New York to present @-@ day Kansas , with the exception of four reservations : the Buffalo Creek Reservation , the Cattaraugus Reservation , the Allegany Reservation , and the Tonawanda Reservation . However , the Seneca refused to be relocated . Another treaty with the Senecas from 1842 modified the prior treaty : the Senecas were to keep Cattaraugus and Allegany , but still cede Buffalo Creek and Tonawanda . The Seneca Nation of New York was established in 1848 . The Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians seceded from the Seneca Nation and achieved independent federal recognition ( after the decision ) in 1857 .
= = = Prior history = = =
Facts
John Blacksmith was a member of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians and the sachem of the Wolf Clan . Blacksmith had constructed a " Indian sawmill and yard " on his enclosed tract within the Tonawanda Reservation in Pembroke , Genesee County , New York circa 1826 . Blacksmith had not received compensation for the value of his improvements ( the sawmill and yard ) , as provided for by the 1838 and 1842 treaties , because he forcibly refused to let the treaty arbitrators onto his property for the survey . The Ogden Land Company claimed title to the Tonawanda Reservation by virtue of its right of pre @-@ emption , consummated by the treaties . Agents of the company " expelled and dispossessed " Blacksmith " with force of arms . "
Supreme Court ( trial court )
The suit was originally brought by John Blacksmith in 1846 . Represented by lawyer John H. Martindale , Blacksmith sued Joseph Fellows and Robert Kendle , agents of the Land Company , for the torts of assault and battery and trespass , quare clausum fregit , with the sawmill as the locus in quo . Blacksmith 's wife and Ely S. Parker ( Blacksmith 's successor as sachem of the Wolf Clan ) , together the administrators of Blacksmith 's estate , succeeded Blacksmith as plaintiffs .
After a jury trial , the New York Supreme Court held for Blacksmith .
Supreme Court , General Term
The New York Supreme Court General Term ( " circuit court " ) denied a new trial , holding that the payment of the appraisal value of the improvements determined by the arbitrator was a condition precedent to the conveyance in the treaty .
Court of Appeals
Before the New York Court of Appeals , Fellows was represented by J. C. Spencer , who made three arguments . First , he argued that the right to bring an action for trespass based on aboriginal title accrued only to an Indian nation , not an individual Indian . As Spencer noted , the Seneca Nation itself was prohibited by law from bringing an action " by a private attorney . " Second , he argued that Fellows ' title was valid . Third , he argued that the Seneca 's rights under the treaty were only enforceable against the federal government , and did not affect the defendant 's title as a condition precedent . The court reporter did not publish Martindale 's responses .
The Court of Appeals , 6 @-@ 1 , sided with Blacksmith . Judge John Worth Edmonds delivered the majority opinion , joined by Chief Judge Charles H. Ruggles and Judges Addison Gardiner , Freeborn G. Jewett , Alexander S. Johnson , and Watson . Judge Welles dissented and Judge Gridley was absent .
The Court of Appeals held that Blacksmith could independently bring the claim for trespass , for which he need only show a right to possession . The Court of Appeals also held that Fellows ' title was invalid , because the payment of compensation was a condition precedent . Welles , in dissent , agreed that Blacksmith could individually sue for trespass , but disagreed that the appraisal was a condition precedent ; he would have reversed and granted a new trial , with costs . The Court of Appeals remanded back to the Supreme Court , after which a writ of error was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court .
U.S. Supreme Court oral argument
John H. Martindale argued the case for the Tonawanda Senecas before the Court . Commissioner R.H. Gillet and J.L. Brown of the Ogden Land Company argued for the defendants . Arguments started on January 15 , 1857 and were adjourned until January 17 .
One of the plaintiffs , Ely S. Parker personally attended the oral arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court in Washington , D.C. According to the New York Times :
All who heard their cases argued before the Supreme Court of the United States , a few months since , will recollect seeing this same Indian , and that he was well posted on the points he desired his counsel to press upon the attention of the Court .
A letter to the editor of the New York Times — which criticizes a previous article for creating the " impression that the Indians at Tonawanda are very nearly the equal in agriculture , general intelligence , and in the customs of civilized life , of their white neighbors " — concurs with this assessment of Parker 's role :
I have not a word to say in the disparagement of the intellectual ability of Ely S. Parker , their head chief , and cheerfully unite with " W.H.P. " in awarding him the credit for making valuable suggestions to his counsel on the argument of the case in the Supreme Court of the United States [ . ] Indeed , I am inclined to the belief , that to him is due the credit of originating and suggesting to his counsel the only available point in the case , and the one on which it was there decided , for the case had been ten years in the Courts of this State , and this point was never before made , nor was it made in the Supreme Court of the United States , in the original brief of counsel for the Indians , filed pursuant to the rules of the Court . It was first made in a supplementary brief printed after the opening argument of counsel on the other side had been commenced , and not handed in until the second day , just previous to its conclusion .
Opinion announcement
Chief Justice Roger Taney was not present at the opinion announcement for Fellows because he was at home working on the opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford , which was announced the next day . The Taney court had inherited from the preceding Marshall Court voluminous decisions on the status of aboriginal title in the United States . None of those decisions was cited in either opinion . Dred Scott , in dicta , opined the following on aboriginal title :
The situation of [ blacks ] was altogether unlike that of the Indian race . The latter . . . were situated in territories to which the white race claimed the ultimate right of dominion . But that claim was acknowledged to be subject to the right of the Indians to occupy it as long as they thought proper , and neither the English nor colonial Governments claimed or exercised any dominion over the tribe or nation by whom it was occupied , nor claimed the right to the possession of the territory , until the tribe or nation consented to cede it .
Justice John Catron , concurring in Dred Scott , also noted in dicta that :
[ B ] ecause Congress has express power to regulate commerce among the Indian tribes and to prohibit intercourse with the Indians , that therefore Dr. Emerson 's title might be defeated within the country ceded by the Indians to the United States as early as 1805 . . . .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Samuel Nelson delivered the unanimous opinion of the Court , affirming the judgment of the New York Court of Appeals .
Effect of the Treaty
The Court observed :
Neither treaty made any provision as to the mode or manner in which the removal of the Indians or surrender of the reservations was to take place . The grantees have assumed that they were authorized to take forcible possession of the two reservations , or of the four , as the case would have been under the first treaty . The plaintiff in this case was expelled by force ; and unless this mode of removal can be sustained , the recovery against the defendants for the trespass was right , and must be affirmed .
The Court noted that previous removals of Indians had been undertaken by the federal government " according to the usage and practice of the Government , by its authority and under its care and superintendence . " " [ A ] ny other mode of a forcible removal , " the Court argued , would not " be consistent with the peace of the country , or with the duty of the Government to these dependent people , who have been influenced by its counsel and authority to change their habitations . "
Because the treaty had been negotiated " with them as a quasi nation , possessing some of the attributes of an independent people , and to be dealt with accordingly , " the Court held that " unless otherwise expressly stipulated " only the federal government had the " authority or power " to execute the agreement . The Court remarked that the Senecas were " in a state of pupilage , and hold the relation to the Government as a ward to his guardian . " The nature of that relationship between the Seneca and the federal government was incompatible with the Seneca being expelled by " irregular force and violence , " or even " through the intervention of the courts of justice . " Thus , the court held that the private beneficiaries of Native American treaties could neither expel tribes by force or by a cause of action for ejectment . The court observed that " this interpretation is in accordance with the usages and practice of the Government in providing for the removal of Indian tribes from their ancient possessions , with the fitness and propriety of the thing itself , " and with the text of the treaty .
The Court concluded : " We hold that the performance was not a duty that belonged to the grantees , but for the Government under the treaty . "
Validity of the Treaty
The Court did not accept the plaintiffs ' arguments that the treaty was invalid because it was not signed by tribal leaders with the authority to cede the relevant lands or because the signatories were fraudulently induced to sign . Analogizing to the enrolled bill rule ( the only citation of case law in the opinion ) , the Court held that " the treaty , after executed and ratified by the proper authorities of the Government , becomes the supreme law of the land , and the courts can no more go behind it for the purpose of annulling its effect and operation . "
Conditions Precedent
Because its aforementioned holdings required affirmance , the Court did not reach the alternate ground for decision of the trial court that the appraisal and the payments were conditions precedent .
= = Companion cases = =
Lawyer John H. Martindale , of Verplank & Martindale , also represented Tonawanda Seneca plaintiffs in three other contemporary suits against the Land Company and its grantees : People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy ( N.Y. Sup . 1845 ) ; People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper ( N.Y. 1852 ) ; and New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( U.S. 1858 ) . At the time , Martindale ( the future New York Attorney General ) was well known for litigating personal injury torts against railroads , especially New York Central Railroad .
Whereas Fellows was brought in the New York Supreme Court under the common law cause of action of trespass , these three suits were brought ( as required by statute ) in the Genesee County Court under a state statute prohibiting non @-@ Indians from residing on Indian lands . That statute provided :
[ I ] t shall be unlawful for any person or persons , other than Indians , to settle or reside upon any lands belonging to or occupied by any nation or tribe of Indians within this state ; and that all leases , contracts and agreements made by any Indians , whereby any person or persons , other than Indians , shall be permitted to reside upon such lands , shall be absolutely void ; and if any person or persons shall settle or reside on any such lands , contrary to this act , it shall be the duty of any judge of any court of Common Pleas of the county within which such lands shall be situated , on complaint made to him , and on due proof of the fact of such settlement or residence , to issue his warrant , under his hand and seal , directed to the sheriff of such county , commanding him , within ten days after the receipt thereof , to remove such person or persons so settling or residing , with his , her or their families , from such lands .
The statute further provided :
that it shall be the duty of the district attorneys respectively of the several counties in this state in which any lands belonging to any Indian tribe shall be situated , ( among other things ) to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands , forbidden by the act ; and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed .
From 1821 – 1846 , the district attorney would have been appointed ; thereafter , the office was elected . Martindale was the district attorney of Genesee County from 1842 – 1844 and again from 1847 – 1849 . Thus , Martindale himself filed the complaints in People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy and People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper , and his successor , Seth Wakeman ( 1850 – 1855 ) filed the complaint in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble . Although Martindale was district attorney when the complaint in Tracy was filed , he lost the election and attempted to litigate the mandamus issue as a private attorney .
The results of the three suits were mixed . Martindale was defeated in the New York Supreme Court and New York Court of Appeals , respectively , in the first two , but had prevailed in the Court of Appeals and , ultimately , the U.S. Supreme Court in the third .
= = = People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy = = =
Martindale ( in his final days as district attorney ) filed the complaint on January 8 , 1845 . Evidence , including the testimony of Ely S. Parker , was presented on January 11 . Judge Phineas L. Tracy , of the Genesee County Court ( 1841 – 1845 ) , declined to issue a warrant to the Genesee County Sheriff to remove the Ogden grantees .
Still in January , Martindale applied to the Supreme Court for mandamus , and the court issued an alternative mandamus ( essentially , an order to show cause why peremptory mandamus should not issue ) on March 6 , 1845 , which was served March 25 . On April 19 , the deadline was extended to the first Tuesday in June . Before the Supreme Court , Martindale was joined by New York Attorney General John Van Buren and opposed by A. Taber and J. L. Brown .
That June , Judge Jewett granted Tracy 's motion to quash , without costs . The court held that only the district attorney could bring such an action to enforce the statute :
I am of opinion that by the terms and spirit of the statute under which this proceeding has been had , no other than the district attorney of the county of Genesee ( in which the lands intruded upon are situated ) could regularly be a relator . The remedy for the act complained of is provided by the statute , as well as the officers to carry it into execution . It is made the duty of the district attorney to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands forbidden by the act , and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed . Without the act , John Blacksmith or any other person could not claim such summary proceedings to remove intruders upon Indian lands ; and with the act , no other person is authorized by its provisions to make complaint of such intrusions , or to cause the intruders to be removed , but the district attorney of the county in which the lands are situated .
The court also found the affidavit of Parker to be insufficient as a factual matter to comply with the terms of the statute . However , even if the district attorney had brought the action and the affidavit had been sufficient , the Supreme Court still would have denied mandamus as a matter of law .
= = = People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper = = =
In the second suit , Martindale — in a second term , this time as an elected district attorney — filed the complaint under the same statute on January 3 , 1849 . Judge Horace U. Soper , of the Genesee County Court ( 1847 – 1850 ) , granted the writ of removal on January 9 , 1849 . The New York Supreme Court General Term ( Judges Mullet , Sill , and Marvin ) , sitting in Buffalo , New York , granted a writ of certiorari , and affirmed in March 1849 . " Waldron " is the only party subject to the writ of removal named in the Court of Appeals opinion ( the only reported opinion ) and only by last name .
The Court of Appeals reversed and annulled the writ in October 1852 . Judge John Worth Edmonds , for a unanimous court , gave two reasons . First , it held that the court had no power to proceed against the majority of the defendants because they were not properly summoned and caused to appear . Second , with respect to defendant Waldron ( who had voluntarily appeared ) , the court held that " it does not appear that these lands were owned by the Indians . "
= = = New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble = = =
In a third suit , Martindale 's successor as district attorney , Seth Wakeman ( 1845 – 1850 ) , filed a complaint against Asa Cutler , John Underhill , and Arza Underhill ( grantees of the Land Company ) under the same statute , on February 19 , 1853 . Thomas Black , a Seneca who had made some improvements and apparently been compensated for the same , allegedly consented to the Underhills presence . Judge Edgar C. Dibble , of the Genesee County Court ( 1846 , 1851 – 1854 ) and a one @-@ time partner of Martindale , granted the writ of removal . The Supreme Court granted certiorari and affirmed on September 4 , 1854 , holding that " the Seneca nation had not duly granted and conveyed the reserve in question to Ogden and Fellows . " The judgement of the Supreme Court was delivered by Judge Marvin , joined by judges Bowen and Green . Judge Mullet dissented without opinion .
The Court of Appeals — after the second argument — also affirmed in September 1857 . The majority opinion was authored by Judge Brown , joined by Judges Comstock , Paige , Shankland , and Bowen . The Court of Appeals held that the state statute did not violate the New York Constitution and that a jury trial was not required because the defendants had no property right . In closing , the Court of Appeals cited the U.S. Supreme Court 's recent decision in Fellows . Chief Judge Hiram Denio , joined by Judge Alexander S. Johnson , concurred on the constitutionality of the 1821 state statute , but dissented on the grounds that the treaties extinguished the aboriginal title , and thus the state statute either did not apply or violated the treaty . Judge Selden recused .
By the time Fellows was decided , Dibble had reached the U.S. Supreme Court but had not yet been argued . The Court eventually affirmed in 1858 , holding that the state statute did not violate the Indian Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or the treaty .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Enrolled treaty doctrine = = =
The key claim advanced by lawyer John H. Martindale in all four cases had been that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was invalid because it was not signed by the Seneca leaders with the authority to cede the Tonawanda Reservation , and the signatures it did contain were obtained by coercion or fraud . This argument had not prevailed before the New York Courts or the Supreme Court . As Brown notes :
The principal point , however , on which the counsel relied , and which he hoped to establish , was that the Tonawandas were not bound by the Treaties , because the chiefs there protested against and refused to sign them . To this point his main argument has always , in all stages of the litigation been addressed , and he has pressed it upon the consideration of the Courts , with the utmost pertinacity . It was , however , decided against him in the Blacksmith case , argued last Winter at Washington and has never been decided in his favor by any Court .
Fellows is among the earliest cases where the Supreme Court applied treaties , including treaties between the United States and Native American tribes , as binding law . Fellows has been cited as authority for the enrolled treaty doctrine ; analogous to the enrolled bill rule for statutes , the enrolled treaty doctrine prevents inquiry into the legitimacy of the formation of treaties once ratified by the Senate . This doctrine was later used to deny relief ( or , to deny more relief ) to Native American tribes who claimed that treaties were entered into fraudulently or signed by persons without authority to bind the tribe . Fellows was also decided before the Supreme Court began distinguishing between self @-@ executing and non @-@ self executing treaties . Regardless , treaties between the United States and Native Americans continued to be regarded as self @-@ executing .
= = = Seneca land claims = = =
A contemporary New York Times article opined that : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " Although the Seneca prevailed in the lawsuit , title to a large portion of the state was not called into question due to the court 's refusal to entertain the Seneca 's claims regarding the invalidity of the treaty . According to Armstrong , the result of the decision was mixed :
The decision was not all that the Indians had hoped for — it was a victory on narrow legal grounds rather than a vindication of their cause — but it was a victory . The Court 's ruling meant that as long as the federal government was determined to take no action to remove them from Tonawanda , the Ogden Company was powerless to do so .
Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . " The Tonawanda Seneca were never relocated to Kansas , and a new 1857 treaty confirmed their title to a 7 @,@ 549 @-@ acre reservation . This treaty ended 15 years of litigation between the Tonawanda Band and the Ogden Land Company .
The Seneca , again represented by Martindale , prevailed in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) . Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy ( 1896 ) also involved a Seneca plaintiff represented by a Civil War general . There , the plaintiffs challenged the Phelps and Gorham Purchase under the Nonintercourse Act . Fellows was not cited . In 1899 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a $ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 056 judgment of the Court of Claims ( pursuant to an enabling statute ) against the federal government based on the 1838 treaty . Fellows was cited by Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) for the proposition that " the possessory right claimed is a federal right to the lands at issue in this case . "
= = = Litigants = = =
Plaintiff Ely S. Parker went on to become a member of General Ulysses S. Grant 's staff during the American Civil War , drawing up the terms of the surrender at Appomattox Court House . After the war , President Grant appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs , the first indigenous head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . According to his New York Times obituary , Parker " negotiated the removal of his tribe from this State to the fertile and pleasant lands on Green Bay , Wisconsin . "
The Seneca 's lawyer , John H. Martindale , later appeared before the U.S. Supreme Court , as New York Attorney General , in In re New York Indians ( 1866 ) , arguing that the state had the right to tax the Senecas . The Court disagreed . In the case below , plaintiffs Joseph Fellows ( the defendant in Fellows ) , Louisa Troup , and George R. Babcock sought to recover a plot of land from Robert Denniston ( in his official capacity as New York State Comptroller ) and Thomas W. Olcott , the purchaser at the tax foreclosure sale . Fellows , Troup , and Babcock argued that the state had no power to tax the Seneca . In re New York Indians , agreeing , cited Fellows :
Until the Indians have sold their lands , and removed from them in pursuance of the treaty stipulations , they are to be regarded as still in their ancient possession , and are in under their original rights , and entitled to the undisturbed enjoyment of them . This was the effect of the decision in the case of Fellows v. Blacksmith . The time for the surrender of the possession , according to their consent given in the treaty , had not expired when these taxes were levied . The period within which the removal was to take place , under the treaty of 1838 , was five years from the time it went into effect . It was not proclaimed till 1840 , and under that of 1842 the time did not expire till 1846 . The taxation of the lands was premature and illegal .
= Guitar Hero ( video game ) =
Guitar Hero is a music rhythm video game developed by Harmonix and published by RedOctane for the PlayStation 2 video game console . It is the first entry in the Guitar Hero series . Guitar Hero was released on November 8 , 2005 in North America , April 7 , 2006 in Europe and June 15 , 2006 in Australia . The game 's development was a result of collaboration between RedOctane and Harmonix to bring a Guitar Freaks @-@ like game to America .
The game features a guitar @-@ shaped controller ( resembling a miniature Gibson SG ) that the player uses to simulate playing rock music . The gameplay is similar to GuitarFreaks , in that the player presses buttons on the guitar controller in time with musical notes that scroll on the game screen . The game features covers of 30 popular rock songs spanning five decades of rock , from the 1960s up through 2005 , in addition to bonus tracks . Guitar Hero became a surprise hit , earning critical acclaim and winning many awards from major video game publications , and was considered one of the most influential games of the first decade of the 21st century . The game 's success launched the Guitar Hero franchise , which has earned more than $ 2 billion in sales , spawning several sequels , expansions , and other game @-@ related products .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay is similar to other music and rhythm video games , in that the player must press buttons on a game controller in time with scrolling notes on the game screen to complete a song . The basic mechanics are based on Konami 's Guitar Freaks . In the case of Guitar Hero , the player may use either the guitar peripheral ( a 3 / 4 @-@ scale reproduction of the Gibson SG guitar as bundled with the game , or a third @-@ party version ) or a standard controller to play the scrolling notes . The guitar peripheral has five different @-@ colored fret buttons near the nut of the guitar neck , and a strum bar and a whammy bar on the body of the guitar . The peripheral also has other buttons in order to navigate the game 's menus . Music is displayed on screen through a series of notes , matching in color and position to the fret buttons , that scroll down the screen on a fret board . To hit or play a note , the player must hold down the fret button corresponding to the note shown and toggle the strum bar at the same time as that note passes a marked area on the screen . Faster series of notes may be played on the guitar controller using hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off techniques where the player does not need to strum each note . The game supports toggling the handedness of the guitar , allowing both left @-@ handed and right @-@ handed players to utilize the guitar controller . A player using the standard controller simply presses the buttons that correspond with the displayed notes as outlined in the game 's manual .
The player is awarded points for correctly hitting notes , chords and sustains . The player can also increase a score multiplier by playing a series of consecutive notes successfully . A " Rock Meter " tracks the player 's performance based on success or failure of hitting notes , and if the meter drops too low the song will prematurely end in failure for the player . The player can also earn " Star Power " by playing a series of glowing notes perfectly and using the whammy bar during sustains . Once the Star Power meter is filled at least halfway , Star Power can then be activated by briefly tilting the guitar controller vertically , or by pressing a specific button on a standard controller . Activating Star Power will double the scoring multiplier and makes it easier to increase the Rock Meter by playing correct notes . Thus , players can strategically use Star Power to play through difficult sections of a song they might have otherwise failed .
= = = Modes and other features = = =
Guitar Hero 's main mode of play is Career Mode , where the player and in @-@ game band travel between various fictional performance arenas and perform sets of four or five songs . Completing songs in this mode unlocks the songs for play within the other game modes . Players can choose their on @-@ stage character and their guitar ; these elements have no effect on gameplay but affect the visuals during the performance . In Career Mode , players can earn money from their performances that is redeemable at the in @-@ game store , where bonus content , such as additional songs , guitars and finishes , can be unlocked . Quick Play mode allows the player to play any unlocked track , selecting the difficulty , the character , venue and guitar . After successfully completing a song in either Career or Quick Play mode , the player is given a score and a rating between three @-@ five stars , depending on his or her overall performance .
Multiplayer mode offers two players the chance to compete against each other on the same song . Two fret boards will appear on screen , one for each player , as they alternate playing sections of the song in a dueling manner . The player with the highest score at the end of the song wins .
The four difficulty levels for each song afford the player a learning curve in order to help him or her progress in skill . The first difficulty level , Easy , only focuses on the first three fret buttons while displaying a significantly reduced amount of notes for the player to play . Medium introduces a fourth fret button while adding more notes , and Hard includes the final fret button while adding additional notes . Expert does not introduce any other frets to learn , but adds more notes in a manner designed to challenge the player .
= = Development = =
According to Rob Kay , the game 's Lead Designer , the idea of Guitar Hero was directly inspired by Konami 's Guitar Freaks arcade game , where the player used a guitar @-@ shaped controller to interact with the game . At the time , GuitarFreaks had not seen much exposure in North America . RedOctane was making dance pads for games like Dance Dance Revolution for home consoles and also operated an online video rental service similar to Netflix . RedOctane 's Kai and Charles Huang recognized the popularity of GuitarFreaks in Japan through their rental service , and planned to create guitar controllers to bring the game to North America . The Huangs raised $ 1 @.@ 75 million for the effort , despite being turned down by some investors who " thought [ the idea ] was too weird " . Greg Fischbach , one of the founders of Acclaim Entertainment , noted , regretfully several years later , they had passed on Guitar Hero , questioning " Who 's going to buy a peripheral like that ? " The Huangs approached Harmonix , who had previously made music video games such as Frequency , Amplitude and Karaoke Revolution about making a guitar @-@ based video game for those controllers . With a budget of about one million dollars ( which Kay noted was " pretty tiny for a video game " ) , the two companies worked together to develop Guitar Hero . Kay noted that " No one had any notions about it being a massive success ; we all just thought it would be fun to do . " Harmonix 's president Alex Rigopulos also claims that former Microsoft vice @-@ president of game publishing Ed Fries indirectly influenced the game 's creation , who had previously told Harmonix when they were pitching Frequency to Microsoft that no music @-@ rhythm game would succeed without custom hardware for it , prompting Rigopulos to investigate the Guitar Hero opportunity when it arose .
The team quickly recognized that " the controller really was the kind of magic sauce for what we wanted to do " . They identified three aspects of gameplay that they felt made the game stand out . These aspects included the note @-@ matching aspect and the showmanship created by the use of the whammy bar and tilting of the guitar within the game . The third key aspect was the use of Star Power " to provide a little more depth to the game — some replay value , some interest for people as they were playing beyond just hitting the notes " . Harmonix used third party controllers made for GuitarFreaks that were already on the market for development of the game until RedOctane had prepared prototypes for the Guitar Hero controller . The controller initially had pressure @-@ sensitive fret buttons to mimic the playing of a real guitar , but the idea was dropped as it made the gameplay too complex . The idea of using the whammy bar to boost Star Power , in addition to altering the pitch of sustained notes was only realized about a month before the completion of the game . The team had spent " precious development time and resources " into creating a free @-@ style model that would have allowed players to improvise during songs but ultimately cut it as they could not work the feature into the existing gameplay .
" Gem tracks " , the pattern of notes for a song , were developed by a team in Harmonix , taking usually a day to develop the tracks for one song . Tracks were designed to include key notes to " make [ the player ] feel as if [ he is ] a brilliant musician " . Software algorithms were used to assess the difficulty of the tracks , and the quality assurance team helped to rebalance the tracks for accuracy and difficulty . The software also allowed Harmonix to quickly make changes to the set list or to recreate the tracks for a song to make sure the overall difficulty of the game was appropriate .
At the onset of development , the team did not have any idea of what songs would be present in the final game . Kay noted that " We wanted 30 or 40 songs for the game and put a hundred on our wish list . " The game was to focus mostly on hard rock songs , but the team was limited by what could be licensed . The team also felt " morally obligated " to include older , classic rock songs like The Ramones ' " I Wanna Be Sedated " to the younger target audience of the game . Harmonix had to modify the track list throughout development as certain songs were introduced or removed based on licensing issues , requiring the team to repeatedly balance difficulty and popularity of the track list . WaveGroup Sound were used to create the covers of the licensed songs provided in the game . Marcus Henderson of the band Drist provided many of the lead guitar tracks for the covers . WaveGroup Sound also went to efforts to try to recreate effects for some songs . In the case of Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " , the team learned that the vocal effects were created by having Ozzy Osbourne sing from behind a metal fan . The team sought out the same model of fan through Craigslist to generate the same effect in the game 's cover . Many of the bonus songs were from groups that Harmonix employees were part of or knew . Additionally , a " Be a Guitar Hero " contest was held allowing bands to submit their own song to be included in the game . The winning song was " Cheat on the Church " by Graveyard BBQ . Black Label Society 's song , " Fire it Up " , was included two weeks before the game was completed at the request of Zakk Wylde . The final song list was set very near to the shipping date .
Guitar Hero started with " super @-@ basic Pong @-@ style graphics " for the game display . The final game art was led by Ryan Lesser , using the art team 's involvement in the music scene . Based on the experience from Frequency and Amplitude , the team realized that " people don 't necessarily relate to really abstract visuals " , and included the depictions of live performances as previously used in Karaoke Revolution . House of Moves were used to assist in creation motion capture for the on @-@ screen animations . The appearance of Star Power was made to resemble electricity , both to reflect the use of the electric guitar as well to conceptually demonstrate the excitement of the performance and the virtual audience .
Guitar Hero was initially released to retail stores in a bundle that packaged the game disc and a Gibson SG guitar controller , priced at $ 69 @.@ 99 . Since its release , stand @-@ alone copies of the games and the guitar controller have been released , including both RedOctane and third @-@ party controllers from TAC and Nyko . MadCatz , another controller company that has produced guitar controllers , was set to initially be part of the game 's development , creating a version of the game for the Xbox , but had to pull out due to a lawsuit by Komani ; MadCatz 's Darrel Richardson stated they had to pay $ 300 @,@ 000 to get out of their contract with RedOctane .
= = Soundtrack = =
Guitar Hero features 47 playable songs , 30 of which are " main setlist " tracks that are covers of popular songs . Featured tracks include " Iron Man " by Black Sabbath , " Take Me Out " by Franz Ferdinand , " Spanish Castle Magic " by Jimi Hendrix , " Bark at the Moon " by Ozzy Osbourne , " Smoke on the Water " by Deep Purple , " Crossroads " by Cream , and " Fat Lip " by Sum 41 . All cover tracks are credited on screen with the phrase " as made famous by " ( e.g. , " ' I Wanna Be Sedated ' , as made famous by The Ramones " ) . The other 17 songs are master recordings selected from indie groups .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero received critical acclaim upon release . It received a score of 91 @.@ 96 % on GameRankings and 91 / 100 on Metacritic . IGN praised the " fantastic soundtrack " and " great peripheral " , further commenting that mini @-@ Gibson SG controller " is what makes Guitar Hero , rather than what breaks it " . GameSpot echoed these sentiments , stating Guitar Hero had a " great guitar controller " and " killer soundtrack " and was possibly the " best rhythm game ever made " . Many reviews praised the game 's gradual learning curve and difficulty approach through the song tier progression and the difficulty setting for each song . Play said the game " gives bedroom air guitarists a chance to live out their rock ' n ' roll fantasies " . GameSpy 's review commented on the length of the songs , in that " once you hit the three minute mark or so , things start to feel ' too long ' " . Eurogamer said , " the lack of international star quality about the roster of songs and the absence of the original artists is perhaps the only thing that may detract from the package from an importer 's perspective " and " it would have been truly amazing with a better track list " .
Shortly after release , Guitar Hero became an unexpected hit ; it was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling PlayStation 2 title in February 2006 according to the NPD Group . Game sales amounted to $ 45 million in 2005 . Since then , the game has sold about 1 @.@ 53 million copies through December 2007 . The success of the game has spawned a one billion dollar Guitar Hero franchise , including four sequels on several seventh generation consoles , seven expansions , a mobile phone @-@ based version , and a portable version for the Nintendo DS . Harmonix no longer is involved in development of the series , due to its acquisition by MTV . Harmonix has since developed Rock Band using designs similar to those that based Guitar Hero 's success .
The game and its sequels have created interest in young adults and children in learning how to play a real guitar , and has been considered as a " cultural phenomenon " that has created a significant cultural impact . At the end of 2009 , several journalists , including Wired , G4TV , CNN , the San Jose Mercury News , the Toronto Star , Inc . , The Guardian , and Advertising Age , considered Guitar Hero to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century , attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market , for boosting music sales for both new and old artists , for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market , and , in conjunction with the Wii , for improving interactivity with gaming consoles .
= = = Awards = = =
Guitar Hero has won several awards . In IGN 's " Best of 2005 " , the game was recognized for " Best Music Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Music Game " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack for PlayStation 2 " , " Best Offline Multiplayer Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Offline Multiplayer Game " , and " Best Gaming Peripheral " ( for the Mini Gibson SG controller ) . GameSpot also recognized the game in its " Best and Worst of 2005 " , awarding it honors for " Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " , " Most Metal " , and " Reader 's Choice – Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " . The Game Developers Choice Awards honored Guitar Hero for " Excellence in Audio " and " Excellence in Game Innovation " . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards honored the game with awards for " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering " ( tie ) , and " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " . Guitar Hero also won " Best Soundtrack " at the 2005 Spike TV Video Game Awards .
= Steffen Peters =
Steffen Peters ( born September 18 , 1964 ) is a German @-@ born equestrian who competes for the United States in dressage . He has participated in three Olympic Games , winning a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . Peters has been successful in numerous other international competitions , including winning team bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games , two individual bronze medals at the 2010 World Equestrian Games and individual and team gold at the 2011 Pan Am Games . The horse upon which he won many of his titles , Ravel , was retired in 2012 , and Peters is currently working with a new international competition horse , Legolas .
= = Personal life = =
Peters was born in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany . He began riding at age seven , and competing in weekend dressage shows . By 15 , he was competing outside of Germany , at international competitions in Belgium and Denmark . He received his first horse , Udon , at age 16 as a gift from his father ; this horse would carry him to a bronze medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics . In 1984 , he spent the summer training in San Diego , California , before returning to Germany to perform his army service . In 1985 , he returned to the United States with Udon . In 1991 , he opened his own barn and acquired his first sponsor , Lila Kommerstad , who purchased Udon and as of 2012 owned a portion of Peters ' Arroyo Del Mar training barn . Peters gained his US citizenship in 1992 , saying , " The whole idea of being so patriotic , of feeling so close to one 's country makes a difference . There are not too many other countries where the people are so patriotic . I really enjoy this about America . " Peters continues to live in the San Diego area with his wife , Shannon . Their large dressage barn is home to approximately 65 horses as of 2012 , around half of which the couple trains and the other half of which are in training under other riders . Outside of his competition and training schedule , he teaches in around 30 training seminars each year . His staff call him " a machine " with regard to his training and competition schedule , and in addition to riding , he participates in swimming , cycling and tennis .
= = Competitive career = =
Peters ' show record before the 1992 Summer Olympics made him a hopeful to compete for the US team . However , his citizenship papers were not processed in time to compete in the Olympic trials , and so he did not compete in Barcelona . Peters won his first Olympic medal when he rode with the US dressage team to a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , together with Robert Dover , Michelle Gibson and Guenter Seidel . Peters , riding Floriano , was an alternate for the US team at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and did not compete . In 2006 , with an aging Floriano , Peters and the US team won bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games . Soon after , he began riding TC Ravel , who would become his most successful horse . Despite being gelded while in quarantine after his shipment from the Netherlands and suffering an injury in 2007 that prevented training , Ravel carried Peters to a qualification for the 2008 Summer Olympics . In individual dressage competition at the Games , Peters placed fourth , riding Ravel . The US team finished fourth at the 2008 Games , but was disqualified after team member Courtney King 's horse tested positive for felbinac , a banned substance . In 2009 , Peters and Ravel had the highest scores in all three portions of the prestigious German Aachen World Equestrian Festival Grand Prix competition , leading them to be the first American pair to be named the Aachen Grand Prix Champions .
Ravel and Peters went on to win the 2009 World Cup Final , two bronze medals in individual competition at the 2010 World Equestrian Games , and be twice named the US Grand Prix Dressage Champions . In 2009 , The Chronicle of the Horse named Peters and Ravel Horse and Horseman of the Year , and the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) named Ravel as Horse of the Year . At the time , the Chronicle called him a " natural athlete with a balanced seat and an inherent understanding of the horse . He 's calm under pressure and has a reputation for having ice water in his veins . " In 2011 , riding Weltino 's Magic , he took gold in both the team and individual dressage events at the 2011 Pan Am Games . At the 2012 Summer Olympics he came 17th in the individual dressage and was part of the US team which came 6th , again riding Ravel . Peters retired Ravel from competition after the 2012 Olympic Games , after over 40 Grand Prix wins , and the same year the horse was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Peters ' new international competition horse is Legolas , currently the world 's top dressage horse , and a prospect for the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games , to be held in Normandy , France .
Peters is the first person to be awarded the USEF 's Equestrian of the Year Award three times , having won the honor in 2008 , 2009 and 2011 .
= Gardner Lake =
Gardner Lake is a small lake which borders the towns of Salem , Montville and Bozrah in Connecticut . Named after the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding land , the 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) lake has been expanded in size with the construction of an earthen dam . Three state parks are located around Gardner Lake . Minnie Island State Park , the smallest state park , is a pine knoll . Hopemead State Park is a former campground that abuts the lake 's eastern shore . Gardner Lake State Park primarily serves as a boat launch and swimming area , but has been beset by problems with trash and vandalism since the area was improved in 2008 . Four campgrounds , a marina and dozens of private residences surround the lake . The lake is used for fishing and boating .
= = History = =
Gardner Lake is a natural lake and is named for the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding area , but the history of the lake itself is more identified as the site of " an extremely public miscalculation " . Thomas LeCount , a grocer from Niantic , Connecticut wanted to move his two @-@ story summer house from the south side of the lake to the east side of the lake , but believed that moving the house conventionally would be inefficient . LeCount raised up his fully furnished house and placed it on sleds and waited until February 1895 when the lake was frozen . After moving the house about 300 feet ( 91 m ) off the south shore , the house slid sideways into a snowbank . The ice cracked as LeCount attempted to pull the house back , before abandoning the work at nightfall . That night , the mill operators utilized some of the lake 's water for power and made a gap between the ice and surface of the water , causing the house to crack through the ice and pitch over . LeCount 's summer home remained in this position until the spring thaw where it came to rest in 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of water with the second story and attic positioned above the water like a small lighthouse . For years , the house was the subject of children who fished off it in summer and ice skated through the house in the winter , but an enduring tale told by fishermen is that the house 's piano could be heard playing on quiet nights . By 2005 , the house was mostly rotted away .
Though Gardner Lake is a 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) natural lake that has been increased in size by the construction of a 168 feet ( 51 m ) earthen dam . The dam raises the water level up 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to an average depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The area surrounding Gardner Lake has dozens of private homes , four campgrounds and a marina .
= = Gardner Lake State Park = =
Gardner Lake State Park is a small 9 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 95 ha ) Connecticut state park located on the south portion of the lake and provides access for fishing , swimming , and boating on the lake . Added to the state park list in 2001 , it expected to be open around 2002 and serves as one of the few public inland swimming areas ighyt dog poopn the New London County area .
In 2001 , the State of Connecticut paid $ 550 @,@ 000 to acquire the parcel of land which became Lake Gardner State Park . The land was acquired from the estate of Carmine Belardo and returned a beach to public service that had been a private resort for 60 years . The Town of Salem had sought to acquire the land , but the citizens rejected the plan three times and a state funded grant was rejected in 1994 after the DEP announced the interest in acquiring the property for the state . In 2008 , the state spent about $ 1 million to pave the boat launch area and improve parking for 54 vehicles . In 2012 , the State of Connecticut was looking to institute parking fees for the park after it experienced several years of increased attendance and incidents in the park limits . Concerns included littering , unkempt toilets , swimmers going outside the designated zone and police arresting almost three times as many visitors from 2011 . In response to the issues , patrols were increased and additional signage was added to inform swimmers . The problems with trash problems and portable toilets ending up in the lake caused concerns for a local advocacy group , Friends of Gardner Lake , and the Gardner Lake Authority which has staff to attend the lake during peak hours .
Gardner Lake State Park is located off Connecticut Route 354 and features accessible parking , chemical toilets and a paved boat launch area . This state park designated area is primarily to provide boating and recreational access to the lake , though there is also a small beach for visitors to use . As of 2014 , the park does not have a parking fee .
= = Minnie Island State Park = =
Minnie Island State Park is a pine grown @-@ knoll that is located in the deepest portion of the lake . It is unmarked and undeveloped island that also is Connecticut 's smallest state park at 0 @.@ 88 acres . The island acquired its name when a local man declared it to be Minnie Island , because he took his wife , Minnie , to it for picnics . Joseph Leary , author of A Shared Landscape writes , " [ a ] s far back as anyone can remember , the island was a frequent landing place for boating parties and a great place for local children to explore . " The island was claimed by both the towns of Salem , Connecticut and Montville , Connecticut though it was not in the land records of either town . This went unnoticed until a man attempted to purchase the island , and then made attempted to establish claim to the island . The man introduced a bill to authorize the sale by the state to establish title to the island , but instead the Connecticut General Assembly drafted and passed a bill to turn the island into a park .
Minnie Island State Park offers opportunities for picnicking and fishing to visitors who reach it by boat . Though the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection lists boating as an activity , which is redundant because the island is accessible by boat . The Oh Ranger website advises visitors of the tiny island to use a kayak to access the island because the island is heavily wooded and it is difficult to find a spot to dock .
= = Hopemead State Park = =
Hopemead State Park is currently undeveloped 70 acre park on the eastern shore of the lake . The land was originally Solomon Gardner 's farm until it was purchased as a summer getaway by the Fuller family . The property was named Camp Charmarlou , an acronym from Fuller 's three daughters , and contained a house and an artist 's studio . Camp Charmarlou was used a boys camp for a number of years with permission by the Fuller family . It was later renamed Hopemead , literally " Hope Meadow " , by the Fuller daughters who believed it to be a sanctuary with spiritual overtones . In 1954 , the land was donated to the State of Connecticut to become a state park . The state found the land is unsuitable for development and demolished the dilapidated buildings , with the intention of letting Hopemead return to a natural state . Joseph Leary notes that the wildlife has thrived in the area , but notes that the cacophony of noises and calls is simply " divine " . The park offers opportunities for hiking and fishing .
= = Activities = =
The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection , now the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection has been stocking the lake with walleye since 1993 . The walleye populations have been reported to be growing and they join the lake 's " excellent populations of bull head and catfish " . Smallmouth bass , largemouth bass , yellow perch are also found in the pond , but have been reported as " fair " reports and also good reports for trout . Local fishing tournaments also occur at Gardner Lake . As a result of the improvements to the boat launch area , boating and kayaking have increased greatly and police had to up the patrols at the lake . The area is patrolled by the Montville police and it costs the majority of annual budget , but the service was seen as beneficial to ensure the safety of boaters and enforcing the rules .
= German submarine U @-@ 44 ( 1939 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 44 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II . She was ordered in November 1936 and laid down in September 1938 in Bremen . She was launched in August 1939 and commissioned in November .
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 44 conducted only two war patrols and sank a total of eight enemy vessels for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . On 13 March 1940 , she struck a mine that was located in field Number 7 off the north coast of the Netherlands . All 47 of her ' s crew members went down with the submarine .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 44 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 21 November 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . She was laid down on 15 September 1938 by AG Weser , in Bremen as yard number 949 . U @-@ 44 was launched on 5 August 1939 and commissioned on 4 November of that same year under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Mathes .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 44 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 44 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 44 had a very short operational life . During her service with the Kriegsmarine , she took part in only two combat patrols . After training exercises with the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla from 4 November to 31 December 1939 , U @-@ 44 was assigned as the front boat for the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla on 1 January 1940 . She was to remain a part of this flotilla until her loss .
= = = First patrol = = =
The first of U @-@ 44 's two patrols | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
did not win a game . The qualifying tournament broke the teams into four pools of four teams each , which competed in a six @-@ game , modified double @-@ elimination format , similar to the first round of the 2009 tournament , with the winners of the sixth game in each pool proceeding to the main tournament . Australia , having finished 12th after beating Mexico in their first game in 2009 , automatically qualified for the main tournament .
The main tournament combined elements of both previous WBC editions . The first round was split all teams into four pools , where the teams competed in a round @-@ robin , as was the case in the 2006 tournament . The second round used the same modified double @-@ elimination format as used in the 2009 tournament and the 2013 qualifying tournament . The final round was contested in the same manner as both previous tournaments : the top two teams from each group in the second round qualifying for the two semi @-@ final matches , the winners of which played in the championship game .
Australia was drawn into Pool B , which was held at the Taichung Intercontinental Baseball Stadium in Taiwan . In their opener , they fell to host and qualifiers Chinese Taipei , 4 – 1 . They followed up with a 6 – 0 loss to South Korea before finishing with a 4 – 1 defeat to the Netherlands .
= = = = Olympic Games = = = =
Australia was the third nation , after the United States and Sweden , to participate in baseball at the Summer Olympics , making their first appearance at the 1956 Games in Melbourne , and again as part of its demonstration at the 1988 Games in Seoul . Though the sport has applied for re @-@ admission for 2016 , baseball is no longer contested as a medal event at the Olympics .
Since baseball was first included as a medal sport at the 1992 Games in Barcelona , Australia has participated in three of the five tournaments . The best result achieved was in the 2004 Games in Athens , where Australia lost the gold medal match to Cuba to receive silver . Their medal tally puts them at 5th , equal to Chinese Taipei .
= = = = World Cup = = = =
Australia has participated in ten of the IBAF World Cup tournaments . To date its best result has been 5th , which Australia has achieved twice in both of the most recent tournaments held — 2009 and 2011 . At the 2007 tournament , Trent Oeltjen became the first Australian player to be named in a World Cup All Star team , in recognition of his tournament @-@ leading hitting and base @-@ running statistics . Australia is currently participating in the 2011 tournament in Panama .
Until 1986 , the World Cup was actually referred to as the " Amateur World Series " . The Amateur World Series only made use of round @-@ robin fixtures , with teams ranked at the end of the tournament . Australia 's first appearance was in Italy in 1978 . Out of the ten teams to compete , Australia finished 9th ahead of the other debuting team , Belgium .
Since the 1988 tournament , it has held the " World Cup " name , with the IBAF recognising the past Amateur World Series winners as World Cup winners . With the change of name came a change in format for the tournament : a round @-@ robin phase , followed by a knockout phase for the top four teams . ( Later tournaments would see two pools used in the first phase , and an expanded knockout phase including the top four teams from each pool . ) In the " World Cup Era " , Australia has reached the final phase four times , finishing 7th in 1998 , 6th in 2007 and most recently 5th in 2009 and 2011 .
= = = Minor world championships = = =
There are six separate tournaments that the IBAF currently recognises as " minor world championships " . Of those , Australia has only participated in one senior tournament : the Intercontinental Cup . ( Australia has also participated in the World Junior Baseball Championship and the World Youth Baseball Championship , both of which are also included in the same category for the IBAF rankings . )
= = = = Intercontinental Cup = = = =
Australia is one of five nations to have won the Intercontinental Cup , winning the 1999 tournament by beating Cuba 4 – 3 in extra innings in front of a home crowd in Sydney . It was the first time Australia had won an international baseball tournament , and through 2009 the only win outside of the Oceania Baseball Championship . The team enjoyed several individual successes as well :
Dave Nilsson named tournament MVP , to go along with leading the tournament for runs batted in ( 12 ) and being named in the tournament all @-@ star team ( as catcher )
Shayne Bennett led the tournament pitching with the best win – loss record ( 3 – 0 )
Adam Burton led the tournament batting with the most runs scored ( 9 )
Michael Moyle shared the lead in the tournament with Oscar Macias ( Cuba ) , with the most home runs ( 3 )
two other Australians were selected along with Dave Nilsson in the all @-@ star team : Adrian Meagher ( right @-@ handed pitcher ) and Michael Moyle ( designated hitter )
It was only the third time Cuba had been beaten in the gold medal match in the tournament 's history , having reached the tournament decider every time they have participated . Australia also shares another honour with Cuba : of the nine nations to have hosted the tournament , only Australia and Cuba have won as hosts , combining for five tournament wins from five times hosted . ( Cuba in 1979 , 1987 , 1995 and 2002 , Australia in 1999 . )
Australia first participated in the tournament at the 1981 Intercontinental Cup , managing only one win out of their seven games , finishing 8th . Missing the 1983 Intercontinental Cup , they returned in 1985 to repeat their previous performance : 1 win , 8th @-@ place finish . They would not reappear at the tournament until 1993 where they improved to a 5 – 4 record to finish in 6th position . Australia 's first medal performance at the Intercontinental Cup ( and their first medal at a world tournament ) was at the 1997 tournament . In their best performance through the preliminary round , they put together a 6 – 1 record losing only to eventual silver @-@ medalists Cuba , and beating eventual gold @-@ medalists Japan . They lost to Japan in the semi @-@ final , but beat the United States for the second time in the tournament to secure the bronze .
Australia also competed in the most recent tournament in 2006 . There they finished in 5th position , compiling a 3 – 4 record . This is likely to be the last edition of the tournament for the foreseeable future .
= = = Continental tournaments = = =
Australia is the second of only two nations to have participated in IBAF @-@ sanctioned continental tournaments for more than one continent : the Asian Baseball Championship between 1971 – 1993 , and the Oceania Baseball Championship since 2003 . The first nation to achieve this was Guam , who competed in the Asian tournament within the same timeframe as Australia , though they were involved in the first Oceania tournament in 1999 .
= = = = Asian Baseball Championship = = = =
Australia is one of thirteen nations to have participated in the Asian Baseball Championship since the tournament was first held in 1954 . The last time they contested the championship was in 1993 , as a result of joining the newly formed Baseball Confederation of Oceania . Though their best result was a bronze medal in the 1975 , the only teams to consistently finish ahead of Australia were Japan , South Korea and Chinese Taipei — the top three teams in Asia , and all in the top five in the world .
= = = = Oceania Baseball Championship = = = =
Though scheduled to participate on three separate occasions , Australia has only contested the Oceania Baseball Championship once in 2003 . The two other times , Australia 's scheduled opponents — Guam in 2004 and New Zealand in 2007 — withdrew from competition in the lead up to each series , both times scheduled to be held in Sydney . Australia was awarded the championship both times , and as a result represented Oceania at the 2004 Summer Olympics and at the 2007 Baseball World Cup respectively .
Held during late April 2003 , Australia won its first continental championship , beating hosts Guam 12 – 1 , 12 – 1 and 5 – 1 to win the best of five series three games to one . ( Guam won the third game 8 – 2 . )
= Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! =
Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is an adventure platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was first released on 22 November 1996 in North America , 23 November in Japan and on 18 December 1996 in Europe and Australia . It is the third instalment of the Donkey Kong Country series , and serves as a direct sequel to Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . It was also re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005 . The game was made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 .
The plot revolves around Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , in their attempts to rescue the kidnapped Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong from series antagonist King K. Rool . The game is set in the " Northern Kremisphere " , a fictionalised version of northern Europe and Canada . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics technology from its predecessors , which feature the use of pre @-@ rendered 3D imagery . The game received positive reviews upon release . Critics praised the visuals and various aspects of gameplay , however most were divided over the game 's soundtrack .
= = Gameplay = =
Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is a platform game where players control Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , through eight worlds which comprise a total of 48 levels . Many of the gameplay elements from previous games in the series mark a return in this game , such as barrels , bonus levels which reward the player with special " bonus coins " , DK coins , animal helpers and a multiplayer mode . Both of the two playable Kongs have unique abilities , such as Dixie 's ability to slow her descent by spinning her ponytail , and Kiddy 's ability to bounce across open water . The Kongs may also pick each other up to throw each other around levels ; the impact of the other player @-@ character can reveal cracked floors , hidden switches or secret areas . At any time , the player can switch Kongs during a level .
Levels in the game include a mixture of platforming , swimming and on @-@ rails levels . They are based around several returning themes including forests , cliff @-@ sides , factories and mountain tops . The level design is more diverse compared to its predecessors , which includes more complex puzzles and obstacles . Every level has an enemy called a Koin ; each of these enemies bears the DK Coin of their respective level , holding it as a shield . As these enemies always face towards the player , they must be defeated by throwing a steel barrel over them so it bounces off a wall behind them in order to strike them from behind . The game overworld is also more complex , allowing players to explore between each area instead of forcing them along a linear path . To achieve this , the game includes several vehicles such as a speedboat and hovercraft which can be used to traverse the overworld and access different worlds .
The game features " Animal Friends " , which return from its predecessors . Returning animals include Enguarde the swordfish , Squitter the spider and Squawks the parrot . New animals include Ellie the elephant , who can suck up water in her trunk to spray enemies with , and Parry the " parallel bird " , who flies directly above the player @-@ characters and can be used to collect out @-@ of @-@ reach items . As in the previous game , players can directly control animals instead of just riding them . Scattered around the Northern Kremisphere overworld are the Brothers Bear , a family of bears who provide the players with hints , key items or other services . Players can collect items in levels to trade with the bears for other items or to help progress to later levels ; one such item is the Bear Coin , which acts as the game 's currency . Other members from the Kong family , such as Cranky Kong , Wrinkly Kong , Swanky Kong and Funky Kong can also be found around the overworld , each of whom offer their own services .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player @-@ characters in this game are Dixie Kong , who is Diddy Kong 's girlfriend , and her younger cousin , Kiddy Kong . Scattered around the overworld are various other characters : Wrinkly Kong appears in " save caves , " which when entered allow the player to save their game ; Funky Kong plays a key role in the game , as he supplies the player with vehicles to traverse the overworld ; Swanky Kong , reappearing from the previous game , allows players to challenge Cranky Kong in a contest involving throwing balls at targets in exchange for Bear Coins . New to the series are the Brothers Bear , thirteen bears providing the player with services in exchange for Bear Coins , some of whom are instrumental for advancing through the game . The main antagonist of the previous games , King K. Rool , reappears under the moniker of " Baron K. Roolenstein " .
= = = Story = = =
Shortly after the events of Donkey Kong Country 2 , Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong suddenly disappear in the Northern Kremisphere , which bears a geographical resemblance to Canada and northern Europe . Dixie Kong sets off to find the pair and is joined by her cousin Kiddy Kong , aided by Funky Kong 's vehicles to traverse the land . They reach Kastle KAOS , the lair of a robot named KAOS , who was thought to be the new leader of the Kremlings . After they destroy KAOS , the curtain in the background rolls up to reveal the robot was being controlled by Baron K. Roolenstein , the new moniker of King K. Rool . After the duo fights him , Donkey and Diddy pop out of the destroyed KAOS , implying they were being used to power the robot .
Dixie and Kiddy uncover the extinct volcanic island of Krematoa . They meet Boomer , an exiled member of the Brothers Bear , inside his Anderson shelter . He agrees to destroy the rocks hindering the path in exchange for bonus coins . After Dixie and Kiddy find all bonus coins and five cogwheels hidden in Krematoa , the duo give the cogs to Boomer , who puts them into a machine which reactivates Krematoa , revealing the Knautilus , K. Roolenstein 's personal submarine . The Kongs board the submarine and battle against him in there , however he escapes once again .
Once the Kongs collect all DK coins , they give the coins to Funky , who in exchange gives them a gyrocopter . The duo then finds an enigmatic creature called the Banana Bird Queen , who is bound to a barrier cast by K. Roolenstein . She tells the Kongs that she can only be freed if her separated children are returned to her , and that she will rid the land of K. Rool if she is freed . The Kongs find each of her children in a cave , where one of the birds is trapped in an egg which hatches when the Kongs complete a Simon @-@ like memory game . After rescuing them and completing a large trade sequence between the Brothers Bear , the Kongs return the children to the Queen . The Queen and her children all sing , annihilating the barrier . The Queen proceeds to chase K. Rool , who is fleeing in a hovercraft . When she catches up to him , she drops a giant eggshell on top of him , which Dixie and Kiddy land on . The Kongs repeatedly knock on the shell , annoying K. Rool .
= = Development and release = =
Similar to its predecessors , Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics ( SGI ) and Advanced Computer Modelling ( ACM ) rendering technology , in which pre @-@ rendered 3D animations are turned into 2D sprites . Rare founder Tim Stamper re @-@ took the role as the game 's director , whereas Rare staffers Andrew Collard and Paul Weaver designed the game . Development of Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! began shortly after the release of Diddy 's Kong Quest . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s soundtrack was composed by Eveline Fischer and David Wise , with Fischer producing most of the game 's music .
Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! was first released in North America on 22 November 1996 and Europe and Australia on 18 December 1996 . It was also made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 . While the game sold over 3 @.@ 5 million units worldwide , it has been believed that its sales were hurt by its November 1996 release , which was when the Nintendo 64 console had the majority of industry 's attention . 1 @.@ 7 million copies were sold in Japan and 1 @.@ 12 million copies sold in the United States . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! has sold the least amount of copies in the Donkey Kong Country series , with the exception of Donkey Kong Country : Tropical Freeze for the Wii U.
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . The SNES version holds an aggregate score of 86 % from GameRankings , whereas the Game Boy Advance version holds a score of 76 % .
The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game . Frank Provo of GameSpot stated that the graphics were colourful , vibrant and " top @-@ notch " . Lucas Thomas of IGN opined that Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s visuals were not as awe @-@ inspiring as the pre @-@ rendered CGI of Donkey Kong Country , however he admitted that they " still looked great " for the third instalment . In a retrospective review , Marcel van Duyn of NintendoLife praised the game 's visuals and detailed backgrounds , stating that they were " fantastic " for the SNES . Reviewing the Game Boy Advance version , a reviewer from GamePro thought that the graphics appeared " washed out " on the system 's backlit screen ; stating that the pre @-@ rendered sprites did not " show up very well " . A reviewer from Nintendo Master thought that the game 's main strengths were its " beautiful graphics and script " . A reviewer from Jeuxvideo asserted that the various aspects of gameplay made Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! a hallmark of the series .
The music received mixed opinions from critics . Although Provo stated that the game 's music was " catchy " , he noted that devotees to the original Donkey Kong Country may not like it . Thomas thought compared to the other Donkey Kong Country games , the music in Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! stands out the least , although he stated that it was an " impressive effort " . Van Duyn similarly stated that the soundtrack was not as " legendary " as it was in its previous instalment , however he still admitted that it had some " great " tracks . In addition , Van Duyn criticised the Game Boy Advance 's port for replacing all of the original music with remixed versions . However , Provo stated that the music was " just as good " as the original , regarding the soundtrack on the Game Boy Advance port .
= Herb Pennock =
Herbert Jefferis Pennock ( February 10 , 1894 – January 30 , 1948 ) was an American professional baseball pitcher . He played in Major League Baseball from 1912 through 1933 . He is best known for his time spent with the star @-@ studded New York Yankee teams of the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s .
Connie Mack signed Pennock to his Philadelphia Athletics in 1912 . After using Pennock sparingly , and questioning his competitive drive , Mack sold Pennock to the Boston Red Sox in 1915 . After returning from military service in 1919 , Pennock became a regular contributor for the Red Sox . The Yankees acquired Pennock from the Red Sox after the 1922 season , and he served as a key member of the pitching staff as the Yankees won four World Series championships during his tenure with the team . After retiring as a player , Pennock served as a coach and farm system director for the Red Sox , and as general manager of the Philadelphia Phillies .
Pennock was regarded as one of the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers in baseball history . Mack later called his sale of Pennock to the Red Sox his greatest mistake . Pennock died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1948 ; later that year , he was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Pennock was born on February 10 , 1894 in Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . His father , Theodore Pennock , and mother Mary Louise Pennock ( née Sharp ) were of Scotch @-@ Irish and Quaker descent . His ancestors came to the United States with William Penn . Herb was the youngest of four children .
Pennock attended Westtown School and Cedarcroft Boarding School , where he played for the baseball team . After struggling as a first baseman , with a weak offensive output and throwing arm that resulted in curved throws , his Cedarcroft coach converted Pennock into a pitcher .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Philadelphia Athletics = = =
While pitching at Cedarcroft , Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter to catcher Earle Mack , the son of Connie Mack , manager of the Philadelphia Athletics , in 1910 . Pennock agreed to sign with the Athletics at a later date . Mack signed Pennock in 1912 to play for his collegiate team based in Atlantic City . Pennock 's father insisted that he sign under an alias in order to protect his collegiate eligibility . Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter against a traveling Negro league baseball team , and Mack promoted him to the Athletics . Mack intended for Pennock to be one of the prospects who would replace star pitchers Eddie Plank , Chief Bender , and Jack Coombs .
Pennock made his major league debut with the Athletics during the 1912 season on May 14 , allowing one hit in four innings pitched . He was the youngest person to play in the American League ( AL ) that season . Former major leaguer Mike Grady , a neighbor of Pennock 's in Kennett Square , took Pennock under his wing , while Bender taught Pennock to throw a screwball .
Pennock missed most of the 1913 season with an illness . In the 1914 season , Pennock posted an 11 – 4 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 79 earned run average ( ERA ) in 151 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched for the Athletics , and pitched three scoreless innings in the 1914 World Series , which the Athletics lost to the Boston Braves . Mack let Bender go after the season , naming Pennock his Opening Day starting pitcher in 1915 . On Opening Day , Pennock threw a one @-@ hit complete game shutout against the Boston Red Sox . However , as the Athletics struggled , Pennock 's nonchalant playing style drew Mack 's ire . Concluding that Pennock " lacked ambition " , Mack sold Pennock to the Red Sox for the waiver price of $ 2 @,@ 500 ( $ 58 @,@ 479 in current dollar terms ) . Mack later regarded this sale as his greatest mistake .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
With a deep pitching staff in place , the Red Sox loaned Pennock to the Providence Grays of the International League in August for the remainder of the 1915 season . He split the 1916 season between the Red Sox and the Buffalo Bisons , also in the International League . With Buffalo , Pennock pitched to a 1 @.@ 67 ERA , as Buffalo won the league pennant . Though the Red Sox won the 1915 and 1916 World Series , Pennock did not appear in either series .
Pitching in minor league baseball , Pennock began to regain confidence . However , Boston manager Jack Barry used Pennock sparingly in the 1917 season , and Pennock enlisted in the United States Navy in 1918 . Pennock pitched for a team fielded by the Navy , defeating a team composed of members of the United States Army in an exhibition for George VI , the King of England , in Stamford Bridge . After the game , Ed Barrow , the new manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to a new contract after promising to use him regularly during the 1919 season .
Pennock received only one start apiece in the months of April and May , as the 1919 Red Sox relied on George Dumont , Bill James , and Bullet Joe Bush , leading Pennock to threaten to quit in late @-@ May unless Barrow fulfilled his earlier promise to Pennock . Barrow continued to use Pennock regularly after Memorial Day , and Pennock finished the season with a 16 – 8 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 71 ERA in 219 innings pitched . He served as the team 's ace pitcher in the 1920 season , but subsequently settled in as the Red Sox ' third starter . After the 1922 Red Sox campaign , in which he went 10 – 17 , and had seven wild pitches , leading the AL , the New York Yankees began to negotiate with the Red Sox to acquire Pennock . The Yankees traded Norm McMillan , George Murray , and Camp Skinner to the Red Sox for Pennock that offseason .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Pennock pitched to a 19 – 6 win @-@ loss record in the 1923 season , his first with the Yankees , leading the American League ( AL ) in winning percentage ( .760 ) and finishing sixth in wins . Pitching in the 1923 World Series , Pennock defeated the New York Giants in game two , on October 11 , to end their eight @-@ game World Series winning streak . He recorded a save in securing the Yankees ' win in game four , and pitched to the win in game six on one day of rest , clinching the Yankees ' first World Series championship . Umpire Billy Evans called it " the greatest pitching performance I have ever seen " , as Pennock " had nothing . "
In the 1924 season , he pitched to a 21 – 9 win @-@ loss record with a 2 @.@ 83 ERA while striking out a career @-@ high 101 batters . His win total was second in the AL , behind Walter Johnson , while his ERA was third behind Johnson and Tom Zachary , and he finished fourth in strikeouts behind Johnson , Howard Ehmke , and teammate Bob Shawkey . Pennock 's 277 innings pitched and 1 @.@ 220 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio led the AL in the 1925 season , while his 2 @.@ 96 ERA was second @-@ best , behind Stan Coveleski . In the 1926 season , he posted a career @-@ high 23 wins , finishing second in the AL to George Uhle . He again led the AL in WHIP ( 1 @.@ 265 ) , and issued the fewest walks per nine innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 453 ) . During the pennant race , The Sporting News called Pennock the " best left @-@ hander in the majors " . Pennock earned the wins in game one and game five of the 1926 World Series . He finished game seven of the series , which the Yankees lost to the St. Louis Cardinals .
The Yankees reached the World Series , facing the Pittsburgh Pirates . Pennock pitched a complete game against the Pirates in game three of the 1927 World Series , not allowing a hit until the eighth inning . Pennock 's performance drew praise from teammate Babe Ruth . The Yankees swept the series from Pittsburgh . After pitching a three @-@ hit shutout against the Red Sox on August 12 , 1928 , he missed the remainder of the season , including the 1928 World Series , with an arm injury . His five shutouts and 0 @.@ 085 home runs per nine innings pitched led the AL . His 2 @.@ 56 ERA trailed only Garland Braxton , while his 17 wins tied for eighth place . Though the Yankees defeated the Cardinals in the 1928 World Series , the Yankees ' starting rotation without Pennock was likened to " a three @-@ stringed ukulele . "
In the 1929 season , Pennock saw his pitching time and pitching quality diminish . Over the rest of his career , he never posted more than 189 innings pitched in a season and his ERA rose to over 4 @.@ 00 . He suffered from bouts of neuritis in 1929 and 1930 . Pennock won his 200th career game during the 1929 season , becoming the third left @-@ handed pitcher to reach that mark . He led the AL in walks per nine innings pitched in 1930 ( 1 @.@ 151 ) and 1931 ( 1 @.@ 426 ) . Pennock pitched four innings of relief against the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series , recording two saves . The New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America named him their player of the year .
In 1933 , serving exclusively as a relief pitcher , Pennock had a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record in 23 appearances . After the 1933 season , the Yankees honored Pennock with a testimonial dinner on January 6 , 1934 , and then gave him his release .
= = = Return to Boston = = =
Eddie Collins , a former teammate with the Athletics now serving as the general manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to their 1934 roster . In his last season pitching in the major leagues , Pennock served as a relief pitcher for the Red Sox .
Pennock retired with a career record of 240 wins , 162 losses , and a 3 @.@ 60 ERA . Pennock pitched in five World Series , one with Philadelphia and four with New York . He was a member of four World Series championship teams . In World Series play , Pennock amassed a 5 – 0 career win @-@ loss record with three saves , becoming the second pitcher to win five World Series games , after Coombs . Pennock was a part of seven World Series championship teams ( 1913 , 1915 , 1916 , 1923 , 1927 , 1928 , and 1932 ) , though he played in four World Series ' as a member of the winning team . Many , including Mack , consider Pennock among the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers of all time .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Pennock became the general manager of the Charlotte Hornets , a Red Sox ' farm team of the Piedmont League , prior to the 1935 season . He returned to the Red Sox in 1936 , serving as the first base and pitching coach under manager Joe Cronin . He served in this role through the 1938 season . In 1939 , Pennock served as the Assistant Supervisor of Boston 's minor league system , reporting to Evans . Pennock succeeded Evans as Director of Minor League Operations late in the 1940 season .
In December 1943 , R. R. M. Carpenter , Jr . , the new owner of the Philadelphia Phillies , hired Pennock as his general manager , after receiving a recommendation from Mack . Carpenter gave Pennock a lifetime contract . Pennock filled Carpenter 's duties when the team 's owner was drafted into service during World War II in 1944 . As general manager , Pennock changed the team 's name to the " Blue Jays " , and invested $ 1 million ( $ 13 @,@ 442 @,@ 344 in current dollar terms ) into players who would become known as the " Whiz Kids " , who won the National League pennant in 1950 , including Curt Simmons and Willie Jones . He also created a " Grandstand Managers Club " , the first in baseball history , allowing fans to give feedback to the team , and advocated for the repeal of the Bonus Rule .
Pennock opposed racial integration in baseball . In 1947 , when Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers , Pennock called Dodgers team president Branch Rickey before the Dodgers ' series in Philadelphia and told him not to " bring that nigger here with the rest of the team . " He further threatened to boycott a 1947 game between the Phillies and Dodgers if Robinson played .
In 1948 , at the age of 53 , one week and four days before his 54th birthday , Pennock collapsed in the lobby of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage . He was pronounced dead upon his arrival at Midtown Hospital . Pennock had been healthy , even inviting friends to join him at Madison Square Garden to attend a boxing match .
= = Honors = =
Pennock was honored with " Herb Pennock Day " on April 30 , 1944 in Kennett Square . Weeks after his death , Pennock was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame . An attempt to erect a statue in Kennett Square in his honor was blocked due to his support of segregation in baseball .
Fred Heimach , a teammate of Pennock , once called him the smartest ball player he knew . In 1981 , Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included Pennock in their book The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . He was inducted in the International League Hall of Fame in 1948 . Noted baseball photographer Charles M. Conlon considered Pennock one of his favorite subjects to photograph .
= = Personal = =
Pennock was nicknamed " the Squire of Kennett Square . " He married Esther M. Freck , his high school sweetheart and the younger sister of a childhood friend , on October 28 , 1915 . Esther often attended spring training and traveled with her husband 's team during the season . Together , the couple had a daughter , Jane ( born 1920 ) , and a son , Joe ( born 1925 ) . Jane later married Eddie Collins , Jr .. While a member of the Yankees , Pennock rented an apartment on Grand Concourse in The Bronx , where his wife and children stayed while the Yankees played their home games .
Pennock was a proficient horse rider . He also raised hounds and silver foxes for their pelts . He also grew flowers and vegetables on his farm .
= 4th Armoured Brigade ( Australia ) =
The 4th Armoured Brigade was an armoured formation of the Australian Army established during the Second World War . It was formed in February 1943 to provide armoured support for infantry units operating in the South West Pacific Area . Its composition varied over time , but usually comprised several armoured regiments equipped with Matilda II or M3 Grant tanks as well as some support units .
The brigade 's main role throughout its existence was to provide a pool of armoured units and sub @-@ units that could be deployed to augment infantry forces . It was also responsible for developing specialised variants of armoured vehicles . Elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade were detached to support most of the Australian Army 's major operations from 1943 until the end of the war , and from September 1944 it was the Army 's only armoured brigade . The formation was disbanded , after the war , in February 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The 4th Armoured Brigade was established in February 1943 as part of a reorganisation of the Australian Army 's armoured units . As there was no longer any threat of Japanese forces invading Australia , the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded to free up manpower for other purposes . However , it was decided to retain the headquarters of that division 's 6th Armoured Brigade to command armoured units that were intended to take part in offensive operations in New Guinea and other locations in the South West Pacific . This specialised formation was designated the 4th Armoured Brigade . The need for armoured support of infantry forces had been demonstrated by the Army 's experiences in the New Guinea Campaign during 1942 and early 1943 .
The main role of the 4th Armoured Brigade was to provide detachments of tanks to support infantry units . As it was not practical or necessary to deploy large armoured units in the jungle terrain common across the South West Pacific , the brigade was organised into several self @-@ supporting regimental groups . These regimental groups could in turn provide sub @-@ units with the necessary logistics support to form the armoured component of other units during combat operations . This held in practice ; during combat deployments regiments from the 4th Armoured Brigade were attached to infantry divisions or brigades , and their squadrons and troops generally operated independently as part of combined arms forces .
Upon formation , the main units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were the 1st Army Tank Battalion , 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was equipped with Matilda II infantry tanks and had previously formed part of the 3rd Army Tank Brigade . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment had formed part of the 1st Armoured Division until August 1942 when it and its M3 Stuart light tanks were transferred to New Guinea . Elements of the regiment saw combat in the Battle of Buna – Gona , where the Stuart tanks were too lightly armoured to be effective . The 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was transferred from the 3rd Armoured Division and equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks . The brigade also had several supporting engineer , medical , signals and services units . As the brigade was not intended to operate as a single unit , it lacked the armoured reconnaissance , artillery , combat engineer and infantry units which were standard elements of other Australian Army armoured brigades . The 4th Armoured Brigade 's commander from its establishment until its disbandment was Brigadier Denzil Macarthur @-@ Onslow .
= = = Combat operations = = =
The units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were concentrated at Singleton , New South Wales , on 10 March 1943 . As of April that year , the brigade formed part of the Land Headquarters Reserve . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was subsequently transferred to Caboolture in southern Queensland and reorganised as a self @-@ supporting battalion group while remaining part of the 4th Armoured Brigade . The unit was redesignated the 1st Tank Battalion on 10 June 1943 , and in August that year was shipped to Milne Bay in New Guinea . It subsequently supported the 9th Division during the Landing at Lae and Huon Peninsula campaign . The 1st Tank Battalion returned to Australia in June 1944 and was redesignated again to become the 1st Armoured Regiment . In the meantime the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was added to the 4th Armoured Brigade in October 1943 ; this unit had previously formed part of the 3rd Armoured Division and was re @-@ equipped with Matilda II tanks . Also in October 1943 , a party from the 4th Armoured Brigade armed with pistols was sent to Grovely Camp near Brisbane to put down a riot by soldiers being held under detention there , but did not need to use force . During March 1944 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the 1st Armoured Brigade Group , and the 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment was transferred from that formation to the 4th Armoured Brigade .
By mid @-@ 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade was located in Southport , Queensland . As of 1 June , the brigade had a strength of 4 @,@ 719 men and was scheduled to be ready for offensive operations by October that year . During June it also established a training area at Nerang in Queensland , where armoured units could practice operating in tropical conditions . In September 1944 the brigade gained the 2 / 1st Armoured Brigade Reconnaissance Squadron when the 1st Armoured Brigade Group was disbanded ; this unit was reorganised to become the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) in January 1945 . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was also re @-@ assigned to the 4th Armoured Brigade , but was stationed in the Sydney area . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Brigade Group the 4th Armoured Brigade was the last remaining armoured brigade in the Australian Army .
The 4th Armoured Brigade 's structure continued to change during late 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was authorised to be raised as part of the brigade in October 1944 , but not established until May the next year . This squadron was to operate troop @-@ carrying Landing Vehicles Tracked , but they did not arrive in time for the unit to see action before the end of the war . In January 1945 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the direct control of Land Headquarters , and moved to Puckapunyal in Victoria the next month . This change proved short @-@ lived though , as the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment rejoined the 4th Armoured Brigade at Southport during July ; B Squadron of this regiment had been transferred to the brigade in April ahead of the remainder of the regiment moving from Victoria to Queensland .
One of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's regimental groups supported Australian Army offensive operations in New Guinea and Bougainville during 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was transferred to New Guinea in August 1944 , and came under the command of the First Australian Army . From January 1945 until the end of the war , C Squadron of the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment supported the 6th Division during the Aitape – Wewak campaign . The regimental headquarters and two other squadrons took part in the Bougainville Campaign from October 1944 until the end of the war as part of II Corps .
During 1945 two 4th Armoured Brigade regimental groups saw action in the Borneo campaign . C Squadron of the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was attached to the 26th Brigade Group during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945 . The remainder of this regiment subsequently supported the 9th Division during the early stages of the Battle of North Borneo from 10 June . The 1st Armoured Regiment and Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) were attached to the 7th Division , and took part in the Battle of Balikpapan from 1 July .
= = = Trials and development work = = =
Along with its combat role , the 4th Armoured Brigade was responsible for developing and deploying specialised types of tanks . Macarthur @-@ Onslow played an important role in guiding these processes , including by helping his subordinates to overcome institutional barriers . Variants of the Matilda II trialled or developed by the brigade included the " Frog " flame throwing tank , Matilda dozer and the bomb @-@ throwing Matilda Hedgehog . The 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment also trialled a bulldozer variant of the Grant in 1945 . The Frog and Matilda dozer were used in combat by the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) during the Borneo Campaign . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was issued six Matilda Hedgehogs , but they did not arrive in Bougainville until after the end of the war . The 4th Armoured Brigade also trialled modifications to the Matilda II and Grant that sought to waterproof the tanks so they could travel through rivers and coastal waters . As well as trialling new tank variants , the Brigade developed an ammunition and fuel trailer , which could be towed by Matilda II tanks ; these trailers were used in combat zones by the 2 / 4th and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiments .
During 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade provided crews for comparative trials of the American M4 Sherman and British Churchill tank in New Guinea conditions that were conducted by the Australian Army in response to a request from the British War Office . Before the tanks were sent to New Guinea , the 4th Armoured Brigade trialled two Sherman tanks alongside Grants and Matilda IIs in Queensland during mid @-@ 1944 . The Churchills and Shermans were subsequently trialled in the Madang region of New Guinea ; the Churchill proved better suited to jungle conditions . The Australian Army later ordered 510 Churchills , but none were delivered before the end of the war .
= = = Disbandment = = =
By July 1945 the only elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade in Australia were the unit 's headquarters , the 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments and the 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron . The two regiments were preparing for offensive operations , including a planned but later cancelled invasion of Java , but did not leave Australia .
Most of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's units were rapidly disbanded following the war . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was dissolved in August 1945 , and the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) followed in October that year . The 4th Armoured Brigade headquarters and 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments were disbanded in February 1946 , and the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment during the early part of the year . Only the 1st Armoured Regiment remained an active unit , and returned to its pre @-@ war designation of the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers in 1949 . Volunteers from the 4th Armoured Brigade manned the 1st Armoured Car Squadron , which was established in 1946 for service with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan ; in 1949 this squadron was expanded to form the 1st Armoured Regiment , which remains an active part of the Australian Army . A memorial to the 4th Armoured Brigade was dedicated at Caboolture in 1993 .
= = Works consulted = =
Beale , Peter ( 2011 ) . Fallen Sentinel : Australian Tanks in World War II . Newport , NSW : Big Sky Publishing . ISBN 9781921941023 .
Dexter , David ( 1961 ) . The New Guinea Offensives . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VI . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 2028994 .
Handel , Paul ( 2003 ) . Dust , Sand and Jungle : A History of Australian Armour During Training and Operations , 1927 – 1948 . Puckapunyal , Victoria : RAAC Memorial and Army Tank Museum . ISBN 9781876439750 .
Handel , Paul ( 2004 ) . The Vital Factor : A History of 2 / 6th Australian Armoured Regiment 1941 – 1946 . Loftus , NSW : Australian Military History Publications . ISBN 1876439610 .
Hopkins , R.N.L. ( 1978 ) . Australian Armour : A History of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps 1927 – 1972 . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0642994072 .
Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VII . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 .
Threlfall , Adrian ( 2014 ) . Jungle Warriors : From Tobruk to Kokoda and beyond , how the Australian Army became the world 's most deadly jungle fighting force . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 9781742372204 .
= Crawl ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Crawl " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown . It is the second single from his third studio album Graffiti , released as a digital download on November 24 , 2009 . The song was produced by The Messengers and was written by Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd , and Brown . The song is about yearning to rebuild a failed relationship and was interpreted by critics as being about Brown 's former relationship with Barbadian singer Rihanna . However , Brown has stated the song is not about any of his previous relationships .
The song received positive to mixed reviews . It charted in the top twenty in Japan and New Zealand , and the top forty in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It peaked in the United States at number fifty @-@ three . The accompanying music video features Brown and American R & B singer Cassie as his love interest . In the video , he yearns for their relationship on a winter night in a city and in a desert scene . Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on BET 's SOS : Help for Haiti Telethon , which benefited victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
= = Background = =
The song was leaked to internet on October 21 , 2009 , one day after ex @-@ girlfriend Rihanna 's ballad " Russian Roulette " was also leaked . The song , which has been described as " melancholy " , sees Brown singing about a relationship that has slipped out of his hands with its chorus calling for an " incremental reconciliation " of the unspecified relationship . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News noted that both " Crawl " and Rihanna 's " Russian Roulette " would inevitably be interpreted as being about Brown and Rihanna 's relationship .
In an interview with MTV News , Brown stated that the song is not about Rihanna or any of his previous relationships . He called the message of the song " universal " , and not just about love but " any type of heartache . " About the track he said , " When I heard the whole concept and everything I was like , ' Yo , this is crazy . So being able to express the feelings , it was like , probably one of the best [ records I 've done . ] But it was more than me trying to do a record that meant crawl to love , crawl back to love . Meaning whether it 's from your negative situations , whether it 's from any problems you 've dealt with , like anybody 's situation . " Although he stated his concept for the song was about love , he said for anybody , the song could be " inspired as far it being the war or a death in the family , whether it 's anything , anybody just crawl back to love . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed to positive reviews . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of several on parent album Graffiti that " flirt with a public apology . " Kot went on to state that a " funeral organ " hovers over the song , and " the narrator longs for a second chance : " ' So where do we go from here / With all of this fear in your eyes ? ' " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that both " Crawl " and another song from Graffiti , " So Cold " , come off as " thoughtful , even if they 're not quite mea culpas " and further suggested that " In these moments Mr. Brown is pining , mildly apologetic . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the song a " genuinely affecting second single " , and stated that " Less forgiving listeners " looking for " signs of contrition " may find them on the track . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that , of the six tracks on the album 's deluxe edition that could be interpreted as dealing with Brown 's relationship with Rihanna directly , " Crawl " is " by far the most catchily contrite . " Rap @-@ Up said that the song shows Brown " taking baby steps back to love and into the spotlight , " and said that it found Brown " longing to mend a broken relationship " as in his 2008 Jordin Sparks collaboration , “ No Air ” .
= = Chart performance = =
After the song 's premiere on Brown 's MechanicalDummy.com website , " Crawl " made its official debut on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number ninety @-@ nine . After its release for digital download on November 23 , 2009 , it later peaked at fifty @-@ nine . On the week ending December 12 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at sixty @-@ eight and peaked at fifty @-@ three .
On December 19 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at seventy @-@ six . In February , the song re @-@ entered the chart at eighty @-@ five , and debuted on the UK R & B chart at twenty @-@ five . On the week of February 27 , 2010 , the song reached its peak of number thirty @-@ five on the singles chart , and eventually peaked at number eight on the R & B chart . The song debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number sixteen on the week beginning February 1 , 2010 . The song debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ nine on the Irish Singles Chart , and reached number eight on the Dutch singles chart . It peaked at number twenty on the Japan Hot 100 , and ninety @-@ seven on the European Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was edited by David Blackburn and directed by Joseph Kahn , who also worked with Brown on the " I Can Transform Ya " and " Forever " videos . The video features American R & B singer Cassie as Brown 's love interest . Kahn had previously directed the video for Britney Spears 's 2008 ' comeback ' song , " Womanizer " , after her public breakdown . In an interview with MTV News , Kahn said , " I seem to be the guy that record companies go to when they need help , " he joked . " I truly feel [ Brown ] is remorseful . You don 't drop people just because they made a mistake ( even if it was a big mistake ) . "
Kahn said that the entire idea for the video was Brown 's : " It 's an interesting video for me , because it 's so rare that music videos ever try to achieve anything emotional . Chris just basically told me a story of what he felt this video was going to be , with his heart glowing and how he 's , like , cold . It is a very personal story . But it 's told in such a graphic manner that I fell in love with the idea . It 's Chris ' story . Period . I am the pencil that put it down on the paper . " When comparing the song 's video to that of " I Can Transform Ya " , the director said , " ' Crawl ' is my favorite one , because — gosh , I 'm going to let you in on this — ' cause it 's probably his most personal thing he 's ever done . " He went on to say , " I mean , everything that 's happened to him in the year , I think this is going to be his big statement , in terms of what he 's feeling and what he 's living through right now . " When talking about the ideas and concepts of the video , Kahn said that the video , his first ballad with Brown , should speak for itself through the ideas that he had and the " genesis " of what that idea was .
On November 2 , 2009 , several stills from the video were released onto the internet . The photos focused on two sets of the video , a desert location , and a snow and puddle @-@ spotted alleyway . In both settings , Brown wears the same thick black glasses , brown leather trench coat , white t @-@ shirt , and fingerless gloves , among other attire . Cassie appears in a photo from the alleyway scenes , as the desert scenes show Brown in " deep contemplation " . The video first aired on The Wendy Williams Show on Friday , November 13 , 2009 , when Brown was a guest on the show . The video opens with Brown sitting on an edge of a bed wearing a plain white t @-@ shirt . As the music begins and he starts singing , his heart is shown lit up red and beating in his chest . The singer then walks into an alleyway on a winter 's night , revealed in the air as he breathes . Brown walks past several storefronts , seeing images of Cassie broadcast on television . He then sees paparazzi taking photos of her , but she does not notice him . Brown is shown in a desert scene , and then returns to the winter night scene as Cassie sees him and they walk towards each other meeting face @-@ to @-@ face . They gather close , but Brown does not reel her in as the video ends . The music video ranked at forty @-@ eight on the BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on Black Entertainment Television 's SOS Saving Ourselves : Hope for Haiti Telethon , to raise money for the country after the 2010 earthquake that devastated the area . Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that although the song was rumored to be about Rihanna , " the lyrics also at times seemed to fit the evening 's focus , like when Brown sang , " If we crawl till we can walk again / Then we 'll run until we 're strong enough to jump . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Crawl " – 3 : 57
Germany Digital download
Crawl - 3 : 56
Graffiti - 5 : 12
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Chris Brown , Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd
Production - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh
Background vocals - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh
Vocal recording - Brian Springer
Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata & Erik Madrid
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Release history = =
= Missoula , Montana =
Missoula / mᵻˈzuːlə / is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County . It is located along the Clark Fork River near its confluences with the Bitterroot and Blackfoot Rivers in western Montana and at the convergence of five mountain ranges , thus is often described as the " hub of five valleys " . In 2015 , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city 's population at 71 @,@ 022 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 114 @,@ 181 . In the 1990s , Missoula overtook Great Falls as Montana ’ s second ‑ largest city , behind Billings . Missoula is home to the University of Montana , a public research university .
Missoula was founded in 1860 as Hellgate Trading Post while still part of Washington Territory . By 1866 , the settlement had moved east , 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream , and renamed Missoula Mills , later shortened to Missoula . The mills provided supplies to western settlers traveling along the Mullan Road . The establishment of Fort Missoula in 1877 to protect settlers further stabilized the economy . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 brought rapid growth and the maturation of the local lumber industry . In 1893 , the Montana Legislature chose the city as the site for the state 's first university . Along with the U.S. Forest Service headquarters founded in 1908 , lumber and the university remained staples of the local economy for the next hundred years .
By the 1990s , Missoula 's lumber industry had gradually disappeared , and as of 2009 , the city 's largest employers were the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and Missoula 's two hospitals . The city is governed by a mayor – council government with twelve city council members , two from each of the six wards . In and around Missoula are 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of open @-@ space conservation land with adjacent Mount Jumbo home to grazing elk and mule deer during the winter . The city is also home to both Montana 's largest and its oldest active breweries as well as the Montana Grizzlies , one of the strongest college football programs in the Division I Football Championship Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . Notable residents include the first woman in the U.S. Congress , Jeannette Rankin , and the United States ' longest @-@ serving Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield .
= = History = =
Archaeological artifacts date the Missoula Valley 's earliest inhabitants to the end of the last ice age 12 @,@ 000 years ago with settlements as early as 3500 BCE . From the 1700s until European settlements began a hundred years later , it was primarily the Salish , Kootenai , Pend d 'Oreille , Blackfeet , and Shoshone who used the land . Located at the confluence of five mountain valleys , the Missoula Valley was heavily traversed by local and distant native tribes that periodically went to the Eastern Montana plains in search of bison , leading to conflict . The narrow valley at Missoula 's eastern entrance was so strewn with human bones from repeated ambushes that French fur trappers would later refer to this area as Porte de l 'Enfer , translated as " Gate of Hell " . Hell Gate would remain the name of the area until it was renamed " Missoula " in 1866 .
The Lewis and Clark Expedition brought the first U.S. citizens to the area . They twice stopped just south of Missoula at Traveler 's Rest . They camped there the first time on their westbound trip in September 1805 . When they stayed there again on their return in June – July 1806 , Clark left heading south along the Bitterroot River and Lewis traveled north , then east , through Hellgate Canyon . In 1860 , Hell Gate Village was established 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of present @-@ day downtown by Christopher P. Higgins and Frank Worden as a trading post to serve travelers on the recently completed Mullan Road , the first wagon road to cross the Rocky Mountains to the inland of the Pacific Northwest . The desire for a more convenient water supply to power a lumber and flour mill led to the movement of the settlement to its modern location in 1864 .
The Missoula Mills replaced Hell Gate Village as the economic power of the valley and replaced it as the county seat in 1866 . The name " Missoula " came from the Salish name for the Clark Fork River , " nmesuletkw " , which roughly translates as " place of frozen water " . Fort Missoula was established in 1877 to help protect further arriving settlers . Growth accelerated with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 , and the Town of Missoula was chartered the same year . In 1893 , Missoula was chosen as the location of the state 's first university , the University of Montana . The need for lumber for the railway and its bridges spurred the opening of multiple saw mills in the area and , in turn , the beginning of Missoula 's lumber industry , which remained the mainstay of the area 's economy for the next hundred years . The continued economic windfall from railroad construction and lumber mills led to a further boom in Missoula 's population . A. B. Hammond and Copper Kings Marcus Daly and William A. Clark competed fiercely in the region over lumber share and Missoula investments . The United States Forest Service work in Missoula began in 1905 . Missoula is also home of the smokejumpers ' headquarters and will be the site of the National Museum of Forest Service History . Nationally , there are nine Forest Service regions ; Region 1 is headquartered in Missoula .
Logging remained a mainstay of industry in Missoula with the groundbreaking of the Hoerner @-@ Waldorf pulp mill in 1956 , which resulted in protests over the resultant air pollution . An article in Life magazine thirteen years later speaks of Missoulians sometimes needing to drive with headlights on during the day to navigate through the smog . In 1979 , still almost 40 % of the county 's labor income came from the wood and paper products sector . The lumber industry was hit hard by the recession of the early 1980s , and Missoula 's economy began to diversify . By the early 1990s , the disappearance of many of the region 's log yards , along with legislation , had helped clean the skies dramatically .
As of 2009 , education and healthcare were Missoula 's leading industries ; the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and the city 's two hospitals were the largest employers . St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center , founded in 1873 , is the region 's only Level II trauma center and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . Likewise , the University of Montana grew 50 % and built or renovated 20 buildings from 1990 – 2010 . It is expected that these industries as well as expansions in business and professional services , and retail will be the main engines of future growth .
= = Geography = =
Missoula is located at the western edge of Montana approximately 45 miles ( 70 km ) from the Idaho border . The city is at an elevation of 3 @,@ 209 feet ( 978 m ) above sea level , with nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo steeply rising to 5 @,@ 158 feet ( 1 @,@ 572 m ) and 4 @,@ 768 feet ( 1 @,@ 453 m ) respectively . According to the Census Bureau 's 2015 figures , the city had a total area of 29 @.@ 08 square miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km2 ) , of which , 28 @.@ 90 square miles ( 74 @.@ 9 km2 ) was land and 0 @.@ 184 square miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km2 ) was water .
Approximately 13 @,@ 000 years ago , the entire valley was at the bottom of Glacial Lake Missoula and as could be expected for a former lake bottom , the layout of Missoula is relatively flat and surrounded by steep hills . Evidence of the city of Missoula 's lake @-@ bottom past can be seen in the form of ancient horizontal wave @-@ cut shorelines on nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo . At the location of present @-@ day University of Montana , the lake once had a depth of 950 feet ( 290 m ) . The Clark Fork River enters the Missoula Valley from the east through Hellgate Canyon after joining the nearby Blackfoot River at the site of the former Milltown Dam . The Bitterroot River and multiple smaller tributaries join the Clark Fork on the western edge of Missoula . The city also sits at the convergence of five mountain ranges : the Bitterroot Mountains , Sapphire Range , Garnet Range , Rattlesnake Mountains , and the Reservation Divide , thus is often described as being the " hub of five valleys " .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Located in the Northern Rockies , Missoula has a typical Rocky Mountain ecology . Local wildlife includes populations of white @-@ tailed deer , black bears , osprey , and bald eagles . During the winter , rapid snowmelt on Mount Jumbo due to its steep slope leaves grass available for grazing elk and mule deer . The rivers around Missoula provide nesting habitats for bank swallows , northern rough @-@ winged swallows and belted kingfishers . Killdeer and spotted sandpipers can be seen foraging for insects along the gravel bars . Other species include song sparrows , catbirds , several species of warblers , and the pileated woodpecker . The rivers also provide cold , clean water for native fish such as westslope cutthroat trout and bull trout . The meandering streams also attract beaver and wood ducks . The parks also host a variety of snakes such as racers , garter snakes , and rubber boa .
Native riparian plant life includes sandbar willows and cottonwoods with Montana 's state tree , the ponderosa pine , also being prevalent . Other native plants include wetland species such as cattails and beaked @-@ sedge as well as shrubs and berry plants like Douglas hawthorn , chokecherry , and western snowberries . To the chagrin of local farmers , Missoula is also home to several noxious weeds , which multiple programs have set out to eliminate . Notable ones include Dalmatian toadflax , spotted knapweed , leafy spurge , St. John 's wort , and sulfur cinquefoil . Controversially , the Norway maples that line many of Missoula 's older streets have also been declared an invasive species .
= = = Climate = = =
Missoula has a semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) , with cold and moderately snowy winters , hot and dry summers , and short , crisp springs and autumns . Winters are usually milder than much of the rest of the state due to its location west of the Rockies , allowing it to be influenced more by mild , moist Pacific air and avoiding the worst of cold snaps ; however , this means precipitation is not at a strong minimum during winter . Winter snowfall averages 39 @.@ 5 inches ( 100 cm ) , on average occurring between October 30 and April 20 . As with the rest of the state , summers are very sunny , and the average diurnal temperature variation is more than 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) from late June through late September , due to the relative aridity . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 23 @.@ 9 ° F ( − 4 @.@ 5 ° C ) in December to 68 @.@ 6 ° F ( 20 @.@ 3 ° C ) in July . There is an average of 24 days with temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , 45 days where the temperature does not rise above freezing , and 7 @.@ 8 days with temperatures below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) .
= = Demographics = =
The median income for a household in the city was $ 30 @,@ 366 , and the median income for a family was $ 42 @,@ 103 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 686 versus $ 21 @,@ 559 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 166 . About 11 @.@ 7 % of families and 19 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20 @.@ 5 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over . 40 @.@ 3 % of Missoula residents age 25 and older have a bachelor 's or advanced college degree .
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of 2010 's census , there were 66 @,@ 788 people , 29 @,@ 081 households , and 13 @,@ 990 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 427 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 937 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 682 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 115 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 430 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 92 @.@ 1 % White , 0 @.@ 5 % African American , 2 @.@ 8 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 5 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 9 % of the population .
There were 29 @,@ 081 households of which 23 @.@ 6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 34 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 9 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 1 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 51 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 18 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 82 .
The median age in the city was 30 @.@ 9 years . 17 @.@ 9 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 19 @.@ 7 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 29 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 ; 22 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 10 @.@ 7 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 9 % male and 50 @.@ 1 % female .
= = Economy = =
Missoula began as a trading post in the 1860s situated along the Mullan Military Road to take advantage of the first route across the Bitterroot Mountains to the plains of Eastern Washington . Its designation as county seat in 1866 and location of the hastily built Fort Missoula in 1877 ensured Missoula 's status as a regional commercial center ; a status further consolidated in 1883 with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway . The railroad expanded Missoula 's trade area to cover a 150 @-@ mile radius , and Missoula 's location as the railway 's division point and repair shops provided hundreds of jobs . When the railway began expanding again in 1898 , increased freight shipments came through the city , and with the arrival of the Milwaukee Road and regional office for the U.S. Forest Service as well as the opening of the Flathead Indian Reservation to settlement all within a couple years of each other beginning in 1908 , the economy began to rapidly expand .
Lumber mills , originally built to provide construction @-@ grade materials for homes and business but then expanded to entice and then meet the demands of the railroad , profited from an increase in demand from railroad expansion and the nation at large . The Bonner mill , owned the Northern Pacific and Copper King Marcus Daly , became the largest producer of lumber in the northwest . In 1908 , Missoula 's location as both a major lumber producer and a regional commercial center helped land the city the regional office for the newly establish U.S. Forest Service created to help manage the nation 's timber supply . Over the next century , Missoula 's various lumber industries was consolidated under various entities such as the Anaconda Company in the 1970s and Champion International Paper through the 1980s until most were under control of Plum Creek Timber , all the while demand in timber dropped . In 2007 , a downward spiral of Missoula 's lumber industry began with the closure of a plywood plant in Bonner , the closure of Bonner 's sawmill in 2008 , and the closing of the Smurfit @-@ Stone Container pulp mill in 2010 .
Since opening in 1895 , the University of Montana has had a major impact on the development of Missoula 's economy . In addition to the economic advantage from accommodating the student body , it gave the city an educated workforce not available in most of the state . The university has a close relationship with the city as Missoula 's largest employer and with the millions of dollars the school brings into the city through visitors of school @-@ sponsored sporting and cultural events . The university also houses Missoula 's only business incubator , the Montana Technology Enterprise Center ( MonTEC ) , and several start @-@ up businesses .
Beyond timber and education , Missoula 's economic mainstay has been of one as a regional trade center . Missoula has an immediate trade area of approximately 180 @,@ 000 residents . The Missoula is the hub of its Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) Economic Area , which includes the Montana Counties of Flathead , Lake , Lincoln , Mineral , Missoula , Ravalli , and Sanders . As of 2011 , the BEA listed the economic area population at 306 @,@ 050 . Key businesses sectors serving the area include health care , retail shopping , transportation , financial services , government and social services , education , events , arts and culture . Health care in particular is one of Missoula 's fastest growing industries with St. Patrick Hospital ( western Montana 's only Level II Trauma center ) and the Community Medical Center already the city 's second and third largest employers behind the university . 55 % of employment in Missoula is made up of the service and retail sectors . Export industries are concentrated in heavy and civil engineering , construction , beverage production , technical services , truck transportation , and forestry- , logging- , and wood @-@ related industries . In addition to nearly 4 million out @-@ of @-@ state visitors annually , which makes tourism a significant aspect of the Missoula economy , Missoula also is home to a vibrant sector of alternative healthcare .
As of 2013 , Missoula ranked 299 nationally in gross metropolitan product with an output of $ 5 billion , while the city 's total personal income ranked 333 at $ 4 @.@ 18 billion , an increase of more than 47 % since 2003 . As of 2013 , per capita personal income ranked 239 at $ 37 @,@ 397 a year , 84 % of the national average . The Missoula metropolitan area 's unemployment rate was 3 @.@ 7 % As of June 2015 , dropping nearly 0 @.@ 8 % in the twelve months prior .
= = Culture = =
Missoula , often considered the cultural center of Montana , is the location of the state 's first university , and an eclectic mix of loggers , hippies , college students , sports fans , and retirees . Community events generally take place downtown either outdoors or in one of the several downtown buildings listed on the National Historic Registry .
Since 2006 , the River City Roots Festival has been an event each August with music , beer , food , and art , and generally attracts crowds of 15 @,@ 000 . The longest @-@ standing event downtown has been the Missoula Farmers Market that was founded in 1972 , which provides an outlet for Western Montana produce on Saturday mornings from May to October as well as Tuesday evenings from July to early September . An arts and crafts People 's Market and a Clark Fork Market run concurrently . Downtown hosts " First Friday Missoula " , a gallery walk on the first Friday of the month to feature local art from museums and galleries , such as that of Monte Dolack . Missoula celebrates " First Night Missoula " on New Year 's Eve , which includes food and live entertainment . The " Festival of the Book " to celebrate the literature of the American West was rebranded the " Montana Book Festival " in 2015 . Missoula 's two historic theatres both hold annual film festivals : the Roxy hosting the International Wildlife Film Festival , established in 1977 as the first juried wildlife film festival in the world ; and since 2003 , the Wilma accommodating the largest film event in Montana , the Big Sky Documentary Film Festival . In performance arts , the Missoula Community Theatre has held performances of musical and non @-@ musical plays since 1977 , with its affiliated Missoula Children 's Theatre also acting as an international touring program that visits nearly 1 @,@ 000 communities per year around the world .
The Montana Museum of Art & Culture , which became a state museum in 2001 , is one Montana 's oldest cultural reserves , having begun in 1894 ; its permanent collection of more than 10 @,@ 000 original works . The Missoula Museum of Art is housed in a former Carnegie library ; it features contemporary art and annually features 20 – 25 group and solo exhibits . Fort Missoula is home to the Historic Museum , dedicated to preserving the history of Western Montana , and to the Rocky Mountain Museum of Military History and the Northern Rockies Heritage Center . The National Museum of Forest Service History is constructing the National Conservation Legacy and Education Center in Missoula as well .
Opened in 1987 , Missoula 's Bayern Brewing is the oldest active brewery in Montana . Big Sky Brewing opened in 1995 and with a production of over 38 @,@ 000 barrels in 2008 , it is by far Montana 's largest brewery , and produces the best @-@ selling beer brewed in Montana , Moose Drool Brown Ale . Missoula has also been home to Kettle House Brewing since 1995 and Draught Works opened in 2011 . Big Sky , Bayern , and Kettlehouse represent the first , second , and third largest breweries respectively in the state of Montana . Also in 2011 , Tamarack Brewing and Flathead Lake Brewing Company from nearby Lake County opened pub houses at downtown Missoula locations . The city also holds annual the Garden City Brewfest and Winterfest , and also periodically hosts the Montana Brewers Festival .
Missoula 's celebration of the outdoors can also be seen in notable non @-@ profits based in the city such as the Adventure Cycling Association , the conservationist @-@ hunting organizations Boone and Crockett Club and Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation , and the Outdoor Writers Association of America . In an attempt to reduce harmful emissions , the non @-@ profit Missoula in Motion promotes environmentally sustainable transportation options for commuters , such as walking , biking , carpooling , public transportation , and telecommuting . Other non @-@ profits headquartered in Missoula illustrate the city 's liberal reputation in Montana . Promoter of marijuana law reform NORML has its state headquarters in Missoula , as does the Montana Hemp Council . Forward Montana is a " left @-@ leaning though officially nonpartisan group that seeks to engage young people in politics " . The Montana Justice Foundation , founded in 1979 , is a charitable organization that helps underprivileged and underserved Montanans to access to civil legal aid . The Western Montana Community Center supports the LGBTIQ community and the Jeannette Rankin Peace Center focuses on " nonviolence , social justice and environmental sustainability " . The largest emergency homeless shelter and soup kitchen in Montana , the Poverello Center , is also located in Missoula .
= = Sports = =
Missoula plays host to a variety of intercollegiate , youth , and amateur sports organizations in addition to a Minor league baseball team . The Montana Grizzlies ' football and basketball teams of the University of Montana have the highest attendance . The Montana Grizzlies football team has a successful program within the NCAA D @-@ 1 FCS level . Their home games at Washington – Grizzly Stadium have a near 90 % winning percentage and average over 25 @,@ 000 spectators in attendance . All games are televised throughout Montana . The Grizzlies men 's and Lady Griz basketball teams have also been successful at the conference level where they both rank at or near the top in attendance , about 4 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 respectively , and play their home games at Dahlberg Arena .
Missoula is also home to the Missoula Osprey , a rookie affiliate of the Arizona Diamondbacks that plays in the Rocky Mountain @-@ based Pioneer Baseball League . They play their home games at Ogren Park at Allegiance Field . Also competing regionally are the Hellgate Rollergirls , a roller derby team that competes at the Adam 's Center . Since 1977 , Missoula has also held " Maggotfest " , a festival @-@ style rugby tournament hosted by the Missoula Maggots Rugby Club the first weekend in May . The non @-@ elimination tournament focuses on the fun aspect of the game , attracting 36 teams ( male and female ) from around the United States and Canada . In regular season play , the Missoula Maggots compete as part of the Montana Rugby Union alongside another local rugby team , the University of Montana Jesters .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The city has over 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of conserved open @-@ space . Located at the confluence of three rivers ( the Clark Fork , Bitterroot , and Blackfoot ) , the area is also popular for white water rafting and , thanks largely to the novel and subsequent film A River Runs Through It by Missoula native Norman Maclean , is well known for its fly fishing . Additionally , Missoula has two aquatic parks , multiple golf courses , is home to the Adventure Cycling Association , and hosts what Runner 's World called the " best overall " marathon in the U.S. There are also three ski areas within 100 miles ( 160 km ) : Montana Snowbowl , Discovery Ski Area , and Lost Trail Powder Mountain . Slightly farther away are Lookout Pass , Blacktail Mountain , and Big Mountain .
A system of public parks was developed in Missoula in 1902 with the donation by lumber baron Thomas Greenough and his wife Tessie . They gave a 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) tract of land along Rattlesnake Creek for Greenough Park , on the condition that " the land forever be used as a park and for park purposes to which the people of Missoula may . . . find a comfortable , romantic and poetic retreat " . In a follow @-@ up nine years later in a letter to the Missoulian , he stressed his interest in having the park remain in as close to a native state as possible . That request , along with the discovery that non @-@ native Norway maples were inhibiting the growth of native trees and shrubs such as cottonwoods , ponderosa pines and Rocky Mountain maples , led to the controversial decision to remove Norway maples from the park with the hope of returning it to its natural state .
In 1924 , Bonner Park was created out of John L. Bonner 's estate near the university . The park today has multiple athletic fields and courts in addition a band shell used by the Missoula City band through the summer . The Kiwanis club set up a park downtown in 1934 , making Kiwanis Park the first of a string of parks which line both sides of the Clark Fork River . One of those parks on the southern bank of the river is McCormick Park , which was created with WPA funds out of surplus highway land , a parcel from the American Hide and Fur Company , and land donated from the Kate McCormick estate . The 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) park , named for Washington J. McCormick and his wife is home to a skate park , aquatics center , a free bike check @-@ out and a children 's fishing pond . Other popular parks include the Jacobs Island Bark Park , a designated area for dogs to play off @-@ leash ; the Montana State veterans ' memorial rose garden ; Waterwise Garden , a " living laboratory " garden utilizing water conservation techniques ; and Splash Montana Waterpark at Playfair Park .
= = = Caras Park = = =
Caras Park is located just south of the historic Wilma Theatre downtown . It is located on land reclaimed when the Higgins Avenue Bridge was widened from two lanes to four in 1962 . Before the reclamation , the Clark Fork River divided to create an island with the north channel 's bank extending to nearby buildings such as the Wilma Theatre . The south channel was deepened for the increased water flow and the infilled land later became Caras Park . Events in the park were not common until the early 1980s and permanent fixtures like " Out to Lunch " , which began in 1986 . The Missoula Downtown Association took over from Parks and Recreation for management of the park and made improvements to make Caras Park more event @-@ friendly . Seating , event circles , brick plazas , restrooms , and storage structures were added . Large temporary tents were used for events until 1997 when a permanent pavilion was constructed . The park is a hub of city festivities including include " Out to Lunch " , the International Wildlife Film Festival , First Night Missoula , Garden City BrewFest and offered intimate concert settings for artists such as Jewel , Chris Isaak , Santana , Ziggy Marley , and B.B. King . Located next to Caras Park is A Carousel for Missoula , a wooden , hand @-@ carved and volunteer @-@ built carousel ; and Dragon Hollow , a children 's recreational area adjacent to the carousel .
= = Government and politics = =
Missoula 's system of government has changed four times since 1883 when an aldermanic form of government was approved with the town charter . The city adopted a commission @-@ council form of government in 1911 with the opening of new City Hall and a council – manager government in 1954 before returning to an aldermanic form of government in 1959 . Since January 1 , 1997 , Missoula has been governed in accordance with the Missoula City Charter , which calls for a mayor @-@ council system of government .
The current system comprises a mayor and city treasurer elected in a citywide vote and twelve city council members who must reside in and are elected from one of six wards with each ward having two council members . All positions are nominally nonpartisan . Council members and the mayor are elected to four @-@ year terms with council @-@ member elections being staggered to allow only one member from each ward to up for re @-@ election . There are no term limits for either position .
Missoula 's state legislative delegation is the second largest in the Montana Legislature and is represented by districts 91 – 100 in the Montana House of Representatives and districts 46 – 50 in the Montana Senate . Having thirteen Democrats and two Republicans in its state legislative delegation , Missoula is known as a more liberal area than the rest of the state .
Though Missoula 's political leanings may not be unique for a college town , its initiative to make marijuana possession the lowest priority of law enforcement in 2006 , and symbolic resolutions calling on Congress to withdraw from Iraq in 2007 , and to amend the U.S. Constitution to declare that " corporations are not human beings " in 2011 , often put it at odds with the rest of the state . In 2011 , the Montana legislature , with a Republican House majority , attempted to overturn Missoula 's marijuana law and revoke its ability to have an anti @-@ discrimination ordinance that included the LGBT community . The marijuana repeal was vetoed by then – Governor Brian Schweitzer and the attempt to repeal the other died in the Senate .
= = Education = =
Missoula 's first school was opened in late 1869 with sixteen students from around the region and their teacher Emma C. Slack who had come to Missoula via a two @-@ month trip by horseback , railroad , and boat from Baltimore at the invitation of her brother . She resigned two years later upon marrying William H. H. Dickinson ( the first couple married in Missoula ) and was replaced by Elizabeth Countryman who later married Missoula 's first mayor , Frank H. Woody . The first public high school was opened in 1904 but was converted back to a grade school after the A. J. Gibson @-@ designed Missoula County High School ( now Hellgate High School ) was opened in 1908 . After several expansions , Stanford University was commissioned in 1951 to create a master building plan to manage future growth . It suggested purchasing land and building an additional campus at the Garden City Airport 's Hale Field , which was gradually being replaced by the Missoula County Airport , which was then southwest of town . The new school ( now Sentinel High School ) was opened in 1957 . Initially the two campuses were separated between upper and lower classmen with upper classmen in the new school , but in 1965 , the two campuses became separate high schools . In 1974 , the private Loyola Sacred Heart Catholic High School was created from a merger of the all @-@ girls Sacred Heart Academy ( est . 1873 ) and the all @-@ boys Loyola High School ( est . 1912 ) . In 1980 , Missoula 's third public high school , Big Sky , was established .
Missoula 's public schools are part of the Missoula County Public School districts 1 , 4 , 20 , and 23 . In Missoula , there are nine public elementary schools ( kindergarten to 5th grade ) , three public middle schools ( 6th to 8th grades ) , four public high schools ( 9th to 12th grades ) , and three public schools serving kindergarten to 8th grade . Missoula also has several private schools including an international school , religious @-@ affiliated schools , as well as Next Step Prep , a theater academy high school operated by the Missoula Children 's Theatre .
The University of Montana dominates higher education in Missoula . The university , established in 1893 , was Montana 's first , and has the state 's second @-@ largest enrollment , with 12 @,@ 922 students as of 2015 ) . The campus houses six colleges and three schools including Montana 's first and only law school , the Alexander Blewett III School of Law at the University of Montana . The university is also the location of the state 's Regional Federal Depository Library , and houses the state Arboretum . The University of Montana College of Technology , established in 1956 and formerly known as the Missoula Vocational Technical Center , offers fast @-@ track learning programs . Multiple vocational programs not affiliated with the university ranging from photography and massage to truck driving also have a presence in Missoula .
= = Media = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Missoula 's single – broadcast over – air television media market is the largest in Montana and ranked 165 nationally in as of 2015 . Though Missoula itself is second in population to Billings , Montana , Missoula 's single @-@ broadcast over @-@ air television media market includes all of Missoula , Ravalli , Granite , Mineral , Lake , Flathead , and Sanders Counties in the more densely populated western region of Montana and serves over 112 @,@ 600 television homes as of 2015 . Missoula is home to three local affiliate channels : KPAX @-@ TV ( CBS / MTN , The CW ; founded 1970 ; channel 8 ) , KECI @-@ TV ( NBC ; founded 1954 as KGVO @-@ TV ; channel 13 , and KTMF @-@ TV ( ABC , FOX ; founded 1991 ; channel 23 ) . Also based in Missoula at the University of Montana is Montana PBS ( founded 1984 ; channel 11 ) . There are seventeen FM radio stations and four AM radio stations licensed in the city .
= = = Print = = =
Missoula has four main sources of print media : the Missoulian ( primary daily ) , Missoula Independent ( alternative weekly ) , Montana Kaimin ( college ) , and New West ( digital , progressive ) . The Missoulian was founded as a weekly publication in 1870 as The Missoula and Cedar Creek Pioneer . As of 2015 , the Missoulian remains Missoula 's most popular newspaper with a circulation of over 26 @,@ 000 , making it the third most read daily newspaper in Montana behind the Billings Gazette and the Great Falls Tribune . The Missoula Independent ( founded 1991 ) is the largest weekly newspaper in Montana and the states only member of the Association of Alternative Newsweeklies . With over 21 @,@ 000 readers it has twice the circulation of second place Billings Outpost . The newspaper is distributed free to more than 600 locations across Western Montana from Hamilton in the south to Whitefish in the north . The Montana Kaimin ( founded 1891 ) is likewise distributed free throughout parts of Missoula with heavy student traffic from the University of Montana where the newspaper is printed Monday through Friday during the school year . New West was founded in 2005 as a left @-@ leaning " next @-@ generation media company " that focused on culture , environment , economy , and politics in the Rocky Mountain West .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health care = = =
Missoula has two primary health care facilities : St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center and Community Medical Center . St. Patrick 's was founded in 1873 under the sponsorship of the Sisters of Providence . It is the only Level II trauma center in the region , the largest medical facility in Western Montana , and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . The hospital has 195 acute @-@ care beds , and admitted over 9 @,@ 700 patients in 2003 . The name was changed from " St. Patrick Hospital " to " St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center " in 2000 to reflect an increasing involvement with national medical research and education . The Community Medical Center and its adjacent medical facilities are located near Fort Missoula and is part of a modern complex that includes a nursing home , the Missoula Crippled Children 's Center , and private offices . It was founded in 1922 as Thornton Hospital by doctors Will Thornton and Charles Thornton and has been at its current location since 1972 . It is the only facility providing obstetrical and newborn care in Missoula County and the only hospital in Western Montana with a separate Pediatric Intensive Care Unit . The center is partnered with Seattle Children 's Hospital . The nearest Level I trauma center to Missoula is Harborview Medical Center in Seattle , Washington .
= = = Utilities = = =
The earliest Missoulians drew their water directly from the Clark Fork River or nearby Rattlesnake Creek . The first water system consisted of a Native American known as One @-@ Eyed Riley and his friend filling buckets of water from the Rattlesnake Creek and hauling them door to door on a donkey cart . In 1871 city co @-@ founder Frank Worden began construction of a log pipe and wooden main system that flowed from the Rattlesnake Creek 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) north of the city . With the addition of two small covered reservoirs , the first municipal water system was begun in 1880 . With an intake dam built in 1901 with a settling basin capacity of 3 million US gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the Rattlesnake Creek continued to meet demands of the city until 1935 when five wells were added to respond to increased summer and fall demand . This system is still maintained as an emergency backup , but was discontinued as a primary source after Giardia outbreak in 1983 . Since then , Missoula has relied on the Missoula Valley Aquifer as the sole source of water . In 1889 , the first electrical plant was built by A. B. Hammond to power his major downtown properties such as the Missoula Mercantile and the Florence Hotel . In 1905 , the Missoula Mercantile ( by then owned by Copper King William A. Clark purchased the water system and consolidated it with its vast electrical holdings to create the Missoula Light and Water Company ( ML & W ) a year later . Electricity and water remained bundled after ML & W 's sale to the Montana Power Company ( MPC ) in 1929 . In 1979 , MPC sold its water utility holdings as Mountain Water Company to Park Water Company in Downey , California , which since 2011 has been a subsidiary of The Carlyle Group . In 2015 , the City of Missoula was legally granted its " ' right to acquire ' the water system by exercising its power of eminent domain " , but as of June 2015 , that decision is under appeal .
Following the deregulation of Montana 's electricity market in 1997 , Montana Power Company began to divest its energy business . MPC sold substantially all its electrical generating assets to the PPL Corporation in December 1997 and its energy transmission and distribution business to NorthWestern Corporation in February 2002 . Despite filing for bankruptcy in 2002 , NorthWestern Corporation 's subsidiary NorthWestern Energy is the primary provider of electric and natural gas service to Missoula in addition to the Rural Utilities Service 's Missoula Electric Cooperative .
Local telephone service in the area is provided by CenturyLink and Blackfoot Telecommunications . Major cell phone providers include AT & T , Sprint , Verizon , and T @-@ Mobile . Trash collection in Missoula is handled by Allied Waste Industries and Grant Creek Water Systems . Allied Waste also handles recycling through a program where customers can purchase special blue bags to designate recyclables . Recycling has also been offered by Missoula Valley Recycling since 1992 , by Garden City Recycling since 2010 which offers curbside pickup , and by Pacific Steel & Recycling which offers drop @-@ off recycling . Sewer service is handled by the City of Missoula Wastewater Division .
= = = City layout and development = = =
In the mid @-@ 1860s , C. P. Higgins and Frank Worden began plotting what would become the town of Missoula along the Mullan Military Road , which ran parallel to the Clark Fork River . Through downtown Missoula , the route of the road is now Front Street . It is intersected by Higgins Avenue , to which a bridge across the Clark Fork was added in 1873 . The intersection of these two streets became the default center of the city , and remains the numerical center regarding city street addresses . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 led to a housing boom along the tracks , particularly on the northern side where many of the railway workers would reside . When the Higgins Avenue Bridge was replaced in 1893 , they debated whether the bridge should continue southwest toward the Bitterroot Valley as it had earlier , or due south . Attorneys W. M. Bickford and W. J. Stephens had already laid out plots of land five years earlier for what they hoped would be a new town of " South Missoula " . The streets there were perpendicular to the Bitterroot Wagon Road while Judge Hiram Knowles who owned the land just south of the river preferred the north @-@ south plan and did not want to become part of South Missoula . The result was a 7 × 14 – block area along the west side of Higgins Avenue commonly referred to as the Slant Streets centered along what is now Stephens Avenue . Stephens Avenue and Brooks Street are the only arterials to traverse the city diagonally along with the Bitterroot Branch of Montana Rail Link . The rest of the city , with the exception of Downtown , where streets follow the angle of the river , and newer expansions into the hills , strictly follow the grid plan . With the establishment of the University of Montana in 1893 and the announcement that the now @-@ defunct Milwaukee Road would be located south of the river , houses began to spread quickly throughout the university and south side districts . The area near the university was promoted as high @-@ end and luxurious homes appeared on Hammond Avenue ( then nicknamed " Millionaires Row " and known today as Gerald Avenue ) . The arrival of Interstate 90 in the mid @-@ 1960s forced the removal of 60 homes , including the Greenough Mansion . The north side of Missoula became isolated between the Interstate and the tracks while the Greenough Mansion was moved to a South Hills golf course and converted to a restaurant . This dichotomy has prevailed with the North Side feeling neglected by the city while the South Hills became an upscale neighborhood . With the release of the latest Missoula Downtown Master Plan in 2009 , increased emphasis was directed toward redeveloping the North Side 's former rail yard and the area just south of the tracks .
The city is divided into 18 neighborhood councils of which all Missoula residents are a member . The city further contains 10 historical districts : Downtown Missoula , East Pine Street , Fort Missoula , Lower Rattlesnake , McCormick , Northside , Southside , University Area and , the campus of the University of Montana .
= = = = Trail system = = = =
Missoula has an extensive trail system for both commuting and recreation that extends over 22 miles ( 35 km ) . The city is actively trying to connect its various sections within the city to each other and to recreational trails extending beyond the city . The heart of the Missoula Commuter Bike Network are the trails along either side of the Clark Fork River that link Downtown with surrounding neighborhoods , the university , city parks , and outlying open space with smooth surfaces and three bicycle / pedestrian bridges . The most southern of these is Milwaukee Trail which follows the path of the former Milwaukee Railroad and continues east out of town as the Kim Williams Nature Trail beside Mount Sentinel . The Bitterroot Branch Trail connects to the Riverfront trails west of Downtown and , when completed , will provide a trail from Downtown to Southgate Mall . Near the Bitterroot Branch Trail , but not connected , is the South Avenue Trail on the west side of Reserve Street that connects the Community Medical Center with Fort Missoula , nearby athletic fields , and the Bitterroot River . The South Hills neighborhood has its own system of trails that is also approaching , but not quite meeting , the larger network .
= = = Transportation = = =
Due to its rural location , highway access is especially important to Missoula . Interstate 90 runs east – west along the northern edge of Missoula at the base of the North Hills , with all but a small portion of the city located south of the highway . Completed in 1965 at the expense of 60 homes , the Garden City Brewery , and the Greenough Mansion , I ‑ 90 has four city exits and makes connections with U.S. Route 93 , U.S. Route 12 , and Montana Highway 200 . The original U.S. 12 , approved by the AASHO in 1939 to extend west into Montana did not include Missoula until the highway was rerouted along State Route 6 in October 1959 and was not extended west from Missoula until 1962 . The road now crosses Missoula southwest – northeast . U.S. 93 serves as a major economic corridor for western Montana connecting Missoula with the Bitterroot Valley communities to the south and Flathead Lake , Kalispell , and Glacier National Park to the north . Montana Highway 200 , the longest state highway in the United States enters Missoula from the east and provides access along the Blackfoot River and a direct route to Great Falls .
Public transportation in Missoula began as early as 1890 with a horse @-@ drawn streetcar system ( electrified in 1910 ) operated by the Missoula Street Railway Company that connected Downtown Missoula with the University , Bonner , the fairgrounds , and Fort Missoula . These streetcars were then replaced by buses in 1932 due to cost . Bus service today is provided by Mountain Line , a public transit agency created by public vote in 1976 as part of the Missoula Urban Transportation District ( MUTD ) that began operation in December 1977 . Mountain Line operates twelve bus routes within a 36 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 93 km2 ) area , serving Missoula , East Missoula , Bonner , Target Range , Rattlesnake , and the airport . Additionally the line has offered paratransit services since 1991 to assist the disabled , senior van since 2008 , and has four park ‑ and ‑ ride lots throughout Missoula . Special bus service is offered to the University of Montana through three of the city 's park ‑ and ‑ ride lots in addition to a late @-@ night UDASH shuttle that offers service between the University and Downtown . As of January 2015 a three @-@ year pilot program of zero fare transportation on all Mountain Line busses began , with the goal of increasing use by 45 percent .
Direct intercity ground travel needs are provided by bus carriers Greyhound Lines and Rimrock Trailways . Intercity rail travel was available from 1883 , when the Northern Pacific Railway began service through Missoula , until 1979 when Amtrak discontinued its North Coast Hiawatha route across southern Montana . In 1901 , Northern Pacific built their station at the terminus of Higgins Avenue ; since 1985 , it has been on the National Register of Historic Places . A feasibility study was commissioned by Congress in 2008 to examine the merits of reopening the North Coast Hiawatha , but as of 2008 , the nearest rail station to Missoula is the Whitefish station of Amtrak 's Empire Builder , 136 miles ( 219 km ) to the north .
= = = = Air = = = =
Air travel to Missoula began in 1927 , which is served by Missoula International Airport at Johnson @-@ Bell Field , a public airport run by the Missoula County Airport Authority . It is the largest airport in western Montana , serving 582 @,@ 821 passengers in 2011 . The current building contains three jet bridges and three ground ‑ level boarding gates . There are direct flights year ‑ round to Billings , Denver , Las Vegas , Minneapolis , Phoenix , Portland , Salt Lake City , Seattle , and seasonally to Atlanta , Chicago , Los Angeles , Oakland , and San Francisco . Four airlines operate out of Missoula ( Allegiant Air , Delta Air Lines , Horizon / Alaska Airlines , and United Airlines ) in addition to cargo carriers FedEx Express , and UPS Airlines . The airport is also home to Homestead Helicopters and fixed ‑ base operators Minuteman Jet Center ( an Avfuel fuel provider ) , and Northstar Jet ( a Phillips 66 fuel provider ) .
= = Notable people = =
Missoula has produced and been home to a number of notable individuals in varying fields . Its natives and residents are referred to as " Missoulians " . In politics , Jeannette Rankin , the first woman in congress , was born and raised in Missoula while Senators Mike Mansfield , the U.S. ' s longest serving Senate Majority Leader , and Max Baucus , Montana 's longest serving U.S. Senator both established careers and joined politics while living in the city . Noted athletes who were born or resided in Missoula include five Olympic medalists , Pro Football Hall of Fame Quarterback John Elway , and former Milwaukee Bucks coach Larry Krystowiak . Actor Dana Carvey , filmmaker David Lynch , and award ‑ winning biologist Leroy Hood were born in Missoula while Carroll O 'Connor and J. K. Simmons both attended the University of Montana . Composer David Maslanka , musician Jeff Ament , and musician and vlogger Hank Green reside in Missoula . Academically , Missoula has been home to Nobel Prize winners Harold C. Urey and Steve Running as well as 20th century Montana historian K. Ross Toole Noted names in literature include Native @-@ American poet James Welch , crime novelist James Crumley , former head of the University of Montana 's Creative Writing Program Richard Hugo , and Norman Maclean , whose A River Runs Through It chronicles his life in early 20th @-@ century Missoula .
= = Sister cities = =
Missoula has two sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
Neckargemünd , Germany
Palmerston North , New Zealand
Missoula 's Sister City relationship with Palmerston North , New Zealand , began after Missoula resident and later University of Montana professor Harold Bockemuehl returned from obtaining his PhD from Massey University . The relationship was made official in 1983 after a meeting between then UM President Neil Bucklew and officials from Massey University . Each May , Missoula celebrates " New Zealand Day " in honor of the relationship with rugby , food , and entertainment . Missoula 's second Sister City relationship began in 1991 after a Neckargemünd delegation , led by Mayor Oskar Schuster , visited Missoula following a Fulbright @-@ sponsored faculty exchange between Heidelberg University and the University of Montana . Every September the Missoula Cultural Council holds an annual " Germanfest " to celebrate German culture and this relationship .
= = Portrayal in media = =
Author Norman Maclean grew up in Missoula and wrote about it in his 1976 autobiographical novella A River Runs Through It . The work was adapted into a 1992 motion picture of the same name , directed by Robert Redford , starring Brad Pitt and Craig Sheffer .
Missoula : Rape and the Justice System in a College Town is the title of a 2015 book by Jon Krakauer that looked at the Justice Department 's investigation into a " pattern of disrespect and indifference toward alleged victims " by Missoula law enforcement in sexual assault cases between 2010 and 2012 , some involving football players from the Montana Grizzlies . While being interviewed on NPR about the book , John Krakauer stated " I don 't mean to single out Missoula : Its rape rate is a little less than the national average ; I think its problems with dealing with rape are pretty depressingly typical " .
There is a lengthy study of Missoula in the title essay of Jonathan Raban 's Driving Home : An American Journey : despite writing that on his arrival , " I had the powerful impression that I had driven deep into the Rocky Mountains and somehow arrived in Rotherham or Barnsley , " and that " the overall effect [ of the city ] was oddly unsettling ; the streets too open for comfort , the town too closed in , inducing mild claustrophobia and agoraphobia at the same time " , he notes the literary heritage of the city and its reputation as a " kindly town " ( evidenced by its being a place where " odds and ends naturally collected and cohered " ) .
Missoula was portrayed in an episode of the CBS show Criminal Minds . The episode aired on November 5 , 2014 .
Missoula ( as well as Jermone , MT ) was also portrayed in the movie Chill Factor released in 1999 starring Skeet Ulrich and Cuba Gooding , Jr .
= Gene =
A gene is a locus ( or region ) of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity . The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits . Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes ( many different genes ) as well as the gene – environment interactions . Some genetic traits are instantly visible , such as eye colour or number of limbs , and some are not , such as blood type , risk for specific diseases , or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence , leading to different variants , known as alleles , in the population . These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotype traits . Colloquial usage of the term " having a gene " ( e.g. , " good genes , " " hair colour gene " ) typically refers to having a different allele of the gene . Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles .
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered . For example , regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons . Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non @-@ coding RNAs . Therefore , a broad , modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable , genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery of discrete inherited units = = =
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) . From 1857 to 1864 , he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants , tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring . He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas . Although he did not use the term gene , he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics . This description prefigured the distinction between genotype ( the genetic material of an organism ) and phenotype ( the visible traits of that organism ) . Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment , the distinction between dominant and recessive traits , the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote , and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance .
Prior to Mendel 's work , the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance , which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring . Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis , from Greek pan ( " all , whole " ) and genesis ( " birth " ) / genos ( " origin " ) . Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction .
Mendel 's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866 , but was rediscovered in the late 19th @-@ century by Hugo de Vries , Carl Correns , and Erich von Tschermak , who ( claimed to have ) reached similar conclusions in their own research . Specifically , in 1889 , Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis , in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles . De Vries called these units " pangenes " ( Pangens in German ) , after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory .
Sixteen years later , in 1905 , the word genetics was first used by William Bateson , while Eduard Strasburger , amongst others , still used the term pangene for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity . In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to " gene " .
= = = Discovery of DNA = = =
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s . The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X @-@ ray crystallography , which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication . Collectively , this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology , which states that proteins are translated from RNA , which is transcribed from DNA . This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions , such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics .
In 1972 , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene : the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein . The subsequent development of chain @-@ termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool . An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project .
= = = Modern evolutionary synthesis = = =
The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley . Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept , such as George C. Williams ' gene @-@ centric view of evolution . He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition : " that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency . " In this view , the molecular gene transcribes as a unit , and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit . Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins .
= = Molecular basis = =
= = = DNA = = =
The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) . DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of : a five @-@ carbon sugar ( 2 ' -deoxyribose ) , a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine , cytosine , guanine , and thymine .
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate @-@ sugar backbone spiralling around the outside , and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds , whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand , and so on .
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases , DNA strands have directionality . One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose ; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule . The other end contains an exposed phosphate group ; this is the 5 ' end . The two strands of a double @-@ helix run in opposite directions . Nucleic acid synthesis , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction , because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile .
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose . RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine . RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single @-@ stranded . Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three @-@ nucleotide sequences called codons , which serve as the " words " in the genetic " language " . The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids . The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome , which may be stored on one or more chromosomes . A chromosome consists of a single , very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded . The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus . Each locus contains one allele of a gene ; however , members of a population may have different alleles at the locus , each with a slightly different gene sequence .
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large , linear chromosomes . The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome . DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin . The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones , as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself , regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression . In addition to genes , eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division : replication origins , telomeres and the centromere . Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome . Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication . The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process . The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division .
Prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) typically store their genomes on a single large , circular chromosome . Similarly , some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes . Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids , which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals . For example , the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells , even those of different species , via horizontal gene transfer .
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene @-@ dense , those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function . Simple single @-@ celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA , whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function . This DNA has often been referred to as " junk DNA " . However , more recent analyses suggest that , although protein @-@ coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome , about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed , so the term " junk DNA " may be a misnomer .
= = Structure and function = =
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part . These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA .
Firstly , flanking the open reading frame , all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression . In order to be expressed , genes require a promoter sequence . The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription . A gene can have more than one promoter , resulting in messenger RNAs ( mRNA ) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end . Promoter regions have a consensus sequence , however highly transcribed genes have " strong " promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well , whereas others have " weak " promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently . Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters .
Additionally , genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame . These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence ( and bound transcription factor ) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site . For example , enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter ; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase .
The transcribed pre @-@ mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site , terminator and start and stop codons . In addition , most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated . The sequences at the ends of the introns , dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product .
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons , with multiple protein @-@ coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit . The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network .
= = = Functional definitions = = =
Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult . Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity . Similarly , a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons . Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome .
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein . This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans @-@ splicing .
A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena , where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products . This definition categorizes genes by their functional products ( proteins or RNA ) rather than their specific DNA loci , with regulatory elements classified as gene @-@ associated regions .
= = Gene expression = =
In all organisms , two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies . First , the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . Second , that mRNA is translated to protein . RNA @-@ coding genes must still go through the first step , but are not translated into protein . The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression , and the resulting molecule is called a gene product .
= = = Genetic code = = =
The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code . Sets of three nucleotides , known as codons , each correspond to a specific amino acid . Additionally , a " start codon " , and three " stop codons " indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region . There are 64 possible codons ( four possible nucleotides at each of three positions , hence 43 possible codons ) and only 20 standard amino acids ; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid . The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms .
= = = Transcription = = =
Transcription produces a single @-@ stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA , whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed . The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product . The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA . The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand . Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase , which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 ' . To initiate transcription , the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene . Thus , a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
( 2010 ) , a historical novel by Mark Mellon , fictionalizes the rise and fall of Domitian and suggests he may have had a role in his brother 's death .
Roman Games : A Plinius Secundus Mystery ( 2010 ) , a crime novel by Bruce Macbain , featuring Pliny the Younger ;
Blood of Caesar , a crime novel by Albert Bell , Junior , featuring Pliny as detective with the historian Tacitus as his sidekick , during Domitian 's reign ;
Empire ( 2010 ) , an epic novel of imperial Rome by Steven Saylor depicting four generations of a Roman family and their relationships with every emperor from Augustus to Hadrian , with Domitian as a major character .
" Los Asesinos del Emperador " ( 2011 ) , a novel ( in Spanish ) by Spanish writer Santiago Posteguillo .
= = = Painting = = =
The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema ( 1885 ) . Oil on canvas . Private collection . This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family . Alma @-@ Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world . Vespasian , dressed as Pontifex Maximus , walks at the head of his family , followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina , who he had only recently married . Behind Domitian follows Titus , dressed in religious regalia . An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated .
= = = Film and television = = =
La Rivolta dei Pretoriani ( The Revolt of the Praetorians , 1964 ) , Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia , concerning a fictional plot to overthrow Domitian ( Piero Lulli ) , who has grown into a cruel and murderous despot , which is in the end joined by the Praetorian Guard .
Dacii ( 1967 ) , Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian , with György Kovács as Domitian .
Age of Treason ( 1993 ) , English television film , featuring Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis . The story is set during the reign of Vespasian , with Domitian , played by Jamie Glover , as a peripheral character .
San Giovanni - L 'apocalisse ( 2003 ) , English telefilm concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian , who is played by Bruce Payne .
The Roman Mysteries , a TV miniseries based on the novels by Caroline Lawrence - Domitian appears in the episode , The Assassins of Rome , portrayed by Duncan Duff .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Secondary material = = =
Donahue , John ( 1997 @-@ 10 @-@ 10 ) . " Titus Flavius Domitianus ( A.D. 81 – 96 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 02 @-@ 10 .
A private collection of silver coins minted by Domitian
= The Boat Race 1861 =
The 18th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 16 March 1861 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1861 event , which featured the first ever non @-@ British competitor , suffered numerous interruptions from river traffic . Oxford won by 16 lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by one length in the previous year 's race and led overall with ten wins to Oxford 's seven .
The challenge to race was sent from Oxford in the October term which was accepted by Cambridge . Both boats were built specifically for the race , Cambridge 's by Searle and Oxford 's by Salter . Oxford were " occasionally looked after " by H. Baxter , who rowed in the 1860 race , and C. G. Lane who represented the Dark Blues in the 1858 and 1859 races . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 4 @.@ 875 lb ( 71 @.@ 9 kg ) , 0 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . George Morrison returned to the Oxford crew , having rowed in the previous year 's race . Cambridge saw Chaytor , Blake , Coventry and Hall return . The race featured the first non @-@ British rower in the history of the event : William Robertson of Wadham College , Oxford was educated at Geelong Grammar School in Australia before representing the Dark Blues at number four .
= = Race = =
As a result of strong winds and a large volume of land water running into the river , the race was re @-@ scheduled for 11am . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey station to Oxford . The starter , Edward Searle , gave the command to start , with neither boat taking an early advantage . By the Star and Garter pub , Cambridge had edged ahead and spurted to take a half @-@ length lead and by the Duke 's Head pub , the Light Blues had moved further in front . A steering error from Gaskell , the Cambridge cox , saw their lead eroded such that Oxford led by Craven Cottage . At the football ground , rough water created by one of the nearby steamboats ( who , according to MacMichael , had " shamefully put her paddle @-@ wheels into motion " ) caused a swell to slow the Oxford boat .
The Dark Blue crew 's rhythm combined with more poor steering from Cambridge allowed Oxford to pull away , three lengths ahead by the Crab Tree and six by Hammersmith Bridge . Further interruption to Cambridge 's passage came from a sailing barge which they forced to steer around , and by Chiswick , they were ten lengths behind . Oxford suffered briefly at the hands of a barge blocking their route but by Barnes Bridge were at least twelve lengths ahead . They passed the flag boat ( indicating the finish of the race ) at the Ship Tavern in a time of 23 minutes 30 seconds , and a lead of 16 lengths . It was the largest winning margin since the 1841 race and would be the first in a series of nine consecutive victories for Oxford .
= Tropical Storm Dean ( 1983 ) =
Tropical Storm Dean caused minor flooding along portions of the East Coast of the United States in September 1983 . The seventh tropical cyclone and fourth named storm the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season , Dean developed from a frontal low to the northeast of the Bahamas on September 26 . Initially subtropical , it gained characteristics of a tropical cyclone while tracking slowly north @-@ northeastward . By September 27 , the system was reclassified as Tropical Storm Dean . While tracking northward on September 28 , Dean peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , shortly before curving west @-@ northwestward and slowly leveling @-@ off in intensity . Eventually , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29 as a weakening tropical storm . Dean rapidly weakened over land and was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by early on October 1 .
Offshore Virginia , swells generated by the storm stranded a tugboat and injured two people . Waves along the coast also caused beach erosion , especially in Virginia and North Carolina . Inland , effects were minor and generally limited to mostly light rainfall . More than 100 campers on the Outer Banks of North Carolina were forced to evacuate due to flooding on North Carolina Highway 12 . Although near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts pelted coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina , wind damage from the storm was minimal . The remnants of the storm brought rainfall to portions of New England , especially to Connecticut , where precipitation from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) . Damage from the storm was unknown , but presumed to be minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
A frontal cloud band moved offshore the East Coast of the United States on September 22 . During the next few days , the cloud band became stationary while stretching from The Bahamas to northeast of Bermuda . Around that time , a 1 @,@ 035 mbar ( 30 @.@ 6 inHg ) high pressure stalled over the Northeastern United States , producing a strong pressure gradient and gale force winds over the East Coast of the United States . While located about 455 mi ( 732 km ) east of Vero Beach , Florida , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the frontal cloud band on September 26 . At around 1800 UTC that day , the NHC classified the system as a subtropical storm , due to a ship report of gale force winds 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center . Initially , it tracked north @-@ northeastward under the influence of the frontal cloud band that spawned the storm . The wind field quickly condensed , while the storm itself separated from the frontal cloud band . As a result , it was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Dean at 1800 UTC on September 27 while approximately 575 mi ( 925 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . The National Hurricane Center , which initiated advisories on the storm at 2200 UTC on the same day , indicated that a weak ridge to the north and a cold low moving offshore of the Southeastern United States would cause Dean to move slowly and possibly curve northwestward .
Early on September 28 , a reconnaissance aircraft recorded Dean 's minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Although forecast models initially indicated that the storm would continue northeastward , they quickly switched to a westward movement on September 29 . After curving northwestward later that day , Dean attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , as reported by a ship . While a reconnaissance aircraft flew into Dean north of center late on September 29 , it reported hurricane @-@ force wind gusts . However , the storm soon began to weaken . At around 1200 UTC on September 30 , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories four hours after Dean struck the state . At 1800 UTC on September 30 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression . At 0000 UTC on October 1 , Dean became unidentifiable as a tropical cyclone while located over Virginia near the mouth of the Potomac River . The remnants continued northwestward , before curving to the northeast while near the border of Virginia and West Virginia . It crossed the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Boston , Massachusetts . By October 2 , the remnants of Dean had dissipated just offshore of the East Coast of the United States .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Dean approached the United States , numerous gale warnings were issued . Many of these warnings were issued from North Carolina up to Rhode Island . Small craft advisories were also raised along much of the eastern seaboard , covering places between Cape Cod , Massachusetts to Jupiter Inlet , Florida . In Norfolk , Virginia , the naval station was placed under " hurricane condition 3 " , meaning that destructive winds were anticipated within 48 hours . In parts of North Carolina , residents were urged to prepare for the storm and remain out of the rough coastal waters .
As the storm moved inland over Virginia , its outer bands and high winds prompted more than 100 campers on Ocracoke Island and Cape Hatteras to evacuate after 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water flooded North Carolina Highway 12 . Along the coast , wave between 6 and 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) were measured . Minor beach erosion ensued , although some beaches lost as much as 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) of sand . Squall lines associated with Dean brought near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and brief , heavy rainfall . Winds caused little effect other than isolated power outages , especially on the Outer Banks . Aside from the minor damage caused by Dean , there was also a positive side to the storm . Throughout coastal waters off North Carolina , king mackerel appeared in near @-@ record numbers , improving the local fishing industry . Some catchers stated that they were finding some fish weighing up to 30 lb ( 14 kg ) .
About 300 mi ( 480 km ) off the coast of Virginia , large swells from Dean stranded a tugboat on September 29 with six people on board . Two of the crew were injured during the incident ; however , they were not seriously hurt . The ship was towed to Cape May , New Jersey later that day by the United States Coast Guard . Waves up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) caused beach erosion across the Virginia coastline . In addition to minor erosion , waves caused " slight flooding " at Buckroe Beach , totaling to $ 500 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1983 USD ) . Although winds were estimated to have been around 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) as the storm moved inland , structural damage was minimal . Many areas near Dean 's path experienced light rainfall of 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) of rain , especially in Virginia where the statewide peak was 1 @.@ 29 in ( 33 mm ) in Richmond .
In Maryland , thousands of tons of sand was removed by rough seas near Ocean City ; beach erosion also occurred at nearby Assateague Island . Additionally , wind gusts between 50 and 55 mph ( 80 and 89 km / h ) resulted in minor damage , while minimal flooding was reported following rainfall . Damage in Maryland was light , totaling to between $ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1983 USD ) . Minor effects were reported in Delaware , limited to winds gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which caused the loss of tons of sand along beaches . In coastal New Jersey , locally heavy rainfall resulted in traffic jams , downed power lines , and numerous commuting problems . In some areas of New York , especially in the southeastern portions of the state , rainfall exceeding 2 in ( 51 mm ) in 24 hours flooded roadways and delayed trains . The remnants of Dean dropped light precipitation in New England . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) at the Cockaponset Ranger Station in Connecticut .
= 1869 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1869 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season in the Atlantic hurricane database in which there were at least ten tropical cyclones . Initially there were only three known storms in the year , but additional research uncovered the additional storms . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms may remain missing from the official database for each season in this era , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines . All activity occurred in a three @-@ month period between the middle of August and early October .
Out of the ten tropical storms , seven reached hurricane intensity , of which four made landfall on the United States . The strongest hurricane was a Category 3 on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale which struck New England at that intensity , one of four storms to do so . It left heavy damage , killing at least one person . The most notable hurricane of the season was the Saxby Gale , which was predicted nearly a year in advance . The hurricane was one of six to produce hurricane force winds in Maine , where it left heavy damage and flooding . The Saxby Gale left 37 deaths along its path , with its destruction greatest along the Bay of Fundy ; there , the hurricane produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first tropical cyclone of the season was observed on August 12 , about 500 mi ( 800 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Its entire track was unknown , and its existence was only confirmed for 24 hours , based on three ship reports . The second , a barque , the Prinze Frederik Carl , sustained damage to all of its sails . The Hurricane Research Division ( HRD ) assessed the storm to have moved northeastward in its limited duration , and based on the ship reports estimated peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) ; this would make it a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
By August 16 , a strong hurricane was located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico south of Louisiana . With estimated winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , it tracked westward and struck Texas on Matagorda Island before passing near Refugio . The hurricane quickly weakened over land and dissipated late on August 17 . Damage from the hurricane was heaviest in Refugio and Indianola . In the latter city , strong waves damaged wharves and boats while the storm surge flooded the streets with about 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Intense winds knocked down several houses as well as a church , and many buildings lost their roofs . In Sabine Pass , the winds ruined a variety of fruit crops .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The third hurricane of the season was only known due to it affecting one ship . A vessel in the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company reported a hurricane on August 27 , about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores . The storm was estimated to have been moving north @-@ northwestward with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , although its entire track is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
A tropical storm was first observed on September 1 to the east of the Bahamas . There , it left heavy damage to a brig sailing from Nassau to New York . The storm tracked generally northeastward , damaging another ship on September 2 near Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
On September 4 , a hurricane was located in the northern Gulf of Mexico , moving north @-@ northwestward . The next day , it moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana with winds estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , passing west of New Orleans . It dissipated early on September 6 . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path that caused flooding . In addition , strong winds uprooted trees and damaged fences . High tides flooded Grand Isle with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On September 7 , three ships observed hurricane force winds over the western Atlantic Ocean , between the Bahamas and Bermuda . The storm moved northward , impacting several other ships as it paralleled the east coast of the United States ; one of them reported a pressure of 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 24 inHg ) , which indicated the system was an intense hurricane . Late on September 8 , it reached a peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) with a pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . After brushing Long Island , the hurricane weakened slightly and made landfall on southwestern Rhode Island at peak intensity . It was one of four hurricanes , along with the 1938 New England hurricane , the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane , and Hurricane Carol in 1954 , to strike New England as a major hurricane , or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
At landfall , the hurricane was compact , estimated around 60 mi ( 97 km ) wide . However , less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the center , there were no strong winds . The hurricane produced a storm surge of 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , which was lessened due to it moving ashore at low tide . In Providence , Rhode Island , high waves damaged coastal wharves and left flooding . The hurricane weakened quickly over land , passing just west of Boston early on September 9 as a minimal hurricane . There , the winds downed many trees and left severe damage . All telegraph lines between New York and Boston were cut , although the storm did produce beneficial heavy rainfall . Shortly thereafter it dissipated over Maine . There was one confirmed death in Massachusetts . Offshore Maine , a schooner capsized , killing all but one in the crew .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
A ship about halfway between South America and Cape Verde reported a hurricane on September 11 . The storm tracked generally west @-@ northwestward , affecting several other ships with damaging winds . On September 15 , a ship traveling from St. Thomas to England encountered the hurricane and observed a minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 90 inHg ) ; this suggested peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . By September 16 the hurricane had weakened slightly as its track turned to the north and northeast . It was last observed on September 18 to the west of the Azores as a tropical storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
The only basis for identifying the eighth tropical cyclone of the season was from a report by the bark Crescent Wave . On September 14 , the ship encountered strong winds and heavy rainfall about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . At the time , the storm was at least 600 mi ( 970 km ) east of the previous hurricane .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
On October 1 , the brig Jenny observed " a revolting gale lasting 3 days " off the south coast of Puerto Rico , which indicated a tropical storm in the region . Despite being located near several islands in the Caribbean , no land stations experienced any effects from the storm .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
The final hurricane of the season was first observed on October 4 by a ship off the southeast coast of North Carolina . With winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , the storm tracked northeastward , passing just east of Martha 's Vineyard before moving across Cape Cod late on October 4 . As it moved along the coast , the storm produced heavy precipitation , reaching 12 @.@ 25 in ( 311 mm ) in Canton , Connecticut . The strongest winds did not affect Massachusetts , although a few hours later the hurricane struck just east of Portland , Maine at peak intensity . This made it one of six storms to produce hurricane @-@ force winds in Maine , along with Hurricane Carol in 1953 , Hurricane Edna in 1954 , Hurricane Donna in 1960 , Hurricane Gerda in 1969 , and Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . In Maine , the high rainfall caused widespread flooding , while the high winds destroyed at least 90 houses . The hurricane quickly weakened over land , and after turning northeastward into Atlantic Canada dissipated on October 5 near the Gulf of St. Lawrence .
The hurricane was referred as Saxby 's Gale after Lieutenant S.M. Saxby of the Royal Navy predicted in November 1868 that an unusually violent storm would produce very high tides on October 5 ; he did not specify the location , however . Although heavy damage occurred in New England , the devastation was greatest in Atlantic Canada along the Bay of Fundy . The hurricane produced a storm surge of around 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) , which , in combination with the winds , the low pressure , and being in a region of naturally occurring high tides , produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay . The high tides surpassed the dykes across New Brunswick and left widespread flooding , killing many cattle and sheep and washing away roads . In the Cumberland Basin , the floods washed two boats about 3 mi ( 5 km ) inland . In Moncton , water levels rose about 6 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 m ) higher than the previous highest level . There were 37 deaths between Maine , New Brunswick , and New York .
= Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir =
Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir ( also known in Old Norse as Bjaðmynja ; and in Gaelic as Ben Muman , Bé Binn , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín ; fl . 1102 / 1103 ) was a daughter of a Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland . In 1102 whilst still a child , she was married to Sigurðr , son of Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway . At this time , Magnús appears to have been in the process of setting up his son as king over the Earldom of Orkney , the Kingdom of the Isles , and the Kingdom of Dublin . The marriage itself temporarily bound Muirchertach and Magnús together as allies before the latter 's death the following year . Sigurðr thereupon repudiated Bjaðmunjo , and left for Scandinavia , where he proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his brothers .
= = Background = =
Bjaðmunjo was a daughter of Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland ( died 1119 ) . In the late eleventh century , following the death of his father , Muirchertach seized control of the Kingdom of Munster and moved to extend his authority throughout Ireland as High King of Ireland . In so doing , he gained control of the Norse @-@ Gaelic Kingdom of Dublin , and as a result began to extend his influence into the nearby Kingdom of the Isles . There is uncertainty concerning the political situation in the Isles in the last decade of the eleventh century . What is known for sure is that , before the end of the century , Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway ( died 1103 ) led a marauding fleet from Scandinavia into the Irish Sea region , where he held power until his death in 1103 .
The catalyst for this Norwegian intervention may have been the extension of Muirchertach 's influence into the Irish Sea region following the death of Gofraid Crobán , King of the Isles ( died 1095 ) . The region itself appears to have degenerated into chaos following Gofraid 's demise , and Magnús seems to have taken it upon himself to reassert Norwegian authority . Magnús made two expeditions into the Irish Sea region . One arrived in 1098 ; the other in 1102 . The focus of the second overseas operation appears to have been Ireland itself . Following an apparent Norwegian conquest of Dublin , Magnús and Muirchertach negotiated a peace agreement , sealed through the marriage of Magnús ' son , Sigurðr ( died 1130 ) , and Bjaðmunjo herself .
= = Marriage = =
The marriage agreement between Magnús and Muirchertach is noted in several sources . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of the Four Masters reveal that the marriage to place in 1102 . Other sources reporting the marriage include Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum , Orkneyinga saga , and Magnúss saga berfœtts within Heimskringla . The forms of Bjaðmunjo 's name in these Scandinavian sources ( Bjaðmunjo and Bjaðmynja ) suggest that they may represent the Gaelic Bé Binn , a name known to have been borne by other members of the Uí Briain . Other Gaelic names equated to that of Bjaðmunjo include Ben Muman , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín . Sigurðr was apparently twelve @-@ years @-@ old at the time of the marriage , although Bjaðmunjo 's age is uncertain . The remarkably young age of the newlyweds , and the fact that the union is recorded at all in historical sources , suggests that a dynastic marriage was required for the conclusion of peace between their fathers .
There seems to be some confusion in several historical sources regarding the marriage . For example , the twelfth @-@ century monk Ordericus Vitalis ( died 1142 × ) claimed that Magnús himself married the daughter of an Irish king in about 1093 . According to Morkinskinna , Magnús was at one point set to marry a certain Maktildr , described as an " emperor 's daughter " . It is possible that Maktildr represents Matilda ( died 1118 ) , a woman who was a sister of the reigning Étgar mac Maíl Choluim , King of Scotland ( died 1107 ) , and who is known to have married Henry I , King of England ( died 1135 ) in 1110 . In fact , the episode concerning Magnús and Maktildr in Morkinskinna may have influenced the erroneous claim preserved by the same source and Fagrskinna purporting that Sigurðr married a daughter of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , King of Scotland . At about the same time as the marriage between Bjaðmunjo and Sigurðr , the former 's father secured yet another marital alliance through another daughter and Arnulf de Montgomery , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1118 × 1122 ) , an English magnate in the midst of a revolt against the reigning King of England .
= = Ramifications = =
Just prior to the settlement of peace between the Uí Briain and the Norwegians , Muirchertach was not only contending with the arrival of Magnús , but was also locked in an extended struggle with Domnall Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1121 ) . The agreement of a year 's peace between Muirchertach and Magnús , however , turned Magnús from an enemy into an ally . Whilst Magnús appears to have intended for Sigurðr to rule over his recently @-@ won overseas territories — a region stretching from Orkney to Dublin — Muirchertach appears to have intended to exert influence into the Isles through his new son @-@ in @-@ law . In fact , during the following year , Muirchertach and Magnús cooperated in military operations throughout Ireland . Unfortunately for Muirchertach , and his long @-@ term ambitions in Ireland and the Isles , Magnús was slain in Ulster in 1103 . Thereupon Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna reveal that Sigurðr immediately repudiated Bjaðmunjo — their marriage apparently having been unconsummated — and returned to Norway . There Sigurðr proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his two brothers , Eysteinn ( died 1123 ) and Óláfr ( died 1115 ) . It would over one hundred and fifty years until another King of Norway ventured into the Isles .
= Danton @-@ class battleship =
The Danton @-@ class battleship was a class of six pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy ( Marine Nationale ) before World War I. The ships were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet after commissioning in 1911 . After the beginning of World War I in early August 1914 , five of the sister ships participated in the Battle of Antivari . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent warships of the Central Powers from breaking out into the Mediterranean . One ship was sunk by a German submarine in 1917 .
The remaining five ships were obsolescent by the end of the war and most were assigned to secondary roles . Two of the sisters were sent to the Black Sea to support the Whites during the Russian Civil War . One ship ran aground and the crew of the other mutinied after one of its members was killed during a protest against intervention in support of the Whites . Both ships were quickly condemned and later sold for scrap . The remaining three sisters received partial modernizations in the mid @-@ 1920s and became training ships until they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s and later scrapped . The only survivor still afloat at the beginning of World War II in August 1939 had been hulked in 1931 and was serving as part of the navy 's torpedo school . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France in 1942 and scuttled by them after the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944 .
= = Background and description = =
The Danton @-@ class ships were ordered as the second tranche of a French naval expansion plan that began in response to the growth of the Imperial German Navy after 1900 . Discussions began in 1905 for an enlarged version of the preceding Liberté @-@ class design . French analyses of the Russian defeat by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 credited the latter 's victory to the large number of medium @-@ caliber hits that heavily damaged the superstructures of the Russian ships and started many fires that the crews had difficulty extinguishing . The superior speed and handling of the Japanese ships was also credited with a role in their victory .
The French decided that the increasing range of naval combat dictated the use of the 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun in lieu of the 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) gun used on the Liberté class as the larger gun had a greater ability to penetrate armor at longer ranges while still having a good rate of fire . The navy also wanted a faster ship , but this could only be done by reducing armor thicknesses without exceeding the 18 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 000 long tons ) limit imposed by the Minister of the Navy , Gaston Thomson , for budgetary reasons . A preliminary design with the usual triple @-@ expansion steam engines was accepted in March 1906 , but various modifications were requested . One proposal was made to replace the 240 @-@ millimeter guns turrets with single 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) turrets to create an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " ship , like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought , but this was rejected as it would have raised the displacement above the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ metric ton limit and the slower @-@ firing 305 @-@ millimeter guns would have reduced the volume and weight of fire to an unacceptable degree .
Initial parliamentary discussion of the design focused less on the anticipated cost of the ships than the idea that France was being left behind in the technological arms race , particularly in regard to the innovative Parsons steam turbines used by HMS Dreadnought . In response the navy sent a technical mission to inspect the Parsons factory , several shipyards , and gun factories as well as the Barr & Stroud rangefinder factory in May 1906 and concluded that the turbines offered more power in a smaller volume than triple @-@ expansion steam engines at a significant increase in fuel consumption at low speeds . Two ships had already been ordered from the naval dockyards three months previously when the navy decided to use the turbines in July . To further complicate things , Gaston requested a study using the heavier and more powerful 45 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1906 gun on 3 August while not endorsing the navy 's decision to use turbines . On 6 October the director of naval construction , M. Dudebout , urgently requested a decision while recommending that three ships use steam engines and the others turbines . He felt that this would minimize delays and expense as the design needed to be modified to accommodate the turbines and their four propeller shafts , no company in France knew how to build the turbines , and the latter were three times as expensive as steam engines . Gaston was inclined to accept Dudebout 's recommendation , but prevaricated until December , after parliamentary debates showed overwhelming support for turbines in all six ships . Contracts for the remaining four ships were signed on 26 December , the day after the conclusion of the debate . Gaston also delayed in deciding on which boilers to use . He sent another technical mission to Britain to look at Babcock & Wilcox 's design in April 1907 , but did not make a decision in favor of French @-@ built boilers until 3 June 1908 , after all the ships had been laid down .
The design was estimated to displace 18 @,@ 318 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 029 long tons ) before the adoption of the heavier Modèle 1906 gun required a new and larger turret to handle the gun which meant that the turret 's supporting structure also had to be reinforced . In an unsuccessful bid to reduce the displacement , many sections of armor were reduced in thickness , but the ships exceeded even the design estimate as built .
= = General description = =
The Dantons were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Liberté class . The ships were 145 meters ( 475 ft 9 in ) long at the waterline and 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall , over 13 meters ( 42 ft 8 in ) longer than the earlier ships . They had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 44 meters ( 27 ft 8 in ) at deep load . The Danton @-@ class ships were slightly overweight ; they actually displaced 18 @,@ 754 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 458 long tons ) at normal load . This was over 4 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) more than the earlier ships . When serving as flagships , their crew consisted of 40 officers and 875 enlisted men . Without an admiral and his staff embarked , the crew numbered 28 officers and 824 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Danton @-@ class ships had four license @-@ built Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove a single propeller , using steam from 26 coal @-@ fired Belleville or Niclausse boilers . Each boiler type was installed on three ships of the class . The boilers were housed in two large compartments , 17 in the forward boiler room that used the three forward funnels and 9 in the aft boiler which exhausted through the rear pair of funnels . The tubines were amidships , between the boiler rooms , in three compartments . The center engine room housed the turbines for the two center propeller shafts and the turbine for each of the outer shafts had their own compartment flanking the center engine room . The turbines were rated at a total of 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) using steam provided by the boilers at a working pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) . Designed for a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 25 knots ( 35 @.@ 65 km / h ; 22 @.@ 15 mph ) , they handily exceeded that during their sea trials with speeds ranging from 19 @.@ 7 to 20 @.@ 66 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 8 mph ) .
The Niclausse boilers were not well suited for use with turbines and burned more coal than the Belleville boilers . They also produced copious amounts of smoke and sparks ; occasionally even flames from incomplete combustion of the coal . The Dantons carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which gave them an estimated range from 3 @,@ 120 – 4 @,@ 866 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 778 – 9 @,@ 012 km ; 3 @,@ 590 – 5 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , depending on which boilers were fitted . Their endurance was almost half that of their predecessors due to the uneconomical fuel consumption of their turbines at low speeds and meant that they needed frequent coaling stops during the war .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Danton @-@ class ships consisted of four 305 mm Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each turret could elevate up to + 12 ° that gave the guns a maximum range of 14 @,@ 500 meters ( 15 @,@ 900 yd ) . The guns fired 440 @-@ kilogram ( 970 lb ) armour @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 780 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute . Each turret stored eight rounds along the rear wall and their propellant was kept between the floor of the firing chamber and the bottom of the turret . The ships normally stowed 75 rounds per gun , but space was available for an additional 10 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets , three on each side of the ship . Maximum elevation of the turrets was + 13 ° and the 240 @-@ kilogram ( 530 lb ) shell could be fired to a range of 14 @,@ 000 meters ( 15 @,@ 000 yd ) . The guns could fire at a rate of two rounds per minute . Each turret had space for 12 shells and the necessary 36 propellant charges ; 80 rounds per gun was normally carried , but maximum capacity was 100 rounds per gun .
The Dantons carried a number of smaller guns to defend themselves against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Modèle 1908 Schneider guns mounted in unarmored embrasures in the hull sides . These guns had a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) and could fire approximately 15 rounds per minute . Because the shell hoists were slow and the shells difficult to handle in their three @-@ round cases in the magazines , a total of 576 rounds were stored close to the guns in ready @-@ use lockers . Each gun was provided with 400 rounds , but the maximum storage available was 430 rounds per gun . The ships also mounted ten 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in pivot mounts on the superstructure . They had the same rate of fire as the larger 75 mm guns , but only a range of 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) . Each gun had 36 rounds nearby in ready @-@ use lockers and the ships were provided with a maximum of 800 rounds per gun .
The battleships were also armed with two submerged 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each tube was angled 10 ° forward and 3 ° downward . Each ship carried six Modèle 1909R torpedoes . They had a 114 @-@ kilogram ( 251 lb ) warhead and two speed / range settings : 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) or 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) at 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The Dantons also had storage space for 10 Harlé Modèle 1906 mines , which had an explosive charge of 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) of guncotton . These could not be laid by the ships themselves , but had to be off @-@ loaded for use .
= = = Fire control = = =
Finding the British Barr & Stroud coincidence rangefinder design superior to existing French designs , the Dantons mounted a pair of 2 @-@ meter ( 6 ft 7 in ) FQ rangefinders atop the conning tower and a 1 @.@ 37 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 6 in ) rangefinder on each turret top for use by the turret commanders . Integrating these into the overall fire @-@ control system took some time so eight Ponthus & Therrode stadimeters , which required knowledge of the target 's mast height and overall length , were used in the interim . During the war , the rangefinders were replaced by longer , more precise instrument . A triple 4 @.@ 57 @-@ meter ( 15 ft 0 in ) model was installed above the conning tower and 2 @-@ meter models replaced the smaller ones on the turret roofs .
= = = Armor = = =
The Danton @-@ class ships were built with 6 @,@ 725 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 619 long tons ) of armor , 36 percent of their designed displacement and almost 1 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) more than their predecessors . Their waterline armored belt had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) between the fore and aft turrets that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . The belt consisted of two strakes of armor , 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 ft 9 in ) high , that covered the sides of the hull up to the main deck and extended 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 ft 7 in ) below the normal waterline . Most of the lower armor plates tapered to a thickness of 80 – 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) along their bottom edge and the upper plates tapered to 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) amidships and down to 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) at the ends of the ship . The belt armour was backed by 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of teak . It extended almost the entire length of the ship , with only the very stern unprotected . At the stern , the belt terminated in a 200 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) transverse bulkhead ; the forward 154 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) transverse bulkhead connected the sides of the forward barbette to the belt .
The main gun turrets had 340 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) of armor on their faces , 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) sides , and roofs of three layers of 24 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) mild @-@ steel plates . Their barbettes were protected by 246 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 7 in ) of armor which thinned to 66 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) below the upper protected deck . The secondary gun turrets had 225 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) faces , 188 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) sides , and a roof of three layers of 17 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) plates . The 240 @-@ millimeter turret barbettes had sides 154 to 148 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 8 in ) . The front of the conning tower had armour 266 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) thick and its sides were 216 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) . The walls of its communication tube down to the fire @-@ control center ( poste central de tir ) were 200 millimeters thick down to the upper protected deck .
The ships had two protected decks ( the pont blindée supérieur and the pont blindée inférieur ( PBI ) ) , each formed from triple layers of mild steel 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) or 16 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) thick . The lower of these , the PBI , curved downwards towards the sides of the hull to meet the torpedo bulkhead and the curved portion was reinforced by the substitution of a 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) plate of armor in lieu of the uppermost 15 @-@ millimeter plate of mild steel . The PBI also sloped downward toward the bow and was similarly reinforced to form an armored glacis . The Dantons had an internal anti @-@ torpedo bulge 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) deep along the side of the hull below the waterline . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of three layers of 15 @-@ millimeter armor plate . Inboard of the bulkhead were 16 watertight compartments , 12 of which were normally kept empty , but the 4 abreast the boiler rooms were used as coal bunkers . This system of protection had only mixed success in practice as Danton capsized in 40 minutes after two torpedo hits while Voltaire survived her two torpedoes .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and careers = =
The Dantons took a long time to build . Construction was prolonged by a number of factors , chief of which were the 500 plus changes were made to the original design and in the inability of Gaston to make a timely decision . This meant that the builders sometimes had to rip out already completed sections to incorporate the modifications . Other problems were shortages of necessary infrastructure at the shipyards , lengthy delays in delivery of parts , and labor shortages and a lack of building slips in the naval dockyards . For example , water in the lower end of the newly completed Point @-@ du @-@ Jour slip at Brest meant that building Danton 's stern was delayed four months after the bow began and construction of Mirabeau could not begin until the armored cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was launched .
After commissioning in 1911 , all six ships were assigned to the First Battle Squadron ( Première escadre de ligne ) of the Mediterranean Fleet where they participated in the fleet maneuvers in May – June 1913 . When the war began , the squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Paul Chocheprat , was at sea preparing to escort troop convoys from French North Africa to France . Some of the ships unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western Mediterranean and escorted convoys . Later that month , all of the ships , except Mirabeau , participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out . Mirabeau participated in the attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia in late 1916 .
= = = Post war = = =
Diderot , Mirabeau and Vergniaud briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war and the latter two ships were sent to the Black Sea in early 1919 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Vergniaud 's crew mutinied after one of its members was killed when a protest against intervention in support of the Whites was bloodily suppressed and forced the return of the French ships supporting the Whites . Mirabeau ran aground in February 1919 off the coast of the Crimea and could not be refloated until some of her guns and armor were removed .
All of the surviving ships except Condorcet were reduced to second @-@ line roles by 1920 . Mirabeau was not repaired after her salvage and was hulked for a few years before being sold . Vergniaud was in bad shape and became a target ship before she was sold for scrap . Voltaire and Diderot had their underwater protection modernized in the early 1920s and became training ships before they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s . Condorcet was assigned to the Channel Division in the early 1920s before she too had her underwater protection modernized . She also became a training ship after its completion , but she was hulked in 1931 and became a depot ship for the torpedo school . The ship was captured intact when the Germans occupied Toulon in November 1942 and was used by them as a barracks ship . Condorcet was scuttled by the Germans in August 1944 and refloated the following year before being scrapped .
Danton 's wreck was discovered in 2007 between Algeria and Sardinia at a depth of over 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .
= Libor Michálek =
Mgr . Libor Michálek , MPA ( born 1968 ) is a Czech economist , politician , and whistleblower . He led successful corruption cases against the Czech National Property Fund and the Environment Ministry as former employees of both . He is the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to office in a national legislature . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .
= = Early life and career = =
Michálek was born in Náchod in 1968 . He graduated from high school in Přerov in 1987 , and from Palacký University of Olomouc in 1992 . He later studied in Masaryk University 's management program , and received his MPA from Nottingham Trent University 's executive program in 2010 . After college , he worked as a UNIX programmer , business school teacher , and portfolio manager at an investment company . Michálek was a broker at the National Property Fund from 1994 to 1996 , when he was fired after exposing a tunneling embezzlement scheme . The resulting court case found that he was improperly dismissed . He was later involved in compensating victims of financial crime . Michálek served as a capital market supervisor at the Czech Ministry of Finance from 1997 to 1998 , a director at the Czech Securities Commission from 1998 to 2006 , a director at the Czech National Bank from 2006 to 2007 , a senior consultant at the World Bank in 2007 , and the chief financial market inspector at the Czech National Bank from 2008 to 2010 .
In August 2010 , he became the director of the Czech State Environmental Fund . On December 13 , 2010 , Michálek filed a criminal complaint of corruption against the Environment Ministry in its tender for reconstruction of a Prague water treatment plant . He claimed the project was overpriced by 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Kč Kč . Based on a secretly audiotaped conversation , Michálek also alleged that Martin Knetig , an advisor to environmental minister Pavel Drobil , asked him to manipulate the tender to fund his party ( the Civic Democrats ) and Drobil 's political career . Michálek recorded his subsequent conversation with Drobil , who allegedly offered his deputy position for the destruction of the tapes . Upon the story 's publication , Drobil fired Michálek and Knetig , denied any wrongdoing , and resigned a day later .
Prime Minister Petr Nečas defended Drobil , and called Michálek untrustworthy despite his public reputation as a whistleblower . Since the Civic Democrats vowed to fight corruption , losing its first minister to corruption charges was a blow to the party 's standing . The Drobil incident was the first of several high @-@ profile resignations . On December 21 , 2010 , Czech Police Chief Oldrich Martinu resigned after Interior Minister Radek John 's month @-@ long call for his ouster in part due to the Drobil case 's mishandling . Michálek returned to the State Environmental Fund as a financial analyst in 2011 . The Drobil case is on indefinite hiatus for a lack of evidence as of September 2012 . As of February 2013 , the case against Knetig is on a similar hiatus for insufficient evidence .
Michálek is married and has three children . He is an evangelical Christian .
= = The Senate = =
At the end of July 2012 , Libor Michálek accepted the Czech Pirate , Green , and Christian Democrat Party senatorial nominations for District 26 . The Pirate Party was his primary affiliation due to its transparency and accountability platforms . His personal 12 @-@ point platform prioritized direct democracy , fair political party competition , and anti @-@ corruption oversight efforts alongside social welfare reforms . In the October 2012 elections , he won 24 @.@ 3 percent of the first round vote and 74 @.@ 4 percent of the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post runoff , giving him the seat . Another candidate , Karel Berka , challenged the decision , but the Czech Supreme Administrative Court found the claims unfounded . He was the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to national office , the 81 @-@ seat Czech Senate . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .
Czech President Miloš Zeman has publicly considered Michálek for leading the Supreme Audit Office . In 2013 , Michálek authored the first bill designed to protect whistleblowers , which was overwhelming rejected on the floor of the Senate .
= = Awards = =
In March 2011 , Michálek was awarded first prize from the Endowment Fund Against Corruption for his whistleblowing role in the Environment Ministry corruption scandal . In May 2011 , he was awarded the František Kriegel Prize by the Charter 77 Foundation for his " brave , consistent and uncompromising fight against corruption in government . "
= Dangerously in Love =
Dangerously in Love is the debut studio album by American recording artist Beyoncé . It was released on June 24 , 2003 by Columbia Records . During the recording of Destiny 's Child 's third studio album , Survivor ( 2001 ) , the group announced that they would produce solo albums to be released . Recording sessions for the album took place from March 2002 to March 2003 at several studios , during the hiatus of her then @-@ group Destiny 's Child . As executive producer of the album , Beyoncé took a wider role in its production , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks .
The tracks in the album are a mixture of uptempos and ballads , which are basically inspired by R & B and soul genres ; it also features elements of hip hop and Arabic music . Although Beyoncé remained discreet about her interpretation of the songs , its underlying meanings were attributed by music writers as an allusion to her intimate relationship with then @-@ boyfriend and well @-@ known music mogul Jay @-@ Z. Dangerously in Love received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with critics praising Knowles ' " artistic leap " . The album also received numerous accolades , earning Beyoncé five Grammy Awards .
Dangerously in Love propelled Beyoncé in becoming a viable solo star , as well as one of the most marketable singers in the recording industry . It became a worldwide commercial success , earning multi @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 317 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , earning Beyoncé the highest debut sales among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums . Dangerously in Love has sold over 5 million copies in the United States as of 2016 and an estimated 11 million copies worldwide as of 2011 , and has produced two number one Billboard singles and multiple top tens .
= = Background = =
Beyoncé launched her career as lead singer to R & B group Destiny 's Child in the late 1990s . According to Corey Moss of MTV News , " fans are eager to see " how Beyoncé , after years with the group , performs solo . While recording their third album , Survivor , in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced the group would be put on hiatus in order for the members to produce solo albums in the coming years , which they hoped would boost interest in Destiny 's Child . The idea of individual releases emanated from the group 's manager and Beyoncé 's father , Mathew .
With different types of music for each member to produce , the albums were not intended to compete on the charts . Destiny 's Child 's management strategically planned to stagger the release of each group member 's album to maximise sales . Michelle Williams was the first to release a debut solo album , Heart to Yours , in April 2002 . Meanwhile , Beyoncé debuted on the big screen , starring in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember , and recorded her debut single , " Work It Out " , which is featured on the soundtrack to the film . Rowland collaborated with American rapper Nelly on the song " Dilemma " as a featured artist ; it became a hit that year , leading the label to advance the release date of her debut solo album , Simply Deep , in late 2002 . Beyoncé also starred in The Fighting Temptations and recorded another solo single . In August 2002 , she collaborated with boyfriend Jay @-@ Z as featured vocalist on the song " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " . The single earned Beyoncé credibility and paved the way for the release of Dangerously in Love .
= = Recording = =
Before Beyoncé began recording for Dangerously in Love , she selected the producers with whom she would collaborate . For two days , she held meetings with prospective producers from the West Coast across the East Coast , and had interviews with them . Beyoncé went to Miami , Florida to begin sessions with Canadian record producer Scott Storch , her first collaborator , and lived in a Miami hotel in the following months . As she wanted to concentrate on the album , Beyoncé took her time to avoid pressure build @-@ up , significantly different from the hasty productions of Destiny 's Child .
As she did on Survivor , Beyoncé took a wider role in the production of Dangerously in Love , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks . Although Beyoncé did not create beats , she came up with melodies and ideas she shared with the producers . With 43 songs completed — 15 of which made it to the album — Beyoncé is credited as co @-@ writer and co @-@ producer , as well as the album 's executive producer alongside Matthew Knowles .
Beyoncé felt that recording an album without her group mates was " liberating and therapeutic " , coming into the studio and freely expressing her ideas with her collaborators . The dependency she developed with Destiny 's Child , however , meant it was harder " to be on [ her ] own creatively " . As she wanted to grow as an artist Beyoncé contacted other artists with a view to forming a collaborative partnership . When the collective finished writing several songs , she printed copies of each and sent them to prospective guest artists . She talked to them by phone for possible collaboration , eventually gaining their approval . Besides Jay @-@ Z , Beyoncé was able to work with Jamaican artist Sean Paul , American rapper Missy Elliott , among others . In contrast , some artists sent copies of songs to Beyoncé , which were eventually produced . Additionally , Beyoncé also worked with Timbaland and Missy Elliott on a track titled " Wrapped Around Me " for the album . Eventually , however , for reasons unknown , the song failed to appear on the album .
Dangerously in Love was originally a song of the same title which Beyoncé had written for Survivor . The song was deemed too sophisticated compared to other songs on Survivor , and the group decided not to release it as a single off the album . After recording several tracks for Dangerously in Love , Beyoncé decided to add " Dangerously in Love " , after realizing that it fit the overriding theme of the album . Since the album 's release date was postponed to capitalize on the success of " Dilemma " , Beyoncé had been offered the chance to further enhance the album . Although she was disappointed with the move , Beyoncé realized that " everything happens for a reason " , agreeing to return to the recording studio to work with other songwriters . This allowed her to record more songs , including the album 's lead single , " Crazy in Love " . In late 2002 , Beyoncé paused working on Dangerously in Love for a holiday tour with Destiny 's Child . With a few weeks left for recording in March 2003 , Beyoncé was still collaborating with other guests on the album , including Sean Paul and P. Diddy .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Beyoncé 's mother @-@ manager said that Dangerously in Love showcases her musical roots . While Williams and Rowland were on gospel and alternative pop , respectively , Beyoncé focused on recording R & B songs . Songs in the album are varied : from mid @-@ tempo and club @-@ oriented tracks in the first half , and ballads in the second half . Beyoncé commented : " My album is a good balance of ... ballads and ... mid @-@ tempos with just ridin ' -in @-@ your @-@ car feels , to a lot of ... up @-@ tempo club songs , to really sexy songs , to songs that make you feel emotional . It 's a nice mixture of different types of tracks . " Although the album contains high @-@ energy songs like " Crazy in Love " and " Naughty Girl " , the album 's focal mode , however , is slow and moody . Beyoncé said that she had written lots of ballads for the album . According to Beyoncé , she wanted to be understood as an artist and showcase her range , and by doing so , she blended various genres and musical influences in the album . The album incorporates R & B , hip hop , soul and reggae influences . The album took hip hop influences from Jay @-@ Z , Outkast , and Lil ' Kim ; the reggae is from Sean Paul ; and courtesy of Storch , the album explores Arabic music . His personal study of that kind of music gave the album a Middle Eastern vibe . Beyoncé and the producers also used a wide array of instrumentations .
When " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was released as a single in late 2002 , critics and the public had speculated that Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z were having a mutual affair . Despite widespread rumors , they remained silent about their relationship . According to critics , the title itself of the album sounded " more intriguing " with Beyoncé singing personal songs . Though love is the theme Beyoncé had incorporated in the album , " most the material is vague enough to be about any relationship " ; however , there are songs that suggested affirmation of their relationship . In the song " Signs " , Beyoncé sings about being in love with a Sagittarius , which coincidentally is Jay @-@ Z 's zodiac sign . In response to the persistent rumors about them , Beyoncé stated , " People can come to whatever conclusion they like ... That 's the beauty of music ... I 'm a singer , I 'll talk about writing songs all you want . But when it comes to certain personal things any normal person wouldn 't tell people they don 't know , I just feel like I don 't have to [ talk about it ] . "
Beyoncé said that Dangerously in Love is lyrically similar to Destiny 's Child 's albums . But because she only had to write for herself , Beyoncé had the chance to compose personally deeper songs than her previous records with the group . With a theme that is based upon different stages of a romantic relationship , Dangerously in Love contains songs that speak of love and honesty . In addition , Beyoncé admitted that there are songs about love @-@ making . The personal content of the album , however , was not generally attributed to Beyoncé 's own experiences — although some were based from hers — instead , the theme kept recurring in her mind . Beyoncé later explained : " I wanted to have an album that everyone could relate to and would listen to as long as I 'm alive and even after ... Love is something that never goes out of style . It 's something everybody experiences , and if they are not in love , people usually want to feel that ... " While some songs merely focus on the " beauty of love " , the album also explores another side of love , with songs that " celebrate breakup " and songs that narrate a woman 's desire to have a degree of control in a relationship . The album 's hidden track , " Daddy " , is a tribute to Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles , who fronted Destiny 's Child as their manager . The song is an account of Beyoncé wanting her future husband and child to possess qualities similar to her father 's . Originally , Beyoncé did not intend to include the track in the album , having thought its lyrics would make her appear immature . However , considering it one of the songs that reflected her life at that transitional moment , she instead relegated " Daddy " as the closing track .
= = Release and promotion = =
Beyoncé said that she had trouble convincing executives at Columbia Records to release the album . The singer recounted that it almost was not released : " In 2003 , I had my first solo album . But when I played it through for my record label , they told me I didn 't have one hit on my album . I guess they were kinda right , I had five . ' Dangerously In Love ' , ' Naughty Girl ' , ' Me , Myself and I ' , ' Baby Boy ' and ' Crazy In Love ' . " Since " Dilemma " was concurrently charting atop the Billboard Hot 100 , Beyoncé 's management released , " Work It Out " , one of the songs on the soundtrack to Austin Powers in Goldmember , instead of a single from Dangerously in Love to preclude it from possibly competing with the former .
From the original release date of October 2002 , the album was pushed to December in the same year , and to May in the following year . Beyoncé recorded a version of " In da Club " , and served its way to mixtapes before its original release date . The single failed to dominate as a " dancefloor favorite " ; Mathew Knowles , however , confirmed that it was just a " buzz cut " and was not included in the album . Nonetheless , it earned enough airplay to appear on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks chart . While Beyoncé was wrapping up the album , several of its songs had leaked online . In efforts to prevent more tracks in the album from being spread illegally , as well as being a victim of bootlegging , Columbia Records , with high commercial expectations from the album , pulled the release of Dangerously in Love to June 24 , 2003 , two weeks ahead of the planned July 8 release .
Buyers who pre @-@ ordered the album online received links where they could download a song called " I Can 't Take No More " ; the promo lasted until the album 's release . On June 14 , 2003 , Beyoncé premiered songs from the album during her first solo concert and the pay @-@ per @-@ view TV special , " Ford Presents Beyoncé , Friends & Family , Live From Ford 's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn , Michigan " . By the night of the album 's release , Beyoncé 's concert was broadcast in more than twenty theaters across the United States . Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Tyrese , Solange Knowles and girl group Ramiyah also performed in the show . Beyoncé also promoted the album by performing in television shows such as the Saturday Night Live , Late Show with David Letterman , The Today Show , The Early Show , and The View .
By April 2003 , Beyoncé 's management was choosing the album 's lead single between two songs . Sent to clubs , the song that would receive positive reception would be considered the lead single . Finally , " Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single off the album . With commercial success that included crossover music markets , the single spent eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Baby Boy " followed , and received greater success than " Crazy in Love " . With its dominance on radio airplays , the single surpassed " Crazy in Love " ' s chart performance , remaining on the top spot for nine consecutive weeks . " Me , Myself and I " was released as the third single and " Naughty Girl " as fourth and last ; although the last two releases only reached the top five on the Hot 100 , they all attained immediate commercial success and helped the album earn multi @-@ platinum certifications .
= = Singles = =
" Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single in mid @-@ 2003 . It was lauded by critics who described it as " deliriously catchy " . The single reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week the song reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one as well . The substantial airplay and later retail sales of " Crazy in Love " facilitated it to dominate the chart , subsequently spending eight straight weeks atop the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé 's first number @-@ one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . It also became a success internationally reaching the top of the charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom . " Baby Boy " was released as the second single in August 2003 . It was well received by critics , who declared it a " high @-@ profile collaboration " that " bridges the gap between the genres of R & B and dancehall . " It ultimately reached the top of the Hot 100 . It reached the chart 's top spot eight weeks after its debut , and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks . It peaked in the top two in the United Kingdom .
" Me , Myself and I " was released as the album 's third single in October 2003 . It received generally positive response , being considered a typical sounding R & B ballad with a familiar theme , in which Beyoncé sings with passion . It reached the top ten in Canada and the United States . " Naughty Girl " was the fourth single from the album , released in March 2004 . The song was lauded by critics , who cited its sensual vibe and writing : " Beyoncé borrowed a portion of Donna Summer 's naughty classic " Love to Love You Baby " to create this celebration of sensual naughtiness . " Internationally , it became a top ten hit in the United States , Australia , Canada and New Zealand .
= = Critical reception = =
Dangerously in Love received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 64 , based on 16 reviews . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone viewed that it presents Beyoncé in two styles , one " far more flattering " than the other , and found the ballad @-@ oriented songs on the album least flattering , commenting that Beyoncé has " plenty of time " to develop the style maturely that would " [ make ] sense for her " . Entertainment Weekly 's Neil Drumming commented that the album validates Beyoncé 's " taste in innovation " . He also viewed that Beyoncé 's collaboration with various record producers explores new directions in contemporary music , doing more reinventing than revisiting . Like DeCurtis ' review , however , Drumming pointed out that " most of the disc 's missteps " are in its latter part . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani wrote that " [ Beyoncé ] is allowed more room to experiment vocally as a solo artist , exploring softer registers and lathering on the coquettish persona that was only hinted at on Destiny 's Child tracks like ' Bootylicious . ' " . Steve Jones of USA Today stated , " Beyoncé succeeds by showing greater depth as a songwriter and broader range as a singer " . Blender 's Ben Ratliff complimented Beyoncé 's performance and stated , " She ’ s playing the cool @-@ hunter but covering the bases with seraphic arrangements of multiple voices . Her reach is remarkable " . Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters called it an " artistic leap " and wrote that it " finds Ms. B in the midst of a fully flowering womanhood and doing the best singing of her career " .
In a mixed review , Vibe magazine 's Jason King said that the album occasionally " sounds desperate to reach every demographic " . Kelefa Sanneh , writing in The New York Times , felt that it missed the harmonies Beyoncé had in Destiny 's Child records and that she is more effective " when she 's got a posse behind her " . Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called it " a cruel glimpse of a talent that occasionally blazes but is frustratingly inconsistent " . Uncut called its ballads " self @-@ pitying / self @-@ mythologising " , while Q stated , " She has good songs , but no great songs " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols expressed that it " demonstrates vocal finesse [ ... ] But , especially on the ballads , [ Beyoncé ] often drags things out with diva acrobatics " . The Guardian 's Adam Sweeting wrote that " the desperate urge to cover every musical base from dancefloor to soul @-@ ballad means that there is barely a track here with any distinctive identity or even a tune " . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau cited " Yes " and " Baby Boy " as the album 's highlights and quippedly remarked , " Dangerously in Love ... with her daddy , the bonus cut reveals — as if we didn 't know . " He gave the album a one @-@ star honorable mention , indicating " a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " In a retrospective review , Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that " the first half is good enough to make Dangerously in Love one of the best mainstream urban R & B records released in 2003 , and makes a strong case that Beyoncé might be better off fulfilling this destiny instead of reuniting with Destiny " .
= = Accolades = =
Dangerously in Love and its singles earned Beyoncé numerous awards and nominations . In 2003 , Beyoncé was recognized as New Female Artist and New R & B Artist , among the four awards she won during the Billboard Music Awards . At the 2013 American Music Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album . It also received a nomination in the category for Best Album at the 2003 MOBO Awards . At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards , Beyoncé won Best Contemporary R & B Album along with four other awards for the album 's songs . With that feat , she tied with Alicia Keys , Norah Jones , and Lauryn Hill for most Grammys won by a female artist in one night . At the 2004 Brit Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Best International Album but lost to Justin Timberlake 's Justified . However , the singer herself won in the category for Best International Female Solo Artist . Dangerously in Love was also nominated in the category for Best Album at the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards .
The 1,000th issue of Entertainment Weekly , which celebrated " the new classics " in the entertainment industry in the period from 1983 to 2008 , ranked Dangerously in Love nineteenth in the Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years . The album also ranked at number 183 on the list " 200 Definitive Albums That Shaped Rock and Roll " according to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
= = Commercial performance = =
Dangerously in Love debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with sales of 317 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . In its second week the album slid to number two with 183 @,@ 000 sold , behind Ashanti 's Chapter II . Although the album 's first @-@ week sales failed to match that of Survivor , which sold 663 @,@ 000 units in its debut in 2001 , Beyoncé earned the highest among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums by best weeks : Rowland sold 77 @,@ 000 copies for Simply Deep in its strongest week while Williams earned 17 @,@ 000 copies for Heart to Yours in its top week . The album has been certified four @-@ time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Dangerously in Love remains as Beyoncé 's best @-@ selling album to date , with cumulative sales of 5 million copies in the United States as of June 2016 .
Internationally , Dangerously in Love had similar commercial reception . On July 12 , 2003 , Beyoncé became the first female artist ( and the fifth artist ever ) to top both the singles — with " Crazy in Love " — and albums chart simultaneously in the United States and the United Kingdom , following The Beatles , Simon & Garfunkel , Rod Stewart , and Men at Work . As of June 2011 , the album had sold over 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , and the British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album four @-@ times platinum for sales of more than 1 @.@ 2 million units . Dangerously in Love was the 15th @-@ best selling album of 2003 in the United Kingdom . It is her second best @-@ selling album in the UK . In Australia , it reached number two ; the album was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . In 2003 , Dangerously in Love was the 51st best @-@ selling album in Australia , and the 74th the following year . As of 2015 , the album has sold more than 10 million copies worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
With the release of Dangerously in Love and the combined commercial success of its singles , Beyoncé had established herself a viable solo artist . Rebecca Louie of the New York Daily News wrote that the success of Dangerously in Love brought Beyoncé into a " sultry solo star " who " blossomed from a girly group " , referring to Destiny 's Child . The album has also facilitated her to become one of the marketable artists in the industry . She appeared on the cover of numerous magazines , guested TV for promotions , and has signed lucrative commercial deals . Beyoncé signed to PepsiCo , a conglomerate beverage manufacturer , in 2003 , and appeared on several TV commercials for its products .
The creative output of the sessions for Dangerously in Love left several tracks ready for another album pressing . In late 2003 , Beyoncé planned to release a follow @-@ up album that would comprise left @-@ over songs from Dangerously in Love . The move was prompted when a P. Diddy @-@ collaboration called " Summertime " , a left @-@ over track from the album , was sent to radio stations and had received favorable response .
Meanwhile , the success of the album incited the public to infer that it signals Destiny 's Child to finally part ways , as had pop singer Justin Timberlake " could not go back to ' N Sync after tasting solo success " . However , Beyoncé said that their side projects were only " a brief diversion in the juggernaut that has become Destiny 's Child " . As time did not permit , Beyoncé 's musical aspirations were put on hiatus for her to concentrate on her Super Bowl performance , wherein she was slated to sing the U.S. national anthem , and the recording of Destiny 's Child 's fourth album , Destiny Fulfilled ; the group finally disbanded in 2005 .
After the group 's formal disbandment , Beyoncé recorded and released her second album , B 'Day , on September 4 , 2006 . The album gave Beyoncé her second number one in the United States , and its debut week sales exceeded that of Dangerously in Love , the former having sold 541 @,@ 000 units . Despite the album 's first two singles ' average commercial performance — neither of which reached the peak of the Billboard Hot 100 — its " handsome debut " was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard as having generated " by goodwill earned from the performance of [ Beyoncé 's ] smash first album Dangerously in Love . "
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies a vocal producer
" Crazy in Love " samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " ( 1970 ) by the Chi @-@ Lites
" Naughty Girl " contains interpolations from " Love to Love You Baby " ( 1975 ) by Donna Summer
" Baby Boy " contains interpolations from " Hot Stepper " ( 1990 ) by Ini Kamoze
" Be with You " samples " Ain 't Nothing I Can Do " ( 1979 ) Tyrone Davis and contains interpolations from " I 'd Rather Be with You " ( 1976 ) by Bootsy 's Rubber Band and " Strawberry Letter 23 " ( 1977 ) by the Brothers Johnson
" That 's How You Like It " contains interpolations from " I Like It " ( 1982 ) by DeBarge
" Gift from Virgo " samples " Rainy Day " ( 1974 ) by Shuggie Otis
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " contains interpolations from " If I Was Your Girlfriend " ( 1987 ) by Prince and samples of " Me and My Girlfriend " ( 1996 ) by 2Pac
" What 's It Gonna Be " samples " Do It Roger " ( 1981 ) by Roger Troutman
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= Myriostoma =
Myriostoma is a fungal genus in the family Geastraceae . The genus is monotypic , containing the single species Myriostoma coliforme . It is an earthstar , so named because the spore @-@ bearing sack 's outer wall splits open into the shape of a star . The inedible fungus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been found in Africa , Asia , North and South America , and Europe , where it grows in humus @-@ rich forests or in woodlands , especially on well @-@ drained and sandy soils . A somewhat rare fungus , it appears on the Red Lists of 12 European countries , and in 2004 it was one of 33 species proposed for protection under the Bern Convention by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi .
The fruit body , initially shaped like a puffball , is encased within an outer covering that splits open from the top to form rays . These rays curve down to expose an inner papery spore case , which contains the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue , the gleba . The fungus is unique among the earthstars in having a spore case that is supported by multiple stalks , and is perforated by several small holes suggestive of its common names salt @-@ shaker earthstar and pepperpot . It is the largest of the earthstar fungi , and reaches diameters of up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . Its spherical spores have elongated warts that create a ridge @-@ like pattern on their surface . The spores are dispersed when falling water hits the outer wall of the spore sac , creating puffs of air that force the spores through the holes .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature by Samuel Doody in the second edition of John Ray 's Synopsis methodica Stirpium Brittanicorum in 1696 . Doody briefly described the mushroom like so : " fungus pulverulentus coli instar perforatus , cum volva stellata " ( mushroom dusty , like a perforated colander , volva star @-@ shaped ) , and went on to explain that he found it in 1695 in Kent .
It was first described scientifically as a new species in 1776 from collections made in England by James Dickson , who named it Lycoperdon coliforme . He found it growing in roadside banks and hedgerows among nettles in Suffolk and Norfolk . Nicaise Auguste Desvaux first defined and published the new genus Myriostoma in 1809 , with the species renamed Myriostoma anglicum ( an illegitimate renaming ) . Christian Hendrik Persoon had previously placed the species in Geastrum in 1801 , while Samuel Frederick Gray would in 1821 describe the genus Polystoma for it . Myriostoma coliforme received its current and final name when August Carl Joseph Corda moved Dickson 's name to Myriostoma in 1842 , replacing Desvaux 's name .
In North America the fungus began to be reported in the late 19th century , first from Colorado by Charles Horton Peck , and later from Florida , collected by Lucien Underwood in 1891 ; both findings were reported by Andrew Price Morgan in April 1892 . In 1897 , Melville Thurston Cook also reported having collected it the year before from " Albino Beach " . Curtis Gates Lloyd described Bovistoides simplex from a South African specimen in 1919 , but in 1942 , William Henry Long examined that specimen and concluded that it was a weathered spore sac of M. coliforme that had become detached from the outer star @-@ shaped exoperidium . This conclusion was confirmed in a later study of the material .
Myriostoma had been classified in the Geastraceae family until 1973 , when British mycologist Donald Dring placed it in the Astraeaceae based on the presence of trabeculae ( stout columns that extend from the peridium to the central core of the fruit body ) in the gleba , and the absence of a true hymenium . In his 1989 monograph , Stellan Sunhede returned it to the Geastraceae . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences has confirmed the traditional belief that Myriostoma and Geastrum are closely related .
Václav Jan Staněk proposed a variety capillisporum in 1958 , which has been sunk back into synonymy with the species . M. coliforme is the sole species in Myriostoma , making the genus monotypic . Because the original type material has been lost , in 1989 Sunhede suggested that Dickson 's illustration in his 1776 publication ( tab . III : 4a & b ) be used as the lectotype .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin words colum , meaning " strainer " , and forma , meaning " shape " — Berkeley 's vernacular name " Cullenden puff @-@ ball " also refers to a colander . Gray called it the " sievelike pill @-@ box " . The generic name is from the Greek words μνριός , meaning " countless " and στόμα , meaning " mouth " ( the source of the technical term stoma ) . The species is commonly known as the " salt @-@ and @-@ pepper shaker earthstar " or simply the " pepperpot " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies start their development underground or buried in leaf debris , linked to a strand of mycelium at the base . As they mature , the exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer of the peridium ) splits open into 7 to 14 rays which curve backward ; this pushes the fruit body above the substrate . Fully opened specimens can reach dimensions of 2 – 12 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) from ray tip to tip . The rays are of unequal size , with tips that often roll back inward . They comprise three distinct layers of tissue . The inner pseudoparenchymatous layer ( so named for the resemblance to the tightly packed cells of plant parenchyma ) is fleshy and thick when fresh , and initially pale beige but darkening to yellow or brown as it matures , often cracking and peeling off in the process . The exterior mycelial layer , often matted with fine leaf debris or dirt , usually cracks to reveal a middle fibrous layer , which is made of densely packed hyphae 1 – 2 @.@ 5 μm wide . The base of the fruit body is concave to vaulted in shape , and often covered with adhering dirt . The roughly spherical spore sac ( endoperidium ) measures 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and is supported by a cluster of short columns shaped like flattened spheres . It is gray @-@ brown in color , and minutely roughened with small , lightly interconnected warts . There are several to many evenly dispersed mouths , the ostioles , mainly on the upper half of the endoperidium . They are roughly circular with fimbriate ( fringed ) edges . The inedible fruit bodies have no distinct taste , although dried specimens develop an odor resembling curry powder or bouillon cubes .
Like many earthstars , the fungus uses the force of falling raindrops to help disperse the spores , which are ejected in little bursts when objects ( such as rain ) strike the outer wall of the spore sac . The gleba is brown to grayish @-@ brown , with a cotton @-@ like texture that , when compressed , allows the endoperidium to flex quickly and create a puff of air that is forced out through the ostioles . This generates a cloud of spores that can then be carried by the wind . There are columellae ( sterile structures that start at the base of the gleba and extend through it ) , which are usually not evident in the mature gleba , but apparent at the base of the spore sac . The columellae are not connected to the ostioles , but rather , terminate within the gleba at some distance from them . The capillitia ( sterile strands within the gleba ) are long , slender , free , tapering , unbranched , and 2 – 5 μm thick , with thickened walls . The spores are spherical , nonamyloid , and are ornamented with irregularly shaped flaring protuberances up to 2 μm high . They measure 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 8 μm in diameter ( without ornamentation ) , and 5 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 0 μm including the ornamentation .
= = = Similar species = = =
Myriostoma coliforme is a distinctive species easily characterized by its size — being the largest earthstar fungus — as well as the multiple openings on its spore sack and stalk supporting the sack . Historically , it was thought that the holes might have been a result of insects . This was discussed and rejected by Thomas Jenkinson Woodward in 1797 :
It has been doubted whether these mouths might not be accidental , and formed by insects after the expansion of the plant . But this ( not to mention their regularity , and that each is furrowed by its border of ciliae ) is clearly disproved , from the marks of the projections formed by the mouths being seen on the expanded rays , when freshly opened ... I have likewise found an abortive plant , in which the seed did not ripen ; but which had numerous projecting papillae on the head , where the mouths should have been formed .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Myriostoma is saprobic , deriving nutrients from decomposing organic matter . Fruit bodies grow grouped in well @-@ drained or sandy soil , often in the partial shade of trees . The species occurs in deciduous forests and mixed forests , gardens , along hedges and grassy road banks , and grazed grasslands . In the Northern Hemisphere , it tends to grow on well @-@ drained south @-@ facing slopes , while it prefers a similar habitat on north @-@ facing slopes in Australia . In Europe , its major habitat is riparian mixed forests dominated by Salix alba and Populus alba along the great rivers . In Hawaii , it has been collected at elevations above 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) where it appears to favor the mamame ( Sophora chrysophylla ) forest .
The species is widespread , being known in its natural habitat from all five continents , but is not found in abundance . Myriostoma coliforme is rare in Europe , where it appears on the Regional Red Lists of 12 countries , and is one of 33 candidate species for listing in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ( the " Bern Convention " ) . Although originally described from England , it was considered extinct in mainland Britain until it was found again in Suffolk in 2006 near Ipswich , one of its original localities — it had been last reported in the country in 1880 . The fungus is considered extinct in Switzerland . Its most northerly location is southern Sweden , although it is generally rare in northern Europe . It is similarly widespread but rarely encountered in North America , although there may be isolated localities , like New Mexico , where it is more abundant . In Australia , where its range is limited to the central New South Wales coast , it may have been introduced from exotic plant material .
= Dusky dolphin =
The dusky dolphin ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus ) is a dolphin found in coastal waters in the Southern Hemisphere . Its specific epithet is Latin for " dark " or " dim " . It is very closely genetically related to the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin , but current scientific consensus holds they are distinct species . The dolphin 's range is patchy , with major populations around South America , southwestern Africa , New Zealand , and various oceanic islands , with some sightings around southern Australia and Tasmania . The dusky dolphin prefers cool currents and inshore waters , but can also be found offshore . It feeds on a variety of fish and squid species and has flexible hunting tactics . The dusky dolphin is known for its remarkable acrobatics , having a number of aerial behaviours . The status of the dolphin is unknown , but it has been commonly caught in gill nets .
= = Taxonomy = =
It is commonly thought that the dusky dolphin was first described by John Edward Gray in 1828 from stuffed skin and a single skull shipped from the Cape of Good Hope to the British Museum . Gray first described the species as Delphinus obscurus , with the subgenus Grampus in his 1828 Specilegia Zoologica . Gray reported that the animal was captured around the Cape of Good Hope by a Captain Haviside ( often misspelt " Heaviside " ) and sent to the British Museum though the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 .
However , Gray later wrote that a similar dolphin was described as Delphinus supercilious by French surgeons and naturalists René Primevère Lesson and Prosper Garnot from a specimen collected off the coast of Tasmania two years before his own classification . Gray classified D. supercilious as a junior synonym of his D. obscurus and credited Lesson and Garnot ( 1826 ) for their original description . Meanwhile , Charles Darwin also described what turned out to be this species as Delphinus fitzroyi from a specimen harpooned off Argentina in 1838 . The dusky dolphin was reclassified as Prodelphinus obscurus in 1885 by British naturalist William Henry Flower , before gaining its current binomial name , Lagenorhynchus obscurus , from American biologist Frederick W. True in 1889 .
= = = Genetics = = =
The dusky dolphin and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin are considered phylogenetically related species . Some researchers have suggested they are the same species , but morphological and life @-@ history evidence shows otherwise . The two sister species diverged at around 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 0 million years ago . Recent analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the genus Lagenorhynchus , as traditionally conceived , is not a natural ( monophyletic ) group . Another study finds that the dusky and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin form the sister group to the ( expanded ) genus Cephalorhynchus . If this placement is accurate , a new genus name will need to be coined to accommodate these two species .
Dusky dolphins from Argentina and southwest Africa separated 2000 generations ago from an ancestral Atlantic population and subsequently diverged without much gene flow . Most populations have low genetic diversity , with the Peruvian population being an exception . Possible hybrids of dusky dolphins have been described with a long @-@ beaked common dolphin and a southern right whale dolphin . There are four subspecies classified ; ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus obscurus ) , ( L. o. fitroyi ) , ( L. o. posidonia ) and ( L. o. superciliosis ) .
= = Description = =
The dusky dolphin is small to medium in length compared with other species in the family . There is significant variation in size among the different population areas . The largest dusky dolphins have been encountered off the coast of Peru , where they are up to 210 cm ( 6 feet ) in length and 100 kg ( 210 pounds ) in mass . The size for dusky dolphins in New Zealand have been recorded to be a length range of 167 – 178 cm and a weight range of 69 – 78 kg for females and a length range of 165 – 175 cm and a weigh range of 70 – 85 kg for males .
Almost no sexual dimorphism occurs in this species , although males have more curved dorsal fins with broader bases and greater surface areas . The back of the dolphin is dark grey or black , and the dorsal fin is distinctively two @-@ toned ; the leading edge matches the back in colour , but the trailing edge is a much lighter greyish white . The dusky dolphins has a long , light @-@ grey patch on its fore side leading to a short , dark @-@ grey beak . The throat and belly are white , and the beak and lower jaw are dark grey . Two blazes of white colour run back on the body from the dorsal fin to the tail . Right between the white areas remains a characteristic thorn @-@ shaped patch of dark colour , by which the species can easily be recognised . Aside from that , dusky dolphins may be confused with other members of their genus when observed at sea . It can be distinguished from the common dolphin , which has a more prominent and longer beak and yellow flank markings . The skull of a dusky dolphin has a longer and narrower rostrum than that of an hourglass dolphin or Peale 's dolphin of similar age and size .
= = Populations and distribution = =
The dusky dolphin has a discontinuous semi @-@ circumpolar range . The dolphins can be found off the coasts of South America , southwestern Africa , southern Australia and Tasmania , New Zealand , and some oceanic islands . Off South America , they range from southern Peru to Cape Horn in the west and from southern Patagonia to around 36 ° S in the east . Its range also includes the Falkland Islands . They are particularly common from Peninsula Valdes to Mar de Plata . In comparison , they are uncommon in the Beagle Channel and the inshore waters of the Tierra del Fuego region .
Dusky dolphins are found throughout New Zealand waters . The dolphin population in this area centres around East Cape and Cape Palliser on the North Island to Timaru and Oamaru on the South Island . They are especially common in the cold waters of the Southland and Canterbury currents . In Africa , the dusky dolphin ranges from Lobito Bay , Angola in the north to False Bay , South Africa in the south . Within Australian waters , dusky dolphins have been recorded in colder waters off Kangaroo Island , eastern Tasmania , and Bass Strait , although they are uncommon and those that are sighted there are possibly transients from New Zealand . They are also found around Campbell , Auckland , and Chatham in the western South Pacific , Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic and Île Amsterdam , and Île Saint @-@ Paul in the southern Indian Ocean .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Dusky dolphins prefer cool , upwelling waters , as well as cold currents . They largely live in inshore waters and can be found up to the outer continental shelf and in similar zones in offshore islands . They can move over great distances ( around 780 km ) , but have no well @-@ defined seasonal migrations . However , dolphins off Argentina and New Zealand make inshore and offshore seasonal and diurnal movements . In Argentina , dusky dolphins associate closely with southern right whales and South American sea lions . They have been found around bottlenose dolphins , but apparently do not interact with them , and may share feeding areas with Risso 's dolphins . They also associate with various seabirds , such as kelp gulls , cormorants , terns , shearwaters , petrels , and albatrosses . In New Zealand , dusky dolphins mingle with common dolphins . Dusky dolphins have also been observed with southern right whale dolphins and pilot whales off southwestern Africa .
= = = Vocalisations and echolocation = = =
In general , three different types of sounds are produced by dolphins ( and other toothed whales ) . These are click trains , which are made of numerous individual clicks , usually broadband signals that change from low value to high value quickly , burst pulses , which are individual clicks with high repetition and can be heard by humans only as a buzzing sound , and whistles , which are signals that are pure @-@ tones and whose frequency varies depending on the time . Dusky dolphins produce all three sounds , but most commonly make burst pulses . Whistling is more common when dusky dolphins mingle with other dolphin species such as common dolphins . Their echolocation signals are broadband and of short duration , much like those other whistle @-@ producing toothed whales . They tend to have bimodal frequency spectra which peak between 40 and 50 kHz at low frequency and between 80 and 110 kHz at high frequency . The species ' echolocation signals are about 9 – 12 dB lower than for the larger white @-@ beaked dolphin .
= = = Foraging and predation = = =
Dusky dolphins prey consume a variety of fish and squid species . Common fish species eaten include anchovies , lantern fish , pilchards , sculpins , hakes , horse mackerel , hoki and red cod . They are generally coordinated hunters . Their very flexible foraging strategies can change depending on the environment . In certain parts of New Zealand , where deep oceanic waters meet the shore , dusky dolphins forage in deep scattering layers at night . They arrive at the hunting site individually , but form groups when in the layer . The dolphins use their echolocation to detect and isolate an individual prey . Groups of foraging dolphins tend to increase when the layer is near the surface and decrease when it descends .
When hunting in shallower waters in New Zealand and Argentina , dusky dolphins tend to forage during the day . The dolphins chase schools of fish or squid and herd them into stationary balls . They may control the school with light reflected from their white bellies . Dolphins herd prey against the surface , but also horizontally against the shore , a point of land , or the hull of a boat . During these times , dusky dolphins are believed to increase prey availability for other predators , including other dolphins , seabirds , sharks , and pinnipeds . In Argentina , dusky dolphins may use bird aggregations to locate and herd prey . Conversely , pinnipeds and sharks take advantage of the dolphin hunts . Dusky dolphins are themselves preyed on by killer whales and large sharks . Dolphins avoid killer whales by swimming into shallower water . Dusky dolphins are also susceptible to parasitism by certain nematode , cestode , and trematode species , mostly the genera Nasitrema and Anisakis , and Phyllobothrium delphini , Braunina cordiformis , and Pholeter gasterophilus .
= = = Social behaviour and reproduction = = =
Dusky dolphins live in a fission @-@ fusion society , with most group size increases occurring during foraging and decreases in group sizes occurring during resting and traveling . In the Golfo San José off the Valdes Peninsula , dolphins commonly switch between small traveling groups and large sociosexual groups , and encounter a variety of associates . Studies of dolphins off Kaikoura , New Zealand , showed the dolphins normally live in large groups that split into smaller subgroups . These subgroups are composed of mating adults ( mating groups ) , mothers with calves ( nursery groups ) and nonbreeding adults . Dusky dolphins have a promiscuous mating system in which both males and females mate with multiple partners . Mating groups are generally made of around 10 males and a single female . These mating groups can be found in both shallow and deep water but more often gather near shore .
In the mating groups , the males pursue a female in high @-@ speed chases . Females seem to prefer males with great speed and agility rather than size , strength , or aggression . Females may extend the chase as long as possible so only the best male remains . Females may try to evade males that are not vigorous or lack social skill . Males also may form alliances to catch females . Unlike male bottlenose dolphins , male dusky dolphins cannot monopolise females . The time when female dusky dolphins first reproduce varies between regions . New Zealand dolphins first reproduce at about seven to years , with possibly six to seven years for Argentine dolphins . A study of dusky dolphins off the coast of Peru showed the reproductive cycle lasts around 28 @.@ 6 months , with mother dolphins pregnant for 12 @.@ 9 months , lactating for a further 12 months , and resting for 3 @.@ 7 months before the cycle begins again . During copulation , females tend to be on the top . As with all species where females mate with multiple partners , male dusky dolphins have large testicles for sperm competition . Dusky dolphins sometimes engage in sexual behaviour for reasons other than reproduction , perhaps for greeting , communication , or strengthening social bonds . Homosexual behaviour between males has been observed . Dolphins having sex for social reasons tend to be more relaxed .
Females with calves tend to gather in nursery groups in shallow water . Nursery groups likely provide mothers and calves more time to rest , which is important for both . While the behaviours of nursery groups vary by month , resting is the predominant behaviour during most months . The formation of nursery groups in shallow waters also allows members to hunt prey species that inhabit in these waters . Both adults and calves have been observed to chase and catch fish , and the adults may be teaching the calves how to hunt . In contrast to shallower waters , hunting in deep water at night may be too dangerous for calves . Calves are particularly vulnerable to predators like killer whales and use of shallow water by nursery groups may be a way to avoid predation . Nursery groups tend to avoid mating groups . Adult males in these groups will aggressively herd and chase females . They can separate calves from their mothers and harass them , as well . Calves may also become even more vulnerable to predators as they become exhausted and disoriented . Mother dolphins may look after calves that are not their own .
= = = Aerial behaviour = = =
Dusky dolphins perform a number of aerial displays , including leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , spins , and noseouts . They also perform head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps which have been called the most " acrobatic " of the displays . A headfirst re @-@ entry is performed when a dolphin leaps entirely water and positions its back in a curve while it flips the tail to land back in the water head @-@ first . " Humping " is similar , except the snout and tail remain in the water when the dolphin is the arch . Leaps , head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , and spins are often done over and over again . Young dusky dolphins apparently are not born with the ability to perform the leaps and must learn to master each one . Calves appear to learn the leaps in this order : noisy leaps , head first re @-@ entries , coordinated leaps , and acrobatic leaps . Adults may perform different leaps in different contexts , and calves may independently learn how to perform leaps , but learn when to perform these when interacting others .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Status = = =
The dusky dolphin , protected in much of its range , is listed as Data Deficient by the IUCN because ; " ... assessment of global population status is not possible with the currently available estimates of abundance and removals . The subpopulation off Peru has probably been overexploited , but present data do not allow estimation of present decline " . Dusky dolphins may fall victim to the small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile . The expansion of these fisheries could have started in Peru when the anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972 . Dolphins have also been caught in gill nets in New Zealand , but catches appear to have dropped since the 1970s and 1980s . In Peru , dusky dolphins are killed in large numbers ( 10 @.@ 000 @-@ 15 @.@ 000 per year ) and used as shark bait or for human consumption . The dolphins are also thought to have been harpooned off South Africa , but the numbers are not considered large .
The dusky dolphin is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co @-@ operation organised by tailored agreements .
= = = Mussel farming = = =
The effect of mussel farming on dusky dolphins has been studied in Admiralty Bay , New Zealand . Dusky dolphins are commonly seen in this area , which is also where the greatest density of farming activity is proposed . Apparently , dolphins rarely enter existing farms , and when they do , they usually swim quickly up the lanes and between rows of lines and floats .
= = = Tourism = = =
Dusky dolphins are popular attractions for whale @-@ watching tours . Since 1997 , dolphin @-@ watching activities have increased in Patagonia , with dusky dolphins ( along with Commerson 's dolphins ) as the target species . Tourists interested in seeing dusky dolphins grew from 1 @,@ 393 in 1997 to 1 @,@ 840 in 2000 . Encounters with dolphins increased from 25 % during 1999 to 90 % in 2001 . Dolphin watching in this areas started as an alternative to whale watching , which was mostly based on that of the southern right whale . Dusky dolphin watching is also popular in New Zealand , whose dolphin @-@ watching industry begin in the late 1980s , as a side attraction to sperm whale watching . Whale and dolphin watching tours have grown with around 75 permitted dolphin tour operators . New Zealand has several locations to view and swim with dusky dolphins , notably in Kaikoura and Marlborough Sounds .
While dusky dolphin tourism is a larger industry in New Zealand than it is in Argentina , the effects of tourism on the dolphins seem to be lower in the former than the latter . New Zealand tours are operated under permits , and are limited in number and have conditions and guidelines related to approach procedures and swim operations . By contrast , no direct regulation of dolphin watching is done in Argentina . As such , dolphin activities are often disturbed by touring vessels .
= = = General = = =
Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals . Perrin , W. F. , Wursig , B and J. G.M. Thewissen . , editors . ( 2008 ) Academic Press ; 2nd edition , ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373553 @-@ X
The Dusky Dolphin : Master Acrobat off Different Shores . Würsig , B. , and Würsig , M. , editors . ( 2010 ) Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373723 @-@ 0 .
Whales , Dolphins and . Porpoises , K. S , Norris. editor , ( 1977 ) University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 03283 @-@ 7
Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans . Thomas , J. ; Kastelein , R. , editors . ( 1990 ) Plenum Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 43695 @-@ 7 .
Cetacean Societies . Mann , J. , editor . ( 2000 ) University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 50341 @-@ 0 .
= Bellaire , Texas =
Bellaire is a city in southwest Harris County , Texas , United States , within the Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown metropolitan area . As of the 2010 U.S. Census , the city population was 16 @,@ 855 and is surrounded by the cities of Houston and West University Place .
Bellaire is known as the " City of Homes , " owing to its mostly residential character ; however , there are offices along the 610 Loop within the city limits .
= = History = =
Bellaire was founded in 1908 by William Wright Baldwin , who was the president of the South End Land Company . Baldwin , a native of Iowa , was well known as the vice president of the Burlington Railroad . Bellaire was founded on what was part of William Marsh Rice 's 9 @,@ 449 acres ( 38 @.@ 24 km2 ) ranch . Baldwin surveyed the eastern 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of the ranch into small truck farms . He named those farms " Westmoreland Farms " . Baldwin started Bellaire in the middle of " Westmoreland Farms " to serve as a residential neighborhood and an agricultural trading center . South End Land Company advertised to farmers in the Midwestern United States . Baldwin stated that the town was named " Bellaire " , or " Good Air " for its breezes " . Bellaire may have been named after Bellaire , Ohio , a town served by one of Baldwin 's rail lines .
Six miles of prairie was a buffer zone between Houston and Bellaire . Originally the town was bounded by Palmetto , First , Jessamine , and Sixth ( now Ferris ) Streets . In 1910 Edward Teas , a horticulturist , moved his nursery to Bellaire from Missouri so Teas could implement Sid Hare 's landscaping plans . Bellaire was incorporated as a city with a general charter in 1918 , ten years after its founding . Bellaire had a population of 200 at the time . Because of the 1918 incorporation , Houston did not incorporate Bellaire 's territory into its city limits , while Houston annexed surrounding areas that were unincorporated .
Bellaire 's population had reached 1 @,@ 124 in 1940 . After 1940 , Bellaire had a rapid population explosion in the post @-@ World War II building boom . On December 31 , 1948 , the city of Houston had annexed the land around the city of Bellaire , stopping the city of Bellaire 's land growth . Bellaire remained independent of Houston ; Bellaire adopted a home rule charter with a council @-@ manager government in April 1949 . By 1950 the city 's residents had numbered 10 @,@ 150 . Bellaire High School was established in 1955 .
According to a Bellaire resident quoted in the Houston Post , prior to 1992 , the tax base of the city of Bellaire had been decreasing . After neighbor West University Place eased restrictions on developers , new houses were constructed in West University Place , and the city gained a larger tax base . Bellaire decided to also liberalize its development restrictions to allow for new development by streamlining its no @-@ growth building permit process . According to Karl Lewis , a vice president and sales manager at John Daugherty Realtors , when the prices of West University Place land reached about $ 20 per square foot , area home buyers began to consider Bellaire , which had an average price of $ 10 – 12 per square foot . Don Stowers of the Houston Press said that Bellaire and West University Place had " comparable " attributes such as independent fire and police departments , zoning , recreation facilities and parks , and schools " among the best in Houston . " Michael Blum , president of Blum & Associates Realty , said " Bellaire is a bargain . " Blum added that Bellaire was affordable compared to similar American neighborhoods and that Bellaire had proximity to business districts , " excellent " municipal services , and " superior " schools . Affluent families increasingly moved to Bellaire . The price of an average house in Bellaire increased from $ 75 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 from 1986 to 2006 .
In 2002 the City of Bellaire attempted to acquire all or part of the 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) Teas Nursery , Bellaire 's oldest business and the oldest nursery in Greater Houston , for park development . The company fought the city 's take @-@ over attempt . During that year the owners of Teas sold 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) at the rear of the property to Lovett Homes , a home developer . Frank Liu , the owner of Lovett Homes , said that it had an option to buy the remaining 5 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) . When the City of Bellaire denied a replat application sent by Teas Nursery , in June 2002 the nursery filed a lawsuit against the city and its zoning commission . In 2005 the lawsuit was settled out of court .
During the Hurricane Rita evacuation , a bus filled with residents from Brighton Gardens , a nursing home in Bellaire , caught on fire and exploded in the city of Wilmer . The September 23 , 2005 , explosion killed 24 people out of the 38 residents and employees in the bus . The resulting lawsuit was settled in June 2009 . On March 23 , 2008 , a tour bus carrying Tejano singer Emilio Navaira crashed in Bellaire . By 2008 , an increasing number of houses sold for over $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
On December 31 , 2008 , Bellaire police officers confronted Robbie Tolan , the son of former Major League Baseball player Bobby Tolan , in the driveway of his house at the 800 block of Woodstock . Officers suspected Tolan , who was unarmed , of stealing a sports utility vehicle in the driveway and shot Tolan in the chest ; Tolan 's family owned the vehicle . Tolan was hospitalized with injuries to one lung and a liver . The incident sparked allegations of racial profiling . Members of minority groups reported that Bellaire police racially profiled people . In 2002 , José Cruz , Jr . , son of baseball player José Cruz , was stopped since his vehicle was missing a front license plate . He was arrested by Bellaire police and spent one night in jail after Bellaire law enforcement told him that he had a warrant for his arrest . The Houston Chronicle said that the Bellaire police decision to arrest Cruz was a mistake . In January 2009 , Cruz accused the police of racial profiling . Mayor Cindy Siegel said that she was unaware of racial profiling by police . Siegel announced that the city will investigate racial profiling and hire an independent consultant to look at traffic stop data . The local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) branch said that it established a pact with the City of Bellaire ; people may report civil rights violations from Bellaire Police to the branch if the people do not wish to contact the City of Bellaire . However , the NAACP branch has not yet provided the city with any civil rights violations . On April 6 , 2009 , a Harris County grand jury indicted Sergeant Jeffrey Cotton , the police officer , for aggravated assault by a public servant . If convicted , Cotton could face up to life in prison . In addition the family sued the police department and the police officer . The upcoming trial in Harris County District Court on criminal felony charges against Cotton began on January 25 , 2010 . Jury selection was scheduled to begin on May 3 , 2010 . The officer was found not guilty in his criminal trial in May 2010 .
Teas Nursery closed in 2010 ; the company president , Tom Teas , intended for the property to be redeveloped into single @-@ family houses . The Teas Nursery business was either going to move to a new location or be liquidated . In December the Rubenstein family bought the Teas property ; the family planned to donate it to the City of Bellaire for community purposes . The Teas property has two historic buildings . Scott Rubenstein , who handled negotiations for the Rubenstein family , described the Teas lot as " the last largely undeveloped tract in the city and , frankly , in the inner loop of the city of Houston where you can do something that can be used by people from all around the city . " Mayor of Bellaire Cindy Seigel said " I am just thrilled we ’ ll be able to preserve a historical property that is an important piece of Bellaire ’ s history . "
In January 2010 Siegel announced that she would oppose a plan to locate a permanent , privately funded Houston Dynamo stadium at the intersection of South Rice and Westpark , near Bellaire . In April 2010 it was announced that the Dynamo stadium , now known as BBVA Compass Stadium , would be built in East Downtown Houston .
= = Geography and climate = =
Bellaire is located at 29 ° 42 ′ 11 ″ N 95 ° 28 ′ 06 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) , all of it land .
The city is surrounded by Houston , West University Place , and Southside Place .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Bellaire 's housing lots are 75 feet ( 23 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) , allowing for houses larger than those that could be built on typical 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 120 feet ( 37 m ) West University Place lots . A Bellaire lot can accommodate a house with a detached garage and a swimming pool , while the typical West University Place lot could accommodate a newly constructed Georgian house described by Don Stowers of the Houston Post as " lot @-@ hugging . " The more spacious and inexpensive housing lots prompted area home seekers to consider Bellaire .
The original Bellaire housing stock typically consisted of 3 bedroom , 1 bathroom post @-@ World War II houses described by Stowers as " smallish . " Because of the attributes , developers did not hesitate to tear these houses down and build new houses . Some individuals chose to renovate their houses instead of having them torn down . Many individuals who would otherwise renovate the houses reconsidered their decisions as the land value increased . In some cases the land value was higher than the value of the structure on the lot . Some subdivisions had larger houses , particularly the Carroll subdivision south of Bellaire Boulevard and the Braeburn Country Club Estates subdivision between Chimney Rock and Rice . Many of the houses in those subdivisions were built in the 1950s and early 1960s , and many were on .5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) lots . Karl Lewis , the vice president and sales manager of John Daugherty Realtors , said that many of the houses were " still quite attractive " and " similar to the large Tanglewood homes . " In 1992 smaller lots in Bellaire were about $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 84313 @.@ 49 in today 's money ) and up , while larger lots were $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 505880 @.@ 96 in today 's money ) to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 843134 @.@ 93 in today 's money ) .
In a 2007 Houston Press article John Nova Lomax , a journalist , said that parts of Bellaire 's downtown had " a certain raffish 1950s charm – the Bellaire Broiler Burger , for example – but it ’ s boring . " Lomax stated in a 2008 Houston Press article that , due to the growth and dominance of Houston , municipal enclaves with their own services , including Bellaire , " are little more than glorified neighborhoods . "
Many Bellaire streets , such as " Holly , " " Holt , " " Maple , " and " Pine , " are named after trees . The word " Holt " means a small grove or a forest of trees .
One community in Bellaire , South dale , was developed by William G. Farmington , the developer of Tanglewood . South dale was originally developed in the late 1940s with two bedroom houses . The houses were marketed to World War II veterans . The houses were about four times less expensive than the around $ 25 @,@ 000 @-@ each ( $ 246225 @.@ 76 in today 's money ) Tangle wood houses . Another subdivision in Bellaire is named " Broad Acres . "
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 16 @,@ 855 people , 6 @,@ 053 households , and 4 @,@ 688 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 319 @.@ 0 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 668 @.@ 3 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 72 @.@ 6 % non @-@ Hispanic White , 1 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 14 @.@ 1 % Asian , and 2 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino people of any race comprised 9 @.@ 5 % of the population .
There were 6 @,@ 053 households out of which 44 @.@ 2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 67 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together ( 56 @.@ 1 % of which had children ) , 7 @.@ 2 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 22 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 19 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 78 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 21 .
In the city the population was spread out with 31 @.@ 3 % under the age of 19 , 5 @.@ 6 % from 20 to 29 , 10 @.@ 6 % from 30 to 39 , 17 @.@ 2 % from 40 to 49 , 24 @.@ 9 % from 50 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 41 @.@ 6 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 6 males .
= = Government and infrastructure = =
= = = Local government = = =
Bellaire currently has a city manager style of government . The home rule government was established on April 2 , 1949 , replacing the general law form of government . The city council is made up of the mayor and six city council members . All are elected at large . The mayor is elected for two @-@ year terms , while each city council member is elected for four @-@ year terms . The mayor may not serve for more than four terms in that position . A council members may have no more than two terms as a city council member . Bellaire has zoning ordinances that dictate types of structures and uses throughout sections of the city . As of 2015 , the mayor is Dr. Phil Nauert . The six council members are , in order of position , Roman F. Reed ( 1 ) , Jim Avioli , Sr. ( 2 ) , Gus Pappas ( 3 ) , Pat McLaughlan ( 4 ) , Andrew S. Friedberg ( 5 ) , and Mandy Nathan ( 6 ) .
The Bellaire Fire Department is housed at 5101 Jessamine Street . The fire station includes two fire engines ( a main engine and a volunteer / backup engine ) , two medic units ( a main medic unit and a backup unit ) , an on shift commander vehicle , a vehicle for each the chief and assistant chief , a cascade unit , and a hazardous materials trailer . The fire department operates the Citizens Fire Academy , a fire and life safety program for Bellaire citizens held on Wednesdays and Saturdays . The old fire station was demolished on December 4 , 2009 , with demolition continuing on Monday December 7 , 2009 , and operations are temporarily relocated at the Chevron building . A new fire station was scheduled to in the location of the previous fire station . The groundbreaking for the new station was held on December 17 , 2009 .
The Bellaire Police Department is housed at 5110 Jessamine Street . As of 2008 the Chief of Police is Byron Holloway . The police department 's patrol division , the organization 's largest division , includes patrol , detention , motorcycle , and bicycle units . The support services division includes court , records , and communications divisions . The police department offers the " House Watch Program , " where interested residents allow police to check their houses while they are away on vacation .
= = = = Local politics = = = =
Zoning and land use controversies , common throughout Bellaire 's history , resulted in the 1977 recall of the mayor and three council members . The City of Bellaire voted against banning smoking in bars and restaurants on Monday January 15 , 2007 . Mayor Cindy Siegel and Pat McLaughlan , one council member , voted for the ban , while the other five members , including Peggy Faulk , voted against the ban . The National Restaurant Association asked Bellaire to consider adopting a smoking ban to put it in sync with the City of Houston , which adopted a similar ordinance in 2005 . In December 2009 the city voted to ban texting while driving . Bans of texting while driving were passed in Bellaire and West University | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Houston , described as a school that was " unacceptable " to Bellaire residents since it was less than 10 % white . McAdams added that even with the new program , to many parents in Bellaire , Long was " never going to be acceptable " due to the overwhelming Hispanic presence . Therefore , there was a proposal to convert Gordon into a small middle school for Bellaire . The school would have space for about 500 students and would be at least 50 % White , so it was popular among many Bellaire residents , particularly those outside of the 610 Loop . However those inside the 610 Loop did not want to lose access to Pershing , a full service middle school that was about 40 % White . An attendance boundary committee for at HISD met from December 1992 to March 1993 . McAdams wrote that the committee was " an all @-@ out war " between the two sides . In February 1993 pro @-@ Gordon persons argued that HISD should purchase a commercial building north of Long and renovate it into an elementary school which would relieve Gordon Elementary and other overcrowded are schools . McAdams wrote that the staff members of HISD superintendent Frank Petruzielo " liked the idea , but unfortunately , on close examination the building proved to be inadequate . " In April 1993 the HISD board declared that the Gordon campus would continue to be an elementary school . McAdams wrote that the Gordon supporters and many Bellaire residents were " furious " .
= = = Primary and secondary private schools = = =
Three independent ( private ) schools , including Episcopal High School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) , The Post Oak School ( Montessori K @-@ 8 ) , and the Veritas Christian Academy ( K @-@ 8 ) , are located in Bellaire . Episcopal High School opened in fall 1984 ; its campus previously housed Marion High School and the Congregation of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament , a Roman Catholic school operated by the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament and within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston . The current campus of The Post Oak School opened in 1986 ; the school had been previously housed in the Gordon Elementary School campus . Pilgrim Lutheran School is located just south of Bellaire on Chimney Rock Road . Holy Ghost School , a Catholic private K @-@ 8 school , is located in Houston and adjacent to the Bellaire city limits . Private schools near Bellaire in areas of Houston include Saint Agnes Academy , Strake Jesuit College Preparatory , St. Francis Episcopal Day School ( Texas ) , and St. Thomas ' Episcopal School .
= = = Community colleges = = =
Bellaire is served by the Houston Community College System ( HCCS ) . The community college district operates the HCCS Gulfton Center , located at 5407 Gulfton Drive in the Gulfton area of Houston . Gulfton Center , a 35 @,@ 100 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 260 m2 ) campus building owned by HCCS , opened in 1990 after Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Co. sold the building to HCCS for $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1990 dollars ) . The West Loop Center , an HCCS @-@ owned campus at 5601 West Loop South which opened in Spring 1999 , is in Houston and in close proximity to Bellaire . Both the Gulfton and West Loop campuses are part of the district 's Southwest College .
= = = Public libraries = = =
The city of Bellaire also operates its own library , the Bellaire City Library , at 5111 Jessamine Street . The Friends of the Bellaire Library , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit organization , was established in 1951 to support the City of Bellaire Library .
= = Media = =
The Houston Chronicle is the area regional newspaper . Residents receive the Bellaire / West U / River Oaks / Meyerland local section .
The Village News and Southwest News is the oldest local paper currently published in Bellaire ; offices are at 5160 Spruce Street . The Bellaire Examiner is a newspaper also distributed free to residents . The Bellaire Buzz is a monthly magazine about people , products and services in the community . It is mailed free of charge to all residents the first week of each month . BellaireConnect.com is a community web site for Bellaire and its surrounding neighborhoods . InstantNewsBellaire.com is an online newspaper covering the Bellaire community . Bellaire Essentials is an informational community magazine that is delivered monthly to all homes in the city .
= = Notable people = =
José Cruz , Jr .
Ezra Charles
= = Gallery = =
= Alien Spidy =
Alien Spidy is a platformer video game for Microsoft Windows , Macintosh , Xbox 360 ( through Xbox Live Arcade ) , and PlayStation 3 ( through PlayStation Network ) . It was developed by Enigma Software Productions and published by Kalypso Media . Players control an extraterrestrial spider who has crash @-@ landed on Earth , as he seeks to repair his spacecraft and rescue a fellow extraterrestrial spider .
Announced on 8 November 2011 , Alien Spidy was published on 20 March 2013 for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh , and on 8 May 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . It received mixed to negative reviews upon release ; critics praised the game 's aesthetics but found the gameplay frustrating due to imprecise controls and an unforgiving level of difficultly that hampered progression through the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien Spidy is a physics @-@ based platformer video game . Players control the eponymous Spidy , an extraterrestrial spider , and navigate him through a series of levels that are filled with deadly obstacles . Spidy can run and jump , and has the ability to shoot a web , allowing him to grapple and swing from object to object within the environment . Interspersed throughout each level are a large number of orbs , which Spidy can collect to score points . Finishing the level quickly , collecting a large number of orbs , collecting several orbs in quick succession , and finding score multipliers all increase the player 's score for that level . Players can also lose points by dying , collecting certain orbs that decrease the player 's score , or going for too long without collecting an orb . Players earn between one and five stars on each level , based on their score . Levels are grouped into several stages , including a forest , a pond , a cave system , and outer @-@ space . In order to progress from one stage to the next , players must collect a certain number of stars . Players can collect special power @-@ up orbs scattered throughout levels . These orbs allow Spidy to perform feats he is otherwise incapable of , including traveling underwater and jumping to extreme heights . There are 69 levels in the game , and most of them take between 90 seconds and three minutes .
= = = Plot = = =
Alien Spidy has a minimal plot . The story follows the Spidy , a spider from the planet Aracnia , who has crash @-@ landed on Earth during an attempt to rescue a lady spider , Virgi . Spidy must locate Virgi and collect pieces of his spacecraft in order to return to Aracnia .
= = Development = =
On 8 November 2011 , the game was announced in a press release , with Enigma Software Productions as the developer and Kalypso Media as the publisher . The press release indicated that the game would be released in the second quarter of 2012 .
Alien Spidy was advertised as a PlayStation Vita game early in its development history , with Sony using gameplay footage of the game on the Vita at a presentation at Gamescom 2011 . The game was never released on that platform , however . In an interview , Enigma Software CEO Daniel Parente claimed that the game was developed for all major platforms , and after bringing Kalypso Media on board as a publisher , the latter chose which platforms to release the game on , and when . The project manager at Kalypso Media for Alien Spidy , Andrew McKerrow , noted that the developer attempted to secure a publisher by pitching the game on a large number of platforms . In a separate interview with Daniel Parente , conducted in October 2012 , Enigma Software 's CEO called the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 the game 's lead platforms , stating that the game was " designed to be played with a gamepad " .
It took eight months for Enigma to build the physics behind the web @-@ based grapple and swing game mechanic . During early builds of the game , the motion was slower , but the development team sped up the movement , feeling it was truer to the character . The Sonic the Hedgehog series served as an inspiration for the game 's pace . Significant effort was put into creating the game 's visual style and making Spidy a relatable , charismatic character . Daniel Parente cited Limbo , Braid , and Patapon as influences for the game 's aesthetics . Comics and cartoons served as influences for Spidy 's design . The character was given a pair of large yellow eyes , which allowed the character to emote . Two of the legs were removed , bringing the total from eight to six , which Andrew McKerrow described as an effort to avoid triggering the fears of people with arachnophobia and " make the character a little more friendly looking and little less creepy " . It was only after making these changes to Spidy that the developers decided to make Spidy an extraterrestrial , as that would justify the character design 's deviations from regular spiders .
The game was delayed several times . In August 2012 , the website XBLA Fans reported that the game would be delayed into the fall of that year . By October , a preview on the gaming website Twinfinite listed the release date as 31 December 2012 . The game was released on the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh on 20 March 2013 , and was released on the PlayStation 3 on 8 May 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Alien Spidy received mixed to negative reviews upon release . At Metacritic , a video game review aggregator , the Xbox 360 version of the game received an average score of 55 out of 100 , based on 19 reviews .
The game 's visuals were praised by reviewers . GamesRadar 's Lorenzo Veloria opined that " Adorable characters , beautiful visuals , and upbeat music stand out as the high points of Alien Spidy " . A large number of reviewers called the game and its characters " cute " . While a few of the reviewers praised the game 's music , Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found that it lacked staying power . He noted , however , that the music could be muted without also muting the sound effects , allowing people to play their own music .
Critics near universally took issue with the game 's controls . Critics found that the webs that they shot did not go where they wanted them to go , and multiple reviewers described navigation as " trial and error " . Reviewers also found that they could not always jump when they wanted to , and one reviewer found that power @-@ ups failed to activate when she wanted them to . Reviewers also complained that it was extremely difficult to get enough stars to progress from one stage to the next , forcing players to replay the same levels over and over again . Because points are subtracted each time Spidy dies , the problems with the control scheme exacerbate how difficult it is to get enough stars to progress .
Opinions on the game 's mid @-@ level checkpoint system were mixed . Matt Cullen of Canadian Online Gaming noted that the checkpoints meant that players were not sent too far back into the level after each death , saving time . Official Xbox Magazine 's Taylor Cocke , however , noted that the checkpoints save players ' point progress , meaning that players would have to start the level over if their performance wasn 't good enough before they reached the checkpoint .
= Australian raven =
The Australian raven ( Corvus coronoides ) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia . Measuring 46 – 53 centimetres ( 18 – 21 in ) in length , it has all @-@ black plumage , beak and mouth , as well as strong grey @-@ black legs and feet . The upperparts are glossy , with a purple , blue or green sheen , and its black feathers have grey bases . The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles , which are prominent in adult birds . Older adult individuals have white irises , younger adults have a white irises with an inner blue rim , while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age , and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827 , its species name highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow ( C. corone ) . Two subspecies are recognised , which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically .
The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones . It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney , Canberra and Perth . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material , as well as food waste from urban areas . In eastern Australia its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep , and it has been blamed for killing lambs . However , this is very rare , and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces . The Australian raven is territorial , with pairs generally bonding for life . Breeding takes place between July and September , with almost no variation across its range . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree , or occasionally in a man @-@ made structure such as a windmill or other building .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , when they reported George Caley 's early notes on the species from the Sydney district . Its specific epithet coronoides " crow @-@ shaped " is derived from the Greek corone / κορόνη " crow " and eidos / είδος " shape " or " form " . The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow ( C. corone ) of Europe , though they noted it was larger with a longer bill . They did not give it a common name . The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded , but thought to be in the Parramatta district . Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845 , later determined to be this species . In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia , John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia , Corvus australis , which he called the white @-@ eyed crow . He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin 's 1788 name , which predated Vigors and Horsfield 's description . In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species , but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white . He named C. coronoides as the " crow " and C. australis ( as Corone australis ) the " raven " . Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie @-@ Grant corrected this in 1912 after re @-@ examining the type specimen , clarifying the species as C. coronoides ( raven , and incorporating little and forest ravens ) and C. cecilae ( Torresian crow ) .
Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912 , naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies . He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow , listing its range as New South Wales , and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies , C. coronoides cecilae , calling it the north @-@ western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia . In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae , with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales . He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies . Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied ; French @-@ American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym — in 1788 , Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird — to preserve the stability of the name . This has been followed by later authors .
German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species , C. coronoides , as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour , colour of feather bases and plumage . This was hotly disputed by Mathews . The official RAOU checklist listed three species ( Australian raven , Torresian crow and little crow ) , with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970 . Streseman described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen , now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven / Torresian crow hybrid .
Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven , southern crow and Kelly , the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang , though did not appear until the 1920s . Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926 . The term " crow " is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid . The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin .
= = = Evolution and systematics = = =
The Australian raven 's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia : the little raven and forest raven . The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow , although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species . Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another . The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven , though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed . Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades , almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other . This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species .
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north , which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago . The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west , this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene . As the climate became cooler and dryer , the aridity of central Australia split them entirely . Furthermore , the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and , in forested refuges , forest ravens . As the climate eventually became warmer , the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia . Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens .
Two subspecies are recognised :
C. c. coronoides , the nominate or eastern subspecies , is found across most of eastern Australia . Its range is also highly correlated with the presence of sheep . This is thought to be because of the frequency of dead animals , which can be an important source of food . Ornithologist Ian Rowley held that the eastern subspecies was expanding eastwards before European colonisation , and that this suggested it was of younger origin than the western subspecies , which appears static . The advent of agriculture facilitated further spread .
C. c. perplexus , the western subspecies , occurs from the head of the Great Australian Bight in South Australia westwards into Western Australia where its northern limits are Shark Bay and the mulga @-@ eucalypt boundary line . It is less specialised in its habitat , as it does not share its distribution with the little raven , and does not appear to correlate with the range of sheep . The western subspecies has a slightly lower @-@ pitched call than that of the eastern subspecies , with similarities to calls of the little raven . Of smaller size overall , it has a more slender bill and shorter hackles . There is otherwise no difference in plumage . Intermediate birds are found in the Eyre Peninsula , Gawler Ranges and vicinity of Lake Eyre in South Australia .
= = Description = =
Measuring 46 – 53 cm ( 18 – 21 in ) in length with a 100 cm ( 39 in ) wingspan and weighing around 650 g ( 1 @.@ 43 lb ) , the adult Australian raven is an all black @-@ bird with a black beak , mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey @-@ black legs and feet . The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long , and the feet large and strong . It has white irises . The plumage is glossy with a blue @-@ purple to blue @-@ green sheen , greenish over the ear coverts , depending on light . The underparts are not glossy . The Australian raven has throat feathers ( hackles ) that are lanceolate with rounded tips , while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips , though this can be difficult to see in the field . The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species ; when they are raised ( such as when the bird is calling ) , they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance . The upper third of the upper mandible , including the nares and nasal groove , is covered with bristles , which can be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . The heavy @-@ set beak is tipped with a slight hook , and is longer than the bird 's head . The wings are long and broad , with the longest of its ten primary feathers ( usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth ) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest . The tail is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped . The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers , which is white in the latter species . The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows . Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field , but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled . Unlike the other four species , the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under , and extending to beside , the bill . This can be hard to discern in the field . The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species , with the forest raven the stockiest of all . Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side , as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small .
Juveniles resemble adults , but lack throat hackles , and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape . The bill is shorter and shallower ; its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey . The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance , lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge . The bare skin on the throat is pink in bird that have recently left the nest . Eye colour varies with age , gradually lightening from juvenile to adult . Nestlings up to four months old have blue @-@ grey irises , juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises , and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Immature birds older than one year develop hackles , while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow , high ah @-@ ah @-@ aaaah with the last note drawn out . It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area . When giving this call , the species has a horizontal posture , holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground , while perched on a prominent position . It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail , and sometimes holds its beak open between calls . In contrast , the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture . This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven 's territory . The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart , with the call being the easiest way to do so , although the drawing @-@ out of the final note — long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven — has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic .
The volume , pitch , tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey . There are a variety of contact calls : a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting , and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest . Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging . Birds in flocks make a single high @-@ pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through . An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflexion to signify its return to the nest to its mate .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia , and southern Western Australia ( the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain ) , but it is rarer and more scattered in the north , with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen , Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River , and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland . It is found throughout New South Wales , though is uncommon in the northeast of the state . It is rare in the Australian Alps , being replaced there by the little raven . It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia , through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia , across the state north to the Wooramel River . It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island and Kangaroo Island . It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island .
The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats . It requires available water and trees ( or buildings ) to roost in or perch on . Preferred habitats include eucalypt @-@ dominated sclerophyll forest , and farmland adjacent to trees . It is also found in heath and mangroves . In areas where it occurs with the little raven , namely over much of central New South Wales , Victoria and into South Australia , the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas . Similarly , in inland Australia it can share range with the little crow , as the two do not appear to compete . However , the ranges of similar @-@ sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other . In central and western regions , Australian ravens and Torresian crows vye for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops , and only one or the other are found there . It co @-@ occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards . The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra , Sydney and Perth ; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven , and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane . Its large range , abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Behaviour = =
Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements . The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary , with most movement of over 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) due to flocks of non @-@ breeding subadult birds . Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old . Smaller flocks of 8 – 30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres , while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food .
A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around 120 hectares ( 300 acres ) and remains there year @-@ round , though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage . Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing , dive @-@ bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey , foxes or even people . They generally mate for life , though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories . If the female dies , the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate , while if the male bird is lost , the female abandons the territory . No courtship behaviour has been observed , and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays . Once they begin breeding at three years of age , they live another four to five years on average . During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average . The longest @-@ lived Australian raven recorded is an adult ( of at least 3 years of age ) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later .
Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground , though do hop when hurrying . They preen themselves frequently , particularly when roosting in the middle of the day . They also engage in allopreening , where birds will preen each other 's head and neck . This takes place particularly in autumn , winter and spring , and is important in pair bonding . Either member may initiate it , generally by landing near the other bird , shuffling next to its mate , then bending its head forward and presenting its nape .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Australian raven is omnivorous , though eats more meat than smaller corvids . Its diet in summer contains a high proportion of insects , while more plant items are eaten in autumn . Flesh makes up over half its diet in winter . Invertebrates commonly eaten include spiders , millipedes , centipedes ( which ravens behead before eating ) , grasshoppers , cicadas and caterpillars ( especially of the family Noctuidae ) , which are important in feeding nestlings . Australian ravens sometimes eat yabbies ( Cherax destructor ) from the edges of dams . Unusually for a ground @-@ feeding omnivore , earthworms are rarely eaten . Australian ravens have been reported killing birds of such size as young galahs ( Eolophus roseicapillus ) and starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) . Most mammals are eaten as carrion , as many species are too large for the raven to kill , though young rabbits are a frequent prey item . Australian ravens drink water frequently , up to ten times a day in hot weather . Birds have been observed dunking pieces of meat in water before eating them , as well as doing the same with hard biscuits to make them soggy and soft .
Australian ravens are intelligent birds , and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food . Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon ; birds rest in the hotter part of the day . Food is taken mainly from the ground , birds either finding objects while flying overhead , or by walking along and looking . However , they occasionally feed in trees — Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles ( Anoplognathus ) , and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat . They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways , possibly mistaking them for eggs . Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground ( rocks or sticks ) over , or hold or snatch food while flying . They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them . Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings . Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it . They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue . Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas , such as school playgrounds , rubbish tips , bins outside supermarkets or restaurants , abattoirs , piggeries and farmyards . In one isolated study , they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers . Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed @-@ species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids . Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off , though not if the smaller species greatly outnumbers the larger .
= = = Breeding = = =
Australian ravens begin breeding once they are three years old . Breeding season is from July to September , with no substantial difference in timing across its range around the country despite it inhabiting a range of diverse climates and habitats across 19 degrees of latitude . Rowley has pointed out this is unusual for a bird species with a wide range and has postulated that breeding is initiated by day length . Rarely , breeding can take place in May , June or October . Australian ravens generally nest in tall trees , never near to the ground as some species do . The nest also functions as a lookout post and so tall or emergent trees are selected . The ravens occasionally nest on buildings , telegraph poles , or tall windmills which allow the species to occupy areas lacking in tall trees . Windmills may have assisted the spread of the species in North Queensland and the Northern Territory . The highest recorded corvid nest in Australia was found atop the AWA Tower in Sydney .
Nests are generally large and untidy , consisting of a bowl or platform of sticks lined with grasses , barks , and feathers that can be up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . As they are relatively heavy , they are built on larger forks in trees rather than out in the canopy . Building the nest is often time @-@ consuming initially as the birds try ( and often fail ) to wedge sticks , which are 30 – 60 cm ( 12 – 24 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) thick , into the tree fork to make a platform . Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers . Both birds build the nest , with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material . New nests are built each year generally , as the re @-@ use of old ones might spread disease or parasites — nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal . Furthermore , old nests often disintegrate within twelve months due to their exposed locations . The female develops a brood patch — a patch of bare skin on the bird 's underparts that reddens and becomes much more extensive from around three weeks before the first egg is laid . The skin itself is oedematous and wrinkled , and does not get re @-@ feathered until December after the breeding season has finished .
Their lofty locations makes monitoring of Australian raven nests difficult . A clutch can comprise up to six eggs , though usually four or five are laid , with five being the commonest number . Measuring 45 by 30 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 by 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , eggs are pale green or bluish @-@ green and splotched with darker olive , brown and blackish markings . Eggs are quite variable , and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified . Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female over roughly 20 days . Incubation is intermittent initially , becoming constant by the time the third or fourth egg is laid . Only one brood is raised per year , though a second clutch may be laid if the first clutch is lost early in the season . Late clutches have poor survival rates , possibly due to chicks getting dehydrated on hot days as the year progresses or being eaten by wedge @-@ tailed eagles . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless , naked and blind , and remain in the nest for an extended period . They have pink skin until 5 days of age , when feathers under the skin turn it grey . They lose their egg tooth at the same time . Their eyes begin opening at 5 to 6 days of age and are fully open by 11 to 12 days , by which time their feathers begin emerging . At 14 days , their primary feathers begin emerging , and they are fully feathered by 35 – 36 days old . They leave the nest at 40 – 45 days of age , and stay with the parents for three to four months after that . They follow their parents and beg for food for the first month outside the nest but are feeding themselves by the third month . Young birds are often attacked when they enter neighbouring territories , and melees ensue as their parents try to defend them and herd them back .
= = = Parasites and predators = = =
A circovirus — given the name raven circovirus or RaCV — was isolated from an Australian raven suffering from feather lesions in 2006 . It has affinities with canary circovirus ( CaCV ) and pigeon circovirus ( PiCV ) . Its clinical significance is unknown . Tick infestation is rare in the Australian raven , with Ixodes holocyclus and Amblyomma triguttatum recorded . Lice and hippoboscid flies have been recorded yet little @-@ researched , and an infestation by the fly Passeromyia longicornis was recorded in one nest .
The wedge @-@ tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) preys on adult , nestling , and fledgling Australian ravens , while the little eagle ( Hieraaetus morphnoides ) also takes nestlings , and powerful owl ( Ninox strenua ) has been recorded killing adults ; other birds of prey are seen as threats , yet there is no evidence they have successfully preyed on the ravens . The introduced red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) competes with the Australian raven for carrion and can drive it off . It may also kill young birds that it catches on the ground . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) has been recorded as a brood parasite .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Australian ravens die most often by being shot or poisoned — generally by farmers . Despite their fondness for roadkill , fewer ravens are hit by vehicles than Australian magpies . Research in the 1950s and 60s showed that 64 % of Australian ravens perished in their first year of life . Immature birds are most at risk of dying as they are more likely to come into conflict with farmers . The Australian Raven is a peaceful bird , showing no aggression toward humans or other birds without reason . However , the Australian raven is frequently blamed for the loss of young lambs . Scientific observation in the country 's southeast showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare , but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked . Australian ravens mostly eat faeces ( often from the lamb 's anus ) , afterbirth or stillborn lambs . Newborn lamb faeces is nutritious , containing around 21 – 44 % protein , 9 – 37 % fat and 10 – 30 % carbohydrate . It has the consistency of treacle and often sticks to the lamb 's hindquarters or tail . The raven bites a sleeping lamb 's tail , holding on and walking behind it when it wakes up . A healthy lamb would respond by running away or butting the bird , but a sick one might not respond and be attacked further as it alerts the bird that it is vulnerable . Wounded lambs can also succumb to Clostridium infection as these bacteria are present on raven bills . Ravens bring some benefits to agricultural areas as they clean away carrion and eat insects that are potentially damaging to crops . In areas of Western Australia , the species is classified as a Declared Pest of Agriculture under the provisions of the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976 , meaning that shooting on private land in rural areas is legal , although should be considered only after other options have been exhausted .
= = = In indigenous culture = = =
In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Crow is a trickster , culture hero and ancestral being . In the Kulin nation in central Victoria he was known as Waa ( also Wahn or Waang ) and was regarded as one of two moiety ancestors , the other being the more sombre eaglehawk Bunjil . Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia .
To the Noongar people of southwestern Australia , the Australian raven was Waardar , " the Watcher " and was wily and unpredictable . Noongar people were socially divided into two moieties or kinships : waardarng @-@ maat and marrnetj @-@ maat , or members of the Australian raven and long @-@ billed corella ( Cacatua tenuirostris ) respectively .
= Clifton Suspension Bridge =
The Clifton Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Avon Gorge and the River Avon , linking Clifton in Bristol to Leigh Woods in North Somerset . Since opening in 1864 , it has been a toll bridge . The income from the tolls continues to provide funds for its maintenance . The bridge is built to a design by William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw , based on an earlier design by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , and contributed to by Sarah Guppy . It is a grade I listed building and forms part of the B3129 road .
The idea of building a bridge across the Avon Gorge originated in 1753 . Original plans were for a stone bridge and later iterations were for a wrought iron structure . In 1831 , an attempt to build Brunel 's design was halted by the Bristol riots , and the revised version of his designs was built after his death and completed in 1864 . Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the three independent wrought iron chains on each side when loads pass over the bridge . The bridge deck is suspended by 162 vertical wrought @-@ iron rods in 81 matching pairs .
The Clifton Bridge Company initially managed the bridge under licence from a charitable trust . The trust subsequently purchased the company shares , completing this in 1949 and took over the running of the bridge using the income from tolls to pay for maintenance . The bridge is a distinctive landmark , used as a symbol of Bristol on postcards , promotional materials , and informational web sites . It was also used as a backdrop to several films and television advertising and programmes . It has also been the venue for significant cultural events such as the first modern bungee jump in 1979 , the last ever Concorde flight in 2003 and a handover of the Olympic Torch relay in 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Plans = = =
It is unknown when the first bridge was constructed across the Avon in Bristol , but the first stone bridge , Bristol Bridge , was built in the 13th century . It had houses with shopfronts built on it to pay for its maintenance . A 17th @-@ century illustration shows that these bridge houses were five stories high , including the attic rooms , and that they overhung the river much as Tudor houses would overhang the street . In the 1760s a bill to replace the bridge was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth . By the early 18th century , increase in traffic and the encroachment of shops on the roadway made the bridge fatally dangerous for many pedestrians . A new bridge , designed by James Bridges and finished by Thomas Paty was built in 1763 and 1768 . Resentment at the tolls exacted to cross the new bridge occasioned the Bristol Bridge Riot of 1793 . Other crossings were considered , but were restricted by Admiralty rules that stipulated that any bridge had to be at least 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the water to allow the passage of tall @-@ masted warships , to Bristol Harbour . To achieve this , any bridge constructed between Bristol Bridge and Avon Gorge , from Hotwells to Ashton Gate , would require massive embankments and viaducts . The alternative was to build across the narrowest point of the Avon Gorge , well above the height required for shipping .
In 1753 Bristolian merchant William Vick had left a bequest in his will of £ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 140 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , invested with instructions that when the interest had accumulated to £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 ) , it should be used for the purpose of building a stone bridge between Clifton Down ( which was in Gloucestershire , outside the City of Bristol , until the 1830s ) and Leigh Woods in Somerset . Although there was little development in the area before the late 18th century , as Bristol became more prosperous , Clifton became fashionable and more wealthy merchants moved to the area . In 1793 William Bridges published plans for a stone arch with abutments containing factories , which would pay for the upkeep of the bridge . The French Revolutionary Wars broke out soon after the design was published , affecting trade and commerce , so the plans were shelved . Sarah Guppy patented designs for a suspension bridge across the gorge which she later gave to Brunel .
By 1829 , Vick 's bequest had reached £ 8 @,@ 000 , but it was estimated that a stone bridge would cost over ten times that . A competition was held to find a design for the bridge with a prize of 100 guineas . Entries were received from 22 designers , including Samuel Brown , James Meadows Rendel , William Tierney Clark and William Hazledine . Several were for stone bridges and had estimated costs of between £ 30 @,@ 000 and £ 93 @,@ 000 . Brunel submitted four entries . The judging committee rejected 17 of the 22 plans submitted , on the grounds of appearance or cost . They then called in Scottish civil engineer Thomas Telford to make a final selection from the five remaining entries . Telford rejected all the remaining designs , arguing that 577 feet ( 176 m ) was the maximum possible span . Telford was then asked to produce a design himself , which he did , proposing a 110 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 34 m ) suspension bridge , supported on tall Gothic towers , costing £ 52 @,@ 000 .
An Act of Parliament was passed to allow a wrought iron suspension bridge to be built instead of stone , and tolls levied to recoup the cost . A company was formed and funds raised during the first few months of 1830 , but the money raised was not sufficient for the construction . Despite this , the act received Royal Assent in May 1830 . Brunel produced a new proposal costing £ 10 @,@ 000 less than Telford 's design and gained support for it in the local press . James Meadows Rendel , William Armstrong and William Hill also submitted new , cheaper proposals , complaining that the committee had not set a budget . In 1831 a second competition was held , with new judges including Davies Gilbert and John Seaward examining the engineering qualities of the proposals . Thirteen designs were submitted ; Telford 's was the only one in which the chains achieved the weight per square inch required by the judges but it was rejected as being too expensive . The winner was declared to be a design by Smith and Hawkes of the Eagle Foundry in Birmingham . Brunel had a personal meeting with Gilbert and persuaded him to change the decision . The committee then declared Brunel the winner and he was awarded a contract as project engineer . The winning design was for a suspension bridge with fashionably Egyptian @-@ influenced towers . In 2010 , newly discovered letters and documents revealed that , in producing his design , Brunel had taken advice from his father , Sir Marc Isambard Brunel . The elder Brunel had recommended including a central support for the bridge , as he did not believe a single @-@ span bridge of such length could be constructed . His son chose to ignore his advice .
= = = Construction = = =
A ceremony to mark the start of the construction works was held on 21 June 1831 . A few days later work was halted by the Bristol riots , which took place after the House of Lords rejected the second Reform Bill , which aimed to eliminate some of the rotten boroughs and give parliamentary seats to Britain 's fast growing industrial towns such as Bristol . Five hundred to six hundred young men were involved in the riots and Brunel was sworn in as a special constable . The riots severely dented commercial confidence in Bristol ; subscriptions to the bridge company ceased , and along with it , further construction of the bridge .
After the passing of the Act for the Great Western Railway reestablished financial confidence , work resumed in 1836 , but subsequent investment proved woefully inadequate . Despite the main contractors going bankrupt in 1837 , the towers were built in unfinished stone . To enable the transfer of materials , a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 300 m ) iron bar , which was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) in diameter , had been drawn by capstan across the gorge . A contract was placed with Dowlais Ironworks to supply 600 tons of bar iron , which was to be transported to the Copperhouse foundry to be forged into bar chains . By 1843 funds were exhausted and another £ 30 @,@ 000 was needed . As the work had exceeded the time limit stated in the Act , all work stopped . Brunel suggested building a deep water pier at Portbury , which would make the bridge an essential road link , but funds for this scheme were not forthcoming . In 1851 , the ironwork was sold and used to build the Brunel @-@ designed Royal Albert Bridge on the railway between Plymouth and Saltash . The towers remained and during the 1850s intrepid passengers could cross the gorge in a basket slung from the iron bar .
Brunel died in 1859 , without seeing the completion of the bridge . His colleagues in the Institution of Civil Engineers felt that completion of the Bridge would be a fitting memorial , and started to raise new funds . In 1860 , Brunel 's Hungerford suspension bridge over the Thames in London was demolished to make way for a new railway bridge to Charing Cross railway station . Its chains were purchased for use at Clifton .
A revised design was made by William Henry Barlow and Sir John Hawkshaw , with a wider , higher and sturdier deck than Brunel intended , with triple chains instead of double .
It has been argued that the size and technology of these revisions was so great that the credit for its design should go the Barlow and Hawkshaw . The towers remained in rough stone , rather than being finished in the Egyptian style . Work on the bridge was restarted in 1862 . Initially a temporary bridge was created by pulling ropes across the gorge and making a footway of wire ropes with wood planks held together with iron hoops . This was used by the workers to move a " traveller " , consisting of a light frame on wheels , to transport each link individually , which would eventually make up the chains supporting the bridge . The chains are anchored in tapering tunnels , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) long , on either side of the bridge and plugs of Staffordshire blue brick infilled to prevent the chains being pulled out of the narrower tunnel mouth . After completion of the chains , vertical suspension rods were hung from the links in the chains and large girders hung from these . The girders on either side then support the deck , which is 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher at the Clifton end than at Leigh Woods so that it gives the impression of being horizontal . The strength of the structure was tested by spreading 500 tons of stone over the bridge . This caused it to sag by 7 inches ( 180 mm ) , but within the expected tolerances . During this time a tunnel was driven through the rocks on the Leigh Woods side beneath the bridge to carry the Bristol Port Railway to Avonmouth . The construction work was completed in 1864 — 111 years after a bridge at the site was first planned .
= = = Operation = = =
On 8 December 1864 , the bridge was lit by magnesium flares for its ceremonial opening parade , but they were blown out by the wind . The custom of lighting the bridge has continued with more recent events , although later thousands of electric light bulbs were attached to the bridge instead of flares .
In 1860 the Clifton Bridge Company was set up to oversee the final stages of completion and manage the operation of the bridge . They paid £ 50 each year to the trustees who gradually purchased the shares in the company . The revenues from tolls were minimal initially as there was not much traffic ; however , this increased after 1920 with greater car ownership . In 1949 the trustees purchased all the outstanding shares and debentures . The bridge is managed by a charitable trust , originally formed by the Society of Merchant Venturers following Vick 's bequest . The trust was authorised to manage the bridge and collect tolls by Acts of Parliament in 1952 , 1980 and 1986 . A toll of £ 0 @.@ 50 has been levied on vehicles since 2007 , but the £ 0 @.@ 05 toll that the Act allows for cyclists or pedestrians is not collected . Human toll collectors were replaced by automated machines in 1975 . The tolls are used to pay for the upkeep of the bridge , including the strengthening of the chain anchor points , which was done in 1925 and 1939 , and regular painting and maintenance , which is carried out from a motorised cradle slung beneath the deck . By 2008 over 4 million vehicles crossed the bridge each year . In February 2012 , the bridge trustees applied to the Department for Transport to increase the toll to £ 1 , subsequently implemented on 24 April 2014 .
On 1 April 1979 , the first modern bungee jumps were made from the bridge by members of the University of Oxford Dangerous Sports Club . In 2003 and 2004 , the weight of crowds travelling to and from the Ashton Court Festival and Bristol International Balloon Fiesta put such great strain on the bridge that it was decided to close the bridge to all motor traffic and pedestrians during the events . The closure of the bridge for major annual events has continued each year since then .
On 26 November 2003 , the last ever Concorde flight ( Concorde 216 ) flew over the bridge before landing at Filton Aerodrome . In April 2006 , the bridge was the centrepiece of the Brunel 200 weekend , celebrating the 200th anniversary of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel . At the climax of the celebration a firework display was launched from the bridge . The celebrations also saw the activation of an LED @-@ based lighting array to illuminate the bridge .
On 4 April 2009 , the bridge was shut for one night to allow a crack in one of the support hangers to be repaired . On 23 May 2012 , the London 2012 Olympic Torch relay crossed over the bridge , where two of the torchbearers came together in a " kiss " to exchange the flame in the middle of Brunel 's iconic landmark . The bridge carries four million vehicles per year , along part of the B3129 road . The bridge is a grade I listed building .
In November 2011 it was announced that a new visitor centre , costing nearly £ 2 million , was to be built at the Leigh Woods end of the bridge to replace the temporary building currently being used . The new facilities were scheduled to be completed before the 150th anniversary of the opening , which was celebrated on 8 December 2014 . In December 2012 it was announced that the bridge had received £ 595 @,@ 000 of funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund to improve the visitor centre .
= = Engineering = =
Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches . Brunel 's original plan proposed they be topped with then @-@ fashionable sphinxes , but the ornaments were never constructed .
The 85 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 26 m ) Leigh Woods tower stands atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . In 2002 it was discovered that this was not a solid structure but contained 12 vaulted chambers up to 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , linked by shafts and tunnels .
Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the chains when loads pass over the bridge . Though their total travel is minuscule , their ability to absorb forces created by chain deflection prevents damage to both tower and chain .
The bridge has three independent wrought iron chains per side , from which the bridge deck is suspended by eighty @-@ one matching vertical wrought @-@ iron rods ranging from 65 feet ( 20 m ) at the ends to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in the centre . Composed of numerous parallel rows of eyebars connected by bolts , the chains are anchored in tunnels in the rocks 60 feet ( 18 m ) below ground level at the sides of the gorge . The deck was originally laid with wooden planking , later covered with asphalt , which was renewed in 2009 . The weight of the bridge , including chains , rods , girders and deck is approximately 1 @,@ 500 tons .
= = Dimensions = =
Clearance : 245 ft ( 75 m ) above high water level
Dip of chains : 70 ft ( 21 @.@ 34 m )
Height of towers : 86 ft ( 26 m ) above deck
Overall length : 1 @,@ 352 ft ( 412 m )
Overall width : 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 45 m )
Span : 702 ft 3 in ( 214 @.@ 05 m )
= = Incidents = =
Two men were killed during the construction of the bridge . In 1885 , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Sarah Ann Henley survived a suicide attempt off the bridge when her billowing skirts acted as a parachute ; she subsequently lived into her eighties .
The Clifton Suspension Bridge is well known as a suicide bridge and is fitted with plaques that advertise the telephone number of The Samaritans . Between 1974 and 1993 , 127 people fell to their deaths from the bridge . In 1998 barriers were installed on the bridge to prevent people jumping . In the four years after installation this reduced the suicide rate from eight deaths per year to four . Nicolette Powell , the wife of UK rhythm and blues singer Georgie Fame , formerly the Marchioness of Londonderry , committed suicide from the bridge on 13 August 1993 .
In 1957 a Filton @-@ based RAF Vampire jet from 501 Squadron piloted by Flying officer John Greenwood flew under the deck while performing a victory roll before crashing in Leigh Woods , killing the pilot . The accident caused a landslip that led to the temporary closure of the nearby Bristol to Portishead railway line . A police helicopter flew under the bridge during a search in 1997 .
On 12 February 2014 the bridge was closed to traffic due to wind for the first time in living memory .
= Social history of viruses =
The social history of viruses describes the influence of viruses and viral infections on human history . Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during the Neolithic period , around 12 @,@ 000 years ago , when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities . This allowed viruses to spread rapidly and subsequently to become endemic . Viruses of plants and livestock also increased , and as humans became dependent on agriculture and farming , diseases such as potyviruses of potatoes and rinderpest of cattle had devastating consequences .
Smallpox and measles viruses are among the oldest that infect humans . Having evolved from viruses that infected other animals , they first appeared in humans in Europe and North Africa thousands of years ago . The viruses were later carried to the New World by Europeans during the time of the Spanish Conquests , but the indigenous people had no natural resistance to the viruses and millions of them died during epidemics . Influenza pandemics have been recorded since 1580 , and they have occurred with increasing frequency in subsequent centuries . The pandemic of 1918 – 19 , in which 40 – 50 million died in less than a year , was one of the most devastating in history .
Louis Pasteur and Edward Jenner were the first to develop vaccines to protect against viral infections . The nature of viruses remained unknown until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s , when the science of virology gained momentum . In the 20th century many diseases both old and new were found to be caused by viruses . There were epidemics of poliomyelitis that were only controlled following the development of a vaccine in the 1950s . HIV is one of the most pathogenic new viruses to have emerged in centuries . Although scientific interest in them arose because of the diseases they cause , most viruses are beneficial . They drive evolution by transferring genes across species , play important roles in ecosystems and are essential to life .
= = In prehistory = =
Over the past 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years , as modern humans increased in numbers and dispersed throughout the world , new infectious diseases emerged , including those caused by viruses . Earlier , humans lived in small , isolated communities , and most epidemic diseases did not exist . Smallpox , which is the most lethal and devastating viral infection in history , first emerged among agricultural communities in India about 11 @,@ 000 years ago . The virus , which only infected humans , probably descended from the poxviruses of rodents . Humans probably came into contact with these rodents , and some people became infected by the viruses they carried . When viruses cross this so @-@ called " species barrier " , their effects can be severe , and humans may have had little natural resistance . Contemporary humans lived in small communities , and those who succumbed to infection either died or developed immunity . This acquired immunity is only passed down to offspring temporarily , by antibodies in breast milk and other antibodies that cross the placenta from the mother 's blood to the unborn child 's . Therefore , sporadic outbreaks probably occurred in each generation . In about 9000 BC , when many people began to settle on the fertile flood plains of the River Nile , the population became dense enough for the virus to maintain a constant presence because of the high concentration of susceptible people . Other epidemics of viral diseases that depend on large concentrations of people , such as mumps , rubella and polio , also first occurred at this time .
The Neolithic age , which began in the Middle East in about 9500 BC , was a time when humans became farmers . This agricultural revolution embraced the development of monoculture and presented an opportunity for the rapid spread of several species of plant viruses . The divergence and spread of sobemoviruses – southern bean mosaic virus – date from this time . The spread of the potyviruses of potatoes , and other fruits and vegetables , began about 6 @,@ 600 years ago .
About 10 @,@ 000 years ago the humans who inhabited the lands around the Mediterranean basin began to domesticate wild animals . Pigs , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , camels , cats and dogs were all kept and bred in captivity . These animals would have brought their viruses with them . The transmission of viruses from animals to humans can occur , but such zoonotic infections are rare and subsequent human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of animal viruses is even rarer , although there are notable exceptions such as influenza . Most viruses are species @-@ specific and would have posed no threat to humans . The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short @-@ lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection .
Other , more ancient , viruses have been less of a threat . Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago . Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses , and most are infected with at least one species . Records of these milder virus infections are rare , but it is likely that early hominids suffered from colds , influenza and diarrhoea caused by viruses just as humans do today . More recently evolved viruses cause epidemics and pandemics – and it is these that history records . The influenza virus is one that seems to have crossed the species barrier from pigs to ducks and water fowl and hence to humans . It is possible that a fatal plague in the Middle East at the time of the late 18th Dynasty was associated with this transmission at Amarna .
= = In antiquity = =
Among the earliest records of a viral infection is an Egyptian stele thought to depict an Egyptian priest from the 18th Dynasty ( 1580 – 1350 BC ) with a foot drop deformity characteristic of a poliovirus infection . The mummy of Siptah – a ruler during the 19th Dynasty – shows signs of poliomyelitis , and that of Ramesses V and some other Egyptian mummies buried over 3000 years ago show evidence of smallpox . There was an epidemic of smallpox in Athens in 430 BC , in which a quarter of the Athenian army and many of the city 's civilians died from the infection .
Measles is an old disease , but it was not until the 10th century that the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al @-@ Razi ( 865 – 925 ) – known as " Rhazes " – first identified it . Rhazes used the Arabic name hasbah for measles . It has had many other names including rubeola from the Latin word rubeus , " red " , and morbilli , " small plague " . The close similarities between measles virus , canine distemper virus and rinderpest virus have given rise to speculation that measles was first transmitted to humans from domesticated dogs or cattle . The measles virus appears to have fully diverged from the then @-@ widespread rinderpest virus by the 12th century .
A measles infection confers lifelong immunity . Therefore , the virus requires a high population density to become endemic , and this probably did not occur in the Neolithic age . Following the emergence of the virus in the Middle East , it reached India by 2500 BC . Measles was so common in children at the time that it was not recognised as a disease . In Egyptian hieroglyphs it was described as a normal stage of human development . One of the earliest descriptions of a virus @-@ infected plant can be found in a poem written by the Japanese Empress Kōken ( 718 – 770 ) , in which she describes a plant in summer with yellowing leaves . The plant , later identified as Eupatorium lindleyanum , is often infected with tomato yellow leaf curl virus .
= = Middle Ages = =
The rapidly growing population of Europe and the rising concentrations of people in its towns and cities became a fertile ground for many infectious and contagious diseases , of which the Black Death – a bacterial infection – is probably the most notorious . Except for smallpox and influenza , documented outbreaks of infections now known to be caused by viruses were rare . Rabies , a disease that had been recognised for over 4000 years , was rife in Europe , and continued to be so until the development of a vaccine by Louis Pasteur in 1886 . The average life expectancy in Europe during the Middle Ages was 35 years ; 60 % of children died before the age of 16 , many of them during their first 6 years of life . Physicians – what few there were – relied as much on astrology as they did on their limited medical knowledge . Some treatments for infections consisted of ointments prepared from cats that had been roasted in hedgehog fat . Among the plethora of diseases that caused childhood death were measles , influenza and smallpox . The Crusades and the Muslim conquests aided the spread of smallpox , which was the cause of frequent epidemics in Europe following its introduction to the continent between the fifth and seventh centuries .
Measles was endemic throughout the highly populated countries of Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . In England the disease , then called " mezils " , was first described in the 13th century , and it was probably one of the 49 plagues that occurred between 526 and 1087 . Rinderpest , which is caused by a virus closely related to measles virus , is a disease of cattle known since Roman times . The disease , which originated in Asia , was first brought to Europe by the invading Huns in 370 . Later invasions of Mongols , led by Genghis Khan and his army , started pandemics in Europe in 1222 , 1233 and 1238 . The infection subsequently reached England following the importation of cattle from the continent . At the time rinderpest was a devastating disease with a mortality rate of 80 – 90 % . The resulting loss of cattle caused famine .
= = Early to late modern period = =
A short time after Henry Tudor 's victory at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August 1485 , his army suddenly went down with " the English sweat " , which contemporary observers described as a new disease . The disease , which was unusual in that it mainly affected the affluent , might have originated in France where Henry VII had recruited soldiers for his army . An epidemic hit London in the hot summer of 1508 . Victims died within a day , and there were deaths throughout the city . The streets were deserted apart from carts transporting bodies , and King Henry declared the city off limits except for physicians and apothecaries . The disease spread to Europe , arriving in Hamburg in July 1529 where one to two thousand victims died within the first few weeks . During the following months it wreaked havoc in Prussia , Switzerland , and northern Europe . The last outbreak was in England in 1556 . The disease – which killed tens of thousands of people – was probably influenza or a similar viral infection , but records from the time when medicine was not a science can be unreliable . As medicine became a science , the descriptions of disease became less vague . Although medicine could do little at the time to alleviate the suffering of the victims of infection , measures to control the spread of diseases were used . Restrictions on trade and travel were implemented , stricken families were isolated from their communities , buildings were fumigated and livestock killed .
References to influenza infections date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries , but infections almost certainly occurred long before then . In 1173 , an epidemic occurred that was possibly the first in Europe , and in 1493 , an outbreak of what is now thought to be swine influenza , struck Native Americans in Hispaniola . There is some evidence to suggest that source of the infection was pigs on Columbus 's ships . During an influenza epidemic that occurred in England between 1557 and 1559 , five per cent of the population – about 150 @,@ 000 – died from the infection . The mortality rate was nearly five times that of the 1918 – 19 pandemic . The first pandemic that was reliably recorded began in July 1580 and swept across Europe , Africa , and Asia . The mortality rate was high – 8 @,@ 000 died in Rome . The next three pandemics occurred in the 18th century , including that during 1781 – 82 , which was probably the most devastating in history . This began in November 1781 in China and reached Moscow in December . In February 1782 it hit Saint Petersburg , and by May it had reached Denmark . Within six weeks , 75 per cent of the British population were infected and the pandemic soon spread to the Americas .
The Americas and Australia remained free of measles and smallpox until the arrival of European colonists between the 15th and 18th centuries . Along with measles and influenza , smallpox was taken to the Americas by the Spanish . Smallpox was endemic in Spain , having been introduced by the Moors from Africa . In 1519 , an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan in Mexico . This was started by the army of Pánfilo de Narváez , who followed Hernán Cortés from Cuba and had an African slave suffering from smallpox aboard his ship . When the Spanish finally entered the capital in the summer of 1521 , they saw it strewn with the bodies of smallpox victims . The epidemic , and those that followed during 1545 – 1548 and 1576 – 1581 , eventually killed more than half of the native population . Most of the Spanish were immune ; with his army of fewer than 900 men it would not have been possible for Cortés to defeat the Aztecs and conquer Mexico without the help of smallpox . Many Native American populations were devastated later by the inadvertent spread of diseases introduced by Europeans . In the 150 years that followed Columbus 's arrival in 1492 , the Native American population of North America was reduced by 80 per cent from diseases , including measles , smallpox and influenza . The damage done by these viruses significantly aided European attempts to displace and conquer the native population .
By the 18th century , smallpox was endemic in Europe . There were five epidemics in London between 1719 and 1746 , and large outbreaks occurred in other major European cities . By the end of the century about 400 @,@ 000 Europeans were dying from the disease each year . It reached South Africa in 1713 , having been carried by ships from India , and in 1789 the disease struck Australia . In the 19th century , smallpox became the single most important cause of death of the Australian Aborigines .
In 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro ( 1478 – 1553 ) wrote a classic description of measles . He thought the disease was caused by " seeds " ( seminaria ) that were spread from person to person . An epidemic hit London in 1670 , recorded by Thomas Sydenham ( 1624 – 1689 ) , who thought it was caused by toxic vapours emanating from the earth . His theory was wrong but he was a skilled observer and kept meticulous records .
Yellow fever is an often lethal disease caused by a flavivirus . The virus is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes ( Aedes aegypti ) and first appeared over 3 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1647 , the first recorded epidemic occurred on Barbados and was called " Barbados distemper " by John Winthrop , who was the governor of the island at the time . He passed quarantine laws to protect the people – the first ever such laws in North America . Further epidemics of the disease occurred in North America in the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries . The first known cases of dengue fever occurred in Indonesia and Egypt in 1779 . Trade ships brought the disease to the US , where an epidemic occurred in Philadelphia in 1780 .
Many paintings can be found in the museums of Europe depicting tulips with attractive coloured stripes . Most , such as the still life studies of Johannes Bosschaert , were painted during the 17th century . These flowers were particularly popular and became sought after by those who could afford them . At the peak of this tulip mania in the 1630s , one bulb could cost as much as a house . It was not known at the time that the stripes were caused by a virus accidentally transferred by humans to tulips from jasmine . Weakened by the virus , the plants turned out to be a poor investment . Only a few bulbs produced flowers with the attractive characteristics of their parent plants .
Until the Irish Great Famine of 1845 – 1852 , the commonest cause of disease in potatoes was not the mould that causes blight , it was a virus . The disease , called " curl " , is caused by potato leafroll virus , and it was widespread in England in the 1770s , where it destroyed 75 per cent of the potato crop . At that time , the Irish potato crop remained relatively unscathed .
= = Discovery of vaccination = =
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ( 1689 – 1762 ) was an aristocrat , a writer and the wife of a Member of Parliament . In 1716 , her husband , Edward Wortley Montagu , was appointed British Ambassador in Istanbul . She followed him there and two weeks after her arrival discovered the local practice of protection against smallpox by variolation – the injection of pus from smallpox victims into the skin . Her younger brother had died of smallpox , and she too had had the disease . Determined to spare her five @-@ year @-@ old son Edward from similar suffering , she ordered the embassy surgeon Charles Maitland to variolate him . On her return to London , she asked Maitland to variolate her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter in the presence of the king 's physicians . Later , Montagu persuaded the Prince and Princess of Wales to sponsor a public demonstration of the procedure . Six prisoners who had been condemned to death and were awaiting execution at Newgate Prison were offered a full pardon for serving as the subjects of the public experiment . They accepted and were variolated in 1721 . All the prisoners recovered from the procedure . To test its protective effect one of them , a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old woman , was ordered to sleep in the same bed as a ten @-@ year @-@ old smallpox victim for six weeks . She did not contract the disease .
The experiment was repeated on eleven orphan children , all of whom survived the ordeal , and by 1722 even King George I 's grandchildren had been inoculated . The practice was not entirely safe and there was a one in fifty chance of death . The procedure was expensive ; some medical practitioners charged between £ 5 and £ 10 and some sold the method to other practitioners for fees between £ 50 to £ 100 , or for half of the profits . Variolation became a lucrative franchise , but it remained beyond the means of many until the late 1770s . At the time nothing was known about viruses or the immune system , and no one knew how the procedure afforded protection .
Edward Jenner ( 1749 – 1823 ) , a British rural physician , was variolated as a boy . He had suffered greatly from the ordeal but survived fully protected from smallpox . Jenner knew of a local belief that dairy workers who had contracted a relatively mild infection called cowpox were immune to smallpox . He decided to test the theory ( although he was probably not the first to do so ) . On 14 May 1796 he selected " a healthy boy , about eight years old for the purpose of inoculation for the Cow Pox " . The boy , James Phipps ( 1788 – 1853 ) , survived the experimental inoculation with cowpox virus and suffered only a mild fever . On 1 July 1796 , Jenner took some " smallpox matter " ( probably infected pus ) and repeatedly inoculated Phipps 's arms with it . Phipps survived and was subsequently inoculated with smallpox more than 20 times without succumbing to the disease . Vaccination – the word is derived from the Latin vacca meaning " cow " – had been invented . Jenner 's method was soon shown to be safer than variolation , and by 1801 more than 100 @,@ 000 people had been vaccinated .
Despite objections from those medical practitioners who still practised variolation , and who foresaw a decline in their income , free vaccination of the poor was introduced in the UK in 1840 . Because of associated deaths , variolation was declared illegal in the same year . Vaccination was made compulsory in England and Wales by the 1853 Vaccination Act , and parents could be fined £ 1 if their children were not vaccinated before they were three months of age . The law was not adequately enforced , and the system for providing vaccinations , unchanged since 1840 , was ineffective . After an early compliance by the population only a small proportion were vaccinated . Compulsory vaccination was not well received and , following protests , the Anti @-@ Vaccination League and the Anti @-@ Compulsory Vaccination League were formed in 1866 . Following the anti @-@ vaccination campaigns there was a severe outbreak of smallpox in Gloucester in 1895 , the city 's first in twenty years ; 434 people died , including 281 children . Despite this , the British government conceded to the protesters and the Vaccination Act of 1898 abolished fines and made provision for a " conscientious objector " clause – the first use of the term – for parents who did not believe in vaccination . During the following year , 250 @,@ 000 objections were granted , and by 1912 less than half of the population of newborns were being vaccinated . By 1948 , smallpox vaccination was no longer compulsory in the UK .
= = = Louis Pasteur and rabies = = =
Rabies is an often fatal disease caused by the infection of mammals with rabies virus . In the 21st century it is mainly a disease that affects wild mammals such as foxes and bats , but it is one of the oldest known virus diseases : rabies is a Sanskrit word ( rabhas ) that dates from 3000 BC , which means " madness " or " rage " , and the disease has been known for over 4000 years . Descriptions of rabies can be found in Mesopotamian texts , and the ancient Greeks called it " lyssa " or " lytta " , meaning " madness " . References to rabies can be found in the Laws of Eshnunna , which date from 2300 BC . Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) wrote one of the earliest undisputed descriptions of the disease and how it was passed to humans . Celsus , in the first century AD , first recorded the symptom called hydrophobia and suggested that the saliva of infected animals and humans contained a slime or poison – to describe this he invented the word " virus " . Rabies does not cause epidemics , but the infection was greatly feared because of its terrible symptoms , which include insanity , hydrophobia and death .
In France during the time of Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 ) there were only a few hundred rabies infections in humans each year , but cures were desperately sought . Aware of the possible danger , Pasteur began to look for the " microbe " in mad dogs . Pasteur showed that when the dried spinal cords from dogs that had died from rabies were crushed and injected into healthy dogs they did not become infected . He repeated the experiment several times on the same dog with tissue that had been dried for fewer and fewer days , until the dog survived even after injections of fresh rabies @-@ infected spinal tissue . Pasteur had immunised the dog against rabies , as he later did with 50 more .
Although Pasteur had little idea how his method worked , he tested it on a boy , Joseph Meister ( 1876 – 1940 ) , who was brought to Pasteur by his mother on 6 July 1885 . He was covered in bites , having been set upon by a mad dog . Meister 's mother begged Pasteur to help her son . Pasteur was a scientist , not a physician , and he was well aware of the consequences for him if things were to go wrong . He nevertheless decided to help the boy and injected him with increasingly virulent rabid rabbit spinal tissue over the following 10 days . Later Pasteur wrote , " as the death of this child appeared inevitable , I decided , not without deep and severe unease ... to try out on Joseph Meister the procedure , which had consistently worked on dogs " . Meister recovered and returned home with his mother on 27 July . Pasteur successfully treated a second boy in October that same year ; Jean @-@ Baptiste Jupille ( 1869 – 1923 ) was a 15 @-@ year @-@ old shepherd boy who had been severely bitten as he tried to protect other children from a rabid dog . Pasteur 's method of treatment remained in use for over 50 years .
Little was known about the cause of the disease until 1903 when Adelchi Negri ( 1876 – 1912 ) first saw microscopic lesions – now called Negri bodies – in the brains of rabid animals . He wrongly thought they were protozoan parasites . Paul Remlinger ( 1871 – 1964 ) soon showed by filtration experiments that they were much smaller than protozoa , and even smaller than bacteria . Thirty years later , Negri bodies were shown to be accumulations of particles 100 – 150 nanometres long , now known to be the size of rhabdovirus particles – the virus that causes rabies .
= = 20th and 21st centuries = =
At the turn of the 20th century , evidence for the existence of viruses was obtained from experiments with filters that had pores too small for bacteria to pass through ; the term " filterable virus " was coined to describe them . Until the 1930s most scientists believed that viruses were small bacteria , but following the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 they were shown to be completely different , to a degree that not all scientists were convinced they were anything other than accumulations of toxic proteins . The situation changed radically when it was discovered that viruses contain genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA . Once they were recognised as distinct biological entities they were soon shown to be the cause of numerous infections of plants , animals and even bacteria .
Of the many diseases of humans that were found to be caused by viruses in the 20th century one , smallpox , has been eradicated . The diseases caused by viruses such as HIV and influenza virus have proved to be more difficult to control . Other diseases , such as those caused by arboviruses , are presenting new challenges .
As humans have changed their behaviour during history , so have viruses . In ancient times the human population was too small for pandemics to occur and , in the case of some viruses , too small for them to survive . In the 20th and 21st century increasing population densities , revolutionary changes in agriculture and farming methods , and high speed travel have contributed to the spread of new viruses and the re @-@ appearance of old ones . Like smallpox , some viral diseases might be conquered , but new ones , such as severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) , will continue to emerge . Although vaccines are still the most powerful weapon against viruses , in recent decades antiviral drugs have been developed to specifically target viruses as they replicate in their hosts . The 2009 influenza pandemic showed how rapidly new strains of viruses continue to spread around the world , despite efforts to contain them .
Advances in virus discovery and control continue to be made . Human metapneumovirus , which is a cause of respiratory infections including pneumonia , was discovered in 2001 . A vaccine for the papillomaviruses that cause cervical cancer was developed between 2002 and 2006 . In 2005 , human T lymphotropic viruses 3 and 4 were discovered . In 2008 the WHO Global Polio Eradication Initiative was re @-@ launched with a plan to eradicate poliomyelitis by 2015 . In 2010 , the largest virus , Megavirus chilensis was discovered to infect amoebae . These giant viruses have renewed interest in the role viruses play in evolution and their position in the tree of life .
= = = Smallpox eradication = = =
Smallpox virus was a major cause of death in the 20th century , killing about 300 million people . It has probably killed more humans than any other virus . In 1966 an agreement was reached by the World Health Assembly ( the decision @-@ making body of the World Health Organisation ) to start an " intensified smallpox eradication programme " and attempt to eradicate the disease within ten years . At the time , smallpox was still endemic in 31 countries including Brazil , the whole of the Indian sub @-@ continent , Indonesia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . This ambitious goal was considered achievable for several reasons : the vaccine afforded exceptional protection ; there was only one type of the virus ; there were no animals that naturally carried it ; the incubation period of the infection was known and rarely varied from 12 days ; and infections always gave rise to symptoms , so it was clear who had the disease .
Following mass vaccinations , disease detection and containment were central to the eradication campaign . As soon as cases were detected , the victims were isolated as were their close contacts , who were vaccinated . Successes came quickly ; by 1970 smallpox was no longer endemic in western Africa , nor , by 1971 , in Brazil . By 1973 , smallpox remained endemic only in the Indian sub @-@ continent , Botswana and Ethiopia . Finally , after 13 years of coordinated disease surveillance and vaccination campaigns throughout the world , the World Health Organisation declared smallpox eradicated in 1979 . Although the main weapon used was vaccinia virus , which was used as the vaccine , no one seems to know exactly where vaccinia virus came from ; it is not the strain of cowpox that Edward Jenner used , and it is not a weakened form of smallpox .
The eradication campaign led to the death of Janet Parker ( c . 1938 – 1978 ) and the subsequent suicide of the smallpox expert Henry Bedson ( 1930 – 1978 ) . Parker was an employee of the University of Birmingham who worked in the same building as Bedson 's smallpox laboratory . She was infected by a strain of smallpox virus that Bedson 's team had been investigating . Ashamed of the accident and having blamed himself for it , Bedson committed suicide .
Before the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 , the World Health Organisation proposed the destruction of all the known remaining stocks of smallpox virus that were kept in laboratories in the US and Russia . Fears of bioterrorism using smallpox virus and the possible need for the virus in the development of drugs to treat the infection have put an end to this plan . Had the destruction gone ahead , smallpox virus might have been the first to be made extinct by human intervention .
= = = Measles = = =
Before the introduction of vaccination in the US in the 1960s there were more than 500 @,@ 000 cases each year resulting in about 400 deaths . In developed countries children were mainly infected between the ages of three and five years old , but in developing countries half the children were infected before the age of two . In the US and the UK , there were regular annual or biannual epidemics of the disease , which depended on the number of children born each year . The current epidemic strain evolved in the first part of the 20th century – probably between 1908 and 1943 .
In London between 1950 and 1968 there were epidemics every two years , but in Liverpool , which had a higher birth rate , there was an annual cycle of epidemics . During the Great Depression in the US before the Second World War the birth rate was low , and epidemics of measles were sporadic . After the war the birth rate increased , and epidemics occurred regularly every two years . In developing countries with very high birth rates , epidemics occurred every year . Measles is still a major problem in densely populated , less @-@ developed countries with high birth rates and lacking effective vaccination campaigns .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , following a mass vaccination programme that was known as " make measles a memory " , the incidence of measles in the US had fallen by 90 per cent . Similar vaccination campaigns in other countries have reduced the levels of infection by 99 per cent over the past 50 years . Susceptible individuals remain a source of infection and include those who have migrated from countries with ineffective vaccination schedules , or who refuse the vaccine or choose not to have their children vaccinated . Humans are the only natural host of measles virus . Immunity to the disease following an infection is lifelong ; that afforded by vaccination is long term but eventually wanes .
The use of the vaccine has been controversial . In 1998 , Andrew Wakefield and his colleagues published a fraudulent research paper and he claimed to link the MMR vaccine with autism . The study was widely reported and fed concern about the safety of vaccinations . Wakefield 's research was identified as fraudulent and in 2010 , he was struck off the UK medical register and can no longer practise medicine in the UK . In the wake of the controversy , the MMR vaccination rate in the UK fell from 92 per cent in 1995 , to less than 80 per cent in 2003 . Cases of measles rose from 56 in 1998 to 1370 in 2008 , and similar increases occurred throughout Europe . In April 2013 , an epidemic of measles in Wales in the UK broke out , which mainly affected teenagers who had not been vaccinated . Despite this controversy , measles has been eliminated from Finland , Sweden and Cuba . Japan abolished mandatory vaccination in 1992 , and in 1995 – 1997 more than 200 @,@ 000 cases were reported in the country . Measles remains a public health problem in Japan , where it is now endemic ; a National Measles Elimination Plan was established in December 2007 , with a view to eliminating the disease from the country . The possibility of global elimination of measles has been debated in medical literature since the introduction of the vaccine in the 1960s . Should the current campaign to eradicate poliomyelitis be successful , it is likely that the debate will be renewed .
= = = Poliomyelitis = = =
During the summers of the mid @-@ 20th century , parents in the US and Europe dreaded the annual appearance of poliomyelitis ( or polio ) , which was commonly known as " infantile paralysis " . The disease was rare at the beginning of the century , and worldwide there were only a few thousand cases per year , but by the 1950s there were 60 @,@ 000 cases each year in the US alone and an average of 2 @,@ 300 in England and Wales .
During 1916 and 1917 there had been a major epidemic in the US ; 27 @,@ 000 cases and 6 @,@ 000 deaths were recorded , with 9 @,@ 000 cases in New York City . At the time nobody knew how the virus was spreading . Many of the city 's inhabitants , including scientists , thought that impoverished slum @-@ dwelling immigrants were to blame even though the prevalence of the disease was higher in the more prosperous districts such as Staten Island – a pattern that had also been seen in cities like Philadelphia . Many other industrialised countries were affected at the same time . In particular , before the outbreaks in the US , large epidemics had occurred in Sweden .
The reason for the rise of polio in industrialised countries in the 20th century has never been fully explained . The disease is caused by a virus that is passed from person to person by the faecal @-@ oral route , and naturally infects only humans . It is a paradox that it became a problem during times of improved sanitation and increasing affluence . Although the virus was discovered at the beginning of the 20th century , its ubiquity was unrecognised until the 1950s . It is now known that fewer than two per cent of individuals who are infected develop the disease , and most infections are mild . During epidemics the virus was effectively everywhere , which explains why public health officials were unable to isolate a source .
Following the development of vaccines in the mid @-@ 1950s , mass vaccination campaigns took place in many countries . In the US , after a campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell dramatically ; the last outbreak was in 1979 . In 1988 the World Health Organisation along with others launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative , and by 1994 the Americas were declared to be free of disease , followed by the Pacific region in 2000 and Europe in 2003 . At the end of 2012 , only 223 cases were reported by the World Health Organisation . Mainly poliovirus type 1 infections , 122 occurred in Nigeria , one in Chad , 58 in Pakistan and 37 in Afghanistan . Vaccination teams often face danger ; seven vaccinators were murdered in Pakistan and nine in Nigeria at the beginning of 2013 . In Pakistan , the campaign was further hampered by the murder on 26 February 2013 of a police officer who was providing security .
= = = AIDS = = =
The human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is the virus that – when the infection is not treated – can cause AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ) . Most virologists believe that HIV originated in sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 20th century , and over 70 million individuals have been infected by the virus . By 2011 , an estimated 35 million had died from AIDS , making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history . HIV @-@ 1 is one of the most significant viruses to have emerged in the last quarter of the 20th century . When , in 1981 , a scientific article was published that reported the deaths of five young gay men , no one knew that they had died from AIDS . The full scale of the epidemic – and that the virus had been silently emerging over several decades – was not known .
HIV crossed the species barrier between chimpanzees and humans in Africa in the early decades of the 20th century . During the years that followed there were enormous social changes and turmoil in Africa . Population shifts were unprecedented as vast numbers of people moved from rural farms to the expanding cities , and the virus was spread from remote regions to densely populated urban conurbations . The incubation period for AIDS is around 10 years , so a global epidemic starting in the early 1980s is credible . At this time there was much scapegoating and stigmatisation . The " out of Africa " theory for the origin of the HIV pandemic was not well received by Africans , who felt that the " blame " was misplaced . This led the World Health Assembly to pass a 1987 resolution , which stated that HIV is " a naturally occurring [ virus ] of undetermined geographic origin " .
The HIV pandemic has challenged communities and brought about social changes throughout the world . Opinions on sexuality are more openly discussed . Advice on sexual practices and drug use – which were once taboo – is sponsored by many governments and their healthcare providers . Debates on the ethics of provision and cost of anti @-@ retroviral drugs , particularly in poorer countries , have highlighted inequalities in healthcare and stimulated far @-@ reaching legislative changes . In developing countries the impact of HIV / AIDS has been profound ; key organisations such as healthcare , defense and civil services have been severely disrupted . Life expectancy has fallen . In Zimbabwe , for example , life expectancy was 79 years in 1991 but by 2001 it had fallen to 39 years .
= = = Influenza = = =
When influenza virus undergoes a genetic shift many humans have no immunity to the new strain , and if the population of susceptible individuals is high enough to maintain the chain of infection , pandemics occur . The genetic changes usually happen when different strains of the virus co @-@ infect animals , particularly birds and swine . Although many viruses of vertebrates are restricted to one species , influenza virus is an exception . The last pandemic of the 19th century occurred in 1899 and resulted in the deaths of 250 @,@ 000 people in Europe . The virus , which originated in Russia or Asia , was the first to be rapidly spread by people on trains and steamships .
A new strain of the virus emerged in 1918 , and the subsequent pandemic of Spanish flu was one of the worst natural disasters in history . The death toll was enormous ; throughout the world around 50 million people died from the infection . There were 550 @,@ 000 reported deaths caused by the disease in the US , ten times the country 's losses during the First World War , and 228 @,@ 000 deaths in the UK . In India there were more than 20 million deaths , and in Western Samoa 22 per cent of the population died . Although cases of influenza occurred every winter , there were only two other pandemics in the 20th century .
In 1957 another new strain of the virus emerged and caused a pandemic of Asian flu ; although the virus was not as virulent as the 1918 strain , over one million died worldwide . The next pandemic occurred when Hong Kong flu emerged in 1968 , a new strain of the virus that replaced the 1957 strain . Affecting mainly the elderly , the 1968 pandemic was the least severe , but 33 @,@ 800 were killed in the US . New strains of influenza virus often originate in East Asia ; in rural China the concentration of ducks , pigs , and humans in close proximity is the highest in the world .
The most recent pandemic occurred in 2009 , but none of the last three has caused anything near the devastation seen in 1918 . Exactly why the strain of influenza that emerged in 1918 was so devastating is a question that still remains unanswered .
= = = Yellow fever , dengue and other arboviruses = = =
Arboviruses are viruses that are transmitted to humans and other vertebrates by blood @-@ sucking insects . These viruses are diverse ; the term " arbovirus " – which was derived from " arthropod @-@ borne virus " – is no longer used in formal taxonomy because many species of virus are known to be spread in this way . There are more than 500 species of arboviruses , but in the 1930s only three were known to cause disease in humans : yellow fever virus , dengue virus and Pappataci fever virus . More than 100 of such viruses are now known to cause human diseases including encephalitis .
Yellow fever is the most notorious disease caused by a flavivirus . The last major epidemic in the US occurred in 1905 . During the building of the Panama Canal thousands of workers died from the disease . Yellow fever originated in Africa and the virus was brought to the Americas on cargo ships , which were harbouring the Aedes aegypti mosquito that carries the virus . The first recorded epidemic in Africa occurred in Ghana , in West Africa , in 1926 . In the 1930s the disease re @-@ emerged in Brazil . Fred Soper , an American epidemiologist ( 1893 – 1977 ) , discovered the importance of the sylvatic cycle of infection in non @-@ human hosts , and that infection of humans was a " dead end " that broke this cycle . Although the yellow fever vaccine is one of the most successful ever developed , epidemics continue to occur . In 1986 – 91 in West Africa , over 20 @,@ 000 people were infected , 4 @,@ 000 of whom died .
In the 1930s , St. Louis encephalitis , eastern equine encephalitis and western equine encephalitis emerged in the US . The virus that causes La Crosse encephalitis was discovered in the 1960s , and West Nile virus arrived in New York in 1999 . As of 2010 , dengue virus is the most prevalent arbovirus and increasingly virulent strains of the virus have spread across Asia and the Americas .
= = = Hepatitis viruses = = =
Hepatitis is a disease of the liver that has been recognised since antiquity . Symptoms include jaundice , a yellowing of the skin , eyes and body fluids . There are numerous causes , including viruses – particularly hepatitis A virus , hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus . Throughout history epidemics of jaundice have been reported , mainly affecting soldiers at war . This " campaign jaundice " was common in the Middle Ages . It occurred among Napoleon 's armies and during most of the major conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries , including the American Civil War , where over 40 @,@ 000 cases and around 150 deaths were reported . The viruses that cause epidemic jaundice were not discovered until the middle of the 20th century . The names for epidemic jaundice , hepatitis A , and for blood @-@ borne infectious jaundice , hepatitis B , were first used in 1947 , following a publication in 1946 giving evidence that the two diseases were distinct . In the 1960s , the first virus that could cause hepatitis was discovered . This was hepatitis B virus , which was named after the disease it causes . Hepatitis A virus was discovered in 1974 . The discovery of hepatitis B virus and the invention of tests to detect it have radically changed many medical , and some cosmetic procedures . The screening of donated blood , which was introduced in the early 1970s , has dramatically reduced the transmission of the virus . Donations of human blood plasma and Factor VIII collected before 1975 often contained infectious levels of hepatitis B virus . Until the late 1960s , hypodermic needles were often reused by medical professionals , and tattoo artists ' needles were a common source of infection . In the late 1990s , needle exchange programmes were established in Europe and the US to prevent the spread of infections by intravenous drug users . These measures also helped to reduce the subsequent impact of HIV and hepatitis C virus .
= = = Non @-@ human animal viruses = = =
Epizootics are outbreaks ( epidemics ) of disease among non @-@ human animals . During the 20th century significant epizootics of viral diseases in animals , particularly livestock , occurred worldwide . The many diseases caused by viruses included foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , rinderpest of cattle , avian and swine influenza , swine fever and bluetongue of sheep . Viral diseases of livestock can be devastating both to farmers and the wider community , as the outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in the UK in 2001 showed .
First appearing in East Africa in 1891 , rinderpest , a disease of cattle , spread rapidly across Africa . By 1892 , 95 per cent of the cattle in East Africa had died . This resulted in a famine that devastated the farmers and nomadic people , some of whom were entirely dependent on their cattle . Two thirds of the population of Maasai people died . The situation was made worse by epidemics of smallpox that followed in the wake of the famine . In the early years of the 20th century rinderpest was common in Asia and parts of Europe . The prevalence of the disease was steadily reduced during the century by control measures that included vaccination . By 1908 Europe was free from the disease . Outbreaks did occur following the Second World War , but these were quickly controlled . The prevalence of the disease increased in Asia , and in 1957 Thailand had to appeal for aid because so many buffaloes had died that the paddy fields could not be prepared for rice growing . Russia west of the Ural Mountains remained free from the disease – Lenin approved several laws on the control of the disease – but cattle in eastern Russia were constantly infected with rinderpest that originated in Mongolia and China where the prevalence remained high . India controlled the spread of the disease , which had retained a foothold in the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala , throughout the 20th century , and had eradicated the disease by 1995 . Africa suffered two major panzootics in the 1920s and 1980s . There was a severe outbreak in Somalia in 1928 and the disease was widespread in the country until 1953 . In the 1980s , outbreaks in Tanzania and Kenya were controlled by the use of 26 million doses of vaccine , and a recurrence of the disease in 1997 was suppressed by an intensive vaccination campaign . By the end of the century rinderpest had been eradicated from most countries . A few pockets of infection remained in Ethiopia and Sudan , and in 1994 the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) with the aim of global eradication by 2010 . In May 2011 , the FAO and the World Organisation for Animal Health announced that " rinderpest as a freely circulating viral disease has been eliminated from the world . "
Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is a highly contagious infection caused by an aphthovirus , and is classified in the same family as poliovirus . The virus has infected animals , mainly ungulates , in Africa since ancient times and was probably brought to the Americas in the 19th century by imported livestock . Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is rarely fatal , but the economic losses incurred by outbreaks in sheep and cattle herds can be high . The last occurrence of the disease in the US was in 1929 , but as recently as 2001 , several large outbreaks occurred throughout the UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt .
The natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds , although it has probably infected humans since antiquity . The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals . Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages . The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so , posing an ever @-@ present threat .
In the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences . Bluetongue disease , a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out in sheep in France in 2007 . Until then the disease had been mainly confined to the Americas , Africa , southern Asia and northern Australia , but it is now an emerging disease around the Mediterranean .
= = = Plant viruses = = =
During the 20th century , many " old " diseases of plants were found to be caused by viruses . These included maize streak and cassava mosaic disease . As with humans , when plants thrive in close proximity , so do their viruses . This can cause huge economic losses and human tragedies . In Jordan during the 1970s , where tomatoes and cucurbits ( cucumbers , melons and gourds ) were extensively grown , entire fields were infected with viruses . Similarly , in Côte d 'Ivoire , thirty different viruses infected crops such as legumes and vegetables . In Kenya cassava mosaic virus , maize streak virus and groundnut viral diseases caused the loss of up to 70 per cent of the crop . Cassava is the most abundant crop that is grown in eastern Africa and it is a staple crop for more than 200 million people . It was introduced to Africa from South America and grows well in soils with poor fertility . The most important disease of cassava is caused by cassava mosaic virus , a geminivirus , which is transmitted between plants by whiteflies . The disease was first recorded in 1894 and outbreaks of the disease occurred in eastern Africa throughout the 20th century , often resulting in famine .
In the 1920s the sugarbeet growers in the western US suffered huge economic loss caused by damage done to their crops by the leafhopper @-@ transmitted beet curly top virus . In 1956 , between 25 and 50 per cent of the rice crop in Cuba and Venezuela was destroyed by rice hoja blanca virus . In 1958 , it caused the loss of many rice fields in Colombia . Outbreaks recurred in 1981 , which caused losses of up to 100 per cent . In Ghana between 1936 and 1977 , the mealybug @-@ transmitted cacao swollen @-@ shoot virus caused the loss of 162 million cacao trees , and additional trees were lost at the rate of 15 million each year . In 1948 , in Kansas , US , seven per cent of the wheat crop was destroyed by wheat streak mosaic virus , spread by the wheat curl mite ( Aceria tulipae ) . In the 1950s papaya ringspot virus – a potyvirus – caused a devastating loss of solo papaya crops on Oahu , Hawaii . Solo papaya had been introduced to the island in the previous century but the disease had not been seen on the island before the 1940s .
Such disasters occurred when human intervention caused ecological changes by the introduction of crops to new vectors and viruses . Cacao is native to South America and was introduced to West Africa in the late 19th century . In 1936 , swollen root disease had been transmitted to plantations by mealybugs from indigenous trees . New habitats can trigger outbreaks of plant virus diseases . Before 1970 , the rice yellow mottle virus was only found in the Kisumu district of Kenya , but following the irrigation of large areas of East Africa and extensive rice cultivation , the virus spread throughout East Africa . Human activity introduced plant viruses to native crops . The citrus tristeza virus ( CTV ) was introduced to South America from Africa between 1926 and 1930 . At the same time , the aphid Toxoptera citricidus was carried from Asia to South America and this accelerated the transmission of the virus . By 1950 , more than six million citrus trees had been killed by the virus in São Paulo , Brazil . CTV and citrus trees probably coevolved for centuries in their original countries . The dispersal of CTV to other regions and its interaction with new citrus varieties resulted in devastating outbreaks of plant diseases . Because of the problems caused by the introduction – by humans – of plant viruses , many countries have strict importation controls on any materials that can harbour dangerous plant viruses or their insect vectors .
= = Emerging viruses = =
Emerging viruses are those that have only relatively recently infected the host species . In humans , many emerging viruses have come from other animals . When viruses jump to other species the diseases caused in humans are called zoonoses or zoonotic infections .
= = = SARS = = =
Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) is caused by a new type of coronavirus . Other coronaviruses were known to cause mild infections in humans , so the virulence and rapid spread of this novel virus strain caused alarm among health professionals as well as public fear . The fears of a major pandemic were not realised , and by July 2003 , after causing around 8 @,@ 000 cases and 800 deaths , the outbreak had ended . The exact origin of the SARS virus is not known , but evidence suggests that it came from bats .
= = = West Nile virus = = =
West Nile virus , a flavivirus , was first identified in 1937 when it was found in the blood of a feverish woman . The virus , which is carried by mosquitoes and birds , caused outbreaks of infection in North Africa and the Middle East in the 1950s and by the 1960s horses in Europe fell victim . The largest outbreak in humans occurred in 1974 in Cape Province , South Africa and 10 @,@ 000 people became ill . An increasing frequency of epidemics and epizootics ( in horses ) began in 1996 , around the Mediterranean basin , and by 1999 the virus had reached New York City . Since then the virus has spread throughout the US . In the US , mosquitoes carry the highest amounts of virus in late summer , and the number of cases of the disease increases in mid July to early September . When the weather becomes colder , the mosquitoes die and the risk of disease decreases . In Europe , many outbreaks have occurred ; in 2000 a surveillance programme began in the UK to monitor the incidence of the virus in humans , dead birds , mosquitoes and horses . The mosquito ( Culex modestus ) that can carry the virus breeds on the marshes of north Kent . This mosquito species was not previously thought to be present in the UK , but it is widespread in southern Europe where it carries West Nile virus .
= = = Nipah virus = = =
In 1997 an outbreak of respiratory disease occurred in Malaysian farmers and their pigs . More than 265 cases of encephalitis , of which 105 were fatal , were recorded . A new paramyxovirus was discovered in a victim 's brain ; it was named Nipah virus , after the village where he had lived . The infection was caused by a virus from fruit bats , after their colony had been disrupted by deforestation . The bats had moved to trees nearer the pig farm and the pigs caught the virus from their droppings .
= = = Viral haemorrhagic fevers = = =
Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae . Filoviruses are filament @-@ like viruses that cause viral haemorrhagic fever , and include the Ebola and Marburg viruses . The Marburg virus attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 after an outbreak in Angola . Beginning in October 2004 and continuing into 2005 , there were 252 cases including 227 deaths .
The Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa , which began in 2013 , is the most devastating since the emergence of HIV . The initial outbreak occurred in December 2013 in Meliandou , a village in southern Guinea . Among the first victims were a two @-@ year @-@ old boy , his three @-@ year @-@ old sister , their mother and grandmother . After the grandmother 's funeral , which was attended by her family and caregivers , the disease spread to neighbouring villages . By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health . By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone . As of June 2105 , the World Health Organisation reported over 27 @,@ 000 cases of the disease , which had resulted in more than 11 @,@ 000 deaths .
The natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats . Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys , and Lassa fever by rats ( Mastomys natalensis ) . Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well @-@ adapted to new host that their virulence decreases . Some zoonotic infections are often " dead ends " , in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person .
The beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries , which , in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community .
= = Beneficial viruses = =
Sir Peter Medawar ( 1915 – 1987 ) described a virus as " a piece of bad news wrapped in a protein coat " . With the exception of the bacteriophages , viruses had a well @-@ deserved reputation for being nothing but the cause of diseases and death . The discovery of the abundance of viruses and their overwhelming presence in many ecosystems has led modern virologists to reconsider their role in the biosphere .
It is estimated that there are about 1031 viruses on Earth . Most of them are bacteriophages , and most are in the oceans . Microorganisms constitute more than 90 per cent of the biomass in the sea , and it has been estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 per cent of this biomass each day and that there are fifteen times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea . Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms , which often kill other marine life , and help maintain the ecological balance of different species of marine blue @-@ green algae , and thus adequate oxygen production for life on Earth .
The emergence of strains of bacteria that are resistant to a broad range of antibiotics has become a problem in the treatment of bacterial infections . Only two new classes of antibiotics have been developed in the past 30 years , and novel ways of combating bacterial infections are being sought . Bacteriophages were first used to control bacteria in the 1920s , and a large clinical trial was conducted by Soviet scientists in 1963 . This work was unknown outside the Soviet Union until the results of the trial were published in the West in 1989 . The recent and escalating problems caused by antibiotic @-@ resistant bacteria has stimulated a renewed interest in the use of bacteriophages and phage therapy .
The Human Genome Project has revealed the presence of numerous viral DNA sequences scattered throughout the human genome . These sequences make up around eight per cent of human DNA , and appear to be the remains of ancient retrovirus infections of human ancestors . These pieces of DNA have firmly established themselves in human DNA . Most of this DNA is no longer functional , but some of these friendly viruses have brought with them novel genes that are important in human development . Viruses have transferred important genes to plants . About ten per cent of all photosynthesis uses the products of genes that have been transferred to plants from blue @-@ green algae by viruses .
= All things =
" all things " is the 17th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written and directed by lead actress Gillian Anderson , it first aired on April 9 , 2000 , on the Fox network . The episode is unconnected to the wider mythology of The X @-@ Files and functions as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . Watched by 12 @.@ 18 million people , the initial broadcast had a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 1 . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; many called the dialogue pretentious and criticized the characterization of Scully . However , viewer response was generally positive .
The series centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal . The skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , a series of coincidences lead Scully to meet Dr. Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , a married man with whom she had an affair while at medical school . After Waterston slips into a coma , Scully puts aside her skepticism and seeks out alternative medicine to save Waterston .
The script for " all things " , the only episode of the series written by Anderson , was originally fifteen pages too long with no fourth act . It was only after Anderson worked with series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz that the script was finished . The cast and crew helped Anderson adjust to her directorial debut — the first time a woman directed an episode of The X @-@ Files . The episode makes heavy use of " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play , as well as a gong . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of pragmatism and feminist philosophy .
= = Plot = =
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is getting dressed in front of a mirror . As she leaves , her colleague Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) lies in his bed , half of his body covered by bedsheets . The narrative flashes back to a few days earlier : Scully arrives at a hospital and , after a series of coincidences , meets her former professor , Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , with whom she had an affair while attending medical school . He is ill and suffering from an undiagnosed heart condition . She questions whether she made the right decision to leave him and abandon her medical career to pursue a career in the FBI . She meets Waterston 's daughter , Maggie ( Stacy Haiduk ) , who is extremely resentful of Scully for the effect she had on Waterston 's family .
Mulder — on his way to England investigating heart chakra @-@ shaped crop circles — calls Scully and asks her to meet a contact of his , Colleen Azar ( Colleen Flynn ) , to obtain some information . As Scully speaks to Mulder on her cellphone while driving her car , a woman appears on a crosswalk . Scully brakes hard to avoid hitting the woman . As she does so , she narrowly avoids colliding with a diesel truck . She realizes that , had the woman not stepped in her path , the truck would have killed her . When she later arrives at the house of Azar , she observes that Scully is going through a personal crisis and tries to offer her guidance , but Scully is dismissive .
Later , Scully returns to apologize to Azar and agrees to listen to her ideas . Azar shares her knowledge of Buddhism , the concept of the collective unconscious , and the idea of personal auras . Azar believes these concepts might explain these strange occurrences . After a confrontation with Maggie at the hospital , Scully walks through Chinatown . Seeing the woman who appeared earlier at the crosswalk , she follows her to a small Buddhist temple before the mysterious woman seemingly vanishes . Inside the temple , Scully has a vision of what is ailing Waterston . She returns to the hospital with Azar to visit Waterston .
Azar and a healer provide alternative treatment for Waterston , who fully recovers . He announces that he still wants a relationship with Scully , but she realizes she is no longer the same person she was those many years ago and rejects him . As she sits outside the hospital on a bench , Scully thinks that she sees the mysterious woman again , but it turns out to be Mulder . Later , the two agents sit in Mulder 's apartment talking about the events of the last few days . Mulder begins to speak more existentially about what transpired , implying that fate has brought them together but , when he turns to look at Scully , he sees that she has fallen asleep .
= = Production = =
= = = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
to erase history . Pete eventually learns that to get rid of the Reapers , he must throw himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him .
Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies conceived " Father 's Day " as an emotionally driven time travel story to explore Rose 's character . He chose Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell had been a successful writer of spin @-@ off material during the years the programme was on hiatus . The monster element of the story was expanded based on suggestions from Cornell and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter , and the Reapers went through many designs . The episode was filmed in November 2004 at St Paul 's Church and streets in Cardiff . " Father 's Day " was watched by 8 @.@ 06 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received generally positive reviews . Critics praised the focus on character and emotion .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with a flashback of Jackie Tyler telling a younger Rose about her father Pete , who died in a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident on the way to a friend 's wedding .
In the TARDIS , the Doctor agrees to take Rose to the day her father died so that she can be there when it happens . Upon their arrival in London on Saturday 7 November 1987 , they witness the accident , but Rose is unable to move when The Doctor tells her to go comfort her dying father . Rose asks the Doctor if she can try again , and the Doctor allows it but warns Rose to not run until their former selves have left to prevent a paradox . As the accident is about to happen , Rose suddenly runs out and pushes Pete aside , saving his life . The younger versions of the Doctor and Rose vanish . Rose and the Doctor fight about her actions , with the Doctor rebuking her for potentially damaging the timeline . The Doctor takes Rose 's TARDIS key back and storms off without her . Rose decides to go with Pete to the wedding , while the Doctor walks back to the TARDIS only to find that it is now an empty shell . Strange flying beasts called Reapers appear and begin consuming people .
Rose and Pete drive to the wedding together , and the car that had been meant to kill Pete nearly collides with their car . They join the other guests , including Jackie who has brought the infant Rose with her . Rose is surprised to find that Jackie and Pete argue frequently . A young Mickey runs in to warn the guests about the Reapers , who think it is a joke until a Reaper appears above and attacks them . The Doctor runs to the church and directs everyone inside , noting that the age of the church will protect them against the Reapers . The Doctor explains to Rose that her actions have caused a paradox that normally the Time Lords would have prevented . Without them , the Reapers are sterilising the wound in time by consuming everyone within it . The Doctor further warns Rose not to touch her infant self , as it could cause further damage to time and allow the Reapers into the church . Feeling that his TARDIS key is still warm , the Doctor sets it up in the middle of the church and the TARDIS slowly begins materialising around it .
While waiting in the church , Jackie sees Pete talking to Rose and thinks he is having an affair . Pete and Rose talk alone , and he comes to realise that she is his daughter . When Rose is unable to answer questions about how good of a father he was , Pete realises he was meant to die in the accident . Jackie thinks Rose is Pete 's daughter with another woman , and in a fit of frustration Pete hands the baby Rose to adult Rose . The paradox worsens , and a Reaper is able to enter the church . The Doctor declares himself the oldest thing in the church and offers himself to the Reaper , who consumes him and disappears . The TARDIS key goes cold and drops to the ground . Pete realises that they now have no other choice and that he must die in order to restore the timeline . He bids Rose and Jackie an emotional farewell , races out of the church and throws himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him . The timeline is repaired , and those previously consumed by the beasts reappear . The Doctor sends Rose off to be with her dad as he dies , and she holds his hand until he is gone . Rose and the Doctor walk hand @-@ in @-@ hand back to the restored TARDIS .
The episode ends with a flashback similar to the opening , as Jackie explains to a young Rose that Pete did not die alone . She tells Rose about a young woman who stayed with him until he died . In a voice @-@ over , the adult Rose eulogises her father .
= = = Continuity = = =
Continuing the " Bad Wolf " arc of the series , a poster advertising a rave on a wall near where Pete was supposed to die in the beginning has the words " BAD WOLF " defacing it . Rose refers to the ending of this episode in " The Parting of the Ways " , telling Jackie that she met her father and was the girl who held Pete 's hand as he died . Although Pete Tyler dies in this episode , an alternative universe version of him appears in the second series episodes " Rise of the Cybermen " / " Age of Steel " and " Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " .
= = Production = =
According to producer Phil Collinson , showrunner Russell T Davies came up with the concept for " Father 's Day " at an early stage in the planning of the series , as it was a " perfect time travel story " . Davies wanted the storyline to be easy @-@ to @-@ follow and drawn from human emotions . Additionally , the previous seven episodes had established why Rose was a good companion , and so " Father 's Day " shows that she does make mistakes , but in a relatable way . Davies chose Paul Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell was a successful writer of Doctor Who spin @-@ off material , especially in novels for the Virgin New Adventures , which bridged the gap between the classic series and the new . Davies originally intended that the episode be a small budget @-@ saver character piece investigating the death of Rose 's father , but Cornell suggested the addition of the Reapers and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter encouraged the additions of monsters to the new series . Working titles for the episode included " Wounded Time " and " Wound in Time " . Davies came up with the final title of " Father 's Day " in February 2005 , shortly before the series began airing .
Davies and Cornell debated whether it should have been Rose 's plan all along to save her father ; this is left ambiguous in the episode . Billie Piper felt that it did not occur to Rose until after she began travelling . In the original script , in the scene where the Doctor opens the TARDIS doors and discovers only a police box interior , the police box fell apart . This was changed for reasons of cost , and Cornell has stated that he thinks the change is an improvement . Cornell also states that the character of Pete Tyler is based on his own father , who attempted many different jobs and schemes ( including , like Pete , selling health drinks ) before eventually finding success running a betting shop . Pete 's line " I 'm your dad , it 's my job for it to be my fault " is taken from something Cornell 's father once said to him . Originally Pete was to take a swig of wine before sacrificing himself , but this was removed because a correlation between alcohol and bravery was not thought to be a positive message .
The entire episode was shot in Cardiff , in November 2004 . The weather changed frequently during filming , and the cast began to fall ill ; Eccleston had a cold . The production team selected several streets that looked similar . Most of the streets were in the community of Grangetown . The streets did not require much work for them to resemble 1980s streets ; only a few satellite dishes were taken down . The church is St Paul 's Church , also in Grangetown . The set of the Tyler 's flat was redressed for the time period . For the 1980s style , members of the cast and crew brought in photographs of themselves from the ' 80s ; for example , peach dresses and " big hair " were incorporated , but these elements were not meant to be distracting . Camille Coduri , who played Jackie , wore a wig for this episode . Some of the conversation between Rose and her father in the car was cut because the car had made the dialogue delivery too " bouncy " . Piper was scared of holding the baby . Because the baby is present throughout the majority of the episode , but they were limited to how many hours they could work with the infant , an " artificial baby " was used as a placeholder in some scenes .
The Reapers went through many designs . Originally , they were supposed to be " men in cowls " based on the Grim Reaper ; the final design retains some of this image with its " scythe @-@ like tail " . The original design was deemed too similar to creatures seen in " The End of the World " , and so were reworked into something more " otherworldly " . They were not originally intended to fly . There was also discussion of how much they should resemble animals as opposed to the Grim Reaper ; the end result is a mixture of the two approaches . The final design had a " shark quality " , bat wings , and a mouth influenced by the praying mantis . Vulture sound effects were used for its screech . The model was made over two months , being finished at the end of February 2005 rather than at the beginning of January as scheduled . The special effects team then had two or three weeks to complete the " 40 @-@ odd shots " of the completely CGI Reapers in the episode . The episode ended up more expensive than intended because of the CGI .
= = Outside references = =
" The Lamb and Flag " , a pub from the sitcom Bottom , is referenced in the episode . When time is damaged , one of the effects is that mobile telephones all begin to repeat the message , " Watson , come here , I need you , " purportedly Alexander Graham Bell 's first words ever spoken over a telephone . However historical records believe the words to be " Watson , come here , I want you . " The error was not present in Paul Cornell 's original script , but crept in at some point during production . Producer Phil Collinson speculated that it was because the line was rerecorded ; it was originally recorded by someone who the production team felt put on too false of a Scottish accent , and so it was rerecorded with a real Scot .
The episode features two hits from 1987 , " Never Gonna Give You Up " performed by Rick Astley and " Never Can Say Goodbye " performed by The Communards , both of which have some relevance to the basic themes of the story . It also features the 2002 song " Don 't Mug Yourself " by The Streets , indicating the damage to the timeline . Rose believes Pete to be " a bit of a Del Boy " , referring to the character from 1980s comedy Only Fools and Horses .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Father 's Day " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . The episode received UK overnight ratings of 7 @.@ 47 million viewers , an audience share of 42 @.@ 74 % . When time @-@ shifted viewers were taken into account , the number rose to 8 @.@ 06 million . It received an Appreciation Index of 83 .
" Father 's Day " was met with a generally positive reception . Piper stated that this was her favourite episode of the first series , and the most emotionally taxing for her to perform . SFX praised the way the concept of time was explored as well as the accurate representation of the ' 80s , and stated that Dingwall gave " one of the series ' best performances " as Pete Tyler . However , the reviewer thought that the Reapers were the let @-@ down of the episode , finding that " the episode doesn 't feel as much like horror as it should " . Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the episode an A for the emotional impact and the acting . Blumburg did note , however , that there were " enormous logical gaps " involving " glowing TARDIS keys and under @-@ explained paradoxes " . In 2013 , Radio Times reviewer Mark Braxton described it as " a time @-@ travel tale with immense heart " and highlighted the shift of identification from the Doctor to Rose and the acting of Piper and Dingwall . Braxton , on the other hand , felt that the Reapers were redundant and the episode would have done " equally well if you scythed the Reapers from the script " . Reviewing " Father 's Day " for The A.V. Club in 2013 , Alasdair Wilkins gave it a grade of " A " , finding the story powerful . In Who Is the Doctor , a guide to the revived series , Robert Smith praised the emotion and the dilemma , which he felt was not heavy @-@ handed . He was also positive about the direction and Dingwall 's performance , though he felt that removing the Doctor from the plot suggested that he would have done something else to resolve it , and he was not a fan of the scene where the Doctor tells two ordinary people how important their lives are , because it was " cheesy " and " disconnected " from the rest of the story . Coauthor Graeme Burk was also positive , writing that it may be " the best story this season " . He called the direction " wonderful " and the script " sublime " , and noted how the story was more about family than time travel .
" Father 's Day " was nominated for the 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , alongside other first series episodes " Dalek " and " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " . The latter won . " Father 's Day " topped the third place category in terms of votes .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Father 's Day " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" Father 's Day " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Cyril Newall , 1st Baron Newall =
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Cyril Louis Norton Newall , 1st Baron Newall GCB , OM , GCMG , CBE , AM ( 15 February 1886 – 30 November 1963 ) was a senior officer of the British Army and Royal Air Force . He commanded units of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force in the First World War , and served as Chief of the Air Staff during the first years of the Second World War . From 1941 to 1946 he was the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand .
Born to a military family , Newall studied at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , before taking a commission as a junior officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1905 . After transferring to the 2nd Gurkha Rifles in the Indian Army , he saw active service on the North West Frontier , but after learning to fly in 1911 turned towards a career in military aviation . During the First World War he rose from flying instructor to command of 41st Wing RFC , the main strategic bombing force , and was awarded the Albert Medal for putting out a fire in an explosives store .
He served in staff positions through the 1920s and was Air Officer Commanding the Middle East Command in the early 1930s before becoming Air Member for Supply and Organisation in 1935 . Newall was appointed Chief of the Air Staff in 1937 and , in that role , supported sharp increases in aircraft production , increasing expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . However , he was sacked after the Battle of Britain after political intrigue caused him to lose Churchill 's confidence . In 1941 he was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , holding office until 1946 .
= = Early life = =
Newall was born to Lieutenant Colonel William Potter Newall and Edith Gwendoline Caroline Newall ( née Norton ) . After education at Bedford School , he attended the Royal Military College , Sandhurst . After leaving Sandhurst , he was commissioned into the Royal Warwickshire Regiment on 16 August 1905 . He was promoted to lieutenant on 18 November 1908 , and transferred to the 2nd King Edward VII 's Own Gurkha Rifles on 16 September 1909 . He served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where he first encountered his future colleague Hugh Dowding ; at an exercise in 1909 , Dowding 's artillery section ambushed Newall 's Gurkhas whilst they were still breakfasting .
Newall began to turn towards a career in aviation in 1911 , when he learned to fly in a Bristol Biplane at Larkhill whilst on leave in England . He held certificate No. 144 issued by the Royal Aero Club . He later passed a formal course at the Central Flying School , Upavon in 1913 , and began working as a pilot trainer there from 17 November 1913 ; it was intended that he would form part of a flight training school to be established in India , but he had not yet left England when the First World War broke out .
= = First World War = =
On the outbreak of war , Newall was in England . On 12 September 1914 , he was given the temporary rank of captain , and attached to the Royal Flying Corps as a flight commander , to serve with No. 1 Squadron on the Western Front . He was promoted to the permanent rank of captain on 22 September , effective from 16 August . On 24 March 1915 he was promoted to major and appointed to command No. 12 Squadron , flying BE2c aircraft in France from September onwards . The squadron took part in the Battle of Loos , bombing railways and carrying out reconnaissance missions in October 1915 .
On taking command of the squadron , he chose to stop flying personally in order to concentrate on administration , a decision which was regarded dismissively by his men ; relations were strained until January 1916 , when he demonstrated his courage by walking into a burning bomb store to try to control the fire . He was awarded the Albert Medal for this act on the personal recommendation of General Hugh Trenchard , and in February 1916 was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of Training No. 6 Wing in England . In December 1916 he took command of No. 9 Wing in France , a long @-@ range bomber and reconnaissance formation , and in October 1917 took command of the newly formed No. 41 Wing . This was upgraded as the 8th Brigade in December , with Newall promoted accordingly to the temporary rank of brigadier @-@ general on 28 December 1917 . During 1918 , it joined the Independent Bombing Force , which was the main strategic bombing arm of the newly formed Royal Air Force . In June 1918 Newall was appointed the Deputy Commander of the Independent Bombing Force , serving under Trenchard .
Newall was awarded the Croix d 'Officier of the French Legion of Honour on 10 October 1918 , and appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1919 , a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 3 June 1919 and an Officer of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 18 April 1921 .
= = Between the wars = =
Newall was granted a permanent commission in the Royal Air Force as a lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1919 and promoted to group captain on 8 August 1919 . He became Deputy Director of Personnel at the Air Ministry in August 1919 and then Deputy Commandant of the apprentices ' technical training school in August 1922 . He married May Weddell in 1922 ; she died in September 1924 , and he remarried the following year to Olive Foster , an American woman . He had three children with Foster , a son and two daughters .
Newall was promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1925 , and took command of the newly formed Auxiliary Air Force in May 1925 . He was appointed to a League of Nations disarmament committee in December 1925 and then became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and Director of Operations and Intelligence on 12 April 1926 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1929 Birthday Honours and , having been promoted to air vice marshal on 1 January 1930 , he stood down as Deputy Chief on 6 February 1931 . He became Air Officer Commanding Wessex Bombing Area in February 1931 and then Air Officer Commanding Middle East Command in September 1931 . He then returned to the Air Ministry , where he became Air Member for Supply and Organisation on 14 January 1935 , during the beginnings of the pre @-@ war expansion and rearmament . He was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1935 Birthday Honours and promoted to air marshal on 1 July 1935 . He attended the funeral of King George V in January 1936 .
Philosophically , Newall remained a close follower of Trenchard during the interwar period ; his time in the Independent Bombing Force had left him convinced that strategic bombing was an exceptionally powerful weapon , and one that could not effectively be defended against . In this , he was a supporter of the standard doctrine of the day , which suggested that the destructive power of a bomber force was sufficiently great that it could cripple an industrial economy in short order , and that so merely its presence could potentially serve as an effective deterrent . He was promoted to air chief marshal on 1 April 1937 .
= = Chief of the Air Staff = =
On 1 September 1937 , Newall was appointed as Chief of the Air Staff , the military head of the RAF , in succession to Sir Edward Ellington . The promotion was unexpected ; of the prospective candidates mooted for the job , Newall has been widely seen by historians as the least gifted . The most prominent candidate was Hugh Dowding , the head of RAF Fighter Command and senior in rank to Newall by three months , who had been informally told by Ellington in 1936 that he was expected to be appointed as the new Chief of the Air Staff . The decision was taken by the Air Minister , Viscount Swinton , without consulting Ellington for advice .
During 1936 and 1937 , the Air Staff had been fighting with the Cabinet over the rearmament plans ; the Air Staff wanted a substantial bomber force and only minor increases in fighters , whilst the Minister for Defence Co @-@ ordination , Sir Thomas Inskip , successfully pushed for a greater role for the fighter force . Newall was promoted during the middle of this debate , and proved perhaps more flexible than might have been expected . In 1938 he supported sharp increases in aircraft production , including double @-@ shift working and duplication of factories , and pushed for the creation of a dedicated organisation to repair and refit damaged aircraft . He supported expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . He even began to distance himself , albeit slightly , from orthodox bomber philosophy , noting to the Minister for Air that " no one can say with absolute certainty that a nation can be knocked out from the air , because no @-@ one has yet attempted it " . Discussing plans for reacting to a war with Italy , in early 1939 , he opposed a French proposal to force Italy 's surrender by the use of heavy bombing raids against the north , arguing that it would be unlikely to force the country out of the war without the need for ground combat .
Newall was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1938 Birthday Honours . He was still Chief of the Air Staff at the outbreak of the Second World War on 1 September 1939 ; his main contribution to the war effort was his successful resistance to the transfer of fighter squadrons to aid the collapsing French thus preserving a large portion of Fighter Command which would become crucial during the Battle of Britain . While he remained committed to the idea of a " knock @-@ out blow " offensive by Bomber Command , he also recognised that it was too weak to do so successfully , but still strongly opposed the use of the RAF for close air support .
Following the end of the Battle of Britain , Newall was quickly forced into retirement and replaced as Chief of the Air Staff by Sir Charles Portal . Contemporaries attributed this to the effects of overwork , which had certainly taken its toll , but there were also other aspects ; Newall had lost political support , particularly following a dispute with Lord Beaverbrook over the control of aircraft production and repair . Matters came to a head with the circulation of an anonymous memo attacking Newall , among other senior officers , as " a real weakness to the RAF and to the nation 's defences " . The author was Edgar McCloughry , a disaffected staff officer who saw himself as passed over for promotion and who had been brought into Beaverbrook 's inner circle . Beaverbrook pressed Churchill to dismiss Newall , gaining the support of influential ex @-@ RAF figures such as Trenchard and Salmond . Trenchard had come out against Newall for his failure to launch a decisive strategic bombing offensive , while Salmond saw Newall 's removal as the simplest way to replace Dowding as head of Fighter Command – despite Newall having also sought to sack Dowding .
He was promoted to Marshal of the Royal Air Force on 4 October 1940 and retired from the RAF later that month . He was awarded the Order of Merit on 29 October , and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 21 November .
= = New Zealand and later life = =
In February 1941 Newall was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , a post he would hold for the remainder of the war . His time there was mostly quiet – described by one biographer as " a nice long rest " – and he toured the country extensively , referring to the war " in every public address " . Newall and his wife , who also carried out an extensive program of engagements , were broadly popular , but there were occasional tensions ; shortly after his arrival , it was widely ( but mistakenly ) rumoured that he had slighted the " men " of the Army in favour of the " gentlemen " of the RNZAF in a speech . A Freemason , Newall became Grand Master of New Zealand 's Grand Lodge while Governor @-@ General .
Politically , he had a lukewarm relationship with the Prime Minister , Peter Fraser – " I can 't persuade myself that he is all he quite appears to be " , Newall noted in a private report – but the two worked together effectively . Small problems occasionally flared up , such as that in October 1942 , when Fraser was reprimanded for not personally informing Newall of the resignation of four ministers . However , only one developed into a direct confrontation , when Newall became the last Governor @-@ General to refuse to follow the advice of his cabinet . Newall was presented with a government recommendation to remit four prisoners sentenced to be flogged , but refused to do so . He argued that if the government was opposed to flogging , it should repeal the legislation rather than simply remitting the sentences , and that it was constitutionally improper for the government to retain the law while ignoring it . Fraser , and his deputy Walter Nash , refused to accept this response , and the impasse stretched out for several days ; in the end , a compromise was reached where Newall remitted the sentences but the government undertook to repeal the legislation .
A second conflict emerged just before the end of his term , when in 1945 , the Labour government sought to abolish the country quota , a system that gave additional electoral seats in rural areas . Farming groups – predominantly National @-@ supporting – strongly opposed the move , and argued that such a major change could only be made after gaining approval in a general election . Newall sympathised , and advised Fraser to wait until after the election , but did not feel it was appropriate to intervene ; he assented to the bill .
Following his return from New Zealand in 1946 , Newall was raised to the peerage as Baron Newall , of Clifton upon Dunsmoor , in the county of Warwick . He spoke in the House of Lords rarely , making five speeches between 1946 and 1948 and one in 1959 , mostly addressing defence issues . Newall died at his home at Welbeck Street in London on 30 November 1963 , at which time his son Francis inherited his title .
= = Arms = =
= Salyut 6 =
Salyut 6 ( Russian : Салют @-@ 6 ; lit . Salute 6 ) , DOS @-@ 5 , was a Soviet orbital space station , the eighth flown as part of the Salyut programme . Launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket , the station was the first of the ' second @-@ generation ' type of space station . Salyut 6 possessed several revolutionary advances over the earlier Soviet space stations , which it nevertheless resembled in overall design . These included the addition of a second docking port , a new main propulsion system and the station 's primary scientific instrument , the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope . The addition of the second docking port made crew handovers and station resupply by unmanned Progress freighters possible for the first time . The early Salyut stations had no means of resupply or removing accumulated garbage ( aside from the limited amount that cosmonauts could carry in their Soyuz spacecraft ) , nor could the propulsion system be refueled once it exhausted its propellant supply . Consequently , once the consumables launched with the station were used up , its mission had to be concluded and as a result , manned missions had a maximum duration of three months . Progress spacecraft could now bring fresh supplies and propellant and also be used to dispose of waste , which was then destroyed once the spacecraft was deorbited .
Five crew residencies took place over the station 's lifespan , in late 1977 @-@ early 1978 , late 1978 , mid @-@ 1979 , mid @-@ 1980 , and early 1981 , including cosmonauts from Warsaw Pact countries as part of the Intercosmos programme . These crews were responsible for carrying out the primary missions of Salyut 6 , including astronomy , Earth @-@ resources observations and the study of the effect of spaceflight on the human body . Following the completion of these missions and the launch of its successor , Salyut 7 , Salyut 6 was deorbited on 29 July 1982 , almost five years after its launch .
= = Description = =
Salyut 6 , launched on a Proton 8K82K rocket on 29 September 1977 , marked the switch from engineering development stations to routine operations , and united the most effective elements from each of the previous stations . Its navigation system , made up of the Delta semi @-@ automatic computer to depict the station 's orbit and the Kaskad system to control its orientation , was based on that used on Salyut 4 , as was its power system , which consisted of a trio of steerable solar panels together producing a peak of 4 kilowatts of power over 51 m ² . The station 's thermal regulation systems , which made use of a sophisticated arrangement of insulation and radiators , was also derived from that used on Salyut 4 . In addition , Salyut 6 made use of environmental systems first used on Salyut 3 , and controlled its orientation using gyrodynes first tested on that station .
The most important feature on Salyut 6 , however , was the addition of a second docking port on the aft end of the station , which allowed two spacecraft to be docked at once . This , in turn , allowed resident crews to receive shorter , ' visiting ' expeditions whilst they remained on board , and for crew handovers to take place . In addition , it allowed Soyuz spacecraft that had exceeded their operating lifespan to be returned to Earth and replaced by fresh ones ( the Soyuz 7K used from 1972 @-@ 81 had a maximum operating lifespan of three months ) . Such handovers , with one expedition vacating the station only after the next had arrived , permitted the long sought @-@ after aim of continuous occupation to move a step closer . The very first long @-@ duration crew to visit the station broke a long @-@ standing endurance record set on board the American Skylab station , staying 96 days in orbit , whilst the longest expedition lasted 185 days . Some of the visiting expeditions were flown as part of the Intercosmos programme , with non @-@ Soviet cosmonauts visiting the station . Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia , the first space traveller not from the US or USSR , visited Salyut 6 in 1978 , and the station hosted cosmonauts from Hungary , Poland , Romania , Cuba , Mongolia , Vietnam , and East Germany .
The rearward of the two ports was fitted with plumbing to allow the station to be refueled by unmanned Progress spacecraft . These freighters , which brought supplies and extra equipment to keep the station replenished , helped ensure that the crew were always able to carry out useful scientific work aboard the station . In all , twelve Progress flights delivered over 20 tonnes of equipment , supplies and fuel .
The addition of the extra docking port caused the adoption of the Almaz @-@ derived twin @-@ chamber propulsion system first used on Salyut 3 and 5 , with the two engine nozzles — each producing 2 @.@ 9 kilonewtons of thrust — mounted peripherally on either side of the aft port . Salyut 6 introduced a Unified Propulsion System , with both the engines and the station 's control thrusters running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide , drawn from a common set of pressurized tanks , allowing the refueling capabilities of the visiting Progress tankers to be exploited to the maximum effect . The entire engine and fuel storage assembly was contained within an unpressurized bay at the rear of the station , which was the same diameter as the main pressurized compartment . However , the replacement of the Soyuz engine used on previous stations with the bay meant that the station kept a similar overall length to its predecessors . The main engines could not be fired if the rear docking port was in use , hence any orbital maneuvers during this time had to be performed by the visiting spacecraft .
Salyut 6 's propulsion system experienced a serious malfunction during the second crew residency in 1978 and was not usable again for the remainder of the station 's lifespan . As a consequence , it was limited to firing its attitude control thrusters and visiting spacecraft had to perform orbital adjustments . After each crew residency ended , it was necessary for Progress and TKS spacecraft to boost the station into a high orbit so it wouldn 't decay until the next residency began .
To enable spacewalks , Salyut 6 was equipped with an inward @-@ opening EVA hatch on the side of the forward transfer compartment , which could be used as an airlock in a similar way to the system used on Salyut 4 . This compartment contained two new semi @-@ rigid spacesuits which allowed much greater flexibility than earlier suits , and could be donned within five minutes in case of an emergency . Finally , the station offered considerable improvements in living conditions over previous outposts , with machinery being soundproofed , the crews being provided with designated ' cots ' for sleeping and the equipping of the station with a shower and extensive gymnasium .
= = = Instruments = = =
The primary instrument carried aboard the station was the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope , which could carry out astronomical observations in the infrared , ultraviolet and submillimetre spectra using a 1 @.@ 5 metre @-@ diameter mirror which was operated in cryogenic conditions at around − 269 ° C. The telescope could be operated only when Salyut 6 was on the night side of the Earth , and had its cover closed for the rest of the time .
The second major instrument was the MKF @-@ 6M multispectral camera , which carried out Earth @-@ resources observations . An improved form of a camera first tested on Soyuz 22 , the camera captured an area of 165 × 220 kilometres with each image , down to a resolution of 20 metres . Each image was captured simultaneously in six bands in 1200 @-@ frame cassettes , which required regular replacement due to the fogging effects of radiation . Salyut 6 also featured a KATE @-@ 140 stereoscopic topographic mapping camera with a focal length of 140 milimetres , which captured images of 450 × 450 kilometres with a resolution of 50 metres in the visible and infrared spectra , which could be operated either remotely or by the resident crews . The photographic capabilities of the station were , therefore , extensive , and the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had planted a number of specifically selected crops at test sites to examine the capabilities of the cameras .
To further expand its scientific capabilities , Salyut 6 was equipped with 20 portholes for observations , two scientific airlocks to expose equipment to space or eject rubbish , and various pieces of apparatus to carry out biological experiments . Later on during the flight , a Progress spacecraft delivered an external telescope , the KRT @-@ 10 radio observatory , which incorporated a directional antenna and five radiometers . The antenna was deployed on the rear docking assembly , with the controller remaining inside the station , and was used for both astronomical and meteorological observations .
= = Support craft = =
Salyut 6 was primarily supported by the manned Soyuz spacecraft , which carried out crew rotations and would also have been used in the event of an emergency evacuation . The ferries docked automatically to the station , making use of the new Igla automatic docking system , and were used by departing crews to return to Earth at the end of their flight .
The station was the first to be able to be resupplied by the newly developed unmanned Progress freighters , although they could only dock at the rear port , as the front port lacked the plumbing used to refuel the propulsion system . The freighters docked automatically to the station via the Igla , and were then opened and emptied by the cosmonauts on board , whilst transfer of fuel to the station took place automatically under supervision from the ground .
In addition to the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft , after the final crew had left , Salyut 6 was visited by an experimental transport logistics spacecraft called Kosmos 1267 in 1982 . The transport logistics spacecraft , known as the TKS , was originally designed for the Almaz programme , and proved that large modules could dock automatically with space stations , a major step toward the construction of multimodular stations such as Mir and the International Space Station .
= = Resident crews = =
The station received 16 cosmonaut crews , including six long @-@ duration crews , with the longest expedition lasting 185 days . Resident crew missions were identified with an EO prefix , whilst short @-@ duration missions were identified with EP .
On 10 December 1977 the first resident crew , Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko , arrived on Soyuz 26 and remained aboard Salyut 6 for 96 days .
On 15 June 1978 , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov ( Soyuz 29 ) arrived and remained on board for 140 days .
Vladimir Lyakhov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 32 ) arrived on 25 February 1979 and stayed 175 days .
On 9 April 1980 Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 35 ) arrived for the longest stay on Salyut 6 , 185 days . While aboard , on 19 July , they sent their greetings to the Olympians and wished them happy starts in the live communication between the station and the Central Lenin Stadium , where the opening ceremony of the 1980 Summer Olympics was held . They appeared on the stadium 's scoreboard and their voices were translated via loud speakers .
A repair mission , consisting of Leonid Kizim , Oleg Makarov , and Gennady Strekalov ( Soyuz T @-@ 3 ) worked on the space station for 12 days starting on 27 November 1980 .
On 12 March 1981 the last resident crew , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinykh , arrived and stayed for 75 days .
= = Station operations = =
= = = Docking operations = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Moscow Time . Source :
= = = Station crews = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time .
= = = Spacewalks = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time . Source :
= HMS Achilles ( 1863 ) =
HMS Achilles was an armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy in the 1860s . Upon completion in 1864 she was assigned to the Channel Fleet . The ship was paid off in 1868 to refit and be re @-@ armed . When she recommissioned in 1869 , she was assigned as the guard ship of the Fleet Reserve in the Portland District until 1874 . Achilles was refitted and re @-@ armed again in 1874 and became the guard ship of the Liverpool District in 1875 . Two years later , she was rejoined the Channel Fleet before going to the Mediterranean in 1878 . The ship returned to the Channel Fleet in 1880 and served until she was paid off in 1885 .
Achilles was recommissioned in 1901 as a depot ship at Malta under a succession of different names . She was transferred to Chatham in 1914 and was again renamed multiple times before she was sold for scrap in 1923 . Achilles had more changes of her rigging and armament than any other British warship , before or since .
= = Design and description = =
Achilles was the third member of the 1861 Naval Programme and was designed as an improved version of the earlier Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates with a complete waterline armour belt .
The ship was 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars , had a beam of 58 feet 3 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 820 long tons ( 9 @,@ 980 t ) and had a tonnage of 6 @,@ 121 bm . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 106 compartments and had a double bottom . Achilles was designed with a high centre of gravity and was very stiff . So much so that the ship only rolled 10 degrees during one storm that ripped the main and mizen topgallant masts off and split her topsails . Because of her great length she was not very manoeuvrable . Achilles had a crew of 709 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . During her sea trials on 15 March 1865 , Achilles had a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 32 knots ( 26 @.@ 52 km / h ; 16 @.@ 48 mph ) from 5 @,@ 722 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 267 kW ) . The ship carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) .
As built , Achilles was ship @-@ rigged with four masts , called bow , fore , main and mizen from fore to aft , and she was the only British warship ever to have four masts . They carried a total of 44 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 088 m2 ) of sail area , excluding the stunsails , the greatest area ever spread in a British warship . Her performance was unsatisfactory when the wind was before the beam and her bowsprit and bowmast were removed in June 1865 in an attempt to correct this problem . However , now she had too much weather helm so the bowsprit was replaced and the foremast was moved forward 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in July 1866 . This reduced her sail area to 30 @,@ 133 square feet ( 2 @,@ 799 m2 ) . In 1877 Achilles was rerigged as a barque . Both of her funnels were retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone .
= = = Armament = = =
The intended armament of Achilles changed no less than five times before it was finally mounted . She received four rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns mounted on the upper deck , two of which served as chase guns at the bow and stern , and 16 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 100 @-@ pounder Somerset cannon , eight on each side on the main deck . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards . In 1865 , six 68 @-@ pounder smoothbores were added , three on each side of the main deck , although she was not comprehensively rearmed until her 1868 refit .
Detailed data for the Somerset cannon is not available , but the 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Achilles was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with 22 seven @-@ inch and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The eight @-@ inch guns and 18 seven @-@ inch guns were mounted on the main deck and the remaining seven @-@ inch guns replaced the 110 @-@ pounders on the upper deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
In 1874 the ship was rearmed with 16 nine @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loaders replacing the 4 eight @-@ inch and 20 of the 22 seven @-@ inch guns . Fourteen of the nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns were mounted on the main deck and the other two replaced the seven @-@ inch chase guns . The two remaining seven @-@ inch guns stayed in their position on the quarterdeck . As the nine @-@ inch guns were considerably bigger than their predecessors , the gun ports had to be widened to accommodate them . The shell of the 14 @-@ calibre nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was rated with the ability to penetrate a 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle .
= = = Armour = = =
The ship had a wrought iron waterline armour belt that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick for a length of 212 feet ( 64 @.@ 6 m ) and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour , also 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick and 212 feet long . To protect against raking fire the upper strake was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end .
= = Construction and service = =
Achilles , named after the Greek mythological hero , was ordered on 10 April 1861 from the Chatham Dockyard . She was the first iron @-@ hulled warship to be built at a royal dockyard and her construction was delayed by the need to acquire the necessary machinery to handle iron and to train the workers to use it . The ship was laid down on 1 August 1861 in a drydock and was floated out rather than being launched on 23 December 1863 . Achilles was completed on 26 November 1864 at the cost of £ 469 @,@ 572 .
She served in the Channel Fleet until 1868 . After a refit and her first major re @-@ armament , Achilles became the guardship at Portland until 1874 when she was again re @-@ armed . Upon its completion in 1875 , the ship became guardship at Liverpool until 1877 when Captain William Hewett , VC , assumed command . In 1878 she was one of the ships in the Particular Service Squadron which Admiral Geoffrey Hornby took through the Dardanelles at the time of the Russian war scare in June – August 1878 during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . Achilles accidentally collided with the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet , Alexandra , in October 1879 , but was only lightly damaged by Alexandra 's propeller . The ship rejoined the Channel Fleet in 1880 and was paid off in 1885 .
She lay derelict in the Hamoaze until April 1901 , when she was sent to Malta as a depot ship . To release her name for the new armoured cruiser , Achilles was renamed Hibernia in 1902 . She was renamed Egmont in March 1904 , and remained in Malta until 1914 . Her role in Malta was assumed by the stone frigate Fort St Angelo . She was brought home to Chatham that year , and served there as a depot ship under the successive names of Egremont ( 19 June 1916 ) and Pembroke ( 6 June 1919 ) . The ship was sold for scrap on 26 January 1923 to the Granton Shipbreaking Co .
= M3 Gun Motor Carriage =
The M3 Gun Motor Carriage ( GMC ) was a United States Army tank destroyer equipped with one 75 mm gun and was produced by Autocar . After the fall of France , the U.S. Army decided to make a self @-@ propelled artillery piece from the M1897A4 gun on the M3 chassis , which was designated the T12 . After some improvement , it came into production as the M3 Gun Motor Carriage . However , the supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient for production needs , so a new gun shield was used . This was designated the M3A1 GMC .
The T12 / M3 first served in the Philippines Campaign in 1942 with the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade in the anti @-@ tank and the fire @-@ support role . It then served in North Africa in tank destroyer battalions . It was used ineffectively in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and several other engagements , but was used with success in the Battle of El Guettar . It also served in the Allied invasion of Sicily , but was eventually superseded by the M10 tank destroyer . A total of 2 @,@ 203 were produced , of which 1 @,@ 361 were converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .
The M3 GMC also served in the Pacific theater , starting with the Battle of Saipan . It proved effective against the Japanese Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha tanks . It later served in the Battle of Okinawa , the Battle of Peleliu and many other island battles .
= = Specifications = =
The M3 GMC was 20 @.@ 46 feet ( 6 @.@ 24 m ) long , 6 @.@ 45 feet ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) wide , 8 @.@ 17 feet ( 2 @.@ 49 m ) high ( including the gun shield ) , and weighed 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . Its suspension consisted of semi @-@ elliptical longitudal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks , while its transmission consisted of constant mesh . Its ground clearance was 11 @.@ 2 inches ( 280 mm ) .
It had a White 160AX 147 horsepower ( 110 kW ) , 386 cubic inch ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder engine with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 44 : 1 . It had a 150 mile ( 240 km ) range , 60 US gal ( 230 l ) fuel tank , a speed of 47 mph ( 75 km / h ) , and a power to weight ratio of 14 @.@ 7 hp per ton . It was armed with one 75 mm M1897A5 with 59 rounds , had 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 625 in ( 6 @.@ 4 – 15 @.@ 9 mm ) of armor , and a crew of five consisting of a commander , gunner , two loaders , and a driver . The M3 ( with the M2A3 mount ) could traverse 19 ° left and 21 ° right , elevate 29 ° and depress − 10 ° . The M3A1 ( using the M5 mount ) could traverse 21 ° in both directions , but could only depress − 6 @.@ 5 ° .
= = Development = =
After the fall of France , the U.S. Army studied the reasons behind the effectiveness of the German campaign against the French and British forces . One aspect that was highlighted by this study was the use of self propelled artillery ; however , by 1941 , there was little available in the U.S. Army 's arsenal that could be used in such a role . The Army had a number of M1897A5 guns , sufficient enough for the mass @-@ production for such a weapon , and the M3 half @-@ track was coming into production . After some debate , the Army decided to place M1897A5 guns on the M3 half @-@ track chassis , which was designated the T12 GMC . The M1897A5 gun was originally adapted for the M3 chassis by placing it in a welded box riveted to the chassis behind the driver 's compartment . It was accepted by the Army on 31 October 1941 .
A batch of 36 T12s were used for testing , while another 50 were built and transported to the Philippines . The 36 T12s were improved in multiple ways . The improvements included the inclusion of a mount that raised the gun shield , the replacement of the original gun shield with the M2A3 gun shield , and the addition of a 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine gun , which was later removed . After the final improvements were finished , the prototype vehicles were sent to the Autocar Company for production .
= = = M3A1 = = =
As the existing supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient to meet requirements for the production of the M3 , the Ordnance Department developed the M5 gun shield , which replaced the M2A3 . The new design was designated as the M3A1 Gun Motor Carriage .
= = Service history = =
= = = American use = = =
The T12 / M3 GMC first saw action with the U.S. Army in the Philippines in 1941 – 42 , six months after it was designed . Three battalions of the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade operated T12s against the Japanese when they invaded the Philippines . During the early part of the campaign , the vehicle was used to provide direct covering fire and anti @-@ tank support . The Japanese captured a few vehicles in 1942 and used them in the defense of the Philippines .
By 1942 , M3 GMCs were being used by tank destroyer battalions in the North African Campaign , each of which consisted of 36 M3s and four 37 mm M6 GMCs . The M3 GMCs , which were designed for ambushing tanks , proved to be inadequate for this task in the battles of Sidi Bou Zid and Kasserine Pass , mainly due to poor tactics . Nevertheless , the M3 was later used in the Battle of El Guettar with success , claiming 30 German tanks , including possibly two Tiger tanks , at the cost of 21 M3s . Some M3s also saw service in Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) , but by that time , the M10 tank destroyer had replaced it in the U.S. Army . A total of 1 @,@ 360 M3 GMCs were also converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .
The M3 also served with the U.S. Marines in the Pacific Theater of Operations and was first used in the invasion of Saipan . It proved highly effective against the Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and the Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha , in the fight against the Japanese 9th Tank Regiment on Saipan . It also served in the Battle of Peleliu and the Battle of Okinawa , and many other conflicts in the Pacific .
= = = Allied use = = =
The M3 GMC saw limited service with other countries as it was not widely supplied through the Lend @-@ Lease program . A small batch of 170 vehicles were supplied to Britain , which used them in armored car regiments . They were first used in the Tunisian Campaign with the Royal Dragoons . They were also used in Sicily , Italy , and later in France , but were gradually retired . The Free French Army also used M3s for training before receiving M10 tank destroyers .
= = Production = =
A total of 2 @,@ 202 M3 GMCs were produced from 1941 to 1943 . Only 86 vehicles were produced in 1941 , but this was increased in 1942 during which 1 @,@ 350 examples came off the production lines . A further 766 were completed in 1943 . Production was stopped due to the release of better tank destroyers , like the M10 GMC .
= Óengus I =
Óengus son of Fergus ( Pictish : * Onuist map Urguist ; Old Irish : Óengus mac Fergusso , " Angus mac Fergus " ) , was king of the Picts from 732 until his death in 761 . His reign can be reconstructed in some detail from a variety of sources .
Óengus became the chief king in Pictland following a period of civil war in the late 720s . During his reign , the neighbouring kingdom of Dál Riata was subjugated and the kingdom of Strathclyde was attacked with less success . The most powerful ruler in Scotland for over two decades , he was involved in wars in Ireland and England . Kings from Óengus 's family dominated Pictland until 839 when a disastrous defeat at the hands of Vikings began a new period of instability , which ended with the coming to power of Cináed mac Ailpín .
= = Rise to power = =
Irish genealogies make Óengus a member of the Eóganachta of Munster , as a descendant of Coirpre Cruthnechán or " Cairbre the little Pict " , a mythological emanation or double of Coirpre Luachra mac Cuirc , legendary son of Conall Corc , and ancestor of the Eóganacht Locha Léin , rulers of the kingdom of Iarmuman . The branch of the kindred from which he came , known in the annals as the Eoghanachta Magh Geirginn , were said to be located in an area known as Circinn , usually associated with modern Angus and the Mearns . His early life is unknown ; Óengus was middle @-@ aged by the time he entered into history . His close kin included at least two sons , Bridei ( died 736 ) and Talorgan ( died 782 ) , and two brothers , Talorgan ( died 750 ) and Bridei ( died 763 ) .
King Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ile abdicated to enter a monastery in 724 and was imprisoned by his successor Drest in 726 . In 728 and 729 , four kings competed for power in Pictland : Drest ; Nechtan ; Alpín , of whom little is known ; and lastly Óengus , who was a partisan of Nechtan , and perhaps his acknowledged heir .
Four battles large enough to be recorded in Ireland were fought in 728 and 729 . Alpín was defeated twice by Óengus , after which Nechtan was restored to power . In 729 a battle between supporters of Óengus and Nechtan 's enemies was fought at Monith Carno ( traditionally Cairn o ' Mount , near Fettercairn ) where the supporters of Óengus were victorious . Nechtan was restored to the kingship , probably until his death in 732 . On 12 August 729 Óengus defeated and killed Drest in battle at Druimm Derg Blathuug , a place which has not been identified .
= = Piercing of Dal Riata = =
In the 730s , Óengus fought against Dál Riata whose traditional overlords and protectors in Ireland , the Cenél Conaill , were much weakened at this time . A fleet from Dál Riata fought for Flaithbertach mac Loingsig , chief of the Cenél Conaill , in his war with Áed Allán of the Cenél nEógan , and suffered heavy losses in 733 . Dál Riata was ruled by Eochaid mac Echdach of the Cenél nGabráin who died in 733 , and the king lists are unclear as to who , if anyone , succeeded him as overking . The Cenél Loairn of north Argyll were ruled by Dúngal mac Selbaig whom Eochaid had deposed as overking of Dál Riata in the 720s .
Fighting between the Picts , led by Óengus 's son Bridei , and the Dál Riata , led by Talorgan mac Congussa , is recorded in 731 . In 733 , Dúngal mac Selbaig " profaned [ the sanctuary ] of Tory Island when he dragged Bridei out of it . " Dúngal , previously deposed as overking of Dál Riata , was overthrown as king of the Cenél Loairn and replaced by his first cousin Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig .
In 734 Talorgan mac Congussa was handed over to the Picts by his brother and drowned by them . Talorgan son of Drostan was captured near Dún Ollaigh . He appears to have been the King of Atholl , and was drowned on Óengus 's order in 739 . Dúngal too was a target in this year . He was wounded , the unidentified fortress of Dún Leithfinn was destroyed , and he " fled into Ireland , to be out of the power of Óengus . "
The annals report a second campaign by Óengus against the Dál Riata in 736 . Dúngal , who had returned from Ireland , and his brother Feradach , were captured and bound in chains . The fortresses of Creic and Dunadd were taken . Muiredach of the Cenél Loairn was no more successful , defeated with heavy loss by Óengus 's brother Talorgan mac Fergusa , perhaps by Loch Awe . A final campaign in 741 saw the Dál Riata again defeated . This was recorded in the Annals of Ulster as Percutio Dál Riatai la h @-@ Óengus m . Forggusso , the " smiting of Dál Riata by Óengus son of Fergus " . With this Dál Riata disappears from the record for a generation .
It may be that Óengus was involved in wars in Ireland , perhaps fighting with Áed Allán , or against him as an ally of Cathal mac Finguine . The evidence for such involvement is limited . There is the presence of Óengus 's son Bridei at Tory Island , on the north @-@ west coast of Donegal in 733 , close to the lands of Áed Allán 's enemy Flaithbertach mac Loingsig . Less certainly , the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland report the presence of a Pictish fleet from Fortriu fighting for Flaithbertach in 733 rather than against him .
= = Alt Clut , Northumbria , and Mercia = =
In 740 , a war between the Picts and the Northumbrians is reported , during which Æthelbald , King of Mercia , took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria to ravage his lands , and perhaps burn York . The reason for the war is unclear , but it has been suggested that it was related to the killing of Earnwine son of Eadwulf on Eadberht 's orders . Earnwine 's father had been an exile in the north after his defeat in the civil war of 705 – 706 , and it may be that Óengus , or Æthelbald , or both , had tried to place him on the Northumbrian throne .
Battles between the Picts and the Britons of Alt Clut , or Strathclyde , are recorded in 744 and again in 750 , when Kyle was taken from Alt Clut by Eadberht of Northumbria . The 750 battle between the Britons and the Picts is reported at a place named Mocetauc ( perhaps Mugdock near Milngavie ) in which Talorgan mac Fergusa , Óengus 's brother , was killed . Following the defeat in 750 , the Annals of Ulster record " the ebbing of the sovereignty of Óengus " . This is thought to refer to the coming to power of Áed Find , son of Eochaid mac Echdach , in all or part of Dál Riata , and his rejection of Óengus 's overlordship .
Unlike the straightforward narrative of the attacks on Dál Riata , a number of interpretations have been offered of the relations between Óengus , Eadberht and Æthelbald in the period from 740 to 750 . One suggestion is that Óengus and Æthelbald were allied against Eadberht , or even that they exercised a joint rulership of Britain , or bretwaldaship , Óengus collecting tribute north of the River Humber and Æthelbald south of the Humber . This rests largely on a confused passage in Symeon of Durham 's Historia Regum Anglorum , and it has more recently been suggested that the interpretation offered by Frank Stenton — that it is based on a textual error and that Óengus and Æthelbald were not associated in any sort of joint overlordship — is the correct one .
In 756 , Óengus is found campaigning alongside Eadberht of Northumbria . The campaign is reported as follows :
In the year of the Lord 's incarnation 756 , king Eadberht in the eighteenth year of his reign , and Unust , king of Picts led armies to the town of Dumbarton . And hence the Britons accepted terms there , on the first day of the month of August . But on the tenth day of the same month perished almost the whole army which he led from Ouania to Niwanbirig .
That Ouania is Govan is now reasonably certain , but the location of Newanbirig is less so . Although there are very many Newburghs , it is Newburgh @-@ on @-@ Tyne near Hexham that has been the preferred location . An alternative interpretation of the events of 756 has been advanced : it identifies Newanbirig with Newborough by Lichfield in the kingdom of Mercia . A defeat here for Eadberht and Óengus by Æthelbald 's Mercians would correspond with the claim in the Saint Andrews foundation legends that a king named Óengus son of Fergus founded the church there as a thanksgiving to Saint Andrew for saving him after a defeat in Mercia .
= = The cult of Saint Andrew = =
The story of the foundation of St Andrews , originally Cennrígmonaid , is not contemporary and may contain many inventions . The Irish annals report the death of " Tuathalán , abbot of Cinrigh Móna " , in 747 , making it certain that St Andrews had been founded before that date , probably by Óengus or by Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ilei . It is generally presumed that the St Andrews Sarcophagus was executed at the command of Óengus . Later generations may have conflated this king Óengus with the 9th century king of the same name . The choice of David as a model is , as Alex Woolf notes , an appropriate one : David too was an usurper .
The cult of Saint Andrew may have come to Pictland from Northumbria , as had the cult of Saint Peter which had been favoured by Nechtan , and in particular from the monastery at Hexham which was dedicated to Saint Andrew . This apparent connection with the Northumbrian church may have left a written record . Óengus , like his successors and possible kinsmen Caustantín and Eógan , is recorded prominently in the Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis , a list of some 3000 benefactors for whom prayers were said in religious institutions connected with Durham .
= = Death and legacy = =
Óengus died in 761 , " aged probably more than seventy , ... the dominating figure in the politics of Northern Britain " . His death is reported in the usual brief style by the annalists , except for the continuator of Bede in Northumbria , possibly relying upon a Dál Riata source , who wrote :
Óengus , king of the Picts , died . From the beginning of his reign right to the end he perpetrated bloody crimes , like a tyrannical slaughterer .
The Pictish Chronicle king lists have it that he was succeeded by his brother Bridei . His son Talorgan was later king , and is the first son of a Pictish king known to have become king .
The following 9th @-@ century Irish praise poem from the Book of Leinster is associated with Óengus :
Good the day when Óengus took Alba ,
hilly Alba with its strong chiefs ;
he brought battle to palisaded towns ,
with feet , with hands , with broad shields .
An assessment of Óengus is problematic , not least because annalistic sources provide very little information on Scotland in the succeeding generations . His apparent Irish links add to the long list of arguments which challenge the idea that the " Gaelicisation " of eastern Scotland began in the time of Cináed mac Ailpín ; indeed there are good reasons for believing that process began before Óengus 's reign . Many of the Pictish kings until the death of Eógan mac Óengusa in 839 belong to the family of Óengus , in particular the 9th century sons of Fergus , Caustantín and Óengus .
The amount of information which has survived about Óengus compared with other Pictish kings , the nature and geographical range of his activities and the length of his reign combine to make King Óengus one of the most significant rulers of the insular Dark Ages .
= 1 : Nenokkadine =
1 : Nenokkadine ( English : 1 : Lonely One ) is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language psychological thriller film written and directed by Sukumar . Produced by Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta , and Anil Sunkara as 14 Reels Entertainment and distributed by Eros International , the film features Mahesh Babu and Kriti Sanon in the lead roles ( Sanon 's Telugu cinema debut ) . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , and Anu Hasan appear in supporting roles . Mahesh 's son , Gautham Krishna , made his debut in the film as a younger version of the protagonist .
1 : Nenokkadine revolves around the search by Gautham ( a schizophrenic Indian rock musician missing 25 percent of his brain 's grey matter ) for his parents , whom he believes were murdered by three men . Sameera , a journalist , convinces him that he is an orphan and is hallucinating . When Gautham kills one of the " imaginary " men for his psychological satisfaction , he realises that the dead man is real and leaves for London to find his roots and the other two men behind his parents ' death .
Sukumar began working on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script after completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , making a bus driver 's tale about a boy who claimed that his parents were murdered on his bus the film 's base . R. Rathnavelu was the film 's director of photography , and Karthika Srinivas its editor . Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack and background score . 1 : Nenokkadine was introduced on 12 February 2012 and principal photography , which began on 23 April 2012 , was completed in late December 2013 . It was filmed in London , Belfast , Bangkok and Indian cities including Hyderabad , Mumbai , Goa , Chennai and Bangalore .
Produced on a budget of ₹ 700 million , 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens during the Makar Sankranti festival season . Grossing over $ 1 @.@ 27 million , 1 : Nenokkadine became the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in history at the United States box office . The film won three awards from eight nominations at the 4th South Indian International Movie Awards , and two awards at the 11th CineMAA Awards . It was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam as Number 1 and into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum ( English : One Man 's Courage ) .
= = Plot = =
Gautham is a schizophrenic Indian rock musician who is missing 25 percent of his grey matter . He hallucinates a mysterious person he believes is one of the three murderers of his parents . As a child , Gautham was convinced that he was an orphan and assumes that his parents are dead ; he does not remember their names or what they looked like .
At one of his concerts , Gautham sees one of the three men and chases him . Sameera , a journalist at the concert , films Gautham fighting his imaginary opponent . Gautham surrenders to the police after " killing " the man , confessing that he killed three men : one in Belfast , one in Pune and one just now in Hyderabad . He is released from custody after Sameera broadcasts the video on television . According to his doctor , if Gautham can hallucinate a person other than the three men , he can be treated . Gautham goes to Goa on vacation . Sameera stalks him , convincing him that two people are stalking him : a journalist who wants to interview him ( imaginary ) , and a person claiming to be his fan ( real ) . Gautham begins to fall in love with Sameera . He saves her from a group of people trying to murder her ; on an isolated island together Gautham learns the truth behind the fourth imaginary person and writes Sameera off as a disturbed journalist . By the time he learns about Sameera 's intentions , she has left for Hyderabad ; Gautham pursues her .
In Hyderabad , Gautham accidentally spoils Sameera 's birthday plans , infuriating her . Although he is convinced that he has made up an enemy to cope with being an orphan , a mysterious person tries to kill Sameera . Gautham saves her and proposes marriage , which she accepts . Sameera learns that the mysterious person is Antonio Rosarios , a Goa @-@ based crime boss who wants to kill her because she tried to expose the presence of hydrogen cyanide in seeds sold by Rosarios ' company , AG1 . Gautham meets Rosarios in the lobby of Sameera 's office building . Assuming that he is an illusion , he shoots Rosarios in his head . By the time Gautham realises Rosarios is real he is dead , and Gautham learns that his parents were murdered . He catches an aged taxi driver who was stalking him ( one of the three men he imagined ) , and learns that two London @-@ based Indians ( one of whom was Rosarios ) killed his parents ; his father gave the taxi driver a bag to give to Gautham . In the bag is an old Rubik 's Cube , a key and a British coin .
Gautham and Sameera go to London , where they and their driver Gulaab Singh escape from a murder attempt ; Gautham 's manager , Michael , is killed . The Rubik 's Cube , when solved a certain way , reveals a safe @-@ deposit @-@ box number in which Gautham finds a preserved rice sample . After escaping another murder attempt in a parking lot , he eludes the police and the two men with Sameera and Singh 's help . One of the men — a fan — seeks revenge for his father ( one of the other murderers , according to the aged taxi driver ) , who was killed by Gautham in Belfast when he performed there . Gautham learns that the aged taxi driver he met previously is a businessman and the murderer ; the person hit by the businessman 's car in Gautham 's presence was the actual , innocent taxi driver .
Gautham and the businessman confront each other , and the businessman says that he and Gautham 's father were good friends and fellow scientists . They worked on cultivating Golden rice , a variety which could grow in any weather . When Gautham 's father refused to sell it in favour of distributing it globally for free , the businessman and Rosarios killed his parents . When he refuses to tell Gautham about his parents , Gautham kills him . On his way to the airport , Gautham passes the school he had attended and hears children singing a rhyme . It reminds him of a similar rhyme he learned from his mother , and he remembers his way back to his house . At his house ( a dilapidated villa ) Gautham finds a photo of his parents , Chandrasekhar and Kalyani . He later introduces the rice variety at a global convention as " the second green revolution " , and the film ends with Gautham standing in his field of Golden rice .
= = Cast = =
Mahesh Babu as Gautham
Kriti Sanon as Sameera
Gautham Krishna as Young Gautham
Anu Hasan as Kalyani , Gautham 's mother
Anand as Chandrashekhar , Gautham 's father
Nassar as the actual businessman
Kelly Dorji as Antonio Rosarius
Pradeep Rawat as the actual taxi driver
Sayaji Shinde as Inspector John Baadshah
Posani Krishna Murali as Gulaab Singh
Srinivasa Reddy as Baadshah 's subordinate
Naveen Polisetty as the taxi driver 's son
Surya as Gautham 's doctor
Sophie Choudry in the item number " London Babu "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , Sukumar began working on a psychological thriller with Mahesh Babu in mind as the protagonist because he felt that Mahesh had universal appeal . An incident in which a bus driver talked about a young boy who said that his parents were murdered on his bus became the story 's base . Mahesh met Sukumar on the set of Businessman ( 2012 ) in Goa , and listened to the script for 25 minutes . Although Sukumar could not describe the story well in the noisy restaurant , Mahesh agreed to appear in the film within half an hour . Sukumar worked on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script for two months , and considered it his dream project .
Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta and Anil Sunkara of 14 Reels Entertainment , who produced Mahesh 's Dookudu ( 2011 ) and Aagadu ( 2014 ) , agreed to produce 1 : Nenokkadine after hearing the script . Asked about his frequent collaboration with them , Mahesh said that Sukumar clearly indicated the risk of budget escalation and longer production and said that he and Sukumar could be viewed as criminals if it was produced by someone else . Sunil Lulla and Andrew Hefferman were credited as co @-@ producers , and Koti Paruchuri was its executive producer . The film , introduced on 12 February 2012 in Hyderabad , received its title in May 2013 .
= = = Casting = = =
Mahesh agreed to be fit and healthy , since the film emphasised action scenes . He followed a 12 @-@ week Dynamic Transformation Plan ( DTP ) supervised by Kris Gethin , developing his abdominal muscles and losing weight . Mahesh then followed a Yoda Three Training regime ( Y3T ) , supervised by Neil Hill , further developing his muscles . His stylist , Ashwin Malwe , said that his appearance and style would be " sophisticated and classy " in the film . Sukumar had Mahesh wear eyeglasses , since the director felt that audiences tended to consider a bespectacled character to be perfectionistic and positive , and the actor 's hairstyle was changed .
Tamannaah was considered for the female lead , since the producers were impressed with her performance in 100 % Love . She declined the offer , citing scheduling conflicts , and the Producer 's Council told her not to sign for any new films until she completed her current assignments . After auditioning two actresses , Sukumar chose Kajal Aggarwal in March 2012 as the female lead . She was replaced by Kriti Sanon in October 2012 , due to scheduling conflicts . Sanon was signed for Heropanti ( 2014 ) after completing one shooting schedule for 1 : Nenokkadine , and divided her time between the films . Sanon , who was involved in several action scenes filmed on the sea , was apprehensive about a scene in which Mahesh took her from a yacht since she did not knew how to swim .
Mahesh 's seven @-@ year @-@ old son , Gautham Krishna , was chosen to play the younger version of the protagonist in his Telugu cinema debut . According to Sukumar , Gautham looked like the actor did as a child . When the director approached Mahesh and his wife , Namrata Shirodkar , Gautham Krishna was only six and they were apprehensive . His introduction scene was filmed silently by Peter Hein , since the boy was afraid of gunfire . Naveen Polisetty played a supporting role as Mahesh 's friend in the film , and Vikram Singh was signed as an antagonist . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , Sayaji Shinde and Anu Hasan were cast in other supporting roles .
Jacqueline Fernandez was approached to perform an item number in the film , but the producers failed to make a deal and instead signed Sophie Choudry after seeing her performance in " Aala Re Aala " from Shootout at Wadala ( 2013 ) . For her first Telugu song , Choudry joined the film 's set in September 2013 . Sukumar said about the item number , " It 's a superstar ’ s film and it should reach all . Item numbers are common these days and people expect to see them . The situation was that Mahesh had to go to a pub to get information about the person he was looking for . So there was occasion to put in an item number " .
= = = Crew = = =
R. Rathnavelu , who collaborated with Sukumar on Arya ( 2004 ) and Jagadam ( 2007 ) , was the film 's director of photography in his return to Telugu cinema after seven years . Rathnavelu called the film " more challenging aesthetically " and compared it to Enthiran ( 2010 ) , which he considered his technically @-@ toughest film . He created the film 's visual style in a week with a variety of cameras , such as Red Epic , Body Rigs , Doggies and an underwater scuba camera . For the climaxes , Rathnavelu shifted from chrome to black @-@ and @-@ white to full colour in synchronisation with the story 's mood .
Rathnavelu had to address the protagonist 's mood swings and hallucinations , replicating scenes with minor differences . The film was shot in locations with a variety of climates , and new technical crews were hired in those places . Sukumar said , " We looked at world technicians and saw them work and can use whatever we learnt " and called it a " new yet learning experience " [ sic ] .
Sukumar 's usual composer , Devi Sri Prasad , was chosen for the film 's soundtrack and score in Prasad 's first Mahesh film . He went through the script and discussed it with Sukumar , who felt that Prasad translated his vision in the background score . Prasad finished re @-@ recording the film 's second half in four days . Eleven @-@ year @-@ old journalist Smrithika Thuhina 's father was an associate director of the film , and Prasad emailed him the rhyme 's tune with several stills from the scene ; his daughter wrote the lyrics for the rhyme . P. Madhusudhan Reddy was the film 's audiographer .
Peter Hein choreographed 1 : Nenokkadine 's action sequences , and Prem Rakshith choreographed its songs . Jakka Hari Prasad and Palnati Surya Pratap worked on the film 's story , and Y. K. Arjun , Thota Srinivas and Potluri Venkateswara Rao developed the script . Jeremy Zimmerman was credited with the screenplay , assisted by Sunil Madhav . V. Srinivas Mohan was 1 : Nenokkadine 's visual @-@ effects producer and R. C. Kamalakannan and Adel Adili 's visual @-@ effects company , Makuta , worked on the film . Karthika Srinivas was its chief editor , assisted by Siva Saravanan .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 23 April 2012 , with the filming of " Who R U ? " featuring Mahesh and Aggarwal supervised by Prem Rakshith on a set at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad . Six hundred models performed in the song , and about 2 @,@ 000 people participated in the shoot . After its completion , an action sequence was filmed . The first shooting schedule wrapped up , and Mahesh returned to the set of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( 2013 ) . The second schedule began on 31 May 2012 on house and colony sets at Saradhi Studios in Hyderabad , including scenes with Mahesh and others . Scenes of Mahesh at the police station were also part of the schedule .
Since the actor had allotted a block of time to Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , 1 : Nenokkadine 's filming was delayed . When the former neared completion , he resumed work on 1 : Nenokkadine in late September 2012 in Hyderabad . Filming continued in Goa in mid @-@ October , after a four @-@ month hiatus , and a song with Mahesh and others was filmed in late October . The Goa schedule wrapped up on 1 November , with half the filming completed . Mahesh took a break to promote Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , returning to the set on 23 January 2013 . The next shooting schedule , which began on 18 March , lasted for three weeks . Night scenes focusing on Mahesh and others were filmed in Kukatpally in mid @-@ April .
The next schedule , which began on 18 June , filmed in London and Belfast for 60 days . At the Causeway Pictures studio in Northern Ireland , 1 : Nenokkadine was the first Telugu film shot in Belfast . Hollywood stunt co @-@ ordinator Conrad Palmisano supervised stunts by Mahesh and others . Rathnavelu called the action scene in a London car park " one of the most satisfying " things he had ever done . The scene takes place during a power failure , with the headlights of motorcycles chasing the protagonist the only sources of light . To film the scene , Rathnavelu used LED lamps and three torchlights ; smoke was pumped into the air to create a backdrop . When scenes were filmed on one of London 's three main bridges , traffic was stopped on both sides of the bridge for more than eight hours .
After London , filming continued in Bangkok in August 2013 and in Hyderabad in September ; some scenes were filmed in and near Banjara Hills . The last shooting schedule began in Bangkok in early October 2013 , with action scenes supervised by Peter Hein . The remaining dialogue scenes were filmed in Bangalore in mid @-@ October 2013 . They were finished by late November , and the last song was filmed in Mumbai . Principal photography wrapped in late December 2013 .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's five @-@ song soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad , with lyrics by Chandrabose . Lahari Music acquired its marketing rights for ₹ 10 million , a record for a Telugu film . The soundtrack was released on 19 December 2013 with a promotional event at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad . The event , watched by 14 @,@ 500 people , was shown live in 24 theatres across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and was the first Indian soundtrack release event shown live in theatres . The rhyme from the film 's climax was released separately on 25 January 2014 .
= = Release = =
1 : Nenokkadine was released globally on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens , around the same time as Yevadu ( which was released two days later ) . The film was Mahesh 's third consecutive release during the Makar Sankranti festival season , following Businessman in 2012 and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu in 2013 . Eros International acquired its global distribution rights for ₹ 720 million , and it was released and distributed by 14 Reels Entertainment . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 900 screens across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana . Including multiplexes , 108 screens were booked in Hyderabad and there were 600 screenings on the film 's release day . It broke the record held by Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) , which had been released on 100 screens in Hyderabad . 14 Reels Entertainment released the film in Auro 11 @.@ 1 cinema audio format , supported by Barco .
Karnataka distribution rights were sold to RNR Films , who had distributed Dookudu in the state , for ₹ 450 million . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on about 200 screens overseas , a record for a Telugu film . In addition to the United States and the United Kingdom , the film was released in Australia , the Netherlands , Switzerland , Malaysia and Germany ; it was the first Telugu film released in Ukraine . When reaction to the film 's length was mixed , the producers reduced its running time from 169 to 149 minutes . 1 : Nenokkadine had its global television premiere on 8 June 2014 on Gemini TV , with a TRP rating of 7 @.@ 32 . The film was dubbed into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum that year , and into Malayalam and Tamil as Number 1 in 2015 .
= = = Marketing = = =
A mobile app was released on 10 December 2013 on Google Play , and later on iOS ; 1 : Nenokkadine 's first look , posters , video promos and other promotional material were released through the app . On 19 December 2013 , users could download the film 's soundtrack and purchase bulk pre @-@ release tickets . Its digital @-@ media marketing was handled by Sharath Chandra , Anurag and Rohita of First Show Digital . The digital campaign placed third at the 2014 Indian Digital Media Awards in Mumbai , surpassing that for Krrish 3 . It accounted for 15 percent of total promotional activity , influencing the sale of 7 @,@ 500 tickets on the film 's release day . 1 : Nenokkadine 's YouTube channel had 12 million views ; on Facebook its page received 130 million views , reaching 40 million users and engaging 3 @.@ 9 million people .
South Indian actress Samantha Ruth Prabhu found a poster of Sanon crawling behind Mahesh " regressive " , triggering a backlash on Facebook and Twitter from Mahesh 's fans . Actor Siddharth and filmmaker Sekhar Kammula shared her view , receiving a similar response , and filmmaker Pritish Nandy said that the poster was " gross " and " regressive " . Sukumar later removed that sequence from the film to avoid further issues , although the Central Board of Film Certification did not object to its inclusion .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
1 : Nenokkadine received generally negative reviews from critics . According to The New Indian Express , its audience was " gripped through the whole film , but not for the right reasons " : " Ending with a heralding of a second ' Green Revolution ' and carrying on a legacy that aims at a food Utopia , you wish the movie continued with the schizophrenia and ended in an asylum " . Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film three out of five stars : " The [ Telugu cinema ] format of six songs , five fights and loads of entertainment and melodrama makes it impossible to respectably adapt racy Hollywood styled suspense thrillers " . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff called the film " inordinately long , with repetitive scenes and slow and sluggish narration " , and a " sense of ennui set in after a point " ; however , Rajamani praised the lead actors ' performances . Sify gave the film 2 @.@ 75 out of five stars : " In 1 Nenokkadine , individual sequences are cool but the same cannot be said if we see it in totality . Apart from Mahesh Babu`s stunning performance , the drive of the film is completely off the track . It disappoints . " Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " To say it in a line , the film falls short of expectations and disappoints film goers , especially the fans of Mahesh Babu " . Kavirayani called Rathnavelu 's cinematography its " saving grace " , praising the lead pair 's performances . IndiaGlitz also gave 1 Nenokkadine 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , saying that the film had the capacity to " tank without a trace if Mahesh Babu 's character did not come with a difference " ; the actor " looks that pained man every bit " , expressing " intense emotions without much effort " .
Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote , " How often do we get to watch a Telugu film where the audience , along with the protagonist and supporting characters , is also required to think and distinguish between events unfolding in real and imaginary spaces ? " and called 1 Nenokkadine a " visually stunning " film . Sridhar Vivan of Bangalore Mirror gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " As the film tries out a refined or reformed revenge saga , it needs to be seen whether 1 Nenokkadine works at the box office . If it does , it is a good sign for Telugu cinema " . A. S. Sashidhar of The Times of India wrote , " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is good and will keep you wanting for more . The story has a few interesting twists and turns , in the second half too to keep the audience glued to the screen " , and Sukumar " should be commended for superb attempt in choosing to make a film that has not been explored in Telugu movies " . Shekhar of Oneindia called the film a " brilliant psychological thriller " : " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is excellent and will impress all classes of audience . A few sentimental scenes slow down the pace of narration in the second half . But the superb climax that lasts for 15 minutes will compensate it . The viewers will surely walk out of theatre with contented hearts " .
= = = Box office = = =
1 : Nenokkadine earned a distributor share of ₹ 84 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office on its first day , and ₹ 124 million over its opening weekend . Its United States opening box @-@ office total was $ 946 @,@ 552 ( ₹ 58 @.@ 2 million ) , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called a " glorious start " and " one of the best openings ever by an Indian film " . 1 : Nenokkadine passed the $ 1 million mark in three days , the seventh Telugu film ( and Mahesh 's third , after Dookudu and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ) to earn a million dollars . On its fourth and fifth days the film earned ₹ 32 @.@ 5 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , for a five @-@ day total of about ₹ 150 million .
By the end of 1 : Nenokkadine 's first week it had earned a distributor share of ₹ 181 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , ₹ 21 million in Karnataka and ₹ 9 million in the rest of India . The film 's first @-@ week global box @-@ office total was ₹ 25 @.@ 2 million . In ten days 1 : Nenokkadine grossed over $ 1 @.@ 27 million in the United States , the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in that country . The film earned about ₹ 289 million worldwide , on a budget of ₹ 700 million .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Kongō @-@ class ironclad =
The Kongō @-@ class ironclads ( 金剛型 ) were a pair of armored corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) by British shipyards in the 1870s . A British offer to purchase the two ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War in 1878 was refused . They became training ships in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ships returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where one participated in the Battle of the Yalu River and both in the Battle of Weihaiwei . The Kongō @-@ class ships resumed their training duties after the war , although they played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . They were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 and were sold for scrap in 1910 and 1912 .
= = Background = =
Tensions between Japan and China heightened after the former launched its punitive expedition against Taiwan in May 1874 in retaliation of the murder of a number of shipwrecked sailors by the Paiwan aborigines . China inquired into the possibility of buying ironclad warships from Great Britain and Japan was already negotiating with the Brazilian government about the purchase of the ironclad Independencia then under construction in Britain . The Japanese terminated the negotiations with the Brazilians in October after the ship was badly damaged upon launching and the expeditionary force was about to withdraw from Taiwan . The crisis illustrated the need to reinforce the IJN and a budget request was submitted that same month by Acting Navy Minister Kawamura Sumiyoshi for ¥ 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 million to purchase three warships from abroad . No Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size so they were ordered from Great Britain . This was rejected as too expensive and a revised request of ¥ 2 @.@ 3 million was approved later that month . Nothing was done until March 1875 when Kawamura proposed to buy one ironclad for half of the money authorized and use the rest for shipbuilding and gun production at the Yokosuka Shipyard . No response was made by the Prime Minister 's office before the proposal was revised to use all of the allocated money to buy three ships , one armored frigate and two armored corvettes of composite construction to be designed by the prominent British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , formerly the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy . Reed would also supervise the construction of the ships for an honorarium of five percent of the construction cost . The Prime Minister 's office approved the revised proposal on 2 May and notified the Japanese consul , Ueno Kagenori , that navy officers would be visiting to negotiate the contract with Reed .
Commander Matsumura Junzō arrived in London on 21 July and gave Reed the specifications for the ships . Reed responded on 3 September with an offer , excluding armament , that exceeded the amount allocated in the budget . Ueno signed the contracts for all three ships on 24 September despite this problem because Reed was scheduled to depart for a trip to Russia and the matter had to be concluded before his departure . Ueno had informed the Navy Ministry about the costs before signing , but Kawamura 's response to postpone the order for the armored frigate did not arrive until 8 October . The totals for all three contracts came to £ 433 @,@ 850 or ¥ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 563 and did not include the armament . These were ordered from Krupp with a 50 percent down payment of £ 24 @,@ 978 . The government struggled to provide the necessary money even though the additional expenses had been approved by the Prime Minister 's office on 5 June 1876 , especially as more money was necessary to fully equip the ships for sea and to provision them for the delivery voyage to Japan .
= = Description = =
The Kongō class was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . They had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . To reduce biofouling , their hulls were sheathed with copper .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Kongō @-@ class ships had a single two @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion horizontal return connecting rod @-@ steam engine made by Earle 's Shipbuilding and Engineering , driving a single two @-@ bladed 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . Six cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 4 @.@ 22 bar ( 422 kPa ; 61 psi ) . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the ships a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During sea trials , the ships reached maximum speeds of 13 @.@ 75 – 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 47 – 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 15 @.@ 82 – 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 345 – 390 long tons ( 351 – 396 t ) of coal , enough to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ironclads were barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . To reduce wind resistance while under sail alone , the funnel was semi @-@ retractable . Their topmasts were removed in 1895 .
Both ships were reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 : Hiei received two steel double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers while Kongō 's new boilers were of the same type as her original ones . The new boilers proved to be less powerful for both ships during sea trials , Kongō reached a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 46 knots ( 23 @.@ 08 km / h ; 14 @.@ 34 mph ) from 2 @,@ 028 ihp ( 1 @,@ 512 kW ) while Hiei was significantly slower at 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The forward chase guns were pivot @-@ mounted and could traverse 122 degrees from straight ahead on their side of the ship . The aft gun could traverse a total of 125 degrees to each side . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . Each ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ships ' boats .
The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 172 @-@ millmeter gun weighed 132 pounds ( 59 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of about 1 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 460 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 10 @.@ 3 inches ( 262 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . Data for the 152 @-@ millimeter gun is not available .
During the 1880s , the armament of the Kongō @-@ class ships was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time the ships each also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The tubes were mounted above the waterline and one torpedo was provided for each tube . Their anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , their armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron waterline armor belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
In February 1878 , during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , the British were not willing to accept the occupation of the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople by Russian forces and began to prepare for war . The British government made informal inquiries about purchasing the two corvettes , but this was firmly rejected by the Japanese government . The ships sailed from Britain in February – March and arrived in Yokohama two months later . They were sailed to Japan by hired British crews as the IJN lacked the necessary experience . The ships were not formally turned over to the navy until 10 July when a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ships were opened for public tours after the ceremony .
Kongō hosted the Duke of Genoa when he visited Japan in late 1879 . Hiei made port visits in China and in the Persian Gulf the following year . In 1885 – 86 both ships were assigned to the Small Standing Fleet . They became training ships in 1887 and they both made a training cruise to the Mediterranean in 1889 – 90 with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . Hiei and Kongō ferried the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ertuğrul back to Turkey where the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . Until the end of the century , one or the other of the Kongō @-@ class ships made the annual cadet cruise , usually to countries bordering the Pacific Ocean . Kongō was in Honolulu on one of these cruises during the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893 , although the ship played no part in the affair . She returned to Hawaii the next year and briefly became the patrol ship there until the start of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War later in 1894 . Kongō did not participate in the Battle of the Yalu River , but Hiei was there . She was heavily engaged by Chinese ships and was damaged enough that she was forced to break off the action . Hiei was repaired after the battle and both ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895 , although neither saw any significant combat .
The Kongō @-@ class ships were redesignated as 3rd @-@ class coast defense ships in 1898 although they continued their training duties . They played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before they were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 . Kongō was stricken from the Navy List in 1909 and sold the next year for scrap . Hiei was struck from the Navy List two years after her sister ship and was sold before 25 March 1912 .
= Jessica Jones ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American web television series Jessica Jones , which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , follows a former superhero who opens her own detective agency after an end to her superhero career at the hands of Kilgrave . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions , with Melissa Rosenberg serving as showrunner .
Krysten Ritter stars as Jones , while David Tennant plays Kilgrave . The two are joined by principal cast members Mike Colter , Rachael Taylor , Wil Traval , Erin Moriarty , Eka Darville , and Carrie @-@ Anne Moss . Jessica Jones entered development in late 2013 , with Rosenberg reworking a series she had previously developed for ABC . Ritter was cast as Jones in December 2014 , with production on Jessica Jones taking place in New York City from February to August 2015 . The season addresses issues of rape and assault with realism and a grounded tone , and was always intended to be far more " adult " than other Marvel projects , particularly in terms of sex . The show 's cinematography took inspiration from noir , while visual effects house Shade VFX focused on creating " invisible " effects that would support its realistic approach .
The first two episodes of the season premiered in New York City on November 17 , 2015 , with the full season of 13 episodes released on Netflix on November 20 to an estimated high viewership and critical acclaim . Critics praised the performances of Ritter and Tennant , as well as the series ' noir tone , approach to sexuality , and coverage of darker topics such as rape , assault and posttraumatic stress disorder . The season was awarded a Peabody Award in the category of " Entertainment and Children 's programs " . A second season of Jessica Jones was ordered on January 17 , 2016 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In October 2013 , Marvel and Disney announced that they would provide Netflix with live action series centered around Daredevil , Jessica Jones , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage , leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders . Melissa Rosenberg was brought on to showrun the Jessica Jones series , to be reconfigured as a " page one do @-@ over " from an original project she had developed in December 2010 for ABC . In December 2014 , the official title was revealed to be Marvel 's A.K.A. Jessica Jones , but that was shortened to Marvel 's Jessica Jones in June 2015 . The season consists of 13 hour @-@ long episodes .
= = = Writing = = =
The writers for the series worked in Los Angeles , with one member of the writing team on set in New York for filming . Actress Carrie @-@ Anne Moss talked about how the scripts developed through the production of the series , explaining that the dialogue usually did not change much while filming , but scenes were altered to accommodate the filming locations when necessary . Rosenberg stated that , since Jones is a private investigator , there would be some procedural elements to the show , " but that ’ s not our focus . There are cases . In particular , there is a large case that carries over the season . " Elaborating on this , Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb said that the " fun about being a private detective is that the line between what ’ s legal and what ’ s not legal gets very blurred .... her drive is not always necessarily to solve the case , as much as it is to go , ' Okay , can I pay the rent ? How am I going to get through this day ? ' " He also added that inspiration for the series came from " the noir films from the ‘ 40s " and " film [ s ] like Chinatown . "
Describing the tone of the series , Loeb said , " When we first started talking about Daredevil , we promised that we were telling a story that was first a crime drama and then a superhero show . This is more of a psychological thriller . This speaks to when you think about what happened to Jessica and what sort of destroyed her life and how she tried to put it together , and then to have to confront the person who deconstructed her world , that ’ s a very powerful , emotional place to start from . " On approaching rape and trauma in the series , Rosenberg wanted to avoid actually showing rape , which she called " lazy storytelling " and often a way to " spice up " male characters , and preferred to just make the trauma a part of the characters ' everyday lives rather than an " issue " for the series to tackle . When asked about the adult nature of the series , including the use of sex , Rosenberg explained that Marvel would only not allow showing nudity and the use of the word ' fuck ' in the series .
= = = Casting = = =
The main cast for the season includes Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones , Mike Colter as Luke Cage , Rachael Taylor as Patricia " Trish " Walker , Wil Traval as Will Simpson , Erin Moriarty as Hope Shlottman , Eka Darville as Malcolm Ducasse , Carrie @-@ Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth , and David Tennant as Kilgrave .
Appearing in recurring roles for the season are Susie Abromeit as Pam , Colby Minifie and Kieran Mulcare as Robyn and Ruben , Clarke Peters as Oscar Clemons , Michael Siberry and Lisa Emery as Albert and Louise Thompson , and Robin Weigert as Wendy Ross @-@ Hogarth . Danielle Ferland , Gillian Glasco , Ryan Farrell , and Paul Pryce also recur as victims of Kilgrave who join a support group established by Jones , while Rosario Dawson and Royce Johnson reprise their roles of Claire Temple and Brett Mahoney , respectively , from Daredevil .
= = = Design = = =
Stephanie Maslansky returned as the costume designer for Jessica Jones from Daredevil , and was assisted on the first episode by Jenn Rogien , who crafted Jessica Jones ' leather jacket , faded jeans , and boots costume . On Jones 's costume , Maslansky said she " considers her clothing to be an armor and a shield and something that helps her maintain a distance from other people and privacy . It keeps her from having to deal with the rest of humanity in a certain sort of way . " At least 10 versions of Jones 's jacket were made , which started as an Acne Studios leather motorcycle jacket that had any " bells and whistles and any additional superfluous design details " removed . 20 pairs of jeans were used , with both sets of clothing being aged and distressed .
Because Jones 's costume does not evolve much throughout the series , Maslansky used flashbacks to show how her costume had evolved to the present day : for ' pre @-@ Kilgrave ' Jessica Jones , Maslansky gave the character " more pulled together " clothes , albeit " still kind of edgy " clothes that did not change who she was as a character , but were just " different " . For instance , in a flashback to Jones working in a corporate environment , she does not wear a suit , instead " wear [ s ] her jeans and find [ s ] a really cool jacket , maybe a vintage thing , maybe something that she borrowed from Trish " . For a flashback where Jones wears a large sandwich costume , a " variety " of costumes were ordered online , with the chosen suit then distressed to " look dirty and old " ; " a mere shadow of its former sandwich self , " becoming " more of a hoagie than a sandwich . " In another flashback , Jones imagines escaping Kilgrave 's control . The bright yellow dress the character wears in the dream sequence was chosen for its juxtaposition to the character 's real situation , with Maslansky calling it " so beautiful and so free and so light " .
For Kilgrave , Maslansky used many suits created by designer Paul Smith , rather than custom @-@ making them as she originally planned , as Smith " was all about purple " in the previous fashion season . On the suits , Maslansky added that the designers " wanted to find a place where we could utilize clothing in shades of purple , but not go so over the top that it would look silly and that he would stop feeling ominous or menacing . " Expanding on this , Maslansky called purple a traditionally " fairly friendly color , and he ’ s anything but friendly . So I had to find ways to make him be ominous and frightening and terrifying . I found that I needed the right proportion of shades of purple to other shades that were similar : navy , black , maroon . " Maslansky felt Luke Cage was also someone " who wears his clothing like an armor , " with his wardrobe consisting of T @-@ shirts , jeans , leather jackets or an army jacket . For a character like Trish Walker , who does not have the same kind of " statement costume " as Jones , Maslansky tried to create a certain character style . Maslansky said that Walker 's uniform is fashion , so " even when she was hanging around the house , she was wearing a pair of Rag and Bone jeans with a Chloé top , and this was her version of a T @-@ shirt and jeans . " Maslansky added that Robin was " a blast to dress " because of her " quirky " personality , yet she was still able to " put herself together aesthetically . " For Malcolm , as his story progressively became brighter throughout the season , so did his wardrobe , becoming " a little brighter and a little more hopeful . "
= = = Filming = = =
In February 2014 , Marvel announced that Jessica Jones would be filmed in New York City . In April , Marvel Comics ' editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada stated that the show would be filming in areas of Brooklyn and Long Island City that still look like the old Hell ’ s Kitchen , in addition to sound stage work . The series went into production in February 2015 in The Bronx at Lehman College with the working title Violet , and aimed to film each episode over nine days , on average . Filming concluded in mid @-@ late August , with other locations in New York City used including : the East Village 's Horseshoe Bar for Luke 's Bar ; the 33rd Street PATH station and a PATH train ; the 101st Street area for the exterior of Jessica 's apartment ( with the interior apartment settings created on a sound stage ) ; Douglaston , Queens for Jessica 's childhood home ; the Angel Orensanz Center for Jessica and Luke 's fight in " AKA Take a Bloody Number " ; and Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower and Pier 88 for locations in " AKA Smile " .
Concerning inspirations on the series , Loeb revealed that " Chinatown ... is one of the things that influenced Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Gaydos when they created the character . So those kind of beautiful , long , wide expansive shots , where people sort of come into frame and go back out of frame and someone ’ s in the foreground and then someone is way in the background and they ’ re having a conversation , that ’ s the stuff that makes it interesting . " Director of Photography Manuel Billeter and episodic director S. J. Clarkson took inspiration from the comics in terms of their color palette , while looking to the works of Wong Kar @-@ wai as reference to create " unconventional " compositions , with Billeter explaining , " There were a lot of foreground elements [ and ] headroom as well , and we never wanted to show an open frame . We wanted to create a sense of claustrophobia . " Billeter shot the season with a Red Epic Dragon camera in 4K resolution , with 5K used for some visual effects shots , and with Panavision PVintage lenses ; he focused mostly on static frames and " good composition " , but did occasionally employ a camera dolly or steadicam . For lighting , Billeter noted that many New York street lamps had been changed from sodium @-@ vapor lamps to LEDs , so he tried to recreate the " warm , dirty color of sodium vapor " for night exterior scenes .
Production designer Loren Weeks described Marvel 's Hell 's Kitchen as having " a little more [ East ] Village quality . " To achieve the explosion at Luke 's Bar , Weeks said , " We could not take out the windows [ at Horseshoe Bar ] , which are [ made up of ] multiple small colored glass and metal frames . We didn ’ t know frankly when we picked that location that we would have that explosion ... What we did was build a fireproof box in the entrance and we had a cannon in there which blew out debris and smoke and some fire . And then we did a lighting effect on the inside and then the rest of the explosion was handled by visual effects . " For the scenes on the PATH train and station , location manager Jason Farrar noted that production had exclusive use of the tracks and platform during the day when ridership was low to get their shots .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Shade VFX created over 600 effects shots for the season , with " invisible " effects " the showpiece , helping to push forward the darker elements the series . " Therefore , effects supervisor Karl Coyner and producer Julie Long worked closely with the crew on set to " execute stunts , set extensions , explosions , wetwork and fire sequences " while filming , rather than have Shade create those effects digitally . An effect that Shade was required to create was tinting Kilgrave 's skin purple " in a few key scenes " where he is using his powers , a nod to the comic iteration 's purple @-@ skinned appearance .
= = = Music = = =
At the 2015 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Sean Callery revealed he was composing music for Jessica Jones , eventually stating that the music required for each episode ranged from 9 to 20 minutes , totaling approximately 415 minutes of music for the season . A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally on June 3 , 2016 .
All music composed by Sean Callery , unless otherwise noted .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
On existing in the MCU , specifically in the same world as the other Netflix series , Rosenberg said , " Jessica Jones is a very , very different show than Daredevil . We exist in a cinematic universe , [ and ] the mythology of the universe is connected , but they look very different , tonally they ’ re very different … That was my one concern coming in : Am I going to have to fit into Daredevil or what ’ s come before ? And the answer is no . " On references or " easter eggs " in the series , Rosenberg explained that " A little is always there and in the writer ’ s room we have some fanboys that know all this stuff and they ’ re all geeking out with different stuff .... a lot of references are to the [ Alias comic ] . " She also said that nods to the larger MCU are in the series , with each episode having a " little something in it . "
Jeryn Hogarth is closely associated with Iron Fist in the comics , and also worked with Luke Cage as part of those characters ' Heroes for Hire team . Like Daredevil , the series makes references to the events of The Avengers and the Avengers ( specifically Hulk and Captain America , though not by name ) . Jessica also mentions Angela del Toro as another private investigator , who in the comics is the hero White Tiger and has connections with K 'un @-@ Lun and Iron Fist . Paul Tassi , writing for Forbes , was disappointed with how the series fit into the larger MCU , feeling the series seemed " removed from the world of The Avengers " and did not acknowledge Daredevil enough given that " it ’ s supposed to be sharing at least this little corner of the Marvel Cinematic Universe with it . " Eric Francisco of Inverse countered that Jessica Jones 's lack of overt connections to the MCU was " the show 's chief advantage . Besides demonstrating how physically wide open the MCU 's scope really is , Jessica Jones also proves the MCU 's thematic durability . "
= = Release = =
Jessica Jones was released on November 20 , 2015 on the streaming service Netflix , in all territories where it is available , in Ultra HD 4K . In January 2015 , a month after Marvel announced a 2015 release for the series , Sarandos had said that it was " too hard to say now " if the series would actually release in 2015 , with Netflix 's plan to release a Marvel series approximately a year apart from each other after Daredevil 's April 2015 release . However , Netflix soon confirmed that the series would indeed release in 2015 , announcing the November 20 release date in September .
= = = Marketing = = =
Disney Consumer Products created a small line of products to cater to a more adult audience , given the show ’ s edgier tone . Paul Gitter , senior VP of Marvel Licensing for Disney Consumer Products explained that the focus would be more on teens and adults than very young people , with products at outlets like Hot Topic . Additionally , a Marvel Knights merchandise program was created to support the series , which creates new opportunities for individual product lines and collector focused products . Licensing partners wanted to pair up with Marvel , despite this not being a film project , given its previous successes .
In May 2015 , Marvel announced plans to reprint Alias , the comic that the series is based on , with new covers from David Mack , the original cover artist on the comic who is also providing artwork for the series ' opening credits . The reprints , which were all released digitally in June 2015 , and up to issue 15 in two trade paperbacks in September , were intended to both celebrate the history of Jessica Jones , and introduce new audiences to the character ahead of the release of the series . In late September through early October , Marvel and Netflix released short teasers for the series , which chronicled a day of Jones ' life . Also in early October , Marvel digitally released a 12 @-@ page one @-@ shot comic by the original Alias creative team — Bendis , Gaydos , and Mack — set in the universe of the television series . The one @-@ shot was created as an exclusive for New York Comic Con , where a print version was distributed . The comic sees Jessica Jones coming into contact with Daredevil character Turk Barrett , and includes a short sequence featuring Daredevil , to celebrate " the connective tissue that will build between the series . " Also during New York Comic Con , Marvel set up a street marketing campaign , and screened " AKA Ladies Night " on October 10 , while at the Marvel Booth fans could take their picture with the Alias Investigations desk , with Kilgrave 's eyes appearing in the background of the final animation . Marvel additionally partnered with Uber during the event to provide select riders with complimentary trips to or from the convention in custom designed SUVs .
A full trailer was released at the end of October , with Meagan Damore of Comic Book Resources feeling that it helped establish the same tone as Daredevil and introduced " Marvel 's creepiest villain yet " with Kilgrave . She also compared Jessica to some of the other female characters of the MCU — Black Widow , Melinda May , and Peggy Carter — feeling that Jessica stood out from the others because she does not have " a sense of togetherness " and was the most relatable because of her struggle with trauma , and that the series would have the amount of creative space required to explore the character that the other female characters were lacking . A second trailer was released on November 10 , 2015 . Sarene Leeds of The Wall Street Journal felt that this trailer highlighted empowerment , compared to the first that " was about illustrating the fear behind Jones ’ s past " . The season held its premiere in New York City on November 17 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Audience viewership = = =
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series , Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the series based on a sample size of 15 @,@ 000 people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound . According to Symphony , from September to December 2015 , episodes of Jessica Jones averaged 4 @.@ 8 million viewers during a 35 @-@ day viewing cycle . The data was presented by Alan Wurtzel , NBCUniversal president of research and media development , in a presentation aimed to provide " perspective " when stating " digital platforms are hurting the traditional TV business " . Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos responded to the data by saying that " the whole methodology and the measurement and the data itself doesn ’ t reflect any sense of reality of anything that we keep track of . " A further study from Symphony , for the same time period , found Jessica Jones to be one of the four most watched series in the 18 to 24 demographic , ahead of any broadcast network series .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 based on 54 reviews . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
high school lacrosse coach at Northampton High School and a professional lacrosse midfielder who plays professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) for the New York Lizards and formerly played professional box lacrosse in the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1998 through 2001 and the Princeton Tigers men 's soccer team from 1997 through 2000 .
During his time at Princeton , the team qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship all four years , reached the championship game three times , won the championship game twice and won four Ivy League championships . He was a two @-@ time honorable mention United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American and three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( once first team , twice second team ) . He was also an All @-@ Ivy league performer in soccer and earned Princeton co @-@ athlete of the year ( all @-@ sport ) honors as a senior .
As a professional , he has earned three MLL championships , a league record eight MLL All @-@ Star recognitions and an MLL championship game MVP award . He is also a three @-@ time Team USA representative and two @-@ time World Lacrosse Championship gold medalist .
= = Background = =
Striebel is a native of Gill , Massachusetts . He first got involved in lacrosse at about the age of 12 or 13 when his sister brought home the Brine Lightning stick that he began to play with . Striebel attended The Hotchkiss School in Lakeville , Connecticut . Striebel first started playing lacrosse when he was a youth for Jeff Coulson , owner of Indoor Action Sports , in Greenfield , Massachusetts .
He also attended the Writers Workshop at The University of Iowa in Iowa City , Iowa , earning a Master of Fine Arts degree in 2007 . He had earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English at Princeton .
= = College career = =
At Princeton he was a two @-@ time honorable mention USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2000 and 2001 . He was a second team All @-@ Ivy League selection in 1999 and 2000 and a first team selection in 2001 . He was a 2001 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . During his four @-@ year career , Princeton went undefeated in Ivy League Conference play with consecutive 6 – 0 records . Princeton was invited to the 1999 tournament , was a finalist in the 2000 tournament and earned championships in both the 1998 and 2001 tournaments , bringing the schools consecutive tournament invitations streak to twelve . In Striebel 's 2001 senior season , the arrival of freshman Ryan Boyle necessitated that he move from attack to midfield . The move came the first practice after Princeton 's 14 – 8 loss to Syracuse . Striebel had previously been orchestrating the Princeton offense from behind the goal , but on March 25 , 2001 , head coach Bill Tierney made the switch . During the 1998 season when Princeton won the NCAA title , Striebel had been playing midfield . Princeton went undefeated for the rest of the 2001 season after the switch .
During the 2000 NCAA tournament , Striebel scored two goals in the quarterfinals 10 – 7 victory against Maryland , and he added another in the 13 – 7 championship game loss to Syracuse . Striebel was one of the leading scorers on the team that season , and he was the team leader in assists entering the final four weekend . In the quarterfinals of the 2001 NCAA championship tournament , Striebel had an assist in the 8 – 7 victory over Loyola . In the 12 – 11 semifinal victory over Towson State , Striebel had a goal and an assist . Striebel scored twice in the 2001 championship game and also added two assists . He was selected to the All @-@ tournament team .
Striebel was also an honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League soccer player in 2000 as well as a 2000 Academic All @-@ Ivy selection in soccer . As a junior , Striebel was a member of the 1999 Ivy League Champion Princeton Soccer team that earned an invitation to the 1999 NCAA Men 's Division I Soccer Championship . The team posted a 10 – 5 – 2 ( 5 – 1 – 1 Ivy League ) record .
As of 2010 , Striebel ranks eighth on the Princeton Lacrosse career assists list and eleventh on the Princeton soccer career assists list . As a senior , he was honored as one of the three athletes of the year on campus ( along with Dennis Norman and Scott Denbo )
= = Professional career = =
Striebel began his career in the league 's inaugural 2001 MLL season with the Bridgeport Barrage and stayed with the team as it remained in Bridgeport , Connecticut until the 2003 season . Then he moved with the franchise and played with the Philadelphia Barrage from 2004 through 2008 . In 2009 MLL season , he joined the Chicago Machine and then became a member of the Rochester Rattlers for the 2011 MLL season . Striebel and Boyle were reunited for five seasons in Philadelphia . Striebel has helped the Barrage to win three Steinfeld Cup championships in 2004 , 2006 , and 2007 . In the 2004 championship game , he scored what the Baltimore Sun described as the clinching goal in the 13 – 11 victory over the Boston Cannons . In the 2006 game , he had nine points ( four goals , including one two @-@ pointer and four assists ) . He was presented with the 2007 Steinfeld Cup Game Most Valuable Player Award . Striebel appeared in the 2005 & 2007 Major League Lacrosse All @-@ Star Games . In the 2006 All @-@ Star game he represented Team USA by scoring a goal and two assists . Striebel was an MLL All @-@ Pro selection in 2007 and 2008 . Striebel was an MLL All @-@ Star in 2011 . In 2012 , Striebel set the MLL record for most All @-@ Star games with eight ( consecutive ) .
Striebel served as an assistant coach for Princeton Men 's Lacrosse in 2005 . Striebel also spent time assisting the men 's lacrosse team at Iowa during his time there . As of 12 April 2012 , Striebel currently coaches the Varsity Boys Lacrosse team at Northampton High School in Northampton , MA which is just south of his hometown . He also played professionally in 2012 and 2013 .
In addition to his field lacrosse career , Striebel played one season in 2003 of box lacrosse with the Philadelphia Wings in the National Lacrosse League . Streibel was traded by the Wings to the New York Saints in February 2003 . He never appeared in a game for the Saints . Striebel has also played professional soccer for the Western Massachusetts Pioneers .
Striebel has represented Team USA in the World Lacrosse Championship in 2002 , 2006 , and 2010 . In the 2002 World Lacrosse Championship semifinal match against the Iroquois Nation , Striebel scored a goal in the 18 – 8 victory . Striebel also serves as a representative of Trilogy Lacrosse .
On November 11 , 2013 , Striebel was traded to the New York Lizards .
= = Statistics = =
= = = MLL = = =
= = = Princeton University = = =
= Sembawang Hot Spring =
The Sembawang Hot Spring ( Chinese : 三巴旺溫泉 ; pinyin : sanbawang wenquan ) , located at Gambas Avenue between Woodlands Avenue 12 and Sembawang Road , is the only natural hot spring on the main island of Singapore . It lies in a wooded area about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) off the main road . The spring is believed by locals to have healing properties , and its water has been bottled commercially by Fraser and Neave , under the brand name of Seletaris . Since its discovery in 1909 , the spring , now on land belonging to a military air base , has gone through several changes of ownership and abortive redevelopment plans . The hot spring retains a rural rustic feel for nature visitors to unwind .
= = History = =
In 1909 , a Chinese merchant named Seah Eng Keong , the son of Chinese pioneer Seah Liang Seah , discovered hot springs in his pineapple estate in Sembawang . The three springs were channelled into one , so that the water would be conveniently concentrated in one area . A well was built along the spring , which became popular with the villagers , who frequently sought the waters for their supposed healing powers . The spring 's fame spread , resulting in the village becoming known as Kampong Ayer Panas , which means " Village of Hot Water " in Malay .
Soft drinks firm Fraser & Neave ( F & N ) acquired the site in 1922 , and set up a bottling plant at nearby Semangat Ayer to tap the mineral water , which they labelled Seletaris . During the Second World War , the spring 's flow was temporarily interrupted when a bomb fell near the well during a Japanese air raid over Singapore in 1942 . After the fall of Singapore , the Japanese military seized the place and converted it into recreational thermal baths ( onsen ) .
The hot spring was frequented by gamblers in 1960 , who took " good luck " baths before the start of horse races . That same year , the villagers urged the authorities to develop the area into a spa @-@ like onsen tourist resort . However , F & N shelved the suggestion after geologists could not to trace the source of the spring water . In 1967 , the proposal of the spa surfaced again , when F & N proposed plans for the development of a bathhouse , restaurants , a miniature golf course and even a nature reserve . However , the plans did not materialize , so the hot spring remained untouched and forgotten .
= = = Redevelopment = = =
In 1998 , the Ministry of Defence ( Mindef ) acquired the land containing the spring for the expansion of the nearby Sembawang Air Base , leaving F & N with less than 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) of land . Its water @-@ bottling plant survived until the early 1990s however . In January 2002 , locals ' interest to the hot spring , which had caught the attention of Singaporeans after the surrounding land had been cleared to begin the RSAF air base extension . Sembawang community leaders gathered signatures to petition Mindef , which was going to fence off the area , to preserve and develop the hot spring for the general public . Mindef gave the green light to the appeals and opened a small side gate pavement for the public to access the spring .
During that same year , a series of scalding cases , including an incident in which a senior citizen diabetic lost six toes to gangrene after soaking in the hot spring , prompted the Singapore General Hospital to warn that people with nerve disorders or diseases affecting blood circulation should be cautious to hot mineral springs . As a result of some negative rumors and hearsay , and the RSAF redevelopment , public interest began to wane and the number of visitors dwindled .
= = = Present day = = =
During its peak , up to 300 people visited the hot spring daily . On 1 March 2002 , it was closed for two months while upgrading and improvement works were carried out to the area around the spring , which had become sodden and muddy . Litter had also become a problem because of the increased numbers of visitors . The former dirt track leading to the spring was paved with cement , and lined with bougainvillea bushes and high fences to ensure the security of the air base . Drainage pipes were also installed . Mindef , which owns the land , allows public access between 7 am and 7 pm daily , free @-@ of @-@ charge . When the spring reopened on 1 May 2002 , more than 100 people visited the site despite the afternoon drizzle . At the same time , some new free @-@ hold condominiums were built in the surrounding area ; one of the developments , built by the property arm of F & N in 2001 , is called Seletaris after the company 's former mineral water .
In July 2005 , a Business Times reader proposed that the authorities should explore the possibility of tapping the geothermal heat that lies many miles under Sembawang — similar to the project in South Australia 's Cooper Basin — in order to aid Singapore 's reliance on oil and gas . The proposal was not acted upon .
As of 2014 , the well can still be seen locked inside a red @-@ brick enclosure with a steel gate , and its geothermal heat can be felt outside the building . Some plastic chairs , pails and mini @-@ tubs kindly donated by visitors are stored at the perimeter of the compound , which has a makeshift shed in one corner . A caretaker , paid by Mindef , takes care of the place to ensure its overall cleanliness , but there is no toilet on location . The hot spring is less frequented nowadays but remains rustic for rural and suburban families to discover and explore .
The potential redevelopment of Sembawang Hot Spring into a national park is currently being explored . The Ministry of Defence ( MINDEF ) said on 23 April 2016 that it is prepared to return the land occupied by the hot spring to the Singapore Land Authority . MINDEF hopes a public agency such as the National Parks Board ( NParks ) can take over to improve and maintain the place , while constructing amenities such as toilets and adding more greenery . The ministry added that putting the place under a public agency means the land need not be tendered out to the highest bidder and become commercialised .
Earlier on 16 April 2016 , a NParks senior director of Parks Development confirmed the statutory board was working with the Urban Redevelopment Authority , Singapore Land Authority and MINDEF on “ the feasibility of using the area as a park
= = Water properties = =
According to local geologists , the exact source of the spring remains unknown , but it is believed that its origin may be southwest of its actual location , possibly at Bukit Timah . Hot springs are formed when underground water comes into contact with hot rock masses . The resulting high pressure causes the water to seep upwards through cracks , forcing itself out of the ground as a spring .
A series of tests conducted by the PSB Corporation and SGS Testing & Control Services found the spring water contains 420 mg of chloride per litre , an amount which is substantially higher than the 35 to 100 mg in the water from Choa Chu Kang and Bedok waterworks . It was also found that the sulphide content is three times more than tap water and the spring water is also slightly alkaline due to the presence of minerals . Natural spring waters may have health benefits , similar to the hot springs of other countries near tectonic plates with volcanoes , in a search for cures for some skin conditions , as well as debilitating ailments like rheumatism and arthritis . Although local rheumatologists conceded that hydrotherapy is an accepted treatment that can be helpful for mild forms of rheumatism or muscle strain , they , along with dermatologists , remain skeptical of claims about the alternative healing of the natural spring water .
Hot hard water bubbles continuously in the well , releasing a slightly unpleasant sulphur mud @-@ like odour together with steam . The temperature of the spring water is measured by precision instrument to be constant 70 ° C ( 160 ° F ) . In an investigation carried out by the Nanyang Technological University in 1994 , the hot spring was found to have an estimated yield of approximately 150 litres ( 33 imp gal ; 40 US gal ) per minute at ground level through installed steel casings .
= Detour ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Detour " is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz and directed by Brett Dowler . The episode aired in the United States on November 23 , 1997 , on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Detour " received a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , being watched by 22 @.@ 8 million viewers , and received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully , while traveling to a conference with two other FBI agents , stop at a roadblock and join a nearby investigation of attacks by an unidentified predator .
Executive producer Frank Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after watching the 1972 American thriller film Deliverance . " Detour " took nineteen days to film , over eleven more than the norm for The X @-@ Files . Shooting was hampered by incessant rain . The episode 's villains were created through a mixture of elaborate " bark suits " and digital technology . In addition , the episode contained several cultural references .
= = Plot = =
Two men are surveying an area of the Apalachicola National Forest in Leon County , Florida when they are attacked and killed by unseen assailants with glowing red eyes . Later that day , Michael Asekoff and his son , Louis , are hunting for possums with their dog , Bo , in the same stretch of woods . Upon discovering a surveyor 's bloody jacket , the father orders his son to take the dog and run home . As the son and dog take off , two shots are heard .
Meanwhile , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are carpooling with FBI agents Michael Kinsley and Carla Stonecypher en route to a " team building " seminar . When they are stopped at a roadblock by local police , Mulder decides to investigate . As Mulder and Scully venture into the woods , they are informed by Officer Michele Fazekas that no conclusive evidence has been found to support Louis ' report of a shooting . Mulder sees this as a perfect opportunity to ditch the seminar . Later , Mulder explains to Scully that no species native to North America will attack a stronger member of its prey when there is a weaker target available .
At the Asekoff residence , Bo becomes upset and begins barking . Mrs. Asekoff lets him outside but when she attempts to retrieve him , the dog refuses to budge . She turns to go back inside but discovers that it has been bolted from the inside . Louis hears his mother 's screams and climbs out of bed , but a dark , shadowy figure with red eyes corners him . Louis barely escapes through the dog door where he runs into Mulder , informing him of the creature 's whereabouts in the house .
The next morning , Mulder shows Scully some tracks by the front door of the house that appear to be human . Based on the weight distribution , however , the assailant evidently travels on the balls of its feet rather than from heel to toe . Additionally , that the creature lured the mother out of the house in order to get to Louis suggests to Mulder that the creatures are paranormal in nature .
Jeff Glaser , a local technician armed with a FLIR device , joins Fazekas , Mulder , and Scully on a search for the creature . They soon spot two creatures on the FLIR which travel in separate directions , causing the four to split up . Fazekas is attacked and disappears . Mulder deduces from this that the creatures may be related to the Mothman of Point Pleasant , West Virginia . After a brief encounter with the creatures , Glaser takes off running and is swiftly killed by a creature . Mulder is grabbed by the other creature , though it releases him after Scully manages to wound it with her firearm .
The next morning , Scully falls through a hole into an underground chamber where the bodies of their missing companions are stored . Spotting a pair of red eyes , Scully realizes she does not have her firearm on her . Mulder drops his down to her as the bushes behind him begin to rustle . He jumps in the hole as Scully shoots the creature and kills it . As they examine the dead creature , they notice its almost human @-@ like features and wood @-@ like skin . Nearby , the words " Ad Noctum " , Latin for " into darkness " , are found carved into a tree trunk .
Mulder , Scully , Asekoff , and Fazekas are rescued , but there is no sign of Glaser or the other creature . Upon leaving the forest , Mulder states that the creature may , in fact , be an evolved version of the first Spanish conquistadors who had first settled in the forest 450 years before . Although Kinsley finds it ridiculous , Mulder believes that centuries of seclusion could be adequate for such drastic adaptations to happen . Afterwards , Mulder realizes that the creatures presume others ' presence in their territory as threatening and rushes to the hotel room where Scully is packing her things . After ascertaining that she is finished packing , he firmly urges her to vacate the room , which she does . The camera then pans under the bed where a pair of red eyes open .
= = Production = =
Executive producer Frank Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after watching the 1972 American thriller film Deliverance . Spotnitz recounted , " the idea of being stranded in a hostile environment is very interesting to me and so is the idea of something moving the brush that you can 't see . " Series writer Vince Gilligan contributed to the " team builder " exercise bit . The ending was left intentionally ambiguous . Spotnitz explained , " it 's scarier if you think [ the monster ] could still be out there . "
Initially , scenes were filmed at the Seymour Demonstration Forest in North Vancouver . Although the typical shooting time for an episode of The X @-@ Files is eight days , " Detour " took nineteen days to film . Second unit director Brett Dowler later recounted that it " rained every day " . This put a strain on the cast and crew because almost every main shot needed was intended to be outdoors in the daylight . Because of the massive delays , changes were made : the actors ' schedules were rearranged and Kim Manners was brought in to assist Dowler in finishing the second unit of the episode . Filming later moved to a soundstage to avoid the incessant rain . Spotnitz later noted that " I thought I 'd come up with a very simple concept . Literally , one that was easy for the props people and all the other departments . "
Initially , it was decided that the antagonists of the episode would be dressed in elaborate " bark suits " so that they would blend into their surroundings . Special effects supervisors Toby Lindala created several elaborate suits made from faux bark . In the end , however , difficulties were so great that the show switched to digital effects . Visual effects supervisor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George was tasked with creating the glowing red eyes . Kallsen @-@ George digitized and blended various " eyeball images " — including shots of her family 's dog .
= = Cultural references = =
The plot and nature of the episode bears a striking resemblance to the film Predator ( 1987 ) , in which a creature that is able to perfectly camouflage itself , almost to the point of complete invisibility , stalks several humans in a dense jungle . While camping in the woods overnight , Scully sings " Joy to the World " by Three Dog Night while Mulder rests so that he can know she is awake and on guard . Originally , Scully was supposed to sing " I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry " , a 1949 country song by Hank Williams . However , series creator Chris Carter requested something more " off the wall " . Spotnitz , instead , chose " Joy to the World " and later said , " in retrospect , the song was perfect " . When talking , Mulder admits that the only time he has ever thought about " seriously dying " was at the Ice Capades .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Detour " premiered on the Fox network on November 23 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 22 @.@ 8 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Detour " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Francis Dass of New Straits Times was positive toward the episode , calling it " imaginative " . IGN named it the seventh best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series . The site called the sequence wherein " Scully holds a wounded Mulder and sings ' Jeremiah was a Bullfrog ' [ sic ] " the " best scene " of the episode and praised the depth of the characters ' relationship . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode an A and called it a " solid " entry in the series . Handlen complimented the episode 's cold opening , structure , monster , and the relationship between Mulder and Scully ; writing that the " core relationship " between Mulder and Scully " was remarkably strong " . He also noted that their conversation in the woods was reminiscent of the third season episode " Quagmire " and was " sweet " . Jonathan Dunn , writing for What Culture , highlighted " Detour " for its cinematic appeal and included it in the " 5 Episodes [ of The X @-@ Files ] That Could Be Made Into Movies " list .
Other reviews were more mixed . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode is a somewhat light @-@ hearted departure from the mythology installments and out @-@ of @-@ continuity flights of fancy that would dominate the early fifth season . While the character @-@ driven moments are a highlight , the actual ' case ' is far from special , often digressing from its purpose as a trigger for the character work . In the end , it ’ s fairly average . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She called the scene featuring Scully singing to Mulder " a failed attempt to create ' a special X @-@ Files moment ' " and noted that the sequence was " a poor substitute for meaningful dialogue " . Vitaris , however , did applaud the guest cast and called the creature 's effects " very creepy " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two noted that it replicated " Quagmire " too much for its own good and was " satisfied with the intention alone " . They reasoned that because " it 's so busy telling us how cute the interplay " between Mulder and Scully is , the episode " forgets to make it any good " . Shearman and Pearson also called the Spanish conquistador revelation " so utterly left field it feels self @-@ parodic . "
= Flora of Scotland =
The flora of Scotland is an assemblage of native plant species including over 1 @,@ 600 vascular plants , more than 1 @,@ 500 lichens and nearly 1 @,@ 000 bryophytes . The total number of vascular species is low by world standard but lichens and bryophytes are abundant and the latter form a population of global importance . Various populations of rare fern exist , although the impact of 19th century collectors threatened the existence of several species . The flora is generally typical of the north west European part of the Palearctic ecozone and prominent features of the Scottish flora include boreal Caledonian forest ( much reduced from its natural extent ) , heather moorland and coastal machair . In addition to the native varieties of vascular plants there are numerous non @-@ native introductions , now believed to make up some 43 % of the species in the country .
There are a variety of important trees species and specimens ; a Grand Fir in Argyll is the tallest tree in the United Kingdom and the Fortingall Yew may be the oldest tree in Europe . The Arran Whitebeams , Shetland Mouse @-@ ear and Scottish Primrose are endemic flowering plants and there are a variety of endemic mosses and lichens . Conservation of the natural environment is well developed and various organisations play an important role in the stewardship of the country 's flora . Numerous references to the country 's flora appear in folklore , song and poetry .
= = Habitats = =
Scotland enjoys a diversity of temperate ecologies , incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodlands , and moorland , montane , estuarine , freshwater , oceanic , and tundra landscapes . Approximately 14 % of Scotland is wooded , much of it forestry plantations , but prior to human clearing there would have been much larger areas of boreal Caledonian and broad @-@ leaved forest . Although much reduced , significant remnants of the native Scots Pine woodlands can be found in places . 17 % of Scotland is covered by heather moorland and peatland . Caithness and Sutherland have some of the largest and most intact areas of blanket bog in the world , supporting a distinctive wildlife community . 75 % of Scotland 's land is classed as agricultural ( including some moorland ) with urban areas accounting for around 3 % of the total . The number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800 , about 600 of them lying off the west coast . Scotland has more than 90 % of the volume and 70 % of the total surface area of fresh water in the United Kingdom . There are more than 30 @,@ 000 freshwater lochs and 6 @,@ 600 river systems .
Below the tree line there are several zones of climax forest . Birch dominates to the west and north , Scots Pine with Birch and oak in the eastern Highlands and oak ( both Quercus robur and Q. petrea ) with Birch in the Central Lowlands and Borders . Much of the Scottish coastline consists of machair , a fertile dune pasture land formed as sea levels subsided after the last ice age . Machairs have received considerable ecological and conservational attention , chiefly because of their unique ecosystems .
= = Flowering plants and shrubs = =
The total number of vascular species is low by world standards , partly due to the effects of Pleistocene glaciations ( which eliminated all or nearly all species ) and the subsequent creation of the North Sea ( which created a barrier to re @-@ colonisation ) . Nonetheless , there are a variety of important species and assemblages . Heather moor containing Ling , Bell Heather , Cross @-@ leaved Heath , Bog Myrtle and fescues is generally abundant and contains various smaller flowering species such as Cloudberry and Alpine Ladies @-@ mantle . Cliffs and mountains host a diversity of arctic and alpine plants including Alpine Pearlwort , Mossy Cyphal , Mountain Avens and Fir Clubmoss . On the Hebridean islands of the west coast , there are plantago pastures , which grow well in locations exposed to sea spray and include Red Fescue , Sea Plantain and Sea Pink . The machair landscapes include rare species such as Irish Lady 's Tresses , Yellow Rattle and numerous orchids along with more common species such as Marram and Buttercup , Ragwort , Bird 's @-@ foot Trefoil and Ribwort Plantain . Scots Lovage , ( Ligusticum scoticum ) first recorded in 1684 by Robert Sibbald , and the Oyster Plant are common plants of the coasts .
= = = Aquatic species = = =
Bogbean and Water Lobelia are common plants of moorland pools and lochans . The Least ( Nuphar pumila ) , Yellow and White Water @-@ lilies are also widespread . Pipewort has generated some botanical controversy regarding its discovery , classification and distribution . It was found growing on Skye in the 18th century , although there was subsequent confusion as to both the discoverer and the correct scientific name – now agreed to be Eriocaulon aquaticum . The European range of this plant is confined to Scotland and western Ireland and it is one of only a small number of species which is common in North America , but very restricted in Europe . There are a few localised examples of the Rigid Hornwort ( Ceratophyllum demersum ) .
= = = Grasses and sedges = = =
Grasses and sedges are common everywhere except dune systems ( where marram grass may be locally abundant ) and stony mountain tops and plateaux . The total number of species is large , 84 have been recorded on the verges of a single road in West Lothian . Smooth Meadow @-@ grass and Broad @-@ leaved Meadow @-@ grass are widespread in damp lowland conditions , Wood Sedge ( Carex sylvatica ) in woodlands , and Oval Sedge and Early Hair @-@ grass on upland moors . In damp conditions Phragmites reeds and several species of Juncus are found abundantly including Jointed Rush , Soft Rush and Toad Rush , and less commonly the introduced species Slender Rush . Common Cottongrass is a familiar site on marshy land , but Saltmarsh Sedge ( Carex salina ) was only discovered for the first time in 2004 at the head of Loch Duich .
= = = Endemic species = = =
Shetland Mouse @-@ ear ( Cerastium nigrescens ) is an endemic plant found in Shetland . It was first recorded in 1837 by Shetland botanist Thomas Edmondston . Although reported from two other sites in the 19th century , it currently grows only on two serpentine hills on the island of Unst .
The Scottish Primrose ( Primula scotica ) , is endemic to the north coast including Caithness and Orkney . It is closely related to the Arctic species Primula stricta and Primula scandinavica .
Young 's Helleborine ( Epipactis youngiana ) is a rare endemic orchid principally found on bings created by the coal @-@ mining industry in the Central Lowlands and classified as endangered .
The St Kilda Dandelion ( Taraxacum pankhurstianum ) is a species of dandelion endemic to the island of Hirta , identified in 2012 .
= = = Rare species = = =
Some of Scotland 's flowering plant species have extremely restricted ranges in the country . These include Diapensia lapponica , found only on the slopes of Sgurr an Utha , Argyll and Mountain Bearberry , recorded at only a few mainland locations , and on Skye and Orkney . The pinewoods of Strathspey contain rare species such as Creeping Lady 's Tresses , Twinflower and the One @-@ flowered Wintergreen . Plans to protect the Intermediate Wintergreen , also found here , were introduced in 2008 . Other nationally rare species include Tufted Saxifrage , Alpine Catchfly , Sword @-@ leaved Helleborine , Norwegian Sandwort , Dark @-@ red Helleborine , Iceland Purslane , Small Cow @-@ wheat and Yellow Oxytropis .
= = = Invasive plants = = =
A number of non @-@ native , invasive species have been identified as a threat to native biodiversity , including Giant Hogweed , Japanese Knotweed and Rhododendron . In May 2008 it was announced that psyllid lice from Japan , which feed on the Knotweed , may be introduced to the UK to bring the plant under control . This would be the first time that an alien species has been used in Britain in this way . Scientists at the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International do not believe the lice will cause any environmental damage . Over @-@ grazing caused by the large numbers of Red Deer and sheep has also resulted in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland .
= = Deciduous trees = =
Only thirty @-@ one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland , including 10 willows , four whitebeams and three birch and cherry species .
The Meikleour Beech hedges located in Perth and Kinross were planted in the autumn of 1745 by Jean Mercer and her husband , Robert Murray Nairne . This European Beech hedge , which is 530 metres ( 0 @.@ 3 miles ) in length , reaches 30 metres ( 100 ft ) in height and is noted in the Guinness World Records as the tallest and longest hedge on Earth .
The Arran Whitebeams are species unique to the Isle of Arran . The Arran Whitebeam ( Sorbus arranensis ) and the Cut @-@ leaved Whitebeam ( S. pseudofennica ) are amongst the most endangered tree species in the world if rarity is measured by numbers alone . Only 236 S. pseudofennica and 283 S. arranensis were recorded as mature trees in 1980 . The trees developed in a highly complex fashion involving the Rock Whitebeam ( S. rupicola ) , which is found on nearby Holy Isle but not Arran , interbreeding with the Rowan ( S. aucuparia ) to produce the new species . In 2007 it was announced that two specimens of a third new hybrid , the Catacol Whitebeam ( S. pseudomeinichii ) had been discovered by researchers on Arran . This tree is a cross between the native Rowan and S. pseudofennica .
Shakespeare makes reference to Birnam Wood being used as camouflage for Malcolm Canmore ’ s army before the battle at Dunsinane with MacBeth . There is an ancient tree , the Birnam Oak , standing a few hundred metres from the centre of Birnam . It may well have been part of Birnam Wood at the time of the battle 900 years ago , and remains part of the legend .
Research into the possible commercial use of Sea Buckthorn was undertaken by Moray College commencing in 2006 . The orange berries can be processed into jams , liquors and ointments and the hardy species grows well even on exposed west coasts .
= = Conifers = =
The Scots Pine and Common Juniper are the only coniferous trees definitely native to Scotland with Yew a possible contender .
The Fortingall Yew is an ancient tree in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall in Perthshire . Various estimates have put its age at between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 years ; recent research into yew tree ages suggests that it is likely to be nearer the lower limit of 2 @,@ 000 years . This still makes it the oldest tree in Europe , although there is an older Norway Spruce root system in Sweden .
At 64 @.@ 3 metres ( 211 ft ) , a Grand Fir planted beside Loch Fyne , Argyll in the 1870s was named as the UK ’ s tallest tree in 2011 . The next four tallest trees in the UK are all found in Scotland . The Stronardron Douglas Fir which grows near Dunans Castle in Argyll is recorded as 63 @.@ 79 metres ( 209 @.@ 3 ft ) . Diana ’ s Grove Grand Fir at Blair Castle , which was measured at 62 @.@ 7 metres ( 206 ft ) is the next highest . Dùghall Mòr ( Scottish Gaelic : " big dark stranger " ) , another Douglas Fir located in Reelig Glen near Inverness , reaches just over 62 metres ( 203 ft ) in height and was considered to be the tallest tree in Britain until a survey undertaken by Sparsholt College in 2009 ( which named the Stronardron fir as the highest ) . This survey concluded that the Hermitage Douglas Fir near Dunkeld came next in height , standing at 61 @.@ 31 metres ( 201 ft ) .
= = Ferns = =
Bracken is very common in upland areas , Beech Fern in woods and other shaded locations and Scaly Male Fern in wooded or open areas . Wilsons Filmy @-@ fern is a common upland variety in the Highlands , along with the Tunbridge Filmy @-@ fern , Alpine Lady @-@ fern and the rarer stunted form Newman ’ s Lady @-@ fern ( A. distentifolium var. flexile ) which is endemic to Scotland . The Killarney Fern , once found on Arran was thought to be extinct in Scotland , but has been discovered on Skye in its gametophyte form .
Scotland 's populations of Alpine Woodsia and Oblong Woodsia are on the edge of their natural ranges . The UK distribution of the former is confined to Angus , Perthshire , Argyll and north Wales , and of the latter to Angus , the Moffat Hills , north Wales and two locations in England . The plants were first identified as separate species by John Bolton in 1785 and came under severe threat from Victorian fern collectors in the mid 19th century . Cystopteris dickieana , first discovered in a sea cave in Kincardineshire , is a rare fern in a UK context whose distribution is confined to Scotland , although recent research suggests that it may be a variant of C. fragilis rather than a species in its own right .
= = Non @-@ vascular plants = =
Scotland provides ideal growing conditions for many bryophyte species , due to the damp climate , absence of lengthy droughts and winters without protracted hard frosts . In addition , the country 's diverse geology , numerous exposed rocky crags and screes and deep , damp ravines coupled with a relatively pollution @-@ free atmosphere enables a diversity of species to exist . This unique assemblage is in marked contrast to the relative impoverishment of the native vascular plants . There are about 920 species of moss and liverwort in Scotland , with 87 % of UK and 60 % of European bryophytes represented . Scotland 's bryophyte flora is globally important and this small country may host as many as 5 % of the world ’ s species ( in 0 @.@ 05 % of the Earth 's land area , similar in size to South Carolina or Assam ) . The mountains of the North @-@ west Highlands host a unique bryophyte community called the " Northern Hepatic Mat " , which is dominated by a variety of rare liverworts , such as Pleurozia purpurea and Anastrophyllum alpinum .
Scotland has played an important part in the development of the understanding of bryology , with pioneers such as Archibald Menzies and Sir William Hooker commencing explorations at the end of the eighteenth century . Tetrodontium brownianum is named after Robert Brown who first discovered the plant growing at Roslin near Edinburgh and several other species such as Plagiochila atlantica and Anastrepta orcadensis were also first discovered in the country .
= = = Mosses = = =
Sphagnum , is common and harvested commercially for use in hanging baskets and wreaths , and for medical purposes . Glittering Wood @-@ moss , Woolly Hair @-@ moss ( Racomitrium lanuginosum ) and Bristly Haircap ( Polytrichum piliferum ) are amongst many other abundant natives . Endemic species include the Scottish Thread @-@ moss , Dixon ’ s Thread Moss and Scottish Beard @-@ moss . In the Cairngorms there are small stands of Snow Brook @-@ moss and Alpine Thyme @-@ moss , and an abundance of Icy Rock @-@ moss , the latter 's UK population being found only here and at one site in England . The west coast is rich in oceanic mosses such as Cyclodictyon laetevirens and the Ben Lawers range also provides habitats for various rare species such as Tongue @-@ leaved Gland Moss . Perthshire Beard @-@ moss is a European endemic , occurring at only four European sites outside Scotland and it is classified as " Critically Endangered " .
= = = Liverworts and hornworts = = =
There are numerous common liverworts such as Conocephalum conicum and Marchantia polymorpha . Autumn Flapwort ( Jamesoniella autumnali ) , a nationally scarce species most commonly found in the sessile oak woods of western Scotland , was discovered at a site on Ben Lomond in 2008 . The species is named after the Scottish botanist , William Jameson . Northern prongwort is an endemic liverwort found only in the Beinn Eighe nature reserve . The high Cairngorms provide sites for a variety of other unusual liverworts including Marsupella arctica , the European distribution of which is confined to two sites here and Svalbard .
Hornworts are scarce in Scotland , Carolina Hornwort ( Phaeoceros carolinianus ) for example , having been found only in Lauderdale .
= = Lichens = =
Lichens are abundant , with 37 % of European species represented in just 0 @.@ 75 % of the European land area . Most rock surfaces , except those in very exposed places , or that are kept constantly wet by sea or fresh water , become grown with lichens . Reindeer Moss ( Cladonia rangiferina ) is a common species . The trunks and branches of large trees are an important lichen habitat , Tree Lungwort being particularly conspicuous . In the past lichens were widely used for dyeing clothing .
Graphis alboscripta and Halecania rhypodiza are endemic species . The former is found in the hazel woodlands of the west coast and the latter at only two sites in the Highlands . The British ranges of 35 species are confined to the Cairngorm Mountains . These include Alectoria ochroleuca , Rinodian parasitica and Cladonia trassii . Other nationally rare species found here are Jamesiella scotica , Cladonia botrytes and Ramalina polymorpha .
= = Conservation = =
Conservation of the natural environment is well developed in the United Kingdom . There are various public sector organisations with an important role in the stewardship of the country 's flora . Scottish Natural Heritage is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland . One of their duties is to establish National Nature Reserves . Until 2004 there were 73 , but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status , and as of 2006 there are 55 . The Forestry Commission in Scotland serves as the forestry department of the Scottish Government and is one of the country 's largest landowners . The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation .
The country has two national parks . Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK . Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39 % of the land area , two thirds of which are of Europe @-@ wide importance . Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain 's largest body of freshwater , the mountains of Breadalbane and the sea lochs of Argyll .
There are also numerous charitable and voluntary organisations with an important role to play , of which the more prominent include the following . The National Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland 's natural and cultural heritage . With over 270 @,@ 000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland . The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re @-@ creation of habitats . The John Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife , through the ownership of land and the promotion of education and conservation . The trust owns and manages estates in various locations , including Knoydart , Assynt , and on the isle of Skye . Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a " wild forest " in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian Mountains .
Under the auspices of the European Unions Habitats Directive , as at 31 March 2003 a total of 230 sites in Scotland covering an area of 8 @,@ 748 @.@ 08 km2 ( 3 @,@ 377 @.@ 65 sq mi ) had been submitted by the UK government to the European Commission as candidate Special Areas of Conservation ( cSAC ) .
The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prohibits the uprooting of plants without a landowner 's permission and the collection of any part of the most threatened species , which are listed in Schedule 8 . In 2012 the Scottish Government published a " Code of Practice on Non @-@ Native Species " to help people understand their responsibilities and provide guidance as to which public body has responsibility for the various habitats involved .
= = Flora in Scottish culture = =
Plants feature heavily in Gaelic and Scottish folklore , song and poetry .
The thistle has been one of the national emblem of the Scots nation since the reign of Alexander III ( 1249 – 1286 ) and was used on silver coins issued by James III in 1470 . Today , it forms part of the emblem of the Scottish Rugby Union . As legend has it , an invading army had attempted to sneak up at night on the Scots . One , perhaps barefooted , unwelcome foreign soldier stumbled upon a Scots Thistle , and cried out in pain , thus alerting Scots to their presence . Some sources suggest the specific occasion was the Battle of Largs , which marked the beginning of the departure of the Viking monarch Haakon IV of Norway , who had harried the coast for some years . Spiky plants such as brambles appear to have been used around forts since time immemorial , so the story , whether it factually relates to the Haakon episode or not , likely is the culmination of more than one such event over time . In some variants , it is invading English which stumble on a thistle , but the story predates this time .
Numerous plants are referred to in Scottish song and verse . These include Robert Burns A Red , Red Rose , Hugh MacDiarmid 's A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle , Sorley MacLean 's Hallaig , Harry Lauder 's I Love A Lassie and in the 21st century , Runrig 's And The Accordions Played . The last two lyrics include a reference to the bluebell . The " Scottish Bluebell " is Campanula rotundifolia , ( known elsewhere as the " Harebell " ) rather than Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta , the " Common Bluebell " .
Trees held an important place in Gaelic culture from the earliest times . Particularly large trees were venerated , and the most valuable such as oak , Common Hazel and Apple were classed as " nobles " . The less important Common Alder , Common Hawthorn and Gean were classed as " commoners " , and there were " lower orders " and " slaves " such as Eurasian Aspen and Juniper . The alphabet was learned as a mnemonic using tree names . Rowan was regularly planted close to Highland houses as a protection from witchcraft .
Various plants are said to have apotropaic qualities , notably Mountain Ash . Henbane ( Hyoscyamus niger ) may have been used as a hallucinogen as long ago as the Neolithic period . This tradition has recently been taken up once again by New Agers .
= Grasshopper =
Grasshoppers are insects of the order Orthoptera , suborder Caelifera . They are sometimes referred to as short @-@ horned grasshoppers to distinguish them from the katydids ( bush crickets ) which have much longer antennae . They are typically ground @-@ dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which enable them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously . They are hemimetabolous insects ( do not undergo complete metamorphosis ) which hatch from an egg into a nymph or " hopper " which undergoes five moults , becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage . At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions , some grasshopper species can change colour and behaviour and form swarms . Under these circumstances they are known as locusts .
Grasshoppers are plant @-@ eaters , sometimes becoming serious pests of cereals , vegetables and pasture , especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas . They protect themselves from predators by camouflage ; when detected , many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly @-@ coloured wing @-@ flash while jumping and ( if adult ) launching themselves into the air , usually flying for only a short distance . Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators . Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases , and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults . The eggs are the subject of attack by parasitoids and predators .
Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans . Swarms of locusts have had dramatic effects that have changed the course of history , and even in smaller numbers grasshoppers can be serious pests . They are eaten as food and also feature in art , symbolism and literature .
= = Characteristics = =
Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head , thorax and abdomen . The head is held vertically , at an angle to the body with the mouth at the bottom . It bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all @-@ round vision , three simple eyes which can detect light and dark and a pair of thread @-@ like antennae which are sensitive to touch and smell . The downward @-@ directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws .
The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin . The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings . The forewings , known as tegmina , are narrow and leathery while the hind wings are large and membranous , the veins providing strength . The legs are terminated by claws for gripping . The hind leg is particularly powerful ; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species . The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end . The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the limbs .
The abdomen has eleven segments , the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the auditory organ and tympanum . Segments two to eight are ring @-@ shaped and joined by flexible membranes . Segments nine to eleven are reduced ; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven house the reproductive organs . Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males , with short ovipositors . The name " Caelifera " comes from the Latin and means chisel @-@ bearing , referring to the sharp ovipositor .
Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind femurs against the edges of the forewings ( stridulation ) . These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females , though in some species the females also stridulate .
Grasshoppers are easily confused with the other sub @-@ order of Orthoptera , Ensifera ( crickets ) , but differ in many aspects , such as the number of segments in their antennae and structure of the ovipositor , as well as the location of the tympana and modes of sound production . Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20 – 24 segments , while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter , stouter antennae .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The phylogeny of the Caelifera based on mitochondrial RNA of 32 taxa in six out of seven superfamilies is shown as a cladogram . The Ensifera , Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic .
In evolutionary terms , the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo @-@ Triassic boundary ; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic . The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant @-@ eaters from that time to now . The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae , Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous , though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic . Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type ; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia , especially those of the male . This information is not available from fossil specimens , and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings .
= = Diversity and range = =
The Caelifera includes some 2 @,@ 400 valid genera and about 11 @,@ 000 species . Many undescribed species probably exist , especially in tropical wet forests . The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones , but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide . They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects .
= = Biology = =
= = = Diet and digestion = = =
Most grasshoppers are polyphagous , eating vegetation from multiple plant sources , but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces . In general their preference is for grasses , including many cereals grown as crops . The mandibles chew the food slightly and salivary glands in the buccal cavity chemically begin to digest the carbohydrates present in it . The food is then passed via the oesophagus to the crop where it is stored temporarily and chemical digestion continues . Next it moves to the gizzard which has muscular walls and tooth @-@ like plates which grind the food . From here , food enters the stomach , where six hepatic caeca add further enzymes and digestion is completed . At the junction between mid and hind @-@ gut , several fine tubes known as malpighian tubules add the excretory products ( uric acid , urea and amino acids ) to the contents of the gut . Absorption of nutrients takes place in the ileum and any undigested residue is passed on to the colon . Here water is absorbed and the residue becomes solid . After storage in the rectum , the faeces are expelled as small dry pellets .
= = = Sensory organs = = =
Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system , and have an extensive set of external sense organs . On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement , shape , colour and distance . There are also three simple eyes ( ocelli ) on the forehead which can detect light intensity , a pair of antennae containing olfactory ( smell ) and touch receptors , and mouthparts containing gustatory ( taste ) receptors . At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception . There are numerous fine hairs covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors ( touch and wind sensors ) , and these are most dense on the antennae , the palps ( part of the mouth ) , and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen . There are special receptors ( campaniform sensillae ) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion . There are internal " chordotonal " sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton . The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons , and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself .
= = = Circulation and respiration = = =
Like other insects , grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph . A heart @-@ like structure pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen . It circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut . The haemolymph and the circulatory system are not involved in gaseous exchange . Respiration is performed using tracheae , air @-@ filled tubes , which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles . Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed , using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system .
= = = Jumping = = =
A large grasshopper such as a locust can jump about a metre ( twenty body lengths ) without using its wings ; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g . Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate ( the ground , a twig , a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on ) ; the reaction force propels them into the air . They jump for several reasons ; to escape from a predator , to launch themselves for flight , or simply to move from place to place . For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take @-@ off velocity , since this determines the range . This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement . However , a fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with both high force and high velocity , which seems like a problem . Grasshoppers overcome this apparent contradiction by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles .
The jump is a three @-@ stage process . First , the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg ( tibia ) against the upper part ( femur ) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle ( the back legs of the immature grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position ) . Second , there is a period of co @-@ contraction in which force builds up in the large , pennate extensor tibiae muscle , but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle . The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle , but the latter is aided by specializations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed . Co @-@ contraction can last for up to half a second , and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg . The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow ( almost isometric ) , which allows it to develop high force ( up to 14 N in the desert locust ) , but because it is slow only low power is needed . The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle , which releases the tibia from the flexed position . The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures , rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle . In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult , or the bow of a bow @-@ and @-@ arrow . Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction , and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures .
= = = Lifecycle and reproduction = = =
Grasshoppers lay their eggs in pods in the ground near food plants , generally in the summer . The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species . After a few weeks of development , the eggs of most species go into diapause , and pass the winter in this state ; in a few species the eggs hatch in the same summer they were laid . Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature ; development resumes as soon as the ground warms above a threshold temperature . The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other . They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden . These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators .
Grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis : they repeatedly moult ( undergo ecdysis ) , becoming larger and more like an adult , with for instance larger wing @-@ buds , in each instar . The number of instars varies between species . At the final moult , the wings are inflated and become fully functional . The migratory grasshopper , Melanoplus sanguinipes , spends about 25 – 30 days as a nymph depending on sex and temperature , and about 51 days as an adult .
Males stridulate , rapidly rasping the hind femur against the forewing to create a churring sound , to attract mates . Females select suitable egg @-@ laying sites , such as bare soil or near the roots of food plants according to species . Males often gather around an ovipositing female ; in some species she is mated as soon as she takes her ovipositor out of the ground . After laying the eggs , the female covers the hole with soil and litter .
= = Predators , parasites and pathogens = =
Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their life @-@ cycle . Eggs are eaten by bee @-@ flies , ground beetles and blister beetles . Hoppers and adults are taken by predators including other insects such as ants , robber flies and sphecid wasps ; spiders ; many birds ; and small mammals .
Parasitoids include blowflies , fleshflies , and tachinid flies . External parasites include mites . It has been found that female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring . This is probably because the individuals concerned allocate resources in response to the parasitism which are then not available for reproduction .
Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts . The grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns , thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle which takes place in water . The grasshopper nematode ( Mermis nigrescens ) is a long slender worm that infests grasshoppers , living in the insect 's hemocoel . Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host gets infected when it eats the foliage .
Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria , viruses , fungi and protozoa . The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers , as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana . This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world , but although it infects grasshoppers , basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect 's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus , and the infection is not lethal . The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host , causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies . This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse .
The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa , Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers . It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control . The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae , once considered to be a protozoan , can be lethal to grasshoppers . It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait @-@ based commercial microbial pesticide . Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut .
= = = Anti @-@ predator defences = = =
Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti @-@ predator adaptations , enabling them to avoid detection , to escape if detected , and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured . Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight . Their colouration usually resembles the background , whether green for leafy vegetation , sandy for open areas or grey for rocks . Some species can change their colouration to suit their surroundings .
Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai ( Eumastacoidea ) are detailed mimics of leaves . Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings , giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight .
Some species are genuinely aposematic , having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators . Dictyophorus productus ( Pyrgomorphidae ) is a " heavy , bloated , sluggish insect " that makes no attempt to hide ; it has a bright red abdomen . A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species . Another species , the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona , Dactylotum bicolor ( Acridoidea ) , has been shown by experiment with a natural predator , the little striped whiptail lizard , to be aposematic .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = In art = = =
Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks , such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast 's still life oil painting , Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects , c . 1630 , now in the National Gallery , London , though the insect may be a bush @-@ cricket .
Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch 's still life Flowers in a Vase , c . 1685 . The seemingly static scene is animated by a " grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring " , according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman , with other invertebrates including a spider , an ant , and two caterpillars .
= = = Symbolism = = =
Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols , as in Sir Thomas Gresham 's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street , London , dating from 1563 ; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange , but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust .
When grasshoppers appear in dreams , these have been interpreted as symbols of " Freedom , independence , spiritual enlightenment , inability to settle down or commit to decision " . Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers ; figuratively as " wicked men and women " for non @-@ farmers ; and " Extravagance , misfortune , & ephemeral happiness " by " gypsies " .
= = = As food = = =
In some countries , grasshoppers are used as food . In southern Mexico , grasshoppers , known as chapulines , are eaten in a variety of dishes , such as in tortillas with chilli sauce . Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets , like the Donghuamen Night Market . Fried grasshoppers ( walang goreng ) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul area of Yogjakarta , Java in Indonesia . In the Arab world , grasshoppers are boiled , salted , and sun @-@ dried , and eaten as snacks . In Native America , the Ohlone people burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food .
It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey ( Greek : ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον , akrides kai meli agrion ) while living in the wilderness ; attempts have been made to explain the locusts as suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans , but the plain meaning of ἀκρίδες is the insects .
= = = As pests = = =
Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development , and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies . Pasture , grain , forage , vegetable and other crops can be affected . Grasshoppers often bask in the sun , and thrive in warm sunny conditions , so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations . A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a massive population increase , but several successive dry seasons can do so , especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive . Although sunny weather stimulates growth , there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population . This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth , prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development .
Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment . Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging luxurious growth beside ditches and on roadside verges . With increasing numbers of grasshoppers , predator numbers may increase , but this seldom happens sufficiently rapidly to have much effect on populations . Biological control is being investigated but with little success . On a small scale , neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development . Insecticides can be used , but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill , and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth , crops may soon become reinfested .
Grasshoppers , like the Chinese rice grasshopper , are a pest in rice paddies . Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field , to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies . Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place .
= = = Locusts = = =
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short @-@ horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae . It has been shown that swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding . Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin . This causes the grasshopper to change colour , feed more and breed faster . The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period .
Following this transformation , under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs can occur , producing pheromones which attract them to each other . With several generations in a year , the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues , devouring all the vegetation they encounter . The largest recorded locust swarm was one of the now @-@ extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875 , which was 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) long and 110 miles ( 180 km ) wide .
An adult desert locust can eat about 2 g ( 0 @.@ 1 oz ) each day so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive , stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and also consuming stems , flowers , fruits , seeds and bark . Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations , causing famines and population upheavals . They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have been held responsible for cholera epidemics , resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches .
The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world . Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers joining together and proliferating before dense swarms of adults are built up . Besides conventional control using contact insecticides , biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum which specifically infects grasshoppers has been used with some success .
= = = In literature = = =
The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system . The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts : " They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude . "
One of Aesop 's Fables , later retold by La Fontaine , is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper . The ant works hard all summer , while the grasshopper plays . In winter , the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves . Somerset Maugham 's short story " The Ant and the Grasshopper " explores the fable 's symbolism via complex framing . The Canadian philosopher Bernard Suits retells the story with the grasshopper as " the exemplification of the life most worth living . " Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper 's behaviour . So an unfaithful woman ( hopping from man to man ) is " a grasshopper " in " Poprygunya " , an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov , and in Jerry Paris 's 1969 film The Grasshopper .
The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago . In the 1998 film A Bug 's Life , the heroes are the members of an ant colony , and the lead villain and his henchmen are grasshoppers .
= = = In aviation = = =
The name " Grasshopper " was used for light aircraft such as the Aeronca L @-@ 3 and Piper L @-@ 4 used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II .
= Ikuhiko Hata =
Ikuhiko Hata ( 秦 郁彦 , Hata Ikuhiko , born 12 December 1932 ) is a Japanese historian . He acquired his PhD at the University of Tokyo and has taught history at several universities . He is the author of a number of influential and well @-@ received scholarly works , particularly on topics related to Japan 's role in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and World War II .
Hata is variously regarded as being a " conservative " historian or a " centrist " . He has written extensively on such controversial subjects as the Nanking Massacre and the comfort women . Fellow historian Edward Drea has called him " the doyen of Japanese military historians " .
= = Education and career = =
Ikuhiko Hata was born on 12 December 1932 in the city of Hōfu in Yamaguchi Prefecture . He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1956 and received his PhD there in 1974 . He worked as chief historian of the Japanese Ministry of Finance between 1956 and 1976 and during this period from 1963 to 1965 he was also a research assistant at Harvard University . After resigning his post at the Finance Ministry Hata served as a visiting professor at Princeton University from 1977 to 1978 and then was a history professor at Takushoku University from 1980 to 1993 , at Chiba University from 1994 to 1997 , and at Nihon University from 1997 to 2002 .
= = Scholarship = =
Hata has been described by numerous historians as an important scholar on the history of modern Japan . Historian Edward Drea has called him " the doyen of Japanese military historians " , and has written that Hata 's " published works are models of scholarship , research , accuracy , and judicious interpretation " , and Joshua A. Fogel , a historian of China at York University , concurs that Hata " is an eminent scholar who has for over forty years been writing numerous excellent studies of Japan at war . " Masahiro Yamamoto called him " a leading Japanese scholar in the field of Japan 's modern history " .
Hata 's first published history book was Nicchū Sensōshi ( " A History of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War " ) , released in 1961 , which he began researching while completing his bachelor 's degree at the University of Tokyo . The work was well @-@ received , described by Chalmers Johnson as " the most thorough study of Japanese policies in China during the 1930s " and by James T.C. Liu as " a welcome and pioneering contribution " . Fifty years after its publication Edward Drea and Tobe Ryoichi called it " a classic account " of the war . Hata 's second book , the 1962 work Gun fashizumu undō shi ( " A History of the Military Fascist Movement " ) , was promoted by the historian Shuhei Domon as " a first @-@ rate narrative interpretation based on extensive use of documentary evidence . "
The Japan Association of International Relations selected Hata for a part of what historian James William Morley described as a team of " young , objective diplomatic and military historians " to be given unprecedented access to primary source records to write the history of the origins of World War II in Asia . The result was Taiheiyō sensō e no michi ( " The Road to the Pacific War " ) , published between 1962 and 1963 and then translated into English in the 1970s and 1980s . Hata contributed three essays to the series . Roger Dingman described the first , " The Japanese @-@ Soviet Confrontation , 1935 – 1939 " , as " a wealth of new data " , and praised the second , " The Army 's Move into Northern Indochina " , for demonstrating " brilliantly how peaceful passage through northern Indochina became forceful occupation " . Mark Peattie wrote that Hata 's third essay , " The Marco Polo Bridge Incident 1937 " , was " the best overview we now have in English " of the event , and Hata would later expand it into a full @-@ length book which Edward Drea and Tobe Ryoichi called " the single best source on the incident " .
Starting in 1968 Hata headed a team of scholars with a task from the Ministry of Education to analyze all available sources and documents on the workings of the wartime and prewar armed forces of Japan . The fruit of their research was Nihon Rikukaigun no Seido , Soshiki , Jinji ( " Institutions , Organization , and Personnel of the Japanese Army and Navy " ) , released in 1971 , which Mark Peattie called " the authoritative reference work in the field " . Soon after Hata was tasked with coordinating another collaborative research project , this one for the Finance Ministry , on the subject of the occupation of Japan by the United States after World War II . John W. Dower , Sadao Asada , and Roger Dingman credited Hata for the key role he played in producing the multivolume project , which began to be published in 1975 , and deemed it the best work of scholarship on the occupation produced until that point .
In 1993 Hata wrote a two @-@ volume work on controversial incidents in modern Japanese history , entitled Shōwashi no nazo wo ou ( " Chasing the Riddles of Showa History " ) , which was awarded the Kikuchi Kan Prize .
Hata co @-@ wrote two books with Yasuho Izawa on Japanese fighter aces of World War II , both of which were described by historians as the definitive treatments of the subject .
A work Hata had written in 1984 , Hirohito Tennō Itsutsu no Ketsudan ( " Emperor Hirohito 's Five Decisions " ) , attracted the attention of Marius Jansen , who arranged to have it translated into English as Hirohito : The Showa Emperor in War and Peace . According to Edward Drea , on the question of " whether the emperor was really Japan 's ruler and power @-@ holder or merely a puppet and robot ... [ Hata ] concludes that the answer to this complex question lies somewhere in between , although Hata credits Hirohito with considerable political savvy . " Apart from Drea the book also garnered highly positive reviews from Stephen S. Large and Hugh Cortazzi .
= = = Nankin Jiken and Nanking Massacre death toll estimates = = =
Hata 's major contribution to Nanking Massacre studies is his book Nankin jiken ( " The Nanking Incident " ) , published in 1986 , which is a detailed study of the event based on Japanese , Chinese , and English sources that was later noted by historians such as Daqing Yang to be one of the few impartial works of scholarship written on the massacre during the period . The book is known for its relatively low estimate of the death toll , which Hata put at about 40 @,@ 000 partly because , unlike most historians of the time , he excluded Chinese soldiers killed in action from his definition of the massacre . Hata 's book is acknowledged as the first to discuss what might have caused the massacre , whereas previous books had focused only on the event itself . Hata argued that the Japanese Army 's lack of military police and facilities to detain POWs , its ignorance of international laws , its excessive mopping @-@ up operations , and the Chinese General Tang Shengzhi 's decision to flee the city without formally surrendering were among the factors which led to the slaughter .
Some contemporary researchers including the historian Tomio Hora and the journalist Katsuichi Honda expressed strong disagreement with Hata 's death toll estimate , though both expressed admiration for Hata 's scholarship and sincerity . Hata is today recognized as the major scholar of the so @-@ called " centrist " school of thought on the Nanking Massacre , which in terms of the death toll believes that tens of thousands were killed and thus stands between the " great massacre " school which believes that hundreds of thousands were killed , and the " illusion " school of Nanking Massacre deniers . By contrast , Takuji Kimura has criticized Hata as a " minimizer " of the atrocity , while still acknowledging that his book on the massacre was " an excellent study " and Herbert Bix has described him as " the most notorious " of the " partial deniers " of the Nanking Massacre . However , historians Haruo Tohmatsu and HP Willmott have stated that Hata 's estimate for the death toll is regarded in Japan as being " the most academically reliable estimate " .
Hata 's Nankin jiken has continued to receive plaudits from some scholars . In 2000 Marius Jansen endorsed it as " the most reasonable of many Japanese studies " on the massacre and in 2001 prominent Nanking Massacre scholar Yutaka Yoshida deemed it one of the top five books he recommends that people read on the Nanking Massacre , despite disagreeing with its death toll estimate . In 2003 Joshua Fogel called the book " still an authority in the field " , and Ritsumeikan University professor David Askew designated it " the best introductory work on the Nanjing Incident in any language " . By 1999 the book was in its nineteenth printing .
In November 1997 at a conference in Princeton University Hata was confronted by Iris Chang , author of the book The Rape of Nanking , who asked him why he doubted the testimony of Japanese POWs who had stated that hundreds of thousands of Chinese were killed in the atrocity . When Hata replied that torture and coercion of Japanese POWs made their testimony unreliable Chang walked out and the audience became unruly , shouting Hata down and yelling insults at him . The moderator Perry Link barely kept the situation under control . In the wake of this incident , similar disruptions by Chinese students who disagreed with his death toll estimate prevented Hata from speaking at a number of universities that he visited . Bob Wakabayashi of York University argues that Hata became more strident in his tone following these attacks , once calling it the " Nanking industry " in comparison with Norman Finkelstein 's " Holocaust industry " . In the 1980s Hata had stated that the death toll was 38 @,@ 000 to 42 @,@ 000 while holding out the possibility that it might have been as high as 60 @,@ 000 , but when he wrote the second edition of Nankin Jiken in 2007 he indicated that 42 @,@ 000 massacred was the maximum possible and that the true number might have been lower .
= = = Research on comfort women = = =
Ikuhiko Hata is a leading historian on the subject of the comfort women who served alongside the Japanese Army in the 1930s and 1940s and is credited with being the first individual to expose as fraudulent the testimony of Seiji Yoshida , who claimed to have kidnapped Korean women for the Japanese military . Hata , who argues that the comfort women were not sex slaves but largely willing prostitutes with minority of them being sold by their parents and more crucially , no direct involvement by Japanese military except few incidents in South East Asia , summed up his views on the issue with ,
" There were at most 20 @,@ 000 comfort women . None of them were forcibly recruited . Forty percent of them were from Japan , the most heavily represented nation . Many were sold to brokers by their parents . Some responded willingly to brokers ' offers ; others were deceived . I would add that , on the average , living conditions in the comfort stations were practically identical to those in brothels set up for American troops during the Vietnam War . "
Historian Chunghee Sarah Soh notes that Hata had put the total number of comfort women at 90 @,@ 000 in 1993 but he later revised the number downward because of " his political alignment with the conservative anti @-@ redress camp in Japan that emerged in the latter half of the 1990s " .
Hata would expand his research into the 1999 book Ianfu to senjō no sei ( " Comfort women and sex on the battlefield " ) , described by Sarah Soh as " a 444 @-@ page treatise on the comfort women issue " . Ianfu to senjō no sei was noted for its extensive compilation of information , being praised by historian Haruo Tohmatsu as " probably the most well documented study on the question " and by Mainichi Shimbun reporter Takao Yamada as " an encyclopedia @-@ like collection of facts on comfort women " . In The International History Review , A. Hamish Ion stated that with this work Hata has succeeded in creating " a measured evaluation in the face of sensational and supposedly ill @-@ researched studies by George Hicks and others . " The book was also favorably reviewed by political scientist Itaru Shimazu and the journalist Takaaki Ishii . By contrast , historian Hirofumi Hayashi criticized the work for faulty use of documents , such as where Hata cites a document listing 650 comfort women allocated in five prefectures , when in fact the document said 400 comfort women .
Hata , who supports the retraction of the Kono Statement on comfort women , was the only historian appointed to the committee established by the government of Shinzo Abe to re @-@ examine the statement . In 2015 Hata led of group of Japanese historians in requesting that the publisher McGraw @-@ Hill make corrections to what they believed were erroneous descriptions of the comfort women in a world history textbook published in the United States .
= = Ideological leanings = =
Hata 's general ideological leanings have been described in a variety of manners . Some sources have referred to him as being a right @-@ leaning scholar , such as Thomas U. Berger who has called him , " a highly respected conservative Japanese historian " . Others , however , find characterizing Hata in these terms to be inaccurate , such as military historian Masahiro Yamamoto who notes that in the historical debate on the Nanking Massacre Hata was a centrist who actually leaned closer to the " traditionalist " scholars than the conservative " revisionists " . Takao Yamada likewise points out that Hata has criticized all sides in historical controversies and he argues that Hata can be better described as a " positivist " .
Hata is known as a strong opponent of the attempts by some Japanese nationalists to revise Japan 's wartime history in a way that he deems ideologically biased . Hata , whom the Wall Street Journal described as an advocate of the " we @-@ did @-@ wrong view " of Japanese history , has expressed grave concern about the advent of new historical revisionists seeking to apologize for Japan 's wartime aggressions and absolve former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo . In 1995 Hata stepped down from a government commission on the construction of a new war museum near Yasukuni Shrine in fear that the project would be used to glorify Japan 's wartime actions . He favors the de @-@ enshrinement of war criminals from Yasukuni Shrine and is also a critic of Yūshūkan , a museum near the shrine , for its nationalist @-@ inspired portrayal of Japanese history . While he has been strongly critical of efforts by Japanese nationalist groups to alter history textbooks , Hata also agreed to testify for the Ministry of Education against left @-@ wing historian Saburo Ienaga who believed that his textbook was being censored by the Japanese government . Hata has supported the work of the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform , despite noting that the textbook which the Society had authored " was colored more strongly by nationalism than others " .
In 2007 Hata was vocal in his denunciation of an essay written by Toshio Tamogami , a former general in the Japanese Air Self @-@ Defense Force , which sought to justify Japanese imperialism . Hata found Tamogami 's essay to be " of extremely low quality " and full of " old conspiracy theories " . Because of his scholarship on the Nanking Massacre Hata has been attacked by Nanking Massacre deniers such as Masaaki Tanaka , who said that Hata was infected with " IMTFE syndrome " , and Shōichi Watanabe .
In 1990 Hata argued that the recently released monologue of Emperor Hirohito , the former Emperor 's recollection of wartime Japan which he recorded shortly after World War II , had likely been created to prove to the United States that he was not involved in war crimes and consequently Hata theorized that an English language translation must have also been drawn up at the same time , a theory which was mocked by right @-@ wing scholars who felt the monologue was created as a simple historical record without ulterior motives . In 1997 the English language draft was discovered .
= = Personal life = =
Hata has been married to Kazuko Matsumura since 9 September 1973 and has one daughter , Mineko . He lives in Meguro in Tokyo , Japan .
= = Awards = =
1993 - Kikuchi Kan Prize
2014 - Mainichi Publishing Cultural Awards
= = Works in English = =
= = = Books = = =
Reality and Illusion : The Hidden Crisis between Japan and the USSR 1932 – 1934 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1967 .
With Yasuho Izawa . Japanese Naval Aces and Fighter Units in World War II . Annapolis : Naval Institute Press , 1989 .
With Yasuho Izawa and Christopher Shores . Japanese Army Air Force Fighter Units and Their Aces 1931 @-@ 1945 . London : Grub Street , 2002 .
Hirohito : The Showa Emperor in War and Peace . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 2007 .
= = = Chapters of books = = =
" Japanese Historical Writing on the Origins of the Pacific War " ( in Papers on Modern Japan . Canberra : Australian National University Press , 1968 . )
" The Battle of Midway " ( in Purnell 's History of the 20th Century Volume Seven . New York : Purnell , 1971 . )
" The Japanese @-@ Soviet Confrontation , 1935 @-@ 1939 " ( in Deterrent Diplomacy : Japan , Germany , and the USSR 1935 @-@ 1940 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1976 . )
" The Army 's Move into Northern Indochina " ( in The Fateful Choice : Japan 's Advance into Southeast Asia , 1939 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
– 1941 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1980 . )
" The Occupation of Japan , 1945 – 1952 " ( in The American Military and the Far East : Proceedings of the Ninth Military History Symposium . Washington DC : Government Printing Office , 1980 . )
" From Mukden to Pearl Harbor " ( in Japan Examined : Perspectives on Modern Japanese History . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 1983 . )
" The Marco Polo Bridge Incident 1937 " ( in The China Quagmire . New York : Columbia University Press , 1983 . )
" Continental Expansion 1905 – 1941 " ( in The Cambridge History of Japan Volume Six . London : Cambridge University Press , 1988 . )
" The Road to the Pacific War " ( in Pearl Harbor Reexamined . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 1990 . )
" Admiral Yamamoto 's Surprise Attack and the Japanese Navy 's War Strategy " ( in From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . London : Macmillan , 1994 . )
" From Consideration to Contempt : The Changing Nature of Japanese Military and Popular Perceptions of Prisoners of War Through the Ages " ( in Prisoners of War and Their Captors in World War II . Oxford : Berg , 1996 . )
" The Flawed UN Report on Comfort Women " ( in Women and Women 's Issues in Post World War II Japan . New York : Garland , 1998 . )
" Nanjing , construction of a ' great massacre ' " ( in An Overview of the Nanjing Debate . Tokyo : Japan Echo , 2008 . )
" Nanking atrocities , fact and fable " ( in An Overview of the Nanjing Debate . Tokyo : Japan Echo , 2008 . )
= = = Articles = = =
" A Japanese View of the Pacific War " , Orient / West , July 1962 .
" Japan Under the Occupation " , The Japan Interpreter , Winter 1976 .
" The Postwar Period in Retrospect " , Japan Echo , 1984 .
" When Ideologues Rewrite History " , Japan Echo , Winter 1986 .
" Going to War : Who Delayed the Final Note ? " , Journal of American @-@ East Asian Relations , Fall 1994 .
= Wonderland ( Faryl Smith album ) =
Wonderland is the second studio album by teenage mezzo @-@ soprano Faryl Smith , released by Decca Records on 30 November 2009 . Smith became famous after her participation in Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 , and subsequently , aged 13 , signed with Universal Classics and Jazz , releasing her debut album , Faryl . Released only a few months afterwards , Wonderland contains a mix of classical and non @-@ classical songs , which were chosen by both Smith and her record label . A concept album , it is based on Alice in Wonderland , and features a digitally produced " duet " with Luciano Pavarotti , who died in 2007 , as well as a song set to " Winter " , from Vivaldi 's Four Seasons . As with Faryl , Wonderland was produced by Jon Cohen .
Smith promoted the album with appearances on television and radio . For the most part , critics responded positively to the album , with praise for Smith 's vocals , the song choice and the musical arrangement , but criticism for " the lack of emotional weight " . Further , critics observed that Smith 's voice had improved since her appearance on Britain 's Got Talent . Despite this , Wonderland appeared in the UK Albums Chart for only one week , peaking at 54 , proving less successful than Faryl . Smith later rerecorded " The Prayer " , her cover of which was originally released on Wonderland , with 22 other classical artists , with proceeds going to charity .
= = Background = =
Smith , aged 13 at the time , signed a record @-@ breaking multi @-@ album deal with Universal Classics and Jazz in December 2008 , six months after finishing outside the top three in the Britain 's Got Talent series two final . Her debut album , Faryl , was released in March 2009 . Smith later described the album as " an introduction to me and an introduction for me to recording " , and said that she " wanted to follow up [ Faryl ] as quickly as possible with another record , something richer and varied " . In July , it was announced that work had begun on her second album , with hopes to release it later in the year . Smith said in an interview that " We 're starting to look at what songs will be on the second album ... I 'm not really choosing the songs myself , I 'm leaving that up to the people at the record label . I 'm really happy that they want me to do another album so soon – I didn 't think I would be working on one so quickly after the first one was released ... I 'm just excited to get under way with it . "
= = Recording and release = =
Wonderland was revealed as the album 's name in September , and a preliminary release date of 30 November was forwarded . Recording took place at Sarm Studios in Notting Hill , London , and completed in early October . Smith recorded her vocals during her school holidays . Initially , Smith was asked by her label for a track listing , but said that she " didn 't know what songs would be wrong or right for an album " . Instead , she and Decca both created their own lists , and the final track list was compiled from the two . The result included a variety of songs ; Smith said she was pleased with the mix , citing " classical numbers " like " The Prayer " , in contrast to " a more unexpected song " , " Close to You " . The track " O Holy Night " features a " duet " with Luciano Pavarotti , who died in 2007 ; Pavarotti 's vocals were digitally added to Smith 's recording to produce the song , resulting in the pair sounding " as if they 're really there together " . The title track , " Wonderland " , is set to " Winter " , from Vivaldi 's Four Seasons , and the lead track , " Merry Christmas Mr Lawrence ( Somewhere Far Away ) " is an adaptation of a piece by Ryuichi Sakamoto , originally from Merry Christmas , Mr. Lawrence . Smith 's favourite tracks on the album are " O Holy Night " and " The Prayer " .
The album was produced by Jon Cohen , who also produced Faryl and has previously worked with artists including the Opera Babes and Vanessa @-@ Mae . Cohen said that Smith has " matured as an artist since the first album " and that he had " no doubt that once again , people will be astonished and moved by her performances " . Smith 's father , Tony , said that the bosses at universal were hoping for the album to be more commercially successful than Faryl , but noted that the market around Christmas time is tough , due to the high volume of releases . Brian Roberts , writing for the Daily Mirror , claimed that Wonderland was " tipped to go head to head " for the number one classical album position with releases from Il Divo and Rhydian Roberts .
Wonderland is a concept album loosely based on Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland . The album took the title from the book , and was created with the intention of taking listeners on a journey , as well as showcasing Smith 's voice . She said that " that 's something I like to hear in music . Whether I listen to Beyonce [ sic ] or Vivaldi , music is supposed to transport you away , escape from the everyday . " Smith said that she sometimes felt like Alice chasing White Rabbit , and , for this reason , " Wonderland " was a suitable title track for the album .
= = Promotion = =
Wonderland was released for the Christmas market , and was labelled as a potential Christmas number one . Smith embarked on a promotional tour , beginning at the end of October , with magazine , television and radio appearances . Appearances included Ready Steady Cook , Blue Peter , the BBC News Channel , Sky News Sunrise , The Alan Titchmarsh Show and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Speaking about the album 's promotion , Smith said " [ i ] t is always a struggle when a second album comes out because you never know how it is going to do but fingers crossed people will enjoy it . I am very proud of it . ... I am excited about going on all the shows too – especially Ready Steady Cook because I can 't cook and I think it will be fun . "
= = Reception and performance = =
Critics responded positively to the album . Paul Callan , reviewing the album for the Daily Express , described Wonderland as " a joy " ; he compared it to other Christmas albums , saying that " [ t ] oo many are tired , much @-@ repeated carol selections . " He described Smith 's " control , tone and warmth " as " very moving " . Overall , he gave the album 4 out of 5 . A reviewer writing for The Sun described the album as a " lush collection " of songs , and said that Smith 's " voice is now stronger , richer and even more musical " . Andy Gill , reviewing Wonderland for The Independent , gave a more mixed review . He said that the influence of Alice in Wonderland was often hard to perceive , and said that Cohen and Smith had " sweetened the classical elements " . He praised the arrangements of " Adiemus " , " Barcarolle " , " Merry Christmas , Mr Lawrence " and " Blow the Wind Southerly " , but noted that " on " Close to You " and other tracks , " the lack of emotional weight is telling . " Overall , Gill gave Wonderland 3 out of 5 .
Local paper the Northamptonshire Evening Telegraph reported that Wonderland was selling well ; on Amazon.co.uk 's charts , it appeared at number one on the symphonies chart , 13 on easy listening and 95 overall . A spokesman for the local HMV store was quoted as saying " Sales of the new Faryl album have got off to a storming start – she is proving hugely popular at HMV . ... We 're actually selling as many copies of Faryl 's new album as we are Susan Boyle right now . " However , the album entered the top 75 of the UK Albums Chart for only one week , peaking at 54 . It appeared on the Arts & Book Review ( Independent Print ) classical albums chart for two weeks , peaking at number 6 . The album proved less successful than Smith 's debut , and , subsequent to its release , Smith 's contract with Universal ended .
Having originally released her version of " The Prayer " on Wonderland , Smith and 22 other classical musicians from the UK recorded a version of the song for charity in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . The proceeds of the single , which was released on 14 March 2010 , went to the Disasters Emergency Committee . Smith said " It 's a real honour to be a part of something that is being done for the first time , and I hope that all music lovers get involved and help raise money for the campaign . I really hope that we can make a difference together to help the horrible situation that Haiti is in at the moment . " The group , dubbed " Classical Band Aid " , recorded the track at Metropolis Studios and were backed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Each vocalist in the group performed their own solo lines , and the entire group came together for the finale . " The Prayer " was the first ever classical charity single ; Smith noted that " Pop singers do things like this a lot but it 's unusual for classical singers to get involved so I 've been really excited . "
= = Credits = =
= = = Music = = =
= = = Administration and production = = =
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Orval Grove =
Orval Leroy Grove ( August 29 , 1919 – April 20 , 1992 ) was an American pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for ten seasons in the American League with the Chicago White Sox . In 207 career games , Grove pitched 1 @,@ 176 innings and posted a win – loss record of 63 – 73 , with 66 complete games , 11 shutouts , and a 3 @.@ 78 earned run average ( ERA ) .
The only freshman on the Proviso High School varsity baseball team , Grove 's pitching ability attracted the attention of the White Sox . After signing with the team in 1937 , Grove moved between the major leagues and minor leagues for a few seasons until 1943 , when he found a solid place in the White Sox 's pitching rotation . Grove had a career @-@ year in 1943 , finishing the season with career @-@ bests in ERA , wins , and complete games ; in 1944 , he made his only All @-@ Star appearance .
Grove spent four more full seasons with the White Sox , and after pitching one game in 1949 , was sent to the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League . After playing four seasons with them , he formally retired from professional baseball . After retirement , he worked with his uncle in a trucking business in Chicago while continuing to pitch at the semi @-@ pro level . In 1992 , Grove died at the age of 72 .
= = Early life = =
Grove was born in West Mineral , Kansas , on August 29 , 1919 , and was raised in Maywood , Illinois . By eighth grade , Grove developed a fondness for baseball and began pitching for the Proviso East High School baseball team . He became the first freshman member of the varsity team in school history . During a high school pitching career of three years , Grove lost only two games and pitched a no @-@ hitter and two one @-@ hitters . Over the summer of 1937 , Grove attracted the attention of Chicago White Sox talent scout Doug Minor , who requested that he " come and workout with the Sox . " Later that year , Grove was signed by the White Sox for $ 2 @,@ 500 and began his minor league career , foregoing his senior season of high school .
= = Minor league career = =
Grove began his career with the Dallas Steers of the Texas League at the start of the 1938 season . He played with the Steers until management began to replace young players with veterans due to the team 's struggling form and moved Grove to the Longview Cannibals . As his first minor league season drew to a close , Grove planned on returning to Proviso High School to complete his education . At the end of the season , the St. Paul Saints purchased Grove 's contract to replenish their pitching staff .
After the 1939 season had begun , Grove became part of the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League ; St. Paul did not see much potential in him . Grove played well enough over the course of the season to receive votes for Most Valuable Player , which ultimately went to Nick Cullop . In 1939 , Grove had a peculiar game while pitching against the Tulsa Oilers . Playing in a night game with virtually no light due to storms , Grove did not allow a hit during his time on the mound , but earned the loss because he walked three men in a row , which allowed a run to score . As the 1940 season began , Grove became a part of the White Sox roster and began his Major League career .
= = Transition to the majors = =
During spring training in 1940 , Hall of Fame pitcher Ted Lyons said that Grove would have a great career , stating , " They 'll never drive that sinker very far . " Grove was an official part of the 40 @-@ man roster as the 1940 season began ( teams started rather than ended the season with 40 men at this time ) , but had not made an appearance after a month on the roster . The White Sox planned to use three rookie pitchers , including Grove , during the final week of May , as they had three doubleheaders that week . Grove made his Major League debut on May 28 , 1940 . He pitched in two more games for the White Sox that season before being sent back to Oklahoma City . Grove finished 1940 with six innings of major league work over three games , allowing two earned runs . The highlight of Grove 's 1940 season came on August 11 against the Oilers ; he pitched a complete game that lasted 12 innings , winning 1 – 0 against Hall of Famer Dizzy Dean . Grove finished the minor league season with nine wins and eight losses , but the team saw issues with his control , and as a result he spent most of the next season in the minor leagues .
In 1941 , Grove played two games for the White Sox , pitching seven innings and allowing eight runs during the two outings . He spent the start of the 1941 season at Oklahoma City , though on May 19 he was sent to the Shreveport Sports of the Texas League , where he spent the rest of the season . Grove concluded the year at Oklahoma City with a 17 – 7 record , an improvement over the previous season . However , Grove received a knee injury late in the season , which he did not think much of at the time . In October , Grove injured his other knee when he was involved in an automobile accident in Missouri .
The following season , Grove was provided an opportunity to be a starting pitcher for the White Sox . Over the course of the season , he started eight games and played in four more en route to a 4 – 6 record and a 5 @.@ 16 ERA . In the middle of July , Dr. Philip Kruescher discovered that Grove had torn cartilage in his left knee , a result of the same injury which caused him problems for most of the season and the previous off @-@ season . Grove was scheduled for knee surgery , which necessitated two months of recovery , effectively ending his season . Issues with his knee drew concern both during and after the season . Dr. Kruescher stated that Grove had a " 1 in 100 " chance of playing again , but the surgery was a success , and by season 's end Grove was able to test the knee and do light workouts . Complications arose shortly thereafter as an abscess developed on the back of his knee , prompting another operation in December to correct the problem .
= = Prime years = =
As the 1943 season began , the White Sox held strong doubts about Grove 's status as a pitcher . They were so doubtful of his recovery from knee surgery that Grove was signed to a $ 1 contract until he could prove that his playing ability was back on par with the abilities of the other White Sox pitchers . After Grove proved himself in spring training , manager Jimmy Dykes gave him his first major test of the season against the New York Yankees in relief of Eddie Smith . He won the game in extra innings , and was placed in the starting rotation . In 1943 , Grove had to deal with issues related to World War II and the selective service . He was originally classified as 3 @-@ A , meaning that registration was deferred due to hardship to dependents , but was ordered to take the selective service screening examination in Cleveland in mid @-@ May . After the examination , Grove was classified as 4 @-@ F , making him ineligible for military service , which meant that he could continue his baseball career .
Grove took advantage of his place in Chicago 's starting rotation by winning nine consecutive decisions to start his season and by not losing a game until a contest against the Yankees , which he lost as the result of a balk . At the time , Grove became the second member of the White Sox to win nine consecutive decisions to start a season . The first pitcher to win nine straight games for the team was Lefty Williams in 1917 , and the only one to do it since Grove was LaMarr Hoyt in 1982 . On July 8 , 1943 , Grove nearly became one of the few pitchers in baseball history to pitch a no @-@ hitter . In a game against the Yankees , he was one out away from pitching a no @-@ hitter when Joe Gordon came up to bat . Gordon hit a double to left field that was fair by inches , ending Grove 's closest bid for a Major League no @-@ hitter . Grove finished the season with career bests in ERA ( 2 @.@ 75 ) , wins ( 15 ) , and complete games ( 18 ) . He led the White Sox that season in ERA , wins , innings pitched , complete games , and strikeouts ; at the time , Grove was the youngest pitcher on the team 's staff . Grove 's personal life improved along with his career . On January 8 , 1944 , he married Catherine Sloan , having met her at a party thrown for the White Sox by her father , Francis Sloan , a year and a half earlier .
Grove started the 1944 season with an interesting honor : he was assigned to the 4 @-@ F All @-@ Star team , a group of 25 major league players who were the best of those exempt from military service . Grove was given the job of being the Opening Day starting pitcher for the White Sox . He pitched the first game of the season against the Cleveland Indians and their starting pitcher , Al Smith , on April 19 , 1944 , and won 3 – 1 . Grove also managed to shut out the Yankees on May 18 ; it was the first time the Yankees had not scored a run in 1944 . By mid @-@ season , Grove had seven wins , six losses , five complete games , and a 3 @.@ 40 ERA . Because of these statistics , he was selected to the American League All @-@ Star team , his first and only career appearance . Five American League pitchers pitched in the All @-@ Star Game on July 11 , although Grove was one of the four on the roster who did not ; therefore , his lone All @-@ Star appearance was indeed only an appearance . During the second half of the season , Grove performed well at Comiskey Park , but struggled on the road , at one point losing five straight games despite good run support from the White Sox . Grove finished the season with 14 wins , 15 losses , an ERA of 3 @.@ 72 , two shutouts , and a career best of nearly 235 innings pitched .
There was a sense of closure for Grove before the beginning of the 1945 season , as he was awarded $ 310 ( $ 4 @,@ 075 today ) in damages for the auto accident in 1941 . He held out for a new contract in the off @-@ season , and finally signed with the White Sox a couple weeks before the beginning of the season after becoming the last remaining holdout . Grove was the workhorse of the White Sox , leading the team in games pitched ( 33 ) and started ( 30 ) , while remaining the youngest pitcher on the roster . He finished the season with 217 pitched innings , a career best four shutouts , a 14 – 12 record , and a 3 @.@ 44 ERA .
The 1946 season saw Grove persist as a stable part of the White Sox pitching rotation . He pitched in 33 games during the season , second to closer Earl Caldwell , and started in 26 , second to Ed Lopat 's 29 . His best outing of the season occurred on August 3 against the Washington Senators . Grove pitched a complete game and threw to the minimum 27 batters , allowing three hits and a walk , all of which were negated by double plays . He finished the season with more losses than wins because he was eager to succeed and was trying too hard , and because of this the coaching staff planned to make Grove into " as good a pitcher most of the time as he is some of the time " . At the end of the 1946 season , Grove had eight wins and 13 losses , a 3 @.@ 02 ERA , 10 complete games , and a league @-@ leading 10 wild pitches .
= = Later career = =
During the off @-@ season , while preparations were underway for the 1947 season , Grove was the subject of trade discussions . Most notably , White Sox manager Ted Lyons and Cleveland Indians president Bill Veeck discussed trading him for Indians pitcher Steve Gromek , but the deal was nixed when they could not come to an agreement . As the season began , Grove remained part of the rotation , which was led by Lopat and included Joe Haynes and Frank Papish . While Grove started off the season well , he struggled through the middle of the year , going from May 18 to August 2 without winning a game . As a result , he was benched , and finished the season with 19 starts in 25 pitching appearances . For the first time , Grove finished a full season with an ERA above 4 @.@ 00 . He ended the season with six wins , eight losses , a 4 @.@ 44 ERA , and six complete games . Grove spent the off @-@ season working in the men 's furnishings department of Henry C. Lytton 's department store in Chicago .
In the 1948 season , the White Sox faced difficult decisions regarding their pitching staff and starting rotation . In the midst of Caldwell 's departure and Papish 's absence for most of the preseason , Grove remained a starter heading into the season , having pitched decently during spring training . In his final exhibition matchup of the season against Johnny Schmitz , Grove pitched the full nine innings and the White Sox defeated the Chicago Cubs 1 – 0 , making Grove the only White Sox pitcher to throw a complete game during the preseason . By the end of May , Grove was the lone White Sox pitcher with a complete game through the first several weeks of the season . However , Grove eventually lost his starting job , and by the end of the season , he had two wins , 10 losses , a 6 @.@ 16 ERA , and had started 11 games out of 32 total pitching appearances .
As the 1949 season began , Grove was again the subject of trade rumors . The Detroit Tigers agreed to trade an outfielder , presumably Don Lund or Jimmy Outlaw , in exchange for Grove , although the Tigers denied the existence of such a deal , stating " We need pitching , but I don 't think Grove would help us . " Grove pitched one game during the season on April 27 , 1949 , allowing four runs in two @-@ thirds of an inning . In his one appearance against the Indians , he hit Lou Boudreau with a pitch , which prompted concern until X @-@ rays revealed Boudreau 's left elbow was only bruised .
Shortly afterward , Grove was demoted to the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League , having pitched his final major league game . During his inaugural season at Sacramento , he was part of a pitching quartet that included Ken Holcombe , Bob Gillespie , and Frank Dasso , and was declared by Sporting News sportswriter John B. Old as " the best any Coast League club ever had . " Over the course of the next three seasons , Grove continued to pitch for the Solons . He was one of the workhorses of the 1950 squad , finishing the season with 17 victories .
His contract with the Solons promised him part of the purchase price if he was sold to the majors . When this did not occur , he considered quitting baseball and devoting himself full @-@ time to his uncle 's trucking business . However , Grove continued to play , and pitched 159 innings in 1951 , compiling an 8 – 9 record . There was talk of his retiring in the off @-@ season ; however , Grove ended up playing part of the 1952 season , making his season debut on June 10 and playing for the rest of the season . After the season ended , Grove was traded to the Portland Beavers , and refused to report , choosing instead to pitch at the semi @-@ pro level . Grove stated , " I 'm now pitching for Earl Smith Motors Pontiac sales service " , signaling the end of his professional baseball career .
= = Later life = =
After his retirement from baseball , Grove continued to work with his uncle . His legacy lived on in his nephew , Wayne Grove . While playing for the Bellwood Lions of the Chicago Little League , Wayne pitched a no @-@ hitter and struck out 15 , and narrowly missed a perfect game when a runner got on base with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . Despite an unimpressive Major League career , Grove earned a few votes for induction into the Hall of Fame , receiving five votes in the 1958 balloting ( 1 @.@ 9 % of the required votes needed ) and seven in the 1960 balloting ( 2 @.@ 6 % of the required votes needed ) .
Grove had four children and four grandchildren , and later was the co @-@ owner of a car wash in Sacramento , California for 20 years . He became close friends with Joe Gordon , the player who broke up Grove 's no @-@ hitter , after moving to Sacramento . Grove died in Carmichael , California on April 20 , 1992 , and is buried alongside his wife , Catherine .
= 1994 – 95 South Pacific cyclone season =
The 1994 – 95 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active South Pacific tropical cyclone season 's on record , with only three tropical cyclones officially occurring within the South Pacific Ocean basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The season ran from November 1 , 1994 until April 30 , 1995 with the first disturbance of the season developing on November 12 and the last disturbance dissipating on March 17 . The most intense tropical cyclone during the season was Tropical Cyclone William , which affected the Cook Islands . After the season the name William was retired , from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
During the season , tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Nadi , Fiji , Wellington , New Zealand and Brisbane , Australia . Throughout the season the United States Navy also monitored the basin and issued unofficial warnings , through its Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) . Tropical cyclones that were located between the Equator and 25S were monitored by TCWC Nadi while any that were located to the south of 25S were monitored by TCWC Wellington . During the season the JTWC issued warnings on any tropical cyclone that was located between 160 ° E and 180 ° while the NPMOC issued warnings for tropical cyclones forming between 180 ° and the American coast . TCWC Nadi , Wellington and Brisbane all used the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale , and measured windspeeds over a 10 @-@ minute period , while the JTWC and the NPMOC measured sustained windspeeds over a 1 @-@ minute period .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The season was one of the most inactive tropical cyclone seasons on record , with only two tropical cyclones officially occurring within the South Pacific Ocean basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The first tropical depression of the season developed out of an area of convection on November 12 to the northeast of Vanuatu , before it was named Vania on November 14 after it had become a category one tropical cyclone . The cyclone went on to end a long dry spell in Vanuatu , before it last noted on November 19 to the west of Port Vila , Vanuatu . The basin remained quiet until December 13 , when Tropical Depression 04P developed to the east of the Solomon Islands , before going on to affect Fiji and Tonga . During the final days of 1994 , Tropical Cyclone William developed to the northeast of American Samoa . Throughout its lifetime , William moved southeast and affected parts of French Polynesia and the Cook Islands before becoming extratropical on January 3 . After William left the basin on January 5 , the basin remained quiet until March 16 , when Tropical Depression 18P developed near Fiji , before dissipating during the next day . After the season had ended the name William was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists , while in June 1995 , the World Meteorological Organization made TCWC Nadi a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Cyclone Vania = = =
On November 12 , TCWC Nadi reported that a tropical depression had developed within a persistent area of convection , that was located about 795 kilometres ( 495 mi ) to the northeast of Port Vila , Vanuatu . Over the next couple of days the depression gradually developed further as it started to move towards the southwest , before the JTWC started to issue warnings on it during November 13 and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 01P after it had become equivalent to a tropical storm . Early on November 14 , as the system passed near the Solomon Island of Tikopia , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had become a category one tropical cyclone on the Australian scale , and named it as Vania . During that day as it continued to move towards the south — southwest and intensify , it started to affect Vanautu with storm force windspeeds and heavy rain which helped break a long dry spell in Vanuatu .
Early on November 15 , TCWC Nadi reported that Vania had become a category two tropical cyclone with peak 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of between 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) , while the JTWC reported peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) which made it equivalent to a tropical storm . Later that day Vania passed near or over several of the Vanuatuan islands as it continued to move towards the south — southwest , and started to weaken as it encountered a higher amount of vertical windshear . During the following day , TCWC Nadi reported that Vania had weakened into a category one tropical cyclone as the systems low level circulation stalled , before it turned and started to move westwards while located to the north of New Caledonia . During November 17 , as the system had become sheared the JTWC issued their final advisory on Vania , before the systems remnant low level circulation was last noted by TCWC Nadi and the JTWC during November 19 , while it was located about 100 km ( 60 mi ) to the west of Port Vila , Vanuatu . Only minor damage to crops and bush houses was reported to have occurred in the archipelago while no deaths were reported . As a result of Vania affecting parts of Vanuatu during November 15 , voting in provincial elections had to be extended by 24 hours .
= = = Tropical Depression 04P = = =
On December 13 , the US Navy started to monitor an area of disturbed weather that was located about 720 km ( 480 mi ) , to the east of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . During that day , TCWC Nadi started to monitor the system as a tropical depression as the system moved southeast towards Fiji . Over the next couple of days , the depression continued to move southeast towards Fiji and gradually developed further . On December 15 , the NPMOC initiated advisories on the depression and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 04P , while it was located about 110 km ( 70 mi ) to the northeast of Labasa , Fiji . Later that day , the NPMOC reported that the system had become a tropical storm and reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , as it affected several Fijian islands including Vanua Levu and Thikombia . During December 16 , the cyclone continued to move towards the southeast and started to affect Tonga before the NPMOC issued their final warning on the system as it had weakened into a tropical depression . During the next day , the depression moved into TCWC Wellingtons area of responsibility and was subsequently declared extratropical .
= = = Tropical Cyclone William = = =
On December 30 , TCWC Nadi reported that a tropical depression had developed about 860 km ( 535 mi ) , to the northeast of Pago Pago in American Samoa . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ southeast and gradually developed further , before the NPMOC designated the depression as Tropical Cyclone 05P . During January 1 , TCWC Nadi reported that the depression had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone and named it William as it passed near the Cook Island of Autitaki . During the next day William subsequently slowly accelerated as it passed near too or over several other Cook Islands and intensified into a category 2 tropical cyclone . Early on January 3 , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had reached its peak 10 @-@ minute wind speeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as it passed near or over the French Polynesian islands of Maria and Rimatara .
At around the same time the NPMOC reported that William , had reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The system subsequently degenerated into an extratropical cyclone as it left the tropics later that day . The remnants of Tropical Cyclone William were tracked by TCWC Wellington until January 5 , as they moved south @-@ eastwards and moved out of the South Pacific basin . Throughout the Southern Cook Islands caused around US $ 2 @.@ 5 million worth of damage to crops , buildings and coconut trees and destroyed a causeway to a tourist resort on Aitutaki . William injured two people and destroyed over 150 houses in French Polynesia , where local leaders accused Météo @-@ France off underestimating Williams intensity .
= = = Tropical Depression 18P = = =
On March 15 , the US Navy started to monitor an area of disturbed weather , that had developed about 245 km ( 150 mi ) to the northeast of Nadi , Fiji . During that day the depression moved towards the southeast and gradually developed further while moving around the south coast of Viti Levu . During the next day , the NPMOC initiated advisories on the area of disturbed weather and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 18P , with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . During the following day as the depression did not intensify any further as it continued to move towards the southeast . The NPMOC then issued their final advisory on the system later that day , as the depression dissipated about 960 km ( 600 mi ) to the southeast of Nuku 'alofa , Tonga .
= = Season effects = =
This table lists all the storms that developed in the South Pacific basin during the 1994 – 95 season . It includes their intensity on the Australian Tropical cyclone intensity scale , duration , name , areas affected , deaths , and damages . For most storms the data is taken from TCWC Nadi and Wellington 's archives , however data for 04P and 18P have been taken from the JTWC archives as opposed to TCWC Nadi and Wellington 's , and thus the winds are over 1 @-@ minute as opposed to 10 @-@ minutes .
= Taylor series =
In mathematics , a Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the function 's derivatives at a single point .
The concept of a Taylor series was formulated by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715 . If the Taylor series is centered at zero , then that series is also called a Maclaurin series , named after the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin , who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series in the 18th century .
A function can be approximated by using a finite number of terms of its Taylor series . Taylor 's theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error introduced by the use of such an approximation . The polynomial formed by taking some initial terms of the Taylor series is called a Taylor polynomial . The Taylor series of a function is the limit of that function 's Taylor polynomials as the degree increases , provided that the limit exists . A function may not be equal to its Taylor series , even if its Taylor series converges at every point . A function that is equal to its Taylor series in an open interval ( or a disc in the complex plane ) is known as an analytic function in that interval .
= = Definition = =
The Taylor series of a real or complex @-@ valued function <formula> that is infinitely differentiable at a real or complex number <formula> is the power series
<formula>
which can be written in the more compact sigma notation as
<formula>
where <formula> denotes the factorial of n and <formula> denotes the nth derivative of <formula> evaluated at the point a . The derivative of order zero of <formula> is defined to be <formula> itself and <formula> and <formula> are both defined to be 1 . When a = 0 , the series is also called a Maclaurin series .
= = Examples = =
The Maclaurin series for any polynomial is the polynomial itself .
The Maclaurin series for ( 1 − x ) − 1 is the geometric series
<formula>
so the Taylor series for x − 1 at a
= 1 is
<formula>
By integrating the above Maclaurin series , we find the Maclaurin series for log ( 1 − x ) , where log denotes the natural logarithm :
<formula>
and the corresponding Taylor series for log ( x ) at a =
1 is
<formula>
and more generally , the corresponding Taylor series for log ( x ) at some a
= x0 is :
<formula>
The Taylor series for the exponential function ex at a =
0 is
<formula>
The above expansion holds because the derivative of ex with respect to x is also ex and e0 equals 1 . This leaves the terms ( x − 0 ) n in the numerator and n ! in the denominator for each term in the infinite sum .
= = History = =
The Greek philosopher Zeno considered the problem of summing an infinite series to achieve a finite result , but rejected it as an impossibility : the result was Zeno 's paradox . Later , Aristotle proposed a philosophical resolution of the paradox , but the mathematical content was apparently unresolved until taken up by Archimedes , as it had been prior to Aristotle by the Presocratic Atomist Democritus . It was through Archimedes 's method of exhaustion that an infinite number of progressive subdivisions could be performed to achieve a finite result . Liu Hui independently employed a similar method a few centuries later .
In the 14th century , the earliest examples of the use of Taylor series and closely related methods were given by Madhava of Sangamagrama . Though no record of his work survives , writings of later Indian mathematicians suggest that he found a number of special cases of the Taylor series , including those for the trigonometric functions of sine , cosine , tangent , and arctangent . The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics further expanded his works with various series expansions and rational approximations until the 16th century .
In the 17th century , James Gregory also worked in this area and published several Maclaurin series . It was not until 1715 however that a general method for constructing these series for all functions for which they exist was finally provided by Brook Taylor , after whom the series are now named .
The Maclaurin series was named after Colin Maclaurin , a professor in Edinburgh , who published the special case of the Taylor result in the 18th century .
= = Analytic functions = =
If f ( x ) is given by a convergent power series in an open disc ( or interval in the real line ) centered at b in the complex plane , it is said to be analytic in this disc . Thus for x in this disc , f is given by a convergent power series
<formula>
Differentiating by x the above formula n times , then setting x = b gives :
<formula>
and so the power series expansion agrees with the Taylor series . Thus a function is analytic in an open disc centered at b if and only if its Taylor series converges to the value of the function at each point of the disc .
If f ( x ) is equal to its Taylor series for all x in the complex plane , it is called entire . The polynomials , exponential function ex , and the trigonometric functions sine and cosine , are examples of entire functions . Examples of functions that are not entire include the square root , the logarithm , the trigonometric function tangent , and its inverse , arctan . For these functions the Taylor series do not converge if x is far from b . That is , the Taylor series diverges at x if the distance between x and b is larger than the radius of convergence . The Taylor series can be used to calculate the value of an entire function at every point , if the value of the function , and of all of its derivatives , are known at a single point .
Uses of the Taylor series for analytic functions include :
The partial sums ( the Taylor polynomials ) of the series can be used as approximations of the entire function . These approximations are good if sufficiently many terms are included .
Differentiation and integration of power series can be performed term by term and is hence particularly easy .
An analytic function is uniquely extended to a holomorphic function on an open disk in the complex plane . This makes the machinery of complex analysis available .
The ( truncated ) series can be used to compute function values numerically , ( often by recasting the polynomial into the Chebyshev form and evaluating it with the Clenshaw algorithm ) .
Algebraic operations can be done readily on the power series representation ; for instance , Euler 's formula follows from Taylor series expansions for trigonometric and exponential functions . This result is of fundamental importance in such fields as harmonic analysis .
Approximations using the first few terms of a Taylor series can make otherwise unsolvable problems possible for a restricted domain ; this approach is often used in physics .
= = Approximation and convergence = =
Pictured on the right is an accurate approximation of sin ( x ) around the point x
= 0 . The pink curve is a polynomial of degree seven :
<formula>
The error in this approximation is no more than | x | 9 / 9 ! . In particular , for − 1 < x < 1 , the error is less than 0 @.@ 000003 .
In contrast , also shown is a picture of the natural logarithm function log ( 1 + x ) and some of its Taylor polynomials around a =
0 . These approximations converge to the function only in the region − 1 < x ≤ 1 ; outside of this region the higher @-@ degree Taylor polynomials are worse approximations for the function . This is similar to Runge 's phenomenon .
The error incurred in approximating a function by its nth @-@ degree Taylor polynomial is called the remainder or residual and is denoted by the function Rn ( x ) . Taylor 's theorem can be used to obtain a bound on the size of the remainder .
In general , Taylor series need not be convergent at all . And in fact the set of functions with a convergent Taylor series is a meager set in the Fréchet space of smooth functions . And even if the Taylor series of a function f does converge , its limit need not in general be equal to the value of the function f ( x ) . For example , the function
<formula>
is infinitely differentiable at x
= 0 , and has all derivatives zero there . Consequently , the Taylor series of f ( x ) about x =
0 is identically zero . However , f ( x ) is not the zero function , so does not equal its Taylor series around the origin . Thus , f ( x ) is an example of a non @-@ analytic smooth function .
In real analysis , this example shows that there are infinitely differentiable functions f ( x ) whose Taylor series are not equal to f ( x ) even if they converge . By contrast , the holomorphic functions studied in complex analysis always possess a convergent Taylor series , and even the Taylor series of meromorphic functions , which might have singularities , never converge to a value different from the function itself . The complex function e − z − 2 , however , does not approach 0 when z approaches 0 along the imaginary axis , so it is not continuous in the complex plane and its Taylor series is undefined at 0 .
More generally , every sequence of real or complex numbers can appear as coefficients in the Taylor series of an infinitely differentiable function defined on the real line , a consequence of Borel 's lemma . As a result , the radius of convergence of a Taylor series can be zero . There are even infinitely differentiable functions defined on the real line whose Taylor series have a radius of convergence 0 everywhere .
Some functions cannot be written as Taylor series because they have a singularity ; in these cases , one can often still achieve a series expansion if one allows also negative powers of the variable x ; see Laurent series . For example , f ( x ) = e − x − 2 can be written as a Laurent series .
= = = Generalization = = =
There is , however , a generalization of the Taylor series that does converge to the value of the function itself for any bounded continuous function on ( 0 , ∞ ) , using the calculus of finite differences . Specifically , one has the following theorem , due to Einar Hille , that for any t > 0 @,@
<formula>
Here Δnh is the n @-@ th finite difference operator with step size h . The series is precisely the Taylor series , except that divided differences appear in place of differentiation : the series is formally similar to the Newton series . When the function f is analytic at a , the terms in the series converge to the terms of the Taylor series , and in this sense generalizes the usual Taylor series .
In general , for any infinite sequence ai , the following power series identity holds :
<formula>
So in particular ,
<formula>
The series on the right is the expectation value of f ( a + X ) , where X is a Poisson distributed random variable that takes the value jh with probability e − t / h ( t / h ) j / j ! . Hence ,
<formula>
The law of large numbers implies that the identity holds .
= = List of Maclaurin series of some common functions = =
See also List of mathematical series
Several important Maclaurin series expansions follow . All these expansions are valid for complex arguments x .
Exponential function :
<formula>
Natural logarithm :
<formula>
<formula>
Geometric series and its derivatives ( see article for variants ) :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Binomial series ( includes the square root for α
= 1 / 2 and the infinite geometric series for α =
− 1 ) :
<formula>
with generalized binomial coefficients
<formula>
For instance , with the first several terms written out explicitly for the common square root cases , is :
<formula>
<formula>
Trigonometric functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Hyperbolic functions :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
The numbers Bk appearing in the summation expansions of tan ( x ) and tanh ( x ) are the Bernoulli numbers . The Ek in the expansion of sec ( x ) are Euler numbers .
= = Calculation of Taylor series = =
Several methods exist for the calculation of Taylor series of a large number of functions . One can attempt to use the definition of the Taylor series , though this often requires generalizing the form of the coefficients according to a readily apparent pattern . Alternatively , one can use manipulations such as substitution , multiplication or division , addition or subtraction of standard Taylor series to construct the Taylor series of a function , by virtue of Taylor series being power series . In some cases , one can also derive the Taylor series by repeatedly applying integration by parts . Particularly convenient is the use of computer algebra systems to calculate Taylor series .
= = = First example = = =
In order to compute the 7th degree Maclaurin polynomial for the function
<formula> ,
one may first rewrite the function as
<formula> .
The Taylor series for the natural logarithm is ( using the big O notation )
<formula>
and for the cosine function
<formula> .
The latter series expansion has a zero constant term , which enables us to substitute the second series into the first one and to easily omit terms of higher order than the 7th degree by using the big O notation :
<formula>
Since the cosine is an even function , the coefficients for all the odd powers x , x3 , x5 , x7 , ... have to be zero .
= = = Second example = = =
Suppose we want the Taylor series at 0 of the function
<formula>
We have for the exponential function
<formula>
and , as in the first example ,
<formula>
Assume the power series is
<formula>
Then multiplication with the denominator and substitution of the series of the cosine yields
<formula>
Collecting the terms up to fourth order yields
<formula>
Comparing coefficients with the above series of the exponential function yields the desired Taylor series
<formula>
= = = Third example = = =
Here we employ a method called " Indirect Expansion " to expand the given function . This method uses the known Taylor expansion of the exponential function . In order to expand
<formula>
as a Taylor series in x , we use the known Taylor series of function ex :
<formula>
Thus ,
<formula>
= = Taylor series as definitions = =
Classically , algebraic functions are defined by an algebraic equation , and transcendental functions ( including those discussed above ) are defined by some property that holds for them , such as a differential equation . For example , the exponential function is the function which is equal to its own derivative everywhere , and assumes the value 1 at the origin . However , one may equally well define an analytic function by its Taylor series .
Taylor series are used to define functions and " operators " in diverse areas of mathematics . In particular , this is true in areas where the classical definitions of functions break down . For example , using Taylor series , one may define analytical functions of matrices and operators , such as the matrix exponential or matrix logarithm .
In other areas , such as formal analysis , it is more convenient to work directly with the power series themselves . Thus one may define a solution of a differential equation as a power series which , one hopes to prove , is the Taylor series of the desired solution .
= = Taylor series in several variables = =
The Taylor series may also be generalized to functions of more than one variable with
<formula>
For example , for a function that depends on two variables , x and y , the Taylor series to second order about the point ( a , b ) is
<formula>
where the subscripts denote the respective partial derivatives .
A second @-@ order Taylor series expansion of a scalar @-@ valued function of more than one variable can be written compactly as
<formula>
where <formula> is the gradient of <formula> evaluated at <formula> and <formula> is the Hessian matrix . Applying the multi @-@ index notation the Taylor series for several variables becomes
<formula>
which is to be understood as a still more abbreviated multi @-@ index version of the first equation of this paragraph , again in full analogy to the single variable case .
= = = Example = = =
Compute a second @-@ order Taylor series expansion around point ( a , b ) = ( 0 , 0 ) of a function
<formula>
Firstly , we compute all partial derivatives we need
<formula>
Now we evaluate these derivatives at the origin :
<formula>
The Taylor series is
<formula>
which in this case becomes
<formula>
Since log ( 1 + y ) is analytic in | y | < 1 , we have
<formula>
= = Comparison with Fourier series = =
The trigonometric Fourier series enables one to express a periodic function ( or a function defined on a closed interval [ a , b ] ) as an infinite sum of trigonometric functions ( sines and cosines ) . In this sense , the Fourier series is analogous to Taylor series , since the latter allows one to express a function as an infinite sum of powers . Nevertheless , the two series differ from each other in several relevant issues :
Obviously the finite truncations of the Taylor series of f ( x ) about the point x = a are all exactly equal to f at a . In contrast , the Fourier series is computed by integrating over an entire interval , so there is generally no such point where all the finite truncations of the series are exact .
Indeed , the computation of Taylor series requires the knowledge of the function on an arbitrary small neighbourhood of a point , whereas the computation of the Fourier series requires knowing the function on its whole domain interval . In a certain sense one could say that the Taylor series is " local " and the Fourier series is " global . "
The Taylor series is defined for a function which has infinitely many derivatives at a single point , whereas the Fourier series is defined for any integrable function . In particular , the function could be nowhere differentiable . ( For example , f ( x ) could be a Weierstrass function . )
The convergence of both series has very different properties . Even if the Taylor series has positive convergence radius , the resulting series may not coincide with the function ; but if the function is analytic then the series converges pointwise to the function , and uniformly on every compact subset of the convergence interval . Concerning the Fourier series , if the function is square @-@ integrable then the series converges in quadratic mean , but additional requirements are needed to ensure the pointwise or uniform convergence ( for instance , if the function is periodic and of class C1 then the convergence is uniform ) .
Finally , in practice one wants to approximate the function with a finite number of terms , let 's say with a Taylor polynomial or a partial sum of the trigonometric series , respectively . In the case of the Taylor series the error is very small in a neighbourhood of the point where it is computed , while it may be very large at a distant point . In the case of the Fourier series the error is distributed along the domain of the function .
= The Chariot ( band ) =
The Chariot was an American metalcore band from Douglasville , Georgia , that existed from 2003 to 2013 . The last lineup consisted of drummer David Kennedy , vocalist and bandleader Josh Scogin , and guitarists Brandon Henderson and Stephen Harrison . The band experienced frequent lineup changes since its inception , with Scogin being the only original member . The band played an abrasive style of hardcore that does not adhere to typical stylings such as melodic / abrasive dynamics and harmonic vocals . They built a reputation around their powerful live performances , with Scogin 's lyrics covering topics like materialism , personal struggle , current events , politics , and Christian themes . Their music was critically acclaimed as something " that will melt your face and leave you wanting more . "
The band was formed by Scogin shortly after he left his position of vocalist in Norma Jean . In 2004 , a record deal was signed with Solid State Records and a debut album was released , titled Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding . The band toured constantly after that . The Chariot released the Unsung EP in 2005 , which was then followed by three successful studio albums : The Fiancée in 2007 , Wars and Rumors of Wars in 2009 , and Long Live in 2010 . The band entered the studio in May 2012 to record their fifth full @-@ length album titled One Wing which was released August 28 , 2012 . The Chariot disbanded following a farewell tour in late 2013 .
= = Biography = =
= = = 2003 – 2004 : Formation and debut album = = =
The Chariot was formed by Josh Scogin almost immediately after leaving his previous band Norma Jean , a metalcore group based in Douglasville , Georgia . He recorded one album with them titled Bless the Martyr and Kiss the Child in 2002 . Later that year , following Norma Jean 's set at Furnace Fest , Scogin shocked the audience and his unaware bandmates by announcing his departure . Scogin stated that his departure was not the result of internal conflict , but a personal choice . The event generated a public outcry from fans in hardcore circles . Scogin returned to Douglasville in 2003 and started the Chariot with other musicians in the area ; the first lineup included guitarists Keller Harbin and Tony " Taco " Medina , bassist Joshua Beiser , and drummer Jeff Carter . The band 's name was inspired by the Biblical story of Elijah and the chariot of fire .
In 2004 , a record contract was signed with Solid State Records , a metal subdivision of Tooth & Nail Records and their first recorded song titled " It Is Usually the Boys Who Cry Wolf That Grow up to Be the Men Who Cry Sanctuary " was released on the compilation " This Is Solid State , Volume 5 " . This song was later re @-@ recorded as " Yellow Dress , Locked Knees " on their debut . The band traveled to Atlanta , Georgia and worked on their debut album with Matt Goldman . The entire album was recorded live . The album was released in November and titled Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding , a parody of albums that featured morbid names . The album debuted at No. 23 on Top Heatseekers , and received favorable reviews from critics . Touring followed with As Cities Burn , He Is Legend , Far @-@ less and Showbread on the Young Bloods Tour in Winter .
= = = 2005 – 2008 : The Fiancée = = =
Medina and Carter left the band soon after ; they were replaced by Brian Khounvichit and Mark Nicks respectively . Carter went on to form the progressive death metal band , Deus Invictus . Nicks was later replaced by drummer Jake Ryan . In September 2005 , The Chariot began a 27 @-@ city tour at Poughkeepsie , New York with High on Fire , Every Time I Die , and The Red Chord . An EP , titled Unsung , was released at the beginning of December . It featured two new tracks and four re @-@ recordings from their debut and was well received among critics . The band played shows with labelmates As Cities Burn , mewithoutYou , and Underoath later that month . Touring continued through 2006 as the band shared a national tour with P.O.D. in spring and garnered a spot in the Sounds of the Underground Tour with As I Lay Dying that summer . In June 2006 , Beiser and Harbin stepped down and were replaced by bassist Dan Eaton and guitarist Jon Terry respectively . The two men had been longtime friends of the band .
The Chariot embarked on the Youngbloods II Tour in fall with Solid State labelmates August Burns Red , Destroy The Runner , and Inhale Exhale . In January 2007 , the band toured through Europe with Becoming the Archetype , and Shaped by Fate . By this time , yet another bass player had been recruited — Jon " KC Wolf " Kindler . In April of the same year , after delays relating to lineup changes , their second album , The Fiancée , was released . The record was produced by Matt Goldman . The writing and recording process had been driven by time constraints . " It was actually a very easy record to write , " said Scogin , " It came more naturally to us . " However , Scogin waited until the music was written before writing lyrics , an exercise he vowed never to attempt again . Hayley Williams of Paramore made a guest performance on the track " Then Came To Kill " as did Aaron Weiss of mewithoutYou when he played the harmonica on " Forgive Me Nashville " ; Scogin had been friends with both artists for many years . The Fiancée broke the Billboard 200 — it debuted at No. 169 , selling 6 @,@ 800 copies — and was well received in the Christian and secular markets . The group played a release tour with Misery Signals , I Am Ghost , and I Hate Sally , and then made a short run on the Warped Tour in summer . Another leg of The Fiancée Tour extended into spring 2008 with LoveHateHero , Alesana , Our Last Night , and Sky Eats Airplane . The lineup underwent another drastic change in mid @-@ 2008 , as Jake Ryan , Dan Eaton and Jon Terry all decided to step down . Ryan and Eaton went on to form the indie pop band Queens Club and were signed to Tooth & Nail Records .
= = = 2009 – 2010 : Wars and Rumors of Wars = = =
The group 's third album , titled Wars and Rumors of Wars , was released in May 2009 . The lineup changed once again , leaving Scogin as the only member to appear on their first two releases . The album title was inspired by Matthew 24 : 6 , which contains the passage " You will be hearing of wars and rumors of wars ... " Scogin explained that the album title referred to internal conflict that people experience , not literal war . The band hand @-@ made the artwork and liner notes for the first 25 @,@ 000 copies of the album . Wars and Rumors of War debuted at No. 112 on the Billboard 200 , their highest to date . Critical reception was very positive about the release . The Chariot performed on the Scream the Prayer Tour with Haste the Day , Sleeping Giant , Oh , Sleeper , and Project 86 that summer . Beginning late November , The Chariot and a group of hand picked artists , including Horse the Band supported Norma Jean who headlined the nationwide Explosions 2009 Tour .
= = = 2010 : Long Live = = =
The Chariot released their fourth studio album Long Live through Good Fight on November 22 , 2010 . The album was produced with Matt Goldman . They began touring with Haste the Day in February 2011 for Haste the Day 's Farewell Tour , along with A Plea for Purging and MyChildren MyBride .
= = = 2012 – 2013 : One Wing and final tour = = =
The band announced via Twitter that they were entering the studio in May to record their next album . The album is called One Wing , and was released August 28 , 2012 . In June 2012 , longtime bassist Jon ( KC Wolf ) Kindler left the band to return to college . The band opted not to replace Kindler , continuing as a four @-@ piece . The bass on One Wing has been recorded by both Henderson and Harrison . A track from the album , " In , " premiered on Alternative Press on August 16 .
The Chariot had their final tour in October / November 2013 with Glass Cloud , Rebuker , Birds in Row and To the Wind .
Josh moved on to form the band ' 68 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
The band 's music is characterized by a metal sound , and the screamed vocals of frontman Josh Scogin . Journalists have frequently referred to the music as " chaotic " ; Allmusic writer Alex Henderson described it as a " dense , clobbering sledgehammer " , while Brian Shultz of Alternative Press called it " manically pounding , distortion @-@ soaked exercises of catharsis " . The Chariot has often been labeled a metalcore band . However , the music generally defies genre standards like melodic / abrasive dynamics and harmonizing vocals ; it wouldn 't leave room for the " nonstop firestorm of exploding drums , heaving guitars , and visceral shrieking , " as Allmusic writer Corey Apar put it . The band utilizes time changes and start @-@ stop shifts , and typically write very short songs . Some journalists believe the music is challenging and an acquired taste . In interviews , Josh Scogin has described the band as “ heavy punk rock ” , doing away with genres and subgenres , and has also debunked many of these labels . “ Sometimes people refer to us as mathcore , which I think is a very incorrect statement , because I feel like that ’ s a very pre @-@ calculated , ‘ this is weird because this time signature doesn ’ t go with this time … ’ . It ’ s very planned out . We ’ re not that smart . ”
Live performances are very important to the band . " We love playing live , " said Scogin , " That 's what this band are all about : playing live shows . " This mentality leaked into their recording process : the band 's first album was recorded entirely live in one take . Their next two efforts followed more traditional recording sensibilities : " We may go in and [ fix ] this one part , " explained Scogin , " but [ ... ] there 's lots of stuff we probably should have tightened up . [ Laughs . ] But that [ keeps ] it feeling like a real record . " Despite their attentiveness to the recording process , Scogin has maintained that their focal point is live performances , " ... recording records , that 's all circled around hopefully bringing more kids to the live show so we can perform for them . " The band 's shows have built up a reputation ; MTV called them " the thing of metalcore legend " . When tasked to describe their set on the Scream the Prayer Tour in HM Magazine , Corey Erb wrote :
Artists who possessed strong showmanship skills have largely influenced Scogin ; some of these artists include James Brown , Frank Sinatra , Jerry Lee Lewis , and Elvis Presley . He is also fond of Arcade Fire , The Beatles , Björk , Interpol , and The Killers . In an interview , Scogin expressed a desire to have seen At The Drive @-@ In and Nirvana before they disbanded .
Scogin 's introspective lyrics have covered topics like materialism , death , and the Nashville Christian music industry . The lyrics for Wars and Rumors of Wars were formed after a family loss : " ... only a year ago my father passed away . And I hate to say this , because it sounds like such a band @-@ dude thing to say , but the lyrics are a lot darker than any other record just because of how personal they are for me . " Scogin usually refers to his lyrics as poems and has maintained that " a song is never finished but abandoned . " " ... as an artist you can forever be changing a song or making a song ' better ' or whatever but the moment that you stop recording and send it off to be mastered you have not ' finished ' the song … you have only abandoned the song and that is how it will stay forever . " His lyrics sometimes espouse Christian themes and beliefs , albeit subtly . For example , the track " Yellow Dress : Locked Knees " from Everything ... contains the Spanish lyrics " Jesus , yo quiero que este mundo te conozca . " ; when translated , it says " Jesus , I want this world to know You . " The song " And Shot Each Other " from The Fiancée fades out into a Sacred Harp choir singing the song ' Child of Grace ' , which features the lyrics " How happy is a child of grace , who feels his sins forgiven / This world , he cries , is not my place / I seek a place in Heaven . "
The Chariot is frequently called a Christian band , which Scogin agreed with in a 2005 interview : " We are Christians in a band therefore we are a Christian band . We are not ashamed of our beliefs but we don ’ t force feed people what we believe either . " In 2006 , he reaffirmed his previous statements and further opined , " When I was growing up , if I liked [ a band ] , I listened to it — and I went to the shows . If I didn 't , I didn 't . It wasn 't like , ' Oh , they don 't believe the same thing I do , ' [ ... ] People care too much about the fashion of it all . To me , a band 's either good or they ain 't , and that 's the only thing that should matter . "
= = Members = =
Final Lineup
Past members
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
2004 : Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding
2007 : The Fiancée
2009 : Wars and Rumors of Wars
2010 : Long Live
2012 : One Wing
EPs
2005 : Unsung EP
Compilations
2011 : Before There Was
Singles
2011 : " Music of a Grateful Heart "
Appearances
2007 : Forgive Me Nashville - This is Solid State Vol.6
2010 : The Fox and The Wolf - Bring Me The Horizon
= = Videography = =
This is the list of The Chariot music videos . Among them are official videoclips and live videos .
= = Filmography = =
2004 : Ladies and Gentlemen ... The Chariot
2007 : One More Song
2014 : Farewell Documentary
= Killer7 =
Killer7 ( キラー7 , Kirā Sebun , stylized as killer7 ) is a 2005 action @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo GameCube and PlayStation 2 , developed by Grasshopper Manufacture and published by Capcom . The game was written and directed by Goichi Suda , also known by the nickname Suda51 , and produced by Hiroyuki Kobayashi .
The game follows an elite group of assassins called the " killer7 " . The assassins , physical manifestations of a man named Harman Smith , perform hits on behalf of the United States government . Through these missions , the killer7 uncover a deeper conspiracy regarding the role of Japan in US politics and secrets about the nature of their organization . Killer7 features first @-@ person shooter elements and a unique on rails control scheme , but the core adventure @-@ style gameplay has been compared to Myst and Snatcher .
Killer7 was Suda51 's first game released outside Japan . It received polarized reviews due to its unconventional control scheme and complex noir plot . The game 's score , visual style and thought @-@ provoking story received wide praise from most critics that considered as the best aspects of the game and lead to several accolades and nominations . While some reviewers appreciated the stripped @-@ down controls and stylized arthouse approach , others panned it as confusing and restricting . Despite these setbacks , Killer7 's cult appeal led to remakes of Suda51 's older works and the successful launch of No More Heroes .
= = Gameplay = =
The player controls the on @-@ screen character , a member of the killer7 group , from a third @-@ person view using the gamepad . The gameplay consists of elements of first @-@ person shooter and action @-@ adventure game with restricted movement ( i.e. " on rails " ) — rather than allow free motion , the game limits the on @-@ screen character to predetermined paths through the environment . The on @-@ screen character moves forward by holding a button and reverses direction with another button press . At intersections , the player may choose which path to take . Progress is made by navigating the environment and solving puzzles . Some puzzles require the talents of a specific killer7 member . The player may switch between available members via a menu in the pause screen at any time . Other puzzles require magical rings or other items collected throughout the game .
Combat in Killer7 occurs when the player encounters enemies called " Heaven Smiles " . Smiles announce their presence with a laughing sound effect and are initially invisible . The player must switch to a first @-@ person viewpoint and scan the surroundings to reveal Smiles . While in first @-@ person view , movement is disabled and the analog stick aims the character 's gun . Targeting specific body parts will disable them ; for example , shooting off a leg will cause a Smile to fall to the ground and crawl toward the player . The player may aim for a " critical point " that instantly destroys the Smile . Smiles that get too close will explode and injure the character | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
's movie . Bill Roe , the show 's photography director , was cast as the vegetarian zombie . Assistant director Barry K. Thomas was cast as one of the men on the movie set , Paul Rabwin was cast as a producer , and special effects coordinator Bill Millar was cast as the movie 's director . Duchovny also cast his brother , Daniel , as the assistant director . Several of the family members and friends cast by Duchovny were able to apply for their Screen Actor 's Guild card and were able to apply for a health insurance plan .
Téa Leoni , who portrayed a fictionalized version of herself portraying Scully in the production , was married to David Duchovny when this episode was filmed , a decision casting director Rick Millikan considered " clever . " Duchovny also cast his friend and fellow actor Garry Shandling as a fictionalized version of himself portraying Mulder . Shandling had originally been sought out to play the part of Morris Fletcher in the sixth season episode " Dreamland . " The joke about Garry Shandling having a crush on Mulder came from a recurring joke from the TV show The Larry Sanders Show , starring Shandling . In the recurring joke , David Duchovny has a homosexual interest in Shandling 's character .
The joke about Mulder wanting Richard Gere to appear in the movie stemmed from the fact that Duchovny 's acting was often compared to Gere 's . Duchovny decided to turn the idea into a joke , saying , " we used to always have the joke on set that when they do the movie it 's going to be Richard Gere and Jodie Foster [ playing Mulder and Scully ] . So I originally wrote the teaser for Richard Gere and Jodie Foster and I just started to think about it and you know , it 's so much funnier with Garry and Téa . " The episode featured several uncredited celebrity cameos . During the premiere of the movie , Duchovny 's Return to Me costars Minnie Driver and David Alan Grier appear as members of the audience . In addition , Chris Carter , the show 's creator , made a cameo during the theater scene . The appearance was his second in the series .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Hollywood A.D. " first aired in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 , with a 12 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 88 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 80 million viewers , making it the second most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Garry Shandling as Agent Mulder ? Téa Leoni as Agent Scully ? "
Critical reception to " Hollywood A.D. " was mostly positive . The Montreal Gazette named the episode the sixth best stand @-@ alone X @-@ Files episode , writing that " Despite taxing our stomach for self @-@ reflexive comedy , this David Duchovny scripted and directed episode manages to deliver some of the greatest laughs of the series . " Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named " Hollywood A.D. " the seventh funniest X @-@ Files episode . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B , slightly criticizing the dancing zombies at the end of the episode . Sarah Kendzior from 11th Hour Magazine wrote that , " My favorite [ episode ] this year may well be ' Hollywood A.D. ' , an ambitious , often ingenious and occasionally flawed sophomore effort concerning the entertainment industry , religion , and pretty much everything in between . " Rich Rosell from DigitallyObsessed.com awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that " [ the ] scene from the ' movie ' where Shandling / Mulder faces off against The Cigarette Smoking Pontiff , and his army of sniper zombies , is classic stuff , and earns ' Hollywood A.D. ' high marks . " Kenneth Silber from Space.com , while criticizing the episode for reveling in parody , noted that the episode was entertaining , writing , " ' Hollywood A.D. ' is a parody and , as such , will be unsatisfying to the many X @-@ Files viewers , including this long @-@ suffering reviewer , who 'd like to see the series culminate in a dramatic , multi @-@ episode denouement of its ' mythology arc ' . Nonetheless , this episode has merit as a witty and imaginative parody . "
Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a relatively positive review . He wrote , " ' Hollywood A.D. ' was Duchovny 's nudge @-@ nudge , wink @-@ wink writing @-@ directing effort for this season . [ ... ] Duchovny did not fail to deliver an episode that truly reflected his own wit and intelligence . All the while remaining true to the spirit of the show that made him famous . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and wrote that it " is muddled and frequently so in love with just being weird for weird ’ s sake that everybody forgets we need at least a little justification to pull everything together in the end . " He also called it " a hard episode not to love , frankly . " Handlen felt that the humor and sweetness helped to make the episode a success . He also wrote that Mulder and Scully 's dynamic worked towards the episode 's favor .
= = In popular culture = =
On the " Killer Cable Snaps " episode of the popular science television series MythBusters , which aired on October 11 , 2006 , the possibility that audio could be transcribed onto pottery was tested . Clips from " Hollywood A.D. " were shown during the segment .
= Maryland Route 322 =
Maryland Route 322 ( MD 322 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Easton Parkway , the highway runs 5 @.@ 12 miles ( 8 @.@ 24 km ) on the west side of Easton between two junctions with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) . MD 322 serves as a bypass of downtown Easton for traffic between US 50 and highways to western Talbot County , including MD 33 toward Saint Michaels and MD 333 toward Oxford . Easton Parkway was constructed in the mid to late 1960s . The state highway was originally designated as part of MD 33 ; MD 322 became the sole designation on the bypass in 1978 .
= = Route description = =
MD 322 begins at a directional intersection with US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) south of Easton ; there is no direct access from southbound MD 322 to westbound US 50 . MD 322 heads north as a four @-@ lane divided highway to MD 565 ( Washington Street ) . Beyond this intersection , the state highway reduces to two lanes , curves to the northwest , and crosses Paper Mill Pond . MD 332 parallels the pond through the highway 's intersection with MD 333 , which heads southwest as Oxford Road and northeast as Peach Blossom Road . After the pond turns west , the state highway intersects Port Street , which heads east toward downtown Easton as MD 334 and west as a county highway into the Easton Point industrial area .
MD 322 temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane undivided highway at its intersection with MD 33 , which heads east as Bay Street toward downtown Easton and west as St. Michaels Road . The MD 322 – MD 33 intersection lies on a crossing of Tanyard Creek just east of its confluence with an unnamed creek to form the North Fork of the Tred Avon River . MD 322 continues northeast past several shopping centers and industrial parks between MD 33 and Glebe Road . Near its northern terminus , the state highway meets the northern end of Washington Street and Airpark Drive , which immediately has an intersection with MD 662 ( Centreville Road ) before entering an industrial park adjacent to Easton Airport . MD 322 reaches its northern terminus at a directional intersection with US 50 .
MD 322 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial for its entire length .
= = History = =
Easton Parkway was constructed as a way for traffic from Oxford and Saint Michaels to access points north and south via US 50 without having to travel through downtown Easton . The first section of the state highway was completed in 1965 from the present intersection with MD 33 north to US 50 . MD 33 was removed from Bay Street and Washington Street north of downtown Easton and placed on the first section of Easton Parkway . The highway was extended south to MD 333 in 1966 . The remainder of the highway south to US 50 was completed in 1970 . The MD 322 designation was originally applied to the southern part of the parkway as well as Bay Street . MD 33 and MD 322 were reassigned to their present lengths of highway in 1978 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Easton , Talbot County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 322A is the designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 07 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 11 km ) ramp from eastbound US 50 to northbound MD 322 south of Easton .
MD 322B is the designation for the 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) section of Airpark Drive between MD 322 and MD 662 north of Easton .
= Asher Vollmer =
Asher Vollmer ( born September 14 , 1989 ) is an American indie video game developer and creator of Puzzlejuice and Threes . He created the 2012 iOS game Puzzlejuice while a student at USC Interactive Media & Games Division . The game began his collaboration with Greg Wohlwend . The pair 's next release , the 2014 iOS puzzle game Threes , received what review aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " , including perfect scores from Eurogamer and TouchArcade , and the title of Apple Inc . ' s iPhone game of the year . The game was later ported to multiple platforms . Polygon included Vollmer in their " 50 admirable gaming people " of the year for his work on Threes . Among other projects , Vollmer subsequently worked on Close Castles , a real @-@ time strategy game later put on hiatus , and Royals , a simulation game for OS X and Windows .
= = Career = =
Vollmer is a graduate of the USC Interactive Media & Games Division program . As a student , he began work on Puzzlejuice , a puzzle video game . He reached out to artist Greg Wohlwend for aesthetic advice , which led to a collaboration between the two . Puzzlejuice is a combination of Tetris , tile @-@ matching , and Boggle : players rearrange falling tetromino blocks into rows of similar colors , which turn into letters that are cleared from the board by forming words . The iOS game was released on January 19 , 2012 , to what review aggregator Metacritic described as " generally favorable " reviews . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty in mentally balancing the various components of the game .
Vollmer started as thatgamecompany 's " feel engineer " in August 2012 , but left in April 2013 to " go indie " and work on his own projects . On his blog , he said he thought the studio 's current project would be groundbreaking , though he was unhappy working there . Vollmer tried to write a short story in an attempt to take a break from games . Before long , he began to play with his computer keyboard . Vollmer challenged himself to make a game that only used the arrow keys , and prototyped what would become Threes in ten hours overnight . He proceeded to iterate on the idea with Wohlwend over the game 's 14 @-@ month development . In Threes , the player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . Vollmer cited Drop7 as an inspiration for the game , having played it for two years beforehand .
Threes had no original inclination towards minimalism . In fact , Vollmer and Wohlwend felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . They returned to the original idea and added character personalities to the tiles . The iOS game was released on February 6 , 2014 , to what Metacritic characterized as " universal acclaim " . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " , and compared it to Drop7 ( 2009 ) , Triple Town ( 2010 ) , and Stickets ( 2013 ) . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Other developers released similar games and clones within weeks of the game 's launch . Apple named Threes its best iPhone game of 2014 . The game was later ported to Android , Xbox One , and Windows Phone platforms . Polygon included Vollmer in their " 50 admirable gaming people of 2014 " for his work on Threes .
Vollmer thought he would work on a new game a month after releasing Threes , but was kept busy by obligations to fix and update the game , to port it to other platforms , and to promote game through press and events . He was convinced that he would never make a game " as clean and tight as Threes ever again " . Vollmer 's next game was Close Castles , a real @-@ time strategy game .
= = = After Threes = = =
Vollmer unveiled Close Castles in June 2014 . Players start in corners of a " grid map " and are represented by castles . Vollmer explained that the game 's name is from castles built too close to one another , starting a mutually assured destruction scenario . Players can build three structure types out from their castle : towers that fire at incoming enemies ( defense ) , houses that make " loyal subjects " ( offense ) , and markets that make money ( economy ) . The " A " button with a direction constructs a path directing followers to the enemy . Followers capture enemy structures as denoted by a " defense bar " that fills as followers enter the structure and that destroys the structure when filled . Markets are the weakest structure , and two towers can defend against one house . Player turf grows as player structures approach the limits of their area . Players earn five units of money a second , which increases by five for every market . Polygon called the game 's simple visual design " horrifyingly deceptive " . Vollmer has said that games should last around three minutes apiece and that the local multiplayer 's lack of " hidden information " should make interactions with other players less of a " sadomasochistic " game of waiting for an opponent to concede . The game was demoed on an Xbox 360 but was planned for release on the PlayStation 4 . Vollmer put the project on hold while he worked out " fundamental flaws " in the gameplay .
While Vollmer traditionally worked on multiple games at once , Close Castles was his only project when it was in production . In March 2015 , he worked three days a week on a bigger project with a small team , and saved his other days for personal experimentation and Threes bugs . The next month , Vollmer released Royals , a pay what you want simulation game for OS X and Windows . The player controls a peasant who advances towards royal status by collecting resources and followers . Every player decision counts as a year of the peasant 's life . Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh described the game as difficult and charming , with a " quirky , subtle humor " . The game was designed to be " purposefully difficult and obtuse " and " nothing like Threes " . Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef wrote that the gameplay was like a " comically minimalist roguelike " for its emphasis on resource management and short player lifespans .
= Battle of Unsan =
The Battle of Unsan ( Hangul : 운산전투 ; hanja : 雲山戰鬪 ; RR : Unsan jeontu ; MR : Unsan chŏnt 'u ) , also known as the Battle of Yunshan ( Chinese : 云山战斗 ; pinyin : Yún Shān Zhàn Dòu ) , was a series of engagements of the Korean War that took place from 25 October to 4 November 1950 near Unsan , North Pyongan province in present @-@ day North Korea . As part of the Chinese First Phase Campaign , the People 's Republic of China 's People 's Volunteer Army made repeated attacks against the Republic of Korea 1st Infantry Division near Unsan beginning on 25 October , in an attempt to take advancing United Nations forces by surprise . In an accidental first encounter with the United States military during the Korean War , the Chinese 39th Corps attacked the unprepared US 8th Cavalry Regiment in Unsan on 1 November , resulting in one of the most devastating US losses of the Korean War .
= = Background = =
By October 1950 , the United Nations ( UN ) forces had successfully broken out of the Pusan Perimeter in the extreme south of Korea and begun an aggressive northward advance towards the Sino @-@ Korean border , chasing the retreating Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) . The US 1st Cavalry Division entered Pyongyang on 19 October , while the Republic of Korea Army ( ROK ) were rushing towards the Yalu River in all directions . As part of the Thanksgiving Offensive to end the war , Major General Frank W. Milburn , commander of the US I Corps , ordered the ROK 1st Infantry Division to secure the Sup 'ung Dam on the Yalu River by advancing through Unsan .
Alarmed by the rapid collapse of the KPA , China 's Chairman Mao Zedong ordered the People 's Liberation Army 's North East Frontier Force to be reorganized into the People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) for the upcoming intervention in Korea . Despite Mao 's determination to save North Korea from capitulation , the Chinese military leadership expressed doubts on the ability of the Chinese army to fight against the more modernized US forces . As a compromise , Mao authorized the First Phase Campaign , a bridgehead building operation with limited offensives against only the South Korean forces while avoiding contacts with the US forces . Under strict secrecy , the PVA entered Korea on 19 October .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Locations and terrain = = =
Unsan is a town in northwest Korea , and it is located 50 mi ( 80 km ) from the Ch 'ongch 'on River mouth on the Korean west coast . Because of the hilly terrains at the Sino @-@ Korean Border , Unsan is one of the few access points into the Yalu River area . The town is surrounded by hills to the north , the Nammyon River to the west and the Samtan River to the east . At the south of the town , a road junction controls the road from Unsan to Ipsok while a ridge dubbed " Bugle Hill " controls the road between Unsan and Yongsan @-@ dong . Those two roads formed the only retreat routes for the UN forces at Unsan .
= = = Forces and strategy = = =
Acting on Milburn 's instruction , the ROK 1st Infantry Division advanced north on 24 October with the ROK 6th Infantry Division on its right and the US 24th Infantry Division on its left , and by the morning of 25 October , the ROK 1st Infantry Division had captured Unsan . But with the UN forces spread thinly across Korea , a 15 mi ( 24 km ) gap was left between the US 24th Division and ROK 1st Division , leaving the Korean left flank unprotected .
Upon noticing the thinly held UN frontline , the Chinese decided to launch a pincer movement against the South Koreans at Unsan . As part of the First Phase Campaign , the PVA 120th Division of the 40th Corps was at first to block and hold the ROK 1st Infantry Division at Unsan . Simultaneously , the bulk of the 40th Corps , together with the PVA 38th Corps and one division from the 42nd Corps , would attack and destroy the ROK 6th and 8th Infantry Divisions at the east of Unsan . Finally , the PVA 39th Corps would destroy the ROK 1st Infantry Division by infiltrating the gap between US 24th Division and the ROK 1st Infantry Division west of Unsan . Undetected by UN intelligence , the 120th Division arrived at the blocking position on 24 October , with its 360th Regiment heavily fortified the hills north of Unsan . To obscure troop movements and to prevent UN air raids , the Chinese also started several forest fires around the end of October .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial skirmish = = =
On 25 October at 10 : 30 , the ROK 1st Infantry Division attacked north with its 12th Regiment on the western bank of Samtan River while the 15th Regiment was trying to reach the eastern bank . But when the 15th Regiment was about to cross the river , the PVA 120th Division intercepted the South Koreans with heavy artillery fire . The South Koreans first believed the resistance to be the last remnants of the KPA , but the perception soon changed with the capture of the first Chinese prisoner in the Korean War . The prisoner revealed that there were 10 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers waiting to join the fight north of Unsan .
Faced with the sudden appearance of the overwhelming Chinese forces , the ROK 1st Infantry Division tried to establish defensive positions by capturing the hills around Unsan . The South Koreans soon found themselves in a seesaw battle with the PVA 360th Regiment during the night of 25 October . The next day , the PVA 39th Corps arrived at the west of Unsan while cutting the road between Unsan and Yongsan @-@ dong , completely surrounding the ROK 1st Infantry Division . Aided by airdrops , the US 6th Medium Tank Battalion and the US 10th Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Group , the ROK 1st Infantry Division reopened the road on 27 October . Several more attempts to advance north by the Koreans made little progress , and the fighting stopped by 28 October .
Despite the warnings given by Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup , commander of the ROK 1st Infantry Division , a general feeling of optimism about the outcome of the war prevented the warnings from being taken seriously . With the fighting reached a stalemate at Unsan , General Walton Walker of the Eighth United States Army ordered the US 8th Cavalry Regiment of the US 1st Cavalry Division to resume offensives north by relieving the ROK 12th Regiment . By the time the US 8th Cavalry Regiment reached Unsan on 29 October , the ROK 11th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 1st Infantry Division was also pulling out of Unsan . At the same time , the Chinese had destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the east of Unsan . Unsan had now became a northern salient in the UN line containing only the US 8th Cavalry Regiment and the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment .
= = = Chinese counterattack = = =
Still believing that the ROK 1st Infantry Division was tied up at Unsan , PVA Commander Peng Dehuai gave the go ahead for the 39th Corps to destroy the Unsan garrison on 1 November . The Chinese plan called for the PVA 117th Division to attack from the northeast , the 116th Division to attack from the northwest and the 115th Division to attack from the southwest . At the same time , the US 8th Cavalry Regiment had taken up positions around the town , with its 1st Battalion defending the north of Unsan by the Samtan River , while its 2nd and 3rd Battalions defending the areas west of the Unsan by the Nammyon River . The lack of UN manpower , however , created a 1 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions . The ROK 15th Infantry Regiment , on the other hand , had dug in northeast of the Unsan , across the river from the US 1st Battalion .
In the early afternoon of 1 November , a combat patrol from the US 5th Cavalry Regiment , rear guard of the 8th Cavalry Regiment , was intercepted by PVA 343rd Regiment of the 115th Division at Bugle Hill . With the trap discovered , the Chinese immediately launched their attacks at 17 : 00 . Supported by rocket artillery , the 117th Division attacked the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment in full force while four Chinese battalions from the 116th Division struck the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the US 8th Cavalry Regiment . By 23 : 00 , the heavy fighting destroyed the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment while the US 1st and 2nd Battalions were running out of ammunition . As the UN forces began to buckle around Unsan , Milburn finally ordered the garrison to withdraw after learning the destruction of the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the right flank .
Before the withdrawal could be carried out , however , the PVA 347th Regiment of the 116th Division had already entered the town of Unsan through the gap between the American battalions . Soon afterward , several roadblocks appeared behind the US 1st and 2nd Battalions . With the attacks gaining momentum , the PVA 348th Regiment of the 116th Division advanced southward from Unsan , ambushing the UN forces at the road junction by 02 : 30 . With all the roads blocked , the US 8th Cavalry Regiment 's 1st and 2nd Battalions had to escape by infiltrating the Chinese lines in small groups , abandoning most of their vehicles and heavy weapons along the way . The surviving US and ROK soldiers reached UN lines by 2 November .
While the US 8th Cavalry Regiment 's 1st and 2nd Battalions were under heavy attack , its 3rd Battalion was left alone for most of the night , but by 03 : 00 , a company of Chinese commandos from the 116th Division managed to infiltrate the battalion command post disguised as ROK soldiers . The following surprise attack set many vehicles on fire while causing numerous casualties among the Americans , most of whom were still sleeping . By the time the confusing fighting had ended , the 3rd Battalion was squeezed into a 200 yd ( 180 m ) wide perimeter by the PVA 345th Regiment of the 115th Division . The US 5th Cavalry Regiment made repeated attempts to rescue the 3rd Battalion by attacking the PVA 343rd Regiment at Bugle Hill , but after suffering 350 casualties , the 5th Cavalry was forced to withdraw under orders from Major General Hobart Gay , commander of the US 1st Cavalry Division . The trapped 3rd Battalion endured days of constant attacks , and the surviving soldiers managed to break out of the perimeter by 4 November . By the end of the battle , less than 200 survivors from the 3rd Battalion managed to return to the UN line .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after the success at Unsan , the rest of the Chinese forces advanced across the US lines , intending to push the US forces back across the Ch 'ongch 'on River and into Pyongyang . But food and ammunition shortages soon forced the Chinese to disengage on 5 November , thus ending the Chinese First Phase Campaign . Besides the victory at Unsan , the Chinese First Phase Campaign also destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division and one regiment from the ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Onjong . In return , the Chinese had suffered 10 @,@ 700 casualties by the end of the Chinese First Phase Campaign . The Battle of Unsan has been considered to be one of the most devastating US losses of the Korean War .
The Chinese victory at Unsan was as much of a surprise to the Chinese leadership as it was to the UN forces . The accidental encounter between the Chinese and US forces at Unsan eased the fear of the Chinese leadership about intervening in Korea , while the performance of the US 1st Cavalry Division was studied in great detail by Chinese commanders . For the UN forces , on the other hand , despite the heavy losses suffered by the US Eighth Army at Unsan , the unexpected Chinese withdrawal made the United Nations Command believe that China did not intervene in Korea on a large scale . PVA Commander Peng Dehuai incorporated the lessons from Unsan for the upcoming Second Phase Campaign , while General Douglas MacArthur launched the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive under the assumption that only a weak Chinese force was present in Korea , resulting in the decisive battles at the Ch 'ongch 'on River and the Chosin Reservoir later that year .
= California King Bed =
" California King Bed " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The sixth single from the album , it was released on May 13 , 2011 , by Def Jam . Priscilla Renea and Alex Delicata wrote the song with its main producers , Jermaine Jackson and Andrew Harr of The Runners . Its recording took place in 2010 in the studios We The Best in Miami and Burst HQ in Wisconsin . Released digitally on iTunes Store May 13 , 2011 , it began to be played on April 4 in Australian radios and May 31 in the US . Later , after their impact on radio areas , the song was also issued on CD single format in Europe and also an extended play ( EP ) digital with nine remixes from the original track .
The song had a moderate effect on music charts , leading the tables Slovakia , Poland and reaching the five best @-@ selling bands in Germany , Australia , Austria , New Zealand and Portugal , while on the Billboard Hot 100 reached the 37th position .
= = Background and composition = =
On March 1 , 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her choose the next single from Loud using Twitter , saying that she would film a music video within the next couple of weeks . After an influx of suggestions , the singer said she had narrowed the options down to four songs : " Man Down " , " California King Bed " , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " and " Fading " . On March 12 , she confirmed that " California King Bed " had been selected as the next international single . However , the releases were switched , and " Man Down " was sent to rhythmic and urban radio stations in the United States on May 3 – before the May 13 release of " California King Bed " – making " Man Down " and " California King Bed " the fifth and sixth singles from Loud .
" California King Bed " is a rock and R & B song , and is set in common time in the key of G major ( F major for live performances ) with a moderately slow tempo of 85 beats per minute . The song follows a chord progression of G / B – C2 for the verses , and G – D – Em – C in the chorus . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of C5 . Both Ryan Burlenson of the website Consequence of Sound and James Reed of The Boston Globe compared the song with Taylor Swift 's material . Emily Mackay of NME wrote that the song was a " inevitable big ballad with acoustic guitar ( complete with audible string scrapes ) soft piano keys and intimate melancholy , building into a massive power @-@ balladish chorus " which she also compared with " If I Were a Boy " ( 2008 ) by American singer Beyoncé Knowles .
= = Critical reception = =
Andy Gill of The Independent and Ryan Dombell from Pitchfork Media both noted that the song embodies all the elements of a big power ballad , with the former stating that it is " Rihanna 's best vocal performance " and the latter concurring , labeling the song as a " ' I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing ' type power ballad genetically engineered to soundtrack a bi @-@ coastal Kate Hudson rom @-@ com . " Daniel Brockman of Boston Phoenix writer perceived the song as an " innocuous soft jam . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani called " California King Bed " a " slushy acoustic ballad whose clever metaphor is all but suffocated beneath the song 's cheesy production choices " Andy Gill of The Independent , gave a positive review for the song saying that it contained Rihanna 's best vocal performance to date . However , Robert Copsey of Digital Spy criticized her vocals , stating that " She [ Rihanna ] belts out in a range well beyond her natural vocal ability . "
Scott Shetler of Popcrush commented that it was refreshing to see Rihanna release a down @-@ tempo ballad , instead of a continuous flow of up @-@ tempo dance songs , saying " Though ‘ California King Bed ’ follows a routine pop ballad arrangement , the song is a nice change of pace for the Barbadian hitmaker . As much as we love Rihanna ’ s dance club hits , it ’ s refreshing to hear a song built around her impressive voice . " Stacey Anderson of Spin magazine explained the lyrical meaning behind the song , saying , " ' California King Bed ' is a wrenching ballad about the waking death of a relationship , the stage of limbo before the final crash ; it 's so well @-@ delivered , in fact , that it 's hard to hear . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , saying " The fourth single proper from Loud may pull in the reins as far as the hectic dance beats and sado @-@ masochistic lyrics go , but it 's no less beefy and extravagant . Lilting acoustic guitars metamorphose into ' 80s rawk ones as she sings about the kind of separate @-@ togetherness felt moments before a break @-@ up . She belts out in a range well beyond her natural vocal ability . " Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times concluded that " The acoustic strums of ' California King Bed ' build to a cinematic , Diane Warren @-@ sized breakup chorus . "
Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson gave a mixed review of the song saying : " she [ Rihanna ] doesn 't have the chops to be a balladeer , which made the torch @-@ song quality of ' California King Bed ' land with a thud . " Similarly , Henry Goldblatt of the same publication graded the song with a B + and gave a critical review of the title saying that it was borrowed from Pottery Barn . However , Goldblatt praised the irresistible heartbreak in the song and added that Rihanna 's voice demonstrates more range and power than her older material . Andy Kellman of Allmusic and Emily Mackay of NME were more critical of the song in their review , with the former calling the song an " overwrought rock weeper " and the latter saying it is a " howler of a ballad , with shlocky acoustic intro , trite piano and a faux @-@ Slash solo . "
= = Chart performance = =
Before being officially released , " California King Bed " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number sixty @-@ one on April 11 , 2011 and peaked at number four for two consecutive weeks . The song has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . The song also made an appearance on the New Zealand Singles Chart before its official release , debuting at number eighteen on April 18 , 2011 , before eventually peaking at number four for two consecutive weeks . The song has since been certified Gold for sales of over 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom , the song reached a peaked of number eight on the UK Singles Chart on June 5 , 2011 as well as reaching a peak of number three on the UK R & B Chart on June 11 , 2011 . In the United States , the song made its debut on the week ending June 4 , 2011 at number eighty on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and reached a peak of number thirty @-@ seven , becoming Rihanna 's 25th top forty hit on the chart . " California King Bed " ranked at number 47 on Billboard magazine 's best @-@ selling Dance / Clubs songs of 2011 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " California King Bed " was shot on March 17 , 2011 and was shot by Anthony Mandler , who has frequently worked with Rihanna . Mandler directed the videos for other singles from Loud including " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " Man Down " . The creative director , Ciarra Pardo , fabricated a custom made eighteen foot long bed , which was designed with a special feature to transport Rihanna the full distance from one side to the other . On May 4 , 2011 , Rihanna posted a picture of the video which showed her laying on a man while looking in the camera . She also tweeted " Bout to tweet u sumn I cud get in trouble for ! But I know ur anxious . " The full video premiered Monday , May 9 , 2011 on Rihanna 's official website and her VEVO account . In an interview with Jocelyn Vena of MTV News , Mandler spoke of his and Rihanna 's long collaborative history , saying :
I think it 's something that is so unique about Rihanna whatever she 's doing , whatever character she 's playing , whatever side of herself she 's showing , she 's in it 1 @,@ 000 percent ... And I think the song and the theme of this song , she wanted to obviously show a softer side , a lighter side , one that 's caught in maybe a tumultuous relationship ... There 's so much variety with her and it 's been such a journey with her .
Almost the whole video set is made in tropical and romantic setting . The video begins with a shot of Rihanna herself laying down in grass . Then scenes of Rihanna walking on the beach and Rihanna curling up on the chair are shown . This is followed by her own and her partner holding each other closely in bed , sitting on different sides of a large bed , and other scenes featuring Rihanna singing through sheer curtains and drapery . In the video there are also black @-@ white scenes showing Rihanna touching to a stone wall .
= = = Reception = = =
As stated by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard , in this video , Rihanna returned to nature as in her video for her previous single , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which features nearly the same colors as the " California King Bed " video . Lipshutz also commented that Rihanna 's just rolled @-@ out @-@ bed appearance is completed by the modest , cream @-@ colored attire in the airy , light @-@ filled clip . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly gave a positive review of the video , writing : " Instead of being in complete control , here she is — vulnerable , open , and unsure . The video captures the feel of ' King Bed , ' not that it 's a difficult one to grasp . " Jessica Sinclair of Long Island Press was also positive about the video , praising the sensual side of Rihanna . A writer of The Huffington Post concluded : " In the video for her new video , ' California King Bed , ' the Barbadian pop star slows it down and shows her sensitive side , holding notes and bearing her soul over a troubled relationship . Set entirely in a gorgeously pink @-@ palleted open air room overlooking the beach , the winds swirl and blow the curtains dramatically around the heart broken singer . " The writer finished the review saying that " Not much happens in the video – but then , that 's the point . " Amber Katz of MTV Buzzworthy compared the video with Fergie 's " Big Girls Don 't Cry " saying , that they " Both are midtempo , ballady and filmed in a soft @-@ focus domestic setting . " Katz also complimented the bed in the video saying that it " evoke [ s ] a very Caribbean vibe , a shout @-@ out to Rihanna 's native Barbados , no doubt . " A writer of Daily Mail complimented Rihanna 's looks in the video , saying that it showed her " most sultry " side . Both Nicole Eggenberger of OK ! and Eleanor Young of Marie Claire commented that the video uses a lot of sex appeal which was a departure from Rihanna 's older videos .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna performed the song for the first time alongside Sugarland front woman Jennifer Nettles , at the ACM Awards held by the Academy of Country Music on April 3 , 2011 . She was also a special guest star on the tenth season of American Idol on April 14 , 2011 . The performance featured Rihanna in a floor @-@ length , heavily textured rose @-@ colored gown , which she adorned as she appeared from behind flowing ceiling height curtains . Kara Warner of MTV News complimented the performance , saying " the 23 @-@ year @-@ old rocked the house with an ethereal performance of her ballad ' California King Bed . ' " A writer of Rolling Stone wrote : " It 's a classy , laid @-@ back performance with Rihanna in a lovely gown , backed up by interpretative dancers caressing large pieces of fabric that are probably meant to evoke bed sheets , but look a bit more like giant strips of toilet paper hanging from the ceiling . But either way , this is quite nice . " In March 2011 , Rihanna was appointed spokeswoman for the " 100 Years of Skin Care " Nivea Commercial campaign , which featured " California King Bed " as the song used in the commercials . As part of promotion for the campaign , Rihanna performed the song at private events in several European cities in May 2011 , including Hamburg , Milan and Paris . The song was also performed on NBC 's Today show on May 27 , 2011 , as part of their Summer Concert Series . The set also featured Rihanna performing her previous US Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one hits from Loud ; " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " S & M " . The song is included on the set @-@ list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Other versions = =
Pia Toscano and Stefano Langone , contestants of the tenth season of American Idol , covered the song during one of the nights . American rapper Snoop Dogg , released an unofficial remix of the song along with a music video . In his version of the song he sings the lines " California dreamin ' , schemin ' , you got me gleamin ' / I need you on my team ' n you get my meanin ' / It sound crazy but it 's amazing / Lay down with me so we can make some babies . " The accompanying music video a girl which looks like Kim Kardashian waiting him at the hotel , while the official video of the song is played on TV screens .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Typhoon Nelson ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Nelson , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Bising , was the second tropical cyclone to strike the Philippines within a week in March 1982 . Nelson originated from a tropical disturbance southeast of Guam towards the middle of March . Although the system was initially poorly organized , it developed rather quickly , and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Nelson on March 19 . It tracked westward , and fluctuated in intensity for several days . On March 24 , Typhoon Nelson intensified into a typhoon , and entered an episode of rapid intensification . On March 25 , Nelson reached its peak intensity of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) , but thereafter moved ashore on the Philippines , where the storm weakened significantly . On March 27 , the typhoon entered the South China Sea , and the next day , briefly re @-@ intensified before resuming a weakening trend . Nelson dissipated on March 31 . Affecting the nation less than a week after Tropical Storm Mamie did , Nelson was responsible for additional flooding across much of the Philippines . Fifty @-@ six people were killed due to the typhoon , eight of whom perished due to drownings . Over 1 @,@ 200 homes were destroyed . More than 165 @,@ 000 people fled to shelters , including 83 @,@ 000 that were displaced from their home . Thirty fishing boats and 23 ferries were destroyed due to the system . Damage amounted to $ 17 @.@ 2 million ( 1982 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The second of three early season tropical cyclones to form in the West Pacific basin , Typhoon Nelson can be traced back to a low latitude area of disturbed in mid @-@ March . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system at 0000 UTC on March 18 while a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued . Initially , the system was disorganized , but the disturbance was located in a favorable environment aloft and began to develop rapidly . Ten hours after the TCFA , the JTWC upgraded the system into a tropical depression . Early on March 19 , the JMA classified the system as a tropical storm . Later that morning , Hurricane Hunters reported winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Based on this , the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Storm Nelson .
Nelson tracked westward , staying south of a large subtropical ridge . Despite the aforementioned favorable environment , Nelson briefly weakened late on March 19 , but re @-@ intensified slightly the following morning . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC upgraded the system into a typhoon . Further intensification was halted due to increased easterly wind shear , and the storm began to level off in intensity as it accelerated on a westward course . On March 21 , the JMA declared Nelson a severe tropical storm . According to the JTWC , the storm fluctuated between tropical storm and typhoon status for about 60 hours , even though the JMA suggest that Nelson did not become a typhoon until March 24 . Around this time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also started monitoring the storm , assigning it with the local name Bising .
After becoming a typhoon , Nelson forward 's speed began to slow down as the storm began to move away from the ridge and encounter more conducive conditions . Consequently , Typhoon Nelson began to deepen more rapidly , and by the afternoon of March 25 , both the JTWC and JMA increased the intensity to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Although the JMA suggests the system reached its peak intensity at that time , the JTWC indicated that Nelson strengthen slightly on March 25 , and attained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , equivalent to a major hurricane or a Category 3 system on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . Shortly thereafter , the storm moved ashore in the Philippine at peak intensity . After making landfall , Nelson weakened over the south @-@ central portion of the nation . By March 26 , the JMA had lowered the winds to 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) .
By March 27 , Nelson re @-@ emerged into the South China Sea , having weakened considerably , and data from both the JMA and JTWC indicated that Nelson was no longer a typhoon . The next day , Nelson briefly re @-@ intensified slightly , and at 1800 UTC on March 28 , the JMA estimated a secondary peak intensity of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . On the following day , Nelson resumed weakening due to increased wind shear . Despite the presence of a trough , Nelson did not recurve northeast , and instead meandered westward . On the afternoon of March 31 , the JMA ceased watching Nelson . On the next day , the JTWC followed suit while located about 450 km ( 280 mi ) east of Nha Trang , Vietnam .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Typhoon Nelson was the second storm to strike the Philippines within a week , following Tropical Storm Mamie , which claimed 54 lives . Considered a " pre @-@ season " storm by newspapers , Nelson required storm warnings for parts of the nation , which were broadcast via radio . Much of the southern section of the Philippines were placed on typhoon alert . Due to the threat of storm surge , residents in coastal areas were advised to evacuate to higher ground .
Typhoon Nelson was responsible for significant flooding across the Philippines . On the offshore Leyte Island , a radio transmitter and a school were destroyed . In Cebu City , schools , businesses , and government offices were closed for a day . Across the low @-@ lying town of Abucay , flooding occurred . A total of 1 @,@ 261 dwellings were leveled , including 703 houses destroyed in the provinces of Cebu , Bohol , and Surigao , leaving approximately 83 @,@ 000 people homeless . In Loreto Town , part of the Suriago Province , 95 % of all coconut trees were toppled , and all but 45 of the town 's 600 houses were demolished . A total of 165 @,@ 462 persons evacuated to shelters . Widespread power outages occurred while many bridges were washed away . Shipping and air services were halted ; 30 fishing boats and 23 ferries were destroyed . In all , 56 people perished due to Typhoon Nelson . Ten died in the hard @-@ hit Leyte Province . At least eight of the casualties were due to drownings , which included two woman and an infant . Overall , damage from Nelson amounted to $ 17 @.@ 2 million , crop and property damage alone totaled $ 7 @.@ 4 million .
= Hopeville Pond State Park =
Hopeville Pond State Park is a Connecticut state park located in the town of Griswold . Before European colonization , the Mohegan people constructed weirs and fished from the Pachaug River . In 1711 , Stephen Gates was granted 14 acres of land that now resides within the park 's limits and constructed a gristmill and sawmill at the natural falls . In 1818 , Elizah Abel purchased the mill privilege and built a woolen mill at the site . The mills were later acquired by John Slater who constructed a satinet mill and named it " Hope Mill " . The village of Hopeville would derive its name from the mill , and it thrived until a series of fires destroyed the mills , the church and some houses . Sometime before 1917 , the Ashland Cotton Company erected a dam on the site and created a 145 @-@ acre reservoir . The United States Government purchased the land in the 1930s for recreational use and used the Civilian Conservation Corps to adapt the land to the purpose . In 1938 , the State of Connecticut designated Hopeville Pond as a state park .
Hopeville Pond State Park 's recreational activities include biking , hiking , camping , fishing , boating and swimming . A variety of fish are found in the park , including northern pike , largemouth bass , and yellow perch . The park has a total of 80 camp sites with each site featuring a fire ring with grate and a picnic table . The park manager 's house is a National Register of Historic Places listed property .
= = History = =
Hopeville Pond was by the Mohegan Indians for fishing prior to the European colonization . The Mohegans built weirs to direct the water flow and fish to the center of the stream for easy capture in fishing baskets . In 1711 , Stephen Gates was granted 14 acres of land which lies within the state park limits . Gates constructed a gristmill and sawmill at the natural falls along the Pachaug River . In 1818 , Elizah Abel purchased the mill privilege and built a woolen mill at the site . Later , John Slater purchased the three mills and constructed a satinet mill and named it " Hope Mill " . The village of Hopeville derived its name from the mill and would also carry it through to the Hopeville Pond and the Hopeville Pond State Park name . The natural falls of the mill sites are no longer visible as they are now underwater .
By 1840 , Hopeville was a " thriving village " according to Daniel L. Phillips , author of Griswold - a history . On November 4 , 1850 , a meeting was held to discuss the construction of a house of worship . A church was erected for $ 1 @,@ 700 and dedicated on December 12 , 1852 . The village of Hopeville reached its peak in 1860 and was well known for its production of woolens . In 1881 , the mill , then owned by Edwin Lanthrop and Company , was destroyed in a fire and not rebuilt . The Ashland Cotton Company would later acquire the property . In 1900 , the church and four houses also burned . In 1908 , the original gristmill from 1711 was also destroyed by fire . Sometime before 1917 , the Ashland Cotton Company erected a dam on the site and created the 145 acre reservoir ; the dam was used to generate electrical power for its mills in Jewett City . The United States Government purchased the land in the 1930s for recreational use and used the Civilian Conservation Corps to adapt the land to the purpose , including the construction of fire control ponds , forest roads and adapting the Avery House for park use . In 1938 , the State of Connecticut designated Hopeville Pond as a state park .
= = Avery House = =
The Avery House , also known as Hopeville Pond Park House , is a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 40 feet ( 12 m ) , the two story central @-@ chimney Colonial dating to circa 1770 . The central chimney is on a stone base and has a built @-@ in root cellar . In 1935 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) rehabilitated the property for park use . The alterations in the house changed the traditional five @-@ room first floor plan by eliminating the keeping rooms and the removal of the kitchen fireplace . It retains much of its original door frames and wrought @-@ iron latch hardware . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 . After the rehabilitation of the property , the Avery House became the Hopeville Park manager 's residence .
= = Activities = =
Hopeville Pond State Park is listed for a multitude of recreational activities , including biking , hiking , camping , fishing , boating and swimming . Hopeville Pond was included in an 11 @-@ mile bike trail in Connecticut : Rides for the Casual Cyclist . The Lake Lubbers website states that Hopeville Pond is a popular location for fishing , including ice fishing . The reported fish include " northern pike , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , catfish , chain pickerel , yellow perch , and bluegill " .
According to the DEEP website , the camping season begins on the third week of April on Friday and ends on September 30 . The park has a total of 80 camp sites with each site featuring a fire ring with grate and a picnic table . The layout is in two loops designated with sites A @-@ E and a second loop designated as F. Each loop has toilet and drinking water facilities . The camp site was rated highly for its beauty , spaciousness , cleanliness and security in 2013 by Best Tent Camping .
= And Yet It Moves =
And Yet It Moves is a platform video game developed by independent developer Broken Rules . The game was released for Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux on April 2 , 2009 , and a Wii port was released on the Wii Shop Channel in August 2010 . And Yet It Moves was originally designed as a computer science project at the Vienna University of Technology in 2007 . When the original prototype won or was nominated for awards at various independent game festivals , the team decided to create a full version of the game .
And Yet It Moves focuses on moving the player character through a series of hazardous environments . The player possesses the ability to freely rotate the entire game world , transforming walls into floors and vice versa . The game 's levels and puzzles are designed around this concept . The game features paper collage styled visuals designed by Jan Hackl and a beatboxing soundtrack performed by Christoph Binder .
Both the PC and WiiWare versions of the game received positive reviews , with many critics applauding the gameplay mechanics and the visuals . And Yet It Moves was also released as part of the third Humble Indie Bundle .
= = Gameplay = =
And Yet It Moves is a single @-@ player puzzle platform game set in a world stylized to resemble a paper collage , where background elements and characters consist of ripped paper . The nameless player character , who appears as a cutout pencil line @-@ drawing on white paper , is moved through a series of levels by running and jumping across the obstacles and avoiding hazards . The player possesses the ability to " spin " the entire game world in 90 or 180 degree increments at any time . Because the rotation is instantaneous and gravity will always point " downward " relative to the game screen , spinning the world has physical consequences on the player character and on the environment : walls that are too steep to climb become flat , walkable surfaces , and objects may move or react to the change in gravity . All objects retain their momentum relative to their frame of reference .
The levels in And Yet It Moves are designed such that spinning the world at certain moments is required to progress . Because the character will tear into pieces if he falls from too high a distance , the player must often spin the world such that the character can safely surmount or descend from large obstacles . Other hazards such as wild beasts , fire and boulders , or falling into the black void that borders the playing field will tear the character . However , the player has unlimited lives and will reappear at the last checkpoint he passed prior to being torn .
The main campaign mode offers 17 levels that span three different environments . There are other gameplay features available , such as online leaderboards , various time attack modes , and optional achievements that are awarded for performing specific objectives .
In the Wii version , players control the game using the Wii Remote held sideways , and the game world is rotated by twisting the controller in various directions . The Nunchuk and Classic Controller are also compatible for alternate control schemes . This version also removes the restriction to only rotate in 90 degree intervals and offers three additional levels compared to the PC versions .
= = Development = =
And Yet It Moves is the first video game developed by Broken Rules , an independent game developer based in Vienna . The game began as a bachelor project held by the Department for Design and Assessment of Technology at the Vienna University of Technology . The four computer science students involved wanted to design a game that gave the player more freedom than possible in normal 2D games ; a side @-@ scrolling platform game with the ability to rotate the entire game world was chosen . A prototype of the game took half a year to develop using the Torque game engine , and the name And Yet It Moves was chosen for its ambiguity and " it hints at world rotation , " an allusion to Galileo Galilei 's famous ( but apocryphal ) remark " Eppur si muove " . The prototype was showcased at various independent game development festivals and garnered positive feedback ; it was a winner in the Student Showcase category of the 2007 Independent Games Festival and a nominee for the 2007 Europrix Top Talent Award . The interest in the title inspired the students to develop a full game , which took approximately two years . Broken Rules was founded when it was realized that " it was a necessity [ in order ] to better deal with all the organizational , financial and juridical hassles that are involved when making business . "
Broken Rules did not have a dedicated artist , so the designers chose a graphical style they believed was both aesthetically pleasing and easy to create . A pencil @-@ on @-@ paper look was first attempted , but it appeared " empty and boring " until photographs , collected from public sources such as morgueFile , were added . The style evolved into the game 's final ripped paper collage look , intended to appear " rough and analog . " Designer Christoph Binder created the game 's background music and sound effects by beatboxing , echoing this motif . Felix Bohatsch , the project lead , stated in an interview that adding a narrative or backstory was avoided in favor of prioritizing the gameplay . He added however that the level design follows a leitmotif that conveys " a journey from being confined to becoming free " as the game progresses , first beginning in dark caves and ending in a wide blank space .
In October 2008 , Nintendo contacted Broken Rules and asked if a downloadable WiiWare version of And Yet It Moves could be developed for its Wii console after seeing a demonstration of the game at the 2008 IndieCade Festival in Los Angeles . Bohatsch stated that " we didn 't think long about this decision because we always wanted to bring And Yet It Moves to a console and I have a sweet spot for the Wii . " However , the PC game 's projected release date was April 2 , 2009 ; it was too late in development to begin co @-@ developing for Wii and launch simultaneously on both platforms . PC version development was completed first and then Wii development started in June .
Because And Yet It Moves was originally designed to be played with digital controls , the Wii Remote 's analog motion controls needed to be implemented such that they felt natural and not intrusive . Broken Rules determined , following a number of tests , that allowing the player to freely rotate to any degree best suited motion controls ; originally the player could only rotate in 90 degree intervals . Four different control schemes were implemented to satisfy a wide number of players , three of which either use motion control or the Wii Remote pointer . While the file size limit imposed on WiiWare games was not an issue , the visuals needed to be downsampled to cohere with the Wii hardware . A standard @-@ definition television was used in development ; Bohatsch felt the visuals looked nicer on the SDTV than on a PC or Mac with higher display resolution , but warned that some HDTVs might not upsample the Wii resolution properly , recommending that a component cable be used while playing the game . The online leaderboards were omitted from the Wii version because the PC version 's leaderboards were not frequently used . Three new levels , unlocked when the player completes the main campaign mode , were added . The near final version of the game was submitted to Nintendo 's Quality Assurance team in May 2010 to inspect and find bugs . And Yet It Moves was released on the Wii Shop Channel in North America on August 23 , 2010 and then in Europe on August 27 .
Broken Rules currently has no plans to develop a sequel to And Yet It Moves , due to the time spent on the game . Bohatsch commented that he is unopposed to the idea and is amenable to proposals to develop such a game .
= = Reception = =
And Yet It Moves received generally favorable reviews . The PC version gained aggregate scores of 71 @.@ 50 % and 75 on GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively , while the WiiWare version gained aggregate scores of 85 @.@ 30 % and 83 . Critics applauded the game 's unique take on the platforming genre and the game 's paper collage visual style , but felt the game was too short . Some critics noted the absence of any narrative or backstory , but felt that the game ultimately didn 't need one , though GameSpot noted it as one of the game 's weaknesses .
In his review of the PC version , IGN 's Daemon Hatfield stated that And Yet It Moves " manages to make this quarter @-@ century old genre [ 2D platformer ] feel new again . " Hatfield praised the gameplay , which was " challenging but avoids being frustrating " , but felt there wasn 't enough content to warrant the $ 15 price , despite the additional game modes available . Hatfield scored the game 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . GameFocus scored the PC version 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , praising the gameplay , sound , controls , and use of physics . The review also stated that players are unlikely to experience motion sickness despite the frequent rotating of the game screen . GameSpot scored the PC version 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that while the rotation mechanic " wears thin toward the end of the game , " " the increasingly exotic level design manages to keep the good times rolling until the end . "
Justin Haywald of 1UP.com stated that " even when I felt I had to guess which direction I was supposed to go , the levels are set up well enough that the way forward is always easy to figure out " . Haywald praised the visuals as well , but stated that " as the scenery grows more cluttered , it also sometimes becomes difficult to find a safe place to land after sending the world spinning " . Haywald rated And Yet It Moves a B + . NintendoLife rated the WiiWare version 9 out of 10 , stating that the new additions and updated controls made it the " definitive version of the game " despite the omission of online features seen in the PC version .
= = = Sales = = =
Felix Bohatsch of Broken Rules reported in May 2009 that sales of the PC version were " not at a level we were expecting " . No digital rights management ( DRM ) protection was placed on the game because " we ... believe that any game will be cracked , no matter how we try to protect it , so our philosophy is that adding DRM or anything similar only annoys the people who actually pay for it . " The bootlegging rate was approximately 95 @.@ 5 % , meaning " for every game [ sold ] there are 22 cracked version [ sic ] being played " . Bohatsch speculated that the poor sales were partly caused by the levels demonstrated in the free game demo , which did not focus enough on the game 's puzzles . More than 370 @,@ 000 units of the game were sold as part of the third Humble Indie Bundle .
= Sängerfest =
Sängerfest , also Sängerbund @-@ Fest , Sängerfeste , or Saengerfest , meaning singer festival , is a competition of Sängerbunds , or singer groups , with prizes for the best group or groups . Such public events are also known as a Liederfest , or song festival . Participants number in the hundreds and thousands , and the fest is usually accompanied by a parade and other celebratory events . The sängerfest is most associated with the Germanic culture . Its origins can be traced back to 19th century Europe . Swiss composer Hans Georg Nägeli and educator Carl August Zeller , both protégés of Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , established sängerbunds to help foster social change throughout Germany and Prussia . University students began to choose the art form as an avenue for political statements . As the sängerfest concept gained popularity and spread around the world , it was adapted by Christian churches for spiritual worship services . European immigrants brought the tradition in a non @-@ political form to the North American continent . In the early part of the 20th century , sängerfest celebrations drew devotees in the tens of thousands , and included some United States presidents among their audiences . Sängerbunds are still active in Europe and in American communities with Germanic heritage .
= = History = =
= = = Europe = = =
Students of Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , a proponent of social reform , applied his teachings when founding some singing groups as an instrument for cultural change . One of his students was Carl August Zeller , who helped establish the sängerbund movement throughout Prussia in 1809 . Pestalozzi 's protégé Hans Georg Nägeli was a composer , music teacher and songbook publisher who made numerous journeys across Germany from 1819 to encourage the formation of male singing groups for social reform . Nägeli established several sängerbunds in Switzerland , which became the inspiration for the 1824 establishment of the Stuttgarter Liederkranz . Following the 1819 Carlsbad Decrees in Germany , male @-@ only choral celebrations with hundreds or thousands of vocalists were popular with the masses and often part of political events .
Composer Friedrich Silcher was directly influenced by Pestalozzi and Nägeli . He began using large choirs to express political viewpoints at least as early as 1824 when he and a group of Tübingen University students performed La Marseillaise to commemorate the storming of the Bastille . In 1827 at Plochingen , Baden @-@ Württemberg , several male @-@ voiced choirs combined for a regional liederfest . Sängerfests were part of the Hambach Festival of 1832 .
Christian church organizations known as Christlicher sängerbunds adapted the sängerfest for religious gatherings and helped spread its popularity throughout Europe , North America and Australia . They became popular in late 19th century Russia among Mennonite congregations . On 30 May 1893 , a sängerfest of seven choirs was held in Rückenau in Molotschna , Ukraine . On Sunday , 29 May 1894 , the all @-@ day Russische Saengervereinigung was held in Rückenau under the direction of Polish conductor Friedrich Schweige with assistance from Aron Gerhard Sawatsky , director of the Andreasfeld Mennonite Brethren Church . Beginning on 3 May , Schweiger traveled across Russia rehearsing choirs . On 29 May there were breakfasts for attendees , an estimated 50 vocal presentations by individual choirs , prayer services and sermons , lunch for 2 @,@ 000 people and afternoon snacks .
= = = North America = = =
Mennonites established the northwest Philadelphia section of Germantown in 1683 . The Philadelphia Männerchor founded by German immigrant Phillip Matthias Wohlseiffer in 1835 was the first German @-@ American singing society organized in the United States where the sängerfest began to evolve as a form of civic entertainment . In 1836 , Wohlseiffer founded the Baltimore Liederkranz , which became the first to accept women members ( 1838 ) . In 1846 , the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania group and the Baltimore , Maryland group performed together at a public sängerfest . The " Brooklyn Daily Eagle Almanac " of 1891 listed numerous sängerbunds in the Brooklyn , New York area . On 21 June 1901 , the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund presented a sängerfest in Buffalo , New York at the famous Pan @-@ American Exposition ( where 25th President William McKinley was shot by Leon Czolgosz in a reception line in September 1901 ) . A group in Buffalo hoped to help pay the expenses of the fest by forming the Buffalo Sängerfest Company , selling 1 @,@ 600 shares of stock at $ 25 each .
In 1838 , the Cincinnati Deustcher Gesangverein was formed in Ohio , followed by the Cincinnati Deutsch Liedertafel in 1844 . The Gesang und Bildungsverein Deutscher Arbeiter formed in 1846 and was the first Cincinnati group that allowed women . Groups from Ohio , Kentucky , Maryland and Indiana created the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund in 1849 for a sängerfest hosted by Cincinnati , featuring the music of German composers . By 1908 , it was estimated that 250 @,@ 000 German Americans belonged to musical organizations , and 50 @,@ 000 of those belonged to the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund . The first post @-@ Civil War sängerfest in Columbus , Ohio took place 29 August – 1 September 1865 at Schreiner 's Hall and the Opera House . Each arriving sängerbund was escorted to the hall by the Eighteenth regiment of the United States Infantry . There were an estimated 400 singers entertaining 12 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 attendees . The closing day was celebrated with pomp and circumstance .
The first sängerfest in Texas was held in 1853 in New Braunfels , and was held annually until 1860 when conflicting loyalties about , and participation in , the American Civil War caused a 10 @-@ year gap in the events . The San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein was formed in 1847 , the New Braunfels Gesangverein Germania formed in 1850 , and the Austin Männerchor formed in 1852 . On 4 July 1853 in San Antonio , the San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein sponsored an Independence Day celebration attended by the New Braunfels Gesangverein and the Austin Männerchor . The New Braunfels Gesangverein invited everyone to meet in New Braunfels on 16 – 17 October 1853 for its first Texas Sängerfest . In 1854 , the aggregate sängerbunds formed the Texas State Sängerbund . The San Antonio Beethoven Männerchor was organized in 1867 by Wilhelm Thielepape , assistant conductor of the San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein . After the surrender of the Confederacy in 1865 , Thielepape raised the Union flag of the " Stars and Stripes " over the historic Texan battle site and former church mission , the Alamo in San Antonio and distributed wine and songbooks . The all @-@ male Houston Sängerbund was founded on 6 October 1883 and chartered in 1890 . It affiliated itself with Der Deutsch @-@ Texanische Sängerbund . In 1887 , founding member Carl C. Zeus served as principal of the organization 's German @-@ English school .
22nd and 24th President Grover Cleveland , his wife , and guests took a special train from Washington , D.C. on " Independence Day " , 4 July 1888 , forty miles northeast to see a Baltimore event . Cleveland had friends who were members of the sängerbunds . 27th President William Howard Taft attended the 1 July 1912 event in Philadelphia . On 15 June 1903 , 26th President Theodore Roosevelt and Ambassador Herman Speck von Sternberg attended a sängerfest of 6 @,@ 000 individual singers at Baltimore 's Armory Hall . All 9 @,@ 000 seats were sold out . President Roosevelt delivered an address praising the German culture and the sängerfest tradition . The Northeastern Sängerbund presented selections by composers Herman Spielter , David Melamet , Carl Friedrich Zöllner , E.S. Engelsberg , Felix Mendelssohn and Richard Wagner .
When Newark , New Jersey , hosted the 21st National Sängerfest , held on 1 – 4 July 1906 in Olympic Park , 25 @,@ 000 people showed up to hear the music , many arriving on chartered trains . Only a few thousand were able to get into the hall , and 2 @,@ 000 were standing . Five thousand singers from more than a hundred sängerbunds representing forty cities from New Jersey , New York , Maryland , Pennsylvania , and Delaware competed for a $ 20 @,@ 000 prize offered by Kaiser Wilhelm II . Park vendors offered souvenirs , refreshments , games , and a carousel .
Germans began emigrating to Canada through Nova Scotia , where they helped found the town of Lunenburg in 1753 . The sängerfests were first performed in Kitchener , Ontario , in 1862 . The community events included the standard concerts and meals , with drama presentations and athletic entertainment sponsored by the local Turnvereine clubs . For the next 40 years , sängerbunds and sängerfests spread throughout Ontario . Pennsylvania Mennonites began settling in Ontario in the late 19th century . Alberta and Saskatchewan host annual Mennonite sängerfestes .
In 1916 at his sentencing for bigamy , Count Max Lymer Louden related another misdeed from his past . Louden claimed he had been hired by a group of wealthy German Americans with a secret fund of $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to take 150 @,@ 000 German reservists , disguised as sängerbunds , across the Canada – United States border for a coup d 'état of Canada , on behalf of Kaiser Wilhelm II . If they drew suspicion , they were prepared to " sing at a moment 's notice . " It was his loyalty to America , he claimed , which caused him to desert the Kaiser 's singing invasion force .
= = Current events = =
Although some local festivals were canceled or suspended during the two world wars owing to rising anti @-@ German sentiment , the triennial Sängerfest tradition has largely survived and many communities in areas with a significant German @-@ American population have Sängerfests today .
Two major German @-@ American singing associations are the Nordöstlicher ( North Eastern ) Sängerbund and the much larger Nord @-@ Amerikanischer ( North American ) Sängerbund ( which , contrary to the name , also includes a few choruses from southern states ) .
Nordöstlicher Sängerbund : The 49th Sängerfest was in Lancaster , Pennsylvania in 2006 . The 50th Sängerfest , hosted by the Washington Sängerbund , took place on the 2009 Memorial Day Weekend in Washington , D.C. The 51st Sängerfest , hosted by the Lehigh Sängerbund , took place in June 2012 in Allentown , PA . The Bloomfield Liedertafel hosted the 52nd Sängerfest in 2015 in Pittsburgh , PA .
Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund : The 61st Sängerfest of the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund was June 2013 in Milwaukee , Wisconsin with over 1300 singers . The 62nd Sängerfest will take place May 27 – 29 , 2016 in Pittsburgh , PA .
= = Gallery = =
= Tom Norman =
Tom Norman , born Thomas Noakes , ( 7 May 1860 – 24 August 1930 ) , was an English businessman , showman and the last exhibitor of Joseph Merrick who was otherwise known as the " Elephant Man " . Among his later exhibits were a troupe of midgets , a " Man in a Trance " , " John Chambers the armless Carpenter " , and the " World 's Ugliest Woman " .
Norman started his working life as a butcher in Sussex before moving to London at the age of 14 where he sought a career on the music hall stage . There , he became interested in freak shows which he attended in his spare time . After viewing an exhibition called " Electric Lady " next door to his place of work , he went into business with the exhibition 's manager and began his career as a showman of human oddities . He quickly became successful , for his patter as much as his exhibits , and was called the ' Silver King ' by the American showman P. T. Barnum .
In 1884 , Norman took over the management of Joseph Merrick , otherwise known as the " Elephant Man " , and exhibited him for a few weeks until police closed down the show . Merrick later went to live at the London Hospital under the care of Sir Frederick Treves . In his 1923 memoirs , Treves portrayed Norman as a cruel drunk who ruthlessly exploited his acts . Norman refuted this characterisation and said that he provided Merrick ( and his other " freaks " ) with a means of making money independently . Norman continued a successful career as a showman and later became an auctioneer of novelty shows and circuses .
Norman died in 1930 and was survived by his wife and 10 children , five of whom followed him into the entertainment business .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Norman was born Thomas Noakes on 7 May 1860 in Dallington , Sussex . He was the eldest of 17 children to Thomas Noakes , a butcher and a farmer , and his wife Eliza ( née Haiselden ) .
Norman was introduced to his father 's trade at an early age and left school to work with him when he was 12 . He decided to go travelling two years later to seek a career as a performer . He was unsuccessful and after a short while , he moved to London where he worked as a butcher 's assistant . A kean gambler , Norman moved to Berkshire where he took up professional gambling at Ascot Racecourse . He wound up penniless and resumed his butchery trade in London where he gained a new interest in freak show entertainment .
= = = Novelties = = =
After his unsuccessful venture in Berkshire , Norman returned to being a butcher , and , one day , viewed the " novelties " at a penny gaff next to his place of employment in Islington . There , Mlle Electra , " The Only Electric Lady — A Lady Born Full of Electricity " gave audience members an electrical shock via her handshake . Norman was impressed with the exhibition , realised its lucrative potential , and left his job to enter into business with Mlle Electra 's manager . He quickly discovered Electra was a fake connected to a supply of electricity .
When Mlle Electra was exhibited at Kingston Fair , Norman realised he would be better off working alone , and successfully staged his own " Electric Lady " in Hammersmith . He learned that his skills as an entertainer were as important to his success as the novelties he exhibited . At some point , he changed his birth name to Tom Norman , and renounced his inheritance . According to Joseph Merrick 's biographers Michael Howell and Peter Ford , Norman may have changed his name to avoid shaming his family by his " distasteful " connections to circuses and fairgrounds .
Over the next few years , Norman 's travelling exhibitions featured Eliza Jenkins , the " Skeleton Woman " , a " Balloon Headed Baby " and a woman who bit off the heads of live rats — the " most gruesome " act Norman claimed to have seen . Other acts included fleas , fat ladies , giants , dwarves and retired white seamen , painted black and speaking in an invented language , billed " savage Zulus " . He displayed a " family of midgets " which in reality was composed of two men and a borrowed baby . He operated a number of shops in London and Nottingham , and exhibited travelling shows throughout the country . In 1882 , Norman gave a show at Islington 's Royal Agricultural Hall . Unknown to Norman , the show was attended by American showman P. T. Barnum . Norman falsely claimed to his audience , as he had often done in the past , that his show had been booked to appear at Barnum 's ' Greatest Show on Earth ' . Barnum was much amused and afterwards , seeing Norman 's silver necklace and noting his gift for oratory , dubbed him the ' Silver King ' . With 13 shops in London alone , Norman ran into a shortage of curiosities and travelled the country looking for new acts . He enticed human novelties into his employ with promises of generous salaries .
= = = Elephant Man = = =
In 1884 , Norman came into contact with Joseph Merrick , a young man from Leicester who had extreme deformities . Unable to find work due to his physical appearance , Merrick ended up in the Leicester workhouse for four years . In 1884 he left the workhouse and put himself in the charge of the music hall proprietors Sam Torr and J. Ellis , and the travelling showman ' Little George ' Hitchcock . Collectively , they presented Merrick as " The Elephant Man , Half @-@ a @-@ Man and Half @-@ an @-@ Elephant " . They quickly realised that they would not be able to show Merrick for too long in one place , for fear of the novelty wearing off , and towards the end of 1884 , Hitchcock contacted Norman , an acquaintance of his , and transferred management of the Elephant Man to him .
Merrick arrived in London and into Norman 's care . Norman , initially shocked by Merrick 's appearance and reluctant to display him , nonetheless exhibited him at his penny gaff shop at 123 Whitechapel Road , directly across the road from the London Hospital . Because of its proximity to the hospital , the shop received medical students and doctors as visitors . One of these was the surgeon Frederick Treves who arranged to have Merrick brought into the hospital to be examined . According to Norman 's autobiography , Merrick went to the hospital " two or three " times , but then refused to go any more , as the examinations made him feel " like an animal in a cattle market " .
The exhibition of the Elephant Man was reasonably successful , particularly with the added income from a printed pamphlet about Merrick 's life and condition . At this time , however , public opinion about freak shows was starting to change and the display of human novelties was beginning to be viewed as distasteful . After only a few weeks with Norman , the Elephant Man exhibition was shut down by the police , and Norman and Merrick parted ways . Treves later arranged for Merrick to live at the London Hospital until Merrick 's death in 1890 . In Treves 's 1923 memoir , The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences Norman was portrayed as a drunk who cruelly exploited Merrick . Norman counteracted these claims in a letter in the World 's Fair newspaper that year , as well as his own autobiography . Norman 's opinion was that he provided Merrick ( and his other exhibits ) a way of making a living and remaining independent , but that on entering the London Hospital , Merrick remained a freak on display , only with no control over how or when he was viewed . The character Bytes , respectively portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1980 film The Elephant Man , is based on Norman .
= = = Later life = = =
Norman remained a travelling showman for another 10 years following his encounter with Joseph Merrick , and exhibited , among others , a troupe of midgets , a ' Man in a Trance ' , John Chambers the armless Carpenter and the ' World 's Ugliest Woman ' . In 1893 , he announced that he was leaving for Chicago and advertised his goods for sale , but in the end , he never went . He became involved with the temperance movement and was the vice @-@ president of the Van Dwellers Protection Association ( which later became the Showmen 's Guild of Great Britain ) . He became a showman 's auctioneer , auctioning novelty shows and circuses and according to the World 's Fair , presided over more such sales than any other auctioneer in the country at that time . Norman married the theatre performer Amy Rayner in 1896 , and they had six sons and four daughters . The family moved to Croydon , and Norman went into semi @-@ retirement , selling off some of his shops . In 1905 he sold showman " Lord " George Sanger 's zoo , and then all of Sanger 's circus effects , an achievement Norman called " the crowning point in my life as regards the auctioneering business " . He made his comeback in 1919 with the exhibition of ' Phoebe the Strange Girl ' in Birmingham and Margate .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Norman died of throat cancer on 24 August 1930 at Croydon Hospital , aged 70 . Five of his children followed him into circus careers : George and Arthur Norman became circus clowns while Tom and Jim Norman worked in fairgrounds . Ralph Van Norman ( known professionally as Hal Denver ) became a travelling Wild West performer , appearing throughout Europe and the United States .
= Banksia sphaerocarpa =
Banksia sphaerocarpa , commonly known as the Fox Banksia or Round @-@ fruit Banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family Proteaceae ) . It is generally encountered as a 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high shrub , and is usually smaller in the north of its range . This species has narrow green leaves , and brownish , orange or yellow round flower spikes which may be seen from January to July . It is widely distributed across the southwest of Western Australia , growing exclusively in sandy soils . It is usually the dominant plant in scrubland or low woodland . It is pollinated by , and is a food source for , birds , mammals , and insects .
First described in 1810 by botanist Robert Brown , B. sphaerocarpa has a complicated taxonomic history , and several taxa once classified as part of a broadly defined B. sphaerocarpa have since been named as species in their own right . At present , most authorities recognise five varieties ; the largest variety , B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( Ironcap Banksia ) , is sometimes given species rank as B. dolichostyla . B. sphaerocarpa is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia , although two varieties have been placed on the Declared Rare and Priority Flora List — var. latifolia has been declared a Priority Two – Poorly Known taxon , and var. dolichostyla has been Declared Rare Flora . None of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation .
= = Description = =
Banksia sphaerocarpa is a variable species that differs in plant size , flower size and leaf size across its range . The variability is marked enough that five varieties are recognised . This species is generally a shrub 0 @.@ 4 – 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Plants are smaller in northern parts of the range , and grow larger in the southeast , with var. dolichostyla and rarely var. caesia reaching 4 m ( 13 ft ) in height . All varieties bear a lignotuber , a swollen starchy root crown from which the plant resprouts after bushfire . The new stems are finely hairy but become smooth with maturity . The leaves are stiff , narrow and linear , and measure 2 @.@ 5 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 3 @.@ 94 in ) in length , on a petiole 2 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 118 in ) long . Leaves of most varieties are 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm in width , and have a pointed tip , but var. latifolia has wider leaves , 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) , and a blunter tip . The foliage is green , or a more pale blue @-@ grey in the case of caesia and dolichostyla .
The inflorescences are generally globular and measure 5 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , although larger forms , such as var. dolichostyla , are more oval in shape . Flowering from January to July , the blooms are yellow , orange or brownish in colour . They take five to eight weeks to develop from bud to the finish of flowering . Anthesis takes place over two weeks , as the individual flowers open in a wave across the inflorescence . Three weeks before the flowers open , the spikes develop a strong musky smell . The flowers produce unusually large quantities of nectar ; indeed some flowers produce so much that it drips to the ground . The old flowers fade to brownish and grey hues and remain curled around the flower spike . Up to 60 follicles develop on the globular spikes . The follicles are finely furred at first before becoming smooth and golden brown in colour , measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) long , 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 31 in ) high , and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) wide . The follicles are flat with pronounced ' shoulders ' , giving a rectangular appearance in cross section . Specimens of var. sphaerocarpa in the Whicher Range , Jarrah Forest and the vicinity of Nannup have larger follicles . The seeds are wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) , and measure 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 02 in ) in length , containing a smaller cuneate seed body measuring 1 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 51 in ) wide .
Northern specimens can be quite small shrubs and may be hard to distinguish from B. micrantha , which has smaller inflorescences and large flattened follicles .
= = Taxonomy = =
The earliest known botanical collection of B. sphaerocarpa occurred in December 1801 , during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound . The specimen was collected from " A single plant observed between Princess Royal Harbour & Oyster Harbour on a heath " , and is credited to English botanist Robert Brown , though it is not possible to be certain on this point , as Brown incorporated the collections of junior expedition members into his herbarium without attribution . Neither Brown nor expedition horticulturist Peter Good mentions the collection in his diary .
Brown published a formal description and name for the species in his 1810 On the Proteaceae of Jussieu . He did not designate a type specimen ( a specimen to be representative of the species ) for the species , but the one specimen in his collection has since been formally declared the lectotype for the species . He also did not state the etymology of the specific epithet , but it is accepted that the name derives from the Ancient Greek sphaera- ( " round " ) , and carpos ( " fruit " ) , in reference to the shape of its infructescences .
In Brown 's arrangement of the genus , B. sphaerocarpa was placed between B. pulchella and B. nutans in taxonomic sequence ; that is , an order that places related taxa next to each other . No subdivision of the genus was given , other than to separate a single distinctive species into a subgenus of its own . Swiss botanist Carl Meissner published a more detailed arrangement in 1856 , placing B. sphaerocarpa in section Eubanksia because its inflorescence is a spike rather than a domed head , and in series Abietinae , whose members have inrolled leaf margins with no , or only very fine , serrations . Meissner also published a variety , B. sphaerocarpa var. glabrescens , based on specimens collected by James Drummond ; this is now considered a synonym of B. incana .
George Bentham 's revision of Banksia for his 1870 Flora Australiensis overturned Meissner 's series ; instead , B. sphaerocarpa was placed in a new section , Oncostylis , because of its hooked styles . Two varieties were recognised : Meissner 's var. glabrescens was retained , and var. latifolia was newly described by Bentham . Bentham noted further variation amongst his specimens not accounted for by his varieties , stating " It is possible therefore that two species may be here confounded , but the specimens are insufficient for their distinction . "
For many years following Bentham 's arrangement , the circumscription of B. sphaerocarpa was widely recognised as unacceptably broad . William Blackall informally published two varieties , var. pinifolia and var. violacea ( properly Banksia violacea ) in his 1954 How to Know Western Australian Wildflowers ; and in 1966 the nurseryman Fred Lullfitz predicted that there were as many as eight taxa within the species . Several of these were recognised in George 's revision of the genus for 1981 " The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) " : B. micrantha , B. grossa , B. lanata , B. scabrella , B. telmatiaea , B. leptophylla and B. incana . George placed B. sphaerocarpa in subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike , section Oncostylis because its styles are hooked , and the resurrected series Abietinae , which he constrained to contain only round @-@ fruited species . He reduced variety latifolia to synonymy with variety sphaerocarpa , but conceded the species needed further review . Alex George reported that he thought Banksia sphaerocarpa 's closest relatives to be Banksia micrantha and B. grossa .
George 's arrangement remained current until 1996 , when Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . Banksia ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic , and so retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . Banksia sphaerocarpa appeared in the second of these , initially called the ' grossa clade ' for its most basal member . As with George 's classification , B. grossa and B. micrantha emerged as close relatives of B. sphaerocarpa .
This clade became the basis for new subseries Sphaerocarpae , which Thiele defined as containing those species with lignotubers , styles loosely curling around the infructescence ( although this trait was reversed in micrantha ) , and " transversely aligned cells of the seed wing inner face " . Other than the most basal B. grossa , these species also have shouldered follicles . Having found B. micrantha to be more closely related than B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla to the other varieties of B. sphaerocarpa , they promoted var. dolichostyla to species rank as Banksia dolichostyla . Morphological support for this was given by the fact that the old styles of var. dolichostyla are quite different from those of other varieties , being stouter , and tending not to curl around the infructescence as the others do .
Questioning the emphasis on cladistics in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , George published a slightly modified version of his 1981 arrangement in his 1999 treatment of Banksia for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . He added that he did not feel the characters of dolichostyla alone justified specific rank , beings essentially merely larger in all parts than , but otherwise essentially similar to , var. caesia . Therefore , he retained it as a variety of B. sphaerocarpa . To date , George 's 1999 arrangement remains the most recent comprehensive classification . The placement of B. sphaerocarpa in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )
B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )
B. sect . Oncostylis
B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )
B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )
B. ser . Abietinae
B. sphaerocarpa
B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla
B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia
B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio
B. sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa
B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia
B. micrantha
B. grossa
B. telmatiaea
B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )
B. lanata
B. scabrella
B. violacea
B. incana
B. laricina
B. pulchella
B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )
B. nutans ( 2 varieties )
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
A 2002 study by American botanists Austin Mast and Tom Givnish yielded a surprise when molecular analysis mapped out dolichostyla as a sister taxon to its geographical neighbour B. violacea , in a clade with B. laricina and B. incana . B. micrantha and the other two varieties of B. sphaerocarpa form a separate clade nearby .
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. sphaerocarpa is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
In 2008 , George reinstated B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia , and published the new variety B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio .
= = = Varieties = = =
Banksia sphaerocarpa is a widely distributed Western Australian species with four ( or five if one includes var. dolichostyla ) varieties :
B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia , first described by Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus , grows larger than most other varieties , reaching 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , or occasionally 4 m ( 13 ft ) , in height . It has yellow blooms and bluish grey foliage and is found in the central and southern Wheatbelt between the towns of Piawaning , Kojonup , Newdegate and Corrigin .
B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( Ironcap Banksia ) was first described by Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus . It is the largest of the varieties , encountered as a large shrub or small tree to 4 m ( 13 ft ) high . It is larger in all parts than the other varieties , and has been considered a separate species . It is restricted to a small area from South Ironcap , east of Hyden , south to Mt Holland in the eastern Wheatbelt .
B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia was originally described in a manuscript by Mueller and published by Bentham in 1870 . It grows as a small rounded shrub to 50 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) in height , and is restricted to the vicinity of the south coast between Denmark and the Porongorup Range , where it is found in low , open forest of Eucalyptus marginata and E. calophylla .
B. sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa is widely distributed from the Darling Plateau east of Perth to the Whicher Range in the southwest , and southeast to the Stirling Range . Populations north of Perth once referable to it are now classified as var. pumilio .
B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio , first described by Alex George in 2008 , is a small shrub less than a metre high . It is found from Tathra National Park east of Eneabba south to the | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Come Go With Me " ( all previously released by Elvis Presley ) as well as , " Have I Told You Lately That I Love You " ( Lulu Belle and Scotty ) and his own composition , " Yodelling Song " . Fury 's mother sent the songs to impresario Larry Parnes , which started her son 's singing career . The songs were released on DVD / CD in 2008 .
= = The Quarrymen recording = =
Johnny ' Guitar ' Byrne ( from Rory Storm and The Hurricanes ) and singer Paul Murphy recorded a version of " Butterfly " and " She ’ s Got it " in the studio on 22 June 1957 , and Byrne later played the recording to Harrison . On 12 July 1958 , a local skiffle group , The Quarrymen ( Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , Lowe and Hanton ) visited Phillips ' studio to record two songs , although the date has been disputed , as Lowe remembered that the recording was during cold weather ( October or November , 1957 ) with the band wearing scarves . Hanton also mentioned the cold weather in interviews , and before recording , Lennon suggested that Hanton put his scarf over the snare drum to lower the volume , which supports the earlier date .
The group were surprised to see how small and technically basic the studio was , with only one microphone in the centre of the room . Phillips demanded that they pay for the recording before they set up the equipment , so each member paid 3 shillings and 6 pence , but he then asked for an extra surcharge ( £ 1 ) to cover the cost of transferring the tape recording to acetate disc . As this was too expensive , Phillips said that for a cut @-@ rate price they would not be taped first , but record directly to vinyl .
The first song they recorded was " That ‘ ll Be The Day " ( sung by Lennon with harmonies by McCartney ) . Phillips wanted them to immediately record the next song , but Lennon and McCartney could not decide on a song for the B @-@ side of the disc . McCartney suggested the doo @-@ wop ballad , " In Spite of All the Danger " ( by McCartney and Harrison , but sung by Lennon ) even though Lowe and Hanton had never heard it before . They asked for some time to rehearse , but Phillips refused , saying , " For seventeen and six 17 / 6d you 're not here all day " .
Lowe and Hanton busked through the song , which was cut short by Phillips waving his hands to indicate that the cutting needle was getting close to the centre of the acetate . He then handed the band a fragile 78rpm 10 @-@ inch acetate record . It was later lost until Lowe rediscovered it in 1981 , and planned to put it up for auction at Sotheby 's , but sold it to McCartney for an undisclosed amount . McCartney later had the two songs digitally re @-@ mastered and pressed 50 copies , giving them to friends as a Christmas present , although the two songs were released on 21 November 1995 , as part of The Beatles Anthology ( Anthology 1 ) . McCartney later said , " The strangest thing for me , listening to it , is that it 's like drowning , it 's like your life flashing by in front of you . From the earliest things by me and John when we used to sag off school and the earliest demo tape we ever made , to the first little record we made which was a version of John singing " That 'll Be The Day " , and a little song of mine [ and Harrison ] on the other side that 's never been released before . "
= = Later years = =
Other customers of Phillips ' studio included The Swinging Blue Jeans , Brian Epstein , Freddie Starr , Willy Russell , Liverpool F.C. supporters club , and players from Everton F.C .. Denny Seyton and The Sabres recorded " Little Latin Lupe Lu " ( Bill Medley ) in the studio in 1963 . Phillips closed the studio in 1969 , the record shop in 1974 , and died in 1984 , at the Royal Liverpool Hospital . The recording of The Quarrymen acetate and the site of Phillips ' Sound Recording Services was commemorated on 26 August 2005 , when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen ( Lowe and Hanton ) on the front of the house .
= Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock =
The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola rupicola ) is a species of South American passerine . It is about 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) in length and weighs about 200 to 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 8 oz ) . They are found in tropical rainforests , near its preferred habitat of rocky outcrops . The males plumage is bright orange and the males have a prominent half @-@ moon crest . The females are brownish in colour , and are generally much duller coloured than the males . It is one of two species of the genus Rupicola , the other being the Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock . The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock lives across the forested region of northeastern South America . Its diet consists mostly of fruit , but sometimes includes small snakes and lizards .
The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock breeds in the early months of the year and , on average , lays its eggs around March . During the height of the mating season , males engage in competitive displays in lek , which is a complex courting behaviour that is done to attract females . Males and females live separately except when the females choose a mate . The mating success varies based on multiple factors , ranging from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself . The females choose a male by flying down to the ground and pecking the male on his rump . The male then turns around and the mating takes place almost immediately . There is speculation that the male @-@ to @-@ male competition is an important factor in lek formation and breeding . The main predators of the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are harpy eagles and black @-@ and @-@ white hawk @-@ eagles .
= = Description = =
The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is a stout @-@ bodied bird with a prominent half @-@ moon crest . It is a sexually dimorphic bird . The male 's crest is more pronounced than the female 's and is bright orange . The males also have an orange @-@ tipped black tail , black , orange and white wings , a bright orange bill , an orange iris yellowing as it nears its outer edge , and silky @-@ orange filamentous feathers of the inner remiges . Both sexes also have orange legs and skin . The less conspicuous female is dark brownish @-@ grey overall and has a yellow @-@ tipped black bill , a duller orange iris , and a smaller crest . One @-@ year @-@ old juvenile males look similar to an adult female , but has orange speckles over their bodies . After two years , the juvenile males become mostly orange with brown and grey spots . Males attain their definitive plumage at around three years . Juvenile females look almost identical to their adult counterparts . Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock have a total length of approximately 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) and a total weight of around 200 to 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 8 oz ) . The two species of cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are allopatric , and therefore do not meet with one another . The plumage of male Andean is redder and its wings are mostly black , lacking the orange colouration seen on the male Guianan . The female Andean is reddish brown rather than the brownish @-@ gray of the Guianan .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Guanian cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is one of two species of genus Rupicola . It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 as the type species of its genus . The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola peruvianus ) is similar in body shape and colouration .
The generic and specific names are derived from the Latin words rupes " rock " or " cliff " , and cola " inhabiting " , which express its habit of nesting on rock walls .
= = Range and habitat = =
As suggested by its name , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is found in the Guianan Shield , occurring in French Guiana , Suriname , Guyana , southern Venezuela , eastern Colombia and northern Amazonian Brazil . Its preferred habitats are humid forests near rocky outcrops . They are normally found at an altitude of 300 to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 980 to 6 @,@ 560 ft ) .
The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock has distinctive territorial markings . Males usually take dominance of an area on the ground , although they sometimes they occupy middle strata in forests . They make their characteristic marking by clearing out debris from the ground , including twigs , leaves , and pellets . This area is called a “ court ” . Quality of courts are known to have some influence on mate choice . The court quality is determined by the territory density and location to the center of activity in the lek . The reason for the focus on the center of activity in the lek is that successful males tended to own courts in the most densely clustered lek areas . Guianan courts are commonly found in the Guianan Shield , a forested region in northeastern South America .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of the adult Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock consists mainly of fruits meaning they are frugivorous . Up to 65 species of fruit have been reported in their diet , primarily from canopy trees or lianas . Three quarters ( 75 % ) of the fruit eaten by the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock at one study site were either black- or red @-@ coloured fruit . In the British Guiana , Thomas E. Gilliard found papayas growing at the base of a huge rock . On top of the rock were perched females that were nesting . He found that no other papayas were growing in that part of the forest and speculated that the perched females ate papayas in the forest where they are native and dropped the seeds below where they were nesting . Small snakes , lizards , insects and frogs are occasionally found in its diet .
By selectively feeding on nearby fruit trees and then defecating or regurgitating the seeds within the leks , these birds can actively influence the regeneration and succession of the forest habitat where they breed .
= = = Breeding = = =
Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock breed early in the year , and the females lay their eggs around March . During the height of mating season , males gather in leks with multiple males defending a social display arena of much greater area than that of a lone male . The males each have their own area on the forest floor where they make their courts . The size of each court is about 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter , and the next bird is often about 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) away . The females and males live separately ; only when it is time to mate do females fly over to observe and choose a male . When this occurs , the females tap the males from behind and insemination quickly follows . When females approach a lek , the males stand firmly and present themselves rigidly .
Mating success is dependent on a variety of factors that range from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself . In one study , the female Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock displayed sexual selection based off sequential comparisons or threshold standards . The hens engaged in a “ pool – comparison ” tactic , meaning that females chose males of higher rank in courtship . Males of higher rank were those with more matings received from other females ; the lower @-@ ranking single males were ignored . The rankings were determined by where the courts were positioned in the lek : courts that were more centrally placed indicated more successful and higher @-@ ranking males . The females in the study were individually observed to aggregate towards larger , more centrally concentrated leks , demonstrating active female choice .
= = = = Male mating behaviour = = = =
The smaller of the two cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock , the male Guianan takes the lesser part in breeding . It is polygynous and has nothing to do with nesting once mating is done . The male 's energy instead is devoted to very elaborate display rituals that show off its magnificent plumage . These displays take place in communal leks , where 40 or more males may gather to challenge rivals and beckon to the females .
The displaying male purposely contrasts itself from the forest , shows its crest and plumage so much that the bill and tail become obscured ; almost making it difficult to recognize as a bird , to attract females . Within the lek , each female has its own perch on a low branch , while the males own a " court " on the ground below that is cleared of dead leaves by the draughts of each male taking off and landing . The males have a variety of calls and movements , showing off the crest , elongated filaments on the rump , secondary feathers , and the snapping of their bills . Males display on branches about 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) from the ground until a female approaches , when the males display and call from individual plots on the ground . Most males copulate with only a few females . However , some are very successful and may copulate with many . Unlike many other bird species , the male does not use resources nor parental care to entice females .
Males often engage in courtship disruption practices . In a study conducted by Pepper W. Trail , the interactions between adult males , females , and yearlings were observed and linked to mate choice and male dispersion patterns within leks . Adult males produced this disruptive behaviour with varying intensity , which depended on the situation . In lower @-@ intensity disruptions , males usually directed their aggression or threats towards neighboring males , in attempts to improve or maintain breeding status and success . The males that were hassled tended to be more successful and often were disrupted with much greater frequency than males with lower mating success . Higher @-@ intensity disruptions were used by less successful males and directed towards females that wandered by . This behaviour is suggested to have the effect of redirecting females towards the hassling male . Yearlings often disrupted courtships of the more mature adults on the basis of practice for future courtships , since the yearlings do not possess any territory within the lek . Female disruption was an uncommon event that had little , if any , effect on the accessibility of a male . Young males of highly promiscuous species such as the Cock @-@ of @-@ the rock often failed to mate in their first year , probably because older , more experienced males will enjoy the majority of matings . In this strong system of sexual selection , the successive breeding of dominant and aggressive males leads to high sex drives and the endurance of polygyny . A theory suggests that the selection of these aggressive males also puts a premium , or value , on female characteristics . Hence , there is a less likely occurrence of female – elicited aggression .
= = = = Ecological consequences = = = =
One possible advantage to lek formation in Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is severe selection and consequent rapid evolutionary advancement , all of which is possible due to the high expendability of males . Only a few males are needed to fertilize the next generation . The courtship behaviour is similarly theorized to have arisen from differences in division of labour between the two sexes . Females expend their energy on building nests and rearing young , while males spend most of their time and energy of finding mates and caring for their plumage .
Because Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock form large leks , averaging 55 adult males , the males in these display leks were especially vulnerable to attacks and predation by large snakes and other natural predators . In manipulated groups of smaller size , around 6 , predation was less likely to occur , giving rise to an inverse relationship between the number and frequency of attacks and the size of leks . Thus , with a smaller frequency of attacks on the smaller group , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock males was less likely to spook or disperse completely as compared to a large group where a false alarm could trigger a complete flush out 90 % of the time . It was found that these birds have relatively ineffective methods of anti @-@ predation and that only social anti @-@ predation and the infrequency of encounters with predators were keeping these lekking males alive .
There is speculation that the simulation of male @-@ male competition is important in lek formation and breeding .
= = = Nesting = = =
Unlike other species of the family Cotingidae , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock makes its nest on rocky cliff faces and caves rather than in the trees . The female lays one or two eggs in the nest of mud and plant material , which is attached by saliva to a vertical rock . The male does not participate in the building of the nest or the incubation of the eggs . Eggs typically incubate for 27 – 28 days . The ideal nesting sites for this species are usually located in a cave or vertical rock face with crevices that provide some shelter and protection from the elements . The nests themselves are solid moldings formed from mud and plant material deposited into the crevices . Due to the solid nature of these nests , they typically persist from one breeding season to the next . Females will make repairs to their nests as a breeding season begins .
= = = Impact of natural and sexual selection on trait development = = =
The colouration of the males allows them to visibly stand out from the brown forest floor . This bright colouration provides a sexual advantage for the adult males , increasing their likelihood of successfully mating . The result is rapid evolutionary selection within the species for brighter plumage and more conspicuous behaviour patterns in the males . The bright colouration also makes the males more susceptible to predation . Males are more expendable for this reason ; only a small number of males are needed within any generation in order to perpetuate the species . While sexual selection leads to bright plumage , natural selection in turn favors defensive colouration in the birds . There is higher fitness in birds monitoring nests whose colouration acts as camouflage @-@ protection from predation .
= = Conservation = =
Fairly common in its large range , and with its population stable , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature to be a Least Concern on its red list of threatened species .
The main predators of the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are harpy eagles , black @-@ and @-@ white hawk @-@ eagles , black hawk @-@ eagles , and slaty @-@ backed forest falcons . Although these are the main predators , two species of owls , crested owls and spectacled owls , are also predators . Felines such as the jaguar , puma , and ocelot can also be predators , along with snakes such as the bird snake , tree boas , boa constrictor , tiger rat snake , and fer @-@ de @-@ lance .
The species is rare in captivity , but breeding has been achieved at a small number of facilities . The world 's first successful captive breeding was at Dallas World Aquarium ( USA ) in 2008 .
= = = Predation response = = =
In larger lek groups there is less risk of predation . In a group there are more individuals to alert the group about an approaching predator . All the birds in the groups will be vigilant in looking for a predator because there is an advantage to seeing the predator first . There is also the risk that in a bigger group there will more false alarm signals . The common signal is vocalization , after which the birds will fly up into the trees . It was found the birds did not however give this signal when there was a snake .
= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from October 26 , 2000 , to July 26 , 2003 , and consists of 20 episodes . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg , who also acted as the showrunner .
During the season 's run , SpongeBob SquarePants became Nickelodeon 's No. 2 children 's program , behind Rugrats . Nearly 40 percent of SpongeBob 's audience of 2 @.@ 2 million were aged 18 to 34 . The show signed a marketing deal with Target Corporation and Burger King , expanding its merchandising , and SpongeBob 's popularity translated well into sales figures . In 2002 , the show itself was nominated at the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children 's Program . At the 29th Annie Awards , the series was nominated three times . The episodes " The Secret Box " and " Band Geeks " won at the 2002 Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television — Animation , while the episodes " Jellyfish Hunter " and " The Fry Cook Games " received a nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Music category .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 2nd Season DVD was released in Region 1 on October 19 , 2004 , Region 2 on October 23 , 2006 , and Region 4 on November 30 , 2006 .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producer was series creator Stephen Hillenburg , who also functioned as the series ' showrunner . During production of the previous season , Nickelodeon picked up a second season for SpongeBob SquarePants on August 31 , 1999 . The season premiered more than a year later , on October 26 , 2000 . Season production assistant and then @-@ staff writer Derek Iversen commented , " We hoped it would go one season . We hoped it would go two seasons . I figured you do the best you can and you hope . "
In this season , production switched from cel animation , used during the first season , to digital ink and paint . Executive producer Paul Tibbitt , in 2009 , said " The first season of SpongeBob was done the old @-@ fashioned way on cells , and every cell had to be part @-@ painted , left to dry , paint some other colours . It 's still a time @-@ consuming aspect of the process now , but the digital way of doing things means it doesn 't take long to correct . " The animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the second season included Sean Dempsey , Edgar Larrazabal , Larry Leichliter , Andrew Overtoom , Leonard Robinson , Frank Weiss , and Tom Yasumi . The season was storyboarded by Walt Dohrn , C.H. Greenblatt , Chris Headrick , Chuck Klein , Carson Kugler , Jay Lender , Caleb Meurer , Dan Povenmire , William " Bill " Reiss , Octavio Rodriguez , Jim Schumann , Aaron Springer , Paul Tibbitt , and Erik Wiese .
Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Dohrn , David Fain , Greenblatt , Mr. Lawrence , Lender , Mark O 'Hare , Povenmire , William Reiss , Springer , Tibbitt , and Merriwether Williams . During the season , the writing staff used their individual childhood experiences as inspirations to come up with much of the story lines for individual episodes . For example , in the episode " Sailor Mouth " , SpongeBob learns profanity . The idea for the episode was inspired by creative director Derek Drymon 's experience " [ when ] I got in trouble for saying the f @-@ word in front of my mother . " Drymon said , " The scene where Patrick is running to Mr. Krabs to tattle , with SpongeBob chasing him , is pretty much how it happened in real life . " The end of the episode , where Mr. Krabs uses more profanity than SpongeBob and Patrick , was also inspired " by the fact that my [ Drymon 's ] mother has a sailor mouth herself . " In " Secret Box " , SpongeBob wants to see what is inside Patrick 's secret box . The idea came to Drymon because he too had a secret box as a child . Creator Hillenburg said , " [ He ] started telling us about it . We wanted to make fun of him and use it . "
= = Cast = =
The second season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
Season two introduced various characters that would recur throughout the series . Mr. Krabs ' mother , Mama Krabs , debuted in the episode " Sailor Mouth " and was voiced by writer Paul Tibbitt . However , voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt 's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode " Enemy In @-@ Law " in 2005 . In the Christmas special " Christmas Who ? " , SpongeBob 's voice actor , Tom Kenny , portrayed Patchy the Pirate , the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club , while series creator Hillenburg voiced the character of Potty the Parrot . After Hillenburg 's departure from the show as showrunner in 2004 , Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , musicians , and artists . American rock band Ween guest starred as themselves in " Your Shoe 's Untied " . The band performed " Loop de Loop " , a song they written for the episode . Before SpongeBob SquarePants aired on television in 1999 , Hillenburg had approached band guitarist Dean Ween to compose a song for the show . Dean Ween said " [ Hillenburg ] called me and told me [ he ] was a marine biologist who was starting a cartoon about underwater sea creatures and that The Mollusk was a big reference point for him creatively and would we like to do a song for the show . " The band conceived the song and wrote it in about three minutes . Ween 's 1997 song " Ocean Man " would also be used four years later during the end credits sequence in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , and as part of the film 's soundtrack . In the episode " Bossy Boots " , American band The Capsules performed the song " Bossy Boots " , which was later released on SpongeBob SquarePants : The Yellow Album in 2005 . In " Bubble Buddy " , professional American surfer Corky Carroll made a vocal cameo as Grubby Grouper , a famous surfer . It also stars Brad Abrell as titular character Bubble Buddy . " Grandma 's Kisses " features Marion Ross as SpongeBob 's grandmother . She would reprise her role throughout the series , including the fifth season episode " BlackJack " . In the entry " Pre @-@ Hibernation Week " , where Sandy and SpongeBob play extreme sporting games , American heavy metal band Pantera appeared as themselves for a special musical performance . McHale 's Navy actors Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned in the episode " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy III " , reprising their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . John Rhys @-@ Davies also guest starred in the same episode as the heroes ' nemesis , Man Ray . Various other characters were voiced by voice acting veterans Dee Bradley Baker , Thomas F. Wilson and Clea Lewis .
= = Reception = =
Since SpongeBob SquarePants made its debut in 1999 , the show had flourished into Nickelodeon 's number 2 children 's program , after Rugrats . Nearly 40 percent of the show 's audience of 2 @.@ 2 million were aged 18 to 34 . As a result , Nickelodeon moved the show from Saturday morning to a much more valuable timeslot : almost @-@ prime time , appearing at 6 PM , from Monday through Thursday . In 2001 , Nickelodeon took the " Saturday @-@ morning ratings crown " for the fourth straight season , grabbing a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 21 share ( 1 @.@ 9 million viewers ) in two- to eleven @-@ year @-@ olds , jumping 17 % from the previous year .
SpongeBob SquarePants signed a marketing deal with Target Corporation and Burger King , expanding its merchandising . Furthermore , the popularity of SpongeBob translated well into sales figures . In 2002 , SpongeBob SquarePants dolls sold at a rate of 75 @,@ 000 per week , which was faster than Tickle Me Elmo dolls were selling at the time . Nickelodeon 's parent company Viacom purposefully targeted women in Japan as a way of marketing the SpongeBob SquarePants brand . Skeptics initially doubted that SpongeBob could be popular in Japan , as the character 's design is very different from popular designs for Hello Kitty and Pikachu , but SpongeBob has gained popularity in Japan among women . Ratings and merchandise sales showed SpongeBob SquarePants had caught on with parents and with the college audience . In a recent promotion , college @-@ oriented website Music.com gave away 80 @,@ 000 SpongeBob T @-@ shirts , four times more than during a similar promotion for Comedy Central 's South Park .
The second season was well received by media critics . In 2002 , the show itself was nominated at the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children 's Program . At the 29th Annie Awards , the series was nominated three times , including Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female and Male Performer in an Animated Television Production categories for Mary Jo Catlett for her role as Mrs. Puff in " No Free Rides " and Tom Kenny for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in " Wormy " , respectively . Peter Straus and Paul Tibbitt were nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement for a Song in an Animated Production for their song " The Very First Christmas " that was featured in " Christmas Who ? " In 2002 , the episodes " The Secret Box " and " Band Geeks " won at the Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television — Animation , while the episodes " Jellyfish Hunter " and " The Fry Cook Games " received a nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Music category .
In his review for the The Spokesman @-@ Review , Isamu Jordan said , " I 'll be honest . I dig the little yellow dude who lives in a pineapple under the sea quite a bit for his absurdity À la Ren and Stimpy . " He said that " season two is worth having in your or your kid 's SpongeBob collection " given that the episodes " Krusty Love " , " Squid 's Day Off " , and " Mermaidman and Barnacleboy III " are on the set . Jason Bovberg of the DVD Talk wrote that the season release is " recommended . " He said " Let me state up front that I adore this show . I get a total kick out of watching it with my 4 @-@ year @-@ old daughter . We laugh uproariously at SpongeBob 's adventures and I 'm helplessly reduced to a boy about her age as I beam and giggle at the screen . " However , Bovberg called the included audio commentaries " downright boring . " Various celebrities — including Lance Bass of ' N Sync , Will Ferrell of Saturday Night Live , singer @-@ songwriter Tom Waits , and Jerry Lewis — admitted they were fans of the show .
During the 2001 – 02 television season , the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) , a watchdog media group , named SpongeBob SquarePants among the best programs on cable television . However , according to a report titled Wolves in Sheep 's Clothing , which documents the increase in potentially violent , profane , and sexual content in children 's programming , the PTC and fans believed the episode " Sailor Mouth " , which originally aired during the 2001 – 02 season , was an implicit attempt to promote and satirize use of profanity among children . The report cited a repeat broadcast of the episode from 2005 to prove its point that it promoted use of profanity among children . In a later report , several members of the PTC listed " Sailor Mouth " as an example of how levels of profane , sexual , and violent activity has increased in children 's television programming . Nickelodeon , in response to the incident , said " It 's sad and a little desperate that they stooped to literally putting profane language in the mouths of our characters to make a point . Has the FCC looked at this ? " Richard Huff of the New York Daily News criticized the report for misinterpreting the episode over its intent to satirize profanity implicitly .
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD boxset for season two was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in October 2004 , almost two years after the season had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials including audio commentaries , storyboards , and featurettes . In 2005 , the DVD compilation was nominated at the 9th Golden Satellite Awards for Best Youth DVD , although did not win .
= 23rd Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 23rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was raised in 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force for service during World War I and formed part of the 6th Brigade , attached to the 2nd Division . After being formed in Australia , the battalion was sent to Egypt to complete its training , before being committed to the Gallipoli Campaign as reinforcements in September 1915 . They remained on the peninsula until the evacuation of Allied troops in December , when they were withdrawn back to Egypt where they were reorganised before being transferred to the Western Front in March 1916 . Over the course of the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , the 23rd took part in a number of significant battles in France and Belgium , before being disbanded in mid @-@ 1919 following the conclusion of hostilities . In 1921 , the battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit within the Citizens Forces in the state of Victoria , but was amalgamated with the 21st Battalion in 1929 to form the 23rd / 21st Battalion .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
The 23rd Battalion was raised in Victoria in March 1915 as part of the formation of the 2nd Division of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Morton . Together with the 21st , 22nd and 24th Battalions , it formed the 6th Brigade under the command of Colonel Richard Linton . Organised into four rifle companies , designated ' A ' through to ' D ' , with a machine gun section in support , the Australian infantry battalion of the time had an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men of all ranks . After completing initial training at Broadmeadows , in May 1915 the 23rd embarked upon the troopship Euripides bound for Egypt . They arrived in Alexandria on 11 June and after being moved by train to Cairo they marched to a camp at Heliopolis where they undertook further training in preparation for deployment to Gallipoli , where the units of the 1st Division had landed on 25 April 1915 .
= = = = Gallipoli = = = =
While they were training , the Allies launched the August Offensive in an attempt to break the deadlock that had developed on the Gallipoli Peninsula following the initial landing . The offensive largely failed and heavy casualties resulted . In order to replace the men that were lost and give the survivors a rest , the decision was made by Allied commanders to move the 2nd Division from Egypt . After being moved to Lemnos Island , the 23rd Battalion embarked for Gallipoli on 4 September , arriving there at 9 : 30 pm that evening . A day of familiarisation followed before the battalion took up defensive positions at Lone Pine . On 12 September , the 23rd , along with their sister battalion , the 24th , took over responsibility for the post from the 1st Division battalions that had held it previously . During the stalemate that followed , manning positions that , in some places , were only a few metres from the Ottoman lines , the 23rd Battalion began countermining operations after Turkish mining operations were discovered . For the next three months , due to the intensity of the fighting in the sector , the battalion alternated their position with the 24th Battalion almost every day until the evacuation of Allied troops from the peninsula occurred , embarking with the last troops to leave on the night of 19 / 20 December 1915 .
Following their withdrawal from Gallipoli , the 23rd Battalion was moved to Lemnos Island , where they remained until January 1916 when they were transferred back to Egypt . At this time , the AIF was reorganised and expanded in preparation for future operations . Two new infantry divisions were formed from the experienced troops of the 1st Division who had deployed to Gallipoli at the start of the campaign , while a third division was raised in Australia from scratch . The 2nd Division was largely left untouched , so that it could complete its formation which had been interrupted by its deployment to Gallipoli . The 23rd subsequently spent the early months of 1916 rebuilding its strength and conducting further training in preparation for its transfer to Europe .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
After arriving in France in March , the battalion moved to the Western Front , occupying the forward positions around Armentières in northern France on 10 April 1916 . In mid @-@ July , the battalion was transferred to the Somme , where they subsequently took part in the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm , during which they suffered almost 90 per cent casualties . In early 1917 , the Germans shortened their lines and withdrew to the Hindenburg Line and the Australian divisions in the Somme were ordered to carry out an advance to follow them up . After being reinforced , the 23rd Battalion was committed to the fighting at the Second Battle of Bullecourt in early May 1917 after the first attempt to capture the town by the 4th Australian Division failed . Succeeding in capturing all its objectives , it was heavily counter @-@ attacked by German forces , suffering a large number of casualties , including 100 men killed or died of wounds before being relieved by the Australian 3rd Battalion . After this the battalion was withdrawn from the line until early September 1917 when they moved into positions around Ypres , Belgium , and participated in the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October . During this battle , the 6th Brigade was positioned to the south of Zonnebeke Lake , and the 23rd Battalion lost three officers and 101 other ranks killed or wounded , some of which were inflicted when an intense German mortar barrage fell upon their " waiting line " prior to the attack . Nevertheless , the attack which followed , after overcoming an encounter with a German regiment , the 212th , in no man 's land , resulted in success as the Australians captured the ridge .
In early 1918 , Russian resistance on the Eastern Front collapsed in the wake of the October Revolution and , as a result , the Germans were able to transfer a large number of troops to the Western Front . This greatly improved the German strength in the west and , as a result , in March , they launched their Spring Offensive . With the Germans making rapid gains , many Australian units , including the 23rd Battalion , were thrown into the line to blunt the attack in early April , as the 6th Brigade relieved the 12th around Dernancourt . After the German offensive was halted , a brief lull followed during which the Allies sought to regain the initiative , launching a series of " Peaceful Penetration " operations . Following this , the 23rd participated in the fighting at Hamel on 4 July , advancing as the right @-@ hand battalion on the southern front behind a devastatingly accurate preparatory barrage . On 8 August 1918 , the 23rd joined the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , which was launched at Amiens , and was followed by a series of advances followed as the Allies began advancing through the Somme . For his actions during the fighting at Mont St. Quentin in early September , one of the battalion 's soldiers , Private Robert Mactier , was awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously . After participating in the Battle of Beaurevoir between 3 and 4 October , the battalion was sent to the rear for rest when the units of the Australian Corps , severely depleted , were withdrawn from the line upon the insistence of the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes . As a result , it took no further part in the fighting before the armistice was declared on 11 November .
Following the end of hostilities , the demobilisation process began and slowly the battalion 's numbers began to dwindle as its personnel were repatriated back to Australia and returned to civilian life . The 23rd Battalion was disbanded in Belgium on 30 April 1919 . Throughout its service during the war , it suffered 686 killed and 2 @,@ 317 wounded ( including gassed ) . For its involvement during the war , the 23rd Battalion received a total of 19 battle honours ; these were bestowed upon the battalion in 1927 .
= = = Re @-@ raising and subsequent amalgamation = = =
In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by re @-@ organising the units of the Citizens Forces to adopt the numerical designations of the AIF units with which they were affiliated . As a result of this decision , the 23rd Battalion was re @-@ raised in Victoria , drawing personnel from the 2nd and 5th Battalions , 23rd Infantry Regiment , and part of the 29th Light Horse Regiment , and perpetuating the battle honours of its AIF predecessor . It later adopted the title of the " 23rd Battalion ( The City of Geelong Regiment ) " when territorial titles were introduced in 1927 . At the same time it was granted the motto Nulli Secundus . In 1928 , the battalion was part of the 2nd Brigade , within the 3rd Military District .
Initially , the Citizen Forces units were maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service , but in late 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and this , coupled with the economic privations of the Great Depression drastically reduced the number of recruits available . As a result , the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . The 23rd Battalion was one of those chosen and it was linked with the 21st Battalion to become the 23rd / 21st Battalion , adopting the territorial designation of " The City of Geelong Regiment / The Victoria Rangers " . This battalion undertook garrison duties in the Northern Territory during World War II , before being disbanded in August 1943 as being surplus to Army requirements without having served overseas . After the war , following the demobilisation of the wartime Army , Australia 's part @-@ time military was re @-@ formed in 1948 , but the 23rd Battalion was not re @-@ raised at the time . In 1961 , although the battalion was in a state of suspended animation , it was entrusted with the 13 battle honours awarded to the 2 / 23rd Battalion for its service in North Africa and New Guinea during World War II .
= = Commanding officers = =
During World War I , the following officers served as commanding officer of the 23rd Battalion :
George Frederick Morton ;
George Hodges Knox ;
Wilfred Kent Fethers ;
William Brazenor ;
William Joseph Bateman .
= = Battle honours = =
The 23rd Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
World War I : Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 , Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bapaume 1917 , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Hamel , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Mont St Quentin , Hindenburg Line , Beaurevoir , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 .
World War II : North Africa 1941 – 42 , Defence of Tobruk , The Salient 1941 , Defence of Alamein Line , El Alamein , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Lae – Nadzab , Finschhafen , Borneo , Busu River , Sattelberg , Wareo and Tarakan ( inherited ) .
= Their Child =
Their Child is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film begins with Ellen Stokes whose extravagant lifestyle is outside the means of the family . While their only son is hosting a birthday party , the husband informs Ellen that they are financially ruined because of her . Ellen attempts to get money from her uncle , who refuses , and a friend of the family soon comes to her aid with a loan . Ellen is deceptive in telling who provided the money and her jealous husband soon learns the truth . In anger , he takes the child and leaves . The child soon returns to Ellen and she whisks him away to a new home where she fails to obtain gainful employment . The son decides to sell newspapers for some money and in this job is recognized by his father , soon the family is reunited . Marie Eline played the role of " their child " and was likely so well disguised that the reviewer for The Nickelodeon believed her to be a boy . The film was released on October 21 , 1910 , and was met with positive reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22 , 1910 . It states : " Ellen Stokes is a loving wife and mother , but she has one fault - extravagance . On the day that her only child is playing the host at a birthday party , Ellen 's husband informs her that he is practically ruined , and places the fault at her door . Ellen , conscience stricken , declares that she will aid her husband , and tells him that she will induce her rich uncle to aid them . When she talks to him on the subject , she finds that he is not disposed to aid her . Soon after his refusal , a friend of the family drops in , finds Ellen in tears , learns of her trouble , and offers a loan which she finally accepts . The woman 's husband is of a jealous nature and when Ellen gives him the money , he asks if it came from the other man . She hastily denies it , and says that her uncle was the one . The husband takes the money , and later finds that his wife has deceived him . In anger he leaves the house , taking their only child with him . "
" When Ellen finds that she has been deserted , she listens to the pleadings of the other man and is about to elope with him , when the baby , Tom , unexpectedly appears . He has run away from his father , and trudged through the streets , alone , to rejoin his mother . The woman clasped her child in her arms and decides to live for him in the future . The mother takes her child to humble lodgings , the whereabouts of which are unknown even to her husband . There she tries to make a living for herself and him by sewing , but is unable to do so . She has given the last crust of bread to the little one , and is herself in a starving condition , when the baby boy himself comes to the rescue by starting out on a business career , selling papers in the street . In this way the wolf is kept from the door for a little while longer , and the little fellow , while applying his trade on the street corner , is met and recognized by his father . With his son as his guide , the repentant husband , who now realizes his unjust action , goes to his wife , and with the baby as a mediator , the two become reconciled . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only known credit is for Marie Eline in the role of " their child " . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying most of the actors in the film .
It seems that Marie Eline was so well @-@ disguised as a boy that the reviewer for The Nickelodeon was unable to recognize her true gender . The reviewer state " the meeting between the father and his newsboy child also has a touch of originality " and " [ t ] he child is a fine little actor , easily making himself the star of the piece . " Though this was not lost on the reviewer for The New York Dramatic Mirror which stated , " The work of the little girl who plays the leading role in this film is a constant wonder to spectators . " Eline had proven herself capable of handling male characters , with the first such credit as a young Italian boy in The Two Roses . Eline would also star as Hans in The Little Hero of Holland .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 21 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with theaters showing the film in Maryland , Pennsylvania , South Dakota , Indiana , and Kansas . In 1917 , years after its release , it was later approved by the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures for viewing without modification .
The film was reviewed positively by the trade publications . The Moving Picture World stated , " The dramatic qualities of this film are high , but the subject is somewhat depressing ... Maybe the picture will teach the lesson that it is better to listen to explanations at first and save all those intervening years of sorrow and suffering . It ought to , at any rate , because that story is plainly wrought out and is apparent as it is possible to make it . " A review in The Nickelodeon offered little more than a summary of the film , but the reviewer found the subject to be enhanced by the attention to detail in the production . The reviewer was also pleased that the child was not brought in to serve as in deus ex machina role . Though Lonergan was fond of using the technique . Even The New York Dramatic Mirror gave some praise to the production , but noted that the acting of the mother 's friend was the weakest because " [ a ] man of his [ caliber ] wouldn 't have backed off so quickly . " Overall , the reviewer found the acting to be better than the narrative itself and concluded that " [ s ] omething less laboredly sentimental would be much stronger . "
= Victoria Cross for New Zealand =
The Victoria Cross for New Zealand ( VC ) is a military decoration awarded for valour or gallantry in the presence of the enemy to members of the New Zealand Armed Forces . It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service and civilians under military command , and is presented to the recipient by the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand during an investiture held at Government House , Wellington . As the highest award for gallantry in New Zealand it takes precedence over all other postnominals and medals .
The Victoria Cross for New Zealand was established in 1999 when New Zealand created a new award system that replaced several Commonwealth honours with New Zealand awards . It has been awarded once , on 2 July 2007 to Corporal Willie Apiata for actions in 2004 .
The original Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 by Queen Victoria to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War . That medal had been awarded 25 times to 24 individual military personnel from New Zealand ; Captain Charles Upham receiving a bar . Only 14 medals have been awarded since the end of the Second World War . The medal is made from the gunmetal of a weapon supposedly captured at the siege of Sevastopol , but several historians have since questioned the true origin of the gunmetal . Originally all Commonwealth recipients were issued with the same award , but over the last 50 years , Commonwealth countries have introduced separate award systems ; three of these retain " Victoria Cross " as part of the name of the highest award for gallantry .
= = Origin = =
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
The original Victoria Cross was created by Queen Victoria in 1856 to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a man 's lengthy or meritorious service . She signed a Royal Warrant on 29 January 1856 that officially instituted the VC . The order was retroactive to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War .
The Australian and New Zealand Victoria Crosses are made from the same gunmetal as the originals . It was originally intended that the VCs would be cast from the bronze cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the siege of Sevastopol . The historian John Glanfield has since shown that the metal used for VCs is in fact from Chinese cannon not Russian , and their origin is a mystery .
The barrels of the cannon in question are stationed outside the Officers ' Mess at the Royal Artillery Barracks at Woolwich . The remaining portion of the only remaining cascabel , weighing 10 kilograms ( 385 oz ) , is stored in a vault maintained by 15 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps at MoD Donnington . It can only be removed under armed guard . It is estimated that approximately 80 to 85 more VCs could be cast from this source . A single company of jewellers , Hancocks of London , has been responsible for the production of every VC .
= = = Separate Commonwealth awards = = =
In the last 60 years several Commonwealth countries have introduced their own honours systems , separate from the British Honours System . Australia , Canada and New Zealand have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery , replacing British decorations such as the Military Cross with their own awards . Most Commonwealth countries , however , still recognise some form of the VC as their highest decoration for valour .
Australia was the first Commonwealth nation to create its own VC , on 15 January 1991 . Although it is a separate award , its appearance is identical to its British counterpart . Canada followed suit when in 1993 Queen Elizabeth signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian VC , which is also similar to the British version , except that the legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE . The New Zealand and Australian awards are still made by the jewellers Hancocks from the gunmetal used for the originals . The Canadian Victoria Cross also includes metal from the same cannon , along with copper and other metals from all regions of Canada .
New Zealand was the third country to create the VC as part of its own honours system . On 21 September 1999 , Prime Minister Jenny Shipley announced that the Queen had approved the formal institution of a new range of Royal awards to recognise acts of gallantry and bravery performed by New Zealanders . The awards were designed to be the final major element in the development of a distinct New Zealand Royal honours system .
The start of the process came with proposals released in 1995 by the Honours Advisory Committee that reviewed the honours system . Until May 1996 , New Zealand made recommendations for various British awards for acts of gallantry performed during military operations and acts of bravery by civilians including the Victoria Cross and George Cross . However , the British Government 's review and simplification of their awards system provided an ideal opportunity for New Zealand to also develop a unique and simplified system .
= = Appearance = =
The Victoria Cross for New Zealand is identical to the original design . The decoration is a cross pattée , 41 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high , 36 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide , bearing a crown surmounted by a lion , and the inscription FOR VALOUR . This was originally to have been FOR BRAVERY , until it was changed on the recommendation of Queen Victoria , who thought some might erroneously consider that only the recipients of the VC were brave in battle . The decoration , suspension bar and link weigh about 27 grams ( 0 @.@ 87 troy ounces ) .
The cross is suspended by a ring from a seriffed " V " to a bar ornamented with laurel leaves , through which the ribbon passes . The reverse of the suspension bar is engraved with the recipient 's name , rank , number and unit . On the reverse of the medal is a circular panel on which the date of the act for which it was awarded is engraved in the centre . The ribbon is crimson , 38 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 inches ) wide . Although the warrants state the colour as being red it is described by most commentators as being crimson or " wine @-@ red " .
= = Conferment = =
The Victoria Cross for New Zealand is awarded for
The power of awarding the medal officially resides with the Queen of New Zealand . The Royal Warrant states that the " Awards of a New Zealand Gallantry Award and of a Bar to an Award shall be made by Us , Our Heirs and Successors , only on a recommendation by Our Prime Minister of New Zealand or a Minister of the Crown acting for Our Prime Minister . " As with the original Victoria Cross any recommendations pass through the New Zealand Defence Force chain of command to the Minister of Defence .
The original Victoria Cross had been awarded to 24 New Zealanders . Thirteen of these awards were for action in the First World War . The Victoria Cross for New Zealand has been awarded once . It was officially announced on 2 July 2007 that Corporal Willie Apiata of the NZ SAS was awarded the Victoria Cross for New Zealand for his actions in saving the life of a " comrade under heavy fire from opposing forces " during the Afghanistan conflict in 2004 . Apiata received his medal from Governor @-@ General Anand Satyanand at a ceremony held at Government House , Wellington on 26 July 2007 .
= 1999 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado =
The 1999 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado ( locally referred to as the May 3rd tornado ) was an extremely powerful F5 tornado in which the highest wind speeds ever measured globally , 301 miles per hour ( 484 km / h ) , were recorded by a Doppler on Wheels ( DOW ) radar . The tornado devastated southern portions of Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , along with surrounding suburbs and towns during the early evening of May 3 , 1999 . Throughout its 85 @-@ minute existence , the tornado covered 38 miles ( 61 km ) , destroying thousands of homes , killing 36 people ( plus an additional five indirectly ) , and leaving US $ 1 billion in damage , ranking it as the fifth @-@ costliest on record , not accounting for inflation .
The tornado first touched down at 6 : 23 p.m. Central Daylight Time ( CDT ) in Grady County , roughly two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ southwest of Amber . It quickly intensified into a violent F4 , and gradually reached F5 status after traveling 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) , at which time it struck the community of Bridge Creek . Once it moved through the unincorporated community , it fluctuated in strength , ranging from F2 to F5 status before it crossed into Cleveland County . Not long after entering the county , it reached F5 intensity for a third time as it moved through the city of Moore . By 7 : 30 p.m. CDT , the tornado crossed into Oklahoma County and battered southeastern Oklahoma City , Del City and Midwest City , before dissipating around 7 : 48 p.m. CDT just outside Midwest City . In terms of structural losses , a total of 8 @,@ 132 homes , 1 @,@ 041 apartments , 260 businesses , 11 public buildings and seven churches were damaged or destroyed .
In the wake of the tornado , large @-@ scale search and rescue operations took place in the affected areas . A major disaster declaration was signed by President Bill Clinton the following day ( May 4 ) , allowing for the state to receive federal aid . In the following months , disaster aid amounted to $ 67 @.@ 8 million . In light of the fatalities that occurred under highway overpasses , the notion of them being safe areas to seek shelter was dismissed , and they were from then on considered to be one of the most dangerous places to be during a tornado . Reconstruction projects in subsequent years led to a safer , tornado @-@ ready community . In May 2013 , similar areas adjacent to the 1999 storm 's track were again devastated by an EF5 tornado , resulting in 24 fatalities and extreme damage in Moore .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
The Bridge Creek – Moore tornado was part of a much larger outbreak , which spawned 71 tornadoes across five states throughout the Central Plains on May 3 alone , along with an additional 25 that touched down on May 4 in some of the areas affected by the previous day 's activity ( some of which were spawned supercells that developed on the evening of May 3 ) , stretching eastward to the Mississippi River Valley . On the morning of May 3 , in its Day 1 Convective Outlook for the United States , the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) issued a slight risk for severe weather , as a dry line that stretched from western Kansas into western Texas approached a warm , humid air @-@ mass over the Central Plains ; the conditions ahead of the dry line and a connecting trough positioned over northeastern Colorado appeared to favor the development of thunderstorms later that day that would contain large hail , damaging straight @-@ line winds and isolated tornadoes .
Forecasters at the SPC initially underestimated the atmospheric conditions that would support tornadic development that afternoon and evening ; around 4 : 00 a.m. CDT , Doppler radar and wind profile data indicated a 90 @-@ knot ( 100 mph ) jet streak along the border of California and Nevada , with weather balloon soundings sent up the previous evening by National Weather Service offices in the western United States and numerical computer model data failing to detect the fast @-@ moving air current as it moved ashore from the Pacific Ocean . In addition , the dry line was diffused , with surface winds behind and ahead of the boundary moving into the region from a southerly direction . SPC meteorologists began to recalculate model data during the morning to account for the stronger wind profiles caused by the jet streak ; the data acknowledged that thunderstorms would occur within the Central Plains , but disagreed on the exact area of greatest severe weather risk .
By 7 : 00 a.m. Central Daylight Time , CAPE values began exceeding 4 @,@ 000 j / kg , a level which climatologically favors the development of severe thunderstorms . Despite conflicting model data on the specified area where thunderstorms would develop , the newly available information that denoted a more favorable severe thunderstorm setup in that part of the state prompted the SPC to upgrade the forecasted threat of severe weather to a moderate risk for south @-@ central Kansas , much of the western two @-@ thirds of Oklahoma , and northwestern and north @-@ central Texas at 11 : 15 a.m. CDT that morning , which now indicated an elevated threat of strong tornadoes .
By the early afternoon hours , forecasters at both the SPC and the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman , Oklahoma realized that a major event was likely to take place based solely on observational data from radar and weather satellite imagery and balloon soundings , as the computer models remained uncooperative in helping meteorologists determine where the greatest threat of severe storms would occur .
Conditions became highly conducive for tornadic development by 1 : 00 p.m. CDT as wind shear intensified over the region ( as confirmed by an unscheduled balloon sounding flight conducted by the NWS Norman office ) , creating a highly unstable atmosphere . The sounding balloon recorded winds blowing southwesterly ( at 20 mph ( 17 kn ) and 50 mph ( 43 kn ) , respectively ) at the surface and at the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) level , southerly winds of 40 mph ( 35 kn ) at 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and westerly winds of 20 mph ( 17 kn ) at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) ; it also indicated that a capping inversion over the region was weakening in southwestern Oklahoma and north Texas ; with the warm air above the surface cooling down , this allowed warm air at the surface the chance to rise and potentially create thunderstorms . Although cirrus clouds − a bank of which had developed in west Texas and overspread portions of Oklahoma later in the morning − were present through much of the day , an area of clearing skies over western north Texas and southwestern Oklahoma early that afternoon allowed for the sun to heat up the moisture @-@ laden region , creating significant atmospheric instability .
At 3 : 49 p.m. CDT , a high risk of severe weather was issued by the Storm Prediction Center for much of central Oklahoma . Within 25 minutes of this , the National Weather Service office in Norman issued a severe thunderstorm warning for Comanche County by 4 : 15 p.m. CDT late that afternoon , as the first storm of the event rapidly intensified . A half @-@ hour later at 4 : 45 p.m. CDT , the Storm Prediction Center issued a tornado watch for western and central Oklahoma , for the threat of tornadoes , hail up to 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) in diameter and wind gusts to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
= = Storm development and track = =
The thunderstorm that eventually spawned the F5 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado formed around 3 : 30 p.m. CDT over Tillman County . Despite the lack of overall lift prevalent in the region , the storm formed out of a contrail @-@ like horizontal area of convective clouds that developed during peak surface heating over southwestern Oklahoma , located well ahead of the dry line still positioned farther to the west , which provided enhanced lift and speed shear necessary to develop the supercell . Tracking northeast , the storm strengthened and entered Comanche County shortly after 4 : 00 p.m. CDT ; there , hail up to 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 cm ) in diameter fell .
As the rotation in the supercell began to rapidly increase at the cloud base , a tornado warning was issued for Comanche , Caddo and Grady Counties at 4 : 50 p.m. CDT ; at 4 : 51 p.m. , a small tornado roughly 25 yards ( 75 ft ) in diameter − the first of 14 associated with supercell " A " ( the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman designated lettered names for the three tornado @-@ producing supercells in the outbreak in storm surveys ) − touched down along U.S. Route 62 , seven miles ( 11 km ) east @-@ northeast of Medicine Park . Five more tornadoes touched down as the storm continued northeast ; the sixth touchdown was an F3 , which caused substantial damage in central Grady County , including at Chickasha Municipal Airport , where the roofs were torn off of two hangars . At 6 : 23 p.m. CDT , the ninth tornado associated with supercell " A " touched down about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ southwest of Amber .
That tornado quickly intensified as it crossed Oklahoma State Highway 92 , attaining F4 strength about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ northeast of Amber . Damage consistent with this rating was sustained over the following 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) of the path before striking Bridge Creek . There , it attained the highest @-@ possible rating on the Fujita Scale , F5 . Damage in this area was extreme , as many homes were completely swept away , leaving only concrete slabs where the structures once were . Damage surveyors noted that the remaining structural debris from some of the homes in this area was finely granulated into small fragments , and that trees and shrubs were completely debarked . A few of these homes were bolted to their foundations . Extensive ground scouring occurred , and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards from where they originated , including a mangled pickup truck that was found wrapped around a telephone pole . It was in this area that a mobile Doppler weather radar recorded winds of 301 mph ( 484 km / h ) within the tornado , the highest wind speed ever recorded on Earth . However , since the record for maximum winds are reported from only non @-@ tornadic events , the 253 mph ( 407 km / h ) wind gust from Cyclone Olivia in 1996 retained the title . About 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of asphalt was scoured off of a road in this area by the violent tornado . Approximately 200 mobile homes / houses were destroyed , and hundreds of other structures were damaged . The Ridgecrest Baptist Church in Bridge Creek was also destroyed . Twelve people died in Bridge Creek , nine of whom were in mobile homes ; all fatalities and the majority of injuries were concentrated in the Willow Lake Addition , Southern Hills Addition , and Bridge Creek Estates , consisting mostly of mobile homes . 39 people were injured in the area as well . Continuing northeastward , the tornado briefly weakened to F4 status before re @-@ strengthening to F5 intensity as it neared the Grady @-@ McClain County line , where a car was thrown roughly 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) , and a well @-@ built home with anchor bolts was reduced to a bare slab . At this time , it had attained a width of one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) .
Around 6 : 57 p.m. CDT , the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman issued the first @-@ ever tornado emergency for southern portions of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area , which was released as a standalone weather statement ( instead of within a newly issued or a Special Weather Statement on an existing tornado warning , as became usual afterward ) . David Andra , a meteorologist at the NWS Norman office , said that he drafted the enhanced warning statement to " paint the picture that a rare and deadly tornado was imminent in the metro area . "
Paralleling Interstate 44 , the tornado moved into McClain County , where it crossed the highway twice at F4 intensity , killing a woman as she was blown out from an underpass where she was attempting to seek shelter , after being dragged down the embankment by the intense channeling winds ; her 11 @-@ year @-@ old son − with whom the woman vacated their stalled car nearby − survived , staying held tight onto the steel girders of the overpass . A man who helped the mother and son up the overpass suffered severe injuries to his leg , which was partially sliced by a highway sign thrown by the winds . At 7 : 10 p.m. CDT , a satellite tornado touched down over an open field north of Newcastle ; it was rated as an F0 due to lack of damage . 38 homes and two businesses were destroyed in McClain County , and 40 homes were damaged . Some of the homes were leveled at F4 intensity , and 17 people were injured .
After crossing the Canadian River , the tornado entered Cleveland County and weakened to F2 intensity . By this time , it had entered the southern reaches of the Oklahoma City limits . Several minutes after entering the county , it re @-@ attained F4 status , and then moved directly into the city of Moore , where the tornado reached F5 intensity for a third time . Some of the most severe damage took place in Cleveland County , especially in the city of Moore , where 11 people were killed and 293 others were injured . The tornado caused an estimated $ 450 million in damage across the county . The first area impacted in Moore was the Country Place Estates subdivision , where 50 homes were damaged and one was completely swept away at F5 intensity , with only the foundation remaining . Several vehicles were picked up and tossed nearly 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) . According to local police , an airplane wing , believed to have been from an airport in Grady County , was found near Country Place Estates . Next , the powerful tornado struck the densely populated Eastlake Estates at F5 intensity , killing three people and reducing entire rows of homes to rubble . In one instance , four adjacent homes were completely destroyed , with only concrete slabs remaining , warranting an F5 rating at that location . Three other homes in this housing division also received F5 damage , with the remaining destruction rated high @-@ end F4 . Severe debarking of trees was noted in this area . At the Emerald Springs Apartments , three more people were killed and a two @-@ story apartment building was mostly flattened .
As it entered Cleveland County , the National Weather Service and Storm Prediction Center activated emergency procedures , preparing to evacuate staff and others present at the facility in the event that the supercell should turn right , placing areas surrounding the Norman campus in the tornado 's path ( under NOAA protocol in situations posing a danger to personnel at local Weather Forecast Offices and related guidance centers , responsibility over the issuance of warnings and statements on the unfolding outbreak would have been transferred to the nearest NWS Forecast Office , based in Tulsa , while the SPC 's forecasting responsibilities would be turned over to the 557th Weather Wing at Offutt Air Force Base ) . The supercell , however , continued on a northeastward track , sparing the Norman area .
Safety precautions were also enacted elsewhere in and near the storm 's path ; council members and citizens at Moore City Hall − where a council meeting was scheduled to be held that evening − sheltered in place in the building 's first @-@ floor restrooms , away from the multiple large @-@ pane windows at its facade . In downtown Oklahoma City , spectators attending sporting events being held that evening involving two of the city 's minor league teams – a regular season baseball game between the Oklahoma RedHawks and Memphis Redbirds ( which was suspended during the second inning ) and Game 2 of the Ray Miron President 's Cup series between the Oklahoma City Blazers and the Huntsville Channel Cats – were also evacuated to shelter in an underground storage area connected to the Southwestern Bell Bricktown Ballpark and Myriad Convention Center amid concerns that the storm would jog northward and place Oklahoma City itself in the tornado 's path . Flights were grounded at Will Rogers World Airport as the northern edge of the supercell approached the area ; the tornado turned right , away from southwestern parts of the city proper , shortly before airport officials began evacuating employees and visitors at the terminals . Traffic on Interstate 35 in south Oklahoma City and north Moore became backed up for several miles , as drivers evacuated from their vehicles to seek shelter under an overpass overlooking South Shields Boulevard .
Just outside the Eastlake Estates , an honors ceremony was being held at Westmoore High School at the time of the tornado ; however , adequate warning time allowed those at the school to seek shelter ; more than 400 adults and children attending the awards ceremony at the school 's auditorium were moved to the main building , sheltering in reinforced hallways and bathrooms . Ultimately , Westmoore High sustained heavy damage and dozens of cars in the parking lot were tossed around , some of which were completely destroyed or thrown into nearby homes . No injures took place at the school , though a horse was found dead between a couple of destroyed cars in this area . The tornado proceeded through additional densely populated areas of Moore shortly thereafter , where several large groups of homes were flattened in residential areas , with a mixture of high @-@ end F4 and low @-@ end F5 damage noted . Near Janeway Avenue , four people were killed in an area where multiple homes were completely destroyed . A woman , who took shelter with her husband and two children , was also killed when she was blown out from under the Shields overpass on Interstate 35 . The tornado weakened somewhat as it moved through the Highland Park neighborhood of Moore , but still caused widespread F3 and F4 damage .
The tornado then entered Oklahoma County and struck the southeast fringes of Oklahoma City , where it re @-@ intensified to high @-@ end F4 strength and two people were killed as a trucking company was completely destroyed . Shortly before it tracked into the county , patrons and employees at Crossroads Mall were evacuated to storage areas in the basement of the building . Numerous industrial buildings were leveled in this area of the city . A freight car , weighing 36 @,@ 000 lb ( 16 @,@ 000 kg ) was thrown 0 @.@ 75 mi ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) . The car bounced as it traveled , remaining airborne for 50 to 100 yd ( 46 to 91 m ) at a time . Multiple homes were also completely destroyed in southeast Oklahoma City , and one woman was killed in that area . Crossing Southeast 44th Street into Del City , the tornado moved through the highly populated Del Aire housing addition , killing six people and damaging or destroying hundreds of homes , with many sustaining F3 to F4 damage . Seven people were killed as a direct result of the tornado in Del City , and hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed .
The tornado then crossed Sooner Road , damaged an entry gate and several buildings at Tinker Air Force Base , then crossed 29th Street into Midwest City , destroying one building at the Boeing Complex and damaging two others . Widespread F3 / F4 damage continued as the tornado moved across Interstate 40 , affecting a large business district . Approximately 800 vehicles were damaged at Hudiburg Auto Group , located just south of Interstate 40 . Hundreds of vehicles at the dealership were moved from their original location on the lot , and dozens of vehicles ( including 30 awaiting tune @-@ ups or repairs at Morris ' Auto Machine and Supply , and an unoccupied Mid @-@ Del School District bus ) were picked up and tossed northward across the interstate into several motels , a distance of approximately two @-@ tenths of a mile . Numerous motels and other businesses including Hampton Inn , Comfort Inn , Inn Suites , Clarion Inn , Cracker Barrel , and portions of Rose State College , were destroyed . Some of the damage through this area was rated high @-@ end F4 , however low @-@ end F5 was considered . The tornado then continued into another residential area located between Southeast 15th and Reno Avenue , where three fatalities occurred . Damage consistent with high @-@ end F4 wind speeds was inflicted to four homes in this area . Two of these homes were located between Southeast 11th and 12th Streets , near Buena Vista , and the other two homes were located on Will Rogers Road , just south of Southeast 15th . Damage then diminished rapidly to F0 / F1 strength as the tornado crossed Reno Avenue , before dissipating three blocks north of Reno , between Sooner Road and Air Depot Boulevard . Throughout Oklahoma County , 12 people were killed and 234 others were injured while losses amounted to $ 450 million .
= = Impact and casualties = =
Throughout the tornado 's path , 36 people were killed as a direct result of the storm and five more died of indirect causes in the hours following it ( most of the indirect deaths were due to heart attacks or injuries suffered while trying to seek shelter ; however , one survivor , who was uninsured , died from a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound ) . According to the Oklahoma Department of Health , an estimated 583 people were injured by the tornado , accounting for those who likely did not go to the hospital or were unaccounted for . In terms of structural losses , a total of 8 @,@ 132 homes , 1 @,@ 041 apartments , 260 businesses , eleven public buildings and seven churches were damaged or destroyed . Total estimated damage costs in the areas affected by the storm totaled $ 1 @.@ 2 billion , making it the first single tornado since records were first recorded to produce damage exceeding $ 1 billion . The Bridge Creek − Moore tornado produced an estimated 220 cubic yards ( 170 m3 ) of debris from the buildings that were destroyed in the storm .
The 1999 Bridge Creek − Moore tornado was the deadliest tornado recorded in Oklahoma since an F5 tornado killed 107 people in Woodward on April 9 , 1947 . It is also the deadliest tornado ever recorded in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area ; the previous record was held by an F4 tornado that affected southwestern portions of the city on June 12 , 1942 , which killed 31 people and caused $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage ( $ 10 @.@ 6 million in ( 2016 USD ) when adjusted for inflation ) . The Bridge Creek − Moore tornado was the costliest single tornado in U.S. history until an EF4 tornado hit Tuscaloosa and northern portions of Birmingham in Alabama on April 27 , 2011 , causing an estimated $ 2 @.@ 45 billion in damage ( as of 2015 the Bridge Creek – Moore tornado is the fourth @-@ costliest single tornado , having also been surpassed by the EF5 tornadoes that hit Joplin on May 24 , 2011 and areas of Moore near the 1999 storm track on May 20 , 2013 ) . National Weather Service researchers estimated that the death toll from the storm would likely have exceeded 600 , had it not been for the advanced warning through local television and radio stations ( with coverage provided by three of the Oklahoma City market 's four television news outlets at the time − NBC affiliate KFOR @-@ TV ( channel 4 ) , ABC affiliate KOCO @-@ TV ( channel 5 ) and CBS affiliate KWTV ( channel 9 ) − being simulcast on some radio stations through central parts of Oklahoma as the storms became increasingly intense ) , and the extensive education among Oklahomans on tornadoes and the dangers they pose , as well as exercising proper safety precautions .
Preliminary damage surveys conducted by a group of structural engineers from Texas Tech University determined that many of the frame homes that were destroyed by the Bridge Creek − Moore tornado were constructed below minimal residential building code standards , discovering some structural deficiencies that violated codes , which were considered to be inadequate for regions prone to tornadic activity ( under federal building code standards , frame homes that were properly strapped and bolted would have withstood winds between 152 and 157 miles per hour ( 245 and 253 km / h ) , equivalent to an F2 tornado ) . The team , led by meteorological researcher Charles Doswell and storm damage engineer / meteorologist Tim Marshall , determined that nails attached to a plywood roof deck in one damaged home were not properly anchored to the rafters ; several homes in rural areas that were swept nearly 300 feet ( 91 m ) from their original location did not have anchor bolts that secured the frame to their foundations , as was the case at Country Place Estates , where the homes − which left a trail of debris strewn 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) away from their location − were attached to the concrete foundations by tapered cut nails that extended only a half @-@ inch to the bases ; many homes that were left at least partially standing also had their garage doors ( mainly those made from aluminum material ) collapse inward , allowing the tornado 's destructive winds to enter the houses .
Marshall discovered other building and vehicle remains that became debris missiles , including a twisted 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) steel beam , a steel leg broken off of a lawn chair that was impaled into a 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm × 13 cm ) post by the violent winds and a six @-@ foot ( 180 cm ) section of a sewer pipe that was blown into the interior hallway of one house through the front door . The team 's findings also revealed that several homes were obliterated before they experienced the full impact of the vortex 's peak wind velocities , with some disintegrating as the external winds surrounding the parent tornado reached speeds of F2 intensity . Three months later , as homes were being built in the damage path , Marshall found their construction to be scarcely superior to that of the homes destroyed in the May 3 storm .
The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) corroborated with Doswell and Marshall 's findings in its Building Performance Assessment Team Report on the May 3 outbreak , noting that much of the structural damage resulted from strong winds generated by the tornado and associated windborne debris that often " produced forces on buildings not designed to withstand such forces " and in some cases , were due to improper construction techniques and " poor selection " of materials used in their construction . The report acknowledged that federal construction code requirements needed to be revised above the then @-@ current minimum standards to allow newer buildings to better withstand higher wind speeds consistent with tornadoes of lesser intensity than the one which devastated Bridge Creek and Moore , thereby lessening the degree of damage , fatalities and injuries that are probable in buildings of typically less reinforced construction .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the outbreak of deadly and destructive tornadoes , President Bill Clinton signed a major disaster declaration for eleven Oklahoma counties on May 4 . In a press statement by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , then @-@ director James Lee Witt stated that " The President is deeply concerned about the tragic loss of life and destruction caused by these devastating storms . " The American Red Cross opened ten shelters overnight across central Oklahoma , housing 1 @,@ 600 people immediately following the disaster . By May 5 , this number had lowered to 500 . Throughout May 5 , several post @-@ disaster teams from FEMA were deployed to the region , including emergency response and preliminary damage assessment units . The United States Department of Defense deployed the 249th Engineering Battalion and placed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on standby for assistance . Medical and mortuary teams were also sent by the Department of Health and Human Services . By May 6 , donation centers and phone banks were being established to create funds for victims of the tornadoes .
Continuing search and rescue efforts for thirteen people who were listed as missing through May 7 were assisted by urban search and rescue dogs from across the country . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 members of the Oklahoma National Guard were deployed throughout the affected region . The American Red Cross had set up ten mobile feeding stations by this time and stated that 30 more were en route . On May 8 , a disaster recovery center was opened in Moore for individuals recovering from the tornadoes . According to the Army Corps of Engineers , roughly 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 382 @,@ 277 cubic meters ) of debris was left behind and would likely take weeks to clear . Within the first few days of the disaster declaration , relief funds began being sent to families who requested aid . By May 9 , roughly $ 180 @,@ 000 had been approved by FEMA for disaster housing assistance .
Debris removal finally began on May 12 as seven cleanup teams were sent to the region , more were expected to join over the following days . That day , FEMA also declared that seven counties − Canadian , Craig , Grady , Lincoln , Logan , Noble and Oklahoma − were eligible for federal financial assistance . By May 13 , roughly $ 1 @.@ 6 million in disaster funds had been approved for housing and businesses loans . This quickly rose to more than $ 5 @.@ 9 million over the following five days . By May 21 , more than 3 @,@ 000 volunteers from across the country traveled to Oklahoma to help residents recover ; 1 @,@ 000 of these volunteers were sent to Bridge Creek to clean up debris , cut trees , sort donations and cook meals . With a $ 452 @,@ 199 grant from FEMA , a 60 @-@ day outreach program for victims suffering tornado @-@ related stress was set up to help them cope with trauma .
Applications for federal aid continued through June , with state approvals reaching $ 54 million on June 3 . By this date , the Army Corps of Engineers reported that 964 @,@ 170 cubic yards ( 737 @,@ 160 cubic meters ) , roughly 58 % , of the 1 @.@ 65 million cubic yards ( 1 @.@ 26 million cubic meters ) of debris had been removed . Assistance for farmers and ranchers who suffered severe losses from the tornadoes was also available by June 3 . After more than a month of being open , emergency shelters were set to be closed on June 18 . On June 21 , an educational road show made by FEMA visited the hardest hit areas in Oklahoma to urge residents to build storm cellars . According to FEMA , more than 9 @,@ 500 residents applied for federal aid during the allocated period in the wake of the tornadoes . Most of the applicants lived in Oklahoma and Cleveland counties , 3 @,@ 800 and 3 @,@ 757 persons respectively . In all , disaster recovery aid for the tornadoes amounted to roughly $ 67 @.@ 8 million by the end of July 2 .
From a meteorological and safety standpoint , the tornado also brought the use of highway overpasses as shelters into question . Prior to the events on May 3 , 1999 , videos of people taking shelter in overpasses during tornadoes in the past ( most notably one filmed near Wichita , Kansas during the April 26 , 1991 tornado outbreak involving a television news crew from Wichita NBC affiliate KSNW and other bystanders ) gave the public misunderstanding that overpasses provided shelter from tornadoes . For nearly 20 years , meteorologists had questioned the safety of these structures ; however , they lacked incidents involving loss of life . During the May 3 outbreak , three overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes , with a fatality taking place at each one . Two of these were from the F5 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado while the third was from a small F2 , which struck a rural area in Payne County , north @-@ northeast of Oklahoma City . According to a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , seeking shelter in an overpass " is to become a stationary target for flying debris . "
Over the following four years , a $ 12 million project to construct storm shelters for residents across the Oklahoma City metropolitan area was enacted . The goal was to create a safer community in a tornado @-@ prone region . By May 2003 , a total of 6 @,@ 016 safe rooms were constructed . On May 9 , 2003 , the new initiative was put to the test as a tornado outbreak in the region spawned an F4 tornado , which took a path similar to that of the Bridge Creek – Moore tornado . Due to the higher standards for public safety , no one was killed by the 2003 tornado , a substantial improvement in just four years . On May 20 , 2013 , an EF5 tornado took a roughly similar path to the 1999 storm , tracking through the heart of Moore . Throughout the city , 24 people were killed ( along with one additional person who died as an indirect result of the tornado ) and more than 230 were injured .
= Dunder Mifflin Infinity =
" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " is the third and fourth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ sixth and fifty @-@ seventh episode overall . The episode was written by Michael Schur , who also acts in the show , and directed by Craig Zisk . It first aired in the United States on October 4 , 2007 on NBC .
In this episode , Ryan returns to his old office and reveals his plan to bring technology to Dunder Mifflin . Michael and Dwight try to prove that the personal touch is better than technology . Meanwhile , Jim and Pam reveal their relationship to the rest of the office , Kelly attempts to reunite with Ryan , and Dwight and Angela 's relationship continues to plummet .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) returns to the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of Dunder Mifflin for the first time since his promotion to the corporate headquarters . Although he sports a much more urbane look and attitude , he garners little respect from his former peers . Ryan introduces " Dunder Mifflin Infinity , " his initiative to revitalize the company with new technology . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is initially excited about the prospect of getting a BlackBerry , but is warned by Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) that the program is a ploy to get rid of older workers . Creed dyes his hair black with printer ink in an attempt to convince everyone that he is much younger . Michael holds a conference room meeting on the subject of ageism . To show that personal interaction is more effective than new technology , Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decide to go out and win back the clients they lost in the past year with gift baskets . Each manager they encounter refuses to consider returning to Dunder Mifflin unless the company improves its technology , such as Dunder Mifflin 's website . While driving back to the office , Michael misinterprets his rental car 's GPS map system 's directions and drives into Lake Scranton . He takes this as further proof that new technology is useless because it tried to kill him . After the lake incident , he and Dwight walk back to one of the former clients to awkwardly get back their gift basket , causing a scene .
Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are exposed as a couple when Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) circulates a memo about public displays of affection . Jim secretly informs Pam that Dwight and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) are dating , only to discover that she already knew . Meanwhile , Dwight attempts to make amends for the death of Angela 's cat Sprinkles by giving her a stray cat he found in his barn , named Garbage . Angela rejects the gift . Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) tries to restart her relationship with Ryan , an effort he ignores until she tells him she is pregnant . After going out to dinner , Ryan learns that Kelly 's pregnancy claim was a lie that Kelly used in attempt to get them back together . Back at the office , Ryan asks Pam to create a logo for Dunder Mifflin Infinity . Pam is excited about the opportunity to use her art background , but Ryan uses the logo as an excuse to ask her out , which he does in front of Jim . Pam responds that she is dating Jim , which leaves the new boss thoroughly embarrassed .
= = Production = =
The episode was the first episode of the series directed by Craig Zisk . Zisk had previously directed episodes of Nip / Tuck , Weeds , Scrubs , Smallville , and The Single Guy . " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " was written by Michael Schur , who plays Dwight 's Amish cousin Mose .
For Ryan 's new appearance this season , the writers originally had B. J. Novak grow a goatee . Show runner and executive producer Greg Daniels decided to have Novak lose the goatee , because according to Novak " a goatee would make Ryan a flat @-@ out chump . And we wanted it to be more subtle . " In addition to his five o 'clock shadow , Ryan was also seen wearing black clothes . Novak explained that " We wanted him to dress as obnoxious as possible . As much black as possible . " " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " went along with a website that had been created with the same name . The website was part of a game in which fans of The Office would sign up , and become " employees " of different " branches " . Members of the site would perform tasks such as design a logo for the company or make Creed look young again .
= = Reception = =
" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " received 4 @.@ 5 / 11 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 4 @.@ 5 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and eleven percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers .
" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " received mixed reviews from critics , with Michael driving his car into the lake being particularly panned by critics and viewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Christine Fenno commented that she thought " Michael seemed a bit more focused than usual , even competent at moments . And then he drove into a lake . " Jack Rodgers , from TV Guide said that his " favorite thing about this episode was the sly parallel that connects the three love stories " and " Michael ’ s obsession with sticking to his old methods rather than learning to change and embrace technology " . Will Leitch of New York Magazine criticized the episode , saying that Michael driving into the lake felt more like the actions of a " cartoon character " , than " based in reality " . Leitch did say that if " we can get Michael out of that lake and back in a conference room with Ryan , we 'll have something . "
= Slay Tracks ( 1933 – 1969 ) =
Slay Tracks ( 1933 – 1969 ) ( also referred to as Slay Tracks ) is the debut extended play by the American indie rock band Pavement . Pavement , then consisting of founding members Stephen Malkmus ( guitar , vocals ) and Scott Kannberg ( guitar ) , recorded Slay Tracks with producer and future member Gary Young ( drums ) during a four @-@ hour session . The EP was released as a 7 " vinyl record on the band 's own record label Treble Kicker in 1989 . The music in Slay Tracks is influenced by indie and punk rock bands , including Swell Maps and The Fall , and many of the lyrics are inspired by life in the band 's hometown of Stockton , California .
Although only 1000 copies of Slay Tracks were pressed , the EP became an underground hit . It was met with generally positive reviews from critics , though most of its initial reviews were from independently produced zines . The songs on Slay Tracks would later appear on the 1993 compilation Westing ( By Musket and Sextant ) , reaching a wider audience than the EP 's limited initial release . The release of Slay Tracks was significant to Pavement 's signing to Drag City , and later to Matador Records .
= = Background and recording = =
Pavement was formed in 1989 in Stockton , California , by Stephen Malkmus and Scott Kannberg . Malkmus and Kannberg had previously performed together in the band Bag O ' Bones . Pavement had its start playing at open mike nights at clubs and bars . The songs the band played during this time were mostly covers , although they also performed many original songs that would later be released on Slay Tracks . Malkmus recalls , " It was pretty reasonable to be able to make a single for $ 1 @,@ 000 , so we decided to go for it . We didn 't have any real plans because we weren 't a real band . " Two local studios existed in Stockton , the cheaper and less professionally minded of which was Gary Young 's Louder Than You Think Studio . The band decided to record at Young 's studio due to their admiration of other local punk bands who had recorded there , including The Young Pioneers and The Authorities . Kannberg reportedly borrowed $ 800 from his father to record Slay Tracks .
Slay Tracks was recorded during a four @-@ hour session on January 17 , 1989 , at Young 's studio . Kannberg , describing the studio and the recording process , said , " You go into his house and it 's stuff everywhere , old dogs lying around , big pot plants everywhere , and Gary tells us that he got all his equipment by selling pot ! It was us going in and pretty much just laying down the songs with a glide guitar and a detuned guitar through a bass amp and then we 'd play drums over the top . " Young , though bewildered by the band 's sound , contributed by playing drums . He recalled , " [ Malkmus and Kannberg ] come in and they play this weird guitar noise and it just sounds like noise , with no background . My drums were in there so I said , ' Should I drum ? ' and they said ' Okay . ' " Kannberg said , " We did it really fast . We probably spent one day tracking and one day mixing it . " The title of the EP had been decided prior to its recording , and the pseudonyms S.M. and Spiral Stairs were used to credit Malkmus and Kannberg respectively .
= = Music = =
The music on Slay Tracks was written entirely by Malkmus , and he stated his influences on the record included Chrome , Swell Maps , and The Fall . The songs on the EP drew comparisons to the likes of R.E.M. , Pixies , and Sonic Youth by Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Heather Phares of AllMusic . Radio static and noise are prominently used on the EP , techniques which are characteristic of the lo @-@ fi and noise pop genres that Pavement are frequently associated with . According to Malkmus , " We decided to use static as the third instrument . .... It was pretty exciting to be so experimental . " Young played drums on " Box Elder " and " Price Yeah ! " , and frequently improvised . Malkmus played drums on " Maybe Maybe " , while both Malkmus and Kannberg drummed on " She Believes " .
" You 're Killing Me " , the longest song on the EP at three minutes and 20 seconds , is an example of the impact punk rock had on Pavement . The song features fuzz effects , repetitive lyrics , and no percussion or drums . " Box Elder " , an ironic song about someone wanting to move to Box Elder , Montana , was considered by Gerald Cosloy to be an example of Malkmus 's " honest , direct , and simplistic " lyrical style , and features greater influence from pop music than the rest of the EP . " Maybe Maybe " features distorted guitars and indiscernible vocals , and " Price Yeah ! " has a sound typical of hardcore punk . The band 's hometown of Stockton inspired the band 's lyrics and sound . Malkmus stated that " There 's something empty about Stockton . I wanted to convey that in our music . " Malkmus told Melody Maker in 1992 that " Pavement was originally a pathetic effort by us to do something to escape the terminal boredom we were experiencing in Stockton . "
= = Release = =
After recording was completed Kannberg was tasked with releasing the music himself , as Malkmus had left on a trip to parts of Europe , North Africa , and the Middle East . Kannberg designed the cover of the EP and sent copies to various independent labels , distributors , and zines . He recalled " I had no idea how to do it . I 'd send off these little notes to my favorite labels like SST and Twin Tone and ask , ' How do I do this ? ' " A representative from SST recommended that Kannberg use Erica Records , a Los Angeles 7 " manufacturer . Erica Records became the manufacturer of Slay Tracks ; however , Kannberg was unhappy with the master recording produced by the company : " It sounds like it sounds now — it 's just a mess — but being poor and not really caring I said , ' Okay , that 's cool , if it sounds like that – whatever . ' " 1000 copies of Slay Tracks were pressed , and the first 50 included a green dinosaur stamp on the label . The EP was distributed on Kannberg 's own Treble Kicker Records in the United States and England , although Malkmus came across a copy in a record store while visiting Austria .
Slay Tracks found unexpected attention after the Leeds , England @-@ based band The Wedding Present covered " Box Elder " on their own 1990 EP , Brassneck . The Wedding Present 's bassist , Keith Gregory , had been introduced to Slay Tracks by future Pavement bassist Mark Ibold while visiting New York City . The Wedding Present cover is different from the original in that the line " that I had to get the fuck out of this town " was changed to " that I had to get right out of this town " . The " Box Elder " cover received radio airplay from influential English disc jockey John Peel , which generated publicity for both The Wedding Present and Pavement . Neither member of Pavement was aware of the cover until Kannberg was informed of it . Kannberg remembered " I was kind of mad . I had no idea that people could do that , so I was all offended . " However , his opinion of the cover and its significance later changed : " It was so cool that some band from the UK wanted to cover this obscure , horribly recorded song . At the time I probably never appreciated the full extent of how them covering the song helped Pavement , especially in the UK , but it really did , and I 'll always be grateful to them for that . "
Shortly after its release , Slay Tracks became a collector 's item . According to an April 1990 Drag City press release , copies were typically sold for $ 500 – $ 600 . Malkmus and Kannberg each kept 100 copies of the EP , and Malkmus said " I used to sell them for fifty dollars . When I needed money I 'd go in and sell a couple to the store and they 'd sell for a hundred dollars each . I rarely meet anyone who bought it when it originally came out . " Malkmus also said that the pair " probably gave away about one @-@ hundred to friends and bands we later toured with . " The songs on Slay Tracks found airplay on several college radio stations , including University of Virginia 's WTJU and University of California , Berkeley 's KALX . Kannberg commented on the EP 's unanticipated popularity , saying " It was very surprising to find that people were into [ Slay Tracks ] . "
= = Reception = =
Slay Tracks received generally positive reviews . Much of the initial critical reception to Slay Tracks was from zines to whom Kannberg had sent the EP . A review in the San Francisco @-@ based zine Maximum RocknRoll said " Most of the tunes work by virtue of their eclecticism , freshness , and originality — this is a good one . " The zine Conflict called the EP " absolutely perfect . " Slay Tracks also received attention from mainstream publications . Robert Christgau of the Village Voice rated Slay Tracks an A- , and selected it as his fourth favorite EP of 1990 . Spin 's review said : " a long stream of noise water is omitted by Pavement . ... What a party ! " A reviewer for Option praised the band 's lo @-@ fi characteristics and attitude , calling the EP " loose and intentionally lo @-@ fi , " and saying " let 's hope this Pavement stays cracked . " College Music Journal 's review was also favorable , noting " You 're Killing Me " and " She Believes " as highlights , and calling the EP a " deep , intoxicating breath of homemade music from people with tongues in their cheeks and hearts on their sleeves ... the twin engine feedback and fuzz hits dead center with naive [ sic ] melodic balance , and whether that is in spite of or because of the sloppy , one @-@ take feel is inconsequential . "
= = Legacy = =
Young 's drum performance on Slay Tracks eventually led to him joining Pavement as a full @-@ time member . Young produced the group 's 1990 EP Demolition Plot J @-@ 7 , but displayed hostility toward then @-@ current drummer Jason Fawkes . Fawkes left Pavement in 1991 due to animosity with Malkmus , allowing Young to drum on their third EP , Perfect Sound Forever . Young drummed on all Pavement releases from then on until 1992 's Watery , Domestic , after which he was fired for his increasingly erratic behavior and was replaced with Steve West . Young 's drumming on Slay Tracks was later recognized as an important turning point in Pavement 's history , and was considered to be " the opportunity of a lifetime " by C. Harris @-@ Nystrom of the News & Review .
Dan Koretzky , founder of Drag City , ordered 200 copies of the EP for the Chicago Reckless Records store he worked for at the time . Koretzky asked Kannberg if he would sign to Drag City during the same phone call that he ordered the EP . Kannberg remembered expressing reluctance to sign to any label , but Drag City producer and session musician Rian Murphy recalled that " We asked , they said yes . Lives didn 't seem to be on the line . " Chris Lombardi and Gerald Cosloy of Matador Records also first heard of Pavement after Kannberg sent a copy of Slay Tracks to their zine , Conflict . Matador signed Pavement in 1992 for the release of their debut studio album , Slanted and Enchanted .
The songs on Slay Tracks are all included on the 1993 compilation Westing ( By Musket and Sextant ) , along with several of Pavement 's other early material . Westing has sold 63 @,@ 000 copies , and was praised by Robert Christgau and Stephen Thomas Erlewine for making songs previously found exclusively on vinyl available on compact disc . All of the songs from Slay Tracks were played live throughout Pavement 's history , with " Box Elder " particularly cited as an " old favorite " for fans at concerts . Live performances of " Box Elder " has also been included on the compilation reissues Slanted and Enchanted : Luxe & Reduxe and Wowee Zowee : Sordid Sentinels Edition , with the version on the latter beginning with a short jam session . In a 1999 retrospective of the band 's career , Donna Freydkin of CNN.com called Slay Tracks " a quick underground favorite " , while John Hicks of the Planet Weekly wrote " Although Pavement was conceived as a studio @-@ only project , the underground success of Slay Tracks ensured that it was only a matter of time before the group became a full @-@ fledged performing entity . "
= = Track listing = =
All tracks were written by Stephen Malkmus .
" You 're Killing Me " – 3 : 20
" Box Elder " – 2 : 26
" Maybe Maybe " – 2 : 14
" She Believes " – 3 : 02
" Price Yeah ! " – 3 : 00
= Cloudland Canyon State Park =
Cloudland Canyon State Park is a 3 @,@ 485 acre ( 14 @.@ 10 km ² ) Georgia state park located near Trenton and Cooper Heights on the western edge of Lookout Mountain . One of the largest and most scenic parks in Georgia , it contains rugged geology , and offers visitors a range of vistas across the deep gorge cut through the mountain by Sitton Gulch Creek , where the elevation varies from 800 to over 1 @,@ 800 feet . Views of the canyon can be seen from the picnic area parking lot , in addition to additional views located along the rim trail . At the bottom of the gorge , two waterfalls cascade across layers of sandstone and shale , ending in small pools below .
The park , previously known as Sitton Gulch ( or Gulf ) or Trenton Gulf , was purchased in stages by the state of Georgia beginning in 1938 . Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt , a project of Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression built the first facilities and signs in the park , which opened the following year . Today the park features a variety of campsites , cabins , hiking and recreational activities .
= = History = =
Cloudland Canyon was designated a state park in 1939 when the state began acquiring land from private owners . Three of these owners , from the Mathews , McCauley and McKaig families , still reside in the area . Expansion of the park continues sporadically as new land is purchased for it . The park was originally 1 @,@ 924 acres ( 7 @.@ 8 km2 ) , and has been expanded to its present size of 3 @,@ 485 acres ( 14 @.@ 1 km2 ) .
Until 1939 the only access to the area ( and much of Dade County , Georgia ) was through Tennessee or Alabama . That year Georgia began work on Highway 136 to connect U.S. 41 to the recently established park . The Civilian Conservation Corps did much of the early work to construct the state park and access roads .
= = Geology = =
The park is located on the Cumberland Plateau , atop Lookout Mountain . On the summit of Lookout Mountain , the waters of Daniel Creek and Bear Creek cut gorges through the rock , converging to form Sitton Gulch Creek . The flat @-@ topped mountains of the Cumberland Plateau are significantly different from the narrow Armuchee ridges beyond nearby Chickamauga Valley to the east . From a geological standpoint , Lookout Mountain is transitional between the flat @-@ lying sedimentary beds of central Tennessee , and the ridges and valley to the east , which display more intensive folding and faulting . Most of the canyon 's rock formations consist of sandstone ; shale layers below the sandstone are marked by pine trees .
Lookout Mountain was created through a combination of seismic activity and erosion . It was uplifted during the period of mountain building that formed the Appalachians , known as the Appalachian orogeny . Over 200 million years ago , the modern @-@ day parklands lay beneath an ocean . When first formed , the entire mountain was underwater , but the rim of the canyon eventually became a beach along the edge of the receding ocean . As the ocean dried up , Sitton Gulch Creek and its tributaries , particularly Daniel Creek , eroded the rock . The sandstone forming the bluffs has a tendency to fracture into blocks , creating unusual boulder formations . The concave shape of the top of Lookout Mountain also drains rainwater through fissures into the underlying limestone , forming miles of subterranean caves in the area .
The canyon is more than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) deep , ranging in elevation from 800 feet ( 240 m ) to over 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) ; the park 's peak elevation is 1 @,@ 980 feet ( 600 m ) . The bottom of Cloudland canyon contains a slope of rock talus , which are sandstone and shale fragments . The valley floor is also rich in fossil @-@ bearing limestone .
= = Hiking trails = =
The Park contains several well @-@ marked trails which allow visitors to view the geology of the canyon and its surroundings , which spans millions of years . A paved , wheelchair @-@ accessible trail about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long overlooks the rim of the canyon . The park also features four more extensive hiking trails , including one backpacking trail . These trails are generally considered moderate in difficulty .
The Waterfalls Trail begins on a paved section , at the main overlook , and progresses into the canyon along a 40 @-@ degree slope . Most of the trail consists of gravel , and a 600 @-@ step staircase . Each waterfall emanates from Daniel Creek , and both cascade down sheer faces at 60 feet ( 18 m ) and 90 feet ( 27 m ) . The trail is generally considered to be a strenuous hike , which can take up to 90 minutes to complete . Cherokee Falls is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) from the trailhead ; Hemlock Falls , at the bottom of the canyon , appears at 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . Each cascades into small pools at the base of the canyon , and continue down through a boulder @-@ strewn stream bed . The creek flow feeding the waterfalls varies considerably according to the season . The Sitton 's Gulch trail , commencing at the bottom of the Waterfalls Trail , runs parallel to the creek until it ends in a parking area in Trenton .
In contrast , the 4 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 7 km ) long West Rim Loop Trail is rated as moderately difficult , although it contains a few short , steep rocky sections . A scenic hike beginning at the Daniels Creek Bridge , it offers panoramic views before climbing out of the canyon and onto the plateau . This trail also provides views of Trenton , Georgia , neighboring Sand Mountain , and of Cloudland Canyon . Rhododendron and mountain laurel thickets are interspersed with sourgum and dogwood ; large oaks , hickories , hemlocks and maples shade the trail . Cottages , West Rim , and Walk @-@ In Camping areas are accessible via the West Rim Loop . Passing over varied terrain , most of the hike is moderately difficult , and is considered strenuous along several short sections .
The 2 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) Backcountry Loop Trail provides access to the park 's eleven secluded primitive hike @-@ in camping sites . Beginning at the parking area for group camping , the trail passes through hemlock groves , before descending on a moderate grade into a hollow filled with spring and summer flowers . At the far end of the loop , hikers emerge from the hemlock groves onto level trail , among oaks and hickories , before returning to the parking area .
In the fall of 2011 , the park reopened the Bear Creek Trail , which had been closed to hikers for nearly a decade . This approximately 9 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) trail is the longest trail in the park . This trail begins as a spur off of the Back Country Trail and drops down to Bear Creek . After crossing the creek , the trail continues up until it becomes a loop around the northeast portion of the park . Around the area of the creek , the trail crosses over private property for a brief distance . During wet seasons , the creek crossing can be difficult as there is no bridge or dry crossing available .
= = Facilities and activities = =
Cloudland Canyon State park features a variety of camping and lodging options . There are 16 rental cottages as well as a group lodge . The park also offers 73 tent , trailer and RV sites , 30 walk @-@ in camp sites , and 11 back country camp sites for backpackers . Four pioneer sites provide facilities for groups of tent campers . The East Rim has 24 camp sites located along a loop road ; many of the sites can accommodate RVs , and all feature water and electric hookups . Bathing facilities are located nearby . The West Rim Camp ground , located across the gorge and away from the park 's busiest section , is located in thick forest , and hosts approximately 48 camp sites spread along two loops . It too offers bathing facilities .
Picnic areas include a group pavilion , tennis courts , a children ’ s playground and a disc golf course . The park has an interpretive center near the main parking lot , adjacent to the canyon . Annual events hosted in the park include a Wildflower Program in April , Adventure Weekend ( also in April ) , and a Kids ' Catfish Rodeo in May .
= Rapunzel ( Disney ) =
Rapunzel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) , and its short film Tangled Ever After ( 2012 ) . Voiced by American actress and singer Mandy Moore , Rapunzel is a young princess kept unaware of her royal heritage by a vain old woman named Mother Gothel , who raises her in a secluded tower in order to exploit her hair 's healing abilities to remain young and beautiful forever .
Created and animated by supervising animator Glen Keane , Rapunzel is loosely based on the title character who appears in the fairy tale of the same name by The Brothers Grimm . The character was adapted into a less passive heroine for the film . The writers incorporated the quirky personalities of actresses Reese Witherspoon , Natalie Portman and Amy Poehler into the character .
Critical reception of Rapunzel has been generally positive , with critics complimenting her spirited , lively personality and independence | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
. Chronologically the tenth Disney Princess , Rapunzel was officially inducted into the line @-@ up on October 2 , 2011 , becoming the franchise 's first computer @-@ animated member . Her physical appearance and personality have drawn much comparison between her and preceding Disney Princess Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , by whom she was inspired .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Longtime Disney animator Glen Keane first decided to adapt the fairy tale " Rapunzel " by The Brothers Grimm into an animated feature film in 1996 . Keane became interested in the idea of directing an animated film based on " Rapunzel " because he was especially intrigued by the concept of a " person that was born with this gift inside of her and it had to come out " , which he felt was similar to his experience working as an animator at Walt Disney Animation Studios . Keane eventually resigned from his position as director after suffering a heart attack in 2008 , and Nathan Greno and Byron Howard were hired to replace him . However , Keane remained closely involved with the project nonetheless , serving as both the film 's executive producer and Rapunzel 's supervising animator .
Walt Disney first attempted to adapt " Rapunzel " into an animated film soon after the studio released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 , but the project was ultimately abandoned when the story turned out to be " a really hard nut to crack " . According to Keane , this was mainly due to the fact that the majority of the fairy tale takes place within a tower . To overcome this , Tangled 's writers were forced to develop a way of " bringing Rapunzel out of the tower " . Originally , the film was conceived under the title Rapunzel Unbraided , which Keane described as " a Shrek @-@ like version of the film " that revolved around an entirely different concept . Keane said of the original plot , " It was a fun , wonderful , witty version and we had a couple of great writers . But in my heart of hearts I believed there was something much more sincere and genuine to get out of the story , so we set it aside and went back to the roots of the original fairy tale . "
As directors , Greno and Howard felt it essential that Rapunzel resemble a less " passive " heroine than the way she is depicted in the original fairy tale . " We knew we were making this movie for a contemporary audience and we wanted Rapunzel to be a real role model in a way . We wanted all this girl power and to really drive this story , so she doesn 't wait around for anything ... she 's a smart girl , she has these hopes and dreams and she 's going to get what she wants out of life . "
= = = Voice = = =
Actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was cast as the voice of Rapunzel . At one point , though briefly , the directors had cast actress Reese Witherspoon in the role , who was also to serve as the film 's executive producer . However , Witherspoon eventually departed from the project , citing creative differences with the filmmakers . Broadway performer Idina Menzel had also auditioned for the role , but didn 't get the part . After hundreds of auditions , the directors ultimately decided to cast recording artist and actress Mandy Moore in the role because , according to co @-@ director Byron Howard , she " has this great soul to her voice " as well as " this down @-@ to @-@ earth , girl @-@ next @-@ door quality that makes her everything you could hope for in a Disney heroine . " Child actress Delaney Rose Stein was cast as a young version Rapunzel .
Moore " grew up loving Disney films " , describing the opportunity to be featured in one as " the ultimate fantasy " . Initially , she had little intention of auditioning for Tangled because she was aware that there would be much competition , and feared that a failed audition would simply result in disappointment . Once she made up her mind to audition , Moore reportedly " chased after " the role of Rapunzel , auditioning for it twice . Because the film is a musical requiring its cast to provide both their characters ' speaking and singing voices , it was mandatory for all auditioning to perform one song of their choice . Following the given instructions to sing a song that was in the style of a singer @-@ songwriter , Moore , a professional singer , performed singer @-@ songwriter Joni Mitchell 's " Help Me " , a song that she herself had covered on her fourth studio album , Coverage ( 2003 ) .
The filmmakers fought against hiring top @-@ billed celebrities to voice the film 's characters . When she joined the cast of Tangled , Moore was initially unaware that the film would become Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 50th animated feature film . Since that time , she has received her ignorance with gratitude , explaining , " I feel lucky because I would 've probably felt a bit more pressure had I known going into the recording process . " Moore was also surprised to learn that the majority of her dialogue would not be recorded in the presence of co @-@ stars Zachary Levi and Donna Murphy , who provided the voices of Flynn Rider and Mother Gothel respectively . She claims to have only met with Levi once to record the song " I See the Light " , a duet between her character Rapunzel and Levi 's character , Flynn . Moore described the recording process as challenging because she was provided with little visual aid , explaining , " All I had to work off were a few sketches ... but it was also fun because it allows you to go into the depths of your imagination . " She also revealed that creating Rapunzel 's voice was simply a process of " let [ ting ] go " . Moore was often required to re @-@ record a single line a total of four times before the directors finally heard a version with which they were satisfied . After watching the completed film for the first time , Moore was disappointed with her own performance because she felt that her voice sounded " shrill " .
= = = Characterization and design = = =
Executive producer John Lasseter explained that " The challenge is that you want to make Rapunzel feel like a smart , clever , educated , healthy , fun human being " despite the fact that the character has not ventured outside of her tower in 18 years . To avoid creating a " princessy and aloof " heroine , the writers decided to base Rapunzel 's personality on those of real @-@ life celebrities such as actresses Reese Witherspoon and Natalie Portman , as well as comedian Amy Poehler , which ultimately resulted in the character having a variety of " quirky qualities " that were used to " shake up expectations of what a princess should be . " According to The New York Times , Rapunzel 's personality made her a significant departure from traditional Disney heroines . Mandy Moore believes that Rapunzel is an atypical Disney princess because she is an independent character who " can take care of herself " , in addition to being largely oblivious to the fact that she is a princess .
Supervising animator Glen Keane designed Rapunzel under the tutelage of veteran animator Ollie Johnston , one of Disney 's original Nine Old Men . Johnston advised Keane to attempt to capture what Rapunzel is thinking as opposed to simply animating what the character is doing after reviewing one of his early pencil tests . Keane compared receiving this advice to receiving a " slap that I never forgot , so when I was drawing over people 's work , I really tried to get into the head of the thinking of the character " . Co @-@ director Byron Howard was inspired by the appearance of Ariel from Disney 's The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , a character who was also animated by Keane . Howard elaborated that " Ariel was the first character that I ever thought there was a soul behind her eyes ... We hoped to do that with Rapunzel to find some sort of soul and depth that people could relate to " . Meanwhile , Keane observed that Ariel and Rapunzel also share " irrepressible " spirits while encountering barriers that prevent them from pursuing their dreams . Keane was inspired by a book about the idea of feminine beauty ; the book cited " strangeness " as " the key to beauty ... in a woman 's face . " Taking this into consideration , Keane maintained a sense of asymmetry while drawing Rapunzel , incorporating into her face several subtle imperfections , specifically her bucked teeth that are bucked teeth . The character was also drawn with freckles , making her the first Disney princess to have this feature . Keane designed Rapunzel with large eyes in order to convey her " irrepressible quality " , a trait her also discovered in Mandy Moore 's voice . The animators created nine different versions of Rapunzel before finally settling on a design with which they were satisfied .
Keane is known for basing his characters on members of his family ; Rapunzel 's passion for art and painting was inspired by the interests of his daughter , Claire . Several of Claire 's original drawings and paintings are used to decorate Rapunzel 's tower . While Keane working on Tangled , Claire gave birth to his first grandchild , Matisse , whose appearance served as the animator 's inspiration for the infant Rapunzel .
= = = = Hair = = = =
Rapunzel was the first blonde @-@ haired Disney animated heroine since Aurora in Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) . Animating Rapunzel 's hair using computer @-@ generated imagery has been regarded as the most challenging aspect in the development process of Tangled . According to the Los Angeles Times , supervising animator Glen Keane has become well known for animating some of Walt Disney Animation Studios ' " greatest hair hits " since 1989 , including Ariel from The Little Mermaid , the Beast from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Pocahontas from Pocahontas ( 1995 ) . Both Keane and Howard have expressed similar opinions on Rapunzel 's hair , with Keane describing it as " this constant reminder that she has this gift " , and Howard describing it as its own character . As directors , Howard and Greno provided the animators with much live @-@ action material and reference to use as inspiration for the appearance of Rapunzel 's hair , such as attaching long strands of string to a baseball cap that they would take turns wearing in the studio and moving around it . Additionally , they recruited women who had not cut their hair in several years to serve as live models .
Senior Software Engineer Dr. Kelly Ward , a hair simulation major and graduate from the University of North Carolina , was placed in charge of developing special software meant to assist the animators in animating 70 feet of hair . Ward revealed that , in real life , the character 's hair would weigh roughly 60 pounds , " more weight than a real person would be able to move around as effortlessly as we allow Rapunzel to do in the movie " . For simplicity sake , the animators reduced the realistic total of 100 @,@ 000 individual strands of hair found on a typical human head to a more manageable 100 for Rapunzel . Acquiring the unique but realistic shade of golden blonde for Rapunzel 's hair also proved challenging animators .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
In order to remain young and beautiful , a vain old woman named Mother Gothel hoards the healing properties of a magical golden flower . When the pregnant Queen falls ill , the flower is harvested and fed to her as medicine , thus preventing Gothel 's from using it . Once healthy , the Queen gives birth to Rapunzel , whose long golden hair has inherited the flower 's powerful healing magic . Hoping to regain full control over the flower , Gothel kidnaps the princess and incarcerates her in an isolated tower simply for the purpose of exploiting her magic hair in order to remain youthful . Every year on Rapunzel 's birthday , the kingdom of Corona releases thousands of floating lanterns into the sky in her memory .
Eighteen years later , Rapunzel , ignorant to the fact that she is a princess , is growing eager to leave the tower and see the " floating lights , " which she believes bear some significance to her . However , she is forbidden by Gothel , by whom she has been led to believe is her mother . When a wanted thief named Flynn Rider , in search of a place to hide , stumbles upon Rapunzel 's tower , Rapunzel , who has tricked Gothel into leaving her unattended , blackmails Flynn into taking her to see the lanterns in return for the crown that he has stolen from the palace . Accompanied by Rapunzel 's chameleon friend Pascal , they embark , but Gothel is soon in close pursuit .
Rapunzel and Flynn eventually arrive at the kingdom in time for the lantern ceremony . Soon afterwards , Flynn is ambushed and vengefully turned into the police by his former partners @-@ in @-@ crime the Stabbington Brothers , who he abandoned in an attempt to outrun the King 's soldiers , and sentenced to death . However , before the Brothers can harm Rapunzel , Gothel knocks them unconscious and takes a heartbroken Rapunzel back to the tower .
Back in her bedroom , Rapunzel is suddenly flooded by memories from her past . Realizing Gothel is a fraud , she finally finds the courage to rebel against her . However , Gothel , unwilling to lose Rapunzel , chains her up and gags her with a white handkerchief . When Flynn , having managed to escape from the castle , arrives at the tower , Gothel stabs him . Desperate to save him , Rapunzel promises to do whatever Gothel pleases in return . Gothel complies , but just as Rapunzel is about to heal him , Flynn cuts her hair short , causing it to turn brown and lose all of its magical powers and might never be long again , resulting in Gothel 's death . Flynn dies in Rapunzel 's arms and she cries bitterly . However , the flower 's magic manifests itself through Rapunzel 's tears and returns Flynn to life . Flynn returns Rapunzel to the palace , where she is finally reunited with her parents .
Rapunzel appeared later in the short film Tangled Ever After , that features his marriage with Eugene .
Rapunzel will also appear in the upcoming television series .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Rapunzel is the tenth member of the Disney Princess line @-@ up , a marketing franchise aimed primarily at young girls that manufactures and releases products such as toys , video and audio recordings , clothing , and video games . The Walt Disney Company introduces characters into its Disney Princess line @-@ up through coronation . Rapunzel 's was held on October 2 , 2011 , at the Kensington Palace in London , England ; the character became the franchise 's first princess to have been computer @-@ animated . However , the franchise uses a traditionally animated rendering of Rapunzel in most of its merchandise . Following her coronation , Rapunzel was recognized with her own page on the official Disney Princess website .
Disney Consumer Products has released several merchandise based on Tangled that features Rapunzel . Rapunzel appears as a playable character in an interactive adventure @-@ themed video game based on the film , entitled Tangled : The Video Game . The game was released by Disney Interactive Studios on November 23 , 2010 , one day before the film 's November 24 theatrical release , specifically for the Nintendo video game platforms Wii and DS , and follows the plot of the original film . Voice actress Mandy Moore reprises her role as Rapunzel in the video game . The character 's likeness has also been adapted into a variety of doll products . Rapunzel was the first character created and released as part of the Disney Animator 's Collection , a series of dolls depicting each of the eleven Disney Princesses as toddler . She was designed Glen Keane , who served as her supervising animator on the original film .
= = = Theme parks = = =
Rapunzel currently makes regular appearances at various Walt Disney Parks and Resorts sites , locations and attractions . In anticipation of the film 's theatrical release , several Tangled @-@ based attractions were constructed at various Disney Parks locations in both California and Florida , USA . These include a life @-@ sized replica of Rapunzel 's tower , located in Fantasyland .
As part of photographer Annie Leibovitz 's Disney Dream Portrait Series that she has been commissioning for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts since 2007 , The Walt Disney Company hired American country singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift to be featured as the model for Rapunzel . In a detailed description of the piece , Us Weekly wrote , " The stunning image — captioned ' Where a world of adventure awaits ' — shows the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Grammy winner perched on the window ledge of a moss @-@ covered stone tower . A pink petticoat peeks out from under her purple gown as she stares wistfully into the distance , her long golden tresses flowing regally in the wind . " Swift told On The Red Carpet that she was honored to have been selected for the piece .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics were generally positive in their opinions of Rapunzel . The St. Paul Pioneer Press ' Chris Hewitt described the character as " no damsel in distress " , while Sara Vizcarrondo of Boxoffice described the character as " a spunky heroine who could infiltrate the heavily guarded princess canon . " Stephen Whitty of The Star @-@ Ledger dubbed Rapunzel " a fairly capable young woman " . Bruce Diones of The New Yorker wrote that Rapunzel has " a sharp wit and intelligent concerns " , while Claudia Puig of USA Today opined , " Rapunzel is ... believable in her teenage histrionics " . Calling the character a " delight " , The Austin Chronicle 's Marjorie Baumgarten wrote , " Rapunzel is a spunky gal , capable of defending herself " . Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media wrote that Rapunzel is a " guileless , strong , and beautiful " character who is " so breathtakingly good that you can 't help but weep with her when she thinks all hope is lost . " The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel 's Cathy Jakicic described Rapunzel as a " scrappy , self @-@ reliant " heroine who " can rescue herself " . The Scotsman commented , " the film doesn 't ... turn [ Rapunzel ] into a simpering damsel in distress . " Describing the character as " innocent but ( inevitably ) feisty " , Empire 's Helen O 'Hara enjoyed the fact that both Rapunzel and Flynn are given " decent character development " while " bas [ ing ] their growing love story on more than a single longing glance . " Similarly , the Mountain Xpress praised Rapunzel and Flynn 's relationship , writing , " what works best is the interplay between the two leads ... these animated characters are frankly more believable and charismatic than the human ones in ... Love and Other Drugs . " Todd Hertz of Christianity Today called Rapunzel " fun , dynamic , and wondrous " .
Jim Schembri of The Age gave the character a very detailed , positive review , writing :
And , of course , the heart of the story is Rapunzel , a freshly minted heroine who morphs from prisoner to strong @-@ willed seeker of her own destiny . Blondes have not had a good rap of late , thanks chiefly to the stream of formulaic rom @-@ coms that have played them up as the ditzes and airheads of cliche . Rapunzel 's no @-@ nonsense attitude and proactive air , however , reminds us that the blondes of yore were not to be trifled with . As reimagined in Tangled , Rapunzel defies authority , shuts down male ego and charts her own course . She 's not only a great role model for kids , she 's the type of gutsy , independently minded , value @-@ added blonde Mae West would have been proud of .
The character was not void of criticism . Although Richard Corliss of Time thoroughly enjoyed the film , he felt that too much emphasis was placed on Flynn Rider and not enough on Rapunzel . Corliss questioned the future of Disney 's animated heroines , writing , " For 60 years ... girls were the focal characters who could be expected to come of age , triumph over adversity and , in general , man up , " and accused various film studios of " abolish [ ing ] female @-@ centered stories . " Variety 's Justin Chang described Rapunzel as a " bland , plastic " heroine , likening her to a Barbie doll . Similarly , Tom Huddleston of Time Out described Rapunzel as " bland " . James Berardinelli of ReelViews was fairly mixed in his review , writing , " although likeable and energetic , [ Rapunzel ] is not as memorable as Snow White , Ariel , or Belle . " Keith Uhlich of Time Out described the character as " synthetic " . He wrote , " you never feel like you 're watching a girl on the empowering cusp of adulthood so much as a selection of attitudes compiled through demographic study . " The Independent 's Anthony Quinn panned the character , describing her as " bland and Valley Girlish " . Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch opined , " when the big @-@ eyed heroine tries to tug at our heartstrings and Flynn turns into Prince Charming , the too @-@ familiar hero @-@ and @-@ damsel motif feels like a fashion faux @-@ pas . " Similarly , the SouthtownStar 's Jake Coyle wrote , " Both Rapunzel and Flynn too much resemble Barbie and Ken , lacking both superficial and emotional individuality . " Jen Yamato of Movies.com criticized Disney for " failing to give Rapunzel a backbone and retreading ground so familiar you can fall asleep for ten minutes and still know exactly what happened " .
As the tenth Disney Princess , several critics have drawn comparisons between Rapunzel and preceding Disney Princesses and animated heroines , the most frequent and prominent of whom remains Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) . The Daily News ' Joe Neumaier likened Rapunzel 's independence to that of Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , writing , " thoroughly modern Rapunzel does most of the saving " . Jonathan Crocker of Total Film noted similarities between Rapunzel and Ariel , describing Rapunzel as " A strong @-@ willed heroine longing to see outside . " Mike Scott of The Times @-@ Picayune commented on Rapunzel 's innocence , describing it as " reminiscent of Amy Adams ' flighty Giselle from ... Enchanted . " LoveFilm 's Tom Charity commented on the character 's independence , likening Rapunzel 's spirited personality to those of both Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and Mulan from Mulan ( 1998 ) . Charity also labeled Rapunzel " another addition to the more recent Disney tradition of emancipated heroines " .
= = = Accolades and recognition = = =
CNN 's Stephanie Goldberg included Rapunzel in her article " Brave 's Merida and other animated heroines " , a list that recognized some of Disney 's most heroic and independent heroines who have appeared in animated films . Goldberg jokingly wrote , " So what if ... Rapunzel defends herself with a frying pan and holds prisoners captive with her long , magical hair ? " Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Rapunzel fourth in her article " Ranked : Disney Princesses From Least To Most Feminist " . Comparing the character 's spirited personality to that of preceding Disney Princesses Ariel and Jasmine from Aladdin ( 1992 ) , Saraiya described Rapunzel as " badass , " despite the fact that " her naivete sometimes gets in the way of her progressivism . " Saraiya continued , " [ Rapunzel ] also recognizes the unfairness of her plight and finds a way out of it , outwitting her ' mother , ' who is in fact her kidnapper , to venture to the outside world . " Tala Dayrit of Female Network included Rapunzel in her article " 30 Fierce and Fun Female Cartoon Characters " , writing that , unlike her original fairy tale counterpart , " She ’ s not the helpless damsel locked in a tower awaiting an unknown fate , but a strong woman capable of defending herself in a fight . "
In the film , Rapunzel performs the song " I See the Light " as a duet with Flynn Rider . The song received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 . Voice actress Mandy Moore performed the song live at the ceremony with co @-@ star Zachary Levi , who provided the voice Flynn in the film . The song did , however , garner the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 54th ceremony in 2012 .
= Dragon Age : Origins =
Dragon Age : Origins is a role @-@ playing video game developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts . It is the first game in the Dragon Age franchise , and was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 in November 2009 , and for OS X in December 2009 . Edge of Reality developed the game 's console versions .
Set in the fictional kingdom of Ferelden during a period of civil strife , the game puts the player in the role of a warrior , mage or rogue coming from an elven , human , or dwarven background who must unite the kingdom to fight an impending invasion by demonic forces known as the " Darkspawn " . The player character is recruited as a Grey Warden and is tasked to defeat the Archdemon ( a being with the soul of an old god in the body of a powerful Dragon ) that commands the Darkspawn , and end the catastrophe known as the Blight . The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective that can be shifted to top @-@ down perspective . Throughout the game , players encounter various companions , who play major roles in the game 's plot and gameplay and accompany the player throughout the game .
BioWare described Dragon Age : Origins as a " dark heroic fantasy " set in a unique world , and a spiritual successor to their previous Baldur 's Gate and Neverwinter Nights franchises . Its setting was inspired by The Lord of the Rings and A Song of Ice & Fire , and was described by BioWare as a mix between high fantasy and low fantasy . Development of the game began in 2002 , and lasted over six years . BioWare employed more than 144 voice @-@ actors , and hired Inon Zur to compose the game 's music .
Origins received critical acclaim upon release , with praise mostly directed at its story , setting , characters , music and combat system . It sold more than 3 @.@ 2 million copies , and 1 million pieces of downloadable content . Its multiple year @-@ end accolades included Game of the Year and Best Role @-@ playing awards from several gaming publications . BioWare released several instances of downloadable content after the game 's initial launch , an expansion pack for the game titled Awakening in March 2010 , and two sequels , Dragon Age II and Dragon Age : Inquisition , were released in 2011 and 2014 respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Dragon Age : Origins is an action role @-@ playing game . The player is a Grey Warden , part of an order of elite fighters , whose task is to defeat the Archdemon and save the world from a disastrous event called the Blight . Players create their own Grey Warden character , customizing gender and appearance as well as choosing a race and class . The available classes are warriors , who perform strong physical attacks ; rogues , who carry out stealth attacks and steal items from other characters ; and mages , who cast spells on enemies , create combo spells , and support other party members . The three choices of race are human , elf , and dwarf . The combination of class and race determines which of six different origin stories the player experiences : Dalish Elf , City Elf , Dwarven Noble , Dwarven Commoner , Mage , or Human Noble . This affects the way other in @-@ game characters perceive the player 's character ; for instance , a Dwarven Commoner would receive hatred and discrimination from other dwarves . However , all classes follow the same plot after the completion of the origin story .
During gameplay the player encounters a variety of enemies , including giant spiders , darkspawn , ghosts , walking trees , and dragons . They also recruit companions , who accompany them and provide assistance in battle . These companions are normally controlled by artificial intelligence , with behavior that the player can adjust through the " Tactic " menu , but the player also has the option to switch between characters , and is able to issue orders to them in real @-@ time or pause the game to queue up actions .
Utilizing a third @-@ person perspective , the combat in Origins is largely similar to BioWare 's previous Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic . The player and any companions engage in combat with the weapons they have equipped when the player targets or is noticed by a hostile enemy . Players can swap weapons and perform special attacks during combat , but most of these attacks have a recharge time . The point of view can be shifted from third person to a top @-@ down view , where friendly and hostile units are labelled with different colors to distinguish them . At the end of a battle the characters ' health and stamina , which powers a character 's skills , are automatically refilled . When an enemy is defeated , the player collects any items or loot from its corpse .
The player can level up their Warden character by earning experience points through completing quests and defeating enemies . Each time player levels up , they receive three points to spend on the character 's six attributes . Strength inflicts more damage , dexterity helps evade attacks more often , willpower increases stamina , magic increases spell damage or magic defense , cunning improves combat tactics , and constitution helps withstand attacks . Special skills , which are divided into four different aspects for each class , and specialization options , which offer class @-@ specific skills , can also be unlocked by levelling up .
Players can be accompanied by a maximum of three companions . Companions who are not in the player 's active party stay in base camp , a hub where the player can talk to their party members as well as purchase new weapons , armor , and gear . In addition to the main story , the player can learn more about the world of Thedas by collecting the Indexes scattered throughout the game .
The game 's dialogue engine is the same as that of Mass Effect . The player can talk and interact with both party members and other non @-@ playable characters . A dialogue tree offers several dialogue options for the player to select . Through conversation , the player can unlock unique quests and dialogue revealing the lore of Dragon Age . It can also be used to persuade or intimidate other characters . The player often must choose between morally ambiguous options , which result in consequences that affect the game 's world and progression , and can even lead to the death of a potential companion . Companions react to the player 's choices through an " approval system " . When they dislike or object to the player 's decisions , their approval drops , which can result in a companion leaving the party or even attacking the Warden . Approval points can also be influenced by gifts , which will improve any companion 's approval but are each intended for a specific companion . Some gifts , if given to the right character , start a cutscene and can even unlock a quest . A high approval rating improves a companion 's morale and gives bonuses to their combat abilities . A significant approval rating also makes it possible for the Warden to pursue a romantic relationship with certain companions . The game 's " interaction reactivity " system means that the way a player treats one companion affects the approval rating of other companions as well .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game is set in Ferelden , one of several countries in the mythical continent Thedas . Demonic creatures called the Darkspawn dwell within the Deep Roads , an underground highway system created by the dwarves long ago , deep beneath the surface of Thedas . Every few hundred years , the Darkspawn swarm the surface world in a movement known as a Blight . Ever since the first Blight , Thedas has relied on the legendary order of warriors known as the Grey Wardens to drive the Darkspawn back . Dragon Age : Origins begins on the eve of Thedas 's fifth Blight .
Thedas is a world in which race and class combine to determine social class . Elves are often viewed as second @-@ class citizens by humans , while human nobles are treated with respect . Mages , on the other hand , are cloistered by the Chantry : they have access to the Fade , the unconscious realm that is the home of spirits , and a single lapse in vigilance could cause them to be possessed by demons . Apostate mages , who live outside the Chantry 's control , are considered extremely dangerous , and the Chantry has a militant wing , the Templars , to seek them out and subdue them by any means necessary .
= = = Characters = = =
The chief protagonist of Dragon Age : Origins is the player @-@ controlled character , whose biography and combat specialization are determined by the race and class chosen at the start of the game . While the player can choose his or her avatar 's first name , the character is usually referred to as " The Warden " by other characters and the game 's narration .
Many of the game 's non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) are companion characters , who appear throughout the game and may volunteer their services . Companions include Alistair , a reluctantly heroic Grey Warden with a sarcastic wit ; Morrigan , the sultry but cynical dark mage who has little regard for authority or social mores ; Leliana , an ex @-@ member of Ferelden 's Chantry whose optimistic and virtuous demeanor belies an aptitude for espionage and combat ; Sten , a proud but stoic warrior of the militaristic Qunari people who often questions human ways ; Oghren , a brutal dwarven warrior whose love of alcohol is only matched by his penchant for violence and loyalty to his friends ; Wynne , an Elder Mage of the Circle , a maternal figure to the party and a powerful healer ; Zevran , a rakish elven assassin who is fond of treasures , sex and innuendo ; and a loyal Mabari War Hound , which the player can name and use for scouting and combat . In the DLC , Shale , a sarcastic Golem with a mild ornithophobia who was a female dwarf in her prior life , is also available . There is also a so @-@ called " secret companion " who can be recruited , but that will cause Alister to leave the Warden . The secret companion is Loghain .
Outside of companion characters , NPCs significant to the Origins plot include Duncan , the Grey Warden who recruits the player ; King Cailan , Ferelden 's naive but courageous leader and son of the legendary King Maric ; Queen Anora , Cailan 's politically @-@ savvy wife , whose youth and beauty are matched by a commanding personality but somewhat offset by her ambition and ruthlessness ; and Flemeth , Morrigan 's mother , who appears to be a harmless old woman in public , but in truth is an infamous dark witch of Ferelden legend .
The faceless Darkspawn horde is led by the archdemon Urthemiel , supposedly one of the Old Gods of the Tevinter Imperium , incarnated in the form of a powerful and corrupted dragon with total control over the darkspawn . The game 's other main antagonists are Teyrn Loghain Mac Tir , father of Queen Anora , a once @-@ respected war hero gone mad with ambition and paranoia ; and Rendon Howe , the amoral and corrupt Arl of Amaranthine who allies with Loghain to further his own ambitions .
= = = Plot = = =
Depending on the player 's chosen race and class , they will begin the game with one of six predetermined origin stories . In each origin story , the player is introduced to Duncan , the commander of Ferelden 's Grey Wardens , who is trying to find recruits to join the order . At the end of the origin story , the player 's character is selected as a potential Grey Warden , and leaves with Duncan .
The player and Duncan journey to a fortress in southern Ferelden called Ostagar . There , they join Cailan , the King of Ferelden , and his father @-@ in @-@ law Loghain , a legendary general . The three leaders plan to make a stand against the encroaching Darkspawn before a new Blight overwhelms Ferelden . Duncan senses the influence of an Archdemon , a god @-@ like being hosted in the body of a powerful Dragon that commands the Darkspawn , which makes this the first true Blight in over 400 years . Duncan emphasizes the importance of defeating the Blight before it can gain enough momentum to threaten the rest of Thedas .
Duncan initiates the player into the Grey Wardens through a dangerous ritual called the Joining . The Joining involves imbibing Darkspawn blood , which will either kill a person or imbue them with the powerful darkspawn essence known as the Taint , granting them the ability to sense Darkspawn and a rudimentary connection into their hive mind . After surviving the Joining , the player and another Grey Warden , Alistair , are given the task of lighting a beacon at the top of the fortress which will signal Loghain 's men to charge the horde 's flank . However , upon seeing the signal , Loghain abandons the battlefield with his army . Without Loghain 's reinforcements , King Cailan and Duncan are overwhelmed and slain by the Darkspawn , who massacre Cailan 's army , seize control of Ostagar and begin advancing into southern Ferelden .
The player 's Warden and Alistair are saved by Flemeth , a powerful witch who lives in a secluded hermitage with her daughter and apprentice , Morrigan . The player , Alistair , and Morrigan decide that in order to stop the Blight from destroying Ferelden , and possibly all of Thedas , they will need to gather a new army and slay the Archdemon . Using ancient Grey Warden treaties , the player 's Warden must travel across Ferelden to enlist the aid of the Dalish Elves , the Dwarves of Orzammar , the Circle of Magi , and the soldiers of Redcliffe , loyal to Arl Eamon . In addition , Alistair reveals that he is a bastard son of King Maric Theirin , Cailin 's father , putting him in contention for the recently vacated throne .
Meanwhile , Loghain returns to Ferelden 's capital city , Denerim , to inform his daughter Queen Anora of King Cailan 's death . Loghain scapegoats the Grey Wardens for the defeat at Ostagar ; accusing them of betraying Ferelden , Loghain outlaws the order and demands the deaths of any surviving Wardens . While Anora inherits her husband 's authority , Loghain quickly declares himself her regent and effectively seizes control of the kingdom . Loghain swiftly becomes a brutal and tyrannical ruler willing to do anything to retain power , igniting a civil war between himself and Ferelden 's nobility , who refuse to acknowledge his authority . Both sides battle to an inconclusive stalemate , and the darkspawn take advantage of the chaos to advance further into Ferelden unopposed .
After the player successfully obtains the assistance of each of the primary factions , a Landsmeet is called among the nobles of Ferelden . There , the player confronts Loghain , ultimately either executing him or making him a Grey Warden ( in which case he joins the party , replacing Alistair ) . The player also settles who will lead Ferelden against the Blight ( Alistair , Anora , or both ) and rallies support from the rest of the kingdom to face the Darkspawn . At this point , the player learns that only a Grey Warden can slay the Archdemon because of the Taint present in a Grey Warden 's body . Killing the Archdemon releases the demonic essence within it , which is drawn to the Taint in the Grey Warden and effectively kills them as well ; if anyone other than a Warden slays it , the Archdemon 's essence survives and finds a new host in the nearest Darkspawn , making the monster effectively immortal .
On the night before the final battle , Morrigan offers the player 's Warden a way to slay the Archdemon without sacrificing anyone : Morrigan believes that if the player succeeds in conceiving a child with her , the child would also carry the Taint . Once the Archdemon dies , its demonic essence would be drawn away from any Grey Warden to safely merge with the unborn child instead . The resulting child would be born a demigod , which she plans to raise on her own . The player can accept Morrigan 's offer , convince Alistair or Loghain to take part instead , or refuse the witch 's proposal , which will cause her to leave the party .
The next day , the player and the newly assembled army of Ferelden fight their way through the city of Denerim , which has been overrun by the Darkspawn . After fighting their way through the Darkspawn horde , and a final battle against the Archdemon atop Denerim 's highest tower , the player is given the chance to deliver the killing blow or to let Alistair or Loghain do it . With each choice , the Archdemon is killed and the leaderless Darkspawn army retreats from Denerim , marking the end of the Fifth Blight . Unless the ritual with Morrigan was performed , whoever slew the Archdemon also perishes . The story ends with a ceremony attended by the people of Ferelden during which the player and their companions are honored for saving the kingdom . The game then presents an epilogue in text and pictures which details the ramifications of the player 's in @-@ game choices on the future of Ferelden and the lives of his or her companions .
= = Development = =
= = = Design = = =
Dragon Age : Origins was created by the Edmonton studio of BioWare , the developer of Neverwinter Nights and Jade Empire . Development of the game 's first demo began in November 2002 . It was officially revealed at E3 2004 as simply Dragon Age , and was re @-@ revealed as Dragon Age : Origins in July 2008 , alongside a new trailer for the game . According to BioWare , they kept any information about the game hidden from the public , to further the game 's design and technology . More than 180 people worked on the game , and full @-@ scale production began three years after the game 's initial development . The subtitle " Origins " was chosen to represent the six origins storyline , BioWare 's return to PC role @-@ playing games , and the beginning of a new franchise . Origins is a spiritual successor to Baldur 's Gate and Neverwinter Nights , as an attempt to build a similar fantasy RPG without any licensing restrictions or issues . The similarities are mostly present in gameplay elements , such as real @-@ time tactical combat ; the game does not share the Dungeons and Dragons setting of the Baldur 's Gate series , and is instead set in a period resembling the Stone Age or Iron Age , with dragons prevalent . The tactic menu was inspired by the gambit system from Final Fantasy XII .
David Gaider , the lead writer for Origins , built the game 's world first before writing the plot . The team chose a " fantasy " setting because Dan Tudge , the game 's director , thought that BioWare was at its best in the fantasy genre . In the first draft , there were no Darkspawn or Grey Wardens , and mages were not allowed to use magic in cities . There were twelve different origin stories , including Human Commoner and Avvar , a barbarian origin . However , most of them were scrapped for being " ridiculous " , leading to six stories being finalized . Loghain was the first character to be created , while an Ogre , nicknamed " Fluffy " , and a human with medium armor were the first enemies designed . The concepts of Alistair and Morrigan were the next to be created , as they play the largest role in the game 's plot . Their creation also took far longer than other characters . Morrigan was originally conceived to be similar to Flemeth , speaking whimsically . However , Gaider was not satisfied and decided to completely rewrite her personality . As a result , she was designed as a " blunt " person who always resists her mother . Finding a suitable voice actor for Morrigan took the most time of any character . The game 's final version features 68 @,@ 260 lines of dialogue ; the quality assurance testers for the game enabled a cheat to automatically skip these cutscenes and dialogues during test runs .
Ray Muzyka , co @-@ founder of BioWare , said that the team wanted to try something that would be new but familiar to most players . They hoped that Origins would redefine the genre to become The Lord of the Rings of video game franchises . Greg Zeschuk , another co @-@ founder of BioWare , described the fantasy of Dragon Age as in between the high fantasy of J. R. R. Tolkien 's works and the low fantasy of works by George R.R. Martin . The goal was a " dark heroic fantasy " that would suit the taste of any fan of the genre . Thus , while the game has the typical races of human , elf , and dwarf , they are slightly altered from the usual nature of the three races , and a new lizard @-@ like race called the Qunari was introduced . Some of the alterations they made included flipping how certain races , like elves , are treated in other fictional worlds . While elves are often described as a race of high prestige in fiction , Dragon Age : Origins presents them as slaves of humans , labelled as second class citizens who resent the human race . This extended to the gameplay , where the player can choose to discriminate against other races , and can experience discrimination from others based on their choices .
BioWare recognized that non @-@ linear choices are an element unique to video games in the entertainment industry . Zeschuk called the sheer number of choices in the game " big " and " impactful " , and the team designed many of those to be emotional and create a more personal experience for the player . They intentionally avoided adding a karma system , as the choices are designed to be ambiguous , with only the player to judge whether they are good or bad . According to Muzyka , their goal was to make players sympathize with events and characters , connecting with them to feel true emotions . This vision challenged the team to balance many key aspects , such as the amount of dialogue and animation in each cutscene , to create a believable scenario for players .
The team also hoped to handle romance in a more " mature " and " complicated " way , with a true reflection on human relationships and reactions rather than " adolescent titillation " . The game has sex scenes , but no nudity . Muzyka added that it was an artistic choice , and a decision made by the team , not the publisher Electronic Arts .
While Origins is a single @-@ player @-@ only game , Muzyka described it as a " social experience " , considering the narrative and its variety of paths as an integral part of the gameplay . The characters a player meets , items they collect , and quests they receive and complete may be different , leading to a completely different experience . He also considered the ways a player explores the world and discovers new areas as an exploration narrative . As each player had different experience , they hoped that those players would collaborate to expand upon their knowledge of the world . To that effect , the team built a community site as an online social environment for players to communicate . Players could share stats and automatically generated screenshots with the community .
= = = Sound = = =
The game features an orchestral soundtrack with choir , used both in @-@ game and during cutscenes . The soundtrack was recorded by performance of a 44 @-@ piece orchestra , recorded twice and merged to sound like an 88 @-@ piece orchestra . It was composed by Inon Zur and performed by the Northwest Sinfonia . According to Zur , he intentionally made most of the soundtrack feel " dark " , combining low brass and bass string instruments with ancient drums to express a feeling that is both heroic and demonic . One of the tracks , " Leliana 's Song " , was composed in under 24 hours . The soundtrack was presented at a panel in the Hollywood Music in Media Interactive Conference in 2009 , and was performed as part of the September 26 " A Night in Fantasia 2009 " concert in Sydney , Australia , by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra .
Origins contains a large amount of voice acting recorded in the US and the UK . Actors include Tim Russ , Steve Valentine , Kate Mulgrew , Simon Templeman , Mark Rolston , Tim Curry , Adam Howden , Nicola Bertram , and Claudia Black . In total , more than 140 voice actors worked on the game . A large part of these recordings became the ambient dialogue that takes place between non @-@ player characters in the adventuring party , adding to their backstories and lending more credibility to the characters . Mark Darrah , executive producer of BioWare , described the cast of characters the largest of any of their games at that time , and hoped that using celebrities would add a layer of depth and complexity to the characters . The main protagonist is not voice @-@ acted , as the team hoped that players would " reflect their own inner voice " when making decisions .
= = = Release = = =
While the game was originally intended for PC , a console version was announced in 2008 by gaming magazine Game Informer . Prior to the announcement , Zeschuk suggested that the entire franchise has a " console future " . The decision was made to bring the game to consoles to introduce it to a wider audience . Mike Laidlaw , the game 's lead designer , considered creating the console versions ' interface a challenge , as they had to convert the long and complex quickbar from the PC version to a more streamlined interface that could use the same actions with only few button presses . To that end , the team decided to map six different actions together , and allow players to customize the arrangement . Also , the console version does not allow the top @-@ down view possible in the PC version .
The game was originally set to be released in early 2009 for Microsoft Windows , and later for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The team partnered with Edge of Reality to develop the console versions of the game . However , its release date was pushed to the latter half of that year in order to have a simultaneous launch . BioWare announced that the game would be released on October 20 , 2009 , but pushed it back again to November 6 , 2009 , as the team wanted additional time to finalize some last @-@ minute decisions . The PlayStation 3 version was at one point delayed to November 17 , but did end up launching alongside the other versions . A Mac version of the game , developed by TransGaming , was released on December 21 , 2009 .
In addition to the standard version , other editions of Origins were made available for purchase . The Collector 's Edition came in a SteelBook with different artwork . Like the standard edition , the Collector 's Edition included a redemption code to obtain the Stone Prisoner and Blood Dragon Armor DLC for free , but added three additional exclusive in @-@ game items , a bonus disc containing a making @-@ of documentary , concept art , trailers , the game 's original soundtrack , and a cloth map of Ferelden . The " Ultimate Edition " , released on October 26 , 2010 , includes the base game , the Awakening expansion pack , and all 9 DLC packs .
The Dragon Age Character Creator was released on October 13 , 2009 , allowing players to create a character in advance and import it into the full game upon release . BioWare also released a " developer @-@ grade " toolset to allow extensive modification and customization of the game 's PC version . Players can use these tools to craft new campaigns , quests , cinematics , and lip @-@ syncing .
On November 26 , 2009 , Electronic Arts announced a competition called Dragon Age : Warden ’ s Quest . Contestants formed groups of four people and competed to adventure through the game 's world , with the winning group receiving $ 12 @,@ 500 . The representatives from Hungary won the contest , followed by a group called Bioware Community , Canada and a group from Poland . On March 9 , 2011 , Electronic Arts announced that players who pre @-@ ordered Darkspore would receive a free copy of Origins . In 2012 , to celebrate the first @-@ year anniversary of Electronic Arts ' own digital distribution software Origin , the game was made free to download alongside Battlefield : Bad Company 2 and Spore for a limited time . On October 8 , 2015 , it became free to download again for a limited time as part of Origin 's On the House program .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
BioWare announced that they would support the game with downloadable content for at least 2 years . The DLC packs are both story @-@ based and content @-@ based , and added in elements that were cut from the base game , such as Shale , a stone @-@ based companion who always gets stuck in doors and causes trouble with the camera system . A crossover with Mass Effect 2 , an item called the Blood Dragon Armor , is also available for purchase .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Dragon Age : Origins received critical acclaim from major video game critics upon its release . While the game is considered to be virtually identical across all platforms , differences in user interface , graphical performance , and online content delivery have led the PC version to be reviewed more favorably than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions ; Metacritic ranks the PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 versions of the game with scores of 91 , 87 , and 86 , respectively .
The game 's setting was well received by critics . Dave Snider from Giant Bomb thought that the setting felt traditional due to the presence of dwarves and elves , but that the world was beautifully executed . He also appreciated the small touches BioWare added to the world , noting the " French @-@ tinged accent " of the Orlesian Empire humans . He added that the six origin stories and their unique dialogue and referencing throughout the game make the world feel cohesive . Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot made similar comments , stating that the new ideas added to a familiar world make it feel original and new . However , Jeff Haynes from IGN said that the origin stories were inconsistent , with missteps that make the world , while " rich and vivid " , feel less believable . Joe Juba from Game Informer wrote that the world was well @-@ realized with a deep history , which makes the game addicting , as players can sense their Warden 's importance in the world .
The game 's story and characters also received praise . Snider said that the story is driven by the characters , and that the choices presented in the game were difficult , making him regret some choices for weeks after completing the game . He added that the game 's main quest was well @-@ written , and its quality boosted by excellent voice acting ; he called the performance of Claudia Black as Morrigan one of the best in the game . VanOrd commended the game 's story , saying that it was memorable and crafted with care , successfully making players care about the game 's world and characters . He added that the deep character development made every choice " momentous " . GamesRadar thought that the story and the Warden 's appearance felt generic , but that the story become more and more engrossing as it progressed . Nick Tan from Game Revolution liked the banter between companions as a humorous change of pace within the game . Gerald Villoria from GameSpy praised the exclusion of the moral system for making the characters feel more complex . Juba wrote that the story was good but predictable , not straying far from standard fantasy stories . Wesley Yin @-@ Poole from VideoGamer.com called the story memorable , saying that it " leaves an itch in your mind " , and has attracted players to return to the game " like an addict seeking a hit of relief . "
As for the game 's combat , Snider called it streamlined , but said that players who do not want to use the pause mechanic would not be able to appreciate the game , as the combat requires both patience and strategy . He liked the game 's third @-@ person view more than the top @-@ down view , saying that being able to view the sky made environments feel more complicated , and praised the high difficulty of boss battles , which task players to manage their stamina carefully . His conclusion was that Origins " feels like a real throwback to the good old days of PC role @-@ playing epics . " VanOrd said that the combat system was easily recognizable for players who have played other RPGs developed by BioWare . He added that players can have a lot of fun switching between characters , and agreed that the game had created thrilling boss battles . He praised the choice to have health and stamina replenish immediately after battles , as it sped up combat pace and flow . Tan also commended the combat , finding it a better system than other BioWare RPGs , but disliked the fact that characters can step into water . Juba praised the amount of space for players to experiment with new skills and abilities , adding that the required focus and attention make combat very satisfying .
The game 's graphics received mixed reviews . VanOrd was not impressed , stating that the environments do not look as good viewed from a top @-@ down perspective , but he praised the art style and some of the game 's " eye @-@ catching " landmarks . Tan liked that the environments were varied and unique , saying that each level felt " vast " and filled with details . Villoria found its visual quality lacking when compared with that of Mass Effect 2 , adding that the facial animation can feel wooden at times . However , he found the combat animation rewarding and satisfying . He further criticized the sex sequences as " off @-@ putting " . Yin @-@ Poole said that the game 's graphics were boring and generic , and called the sex scenes " anti @-@ climatic " and poorly @-@ executed . Both Villoria and Yin @-@ Poole felt that the six @-@ year development time was too long , considering the game 's mediocre graphics .
GamesRadar estimated that there are more than 80 hours of content available in the game . Villoria called the world engaging , and its replay value very high , as players can play the story over and over again with a different origin . Juba agreed , as did Yin @-@ Poole , who added that the way companions react to the player 's decisions , as well as the six origin stories , significantly expand the game 's longevity .
= = = Sales = = =
Dragon Age : Origins topped Steam 's sales chart on November 10 , 2009 . The Digital Deluxe version of the game was ranked first place , with the standard edition ranked second . The Xbox 360 version of the game was the ninth @-@ best @-@ selling game in the US according to the NPD Group , selling approximately 362 @,@ 100 copies . According to John Riccitiello , CEO of Electronic Arts , the company is very satisfied with the sales of Origins ; more than 1 million DLC packs for the game were sold before the end of 2009 . In February 2010 , Electronic Arts announced that more than 3 @.@ 2 million copies of the game had been sold .
= = = Accolades = = =
Origins gained recognition from several gaming publications for its achievements . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences named it the " Role @-@ Playing / Massively Multiplayer Game of the Year 2009 " . At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards , Dragon Age : Origins received the Best PC Game and Best RPG awards . It was chosen as the PC Game of the Year , Best Xbox 360 RPG of the Year , Best Story of the Year , and Best PC Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year by IGN . The game also received Giant Bomb 's Best PC Game of 2009 award , and Game of the Year 2009 and RPG of the Year awards from U.S. PC Gamer . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
= = Franchise = =
Although the name " Origins " hinted that the game would be a beginning of a new franchise , the team did not expect the game to become successful , and had never planned for sequels . Due to its success , the game spawned a Dragon Age franchise consisting of video games , comics , and novels . The game 's sequel , Dragon Age II , was announced on July 9 , 2010 , with the goal of bringing improved graphics and combat to the franchise . Dragon Age II is set within a ten @-@ year period and features a new predefined protagonist , Hawke , and a new locale within the Dragon Age world , the city of Kirkwall . Players are able to transfer save data from Dragon Age : Origins into the sequel ; decisions that the player made during the course of Dragon Age : Origins are referenced while playing Dragon Age II .
The third installment of the series , titled Dragon Age : Inquisition , was announced on September 17 , 2012 . In Inquisition , players take on the role of an Inquisitor , and must unite Ferelden and Orlais to defeat an ancient Darkspawn called Corypheus . The game was released on November 18 , 2014 , and in addition to the original three gaming platforms , it brought the Dragon Age franchise to the eighth generation of video game consoles : PlayStation 4 and Xbox One .
A free @-@ to @-@ play mobile game , Heroes of Dragon Age , was released in 2013 .
= Shōkaku @-@ class aircraft carrier =
The two Shōkaku @-@ class ( 翔鶴型 , Shōkaku @-@ gata ) aircraft carriers were built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1930s . Completed shortly before the start of the Pacific War in 1941 , they have been called " arguably the best aircraft carriers in the world " when built . With the exception of the Battle of Midway , they participated in every major naval action of the Pacific War , including the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Indian Ocean Raid , the Battle of the Coral Sea , and the Guadalcanal Campaign .
Their inexperienced air groups were relegated to airfield attacks during the attack on Pearl Harbor , but they later sank two of the four fleet carriers lost by the United States Navy during the war in addition to one elderly British light carrier . The sister ships returned to Japan after the Battle of the Coral Sea , one to repair damage and the other to replace aircraft lost during the battle , so neither ship participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After the catastrophic losses of four carriers during that battle , they formed the bulk of the IJN 's carrier force for the rest of the war . As such they were the primary counterattack force deployed against the American invasion of Guadalcanal in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August . Two months later , they attempted to support a major offensive by the Imperial Japanese Army to push the United States Marines off Guadalcanal . This resulted in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands where they crippled one American carrier and damaged another in exchange for damage to Shōkaku and a light carrier . Neither attempt succeeded and the Japanese withdrew their remaining forces from Guadalcanal in early 1943 using the air group from Zuikaku to provide cover .
For the next year , the sisters trained before moving south to defend against any American attempt to retake the Mariana Islands or the Philippines . Shōkaku was sunk by an American submarine during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 as the Americans invaded the Marianas and Zuikaku was sacrificed as a decoy four months later during the Battle of Cape Engano .
= = Background and description = =
The two Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were ordered in 1937 as part of the 3rd Naval Armaments Supplement Program . No longer restricted by the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , which had expired in December 1936 , and with relaxed budgetary limitations , the IJN sought qualitative superiority over their foreign counterparts . Drawing on experience with their existing carriers , the Navy General Staff laid out an ambitious requirement for a ship that equaled the 96 @-@ aircraft capacity of the Akagi and Kaga , the speed of Hiryū and the defensive armament of Kaga . The new ship was also to have superior protection and range over any of the existing carriers .
The Basic Design Section of the Navy Technical Department decided upon an enlarged and improved Hiryū design with the island on the port side , amidships . After construction of the ships began , the Naval Air Technical Department ( NATD ) began having second thoughts about the location of the island because it thought that the portside location of the island on Hiryū and Akagi had an adverse impact on airflow over the flight deck . Another issue identified was that the amidships position shortened the available landing area , which had the potential to be problematic in the future as aircraft landing speeds increased with their growing weight . To verify these assumptions , the NATD filmed hundreds of takeoffs and landings aboard Akagi in October – November 1938 and decided to move the island over to the starboard side and further forward , about one @-@ third of the length from the bow . Shōkaku was the furthest advanced by this point and the supporting structure for the bridge had already been built ; rebuilding it would have delayed construction so it was left in place . The changes that had to be made consisted of a 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) widening of the flight deck opposite the island and a corresponding 50 @-@ centimeter ( 20 in ) narrowing on the starboard side and the addition of 100 metric tons ( 98 long tons ) of ballast on the port side to re @-@ balance the ship .
The ships had a length of 257 @.@ 5 meters ( 844 ft 10 in ) overall , a beam of 29 meters ( 95 ft 2 in ) , a draft of 9 @.@ 32 meters ( 30 ft 7 in ) at deep load , and a moulded depth of 23 m ( 75 ft 6 in ) . They displaced 32 @,@ 105 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 598 long tons ) at deep load . Based on hydrodynamic research conducted for the Yamato @-@ class battleships , the Shōkaku class received a bulbous bow and twin rudders , both of which were positioned on the centerline abaft the propellers . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 660 men : 75 commissioned officers , 56 special duty officers , 71 warrant officers and 1 @,@ 458 petty officers and crewmen , excluding the air group .
The Shōkaku @-@ class ships were fitted with four Kampon geared steam turbine sets , each driving one 4 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 9 in ) propeller , using steam provided by eight Kampon Type Model B water @-@ tube boilers . With a working pressure of 30 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 942 kPa ; 427 psi ) , the boilers gave the turbines enough steam to generate a total of 160 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 000 kW ) and a designed speed of 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) . This was the most powerful propulsion system in IJN service , 10 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 and 6 @,@ 000 kW ) more than the Yamato class and the Mogami @-@ class cruiser , respectively . During their sea trials , the sister ships achieved 34 @.@ 37 – 34 @.@ 58 knots ( 63 @.@ 65 – 64 @.@ 04 km / h ; 39 @.@ 55 – 39 @.@ 79 mph ) from 161 @,@ 290 – 168 @,@ 100 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 270 – 125 @,@ 350 kW ) . They carried 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 9 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 000 km ; 11 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ships ' starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels that curved downward . The Shōkaku class was fitted with three 600 @-@ kilowatt ( 800 hp ) turbo generators and two 350 @-@ kilowatt ( 470 hp ) diesel generators , all operating at 225 volts .
= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =
The carriers ' 242 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 794 ft 7 in ) flight deck had a maximum width of 29 meters and overhung the superstructure at both ends , supported by pillars . Ten transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck that could stop a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) aircraft . If the aircraft missed those , it could be stopped by one of three crash barricades . Although space and weight were allocated for two aircraft catapults , their development was not completed before the Shōkaku @-@ class ships were sunk . The ships were designed with two superimposed hangars ; the upper hangar was about 200 meters ( 656 ft 2 in ) long and had a width that varied between 18 @.@ 5 and 24 meters ( 60 ft 8 in and 78 ft 9 in ) . It had a height of 4 @.@ 85 meters ( 15 ft 11 in ) while the lower hangar was 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft 5 in ) high and only usable by fighters . The lower hangar was about 20 meters ( 65 ft 7 in ) shorter than the upper one and its width ranged from 17 @.@ 5 to 20 meters ( 57 ft 5 in to 65 ft 7 in ) . Together they had a total area of 5 @,@ 545 square meters ( 59 @,@ 690 sq ft ) . Each hangar could be subdivided by five or six fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The lower hangar was also fitted with a carbon dioxide fire suppression system . Each subdivision was provided with a pair of enclosed and armored stations to control the fire curtains and fire fighting equipment .
Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators that took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . The forward elevator was larger than the others to allow aircraft that had just landed to be moved below without folding their wings and measured 13 by 16 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 52 ft 6 in ) . The other elevators were narrower , 13 by 12 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 39 ft 4 in ) . The ships mounted a crane on the starboard side of the flight deck , abreast the rear elevator . When collapsed , it was flush with the flight deck .
The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were initially intended to have an air group of 96 , including 24 aircraft in reserve . These were envisioned as 12 Mitsubishi A5M ( " Claude " ) monoplane fighters , 24 Aichi D1A2 ( " Susie " ) Type 96 dive bombers , 24 Mitsubishi B5M ( " Mabel " ) Type 97 No. 2 torpedo bombers , and 12 Nakajima C3N Type 97 reconnaissance aircraft . All of these aircraft were either superseded by larger , more modern aircraft or cancelled while the ships were being built , so the air group was revised to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 27 Aichi D3A ( " Val " ) dive bombers , and 27 Nakajima B5N ( " Kate " ) torpedo bombers . In addition , the ship carried 2 Zeros , 5 " Vals " , and 5 " Kates " as spares for a total of 84 aircraft .
= = = Armament and sensors = = =
The carriers ' primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of eight twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , grouped into pairs fore and aft on each side of the hull . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) , and a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at an elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with four Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 cm guns , one for each pair of guns , although the director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns .
Their light AA armament consisted of a dozen triple @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 AA guns , six mounts on each side of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and a ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by six Type 95 directors , one for every pair of mounts .
In June 1942 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku had their anti @-@ aircraft armament augmented with six more triple 25 mm mounts , two each at the bow and stern , and one each fore and aft of the island . The bow and stern groups each received a Type 95 director . In October another triple 25 mm mount was added at the bow and stern and 10 single mounts were added before the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 . After the battle , Zuikaku 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with 26 single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun , bringing the total of 25 mm barrels to 96 , 60 in 20 triple mounts and 36 single mounts . These guns were supplemented by eight 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Each 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) rocket weighed 22 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 50 lb ) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m / s ( 660 ft / s ) . Their maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 yd ) .
Shōkaku was the first carrier in the IJN to be fitted with radar , a Type 21 early @-@ warning radar , mounted on the top of the island around September 1942 . The date of Zuikaku 's installation is unknown , but both ships received a second Type 21 radar in a retractable installation adjacent to the flight deck after October . Before June 1944 , a Type 13 air @-@ search radar was installed on the light tripod mast abaft the island . The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were also fitted with a Type 91 hydrophone in the bow that was only useful when anchored or moving very slowly .
= = = Protection = = =
The Shōkaku class had a waterline belt that consisted of 46 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) of Copper @-@ alloy Non @-@ Cemented armor ( CNC ) that covered most of the length of the ship . The belt was 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) high , of which 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) was below the waterline . The lower strake of the armor was backed by 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of Ducol steel . The magazines were protected by 165 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) of New Vickers Non @-@ Cemented ( NVNC ) armor , sloped at an inclination up to 25 ° and tapered to thicknesses of 55 – 75 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) . The flight and both hangar decks were unprotected and the ships ' propulsion machinery was protected by a 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck of CNC armor . The NVNC armor over the magazines was 132 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) thick and 105 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick over the aviation gasoline storage tanks . All of the deck armor was overlaid on a 25 @-@ millimeter deck of Ducol steel .
The Shōkakus were the first Japanese carriers to incorporate a torpedo belt system . Based on model experiments that began in 1935 , it consisted of a liquid @-@ loaded " sandwich " of compartments outboard of the torpedo bulkhead . The experiments showed that a narrow liquid @-@ loaded compartment was necessary to distribute the force of a torpedo or mine 's detonation along the torpedo bulkhead by spreading it across the full width of the bulkhead and to stop the splinters created by the detonation . Outboard of this were two compartments intended to dissipate the force of the gases of the detonation , including the watertight compartment of the double bottom . The two innermost compartments were intended to be filled with fuel oil that would be replaced by water as it was consumed . The torpedo bulkhead itself consisted of an outer Ducol plate 18 – 30 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick that was riveted to a 12 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) plate . The IJN expected the torpedo bulkhead to be damaged in an attack and placed a thin holding bulkhead slightly inboard to prevent any leaks from reaching the ships ' vitals .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Shortly after completion in 1941 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to the newly formed Fifth Carrier Division , which was itself assigned to the 1st Air Fleet ( Kidō Butai ) , and began working up to prepare for the Pearl Harbor attack . Due to their inexperience , their air groups were tasked with the less demanding airfield attack role rather than the anti @-@ ship mission allocated to the veteran air groups of the older carriers . Each carrier 's aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zero fighters , 27 D3A dive bombers , and 27 B5N torpedo bombers . The two carriers contributed a total of 12 Zeros and 54 D3As to the first wave on the morning of 8 December 1941 ( Japan time ) ; these latter aircraft struck Wheeler Army Airfield , Hickam Field , and Naval Air Station Ford Island while the fighters strafed Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay . Only the 54 B5Ns participated in the second wave , striking Ford Island , Hickam Field and Kaneohe Bay again . The Fifth Carrier Division 's aircraft conducted the majority of the attack against the airfields , supplemented only by fighters from the other four carriers . Only one of Shōkaku 's dive bombers was lost during the attack ; in exchange 314 American aircraft were damaged or destroyed . Historian Alan Zimm said the young aviators delivered " a sterling performance , greatly exceeding expectations and outshining the dive bombers from the more experienced carriers . "
In January 1942 , together with Akagi and Kaga of the First Carrier Division , the sisters supported the invasion of Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago , as the Japanese moved to secure their southern defensive perimeter against attacks from Australia . Aircraft from all four carriers attacked the Australian base at Rabaul on 20 January ; the First Carrier Division continued to attack the town while the Fifth Carrier Division moved westwards and attacked Lae and Salamaua in New Guinea . They covered the landings at Rabaul and Kavieng on 23 January before returning to Truk before the end of the month . After the Marshalls – Gilberts raids on 1 February , the Fifth Carrier Division was retained in home waters until mid @-@ March to defend against any American carrier raids on the Home Islands .
= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =
The sister ships then rejoined the Kido Butai at Staring Bay on Celebes Island in preparation for the Indian Ocean raid . By this time the air groups had been reorganized to consist of 21 each of the A6Ms , D3As and B5Ns . The Japanese intent was to defeat the British Eastern Fleet and destroy British airpower in the region in order to secure the flank of their operations in Burma . Shōkaku and Zuikaku contributed aircraft to the 5 April Easter Sunday Raid on Colombo , Ceylon . Although the civilian shipping had been evacuated from Colombo harbor , the Japanese sank an armed merchant cruiser and a destroyer and severely damaged some of the support facilities . The Kido Butai returned to Ceylon four days later and attacked Trincomalee ; the sisters ' aircraft sank a large cargo ship and damaged the monitor HMS Erebus . In the meantime , the Japanese spotted the light carrier HMS Hermes , escorted by the destroyer HMAS Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the first to attack the Allied ships , both of which were sunk .
= = = Battle of the Coral Sea = = =
En route to Japan , the Fifth Carrier Division was diverted to Truk to support Operation Mo ( the planned capture of Port Moresby in New Guinea ) . While they were preparing for the mission , the Americans intercepted and decrypted Japanese naval messages discussing the operation and dispatched the carriers Yorktown and Lexington to stop the invasion . The Japanese opened Operation Mo by occupying Tulagi , in the Solomon Islands , on 3 May . American land @-@ based aircraft had spotted the light carrier Shōhō escorting the transports of the main invasion force on 6 May , and the American carriers moved west to place themselves in a position to attack it the following morning .
Shōhō was quickly located again that morning and sunk . In turn , the Japanese spotted the oiler , Neosho , and her escorting destroyer , which were misidentified as a carrier and a light cruiser . A single dive bomber was lost during the consequent airstrike that sank the destroyer and damaged Neosho badly enough that she had to be scuttled a few days later . Late in the afternoon , the Japanese launched a small airstrike , without any escorting fighters , based on an erroneous spot report . The American carriers were far closer to the Japanese than they realized and roughly in line with their intended target . Alerted by radar , some of the American Combat Air Patrol ( CAP ) was vectored to intercept the Japanese aircraft , the rest being retained near the carriers because of bad weather and fading daylight . The American fighters mauled the Japanese attackers who were forced to call off the attack , but some of the surviving Japanese pilots became confused in the darkness and attempted to verify if the American carriers were their own before being driven off .
On the morning of 8 May , both sides located each other at about the same time and began launching their aircraft about 09 : 00 . The American dive bombers disabled Shōkaku 's flight deck with three hits , but the carrier was able to evade all of the torpedoes . Hidden by a rain squall , Zuikaku escaped detection and was not attacked . In return , the Japanese aircraft badly damaged Lexington with two torpedo and two bomb hits and scored a single bomb hit on Yorktown . The torpedo hits on Lexington cracked one of her avgas tanks , and leaking vapor caused a series of large explosions that caused her to be scuttled .
The air groups of the sisters were decimated in the battle , which forced Zuikaku to return to Japan with Shōkaku for resupply and aircrew training , and neither carrier was able to take part in the Battle of Midway in June . En route to Japan , Shōkaku was caught in a severe storm and nearly capsized as the weight of the water used to put out the fires had compromised her stability . Repairs took three months and she was not ready for action until late August .
= = = Battle of the Eastern Solomons = = =
The American landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942 caught the Japanese by surprise . The next day , the light carrier Ryūjō joined the sister ships in the First Carrier Division , which departed for Truk on 16 August . Having learned the lesson taught at Midway , the IJN strengthened the fighter contingent at the expense of the torpedo bombers assigned to its carriers ; the Shōkaku @-@ class carriers mustered 53 Zeros , 51 D3As , 36 B5Ns and 2 Yokosuka D4Y1 @-@ C " Judy " reconnaissance aircraft between them . After an American carrier was spotted near the Solomon Islands on 21 August , the division was ordered to bypass Truk and continue to the south . Ryūjō was detached early on 24 August to move in advance of the troop convoy bound for Guadalcanal and to attack the American air base at Henderson Field if no carriers were located . The two fleet carriers were to stand off , prepared to attack the Americans if found .
Ryūjō and her escorts were the first Japanese ships spotted and sunk by the Americans later that morning , but Zuikaku and Shōkaku were not spotted until the afternoon . Shortly before an unsuccessful attack by the pair of Douglas SBD Dauntlesses conducting the search , the sisters launched half of their dive bombers to attack the American carriers Enterprise and Saratoga . Most of the American carrier aircraft were already airborne by this time , either on CAP , returning from search missions , or from sinking Ryūjō , so only a small airstrike was launched in response to the spot report . About an hour after the first Japanese airstrike took off , a second airstrike that included the rest of the dive bombers was launched , but their target location was mistaken and they failed to find the Americans . The first airstrike attacked the two American carriers , scoring one hit on the battleship USS North Carolina and three hits on Enterprise , but they were mauled by the large number of airborne American aircraft and heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . Uncertain of the damage inflicted on each other , both sides disengaged later that evening .
= = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = =
The First Carrier Division , now including the light carrier Zuihō , departed Truk on 11 October to support the Japanese Army operation to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . At this time , the sisters mustered 54 A6Ms , 45 D3As , and 36 B5Ns between them . Four days later , the Japanese spotted a small American convoy that consisted of a fleet tug towing a gasoline barge and escorted by the destroyer Meredith . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku sank the latter , but did not attack the tug .
The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October and each side launched air strikes . Shōkaku was badly damaged by six hits from USS Hornet 's dive bombers ; Zuikaku was not spotted or attacked as she was hidden by the overcast conditions , just like at the Battle of the Coral Sea . In exchange , the Japanese crippled Hornet with two torpedoes and three bombs . In addition , two aircraft crashed into the American carrier and inflicted serious damage . Enterprise was also damaged by two bomb hits and a near miss and a destroyer was damaged when it was struck by a B5N . Attacks later in the day further damaged Hornet , which was abandoned and later sunk by Japanese destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo . The Japanese lost nearly half their aircraft that participated in the battle , together with their irreplaceable experienced aircrew . On 2 November , the First Carrier Division was ordered home for repairs and training .
Shōkaku 's repairs continued until March 1943 and Zuikaku , together with the recently repaired Zuihō , sailed for Truk on 17 January to support the impending evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal ( Operation Ke ) . On 29 January , the two carriers flew off 47 Zeros to Rabaul and Kahili Airfield , contributing some of their own aircraft and pilots . Zuihō was then used to cover the evacuation , while Zuikaku remained at Truk , together with the two Yamato @-@ class battleships , acting as a fleet in being threatening to sortie at any time .
In May , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to a mission to counterattack the American offensive in the Aleutian Islands , but this operation was cancelled after the Allied victory on Attu on 29 May 1943 . The sister ships were transferred to Truk in July . In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September , the carriers and much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September , having failed to locate them . The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested another attack on Wake Island , and on 17 October , Shōkaku and Zuikaku and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack , but no attack occurred and the fleet returned to Truk . At the beginning of November , the bulk of their air groups were transferred to Rabaul to bolster the defenses there , just in time to help defend the port against the Allied attack a few days later . They accomplished little there , for the loss of over half their number , before returning to Truk on the 13th . The sisters returned to Japan in December .
In February 1944 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were transferred to Singapore . On 1 March the carrier divisions were reorganized with the new fleet carrier Taihō replacing Zuihō in the division . The First Carrier Division sailed in mid @-@ May for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the IJN relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack ; the location lacked an airfield on which to train the inexperienced pilots and American submarine activity restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . At this time , the sister ships mustered 54 Zeros , 60 D4Ys and 36 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers . As the carriers were launching their first airstrike the following morning , Taihō was torpedoed by an American submarine and later sank . Later that morning , Shōkaku was torpedoed by a different submarine , USS Cavalla . The three or four torpedoes started multiple fires in the hangar , which ignited fueling aircraft , in addition to causing heavy flooding . As the bow continued to sink , aircraft and munitions began to slide forward and a bomb in the hangar detonated . This ignited gas and oil fumes which caused a series of four explosions that gutted the ship . Shōkaku sank several minutes later with the loss of 1 @,@ 263 of her crew . 570 men were rescued by a light cruiser and a destroyer .
The loss of Taihō and Shōkaku left Zuikaku to recover the Division 's few remaining aircraft after their heavy losses ( only 102 aircraft remained aboard the seven surviving carriers by the evening ) and the 1st Mobile Fleet continued its withdrawal towards Okinawa . The Americans did not spot the Japanese carriers until the afternoon of the following day and launched a large airstrike that only succeeded in hitting Zuikaku with a single bomb that started a fire in the hangar .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
In October 1944 , Zuikaku was the flagship of Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa 's decoy Northern Force in Operation Shō @-@ Gō 1 , the Japanese counterattack against the Allied landings on Leyte . At this time , the ship had 28 A6M5 Zero fighters , 16 A6M2 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 7 D4Y reconnaissance aircraft and 15 B6Ns . On the morning of 24 October , she launched 10 fighters , 11 fighter @-@ bombers , 6 torpedo bombers , and 2 reconnaissance aircraft as her contribution to the airstrike intended to attract the attention of the American carriers away from the other task groups that were to destroy the landing forces . This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters ; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon . The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks and finally found the Northern Force late that afternoon , but Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Task Force 38 , decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike . He turned all of his ships north to position himself for an attack .
The American carriers launched an airstrike shortly after dawn ; Zuikaku was struck by three bombs and one torpedo that started fires in both hangars , damaged one propeller shaft , and gave her a 29 @.@ 5 ° list to port . Fifteen minutes later , the fires were extinguished and the list was reduced to 6 ° by counterflooding . She was mostly ignored by the second wave of attacking aircraft , but was a focus of the third wave that hit her with six more torpedoes and four bombs . The bombs started fires in the hangars , the torpedoes caused major flooding that increased her list , and the order to abandon ship was issued before Zuikaku sank by the stern . Lost with the ship were 49 officers and 794 crewmen , but 47 officers and 815 crewmen were rescued by her escorting destroyers .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
= President of Croatia =
The President of Croatia ( Croatian : Predsjednik Hrvatske ) , officially styled the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) , is the head of state and chief representative of the Republic of Croatia in the country and abroad . The President is the holder of the highest office within the Republic of Croatia ; however , they are not the head of the executive branch .
The President maintains regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government system , and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country . The President has the power to call elections for the Croatian Parliament as well as referendum ( with countersignature of the Prime Minister ) . The President appoints Prime Ministers on the basis of the balance of power in the Parliament , grants pardons and awards decorations and other state awards . The President and Government cooperate in the conducting the foreign policy . In addition , the President is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Croatian Armed Forces . The President appoints the director of the Security and Intelligence Agency with the Prime Minister . The President may dissolve the Parliament as provided by the Constitution . Although enjoying immunity , the President is impeachable for violation of the Constitution . In case of incapability to discharge duties of office , the Speaker of the Parliament assumes the office of acting President until the President resumes duty , or until election of a new President .
The Office of the President of the Republic ( Ured Predsjednika Republike ) consists of the immediate staff of the president of Croatia , as well as support staff reporting to the president . The office is seated in the Presidential Palace in the Pantovčak area of Zagreb . The Constitution of Croatia defines the appearance and use of the presidential standard , flown on buildings of the Office of the President of Croatia , the residence of the president , the transportation vehicles when in use by the president , and in other ceremonial occasions .
The President is elected on the basis of universal suffrage , through a secret ballot , for a five @-@ year term . If no candidate in the elections secures more than 50 % of the votes , a runoff election is held . The Constitution of Croatia sets a limit to a maximum of two terms in office . The president @-@ elect is required to take an oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court . Franjo Tuđman won the first Croatian presidential elections in 1992 and 1997 . During his time in office , the constitution of 1990 provided for a semi @-@ presidential system . After his death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government . Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms , in 2000 and in 2005 . Ivo Josipović won the presidential elections held in 2009 – 2010 . Winner of the most recent presidential elections , held in 2014 – 15 , was Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović . She succeeded Josipović on 19 February 2015 .
= = Powers , duties and responsibilities = =
The President of Croatia , officially styled the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) represents the Republic of Croatia in the country and abroad as the head of state , maintains the regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government system and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country . The president is barred from executing any other public or professional duty while in office .
The President of Croatia calls elections for the Croatian Parliament ( Croatian : Hrvatski Sabor ) and convenes the first meeting of the parliamentary assembly . The president is also required to appoint a prime minister , on the basis of the balance of power in the parliament . The appointed candidate is in turn required to seek confirmation from the parliament through a confidence vote , in order to receive a mandate to lead the Croatian Government . The president may also call referenda , grant pardons and award decorations and other forms of recognition defined by legislation .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
The President of Croatia and the Government cooperate in the formulation and implementation of Croatia 's foreign policy . This provision of the constitution is an occasional source of conflict between the president and the government . The president decides on the establishment of diplomatic missions and consular offices of the Republic of Croatia abroad , at the Government 's proposal and with the countersignature of the prime minister . The president , following prior countersignature of the prime minister , appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of the Republic of Croatia , at the proposal of the Government and upon receiving the opinion of an applicable committee of the parliament . The president receives letters of credence and letters of recall from foreign diplomatic representatives .
= = = National security and defense = = =
The President of Croatia is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces of the Republic of Croatia and appoints and relieves military commanders of duty , conforming to applicable legislation . Pursuant to decisions of the parliament , the president declares war and concludes peace . In cases of immediate threats to the independence , unity and existence of the state , the president may order the use of armed forces , even if no state of war is declared , provided that such an order is countersigned by the prime minister . During a state of war , the president may promulgate regulations with the force of law on the basis of , and within the scope of , authority obtained from the parliament . In such circumstances , the president may convene government cabinet meetings and preside over them . If the parliament is not in session , the president is authorized to regulate all matters required by the state of war through regulations carrying the force of law . In case of an immediate threat to the independence , unity and existence of the state , or if the governmental bodies are prevented from performing their constitutional duties regularly , the president may , at the proposal of the prime minister , issue regulations carrying the force of law . Such regulations must also be countersigned by the prime minister to become valid . The president is required to submit regulations that are promulgated thus to the parliament for approval as soon as the parliament may convene , otherwise the regulations become void . The president cooperates with the government directing operation of the Croatian security and intelligence system . The president and the prime minister jointly appoint heads of the security agencies , and the president may attend cabinet meetings , taking part in discussions held at such meetings .
= = = Dissolution of Parliament = = =
The President of Croatia may dissolve Parliament upon the request of the government if the government proposes a confidence motion to Parliament and the majority of all deputies adopt a motion of no confidence or if Parliament fails to approve government budget 120 days after the budget is proposed in the parliament . That decision must be countersigned by the Prime Minister to become valid . The President may also dissolve Parliament after a motion of no confidence supported by a majority of all deputies has been adopted and a new government cannot be formed within 30 days or if a new government cannot be formed after general elections ( maximum period of 120 days ) . However , the President may not dissolve Parliament at the request of the government if a procedure to determine if the President has violated provisions of the constitution is in progress .
= = Office of the President = =
The Office of the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Ured Predsjednika Republike ) consists of the immediate staff of the President of Croatia , as well as support staff reporting to the president . As of May 2008 , the office employed 170 staff , with the maximum staffing level set at 191 by the Regulation on Internal Organisation of the Office of the President of Croatia . In 2009 government budget , the office was allocated 54 million kuna ( c . 7 @.@ 3 million euro ) . The net monthly salary of the president is 23 @,@ 500 kuna ( c . 3 @,@ 170 euro ) .
The Office of the President was created by a presidential decree by Franjo Tuđman on 19 January 1991 . The Office is headed by a Chief of Staff ( Croatian : Predstojnik ureda ) , who is appointed by the president . The presidents declare bylaws regulating composition of the office . The office employs advisors to the president and comprises eight departments , four councils , presidential pardon commission and two decorations and awards commissions .
= = = Presidential Palace = = =
The Presidential Palace ( Croatian : Predsjednički dvori , also referred to by the metonym Pantovčak ) in Zagreb is the official residence of the president . The president does not actually live in the building , as it is used as the Office of the President of Croatia rather than as a residence . The structure covers 3 @,@ 700 square metres ( 40 @,@ 000 square feet ) . It had been used as the official residence since then @-@ president Franjo Tuđman moved there following the October 1991 bombing of Banski dvori . In addition to the original building , there is also an 3 @,@ 500 square metres ( 38 @,@ 000 square feet ) annex built in 1993 , an ancillary structure housing office security services and a bomb shelter predating the 1990s . The building , formerly known as Villa Zagorje or Tito 's Villa , was designed by architects Vjenceslav Richter and Kazimir Ostrogović and completed in 1964 for the former Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito .
= = Election and taking office = =
The president is elected on the basis of universal suffrage , through a secret ballot , for a five @-@ year term . If no candidate in the elections secures more than 50 % of the votes , a runoff election is held in 14 days . The Constitution of Croatia sets a limit to a maximum of two terms in office and requires election dates to be determined within 30 to 60 days before the expiry of the term of the incumbent president . Any citizen of Croatia of 18 or over may be a candidate in a presidential election , provided that the candidate is endorsed by 10 @,@ 000 voters . The endorsements are required in form of a list containing name , address , personal identification number and voter signature . The presidential elections are regulated by an act of the parliament .
The constitution requires that the president @-@ elect resign from political party membership . The president @-@ elect is also required to resign from the parliament as well . Before assuming presidential duty , the president @-@ elect is required to take an oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court , swearing loyalty to the Constitution of Croatia . The inauguration ceremony is traditionally held at St. Mark 's Square in Zagreb , in front of the St. Mark 's Church , midway between the building of the Parliament of Croatia and Banski dvori — the seat of the Government of Croatia . The text of the oath is defined by the Presidential Elections Act amendments of 1997 .
= = = Presidential elections = = =
Presidential elections were held in Croatia for the first time on 2 August 1992 , simultaneously with the 1992 parliamentary elections . Voter turnout was 74 @.@ 9 % . The result was a victory for Franjo Tuđman of the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , who received 57 @.@ 8 % of the vote in the first round of the elections , ahead of 7 other candidates . Dražen Budiša , the Croatian Social Liberal Party ( HSLS ) candidate and runner @-@ up in the election , received 22 @.@ 3 % of the vote . The second presidential elections in modern Croatia were held on 15 June 1997 . The incumbent , Franjo Tuđman ran opposed by Zdravko Tomac , the candidate of the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , and Vlado Gotovac , nominated by the HSLS . Tomac and Gotovac received 21 @.@ 0 % and 17 @.@ 6 % of votes respectively in the first round of voting , and Tuđman secured another term . The third presidential elections were held on 24 January 2000 , to fill the office of the President of the Republic , after the incumbent Franjo Tuđman died on 10 December 1999 . The first round of voting saw Stjepan Mesić , candidate of the Croatian People 's Party ( HNS ) in the lead , receiving 41 @.@ 3 % of votes , followed by Dražen Budiša of the HSLS with 27 @.@ 8 % of votes and Mate Granić , nominated by the HDZ , receiving 22 @.@ 6 % of votes . The runoff election , the first in the presidential elections of modern Croatia , was held on 7 February , when Mesić won , picking up 56 @.@ 9 % of votes . Voter turnout in the first round was 63 @.@ 0 % and 60 @.@ 9 % in the runoff . The first round of the fourth presidential elections was held on 2 January 2005 . No candidate secured a first @-@ round victory ; however , the incumbent Mesić enjoyed a substantial lead over other candidates , as he received 48 @.@ 9 % of votes , and the second and third ranked candidates Jadranka Kosor ( HDZ ) and Boris Mikšić ( independent ) managed only 20 @.@ 3 % and 17 @.@ 8 % of voter support respectively . Ultimately , Mesić won reelection , receiving 65 @.@ 9 % of votes in the runoff held on 16 January . The 2009 – 2010 presidential election was held on 27 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
were founded in the mid @-@ 19th century . A Ragged Schools Union school stood on Carlton Street from the mid @-@ 1850s , and St John the Evangelist 's Church established its own school in 1870 on Carlton Hill . This was rebuilt in 1914 , and later housed the American Express social club until its demolition in early 2010 . Board schools were set up in 1873 on Richmond Street and 1883 on Circus Street . The Richmond Street school was the first in Brighton to offer school meals . The two Board schools merged in 1926 and took the name Sussex Street School , after which the Circus Street building closed . It was later sold to Brighton Polytechnic ( now the University of Brighton ) . The Richmond Street school ran along the west side of Claremont Row between Richmond and Sussex Streets ; playgrounds separated the boys ' and girls ' sections . In October 1930 , a nursery section was added . The school was compulsorily purchased in 1959 and demolished for redevelopment ; Carlton Hill Primary School was built to replace it .
The Margaret Macmillan Open Air Nursery was built on part of the grounds of number 1 Tilbury Place in the 1930s , partly funded by Laetitia Tilbury Tarner ( who had bequeathed the house and its grounds to Brighton Corporation ) . A nursery school now stands on the site .
= = = Civic , commercial and public buildings = = =
Amex House " dominates the sweep of Carlton Hill " and is visible on the skyline from much of Brighton . Designed by British architecture firm Gollins Melvin and Ward , the building has prominent white horizontal bands of glass @-@ reinforced plastic and blue @-@ tinted glazing , and its corners are chamfered to give it a more rounded appearance . It is nicknamed " The Wedding Cake " , and its clean , futuristic design has been said to evoke Thunderbirds . The building is generally considered to be one of the better postwar additions to Brighton 's building stock , although it affects views into and out of the neighbouring conservation area . About 3 @,@ 000 people work at the building , making American Express the largest private employer in Brighton and Hove .
Prior House , at the north end of Tilbury Place , was built in 1936 for the Brighton Girl 's Club . This institution was founded in 1928 at Nelson Row , and was displaced from its original premises in 1934 when the Kingswood Flats were built on the site . In 1970 , Prior House became a centre for unemployed people , offering education and other social facilities ; it is now a base for voluntary and charitable groups under the aegis of the Resource Centre , a local organisation formed in 1975 . Architecturally , it is a plain red @-@ brick building with a large stuccoed extension on the second floor , affecting the ambience of Tilbury Place and the neighbouring listed buildings .
The former vicarage of St John the Evangelist 's Church , opposite the church on the south side of Carlton Hill , has been converted into an office . It dates from 1899 and is domestic in character , with bay windows containing original sashes , red @-@ brick walls and a steeply pitched roof . It is within the conservation area and is considered to make a " positive contribution " to its character .
Another building formerly associated with the church is the Edward Riley Memorial Hall , now the Sussex Deaf Centre . It has a steep clay @-@ tiled roof and brown brickwork . The high flint walls around it are described as a positive feature of the conservation area , although the building itself has a " neutral effect " according to the council 's character statement . The building was used as the church hall until the church closed in 1980 ; the Chichester Diocesan Centre for the Deaf was then established in it .
= = = Listed buildings = = =
A building or structure is defined as " listed " when it is placed on a statutory register of buildings of " special architectural or historic interest " by the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport , a Government department , in accordance with the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 . English Heritage , a non @-@ departmental public body , acts as an agency of this department to administer the process and advise the department on relevant issues .
In February 2001 , there were 24 listed buildings with Grade I status , 70 Grade II * -listed and 1 @,@ 124 Grade II @-@ listed buildings in Brighton and Hove . Grade I @-@ listed buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance ; Grade II * , the next highest status , is used for " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " ; and the lowest grade , Grade II , is used for " nationally important buildings of special interest " .
Carlton Hill has nine listed buildings ( covered by five separate listings ) , all of which have Grade II status and lie within the conservation area . Number 1 Tilbury Place ( St John 's Lodge ) is listed together with its surrounding railings , garden wall and garden porch . The four neighbouring and contemporary houses at 2 – 5 Tilbury Place are also listed together under a single Grade II designation . Described by the council as an " impressive warm brick terrace " of " elegant townhouses " , they were much larger than the surrounding houses — especially number 1 , which also had extensive gardens . Number 5 is also slightly larger than the others , and originally had stables adjacent . They are in the Georgian style , built of pale yellow brick laid in the Flemish bond pattern . The roofs are slate @-@ tiled , but some are hidden behind parapets . The entrance doors have decorated fanlights and original windows with ogee @-@ shaped cast @-@ iron miniature balconies . All five houses are now owned by a housing association and have been divided into flats .
The former St John the Evangelist 's Church was listed at Grade II on 20 August 1971 . It is a Greek Revival @-@ style stucco @-@ clad building of stone and brick with a partly hipped roof . The three @-@ bay façade has four Tuscan pilasters beneath a substantial entablature and pediment . The frieze between them has metopes and triglyphs . Work by L.A. Mackintosh in 1957 altered the exterior ; the architect added his personal monogram and an eagle emblem ( representing John the Evangelist ) above the left and right entrances respectively .
Numbers 34 and 35 Mighell Street ( the former Mighell Farmhouse ) were jointly listed on 13 October 1952 . Described as a " surprising survival " , the now semi @-@ detached house is a two @-@ storey cobble @-@ fronted building with a prominent porch framed by Tuscan columns and topped by an entablature with a frieze and triglyph and a decorated pediment . An arched doorway with a keystone has a 19th @-@ century panelled door set into it , and the sash windows are also original and have similar arched surrounds made of bricks . The roof is tiled and has chimneys at each end . The farmhouse 's origins are unknown , although a Philip Mighell was a major landowner on Hilly Laine in the late 18th century , when some of the paul @-@ pieces bore his name . The building was apparently at least partly in commercial use by 1865 .
In Tarner Park , an area of open space formed from part of number 1 Tilbury Place 's grounds , there is a circular tower which is believed to have been built by Edward Tilbury Tarner ( son of the original occupants Edward and Laetitia Tarner ) as an observation tower so he could see ships in the English Channel . The mid @-@ 19th @-@ century structure has two storeys and about 70 steps ; the upper level is recessed and has a walkway around it . The walls are of knapped flint with some brick and stonework . Part of an iron weather vane remains at the top . Both storeys have segmental @-@ arched entrances , but these are now closed . The structure is in good condition but has some missing flints .
= = Conservation area = =
In the United Kingdom , a conservation area is a principally urban area " of special architectural or historic interest , the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance " . Such areas are identified by local authorities according to criteria defined by Sections 69 and 70 of the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 .
On 4 July 2008 , 4 @.@ 05 acres ( 1 @.@ 64 ha ) at the heart of Carlton Hill was designated as the city of Brighton and Hove 's 34th conservation area . Its boundaries are ( clockwise from north ) Sussex Street , St John 's Place , Carlton Hill ( including the stub of Mighell Street ) and Tilbury Place , with the open space of Tarner Park at the centre . All of Carlton Hill 's listed buildings are within the designated area ; these , combined with the sheltered open space of Tarner Park , substantial tree cover , the survival of old street patterns and boundary walls , and the distinctive lie of the land , contribute to the area 's " special character " , as defined by Brighton and Hove City Council .
The area does not have a unified appearance or structure , owing to the large @-@ scale redevelopment carried out in the 20th century . Instead , a " disparate group of individually interesting buildings " and small spaces define the area ; together , they form " a fragment of early 19th @-@ century Brighton " .
Flint and brown or yellow brick is used extensively , both for buildings within the conservation area and in associated structures such as boundary walls and pavements . Some kerbs are of granite , limestone and flint , while some high @-@ quality Yorkstone paving slabs survive , along with some red @-@ brick pavements .
= White @-@ eyed river martin =
The white @-@ eyed river martin ( Pseudochelidon sirintarae ) is a passerine bird , one of only two members of the river martin subfamily of the swallows . Since it has significant differences from its closest relative , the African river martin , it is sometimes placed in its own genus , Eurochelidon . First found in 1968 , it is known only from a single wintering site in Thailand , and may be extinct , since it has not been seen since 1980 despite targeted surveys in Thailand and neighbouring Cambodia . It may possibly still breed in China or Southeast Asia , but a Chinese painting initially thought to depict this species was later reassessed as showing pratincoles .
The adult white @-@ eyed river martin is a medium @-@ sized swallow , with mainly glossy greenish @-@ black plumage , a white rump , and a tail which has two elongated slender central tail feathers , each widening to a racket @-@ shape at the tip . It has a white eye ring and a broad , bright greenish @-@ yellow bill . The sexes are similar in appearance , but the juvenile lacks the tail ornaments and is generally browner than the adult . Little is known of the behaviour or breeding habitat of this martin , although like other swallows it feeds on insects caught in flight , and its wide bill suggests that it may take relatively large species . It roosts in reed beds in winter , and may nest in river sandbanks , probably in April or May before the summer rains . It may have been overlooked prior to its discovery because it tended to feed at dawn or dusk rather than during the day .
The martin 's apparent demise may have been hastened by trapping , loss of habitat and the construction of dams . The winter swallow roosts at the only known location of this martin have greatly reduced in numbers , and birds using river habitats for breeding have declined throughout the region . The white @-@ eyed river martin is one of only two birds endemic to Thailand , and the country 's government has noted this through the issues of a stamp and a high @-@ value commemorative coin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Within the swallow family , the white @-@ eyed river martin is one of only two members of the river martin subfamily Pseudochelidoninae , the other being the African river martin Pseudochelidon eurystomina of the Congo basin in Africa . These two species possess a number of distinctive features which mark them out from other swallows and martins , including their robust legs and feet , and stout bills . The extent of their differences from other swallows and the wide geographical separation of the two martins suggest that they are relict populations of a group of species that diverged from the main swallow lineage early in its evolution . The separation of this subfamily is supported by genetic evidence , and their habit of nesting in burrows is thought to be characteristic of the earliest members of the swallow family .
The white @-@ eyed river martin was discovered in 1968 by Thai ornithologist Kitti Thonglongya , who gave the bird its current binomial name . The genus name Pseudochelidon ( Hartlaub , 1861 ) comes from the Ancient Greek prefix ψευδο / pseudo " false " and χελιδον / chelidôn , " swallow " , and the species name sirintarae commemorates Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of Thailand .
The African and Asian Pseudochelidon species differ markedly in the size of their bills and eyes , suggesting that they have different feeding ecologies , with the white @-@ eyed river martin probably able to take much larger prey . The Thai species also has a swollen , hard gape ( fleshy interior of the bill ) unlike the softer , fleshier , and much less prominent gape of the African river martin . Thonglongya estimated the bill of the Thai species to be 17 @.@ 6 % wider than that of the African bird , but a later estimate , using specimens preserved in alcohol instead of dried skins ( to avoid shrinkage ) , gave a difference of 22 @.@ 5 % between the bills of the two swallows . Following a suggestion by Kitti in his original paper , Richard Brooke proposed in 1972 that the white @-@ eyed river martin was sufficiently different from the African species to be placed in a separate monotypic genus Eurochelidon , but this was contested by other authorities . The new genus was not subsequently widely adopted by other authors , although BirdLife International uses Eurochelidon .
= = Description = =
The adult white @-@ eyed river martin is a medium @-@ sized swallow , 18 cm ( 7 in ) long , with mainly silky black plumage and a white rump . The back is green @-@ glossed black , and is separated from the similarly coloured upper tail by a narrow bright white rump band . The head is darker than the back , with a velvet @-@ black chin leading to blue @-@ green glossed black underparts . The wings are black , with brown inner edges to the flight feathers , and the tail is green @-@ glossed black with two elongated , slender , central tail feathers , up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long . These expand slightly at the tips to give narrow racquets 4 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) long . The wing length averages 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 10 @.@ 7 cm ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) long , and the tarsus averages 1 @.@ 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) .
The iris and eyelid are white , giving the appearance of a white eye ring , and the broad , bright greenish @-@ yellow bill has a black hooked tip to the upper mandible . The large , strong feet and legs are flesh @-@ coloured . This species is silent when wintering , and its breeding vocalisations are unknown . The sexes are similar , but the juvenile lacks the tail racquets , has a brown head and chin , and is generally browner than the adult . Juveniles taken in January and February were moulting their body feathers .
The original Thai name for the Pseudochelidon , only known to local people in Bueng Boraphet , was นกตาพอง Nok Ta Phong which may be roughly translated as " bird with enlarged eyes " . After its official discovery in 1968 , it was named เจ ้ าฟ ้ าหญิงสิรินธร Nok Chaofa Ying Sirinthon ( " Princess Sirinthon bird " ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The white @-@ eyed river martin was discovered in 1968 by Kitti Thonglongya , who obtained nine specimens netted by professional bird @-@ hunters as part of a migratory bird survey at a night @-@ time roost at Thailand 's largest freshwater lake , Bueng Boraphet in Nakhon Sawan Province . It was first seen in the wild by ornithologists at the same wintering site in 1977 . The species has only been seen at the lake , always between the months of November and February , and the wintering habitat is assumed to be in the vicinity of open fresh water for feeding , with reed beds for the night @-@ time roost .
The white @-@ eyed river martin may be migratory , and if the breeding habitat resembles that of the African river martin , it is likely to be the forested valleys of large rivers ; these can provide sandbars and islands for nesting , and woodland over which the birds can catch insect prey . The breeding grounds and habitat are unknown , although river valleys in northern Thailand or southwestern China are possibilities . A claimed depiction of this species in a Chinese scroll painting initially appeared to support the possibility of the martin breeding in China . The bird in the painting had a similarly shaped head and bill , a white eye and a long tail , although it lacked the white rump , did not show the correct bill colour , and elongated the outer , rather than central , tail feathers . Painted before 1970 , it pre @-@ dated the publication of pictures of the Thai bird , so it must have been painted from life . It is now thought more likely that the scroll shows Oriental pratincoles ( Glareola maldivarum ) . Cambodia and Burma have also been suggested as possible refuges for the martin , but there has also been speculation on whether it is migratory at all .
= = Behaviour = =
Since its breeding grounds are undiscovered , nothing is known about the white @-@ eyed river martin 's breeding biology , although it is suggested that it may nest in burrows in river sandbars , probably in April or May before the monsoon rain raises water levels . However , distinct differences in foot and toe morphology from its African relative have led some authorities to speculate that even the assumption that it nests in burrows could be incorrect . In winter , it roosts with barn swallows in reed beds .
Like other swallows , the white @-@ eyed river martin feeds on insects , including beetles , which are caught on the wing . Given its size and unusual mouth structure , it may well take larger insects than other swallows . This species is described as graceful and buoyant in flight , and , like its African relative , appears reluctant to use perches , behaviour that , together with its unusual toe @-@ shape and the fact that mud was found on the toes of one of the first specimens , suggest that this species may be relatively terrestrial .
Pamela C. Rasmussen suggested that , given its unusually large eyes , the species might be nocturnal or at least crepuscular , a factor that could make it very inconspicuous , and thus partly explain how it remained undetected for so long . Although the fact that the first specimens were supposedly collected roosting at night in reedbeds might appear to contradict this theory , it is possible that the birds might not have been caught at the roost . Alternatively , they might be capable of both diurnal and nocturnal behaviour , or be crepuscular , depending on the season or circumstance .
= = Status = =
The white @-@ eyed river martin was seen in Thailand in 1972 , 1977 and 1980 , but not definitely since , although there is an unconfirmed sighting from Thailand from 1986 . It is classified as Critically Endangered , which is the highest risk category assigned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) for wild species . The designation means that a species ' numbers have decreased , or will decrease , by 80 % within three generations . The IUCN does not consider a species extinct until extensive targeted surveys have been conducted , but the white @-@ eyed river martin may well no longer exist in the wild , and was probably always rare .
There has been a drastic decline in the Bueng Boraphet swallow population from the hundreds of thousands reported to roost around 1970 to maximum counts of 8 @,@ 000 made in the winter of 1980 – 1981 , although it is not certain if this represents a real decline or a shift in site in response to hunting . Other potential causes for the martin 's decline include the disturbance of sand bars in the rivers , and the construction of dams ( which flood the area upstream and change the water flow downstream ) , deforestation , and increasing conversion of its habitat to agriculture . Other Southeast Asian species using riverine sand bars have also been adversely affected by disturbance and habitat degradation . Very few swallows of any kind now roost in the Bueng Boraphet reedbeds , preferring sugarcane plantations , and , despite searching , the white @-@ eyed river martin has not been found in other nearby large swallow roosts .
The martin is legally protected under Appendix 1 ( the highest category ) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) agreement , and is one of 15 " Reserved Species " in Thailand which , under the provisions of the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act , BE 2535 , cannot be legally hunted , collected , or kept in captivity under any circumstances . Despite official protection , the martin was captured by locals along with other swallows for sale as food or for release by devout Buddhists , and following its discovery by ornithologists , trappers were reported to have caught as many as 120 individuals and sold them to the director of the Nakhon Sawan Fisheries Station who was unable to keep them alive in captivity . Two birds sent to Bangkok Zoo in 1971 also soon died . The small population may therefore have become non @-@ viable .
Bueng Boraphet has been declared a Non @-@ Hunting Area in an effort to protect the species , but surveys to find this martin have been unsuccessful . These include several searches at the main site , a 1969 survey of the Nan , Yom and Wang Rivers of northern Thailand , and a 1996 survey of rivers in northern Laos . A possible sighting was made in Cambodia in 2004 , but a 2008 investigation using speedboat surveys and interviews with villagers in Cambodia near the location of the claimed sighting failed to find any positive evidence , and noted that the habitat was in poor condition . Nevertheless , animals as a large as the saola have been rediscovered in Southeast Asia , so it is conceivable that a small population of the martin survives . Despite the lack of records from China , a 2000 field guide covering the region included this species , since it is the mostly likely breeding area outside Thailand , although it is omitted from the 2008 Birds of East Asia .
The white @-@ eyed river martin and the Deignan 's babbler , Stachyridopsis rodolphei , are the only bird species endemic to Thailand , and the martin has attracted sufficient interest to be featured on a 75 satang postage stamp in 1975 , as one of a set of four depicting Thai birds , and on a 5 @,@ 000 Thai baht conservation issue gold coin in 1974 .
= Italian battleship Vittorio Emanuele =
Vittorio Emanuele was an Italian pre @-@ dreadnought battleship , laid down in 1901 , launched in 1904 and completed in 1908 . She was the second member of the Regina Elena class , which included three other vessels : Regina Elena , Napoli , and Roma . Vittorio Emmanuele was armed with a main battery of two 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns . She was quite fast for the period , with a top speed of nearly 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .
Vittorio Emmaneule saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War as the flagship of the 1st Division . During the war , she participated in operations in Cyrenaica and the eastern Mediterranean Sea , including the seizure of the islands of Rhodes and the Dodecanese . She served during the First World War , but saw no combat during the war due to the hesitance of both the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies to risk their capital ships in pitched battle . She remained in service as a training ship until 1923 , when she was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Vittorio Emanuele was 144 @.@ 6 meters ( 474 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 4 m ( 73 ft ) and a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 58 m ( 28 @.@ 1 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 914 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 694 long tons ; 15 @,@ 338 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 424 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 484 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 21 @.@ 36 knots ( 39 @.@ 56 km / h ; 24 @.@ 58 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 520 km ; 11 @,@ 508 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Vittorio Emanuele had a crew of 742 – 764 officers and enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with two 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ship was also equipped with twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . She was also equipped with two 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . Vittorio Emanuele was protected with Krupp steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The main battery guns had 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick plating , and the 8 @-@ inch gun turrets had 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Vittorio Emanuele was built by the Castellammare di Stabia shipyard ; her keel was laid on 18 September 1901 . The ship was launched on 12 October 1904 , and construction was completed on 1 August 1908 . Vittorio Emanuele served in the active duty squadron through 1910 , by which time her three sisters had been completed , bringing the total number of front @-@ line battleships to six , which also included the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . The active duty squadron was typically in service for seven months of the year for training ; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . Vittorio Emanuele served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry , the commander of the 1st Division throughout the conflict . On 30 September , Vittorio Emanuele , her sister Roma , and the armored cruiser Pisa cruised in the Aegean Sea , searching for the Ottoman training squadron that had departed Beirut for Constantinople two days before , and did not know that war had been declared . The Italian flotilla failed to locate its prey , which managed to safely reach Constantinople .
On 18 October , Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters , along with three cruisers and several destroyers and torpedo boats escorted a convoy that carried half of the 2nd Infantry Division to Benghazi . When the Ottomans refused to surrender the city before the amphibious assault , the Italian fleet opened fire on the Turkish defenders at 08 : 00 , while landing parties from the ships and the Army infantry went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .
By December , Vittorio Emanuele and the other ships of the 1st Squadron were dispersed in the ports of Cyrenaica . Vittorio Emanuele , Pisa , and the protected cruisers Etruria and Etna were stationed in Tobruk . While there , they supported the Italian Army as it occupied the city and surrounding area by contributing landing parties and providing fire support to the ground troops . In early 1912 , most of the fleet had withdrawn to Italy for repairs and refit , leaving only a small force of cruisers and light craft to patrol the North African coast . On 4 March , Aubry died while aboard his flagship ; Admiral Luigi Faravelli replaced him as the squadron commander .
On 13 April , the 1st Division left Taranto , bound for the island of Rhodes . Meanwhile , the 3rd Division escorted a convoy of troopships from Tobruk to the island . The Italian heavy ships demonstrated off the city of Rhodes while the transports landed the expeditionary force 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south on 4 May ; the soldiers quickly advanced on the city , supported by artillery fire from the Italian fleet . The Turks surrendered the city the following day . Between 8 and 20 May , Vittorio Emanuele was involved in the seizure of several islands in the Dodecanese between Crete , Rhodes , and Samos .
In June , Vittorio Emanuele and the rest of the 1st Division was stationed at Rhodes . Over the next two months , the ships cruised in the Aegean to prevent the Turks from attempting to launch their own amphibious operations to retake the islands Italy had seized in May . The 1st Division returned to Italy in late August for repairs and refitting , and were replaced by the battleships of the 2nd Squadron . The 1st Division left port on 14 October , but was recalled later that day , when the Ottomans had agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .
= = = World War I = = =
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Italy 's traditional naval rival , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Italian Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , believed that an active fleet policy was prohibited by the serious threat from submarines in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's capital ships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement . As a result , the ship was not particularly active during the war .
During the war , Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters were assigned to the 2nd Division . They spent much of the war rotating between the bases at Taranto , Brindisi , and Valona , but did not see combat . On 14 – 15 May 1917 , three light cruisers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy raided the Otranto Barrage ; in the ensuring Battle of the Strait of Otranto , Vittorio Emanuele and her sisters raised steam to assist the Allied warships , but the Italian commander refused to permit them to join the battle for fear of risking their loss in the submarine @-@ infested Adriatic .
After the end of the war , Vittorio Emanuele was used as a training ship for a short period . In the summer of 1922 , she was in Constantinople when the American destroyer USS Bulmer accidentally collided with a cutter from Vittorio Emanuele , causing minor damage to the boat . Then @-@ Lieutenant Joseph J. Clark , Bulmer 's executive officer , came aboard Vittorio Emanuele to apologize for the incident .
In early 1922 , the world 's major navies , including Italy , signed the Washington Naval Treaty . According to the terms of the treaty , Italy could keep Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters , along with the newer dreadnought battleships . Due to the small size and age of the ships , particularly in comparison to the modern dreadnoughts , the Italians could have kept the ships in service indefinitely . They could not , however , be replaced by new battleships under the normal practice of the Treaty system , which provided for replacements after a ship was 20 years old . Vittorio Emanuele was stricken from the naval register on 1 April 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= M @-@ 49 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 49 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the south @-@ central portion of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Ohio state line north to Litchfield through rural Hillsdale County . M @-@ 49 is the only Michigan highway in which the road crossing into another state has the same state highway number . M @-@ 49 continues as State Route 49 ( SR 49 ) , near the Indiana – Michigan – Ohio tripoint south of Camden . The highway dates back to 1930 and was only altered once in the 1940s . M @-@ 49 runs through Southern Michigan farmlands connecting several small towns along its path .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 49 starts as the continuation of SR 49 into Michigan from Ohio . The highway crosses the state line south of Camden east of the tripoint with Indiana and Ohio . Running north through rural Hillsdale County , the roadway follows Edon Road through farm land . The highway follows two sweeping curves to cross Territorial Road and continue into the village of Camden . M @-@ 49 follows Main Street through town and turns northeasterly on the north side of the village on the way to Reading . Returning to a due @-@ north course , the highway crosses a branch of the Indiana Northeastern Railroad on the south side of Reading . The Edon Road name gives way to Main Street through the city . M @-@ 49 runs north out of Reading , once again called Edon Road , through farm lands dotted with occasional trees . At Weston Road on the southeast side of Allen , the highway turns to the northeast to a junction with US 12 ( Chicago Road ) . M @-@ 49 turns west along US 12 , running concurrently into the village . M @-@ 49 resumes its northerly course at Railroad Street , separating from US 12 in the process . Outside of town , the roadway changes names to Allen Road , and through more Southern Michigan farmland , M @-@ 49 runs north to Genesee Road . The highway turns east on Genesee to Anderson Road , and then north to Litchfield . Crossing into that city , M @-@ 49 follows Chicago Street to the intersection with M @-@ 99 downtown . At that junction , M @-@ 49 terminates nearly 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) north of the state line . No part of the highway has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 49 was added to the state highway system in 1930 , running along its current routing between M @-@ 9 ( now M @-@ 99 ) in Litchfield and the Ohio state line south of Camden . Near the state line , the highway jogged along Territorial Road for a short distance to make the connection with the continuation of SR 49 . The second version of M @-@ 120 ran concurrently with M @-@ 49 on this section of Territorial Road starting in 1939 . This concurrency was removed in late 1946 or early 1947 when M @-@ 49 was realigned to smooth out the corners in the roadway at M @-@ 120 . The routing of M @-@ 49 has remained the same since . It is currently the only state highway that connects with a like @-@ numbered state highway from another state . The only other highways in Michigan to share a number with a cross @-@ border connection are components of the Interstate Highway System or the United States Numbered Highways .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Hillsdale County .
= Huletts Landing , New York =
Huletts Landing is a hamlet in the town of Dresden in northern Washington County , New York , United States . A lakeside community on the eastern shore of Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains , Huletts Landing is located entirely within the Adirondack Park . There is only one roadway access to the hamlet , County Route 6 and its suffixed routes , which head north @-@ south . Huletts Landing is geographically located at 43 ° 38 ′ 21 ″ N 73 ° 30 ′ 25 ″ W and has approximately two centuries of written history .
The hamlet derives its name from the Hulett family , which resided in the area for several generations after Revolutionary War soldier David Hulett moved near the lakeside and began farming . In 1874 his descendant Philander Hulett built a boat landing , a general store , and a post office . This opened the scenic corner of the lake to steamship traffic and tourism . This suffered a major setback in 1915 when the hamlet 's largest hotel burned to its foundation , but tourism remained an important factor to the local economy . The town ( Dresden ) population , not Huletts Landing , is 695 , according to 2007 U.S. Census Bureau estimates .
= = History = =
The Hulett family appears to have been of French origin and came to North America to avoid religious persecution for their Huguenot beliefs . David Hulett , the founder of Huletts Landing , was born in Killingly , Connecticut c . 1758 – 1762 and served as a private under General James Wadsworth during the American Revolution . For three years the unit where Pvt. Hulett served fought mainly in upstate New York . Oral history asserts that David Hulett fought heroically at the Battle of Saratoga where he refused to leave the field despite an injury to his neck . The Hulett family settled near Lake George c . 1804 , possibly because of a land grant offered to veterans in lieu of wages for service . Along with Bolton , New York and Putnam , New York , Hulett 's Landing is one of three place names on Lake George relating with Wadsworth 's Connecticut brigade .
Until 1874 the Huletts Landing area was known as Bosom Bay . Successive generations of the Hulett family lived by farming the area until Philander Hulett began to develop the area in the 1870s by building a steamship landing and submitting an application to build a post office . The post office application is the earliest document to use the Huletts Landing name . The existing Lake George Steamboat Company , which delivered mail as well as passengers , probably required either a post office or a tourism facility in order to justify adding a new stop to its schedule . An influential travelogue by Rev. William Henry Harrison Murray was published in 1868 and praised the Adirondacks for the relaxing effects of its picturesque wilderness . The first railroad service into the region was also built in the 1870s . The application received approval and Philander Hulett built the post office shortly afterward , housed in the same building as the community 's first store . He served as postmaster until his death in 1883 , but sold his property .
According to George T. Kapusinski in his history of the area :
Part of Philander Hulett ’ s property would be sold to businessman John W. Hall , but the bulk of the real estate would pass first to C.W. Wentz , an executive with the Delaware and Hudson Railroad , next to entrepreneur Henry W. Buckell , and finally by the early part of the 20th century to William H. Wyatt , an owner of hotels . All of these successive owners saw their first and primary role as marketing the property as a tourist attraction .
The first Lakeside Inn was constructed for John W. Hall in 1877 – 1878 on a 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 0040 km2 ) lot . Although the only direct access to Huletts Landing was by ferry , a combination of train , coach , and ferry was normal for Adirondack vacationers of the period . Huletts Hotel grew from expansions on the original farmhouse until a fire destroyed it on 14 November 1915 . It was hastily rebuilt for the 1916 tourist season , but questions of arson arose , and led to trial . Tourism has continued to be a mainstay of the community 's economy . Adirondack Park was originally established in 1892 . In 1931 an eastward expansion brought Lake George and its communities within park boundaries .
= = Geography = =
Huletts Landing is located at coordinates 43 @.@ 38 ° N 73 @.@ 30 ° W / 43 @.@ 38 ; -73.30 . It is located on the northern shore of Lake George , which is a 32 @-@ mile ( 51 km ) lake in the Adirondacks . Huletts Landing is entirely situated within the Adirondack Park , which is the largest state park in the United States . Nearly two @-@ thirds of the property within the park 's formal range is privately owned with various land use restrictions .
The climate of Huletts Landing is diverse . On average , the coolest month is January , while the warmest is July . The highest monthly precipitation in the area , on average , occurs in August . The lowest recorded temperature was − 38 ° F ( − 39 ° C ) in 1979 , while the highest was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) in 1953 .
= = Transportation = =
Huletts Landing is a remote hamlet , accessible by car only via Washington County Route 6 , which branches off of nearby New York State Route 22 . The main road is known as Huletts Landing Road , and spawns two suffixed routes which reach different parts of Huletts Landing . The first is County Route 6A , which is better known as Lands End Road , heads southward while the other , County Route 6B , which is better known as Bluff Head Road , brings the traveler northward , to locations such as Washington County Park and Huletts Landing Marina . Huletts Landing County Park is also on CR 6B .
The airport at Burlington , Vermont is approximately one @-@ hour drive from the eastern section of Adirondack Park , where Huletts Landing is located . A smaller airport within Adirondack Park is Adirondack Regional Airport in Saranac Lake .
= = Tourism = =
The area sees most of its tourism during the summer and the fall foliage season , virtually shutting down in winter . Nearby attractions include lake cruises , canoeing , golf , and hiking . Historic attractions of Huletts Landing also included hunting and local proprietors of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries provided weekly fireworks displays during tourist season .
= Hello Good Morning =
" Hello Good Morning " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album , Last Train to Paris . It was released from March 30 , 2010 as the album 's third single . The electronic dance song incorporates an acid squelch section in the middle 8 , ad was written by Marcella Araica , Richard Butler , Clifford " T.I. " Harris and Nathaniel " Danja " Hills who also produced the song . T.I. has a featured rap on the song . The song 's musical composition was inspired by Diddy 's experiences in Ibiza night clubs ; its lyrics focus around sex and money . Three official remixes were released alongside the main single : the Official Remix with Rick Ross & Nicki Minaj , the " Grime Remix " with Skepta , and a " Team UK remix " with Tinchy Stryder and Tinie Tempah . Critics noted the track as one of the better songs from Last Train to Paris , particularly for Danja 's production , but criticized the lyrics for being superficial and for lacking substance .
" Hello Good Morning " was promoted with several live television performances including on season nine of American Idol and Friday Night with Jonathan Ross , amongst others . An accompanying music video , filmed by Hype Williams , features Diddy – Dirty Money parting in Los Angeles , with T.I. enjoying the company of two ladies in an apartment and Diddy driving through the city at night . It was inspired by the 1995 film Heat . An edited version of the clip was made for the official remix , and a completely new street party @-@ themed video was filmed for the grime remix . At the time of release , " Hello Good Morning " became the album and group 's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching No. 27 . Commercially , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , the single peaked at No. 22 in UK , and was particularly successful on the German Black Chart and UK R & B Chart , reaching number one and number eight respectively .
= = Composition = =
" Hello Good Morning " was written by Marcella Araica , Richard Butler , T.I. , Nathaniel " Danja " Hills . The song which features T.I. , and was produced by Danja , is an electro @-@ dance song influenced by Diddy 's experiences in Ibiza where he visited the DC10 nightclub . The music influences included " Felix da Housecat , Erick Morillo , Deep Dish and DJ Hell " . According to Rap @-@ Up magazine , the lyrics refer to " keeping a party going till early hours of the morning " and see Diddy return to using his signature ad @-@ libs . Nicki Escudero from The Phoenix New Times noted the song 's superficial themes which included lyrics about " sex , money and cheating " Brandon Soderberg from The Village Voice noted the song 's bridge where there was an " epic acid @-@ squelch breakdown " .
= = Remixes = =
Several official remixes were released alongside the video to promote the song . The first of these remixes added an introduction verse from rapper Rick Ross and then a new verse later in the song from female rapper , Nicki Minaj . Labelled the " Official Remix " , it was released in the United States on June 29 , 2010 for digital download . A music video for this version was created by adding additional footage to the original video . It premiered on June 21 , 2010 . A second remix featuring just Ross 's additional verse was used for the song 's main music video which premiered on May 11 , 2010 A third remix was made for the UK , titled the " Team UK Remix " . This version featured Tinie Tempah and Tinchy Stryder in place of Minaj and Ross . It premiered on June 11 , 2010 on Tim Westwood 's Radio 1Xtra daytime show Westwood . It was released as track two on the UK Digital EP single , released June 20 , 2010 . A final remix was created after Diddy highlighted his intent to find a UK emcee to record a new version of the song with him . Skepta was chosen for the remix , which was released as the " Official Grime Remix " . It is the only remix which alters the song 's production , and was released only in the UK , on August 12 , 2010 . A video for the grime remix was released on November 5 , 2010 . On January 5 , 2010 , MTV reported the emergence of a new remix of " Hello Good Morning " . The new remix replaces T.I. ' s vocals with a new verse from Eminem . D.L. Chandler from MTV said " Slim Shady ’ s humorous verses sound right at home over producer Danja ’ s club @-@ ready banger . "
= = Critical reception = =
In a review by USA Today , " Hello Good Morning " was picked out as one of the best three songs on the Last Train to Paris . Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song three out of five stars in his review for the song , stating that although Dirty Money promised a new sound the song sounded like " Timba – pop , albeit one with a better @-@ than @-@ average hook . " He continued , " in Diddy 's final @-@ minute rap , [ it 's ] a reminder of how he jump @-@ started his journey towards a reported $ 300m fortune and a butler called Fonzworth Bentley . " Matt from Above & Beyond said it was the Danja @-@ produced beat and the T.I. feature that make the song good . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music said " Diddy seems to have abandoned conventional rapping in favour of some Kanye – style automooing . He 's quite good at it , too . Adds a certain nasal edge to proceedings . There 's a middle bit , and it 's like nothing else in the song ... It sounds more like someone doing the " I 've lost my keys " song , just before they leave the house in the morning . The odd thing is that it was left in there . I mean if minimal is your bag , surely that 'd be the first bit to cut ? " He awarded in four out of five stars . Becky Bain of Idolator was also positive about the song , saying , " Lyrically and stylistically , it ’ s a pretty standard club track — over various synth beats , the song covers the usual topics : hot girls dancing , crowds waiting to have fun , and spending time in a five star suite with some five star freaks getting high all week ... But honestly , we ’ re just overjoyed this song isn ’ t just a thinly @-@ veiled four @-@ minute commercial for any one of Diddy ’ s various products . "
However Nicki Escudero of the Phoenix New Times said that although the song was good for what it is , it lacked substance . " Now that Diddy @-@ Dirty Money has had success with a superficial track about money , sex and cheating , here 's hoping the group will release a deeper song about something more meaningful . Unfortunately , hope can only go so far . " Meanwhile , Michael Cragg from The Guardian 's music blog commented that the UK remix featuring Skepta salvages what would otherwise be a boring Diddy track . " Thankfully , UK grime king , Skepta , has rescued the song by pushing Diddy to the periphery – his flow consists of going ' uh ' , ' Skepta ' and spelling out ' D.I.D.D.Y. # – setting off a smorgasbord of sonic explosions , tightening the whole thing up and making it sound a lot darker and more thrilling than a host of US producers could manage . Skepta also drops the following immortal line in the first verse : ' I like tea , but I don 't like crumpets . ' A man after my own heart . "
= = Chart performance = =
Two weeks after Diddy – Dirty Money 's appearance on American Idol , " Hello Good Morning " debuted on the U.S. Hot Digital Songs chart at No. 17 , and the single debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 at No. 34 . Eventually the song peaked at No. 27 on the Hot 100 in the chart week dated July 24 , 2010 . At the time of its charting , it was the first single from Last Train to Paris to appear on the Billboard Hot 100 . Consequently , the song became Diddy 's best charting Hot 100 single since his 2007 hit single " Last Night " with Keyshia Cole , as well as his eleventh top @-@ thirty Hot 100 single . In comparison , " Hello Good Morning " is Dawn Richard 's second lowest charting Hot 100 single , but first appearance on the chart since 2008 's " Damaged " as part of girlgroup , Danity Kane . For Kalenna Harper , it is her first Hot 100 chart appearance . T.I. , who is featured on the song , received his highest Hot 100 chart peak , since his 2009 single " Dead and Gone " with Justin Timberlake . On August 18 , 2010 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold for selling at least 500 @,@ 000 copies . On the official end of year charts , compiled by Billboard , " Hello Good Morning " ranked at No. 29 on the U.S. Hot Rap Songs chart and No. 65 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
Additionally the single proved successful on urban charts around the world . " Hello Good Morning " peaked at No. 8 on the U.S. Hot Rap Songs chart and No. 13 on the U.S. Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . In Germany , it topped the Deutsche Black Charts ( German Black Charts ) while reaching top @-@ ten on the United Kingdom 's R & B Singles Chart and No. 24 on Australia 's Urban Singles Chart . On the main singles charts , the song was most successful in the UK , where it charted at No. 22 on the UK Singles Chart . At the time of release , it became T.I. ' s best UK charting single since 2009 's " Dead and Gone " , and his overall joint sixth @-@ best charting UK single along with 2006 's " Why You Wanna " . In the rest of Europe the single had mixed success , reaching the top @-@ twenty in Belgium , on both the Ultratip Flemish and Wallonian single charts . In Canada the single managed to chart at No. 55 , and in Australia it peaked at No. 44 . According to a press release by Interscope Records , as of March 25 , 2011 , " Hello Good Morning " has sold 1 million digital downloads worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video for " Hello Good Morning " was directed by Hype Williams , and premiered on May 11 , 2010 , through the group 's official VEVO account . Later on May 23 , 2010 , a behind the scenes video was released , revealing that the video was filmed in Agua Dulce , California and Los Angeles . Swizz Beatz , Rico Love and Rick Ross all make cameos in the video . The video uses a remix of the song which is the same as the album version , but features an introduction rap from Ross . Dawn Richard said the concept of the video was based on the 1995 film Heat starring Robert De Niro and Al Pacino . T.I. ' s scenes were amongst the last to be filmed , and took place in an apartment in Bel Aire , CA .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The opening scene begins with panoramic camera shots of a helicopter flying over Los Angeles , at night . Then during Rick Ross 's verse the female members of the group appear posing in the background while Ross raps for the camera . Swizz Beatz and Rico Love make cameos alongside Ross . In a third scene , Diddy can be seen driving through the city at night in a black Bugatti Veyron . For the song 's chorus , Dawn Richard and Kalenna Harper take the lead , ordering drinks in a bar and enjoying the night club . A forth scene for T.I. ' s verse sees the camera focus on T.I. serenading two women in an apartment . Throughout the video the images flicker between the various scenes . In the final part of the video , and during the bridge , all three members of the group appear outside against a backdrop of thick smoke and bright red fireworks . There is a final flash of fireworks before the camera fades completely , to black .
= = = Remix videos = = =
The official remix video premiered on June 21 , 2010 , this version features Rick Ross and Nicki Minaj . The music video takes footage from the original version , but adds several new scenes . When Diddy drives through LA at night , the scene was refilmed with Minaj as his front seat passenger . Additionally there is another new scene where Minaj , in a blue curly wig , raps some of her verse against a dark backdrop . For the " Grime Remix " of the song , a completely new video was filmed Glasgow , Scotland on November 5 , 2010 and features cameos from Boy Better Know & Chipmunk . In this version , Diddy @-@ Dirty Money and Skepta pose for the camera in an elevator before joining Chipmunk and Boy Better Know , backstage at a gig . The cameras follow the group and their guests as they move around backstage partying and walking the streets at night .
= = Live performances = =
Diddy – Dirty Money performed " Hello Good Morning " live for the first time on March 31 , 2010 , on the ninth season of American Idol . The next performance did not come until June 4 , 2010 , this time on Good Morning America . They then reprised the performance five days later on French TV show , Le Grand Journal . On June 12 , 2010 , the group performed ( with guest drummer Matt Helders of Arctic Monkeys ) on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . Dirty Money later performed " Hello Good Morning " at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards on August 9 , 2010 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
" Hello Good Morning " was recorded at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California and mixed at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California .
Marcella Araica – songwriter , engineer
Richard " Rico Love " Butler – songwriter , vocal production
Smith Carlson – assistant engineer
Sean " Diddy " Combs – lead vocals
Steve " Rock Star " Dickey – engineer
Clifford " T.I. " Harris – songwriter , featured vocals
Nathaniel " Danja " Hills – songwriter , producer , instruments
Jaycen Joshua – mixing
Giancarlo Lino – mixing
Dirty Money ( Dawn Richard , Kalenna Harper ) – lead vocals , vocal production
Jared Newcomb – assistant engineer
Edward Sanders – assistant engineer
Matthew Testa – engineer
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Living River Siam =
Living River Siam ( Thai : โครงการแม ่ น ้ ำเพื ่ อชีวิต ; formerly South East Asia Rivers Network , or SEARIN ) is a Thai non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) which analyzes the impact of Thailand 's various dam projects and coordinates the research of indigenous peoples to give Thai villagers the power to document the influence of local rivers and dams . Founded in 1999 , it gained prominence during the Pak Mun Dam study period in 2001 , when it developed a method for instructing villagers on how to document the effects of the dammed river on their lives . When the Thai government proposed other dam sites , Living River Siam took its research methods to the villages surrounding those sites as well . Today , the organization works with other NGOs in Southeast Asia to counter government @-@ sponsored research that encourages dam construction .
= = Pak Mun Dam protests = =
Living River Siam was launched on March 14 , 1999 , the International Rivers Day of Action , by a group of NGO workers and Thai academics . Its first action , on March 23 , was to support an occupation of the Pak Mun Dam site by 5 @,@ 000 villagers . The Pak Mun Dam , funded partially by the World Bank , was built in 1994 and slowly became the focus of national controversy . It received widespread complaints from Thai villagers and was the focus of the Assembly of the Poor 's 99 @-@ day , 20 @,@ 000 @-@ person protest in Bangkok in 1997 . The dam generates 0 @.@ 5 percent of Thailand 's electric capacity ; 40 percent of Thailand 's total electric capacity goes unused on an everyday basis .
On June 16 , 2001 , the Thai government under Thaksin Shinawatra agreed to open the sluice gates of the Pak Mun Dam for four months to allow studies to be conducted on its social impact ; this was later extended to 13 months . Coinciding with this agreement , the government announced that official studies would be conducted by Ubon Ratchathani University and a private team contracted by the National Economic and Social Development Board . The university received a budget of 10 million baht ( roughly US $ 280 @,@ 000 ) , and the government contractors , alleged to be the same group that recommended damming another river , received 94 million baht ( roughly US $ 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 ) , raising suspicions . Villagers thought that outside academics would not be able to make an objective or accurate study of the river because they were unfamiliar with local fish migration and habitats .
= = Thai Baan research = =
In response , Living River Siam developed Ngan Wijai Thai Baan ( งานวิจัยไทบ ้ าน ) , or " research by Thai villagers " . This research is meant to circumvent the traditional approach to anthropological study by allowing villagers to investigate and document , in their own language and on their own terms , every aspect of their life on the river . The only function of the overseeing organization is to compile the villagers ' data and publish it for others to read . Living River Siam refers to this in English as " Thai Baan research " .
The Mun River research documented the spawning grounds , migration patterns , habitats , and preferred baits of 137 species of fish . Originally , there were 265 species in the river ; 220 of these disappeared when the river was dammed , and only 92 reappeared when the sluice gates were opened , meaning that the diversity of the Mun ecosystem had already been severely reduced by the dam . There were 104 species that migrated between the Mekong and Mun rivers , meaning the dam endangered the Mekong 's ecosystem as well . Thai villagers took photos of all the fish and counted the number of fish caught before and after the opening of the gates . Over 200 villagers volunteered for the study , and divided themselves up into groups to survey the sub @-@ ecosystems of rapids , channels , eddies , small waterfalls , drinking wells , don islands , bok hin pools , khum pools , wang pools , huu holes , lhum hin stone pockets , kon shallows , kan underwater rapids , and luang fishing grounds .
The use of small and large fish in the local economy was analyzed . Researchers found that while the less common large fish are sold for profit , the diet of Pak Mun villagers consisted mostly of small fish which can be caught in both the wet and dry seasons . Small fish are eaten , sold , and traded with the hill peoples for rice .
The villages documented changes in their towns as a result of the opening of the sluice gates . Fishermen who had been forced to leave for the city returned to their homes , the increase in fish caused a boom in the rural economy , in fishing and tourism . Villagers were able to hold religious ceremonies in important riverside spaces .
= = = Government reaction and other responses = = =
The results of the Thai Baan research were supported by several academics , including Niti Pawakapan of Chulalongkorn University . The Ubon Ratchathani University study also recommended keeping the sluice gates open for at least five years . However , the Thai government rejected all of the studies for unclear reasons and instead conducted a three @-@ day opinion poll of a random sample of Thais , after which it decided that the gates would stay closed for eight out of twelve months of the year . In 2007 , Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont decided to close the gates permanently , citing an alleged secret agreement between thousands of villagers and the Internal Security Operations Command .
The response from non @-@ governmental organizations has been more favorable . The Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Programme ( MWBP ) , an international alliance managed by the United Nations Development Programme and World Conservation Union , has published a study on the methodology of Thai Baan research and coordinated their own study in Sri Songkham district in 2004 , concluding that it was more useful than top @-@ down styles of village research . The study overseen by the MWBP was cited in an academic journal and submitted to an international conference . Living River Siam 's spokesperson Pianporn Deetes was invited to a United Nations Environment Programme conference on dams .
In 2002 the Thai government ’ s department of irrigation met the demands of Living River Siam and the Assembly of the Poor with a promise to halt all future dam projects , which was accepted with cautious optimism . To circumvent the issue of domestic damming , in 2007 the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand ( EGAT ) announced plans to build a series of dams on Burma 's Salween River along its border with Thailand . Living River Siam opposed this plan , citing the threat of environmental destruction in Burma 's Shan , Karenni , and Karen states as well as Mae Hong Son Province .
= = Additional research = =
Since 2004 , Living River Siam has employed its research methods in other threatened locations across rural Thailand .
= = = Amphoe Chiang Khong = = =
The Mekong River remained free of dams until 1993 because of its complex system of rapids which wreck boats , and the unusual monsoon season which reverses the course of some of its branches . In 2004 , the Thai government made an agreement with China to open the river to commercial navigation by destroying rapids , which Thai Baan research had identified as important fish spawning grounds . On the Chinese side , dams were constructed . Living River Siam gathered additional Thai Baan surveys from 146 villagers in Amphoe Chiang Khong , which determined that the blasting of rapids had made the river water unsuitable for drinking and bathing , washed away many local riverside gardens , and decimated the populations of local plants and fish . In response to the 2004 studies , the Thai government suspended blasting on one of the rapids , the Khon Pi Luang .
= = = Kaeng Sua Ten = = =
In 2006 , in response to renewed plans for dam construction in Kaeng Sua Ten , Living River Siam released a report on the people of Sa @-@ iap , Amphoe Song , Phrae Province ( part of Mae Yom National Park ) , based on their own experiences and history . It was called Chaobaan research , but the methodology was equivalent to the Thai Baan research . The report examined the ecosystem of the residents of Sa @-@ iap , the vegetables and fungi they subsisted on , medicinal herbs they used , local fauna , wood resources , and their culture .
The report divided Sa @-@ iap history into four periods . Before 1937 , the village was self @-@ sustaining and used both farming and gathering for the overwhelming majority of its needs . In 1937 , the Thai government allowed private companies to log the forest , destroying part of the villages ' infrastructure . In 1957 , the villagers entered the employ of the logging companies , causing internal and external conflict as well as increased reliance on unsustainable practices . Finally , in 1991 the villagers formed a conservation group , the Forest Lover Group , which the Chaobaan researchers agreed cut down on conflict . The mood of the villages has returned to one of mutual assistance and traditional customs .
= = = Rasi Salai Dam = = =
The Rasi Salai Dam was completed in 1994 , around the same time as the Pak Mun Dam , and received similar local complaints . The dam 's central reservoir was occupied for two years by villagers , until a July 2000 decision opened the sluice gates . From 2003 to 2004 , Living River Siam coordinated Thai Baan research in three districts : Amphoe Rasi Salai , Amphoe Rattanaburi , and Amphoe Phon Sai . The report examined village culture , ecology , biodiversity , agriculture , and food and water management . The impact of the closing and opening of the sluice gates was also examined . It was concluded that the dam reduced fish populations , but more importantly , flooded natural salt pits and spread them into rice and vegetable fields , destroying trees and crops . The government has not made a commitment to keep the Rasi Salai Dam out of commission , but as of 2008 the gates have not yet been closed .
= = = Mekong flooding = = =
In 2005 , and again in 2008 , the Mekong River flooded its banks , damaging hundreds of rural villages . Living River Siam joined with other NGOs to form the Thai People 's Network for Mekong , which pointed to dams in China as the primary cause of the flooding . An intergovernmental working group called the Mekong River Commission opposed these claims , saying China 's dams had little to do with the flood , although they also pressed China for data on the floodwaters . The back @-@ and @-@ forth was covered heavily in Thai press , which gave ample space to the statements of the People 's Network .
= = Seminars , coordination , and publications = =
Beginning in 2006 , Living River Siam began training other grassroots organizations in Thai Baan research , beginning with the Vietnam Rivers Network and expanding to a Chinese group in 2007 . In 2008 they worked with the Burma Rivers Network to conduct research on the Salween River . They also assisted a United Nations @-@ funded NGO , the Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Programme ( MWBP ) , with running Thai Baan research in 2004 . Living River Siam , along with the MWBP , organizes cross @-@ basin coordination between Thai Baan research groups .
Living River Siam has compiled the research and oral accounts of Thai villagers into many publications , which they make available on their website . Its published books document local knowledge about fish , the results of village research , a how @-@ to manual for Thai Baan research , and citizens ' guides to defending Thai rivers and communities . They also have produced posters of fish species and dams , pamphlets on fishing gear , and short documentaries about the river .
= Battle of the Plains of Abraham =
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham , also known as the Battle of Quebec , ( Bataille des Plaines d 'Abraham or Première bataille de Québec in French ) was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years ' War ( referred to as the French and Indian War in the United States ) . The battle , which began on 13 September 1759 , was fought by the British Army and Navy against the French Army on a plateau just outside the walls of Quebec City , on land that was originally owned by a farmer named Abraham Martin , hence the name of the battle . The battle involved fewer than 10 @,@ 000 troops between both sides , but proved to be a deciding moment in the conflict between France and Britain over the fate of New France , influencing the later creation of Canada .
The culmination of a three @-@ month siege by the British , the battle lasted about 15 minutes . British troops commanded by General James Wolfe successfully resisted the column advance of French troops and Canadien militia under General Louis @-@ Joseph , Marquis de Montcalm , employing new tactics that proved extremely effective against standard military formations used in most large European conflicts . Both generals were mortally wounded during the battle ; Wolfe received three gunshot wounds that ended his life within minutes of the beginning of the engagement and Montcalm died the next morning after receiving a musket ball wound just below his ribs . In the wake of the battle , the French evacuated the city ; their remaining military force in Canada and the rest of North America came under increasing pressure from British forces .
While the French forces continued to fight and prevailed in several battles after Quebec was captured , the British did not relinquish their hold on the virtually impregnable Citadelle . That tenacity carried over to other areas in North America ; within four years , France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris .
The decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the " Annus Mirabilis " in Great Britain .
= = Overview = =
As the Seven Years ' War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759 , French forces and colonies in northeastern North America came under renewed attacks from British armies . In 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon , the British took Louisbourg in August , causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands , and opening the sea route to attack Quebec . Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the same month , costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign . When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British , France was forced to draw its troops back . French leadership , specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm , were unsettled by the British successes . However , Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared a three @-@ pronged attack for 1759 .
James Wolfe expected to lead 12 @,@ 000 men , but was greeted by only approximately 400 officers , 7 @,@ 000 regular troops , and 300 gunners . Wolfe 's troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders .
In preparation for the fleet 's approach to Quebec , James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river , including a dangerous channel known as The Traverse . Cook 's ship was one of the first ships up the river , sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up , eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île d 'Orléans on 28 June . The French attempted to attack the fleet by sending seven fire ships downriver to disrupt the landing , but the ships fired too early and British sailors in longboats were able to pull the flaming craft clear of the fleet . The following day , Wolfe 's troops landed on the south bank of the river at Point Levis , nearly directly across the river from Quebec ; an artillery battery was established there in early July that nearly levelled the lower town by bombardment .
Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership , the professional French troops and New French militia defenders focused preparations for the British attacks on the Beauport Shore . Montcalm and his staff , Major @-@ General François de Gaston , Chevalier de Lévis , Colonel Louis Antoine de Bougainville , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel de Sennezergue , distributed some 12 @,@ 000 troops in a nine @-@ kilometre @-@ long collection of fortified redoubts and batteries from the Saint @-@ Charles River to the Montmorency Falls , along the shallows of the river in areas that had previously been targeted by British attempts to land . Prior to the arrival of the British , a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies . Those supplies , along with 500 reinforcements , were likely behind the lengthened siege .
Wolfe , on surveying the town of Beauport , found that the houses there had been barricaded and organized to allow for musket fire from within ; they were built in an unbroken line along the road , providing a formidable barrier . In addition , a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous . On 31 July , the first serious attempt by Wolfe 's troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport , also known as the Battle of Montmorency . Approximately 3 @,@ 500 troops , supported by a heavy bombardment , attempted to land , but were caught under fire in the river shallows . Members of the Louisbourg Grenadiers , who reached the beach , attempted a generally undisciplined charge on the French positions , but came under heavy fire ; a thunderstorm ended the fight and allowed Wolfe to pull his troops back after taking some 450 casualties to Montcalm 's 60 .
Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack ; Vaudreuil wrote afterwards that " I have no more anxiety about Quebec . Wolfe , I assure you , will make no progress … He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers . " He predicted another attack would come within days . Others in the French camp felt the campaign was over .
For the remainder of the summer , Wolfe 's focus changed , possibly due to frustration with Montcalm 's tactics . His troops , along with American Rangers , attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence . An estimated 1 @,@ 400 stone houses and manors were destroyed , and many colonists killed . The effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalm 's army out of its fortifications , but was unsuccessful . However , the attacks did reduce the amount of supplies available to the French , especially as the British navy , unable to control the St. Lawrence entirely , was successfully blockading the ports in France .
= = Preparations = =
Through the summer siege , illness spread through the British camps . In August , Wolfe himself was bedridden , causing already low morale to slump even further among the British troops . With many men in camp hospitals , British fighting numbers were thinned , and Wolfe personally felt that a new attack was needed by the end of September , or Britain 's opportunity would be lost . In addition , his frustration with Montcalm 's defensive stance continued to grow . In a letter to his mother , Wolfe wrote , " The Marquis of Montcalm is at the head of a great number of bad soldiers , and I am at the head of a small number of good ones that wish for nothing so much as to fight him ; but the wary old fellow avoids an action , doubtful of the behaviour of his army . " Montcalm also expressed frustration over the long siege , relating that he and his troops slept clothed and booted , and his horse was always saddled in preparation for an attack .
After considering and rejecting a number of plans for landings on the north shore , a decision was made in late August by Wolfe and his brigadiers to land upriver of the city . If successful , such a landing would force Montcalm to fight , as a British force on the north shore of the St. Lawrence would cut his supply lines to Montreal . Initial suggestions for landing sites ranged as far as 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) up the St. Lawrence , which would have given the French troops one or two days to prepare for the attack . Following the failed British assault on Montmorency , Montcalm altered his deployment , sending Bougainville and a column of approximately 1 @,@ 500 regular troops , 200 cavalry , and a group of New French militia — some 3 @,@ 000 men in all — upriver to Cap @-@ Rouge to monitor the British ships upstream . He further strengthened his defences of the Beauport shore following the abandonment of the British camp at Montmorency , which he regarded as preparations for a descent ( amphibious attack ) on Beauport . In spite of warnings from local commanders , he did not view an upstream landing as a serious possibility .
The British , meanwhile , prepared for their risky deployment upstream . Troops had already been aboard landing ships and drifting up and down the river for several days when Wolfe on 12 September , made a final decision on the British landing site , selecting L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon . L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon is a cove situated southwest of the city , three kilometres upstream from Cap Diamant . It lies at the bottom of a 53 @-@ metre ( 174 ft ) high cliff leading to the plateau above , and was protected by a battery of guns . It is not known why Wolfe selected Foulon , as the original landing site was to be further up the river , in a position where the British would be able to develop a foothold and strike at Bougainville 's force to draw Montcalm out of Quebec and onto the plains . Brigadier @-@ General George Townshend wrote that " by some intelligence the General had , he has changed his mind as to the place he intended to land . " In his final letter , dated HMS Sutherland , 8 : 30 p.m. 12 September , Wolfe wrote :
Wolfe 's plan of attack depended on secrecy and surprise . His plan required that a small party of men should land by night on the north shore , climb the tall cliff , seize a small road , and overpower the garrison that protected it , allowing the bulk of his army ( 5 @,@ 000 men ) to ascend the cliff by the small road and then deploy for battle on the plateau . Even if the first landing party succeeded in their mission and the army was able to follow , such a deployment would still leave his forces inside the French line of defense with no immediate retreat but the river . It is possible that Wolfe 's decision to change the landing site was owing less to a desire for secrecy and more to his general disdain for his brigadiers ( a feeling that was reciprocated ) ; it is also possible that he was still suffering the effects of his illness and the opiates he used as painkillers . Anderson believes Wolfe ordered the attack believing the advanced guard would be repulsed , and anticipated dying gallantly with his men rather than returning home in disgrace .
= = Landing = =
Bougainville , tasked with the defence of the large area between Cap Diamant and Cap Rouge , was upstream with his troops at Cap Rouge on the night of 12 September , and missed seeing numerous British ships moving downstream . A camp of approximately 100 militia led by Captain Louis Du Pont Duchambon de Vergor , who had unsuccessfully faced the British four years previously at Fort Beauséjour , had been assigned to watch the narrow road at L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon which followed a streambank , the Coulée Saint @-@ Denis . On the night of 12 September and morning of 13 September , however , the camp may have contained as few as 40 men , as others were off harvesting . Vaudreuil and others had expressed their concern at the possibility of L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon being vulnerable , but Montcalm dismissed them , saying 100 men would hold off the army until daylight , remarking , " It is not to be supposed that the enemies have wings so that they can in the same night cross the river , disembark , climb the obstructed acclivity , and scale the walls , for which last operation they would have to carry ladders . "
Sentries did detect boats moving along the river that morning , but they were expecting a French supply convoy to pass that night — a plan that had been changed without Vergor being notified . When the boats , loaded with the first wave of British troops , were challenged , a French @-@ speaking officer , either a Captain Fraser or Captain Donald McDonald of the 78th Fraser Highlanders , was able to answer the challenge in excellent French , allaying suspicion .
The boats , however , had drifted slightly off course : instead of landing at the base of the road , many soldiers found themselves at the base of a slope . A group of 24 volunteers led by Colonel William Howe with fixed bayonets were sent to clear the picket along the road , and climbed the slope , a manoeuvre that allowed them to come up behind Vergor 's camp and capture it quickly . Wolfe followed an hour later when he could use an easy access road to climb to the plain . Thus , by the time the sun rose over the Plains of Abraham , Wolfe 's army had a solid foothold at the top of the cliffs .
= = Battle = =
The plateau was undefended save for Vergor 's camp , as Vaudreuil had ordered one of the French regiments to relocate to the east of the city not long before the landing . Had the immediate defenders been more numerous , the British might have been unable to deploy or even been pushed back . An officer who would normally have patrolled the cliffs regularly through the night was unable to on the night of the 12th because one of his horses had been stolen and his two others were lame . The first notice of the landing came from a runner who had fled from Vergor 's camp , but one of Montcalm 's aides felt the man was mad and sent him away , then went back to bed . Saunders had staged a diversionary action off Montmorency , firing on the shore emplacements through the night and loading boats with troops , many of them taken from field hospitals ; this preoccupied Montcalm .
Montcalm was taken aback to learn of the British deployment , and his response has been regarded as precipitate . Though he might have awaited reinforcement by Bougainville 's column ( allowing simultaneous frontal and rear attacks on the British position ) or avoided battle while he concentrated his forces , or even yielded the city to Wolfe , he instead elected to confront Wolfe 's force directly . Had he waited , the British would have been entirely cut off — they had nowhere to go but back down the Foulon , and would have been under fire the entire way . To an artillery officer named Montbelliard , Montcalm explained his decision thus : " We cannot avoid action ; the enemy is entrenching , he already has two pieces of cannon . If we give him time to establish himself , we shall never be able to attack him with the troops we have . "
= = = First engagements = = =
In total , Montcalm had 13 @,@ 390 regular troops , Troupes de la Marine , and militia available in Quebec City and along the Beauport shore , as well as 200 cavalry , 200 artillery ( including the guns of Quebec ) , 300 native warriors ( including many Odawa under Charles de Langlade ) , and 140 Acadian volunteers , but most of these troops did not participate in the action . Many of the militia were inexperienced ; the Acadian , Canadian , and indigenous irregulars were more used to guerilla warfare . By contrast , the British troops were almost all regulars .
On the morning of 13 September , Wolfe 's army formed a line first with their backs to the river , then spread out across the Plains with its right anchored by the bluff along the St. Lawrence and its left by a bluff and thick wood above the St. Charles River . While the regular French forces were approaching from Beauport and Quebec , the Canadian militia and native sharpshooters engaged the British left flank , sheltering in the trees and scrub ; the militia held these positions throughout the battle and fell back on this line during the general retreat , eventually holding the bridge over the St. Charles River .
The British troops , numbering approximately 3 @,@ 300 , formed into a shallow horseshoe formation that stretched across the width of the Plains , the main firing line being roughly one kilometre long . In order to cover the entire plain , Wolfe was forced to array his soldiers two ranks deep , rather than the more conventional three ranks . On the left wing , regiments under Townshend exchanged fire with the militia in the scrub and captured a small collection of houses and gristmill to anchor the line . The defenders pushed the British from one house , but were repelled and , in retreat , lit several houses on fire to keep them out of enemy hands . Smoke from these fires wound up masking the British left , and may have confused Montcalm as to the width of the lines . As Wolfe 's men waited for the defenders , the steady fire became intense enough that Wolfe ordered his men to lie down amid the high grass and brush .
As French troops arrived from Beauport , Montcalm , one of few mounted men on the field , decided that a swift assault was the only way to dislodge the British from their position . Accordingly , he deployed the forces immediately available in and near Quebec City and prepared an immediate attack , without waiting for further reinforcements from the Beauport shore . He arrayed his approximately 3 @,@ 500 soldiers into place , his best regulars three deep , others six deep and his poorest regiment in column . At approximately 10 a.m. , Montcalm , riding his dark horse and waving his sword to encourage his men , ordered a general advance on the British line .
As a European @-@ trained military leader , Montcalm 's instinct was for large , set @-@ piece battles in which regiments and soldiers moved in precise order . Such actions required a disciplined soldiery , painstakingly drilled for as long as 18 months on the parade ground , trained to march in time , change formation at a word , and retain cohesion in the face of bayonet charges and musket volleys . Though his regular regiments ( the " troupes de terre " or " metropolitans " ) were adept at such formal warfare , in the course of the campaign their ranks had been replenished by less professional militiamen , whose talents at forest warfare emphasised the individual : they tended to fire early and then drop to the ground to reload , thus reducing the effect of concentrated fire at close range .
= = = Battle on the plains = = =
As the French approached , the British lines held their fire . Wolfe had devised a firing method for stopping French column advances in 1755 that called for the centre — in this case , the 43rd and 47th Foot regiments — to hold fire while waiting for the advancing force to approach within 30 yards ( 27 m ) , then open fire at close range .
The French held their fire and both armies waited for two or three minutes . The French finally fired two disorganized volleys .
Wolfe had ordered his soldiers to charge their muskets with two balls each in preparation for the engagement . Captain John Knox , serving with the 43rd Foot , wrote in his journal that as the French came within range , the regiments " gave them , with great calmness , as remarkable a close and heavy discharge as I ever saw . " After the first volley , the British lines marched forward a few paces towards the shocked French force and fired a second general volley that shattered the attackers and sent them into retreat .
Wolfe , positioned with the 28th Foot and the Louisbourg Grenadiers , had moved to a rise to observe the battle ; he had been struck in the wrist early in the fight , but had wrapped the injury and continued on . Volunteer James Henderson , with the Louisbourg Grenadiers , had been tasked with holding the hill , and reported afterwards that within moments of the command to fire , Wolfe was struck with two shots , one low in the stomach and the second , a mortal wound in the chest . Knox wrote that one of the soldiers near Wolfe shouted " They run , see how they run . " Wolfe , on the ground , opened his eyes and asked who was running . Upon being told that the French had broken , he gave several orders , then turned on his side and said " Now , God be praised , I will die in peace " , and died .
With Wolfe dead and several other key officers injured , British troops fell into a disorganised pursuit of the retreating French troops . The 78th Fraser Highlanders were ordered by Brigadier @-@ General James Murray to pursue the French with their swords , but were met near the city by a heavy fire from a floating battery covering the bridge over the St. Charles River as | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Goodwin , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " The Blessing Way " featured guest appearances by Floyd Red Crow Westerman , Peter Donat and Jerry Hardin , and introduced John Neville as the Well @-@ Manicured Man . The episode helped explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " The Blessing Way " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 , being watched by 19 @.@ 94 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder is found near death on a Navajo reservation , and is nursed back to health by the tribe , led by Albert Hosteen ( Westerman ) . Meanwhile , Scully investigates an implant found in her neck , and fears that her life — and those of her family — may be in danger . " The Blessing Way " is part of a three @-@ episode storyline , carrying on from the second season finale " Anasazi " , and continuing in the next episode , " Paper Clip " .
Series creator Chris Carter , who called the episode one of his favorite episodes to write , created the episode as a way to explore how the character of Fox Mulder would react to the death of his father . The episode contained several elaborate special effects ; effects producer Mat Beck considered the sequence where Mulder has a vision of Deep Throat and his father to be one of the most difficult of the season .
= = Plot = =
In Two Grey Hills , New Mexico , Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) and his family are beaten by the Men in Black as they search for the whereabouts of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is pursued by a black helicopter before soldiers retrieve her printed copies of Albert 's translations of the digital tape . Scully denies having the original tape , saying it is in Mulder 's possession . Upon returning to Washington , the FBI puts Scully on mandatory leave and forces her to turn in her badge and gun . Upon entering Mulder 's office , she finds the tape missing .
Meanwhile , in New York City , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) appears before the Syndicate , who question him over the whereabouts of the tape . Mulder , alive but severely wounded , is found buried under some rocks near the buried boxcar . Hosteen has Mulder taken to a Navajo sweat lodge to be healed during a " Blessing Way " ritual . During the ritual , Mulder has ghostly visions of Deep Throat and his father , who urge him to recover and continue his search for the truth .
Melvin Frohike visits Scully 's apartment and shows her a newspaper article about Kenneth Soona 's murder . When she returns to FBI headquarters , the metal detector curiously goes off . Scully presents Skinner with the newspaper article , thinking that the data from Soona 's death can clear Mulder in his father 's murder . Skinner , however , refuses to do any follow @-@ up on it . Leaving the building , Scully has a hunch upon seeing the metal detector again that leads to locating metal in the back of her neck . Scully sees a doctor , who removes a small metal implant .
Scully 's sister Melissa urges her to see a hypnotherapist to recover lost memories of her abduction . Scully heads there , but becomes scared and stops the session . Returning home , Scully finds Skinner leaving her apartment and driving off ; he later denies being there . Mulder , recovered from the Blessing Way ritual , is told by Albert that he cannot bathe or change clothes for four days . Scully heads to Boston to attend Bill 's funeral , where she introduces herself to Mulder 's mother , Teena . At the cemetery , Scully is approached by a Syndicate member known as the Well @-@ Manicured Man , who warns her that she is about to be killed , either by a pair of assassins or by someone she knows . Mulder goes to Connecticut and questions Teena about an old photo of his father standing with the other members of the Syndicate in front of a mysterious building .
Melissa calls Scully and tells her she is coming over . After receiving a call from someone who immediately hangs up , Scully leaves her apartment and tells Melissa that she 'll head to her home instead . As she leaves , Skinner pulls up in his car , telling her they need to speak in private . Melissa shows up soon afterwards and is mistakenly shot by Luis Cardinal , who is hiding there with Alex Krycek . Realizing they shot the wrong person , the two flee . Meanwhile , after taking Skinner to Mulder 's apartment , Scully holds him at gunpoint , believing he is the traitor the Well @-@ Manicured Man spoke of . Skinner tells Scully that he is in possession of the digital tape . Just then , someone steps outside the door . This distracts Scully enough for Skinner to pull out his gun on her .
= = Production = =
Series creator Chris Carter felt this was one of his favorite episodes to write , as he found it interesting to explore how the character of Fox Mulder would react to the death of his father . Carter had recently lost a parent himself when he began work on the episode . Frank Spotnitz said of the episode " The expectations were very high coming after a summer 's worth of anticipation to see how Mulder got out of the boxcar . We knew we had to answer that question and still leave an intriguing enough dilemma at the end of the show to bring viewers back for the third and final part . I also thought it was a big gamble to do all that Indian mysticism stuff . I thought a lot of people would not necessarily respond to that . So I was nervous about that , but very excited about the Scully storyline and the way all of that played out with Mulder and Skinner . " Carter attended Navajo chants and rituals to ensure the accuracy of the events in this episode , after being alerted to inaccuracies in the previous episode by Navajo scholars . A sand painter was brought in to create the two sand paintings for the Blessing Way sequence , which took an entire day to create . The scenes set in New Mexico were filmed in the same Vancouver quarry that had been used as a stand @-@ in in the previous episode , " Anasazi " , the repainting of which required only minor touch @-@ ups .
Visual effects producer Mat Beck considered the sequence where Fox Mulder has a vision of Deep Throat and his father the most difficult of the season . The end of the episode reads " In Memoriam , Larry Wells , 1946 - 1995 . " Wells was a costume designer on the show . Mark Snow slightly changed the piano melody from the opening theme music ( and the corresponding shortened theme in the credits ) from the first two seasons in this episode . The music would remain unchanged for several years . The title of the episode refers to the Navajo ceremony of the Blessing Way . This is the first episode where Mitch Pileggi is credited under Also Starring in the opening credits .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Blessing Way " premiered on the Fox network on September 22 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 12 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 with a 22 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 22 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 19 @.@ 94 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing , making it the most viewed episode of the third season .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Blessing Way " received mixed reviews from critics . The episode , along with both other parts of the story arc , were listed concurrently as the second @-@ best episode of the series by Den of Geek 's Nina Sordi . Sordi noted that the plotline " laid the groundwork for the mythology arc for the rest of the series " , adding that it " brought much more significance to what is to come " . John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , gave the episode a largely positive review and rated it a 10 out of 10 . Keegan described it as the " perfect counterpoint to Anasazi " and a " strong beginning to the third season " . Other reviews were more mixed . In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " The Blessing Way " was rated a B + . The episode was derided for its " corny dream sequence and high @-@ flown cosmic hooey " , although the introduction of the Well @-@ Manicured Man and Mitch Pileggi 's portrayal of Walter Skinner were seen as highlights . Writing for the A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff panned the episode 's " pseudo @-@ mystical bullshit " , rating the episode a B- . He felt that the resolution of the cliffhanger from the previous episode " Anasazi " — that of Mulder 's apparent death — was poorly handled , and that the character of Albert Hosteen was perhaps the worst in the series . However , the introduction of plot threads such as Scully 's implant and the alien @-@ human hybrids were deemed positive factors .
David Duchovny was somewhat disappointed with the episode , hoping he would have had a chance to do more in an episode that was primarily a symbolic journey for him rather than a real one . The actor said " I like the psychology , and I like the thinking that went into the episode as a viewer . As an actor , I felt like an opportunity passed me by . If I had to do any episode over again , it would be that one . " The actor called the episode in 1995 the greatest missed opportunity they had . Chris Carter disagreed , stating that Fox Mulder 's role in the episode was the right way to do it , and that the dramatic weight for the episode had to shift from Mulder to Dana Scully .
= Ratu ( band ) =
Ratu was an Indonesian music duo formed in 1999 with Maia Estianty , then the wife of musician Ahmad Dhani , on instruments and Pinkan Mambo on vocals . Ratu entered the Indonesian musical scene with their first album , Bersama ( Together ; 2003 ) . After a short break caused by Mambo 's departure in 2004 , the group formed anew with Mulan Kwok as vocalist . This new line @-@ up proved more successful , with their most successful songs – " Teman Tapi Mesra " ( " Friends with Benefits " ) and " Lelaki Buaya Darat " ( " Womaniser " ) – released in this period ; both song titles later became common terms in the Indonesian vocabulary . The group 's second studio album , No . Satu ( Number One ; 2006 ) , sold 200 @,@ 000 copies on the day of its release , a record for an album by an Indonesian female group . The group dissolved in 2007 .
Ratu was the most successful female Indonesian music group of the 2000s . Aside from their music , they were known for their physical appearance and wide coverage in infotainment media . Through their choice in costumes , Ratu popularised Harajuku styles in Indonesia . Throughout their career , the band won numerous awards ; they were the first musical act to twice be declared " Artist of the Year " and " Group / Duo Artist of The Year " at the MTV Ampuh music awards . This success inspired numerous other groups to follow in their tracks .
= = Career = =
= = = Formation and first record = = =
Maia Ahmad , at the time wife of the musician Ahmad Dhani , had been a background singer for her husband 's band Dewa 19 since 1993 . She had been musically inclined since childhood and had formed a band while a teenager . She intended to be like her husband and enter the music industry as a headline performer . In a later interview , she explained her motivations : " I wasn 't following on the success of Krisdayanti dan Anang , a husband and wife who had made an album together . I just started when I did . Dhani only gave me the time then , as our children were getting older and I could focus on my music . " With Dhani 's guidance , in 1999 Maia decided to form a duo consisting of a singer and a musician , with the name Ratu . The concept was based on that of international bands like Roxette and Savage Garden . Maia set herself as a keyboardist , then began to look for a vocalist .
Pinkan Mambo , who at the time sang at a café , was working towards a career as a professional musician . In mid @-@ 1999 , she met Dhani at a café in Pondok Indah Mall , South Jakarta . She introduced herself to him , saying that she had a good voice . When Dhani asked how good , she replied " Amazing . [ ... ] as good as Mariah Carey . " Mambo then received Dhani 's number , which she used to call him repeatedly and ask for an album . On the fifth day , Maia answered the phone and eventually offered Mambo the position of vocalist with Ratu . Although Mambo wanted to be a soloist , she accepted and had an audition at Maia 's home , where she was accepted before she could finish singing . Before she began work with Ratu , Pinkan was given training as a backing vocalist for Dewa 19 .
After three years of preparation , in January 2003 Ratu launched their debut album Bersama with Sony Music Indonesia . The album included ten songs , seven written by Maia and three by Dhani ; Maia also did the arrangement and served as backing vocalist . Other musicians involved on the album included Bintang ( bass ) , Denny Chasmala , Andra Ramadhan and Taras ( guitar ) , Agil Cinere ( drums ) , Donni ( flute ) , Sa 'unine ( strings ) and Henry Lamiri ( violin ) . The music was R & B @-@ influenced , with added piano for a " feminine touch . " With the album several singles , " Aku Baik @-@ Baik Saja " ( " I 'm Fine " ) , " Salahkah Aku Terlalu Mencintaimu " ( " Blame Me For Loving You Too Much " ) and " Jangan Bilang Siapa Siapa " ( " Don 't Tell Anyone " ) , were released . This first album was well @-@ received and sold more than 250 @,@ 000 copies . Ratu also provided a new sound , as the Indonesian music industry of the time was dominated by male groups . Ratu won Best Newcomer at the 2003 Clear Top Ten Awards . At the 2006 MTV Ampuh awards , Ratu was awarded Artist of the Year and Group / Duo Artist of The Year .
After the success of Bersama , Maia and Mambo began to work on a second album , scheduled for a 2004 release . However , on 14 October 2004 Mambo announced she was leaving the group amidst widespread media coverage of her being pregnant outside of wedlock . Reports indicated that she may have left the group because of Maia 's more dominant personality and conflicts between the two . Maia , left as the only member of the band , insisted that it was not dissolving , and would soon hold auditions for a new vocalist . As a temporary measure , several singers were contracted to perform with Maia , although not signed as members . Tia , a finalist in Akademi Fantasi Indosiar ( AFI ) , came under consideration for the position , but was unable to accept as she was still contracted to AFI .
= = = Line @-@ up change and success = = =
While looking for a new vocalist , Maia met Mulan Kwok , a performer at Barbados Cafe in Bilangan Kemang , Jakarta , in December 2004 . Of this meeting , Maia later recalled " When I met Mulan it was like meeting a new lover . I saw her and I liked her . Just fell in love . " Mulan was a café singer from Bandung who sang with Dimensi Band . She was asked to audition for the role and ultimately selected ; her appointment was announced at a press conference on 7 April 2005 . With Mulan , the group 's concept , originally " elegant " , became " coquettish and sexy " . The group 's musical style also changed ; while originally R & B with light piano , it was changed to a rock sound with dominant guitars .
On 30 August 2005 Ratu released a compilation album entitled Ratu & Friends which included two new songs from the group , " Teman Tapi Mesra " ( " Friends With Benefits " ) and a cover of Vina Panduwinata 's " Di Dadaku Ada Kamu " ( " In My Chest there is You " ) . " Teman Tapi Mesra " was an overnight hit in Indonesia , Malaysia , and Singapore and enjoyed by both adults and children alike . The term " Teman Tapi Mesra " , often abbreviated TTM , became widely used to describe those in a physical relationship without an emotional one . The ringback tone for " Teman Tapi Mesra " held the top position in Malaysia for several weeks . In Indonesia , the ringback tone saw more than a million downloads . The album sold more than 400 @,@ 000 copies and was certified double platinum . Ratu then put on a forty @-@ city concert tour throughout Indonesia with the band Radja ; the Rock in Love tour began with a concert at the Jakarta Convention Center on 20 February 2006 .
On 22 May 2006 Ratu released their second studio album , No . Satu ( Number One ) . Like on Bersama , most of the songs recorded were written by Maia . Dhani contributed three songs , while Mulan helped write the song " Seribu Cinta " ( " A Thousand Loves " ) . No . Satu also involved musicians such as Yoyo Padi , Denny Chasmala , Tepi Item , and Bintang . Two singles from the album , " Lelaki Buaya Darat " ( " Womanizer " ) and " Dear Diary " , were hits , as was the album ; it sold 200 @,@ 000 copies on the day of its release , a record for a work by a female Indonesian group . " Lelaki Buaya Darat " was banned in Malaysia because of its perceived negative connotations . The band tried to change the song 's title , but this was unsuccessful . However , some radio stations in Malaysia still played the song .
Throughout 2005 and 2006 Ratu was one of Indonesia 's dominant bands and often used in product advertisements . Both members explored different aspects of show business . Maia acted in Extravaganza , a comedy show on Trans TV , while Mulan starred in several television films . The band 's clothing , inspired by the Harajuku fashion district in Japan , made teenagers interested in street clothing . The band also received widespread coverage in infotainment media , with much gossip about Dhani 's relationship with Mulan . Noting the role that infotainment media had played in the band 's success , Maia said " Ratu should give thanks to all those reporters who gave us fame with their gossip . "
Ratu received numerous awards during this period . At the tenth Anugerah Musik Indonesia , the band received three nominations and won Best Produced Work for " Teman Tapi Mesra " . Maia and Mulan were also awarded Top Singer at the SCTV Awards , winning over established stars Agnes Monica , Ari Lasso , Iwan Fals , dan Krisdayanti . Ada the MTV Indonesia Awards , they were nominated in two categories . At the MTV Ampuh Awards , Ratu was declared Artist of the Year and " Group / Duo Artist of The Year " , making them the first group to win both awards twice .
= = = Dissolution = = =
At the end of 2006 , Ahmad Dhani threatened to disband the group if Maia did not cut back on her performance schedule ; he felt she was too busy , to the point of forgetting their children . Dhani later withdrew his threat , but – after becoming manager – limited the group to one performance a week . He then fired the group 's manager , Vita Ramona , who threatened to bring Dhani to court if he did not apologize for perceived defamation . This situation was exacerbated when Mulan publicly complained of not receiving her share of the band 's money and a lack of transparency in the management . She resigned on 30 January 2007 , after waiting ten days for her open letter to the management to receive a reply . Mulan then hired a lawyer and sued Dhani , resulting in her contract fee being returned .
After Mulan left , Maia continued to perform as Ratu own her own . She participated in the concert tour A Mild Live Soundrenaline with Shanty , Bunga Citra Lestari , and Ghea — a winner of Indonesian Idol . Later domestic troubles between Dhani and Maia led to the group to dissolve . At the end of 2007 , the group 's name became an object of contention between the two . Dhani claimed the name " Ratu " as his intellectual right and said that he had registered it with the General Directorate of Intellectual Rights . He forbid Maia , who was then looking for a new partner , to use the name .
= = Later activities = =
At the beginning of 2008 , Maia launched Duo Maia with her new partner Mey Chan . Unlike Ratu , Duo Maia was conceived as a vocal group and Maia was predominantly a vocalist . Meanwhile , Mulan signed with Republik Cinta Management under Ahmad Dhani . Mulan released a solo album entitled Makhluk Tuhan Paling Seksi ( God 's Sexiest Creature ) in 2008 and changed her stage name to Mulan Jameela . Mambo , the Ratu 's original vocalist , had already released a solo album , entitled Aku Tahu Rasanya ( I Know How It Feels ) in 2006 . In 2009 , " Teman Tapi Mesra " was bought by LadyLike , a Swedish girl band , and released in the European market as the English @-@ language " Dreaming of the Time " .
Ratu was followed by numerous Indonesian duos attempting to follow in its success . Towards the end of the 2000s , Ahmad Dhani did so as well , coaching the duos MahaDewi and The Virgin . None of these groups were as successful as Ratu , and , by 2011 , Korean @-@ inspired boy and girl bands had become dominant . Maia later said that Ratu had been successful because it was the only one of its kind , that " there were benefits to being a pioneer "
= = Discography = =
Bersama ( Together ; 2003 )
Ratu & Friends ( 2005 )
No . Satu ( Number One ; 2006 )
= = Concert tours = =
Rock in Love ( 2005 – 2006 )
A Mild Live Soundrenaline ( 2007 )
= = Awards = =
= Richard Appel =
Richard James " Rich " Appel ( born May 21 , 1963 ) is an American writer , producer and former attorney . Since 2012 , he has served as an Executive Producer and co @-@ showrunner of Family Guy on Fox . Growing up in Wilmette , Illinois , Appel developed a love of comedy and dreamed of a career as a comedy writer ; he attended Harvard University and wrote for the Harvard Lampoon . Following in his mother 's footsteps , Appel instead became a lawyer . After attending law school he started out as a law clerk for Judge John M. Walker , Jr. before becoming a federal attorney , serving as assistant U.S. attorney for the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York for three years . In 1994 , he moved into comedy writing when he was hired for The Simpsons , writing seven episodes of the show including " Mother Simpson " . He moved on to become showrunner and executive producer of King of the Hill before creating the sitcom A.U.S.A .. He then worked on The Bernie Mac Show , Family Guy and American Dad ! before co @-@ creating The Cleveland Show . He was married to the writer Mona Simpson .
= = Early life and law career = =
Richard James Appel was born May 21 , 1963 in New York City , to Nina ( neé Schick ) and Alfred Appel . His mother was a lawyer , taught law and served as dean of Loyola University Chicago 's law school from 1983 – 2004 , and his father ( who died on May 2 , 2009 ) was professor of English at Northwestern University and an expert on Vladimir Nabokov . Appel has a sister , Karen Oshman . Appel lived in California while his parents taught at Stanford University before the family moved to Wilmette , Illinois , where Appel went to North Shore Country Day School . Appel became interested in comedy from a young age , noting : " I grew up watching The Dick Van Dyke Show and always thought that what Rob Petrie did for a living was what I wanted to do . " His father introduced him to the works of Buster Keaton and Laurel and Hardy and encouraged him to " read comic books and watch quality [ sic ] television " , and he and a friend produced parody adverts and news pieces with a Betamax and often engaged in prank phone calls . At high school , he wrote sketches and routines and dreamt of being a comedy writer but " didn 't know anyone who did it , and it didn 't seem like a career that was open to me . "
He attended Harvard University and wrote for the Harvard Lampoon , alongside Conan O 'Brien and Greg Daniels , both of whom he beat for the chance to give the comic graduation speech , the Ivy Oration . Tad Friend noted : " Everyone thought it would be Conan automatically , but Rich 's speech was funny and self @-@ deprecating , in a way that was both silly and profound . " After graduation in 1985 with a degree in history and literature , Appel attended Harvard Law School rather than moving into comedy , because the idea of following his mother and grandfathers into the legal profession " appealed " to him . He then worked for two years as a law clerk for Judge John M. Walker , Jr . , of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York , working on the trials of people such as Michael Milken and Leona Helmsley . Subsequently , for three years from 1990 , Appel served as an assistant U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York . Fellow attorney Geoffrey Berman stated Appel " was an excellent lawyer . He was good on his feet , articulate , with a sense of the law that was common @-@ sensical , more intuitive than based on books . " Appel still had dreams of becoming a comedy writer despite the security working as a lawyer offered him , but only in 1993 , after his wife became pregnant , was Appel " reminde [ d ] that this was [ his ] life and [ he ] could shape it . " Three months later he had retained an agent , had written and submitted two spec @-@ scripts , and had moved to California .
= = Writing career = =
When starting out as a comedy writer , Appel recalled : " One reason I caught up to my contemporaries is that when I started to send out my scripts , the idea that I 'd been on the Lampoon , even 8 or 10 years before , was a credential I could use . " Appel got his first television job when David Mirkin hired him for the writing staff of The Simpsons in 1994 , initially on a ten @-@ week contract , and served as a writer and producer there for four years . There , he wrote seven episodes , often employing the use of " joke sequences , a narrative approach to humor that eschews the quick laugh in favor of something that develops over time . " Appel found work on The Simpsons to be a learning curve because it was a " very tough show to write for . " His first episode was season seven 's " Mother Simpson " . Appel was desperately trying to think of a story idea to show and decided that he had to really reach out and opted to do something about Homer 's mother , who previously had only been mentioned once . He named her Mona Simpson , after his wife . Many of the writers could not believe that an episode about Homer 's mother had not previously been produced . The writers used the episode to solve several little puzzles , such as where Lisa 's intelligence came from . Also for season seven he penned " Bart on the Road " , in which he utilized the plot devices of " go to work with your parents day " and Bart getting a driving license , and contributed to the episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " ; the two segments he wrote for the episode ( one about Marge , the other about Lionel Hutz ) were both cut . Appel wrote two episodes from season eight , " Bart After Dark " and " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " , as well as season nine 's " The Two Mrs Nahasapeemapetilons " and season 10 's " When You Dish Upon A Star " .
Daniels hired Appel as executive producer and showrunner on King of the Hill in 1997 , leading the show 's writing process and overseeing all aspects of the show . Daniels noted : " It was essential that Rich was a good writer who could deal with people , who could help manage the business in the room . But equally important was the fact that he was someone I could trust , who had a similar sense of taste and values . " He stayed until 2001 . For his work on The Simpsons and King of the Hill , Appel won three Primetime Emmy Awards . Appel created the short @-@ lived series A.U.S.A. , which aired in 2003 , which he based on his own experiences as an assistant U.S. attorney . He conceived it in 2001 and NBC ordered 13 episodes the following year ; the show 's original pilot used a single @-@ camera setup but NBC executives felt it would have more appeal as a multiple @-@ camera setup , so it was re @-@ shot . Appel noted of the show : " There 's a sense sometimes in Hollywood that writers and producers who come from animated shows maybe have something to prove to justify their credibility as live @-@ action show @-@ runners or writers . My own experience has been fortunate . I haven 't felt that . But I know it exists . " He was inspired by the comedic side of working as a lawyer when writing the show : " Whether you 're working on a case that you 're proud to tell you mother and grandmother about , you 're still going to encounter possibly really shifty dishonest lawyers , or a judge who is a little crazy , or witnesses who self @-@ destruct on the stand . " The show was not acclaimed : Scott D. Pierce of The Deseret News praised the premise but felt the show was " sort of like watching a train wreck , " while Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said it was " too cartoonish to work . " Appel then wrote and worked as a co @-@ executive producer on The Bernie Mac Show and Kitchen Confidential , and appeared as Josh in the 2004 film I ♥ Huckabees . In 2006 , Appel produced a pilot called My Ex Life about two divorcing couples for CBS , which was directed by Kelsey Grammer .
In 2008 , he served as a co @-@ executive producer on Family Guy and executive producer on American Dad ! from 2008 until 2009 . Appel wrote the Family Guy seventh season episode " Family Gay " . Appel co @-@ created , alongside Mike Henry and Seth MacFarlane , the Family Guy spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show , which they began discussing in 2007 and which premiered September 27 , 2009 . He and Henry serve as the show 's executive producers and showrunners , handling the day @-@ to @-@ day operations , with limited involvement from MacFarlane . Henry and Appel conceived the show as " more of a family show , a sweeter show " than Family Guy . The show , which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes , was picked up by Fox for a second season , consisting of 13 episodes , bringing the total number to 35 episodes . The announcement was made on May 3 , 2009 before the first season even premiered . It was extended to a full second season . Appel signed a new three @-@ year , seven figure deal with Fox to continue serving as showrunner on The Cleveland Show in 2010 . Fox chairman Gary Newman commented : " What is special about him is his incredible leadership ability . He is a terrific showrunner , and he really sets the tone on a show that is exactly what you 're looking for . "
= = Personal life = =
He married novelist Mona Simpson , the biological sister of Apple founder Steve Jobs , in 1993 . They have two children . Appel and Simpson have since divorced .
= = Credits = =
Appel worked on the listed shows and wrote all the listed episodes :
The Simpsons ( 1994 – 1997 ) – writer , producer , co @-@ executive producer , consulting producer and story editor
" Mother Simpson "
" Bart on the Road "
" 22 Short Films About Springfield " ( co @-@ writer )
" Bart After Dark "
" The Secret War of Lisa Simpson "
" The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons "
" When You Dish Upon a Star "
King of the Hill ( 1997 – 2001 ) – executive producer
A.U.S.A. ( 2003 ) – creator , executive producer , writer
" Pilot "
" 12 Happy Grandmothers "
The Bernie Mac Show ( 2003 – 2005 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer
" Eye of the Tiger "
" That Old Mac Magic "
" Stiff Upper Lip "
" Nerdy Mac "
I ♥ Huckabees ( 2004 ) – Actor ( as Josh )
Kitchen Confidential ( 2005 – 2006 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer
" Praise Be Praise "
" Let 's Do Brunch "
My Ex Life ( 2006 ) – creator , executive producer , writer
Family Guy ( 2008 – 2009 , 2013 – ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer
" Family Gay "
American Dad ! ( 2008 – 2009 ) – executive producer
The Cleveland Show ( 2009 – 2013 ) – co @-@ creator , executive producer , writer
" Pilot "
= Jungle Strike =
Jungle Strike is a video game developed and published by Electronic Arts in 1993 for the Sega Mega Drive . The game was later released on several other consoles such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , and an upgraded version was made for the Amiga . The Amiga and other home computer conversions were the responsibility of Ocean Software while the SNES version was that of Gremlin Interactive . It is the direct sequel to Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf ( a best @-@ seller released the previous year ) and is the second instalment in the Strike series . The game is a helicopter based shoot ' em up , mixing action and strategy . The plot concerns two villains intent on destroying Washington , D.C .. The player must use the helicopter and occasionally other vehicles to thwart their plans .
Its game engine was carried over from a failed attempt at a flight simulator and was inspired by Matchbox toys and Choplifter . Jungle Strike retained its predecessor 's core mechanics and expanded on the model with additional vehicles and settings . The game was well received by most critics upon release , with the Mega Drive release receiving critical acclaim from their respective reviewers . Publications praised its gameplay , strategy , design , controls and graphics , although there were some complaints regarding the interface , difficulty and perceived jingoistic politics .
= = Plot = =
Jungle Strike features two antagonists : Ibn Kilbaba , the son of Desert Strike 's antagonist , and Carlos Ortega , a notorious South American drug lord . The opening sequence depicts the two men observing a nuclear explosion on a deserted island , while discussing the delivery of " nuclear resources " and an attack on Washington D.C. ; Kilbaba seeks revenge for his father 's death at the hands of the US , while Ortega wishes to " teach the Yankees to stay out of my drug trade " .
The player takes control of a " lone special forces " pilot . The game 's first level depicts the protagonist repelling terrorist attacks on Washington , D.C. , including the President 's limousine . Subsequent levels depict counter @-@ attacks on the drug lord 's forces , progressing towards his " jungle fortress " . In the game 's penultimate level , the player pursues Kilbaba and Ortega to their respective hideouts before capturing them .
The final level takes place in Washington , D.C. again , where the two antagonists attempt to flee after escaping from prison . The player must destroy both Kilbaba and Ortega and stop four trucks carrying nuclear bombs from blowing up the White House . The PC version also extends the storyline with an extra level set in Alaska , in which the player must wipe out the remainder of Ortega 's forces under the command of a Russian defector named Ptofski , who has taken control of oil tankers and is threatening to destroy the ecosystem with crude oil if his demands are not met . Once all levels are complete , the ending sequence begins and depicts the protagonist and his co @-@ pilot in an open @-@ topped car in front of cheering crowds .
= = Gameplay = =
Jungle Strike is a helicopter @-@ based shoot ' em up , mixing action and strategy . The player 's main weapon is a Comanche attack helicopter . Additional vehicles can be commandeered : a motorbike , hovercraft and F @-@ 117 . The latter in particular features variable height and unlimited ammunition , but is more vulnerable to crashes . The game features an " overhead " perspective " with a slight 3D twist " . The graphics uses a 2.5D perspective which simulates the appearance of being 3D .
Levels consist of several missions , which are based around the destruction of enemy weapons and installations , as well as rescuing hostages or prisoners of war , or capturing enemy personnel . The helicopter is armed with machine guns , more powerful Hydra rockets and yet more deadly Hellfire missiles . The more powerful the weapon , the fewer can be carried : the player must choose an appropriate weapon for each situation . Enemy weapons range from armoured cars , to artillery and tanks .
The player 's craft has a limited amount of armour , which is depleted as the helicopter is hit by enemy fire . Should the armour reach zero , the craft will be destroyed , losing the player a life . The player must outmanoeuvre enemies to avoid damage , but can replenish armour by means of power @-@ ups or by airlifting rescued friendlies or captives to a landing zone . The helicopter has a finite amount of fuel which is steadily depleted as the level progresses . Should the fuel run out the Comanche will crash , again costing the player a life . The craft can refuel by collecting fuel barrels . The helicopter also carries limited ammunition , which must be replenished by means of ammo crates .
= = Development and release = =
Jungle Strike is the sequel to Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf , a similar game which parodied the Gulf War and which was released in 1992 . Desert Strike arose from a failed attempt at a flight simulator and was inspired by Matchbox toys and Choplifter . Central to the game 's concept were nonlinear gameplay and the eschewing of power @-@ ups and bosses . With the success of the original title , producer Scott Berfield , game director John Manley and associate producer Tony Barnes were tasked with creating the sequel . Jungle Strike retained the core mechanics of its predecessor , with the addition of various vehicles and settings . Desert Strike was at the time Electronic Arts ' highest selling video game and maintained a high sales chart position as Jungle Strike was released in 1993 .
The Amiga conversion of Desert Strike featured upgraded graphics and sound over the Mega Drive original . With regards to the Jungle Strike Amiga conversion , senior programmer Stuart Johnson stated he " tried to keep this conversion a lot more faithful to the Mega Drive version than Desert Strike was " . He attempted to make the Amiga conversion run more smoothly than the Mega Drive original . Graphical improvements were attempted : these were less successful on the A500 than the A1200 because of technical restrictions . The developers also struggled with technical challenges because of differences in hardware between the Mega Drive and Amiga . Amendments were also made to the workings of in @-@ mission plot screens . The Amiga conversion was released as sequel Urban Strike was published for the Mega Drive in 1994 .
Jungle Strike was followed by three further sequels : Urban Strike , Soviet Strike , and Nuclear Strike . As the series moved to more advanced consoles , series creator Mike Posehn became less involved in the programming side of development . Urban Strike , released for the Mega Drive , featured new vehicles and locations , as well as on @-@ foot sections . Soviet Strike , released for Sony 's PlayStation and the Sega Saturn in 1996 , featured 3D graphics , as did Nuclear Strike , released on PC and PlayStation in 1997 and the Nintendo 64 in 1999 . Another sequel provisionally titled Future Strike was planned , but the game was eventually released as Future Cop : LAPD , a mech @-@ based shooter game .
= = Reception = =
The game was well received by critics upon release , with some reviews regarding it with critical acclaim . Adrian Pitt and Mat Yeo of Sega Force both reviewed the game . Adrian Pitt called the title a " strategy game " and commented it as the " greatest game in the genre " . Pritt said the controls were " without fault " and the graphics " superb " . The second reviewer , Mat Yeo , praised the " amazing playability and ' lastability ' " and said the game was " twice as good " as Desert Strike . Yeo called the graphics " brilliant " and said the game was " the best shoot ' em up I 've seen in a long time " . The Mega Drive version was a best @-@ seller for 3 months . MegaTech magazine said the game has " impressive graphics and tons of missions " . Mega placed the game at No. 13 in their Top Mega Drive Games of All Time .
Lim Choon Klet of New Straits Times praised the " simply wonderful " graphics but questioned whether the sound effects were enough to " create the environment of a full @-@ scale war " . Choon Klet pointed to a high initial difficulty but said : " Once the skills are acquired , be ready for many hours of enjoyment and sleepless nights . " Chip and Jonathan Carter of St. Petersburg Times deemed the game one of the best of the year and felt the SNES version " loses nothing in the translation " . The duo said the Game Boy and Game Gear versions were " less impressive " due to their technical restrictions but " about as good as you can get on the small screen " . " Sir Garnabus " of GamePro was impressed with the Game Boy version 's clear and detailed graphics , lack of slowdown , good controls , and faithfulness to the original version , but judged the Game Gear version to be " merely average " , saying issues such as poor collision detection hamper the game despite its outstanding graphics . Amiga CD32 Gamer called Jungle Strike " a 500lb gorilla among games " and praised its ease of control and " masses of gameplay and realistic detail " .
Amiga Computing said : " With its impressive graphics and superbly designed game system , it could well be the best chopper title yet " although the reviewer felt the difficulty curve was too steep . Amiga Format said of the game : " with a little more foresight and planning , it could have been a lot more fun " , as the reviewer was irritated by the fact that fuel , armour and ammunition levels were displayed on map screen . However the magazine also wrote : " The bottom line though , is that Jungle Strike is an incredibly good game " . Amiga Power called the game " an appreciable shoot ' em up " but said it was " clearly tailored for the shorter attention span " of a console gamer . CU Amiga Magazine wrote : " This blend of shooting and thinking action blends together seamlessly and in the process creates a classic blaster well worth a ride " . The One Amiga magazine wrote : " Jungle Strike 's a fine game , which will prove both a challenge for Desert Strike @-@ ophiles , and a good solid blast for first bloods " . ACAR observed the game 's " Good graphics , okay sound , smooth animation and tough game play . " Amiga Power complained that " Throughout the game you 're battered with uneasily right @-@ wing US politics " , while Amiga Format said " jingoism " was " rife " throughout the game . Amiga CD32 Gamer called the plot " typically ' ugly American ' idiocy " .
GamePro commented on the game 's skilful challenge and variety of locales , and particularly praised the Super NES version for retaining the same gameplay of the Genesis version while improving on the graphics and sound .
= U.S. Route 50 in Utah =
U.S. Route 50 ( US @-@ 50 ) in Utah crosses the center of the state . The highway serves no major population centers in Utah , with the largest city along its path being Delta . Most of the route passes through desolate , remote areas . Through the eastern half of the state the route is concurrent with Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) . US @-@ 50 both enters and exits Utah concurrent with US @-@ 6 , however the two routes are separate through the center of the state .
Three completely different routings of US @-@ 50 have existed between Green River and Ely , Nevada . The route between these cities has become progressively shorter as new roads have been paved through this largely uninhabited region of both states . The earlier routings were a result of a dispute between Utah and Nevada over which auto trails would be paved and converted to U.S. Highways .
= = Route description = =
The highway enters Utah from Nevada in a desolate portion of the Great Basin desert . Similar to many portions of the route in Nevada , there are no services from this point to Delta , a span of roadway that is about 100 miles ( 160 km ) . While passing through the Great Basin the highway crosses two mountain ranges , the Confusion Range via kings canyon and House Range via Skull Rock Pass , before arriving at the shore of Sevier Lake . Sevier Lake is an intermittent lake which is fed by snow melt from many mountain ranges in the eastern half of the Great Basin . From US @-@ 50 , water is only usually visible in the spring months . The highway follows Sevier Lake to Delta .
The scenery dramatically changes as US @-@ 50 approaches Delta , where U.S. Route 6 and 50 separate . As the road approaches Delta , a straight passage across desert changes to zigzags through farming areas . The highway continues to zigzag through farms until arriving at more mountainous terrain at Holden . At Holden , the highway merges with Interstate 15 to cross the Pavant Range at Scipio Summit . US @-@ 50 then separates from this freeway to meet Interstate 70 in Salina . The two highways run concurrent from this point east to Colorado . Yet again , there is a stretch of highway 110 miles ( 180 km ) long without services from Salina to Green River .
While co @-@ routed with I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 50 crosses the Wasatch Plateau and passes through the San Rafael Swell . The construction of I @-@ 70 through the swell is noted as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System . One specific feat , the excavation through a portion called Spotted Wolf Canyon , required excavating 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock to have a bed for just 8 miles ( 13 km ) of roadway . Construction workers noted that prior to the construction of the freeway a man could stand in this canyon and touch both sides of the canyon wall .
US @-@ 6 rejoins US @-@ 50 near Green River . The three routes run concurrent and follow the southern edge of the Book Cliffs to Grand Junction , Colorado . Once again , services are not present from Thompson Springs to Fruita , Colorado , a span of about 60 miles ( 97 km ) . This portion of US @-@ 50 is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , a National Scenic Byway . The name of the byway comes from the large number of areas along the route with visible dinosaur remains .
= = History = =
The modern route of U.S. Route 50 between Ely , Nevada and Green River , Utah is the third iteration .
= = = First iteration = = =
In 1926 , when the U.S. Highway system was first announced , there was a gap in US @-@ 50 between Ely and Thistle . At the time the states of Utah and Nevada were feuding about which of the old auto trails would be paved and used for the new U.S. Highway System . Nevada favored the Lincoln Highway , which the modern US @-@ 50 closely follows in that state . Utah refused to consider the Lincoln Highway west of Salt Lake City . Officials perceived that route would carry all California bound traffic directly to Nevada while passing through very few communities in Utah . Utah instead favored the Victory Highway ( modern Interstate 80 west of Salt Lake ) and the Arrowhead Trail ( modern Interstate 15 ) . By favoring these routes Utah could force travelers destined for southern California to use a different route than those destined for northern California , with both of these traversing through more cities in Utah than the Lincoln Highway . The Arrowhead trail was especially beneficial to Utah as it passed through many communities in the state , but only Las Vegas in Nevada .
Utah prevailed and US @-@ 50 did not continue to follow the Lincoln Highway to Salt Lake City as Nevada had wanted . The first continuous route of US @-@ 50 across eastern Nevada and western Utah was an arch shaped route . US @-@ 50 proceeded north from Ely along what is now numbered U.S. Route 93 and Alternate US @-@ 93 where the highway would merge with the Victory Highway ( U.S. Route 40 along the Wendover Cut @-@ off , since replaced by I @-@ 80 ) to Salt Lake . From there the highway returned to Green River via what is now numbered State Route 201 , U.S. Route 89 and U.S. Route 6 .
= = = Second iteration = = =
The second iteration has its origins with the formation of US @-@ 6 . In 1937 , US @-@ 6 was extended west from its former terminus at Greeley , Colorado to Long Beach , California . In eastern Utah the route used the existing alignment of US @-@ 50 . However , in western Utah the route used an unpaved road through Delta reconnecting with US @-@ 50 in Ely . By 1954 , this route was fully paved and US @-@ 50 was moved to this shorter alignment . With this change US @-@ 6 / 50 ran concurrent from Ely to Grand Junction , Colorado .
The paved version did not exactly follow the unpaved roads . The dirt route passed through the numerous mountain ranges of the great basin with the most difficult being Marjum Canyon . The route was relocated to follow the north shore of Sevier Lake , which reduced the number of mountain ranges crossed . Although US @-@ 50 was moved to yet another alignment , this route remains US @-@ 6 today .
= = = Third iteration = = =
The modern route of US @-@ 50 was created in 1976 . This iteration of US @-@ 50 has its origins in a dispute over the route of Interstate 70 in Utah . While I @-@ 70 was in the planning stage Colorado lobbied for an extension of the original proposal to run across Colorado and into Utah . Utah supported an extension using then US @-@ 6 / 50 to connect Denver , Colorado with Salt Lake City . However , federal planners did not see value in this route and instead supported a route that could be used to connect Denver with Los Angeles , California . I @-@ 70 was built using the federally selected route . In 1976 , US @-@ 50 was changed again to a routing mostly concurrent with I @-@ 70 . The portion of modern US @-@ 50 between Delta and Scipio had been previously numbered State Route 26 , and the portion between Scipio and Salina had been numbered State Route 63 , with the SR @-@ 63 portion being transferred to SR @-@ 26 in 1971 .
East of Green River I @-@ 70 closely follows the original route of US @-@ 50 , with some minor straightening by Crescent Junction , Cisco , and Westwater .
= = Major intersections = =
= Susanna Cole =
Susanna Cole ( née Hutchinson ; 1633 – c . 1713 ) was the lone survivor of an Indian attack in which many of her siblings and her famed mother , Anne Hutchinson , were killed . Following the attack , she was taken captive , and held for several years before her release .
Born in Alford , Lincolnshire , England , Hutchinson was less than a year old when her family sailed from England to New England in 1634 . She was less than five when her family settled on Aquidneck Island ( later Rhode Island ) in the Narragansett Bay following her mother 's banishment from Massachusetts during the Antinomian Controversy . Shortly after her father 's death , when she was about eight years old , she , her mother and six of her siblings left Rhode Island to live in New Netherland . They settled in an area that became the far northeastern section of The Bronx in New York City , near the Westchester County line . Caught in the middle of severe tensions between the local natives and the Dutch , the family , except for Susanna , was massacred in August 1643 . She was taken captive , and raised by the Indians , later to be traded back to the English .
Hutchinson was taken to Boston where her oldest brother and an older sister lived , was re @-@ introduced into English society , and at the age of 18 married John Cole , the son of Boston innkeeper Samuel Cole . They lived in Boston for a few years , but by 1663 had moved to the Narragansett country of Rhode Island ( later North Kingstown ) to look after the lands of her oldest brother , Edward Hutchinson . Here the couple remained and raised a large family . Susanna Cole was still alive in 1707 when given administration of her husband 's estate , but was deceased by December 1713 when her son William took receipts concerning his parents ' estate .
= = Early life = =
Baptized in Alford , Lincolnshire on 15 November 1633 , Susanna Hutchinson was the youngest child of William and Anne Hutchinson to accompany her parents on the voyage from England to New England in 1634 . She was the 14th child of her parents , of which 11 survived to make the trip to the New World ; a 15th child was born in New England . The family settled in Boston , and lived across the street from magistrate John Winthrop , who was a judge during the civil trial in 1637 that led to her mother 's banishment from the Massachusetts colony . While Hutchinson was still very young , her mother hosted popular religious discussions at their home . Her mother 's religious views , at odds with the rigid orthodoxy of the Puritan ministers , helped to create a major division in the Boston church and an untenable situation for the colony 's leaders . Forced to leave Massachusetts , the family settled with many of her mother 's supporters on Aquidneck Island in the Narragansett Bay , establishing the settlement of Portsmouth , which soon became a part of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations . Hutchinson was less than five years old when the family left Boston , and was about eight when her father died in Portsmouth .
Frightened at the prospect of Massachusetts gaining influence or control over Rhode Island , Hutchinson 's widowed mother took her six youngest children , an older son , a son @-@ in @-@ law , and some servants and moved to the part of New Netherland that later became The Bronx in New York City . The Dutch and native Siwanoy were engaged in Kieft 's War during the family 's tenure there . In August 1643 Siwonoy attacked the emigrant household , and killed all members of the family , except for nine @-@ year @-@ old Hutchinson . According to one story , Susanna 's red hair spared her from the slaughter , while another account claimed that the girl was out picking blueberries some distance from the house and hid in the crevice of Split Rock . In any event , the attackers took Susanna Hutchinson captive , and held her for several years .
In his journal , Massachusetts governor John Winthrop provided an account of Susanna under the date of July 1646 :
A daughter of Mrs. Hutchinson was carried away by the Indians near the Dutch , when her mother and others were killed by them ; and upon the peace concluded between the Dutch and the same Indians , she was returned to the Dutch governor , who restored her to her friends here . She was about eight years old , when she was taken , and continued with them about four years , and she had forgot her own language , and all her friends , and was loath to have come from the Indians .
While Winthrop said that Hutchinson was captive about four years , his journal makes clear that her captivity lasted less than three years . When she returned to Boston , her known living siblings at the time were her oldest brother , Edward Hutchinson , another brother , Samuel , and her two oldest living sisters , Faith ( the wife of Thomas Savage ) , and Bridget ( the wife of John Sanford ) . Of these siblings , Faith lived in Mount Wollaston , about ten miles south of Boston ; Bridget lived in Portsmouth , Rhode Island ; and Samuel 's residence is unknown . Only her brother Edward is known to have lived in Boston proper , and it is likely that Hutchinson came to live with him and his family . On 30 December 1651 she married , in Boston , John Cole , the son of Boston innkeeper , Samuel Cole , who had established Boston 's first tavern in 1634 .
= = Adult life = =
Susanna and John Cole began raising a family in Boston , but by 1663 they had gone to look after her brother 's land in the Narragansett country , which was then in disputed territory , but later became North Kingstown , Rhode Island . Here the Coles lived for the remainder of their lives , rearing many children . The will of John Cole 's father , Samuel Cole , dated 21 December 1666 , left a property at Bendall 's Dock in Boston to Susanna and her children to satisfy an agreement with Susanna 'a brother Edward Hutchinson and uncle Samuel Hutchinson . This property was leased out in 1676 , and sold in 1698 for £ 160 .
In April 1667 , John Cole deeded their house in Boston to Susanna 's brother Edward and uncle Samuel , signifying that they intended to remain in Narragansett . They lived in the vicinity of Wickford , an area claimed by both Connecticut and Rhode Island . Many of the Wickford inhabitants preferred to be under the jurisdiction of Connecticut , and in the late 1660s John Cole became a magistrate and commissioner for the area under the auspices of the Connecticut government . Eventually , following many years of dispute and tension , Rhode Island was given control over the Narragansett lands , and in 1682 John Cole was made a conservator of the peace under the Rhode Island government . By 1707 John had died , and Susanna and her son William were given administration of his estate during that year . Susanna had died by 14 December 1713 when her son , William , " took receipts from heirs for their full proportion of estate of deceased father and mother ... "
= = Family and Legacy = =
Susanna and John Cole had 11 children : Susanna , Samuel , Mary , John , Ann , a second John , Hannah , William , Francis , Elizabeth , and Elisha ; at least 9 of them grew to maturity . Their oldest daughter , Susanna , married Thomas Eldred , but the fate of their oldest son , Samuel is not known . Mary lived into her 60s , never marrying , and John , Jr. died as a youngster . Ann married Henry Bull , the son of Jireh Bull , and grandson of Rhode Island colonial governor Henry Bull . A second John grew to maturity , Hannah married Thomas Place , and William married Ann Pinder . Francis grew to maturity , Elizabeth married Robert Potter , and Elisha married Elizabeth Dexter and was for many years a Deputy or Assistant in the Rhode Island colony . Among her well known descendants are two aspirants to the United States Presidency : Stephen Arnold Douglas , who lost to Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 election , and Willard Mitt Romney , who lost to incumbent Barack Obama in 2012 . Her grandson , John Cole , the son of Elisha Cole , was a chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court .
There have been numerous books and articles written about Susanna Cole 's famous mother , Anne Hutchinson , most of which mention Susanna . One book has been written about Cole , Trouble 's Daughter by Katherine Kirkpatrick , which presents a fictionalized account about her life with the Native Americans who captured her , but also presents some of the limited historical information that is available about her .
A bronze statue in front of the Massachusetts State House in Boston , dedicated in 1922 , displays an assumed likeness of Cole as a youngster , and her mother , Anne Hutchinson .
= = Ancestry = =
Some of Susanna 's ancestry on her father 's side was published by John D. Champlin in 1913 , and he published much of her ancestry on her mother 's side the following year .
= Battleship =
A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship , and a fleet of battleships was vital for any nation that desired to maintain command of the sea .
The word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line @-@ of @-@ battle ship , the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail . The term came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship , now referred to by historians as pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . In 1906 , the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design . Subsequent battleship designs , influenced by HMS Dreadnought , were referred to as " dreadnoughts " .
Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might , and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy and military strategy . The global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe , following the 1890 publication of Alfred Thayer Mahan 's The Influence of Sea Power upon History , 1660 – 1783 . This arms race culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905 ; the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS Dreadnought . The launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race . Three major fleet action between steel battleships took place . The decisive battles of the Yellow Sea ( 1904 ) and Tsushima ( 1905 ) during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , and the Battle of Jutland ( 1916 ) during the First World War . Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full @-@ scale clash of battleships in the war , and it was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history .
The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships , though technical innovation in battleship design continued . Both the Allies and the Axis powers deployed battleships during World War II . However they were of lesser importance , especially after the Japanese aircraft carrier fleet sank the main American battleship fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941 .
The value of the battleship has been questioned , even during the period of their prominence . In spite of the immense resources spent on battleships , there were few pitched battleship clashes . Even with their enormous firepower and protection , battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller , cheaper weapons : initially the torpedo and the naval mine , and later aircraft and the guided missile . The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II , with the last battleship to be launched being HMS Vanguard in 1944 . Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s .
= = Ships of the line = =
A ship of the line was a large , unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades . The ship of the line developed gradually over centuries and , apart from growing in size , it changed little between the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship 's heyday in the 1830s . From 1794 , the alternative term ' line of battle ship ' was contracted ( informally at first ) to ' battle ship ' or ' battleship ' .
The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy , holing her hull , knocking down masts , wrecking her rigging , and killing her crew . However , the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards , so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind .
The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system . Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century , initially for small craft and later for frigates . The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90 @-@ gun Napoléon in 1850 — the first true steam battleship . Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , regardless of the wind condition . This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement . The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships . France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships , although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships , including Russia ( 9 ) , Turkey ( 3 ) , Sweden ( 2 ) , Naples ( 1 ) , Denmark ( 1 ) and Austria ( 1 ) .
= = Ironclads = =
The adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century . The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad : powered by steam , protected by metal armor , and armed with guns firing high @-@ explosive shells .
= = = Explosive shells = = =
Guns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships , and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8 inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line @-@ of @-@ battle ships in 1841 . In the Crimean War , six line @-@ of @-@ battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853 . Later in the war , French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn .
Nevertheless , wooden @-@ hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells , as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa , where the modern Austrian steam two @-@ decker SMS Kaiser ranged across a confused battlefield , rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads , many of which were shells , but including at least one 300 pound shot at point blank range . Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast , and being set on fire , she was ready for action again the very next day .
= = = Iron armor and construction = = =
The development of high @-@ explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary . In 1859 France launched Gloire , the first ocean @-@ going ironclad warship . She had the profile of a ship of the line , cut to one deck due to weight considerations . Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys , Gloire was fitted with a propeller , and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor . Gloire prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy , anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead .
The superior armored frigate Warrior followed Gloire by only 14 months , and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates . Within two years , Italy , Austria , Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships , and by the time of the famous clash of the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships .
Navies experimented with the positioning of guns , in turrets ( like the USS Monitor ) , central @-@ batteries or barbettes , or with the ram as the principal weapon . As steam technology developed , masts were gradually removed from battleship designs . By the mid @-@ 1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood . The French Navy 's Redoutable , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876 , was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material .
= = Pre @-@ dreadnought battleship = =
The term " battleship " was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re @-@ classification of 1892 . By the 1890s , there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs , and the type that later became known as the ' pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ' emerged . These were heavily armored ships , mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets , and without sails . The typical first @-@ class battleship of the pre @-@ dreadnought era displaced 15 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 000 tons , had a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , and an armament of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed @-@ caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure . An early design with superficial similarity to the pre @-@ dreadnought is the British Devastation class of 1871 .
The slow @-@ firing 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main guns were the principal weapons for battleship @-@ to @-@ battleship combat . The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles . Against major ships , it was thought a ' hail of fire ' from quick @-@ firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure , and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers . Smaller guns ( 12 @-@ pounders and smaller ) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats .
The beginning of the pre @-@ dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance . For many years previously , Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted . Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations . However , in 1888 a war scare with France and the build @-@ up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction , and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships . The principle that Britain 's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established . This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships , but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre @-@ dreadnoughts in the 1890s .
In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th , the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany . The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships , a vital threat to the balance of naval power . Britain answered with further shipbuilding , but by the end of the pre @-@ dreadnought era , British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened . In 1883 , the United Kingdom had 38 battleships , twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together . By 1897 , Britain 's lead was far smaller due to competition from France , Germany , and Russia , as well as the development of pre @-@ dreadnought fleets in Italy , the United States and Japan . Turkey , Spain , Sweden , Denmark , Norway , the Netherlands , Chile and Brazil all had second @-@ rate fleets led by armored cruisers , coastal defence ships or monitors .
Pre @-@ dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad . Turrets , armor plate , and steam engines were all improved over the years , and torpedo tubes were introduced . A small number of designs , including the American Kearsarge and Virginia classes , experimented with all or part of the 8 @-@ inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12 @-@ inch primary . Results were poor : recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8 @-@ inch battery being completely unusable , and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations . Even though such innovative designs saved weight ( a key reason for their inception ) , they proved too cumbersome in practice .
= = Dreadnought era = =
In 1906 , the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought . Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John ( " Jackie " ) Fisher , HMS Dreadnought made existing battleships obsolete . Combining an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns with unprecedented speed ( from steam turbine engines ) and protection , she prompted navies worldwide to re @-@ evaluate their battleship building programs . While the Japanese had laid down an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship , Satsuma , in 1904 and the concept of an all @-@ big @-@ gun ship had been in circulation for several years , it had yet to be validated in combat . Dreadnought sparked a new arms race , principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide , as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power .
Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era , with steep changes in armament , armor and propulsion . Ten years after Dreadnought 's commissioning , much more powerful ships , the super @-@ dreadnoughts , were being built .
= = = Origin = = =
In the first years of the 20th century , several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns .
Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti , the Italian Navy 's chief naval architect , articulated the concept of an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship in 1903 . When the Regia Marina did not pursue his ideas , Cuniberti wrote an article in Jane 's proposing an " ideal " future British battleship , a large armored warship of 17 @,@ 000 tons , armed solely with a single calibre main battery ( twelve 12 @-@ inch { 305 mm } guns ) , carrying 300 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) belt armor , and capable of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) .
The Russo @-@ Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the ' all @-@ big @-@ gun ' concept . At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima , pre @-@ dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7 @,@ 600 – 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 to 11 km ) , beyond the range of the secondary batteries . It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun over its smaller counterparts , though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons .
In Japan , the two battleships of the 1903 @-@ 4 Programme were the first to be laid down as all @-@ big @-@ gun designs , with eight 12 @-@ inch guns . However , the design had armor which was considered too thin , demanding a substantial redesign . The financial pressures of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and the short supply of 12 @-@ inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12 @-@ inch armament . The 1903 @-@ 4 design also retained traditional triple @-@ expansion steam engines .
As early as 1904 , Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast , powerful ships with an all @-@ big @-@ gun armament . If Tsushima influenced his thinking , it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . Fisher 's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes , then threatening to outrange battleship guns , making speed imperative for capital ships . Fisher 's preferred option was his brainchild , the battlecruiser : lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12 @-@ inch guns and propelled to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ) by steam turbines .
It was to prove this revolutionary technology that Dreadnought was designed in January 1905 , laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906 . She carried ten 12 @-@ inch guns , had an 11 @-@ inch armor belt , and was the first large ship powered by turbines . She mounted her guns in five turrets ; three on the centerline ( one forward , two aft ) and two on the wings , giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship . She retained a number of 12 @-@ pound ( 3 @-@ inch , 76 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo @-@ boats . Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head @-@ to @-@ head with any other ship in a gun battle , and conceivably win .
Dreadnought was to have been followed by three Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers , their construction delayed to allow lessons from Dreadnought to be used in their design . While Fisher may have intended Dreadnought to be the last Royal Navy battleship , the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy . Although there were some problems with the ship ( the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside , and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load ) , the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the Bellerophon and St. Vincent classes .
An American design , South Carolina , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906 , was another of the first dreadnoughts , but she and her sister , Michigan , were not launched until 1908 . Both used triple @-@ expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery , dispensing with Dreadnought 's wing turrets . They thus retained the same broadside , despite having two fewer guns .
= = = Arms race = = =
In 1897 , before the revolution in design brought about by HMS Dreadnought , the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building , a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany . In 1906 , the Royal Navy owned the field with Dreadnought . The new class of ship prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences . Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts . Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to naval power , but also , as with nuclear weapons today , represented a nation 's standing in the world . Germany , France , Japan , Italy , Austria , and the United States all began dreadnought programmes ; while Ottoman Turkey , Argentina , Russia , Brazil , and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards .
= = World War I = =
The battleship , particularly the dreadnought , was the dominant naval weapon of the World War I era . There were few serious challenges at that time . The most significant naval battles of World War I , such as Jutland ( May 31 , 1916 – June 1 , 1916 ) , were fought by battleships and their battlecruiser cousins .
By virtue of geography , the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany 's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea : only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces . Both sides were aware that , because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts , a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory . The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms : either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone , or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline , where friendly minefields , torpedo @-@ boats and submarines could be used to even the odds . Germany 's submarines were able to break out and raid commerce , but even though they sank many merchant ships , they could not successfully blockade Great Britain – in contrast to Britain 's successful battleship blockade of Germany , which was a major cause of Germany 's economic collapse in 1918 . The Royal Navy on the other hand , successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany 's submarine blockade and eventually defeated it .
The first two years of war saw the Royal Navy 's battleships and battlecruisers regularly " sweep " the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out . Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea , such as the famous light cruiser SMS Emden , were able to raid commerce . Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers , as in the Battle of the Falklands , December 7 , 1914 . The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles such as the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast , all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail . On May 31 , 1916 , a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland . The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet . Less than two months later , the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle . The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive . This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle .
In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles . In the Black Sea , engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes . In the Baltic Sea , action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys , and the laying of defensive minefields ; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre @-@ dreadnought was lost . The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea : the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade . And in the Mediterranean , the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli .
In September 1914 , the threat posed to surface ships by German U @-@ boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers , including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine SM U @-@ 9 in less than an hour . The British Super @-@ dreadnought HMS Audacious soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U @-@ boat in October 1914 and sank . The threat that German U @-@ boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U @-@ boat attack . Further near @-@ misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships .
As the war wore on however , it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be an incredibly dangerous threat to older pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , as shown by examples such as the sinking of the Mesûdiye , which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine and the HMS Majestic and HMS Triumph were torpedoed by U @-@ 21 as well as HMS Formidable , HMS Cornwallis , HMS Britannia etc . , the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm . HMS Audacious turned out to have been the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in WWI . While battleships were never intended for anti @-@ submarine warfare , there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship . HMS Dreadnought rammed and sank the German U @-@ 29 on March 18 , 1915 off Moray Firth .
Whilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships , the German attempt to rely on U @-@ boat attacks on the British fleet failed .
Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I , as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Goliath by Muâvenet @-@ i Millîye during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought SMS Szent István by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918 . In large fleet actions , however , destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them . The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Pommern . She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland .
The German High Seas Fleet , for their part , were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines ; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic , the fleet stayed in port for much of the war .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
For many years , Germany simply had no battleships . The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port ; largely because no neutral port could be found , the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow , Scotland . The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British . Instead , most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21 , 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty . The treaty also limited the German Navy , and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships .
The inter @-@ war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out .
While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles , many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war . Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan , which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war , the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess , and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan . The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties , including the First Geneva Naval Conference ( 1927 ) , the First London Naval Treaty ( 1930 ) , the Second Geneva Naval Conference ( 1932 ) , and finally the Second London Naval Treaty ( 1936 ) , which all set limits on major warships . These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1 , 1939 at the beginning of World War II , but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply . The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919 – 39 than in 1905 – 14 . The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships . Designs like the projected British N3 @-@ class battleship , the first American South Dakota class , and the Japanese Kii class — all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor — never got off the drawing board . Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships .
= = = Rise of air power = = =
As early as 1914 , the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft . By the end of World War I , aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon . In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled The Command of the Air , which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units .
In the 1920s , General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps , believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete , testified in front of Congress that " 1 @,@ 000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship " and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship , making for more efficient use of government funds . This infuriated the U.S. Navy , but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers . In 1921 , he bombed and sank numerous ships , including the " unsinkable " German World War I battleship SMS Ostfriesland and the American pre @-@ dreadnought Alabama .
Although Mitchell had required " war @-@ time conditions " , the ships sunk were obsolete , stationary , defenseless and had no damage control . The sinking of Ostfriesland was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions : Mitchell 's airmen disregarded the rules , and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack . The stunt made headlines , and Mitchell declared , " No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them . " While far from conclusive , Mitchell 's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot . Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy 's nascent aircraft carrier program .
= = = Rearmament = = =
The Royal Navy , United States Navy , and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I – era battleships during the 1930s . Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment ( for gunnery control ) , more armor ( especially around turrets ) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing , and additional anti @-@ aircraft weapons . Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the " Queen Anne 's castle " , such as in the Queen Elizabeth and Warspite , which would be used in the new conning towers of the King George V @-@ class fast battleships . External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes . The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships , plus their battlecruisers , with distinctive " pagoda " structures , though the Hiei received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new Yamato @-@ class battleships . Bulges were fitted , including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline . The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts , though after Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships such as West Virginia and California were rebuilt to a similar appearance to their Iowa @-@ class contemporaries ( called tower masts ) . Radar , which was effective beyond visual contact and was effective in complete darkness or adverse weather conditions , was introduced to supplement optical fire control .
Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s , battleship construction did not regain the level of importance which it had held in the years before World War I. The " building holiday " imposed by the naval treaties meant that the building capacity of dockyards worldwide was relatively reduced , and the strategic position had changed .
In Germany , the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and Bismarck @-@ class battleships as commerce raiders . In Britain , the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation , and re @-@ armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the King George V class . It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare . France intended to build six battleships of the Dunkerque and Richelieu classes , and the Italians four Littorio @-@ class ships . Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers . The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the South Dakota class . Japan , also prioritising aircraft carriers , nevertheless began work on three mammoth Yamato @-@ class ships ( although the third , Shinano , was later completed as a carrier ) and a planned fourth was cancelled .
At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships , España and Jaime I. España ( originally named Alfonso XIII ) , by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol , fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936 . The crew aboard Jaime I remained loyal to the Republic , killed their officers , who apparently supported Franco 's attempted coup , and joined the Republican Navy . Thus each side had one battleship ; however , the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers . The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades , convoy escort duties , and shore bombardment , rarely in direct fighting against other surface units . In April 1937 , España ran into a mine laid by friendly forces , and sank with little loss of life . In May 1937 , Jaime I was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident . The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired . There she was again hit by several aerial bombs . It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port , but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss . Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non @-@ intervention blockade . On May 29 , 1937 , two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship Deutschland outside Ibiza , causing severe damage and loss of life . Admiral Scheer retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería , causing much destruction , and the resulting Deutschland incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non @-@ intervention .
= = World War II = =
The German battleship Schleswig @-@ Holstein — an obsolete pre @-@ dreadnought — fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte ; and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship , USS Missouri . Between those two events , it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role .
Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic , Pacific and Mediterranean theaters ; in the Atlantic , the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders . However , clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance . The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines , and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers .
In the first year of the war , armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau surprised and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious off western Norway in June 1940 . This engagement marked the last time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery . In the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns , and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers .
The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships . The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more . The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce @-@ raider Bismarck .
On December 7 , 1941 , the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor . Within a short time five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking , with the rest damaged . The American aircraft carriers were out to sea , however , and evaded detection . They took up the fight , and eventually turned the tide of the war in the Pacific . The sinking of the British battleship Prince of Wales and her escort , the battlecruiser Repulse , demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover , settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921 . Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land @-@ based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10 , 1941 .
At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific , for instance Coral Sea and Midway , battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles . In later battles in the Pacific , battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti @-@ aircraft defense as escort for the carriers . Even the largest battleships ever constructed , Japan 's Yamato class , which carried a main battery of nine 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon , were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre @-@ war planning .
The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait , on October 25 , 1944 , in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks . All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk by the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired . When Mississippi fired the last salvo of this battle , the last salvo fired by a battleship against another heavy ship , she was " firing a funeral salute to a finished era of naval warfare . " In April 1945 , during the battle for Okinawa , the world 's most powerful battleship , the Yamato , was sent out against a massive U.S. force on a suicide mission and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost .
= = Cold War = =
After World War II , several navies retained their existing battleships , but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets . Indeed , it soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war , HMS Vanguard . During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship @-@ on @-@ battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of HMS Hood were the exception and not the rule , and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer , making heavy gun armament irrelevant . The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of 100 kilometres ( 60 mi ) or more could be mounted on the Soviet Kildin @-@ class destroyer and Whiskey @-@ class submarines . By the end of the 1950s , smaller vessel classes such as destroyers , which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships , now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship 's heavy guns .
The remaining battleships met a variety of ends . USS Arkansas and Nagato were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946 . Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions . The Italian battleship Giulio Cesare was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk ; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29 , 1955 . The two Andrea Doria @-@ class ships were scrapped in 1956 . The French Lorraine was scrapped in 1954 , Richelieu in 1968 , and Jean Bart in 1970 .
The United Kingdom 's four surviving King George V @-@ class ships were scrapped in 1957 , and Vanguard followed in 1960 . All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949 . The Soviet Union 's Marat was scrapped in 1953 , Parizhskaya Kommuna in 1957 and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( back under her original name , Gangut , since 1942 ) in 1956 @-@ 7 . Brazil 's Minas Geraes was scrapped in Genoa in 1953 , and her sister ship São Paulo sank during a storm in the Atlantic en route to the breakers in Italy in 1951 .
Argentina kept its two Rivadavia @-@ class ships until 1956 and Chile kept Almirante Latorre ( formerly HMS Canada ) until 1959 . The Turkish battlecruiser Yavûz ( formerly SMS Goeben , launched in 1911 ) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused . Sweden had several small coastal @-@ defense battleships , one of which , HSwMS Gustav V , survived until 1970 . The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s , whilst plans to build a number of new Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruisers were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 . The three old German battleships Schleswig @-@ Holstein , Schlesien , and Hessen all met similar ends . Hessen was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed Tsel . She was scrapped in 1960 . Schleswig @-@ Holstein was renamed Borodino , and was used as a target ship until 1960 . Schlesien , too , was used as a target ship . She was broken up between 1952 and 1957 .
The Iowa @-@ class battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships . Radar and computer @-@ controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target . The U.S. recommissioned all four Iowa @-@ class battleships for the Korean War and the New Jersey for the Vietnam War . These were primarily used for shore bombardment , New Jersey firing nearly 6 @,@ 000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14 @,@ 000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline , seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War .
As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman 's effort to build a 600 @-@ ship Navy in the 1980s , and in response to the commissioning of Kirov by the Soviet Union , the United States recommissioned all four Iowa @-@ class battleships . On several occasions , battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups , or led their own battleship battle group . These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles , with New Jersey seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984 , while Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 inch ( 406 mm ) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 . Wisconsin served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf , directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Desert Storm , firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign . The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles ; Missouri was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles , with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer HMS Gloucester .
= = Modern times = =
All four Iowa ships were decommissioned in the early 1990s , making them the last battleships to see active service . USS Iowa and USS Wisconsin were maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels , pending the development of a superior fire support vessel . These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in 2006 . The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve ( Naval Inactive Fleet / Reserve 2nd Turn ) in 2010 . The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014 . The U.S. Marine Corps believes that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations .
With the decommissioning of the last Iowa @-@ class ships , no battleships remain in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide . A number are preserved as museum ships , either afloat or in drydock . The U.S. has eight battleships on display : Massachusetts , North Carolina , Alabama , Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , Wisconsin and Texas . Missouri and New Jersey are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden , New Jersey , respectively . Iowa is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro , California . Wisconsin now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk , Virginia . Massachusetts , which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service , is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River , Massachusetts . Texas , the first battleship turned into a museum , is on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site , near Houston . North Carolina is on display in Wilmington , North Carolina . Alabama is on display in Mobile , Alabama . The wreck of the Arizona , sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 , is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite .
The only other 20th @-@ century battleship on display is the Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought Mikasa . A replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai , China .
= = Strategy and doctrine = =
= = = Doctrine = = =
Battleships were the embodiment of sea power . For Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers , a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation , and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas . Mahan 's theory , proposed in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History , 1660 – 1783 of 1890 , dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas . While the work of escorting , blockading , and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels , the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships . This concept of " potential threat " can be further generalized to the mere existence ( as opposed to presence ) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down . This concept came to be known as a " fleet in being " – an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time , resource and effort to actively guard against it .
Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships , which came to be known as the decisive battle doctrine in some navies , while targeting merchant ships ( commerce raiding or guerre de course , as posited by the Jeune École ) could never succeed .
Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship , calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible . Mahan 's work developed in the late 1880s , and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international impact , in the end adopted by many major navies ( notably the British , American , German , and Japanese ) . The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races , and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era .
The " fleet in being " suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources . This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle . This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic impact .
= = = Tactics = = =
While the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine , the details of battleship deployment were more complex . Unlike the ship of the line , the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines , which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft . The Jeune École doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships ; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun @-@ smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes . While this tactic was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant , the threat from more capable torpedo craft ( later including submarines ) remained . By the 1890s , the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers , which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats . During the First World War and subsequently , battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers .
Battleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the battlegroup . In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent ( or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet ) , battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range . This was provided by scouting forces ; at various stages battlecruisers , cruisers , destroyers , airships , submarines and aircraft were all used . ( With the development of radio , direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play , as well , so even shore stations , broadly speaking , joined the battlegroup . ) So for most of their history , battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers . The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how , despite this support , the threat of mine and torpedo attack , and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques , seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet , the greatest battleship fleet of its time .
= = = Strategic and diplomatic impact = = =
The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact . Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today , the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation 's force projection .
Even during the Cold War , the psychological impact of a battleship was significant . In 1946 , USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey , and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region . In September 1983 , when Druze militia in Lebanon 's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers , the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped the firing . Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders .
= = = Value for money = = =
Battleships were the largest and most complex , and hence the most expensive warships of their time ; as a result , the value of investment in battleships has always been contested . As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879 , " The construction of battleships is so costly , their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration , that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people " . The Jeune École school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet . It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy , based on fast , long @-@ ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports . The ideas of the Jeune Ecole were ahead of their time ; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines , torpedoes , submarines , and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented . The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticised by historians , who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle .
= Oryzomys =
Oryzomys is a genus of semiaquatic rodents in the tribe Oryzomyini living in southern North America and far northern South America . It includes eight species , two of which — the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the United States and O. couesi of Mexico and Central America — are widespread ; the six others have more restricted distributions . The species have had eventful taxonomic histories , and most species were at one time included in the marsh rice rat ; additional species may be recognized in the future . The name Oryzomys was established in 1857 by Spencer Fullerton Baird for the marsh rice rat and was soon applied to over a hundred species of American rodents . Subsequently , the genus gradually became more narrowly defined until its current contents were established in 2006 , when ten new genera were established for species previously placed in Oryzomys .
Species of Oryzomys are medium @-@ sized rats with long , coarse fur . The upperparts are gray to reddish and the underparts white to buff . The animals have broad feet with reduced or absent ungual tufts of hair around the claws and , in at least some species , with webbing between the toes . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is broad and the braincase is high . Both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi have 56 chromosomes , lack a gall bladder , and have a complex penis ( as is characteristic of the Sigmodontinae ) with some traits that are rare among oryzomyines ; these characteristics are unknown in the other species of this genus .
The habitat includes various kinds of wetlands , such as lakes , marshes , and rivers . Oryzomys species swim well , are active during the night , and eat both plant and animal food . They build woven nests of vegetation . After a gestation period of 21 to 28 days , about four young are born . Species of Oryzomys are infected by numerous parasites and carry at least three hantaviruses , one of which ( Bayou virus ) also infects humans . Two , maybe three , species have gone extinct over the last two centuries and at least one other is endangered , but the widespread marsh rice rat and O. couesi are not threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys is one of about thirty genera within the tribe Oryzomyini , a diverse group of well over a hundred species , many of which were formerly also included in Oryzomys . Oryzomyini is one | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
of several tribes within the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , which includes hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents , distributed mainly in the Americas and Eurasia .
Within Oryzomyini , a 2006 phylogenetic analysis by Marcelo Weksler which used both morphological and DNA sequence data found some evidence that Oryzomys is most closely related to a group including Holochilus , Lundomys , and Pseudoryzomys . Although analyses based on morphological and combined data supported this relationship , sequences of the Rbp3 gene alone instead placed Oryzomys among a group that included Nectomys , Sigmodontomys , and a few other genera . In all analyses , Oryzomys appeared within clade D of Oryzomyini . The relationship between Oryzomys and the Holochilus group was supported by five synapomorphies ( shared derived characters ) — absence or reduction of both the hypothenar and interdigital pads ; reduction of ungual tufts of hairs surrounding the claws ; having the back margin of the zygomatic plate of the skull at the same level as the front of the first upper molar ; and the anterocone ( front cusp ) of the first upper molar divided by an anteromedian fossette . The first three are adaptations to the semiaquatic lifestyle that Oryzomys and the members of the Holochilus group share , and may thus be examples of convergent evolution .
= = = Circumscription = = =
The name Oryzomys was introduced in 1857 by Spencer Fullerton Baird for the marsh rice rat ( now Oryzomys palustris ) of the eastern United States , which had been first described twenty years earlier by Richard Harlan . The name combines the Greek oryza " rice " and mys " mouse " and refers to the feeding habits of the marsh rice rat . Baird placed Oryzomys as a subgenus of the now @-@ defunct genus Hesperomys and included only the marsh rice rat in it , a classification which was followed by Elliott Coues in 1874 and 1877 . In 1890 , Oryzomys was raised to generic rank , and in subsequent years numerous additional species were ascribed to it , many of which were soon moved to separate genera . In the 1898 Catalogus Mammalium , Édouard Louis Trouessart listed 67 species of Oryzomys , including some that are now placed in Calomys , Necromys , Thomasomys , and other genera unrelated to Oryzomys . Some of the new genera proposed were soon subsumed in Oryzomys again , and in The Families and Genera of Living Rodents ( 1941 ) , John Ellerman listed Microryzomys , Oligoryzomys , Melanomys , Nesoryzomys , and Oecomys as synonyms of Oryzomys and included about 127 species in it . In 1948 , Philip Hershkovitz suggested that other oryzomyines like Nectomys and Megalomys could as well be included in Oryzomys , and Clayton Ray followed this suggestion in 1962 .
Hershkovitz and Ray 's classification was never widely followed , and from 1976 on authors started to reinstate some of the other groups lumped in Oryzomys as separate genera . The genus was reduced to 43 species ( out of 110 in Oryzomyini ) in the third edition ( 2005 ) of Mammal Species of the World , but it was still not a natural , monophyletic group ; rather , it mostly united those oryzomyines that lacked the conspicuous specializations of other genera . In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler 's comprehensive phylogenetic analysis produced further evidence that the genus was polyphyletic , as species of Oryzomys were dispersed all over the oryzomyine tree . He proposed that eleven new genera should be created to accommodate those species that were not closely related to the type species of Oryzomys , the marsh rice rat ; he considered other options that would require fewer new genera , but argued that that would result in less meaningful genus @-@ level groups in Oryzomyini . Later in the same year , Weksler , Percequillo , and Voss created ten new genera — Aegialomys , Cerradomys , Eremoryzomys , Euryoryzomys , Hylaeamys , Mindomys , Nephelomys , Oreoryzomys , Sooretamys , and Transandinomys — for species formerly placed in Oryzomys and placed six more species related to " Oryzomys " alfaroi in Handleyomys pending the description of more new genera for them . They left only five species in Oryzomys , which was now finally a natural , monophyletic group . Because of subsequent taxonomic work , the number of species has since increased to at least eight .
Some problems remain : ? Oryzomys pliocaenicus , a Miocene fossil from Kansas , is of uncertain identity but may belong in Bensonomys , and fossils from the Miocene of Oregon and Pliocene of New Mexico have also been ascribed to Oryzomys , but probably incorrectly . A possible Oryzomys has been recorded from the Irvingtonian ( Pleistocene ) of Saskatchewan .
= = = Species = = =
The current concept of Oryzomys derives from the palustris @-@ mexicanus group recognized within a much larger genus Oryzomys by Merriam ( 1901 ) and the palustris group proposed by Goldman ( 1918 ) . Merriam recognized 21 species within his group , but Goldman consolidated them into eight — the marsh rice rat in the United States , O. couesi in far southern Texas , Mexico , and Central America , and six others with small distributions . In 1960 , Raymond Hall united O. couesi and the marsh rice rat into a single species , Oryzomys palustris , and thereafter , other localized forms were also included in O. palustris . Hershkovitz described another species in the group , O. gorgasi from Colombia , in 1970 and the next year he noted that O. dimidiatus , previously classified as a Nectomys , was similar to O. palustris . After 1979 , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi were again regarded as separate as a result of further work in Texas , where their ranges meet . While reviewing O. gorgasi in 2001 , J. Sánchez H. and colleagues redefined and characterized the O. palustris group and listed O. couesi , O. dimidiatus , O. gorgasi , and the marsh rice rat as its members ; Guy Musser and Michael Carleton in the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World additionally listed O. nelsoni from María Madre Island in western Mexico .
In 2006 , Weksler and colleagues followed the 2001 definition by Sánchez and others for the restricted genus Oryzomys , but added O. antillarum from Jamaica as a species . Carleton and Joaquin Arroyo @-@ Cabrales reviewed Oryzomys from western Mexico in 2009 and in this context provided an extended diagnosis of Oryzomys . They recognized eight species : the six previously mentioned plus O. albiventer and O. peninsulae . Also in 2009 , Robert Voss and Weksler identified the subfossil Oryzomys curasoae from Curaçao as an island population of O. gorgasi . The next year , Delton Hanson and colleagues published a study using DNA sequence data from the cytochrome b , interphotoreceptor retinoid @-@ binding protein , and alcohol dehydrogenase 1 genes to assess relationships within Oryzomys . They recommended that the marsh rice rat be split into two species and that O. couesi be split into four species on the basis of the observed sequence divergence and other data .
Merriam divided his palustris @-@ mexicanus group in two " series " according to the color of the underparts ( white or fulvous ) . Goldman divided his palustris group in two " sections " — a couesi section with O. couesi and six related species , and a palustris section with O. palustris only . He noted that the latter differed from the former in the generally darker , more brownish , longer fur , and larger sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings in the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate ) . As Weksler 's 2006 analysis included only O. couesi and the marsh rice rat among species of Oryzomys in the strict sense , he could not test those groups . Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales concurred with Goldman 's division , listing additional characters , and noted that the palustris group may be more semiaquatically adapted than the members of the couesi group are . In the latter , the fur is usually reddish @-@ brown , as opposed to grayish @-@ brown in the palustris group . Members of the couesi group have smaller sphenopalatine vacuities and a smaller sphenopalatine foramen , a foramen ( opening ) in the side of the skull above the molars , and a more highly developed anterolabial cingulum on the third lower molar ( a crest at the front of the tooth ) . The hypothenar pad of the hindfoot , located on the sole far from the fingers , is present in the couesi group , but absent in the palustris group . Interdigital webbing may be more highly developed in the palustris group . Using morphological data , Voss and Weksler found a closer relationship between O. couesi and O. gorgasi to the exclusion of O. palustris , but with low confidence . The DNA sequence data of Hanson and colleagues supported a deep separation between the palustris and couesi groups , but a Costa Rican sample ( assigned to O. couesi ) was about as distant from the two groups as they were from each other .
The genus currently includes the following species :
= = Description = =
Oryzomys contains medium @-@ sized , semiaquatically specialized oryzomyine rodents . They have long , coarse fur that is grayish to reddish on the upperparts and white to buff on the underparts . The marsh rice rat superficially resembles the introduced species black rat and brown rat , but has larger differences in color between the upper- and underparts . The vibrissae ( whiskers ) are short and the ears are small and well @-@ haired . The tail is usually as long as or longer than the head and body and is sparsely haired , but the hairs on the lower side are longer than those above . Females have eight mammae , as in most oryzomyines . The hindfeet are broad and have the first and fifth digits notably shorter than the middle three . The upper surface is hairy , but the underside is naked and covered with small irregularities ( squamae ) . The pads are generally poorly developed , as are the ungual tufts . Interdigital webbing may be present , but its development is variable within the genus .
The karyotype has been recorded in various populations of the marsh rice rat and O. couesi and is apparently stable within the genus at 56 chromosomes , with the fundamental number of chromosomal arms ranging from 56 to 60 ( 2n
= 56 , FN =
56 – 60 ) . In both species , the stomach has the characteristic pattern of sigmodontines ( unilocular @-@ hemiglandular ) : it is not split in two chambers by an incisura angularis and the front part ( antrum ) is covered by a glandular epithelium . Furthermore , the gall bladder is absent , a synapomorphy of Oryzomyini .
Oryzomys species have a large skull with a short rostrum and high braincase . The interorbital region , located between the eyes , is narrowest to the front and is flanked by well @-@ developed beads at its margins . The zygomatic plate is broad and has a well @-@ developed zygomatic notch at its front . The zygomatic arch is robust and contains a small but distinct jugal bone . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , is narrow and short ; its narrowness is a synapomorphy for O. couesi plus the marsh rice rat according to Weksler 's analysis . The incisive foramina are long , with their back margin at the front of the first molars or further back . The palate is also long , extending beyond the back margin of the maxillary bone , and is perforated near the third molars by well @-@ developed posterolateral palatal pits . There is no alisphenoid strut , an extension of the alisphenoid bone that in some other oryzomyines separates two foramina in the skull . The auditory bullae are large . The condition of the arteries in the head is highly derived . In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the coronoid process , a process at the back , is well developed and the capsular process , a raising of the mandibular bone housing the root of the lower incisor , is conspicuous .
As usual in oryzomyines , the molars are pentalophodont ( have the mesolophs and mesolophids , accessory crests , well developed ) and bunodont , with the cusps higher than the connecting crests . The cusps on the upper molars are arranged in two longitudinal series , not three as in the black and brown rats . The front cusps of the first upper and lower molar ( anterocone and anteroconid , respectively ) are broad and not divided completely by an anteromedian flexus or flexid . Behind the anterocone , the anteroloph ( a smaller crest ) is complete and separated from the anterocone . On both the second and third lower molars , the anterolophid ( a crest on the inner front corner ) is present , a putative synapomorphy of the genus . The first molars have additional small roots in addition to the main ones , so that the upper first molar has four and the lower has three or four roots .
As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi have a complex penis , with the baculum ( penis bone ) displaying large protuberances at the sides . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue . The papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the penis is covered with small spines , a character these two species share only with Oligoryzomys among oryzomyines examined . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process ( the subapical lobule ) is present ; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except Holochilus brasiliensis . Both traits are recovered as synapomorphies of O. couesi plus the marsh rice rat in Weksler 's analysis .
= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =
The range of Oryzomys extends from New Jersey in the eastern United States through Mexico and Central America south to northwestern Colombia and east to northwestern Venezuela and Curaçao . Species of Oryzomys usually live in wet habitats such as marshes , streams , and mangroves , but both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi are also occasionally encountered in drier habitats . They occur or occurred on many continental @-@ shelf islands and one oceanic island , Jamaica ; their adeptness at colonizing islands may be caused by their close association with water and frequent occurrence in coastal wetlands . The oldest fossils date to the Rancholabrean of the United States , about 300 @,@ 000 years ago ; although there have been some earlier North American records , those are not in fact referable to Oryzomys or even Oryzomyini . Oryzomyines likely evolved in South America east of the Andes ; the presence of Oryzomys in Central America and other trans @-@ Andean regions is thought to be the result of one of several independent invasions of this region by oryzomyines . Alternatively , Oryzomys may have evolved from the Pliocene North American Jacobsomys . O. antillarum may have reached Jamaica during the last glacial period while sea levels were low .
Behavior is known mainly from the marsh rice rat and O. couesi , with some scattered data from the other species . Oryzomys are semiaquatic , spending much time in the water , and otherwise mainly live on the ground ; both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi are known to be excellent swimmers and will flee into the water when disturbed . Both are also active during the night and build nests of interwoven vegetation , which may be suspended above the water . Breeding may occur throughout the year in both species , but is known to be seasonally variable in the marsh rice rat . In both , gestation takes about 21 to 28 days and litter size is usually one to seven , averaging three to five . Young marsh rice rats and O. couesi become reproductively active when about 50 days old .
The marsh rice rat , O. couesi , and O. gorgasi are known to be omnivores , eating both plant and animal material . They eat both seeds and green plant parts and consume a variety of animals , including insects , crustaceans , and many others . The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is a major predator on the marsh rice rat and remains of O. antillarum , O. couesi , and O. gorgasi have been found in owl pellet deposits . Several other animals are known to prey on Oryzomys . A variety of parasites are known from O. couesi and the marsh rice rat and two parasitic nematodes have been found in O. gorgasi .
= = Human interactions = =
Two species of Oryzomys , O. antillarum and O. nelsoni , have gone extinct since the 19th century , and a third , O. peninsulae , is unlikely to be still extant . Their extinction may have been caused by habitat destruction and by introduced species such as the small Asian mongoose and the brown and black rat . These same causes may threaten O. gorgasi , which the IUCN Red List assesses as " Endangered " . O. albiventer has been affected by human alteration of its habitat , but likely still survives . In contrast , the widespread species , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi , are common and of no conservation concern — indeed , both have been considered a pest — but some populations are threatened . Like these two species , O. dimidiatus is assessed as " Least Concern " by the Red List .
The marsh rice rat is the natural reservoir of the Bayou virus , the second most common cause of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the United States . Two other hantaviruses , Catacamas virus and Playa de Oro virus , occur in O. couesi in Honduras and western Mexico , respectively , but are not known to infect humans .
= Philosophie Zoologique =
Philosophie Zoologique ( " Zoological Philosophy : Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals " ) is an 1809 book by the French naturalist Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , in which he outlines his pre @-@ Darwinian theory of evolution now known as Lamarckism .
In the book , Lamarck named two supposed laws that would enable animal species to acquire characteristics under the influence of their environment . The first law stated that use or disuse would cause body structures to grow or shrink over the generations . The second law asserted that such changes would be inherited . Those conditions together imply that species continuously change by adaptation to their environments , forming a branching series of evolutionary paths .
Lamarck was largely ignored by the major French zoologists , Buffon and Cuvier , but he attracted much more interest abroad . The book was read carefully , but its thesis rejected , by nineteenth century scientists including the geologist Charles Lyell and the comparative anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Darwin acknowledged Lamarck as an important zoologist , and his theory a forerunner of Darwin 's evolution by natural selection .
= = Context = =
Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744 – 1829 ) was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and a professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes and then became the first professor of zoology at the new Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle . He became known for his work on the taxonomy of the invertebrates , especially of molluscs . However , he is mainly remembered for the theory that now bears his name , Lamarckism , and in particular his view that the environment ( called by Lamarck the conditions of life ) gave rise to permanent , inherited , evolutionary changes in animals . He described his theory in his 1802 Recherches sur l 'organisation des corps vivants , and in his 1809 Philosophie Zoologique , and later in his Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres , ( 1815 – 1822 ) .
= = Book = =
In the Philosophie Zoologique , Lamarck proposed that species could acquire new characteristics from influences in their environment , in two rules that he named as laws . His first law stated that use or disuse of a body 's structures would cause them to grow or shrink in the course of several generations . His second law held that any changes made in this way would be inherited . Together , Lamarck 's laws imply the steady adaptation of animals to their environments .
He gave names to a number of vestigial structures in the book , among them " Olivier 's Spalax , which lives underground like the mole , and is apparently exposed to daylight even less than the mole , has altogether lost the use of sight : so that it shows nothing more than vestiges of this organ . "
Lamarck described speciation as follows :
" as new modifications will necessarily continue to operate , however slowly , not only will there continually be found new species , new genera , and new orders , but each species will vary in some part of its structure and form ... individuals which from special causes are transported into very different situations from those where the others occur , and then constantly submitted to other influences - the former , I say , assume new forms , and then they constitute a new species . "
He argued that gaps between differing kinds of animals resulted from the extinction of intermediate forms :
Species form " a branching series , irregularly graduated which has no discontinuity in its parts , or which , at least , if its true that there are some because of lost species , has not always had such . It follows that the species that terminate each branch of the general series are related , at least on one side , to the other neighboring species that shade into them " .
Lamarck proposed the transmutation of species ( " transformisme " ) , but did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor . Rather he believed that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation . He also believed that an innate life force , which he sometimes described as a nervous fluid , drove species to become more complex over time , advancing up a linear ladder of complexity similar to the mediaeval great chain of being .
= = Contents = =
Page numbers are given in parentheses .
VOLUME 1
Avertissement ( I – XXV )
Discours Préliminaire ( 1 )
Première Partie
( Considérations sur l 'Histoire naturelle des Animaux , leurs caractères , leurs rapports , leur organisation , leur distribution , leur classification et leur espèces )
I. Des Parties de l 'art dans les productions de la Nature ( 17 )
II . Importance des Rapports ( 39 )
III . De l 'Espèce parmi les Corps vivans , et de l 'idée que nous devons attacher à ce mot ( 53 )
IV . Généralités sur les Animaux ( 82 )
V. Sur l 'Etat actuel de la Distribution et de la Classification des Animaux ( 102 )
VI . Dégradation et simplification de l 'organisation d 'une extrémité a l 'autre de la Chaîne animale ( 130 )
VII . De l 'influence des Circonstances sur les actions et les habitudes des Animaux , et de celle des actions et des habitudes de ces Corps vivans , comme causes qui modifient leur organisation et leurs parties ( 218 )
VIII . De l 'Ordre naturel des Animaux et de la disposition qu 'il faut donner a leur distribution generale pour la rendre conforme a l 'ordre meme de la nature ( 269 )
Seconde Partie
( Considerations sur les Causes physiques de la Vie , les conditions qu 'elle exige pour exister , la force excitatrice de ses mouvemens , les facultes qu 'elle donne aux corps qui la possedent , et les resultats de son existence dans les corps ) ( 359 )
Introduction ( 359 )
I. Comparison des Corps inorganiques avec les Corps vivans , suivie d 'un Parallele entre les Animaux et les Vegetaux ( 377 )
II . De la Vie , de ce qui la constitue , et des Conditions essentielles a son existence dans un corps ( 400 )
VOLUME 2 [ 1830 edition ]
III . De la cause excitatrice des mouvemens organiques ( 1 )
IV . De l 'orgasme et de l 'irritabilité ( 20 )
V. Du tissu cellulaire , considere comme la gangue dans laquelle toute organisation a ete formee ( 46 )
VI . Des generations directes ou spontanees ( 61 )
VII . Des resultats immediats de la vie dans un corps ( 91 )
VIII . Des facultes communes a tous les corps vivans ( 113 )
IX . Des facultes particulieres a certains corps vivans ( 127 )
Troisieme Partie
Introduction ( 169 )
I. Du système nerveux ( 180 )
II . Du fluide nerveux ( 235 )
III . De la sensibilité physique et du mécanisme des sensations ( 252 )
IV . Du sentiment intérieur , des émotions qu 'il est susceptible d 'éprouver , et de la puissance ( 276 )
V. De la force productrice des actions des animaux ( 302 )
VI . De la volonté ( 330 )
VII . De l 'entendement , de son origine , et de celle des idees ( 346 )
VIII . Des principaux actes de l 'entendement ( 388 )
De l 'imagination ( 411 )
De la raison et de sa comparaison avec l 'instinct ( 441 )
Additions relatives aux chapitres VII et VIII de la premiere partie ( 451 )
= = Reception = =
Lamarck 's evolutionary theory made little immediate impact on his fellow zoologists , or on the public at the time . The historian of science Richard Burkhardt argues that this was because Lamarck was convinced his views would be poorly received , and made little effort to present his theory persuasively .
In the French @-@ speaking world in his lifetime , Lamarck and his theories were rejected by the major zoologists of the day , Buffon and Cuvier . However , he made more of an impact outside France and after his death , where leading scientists such as Ernst Haeckel , Charles Lyell and Darwin himself recognised him as a major zoologist , with theories that presaged Darwinian evolution .
In 1830 – 1833 , Charles Lyell , in his Principles of Geology , carefully summarised Lamarck 's theory ( in about 6 pages , with cross @-@ references to the Philosophie Zoologique ) and then roundly criticised it . Lyell begins by noting that Lamarck gives no examples at all of the development of any entirely new function ( " the substitution of some entirely new sense , faculty , or organ " ) but only proves that the " dimensions and strength " of some parts can be increased or decreased . Lyell says that with this " disregard to the strict rules of induction " Lamarck " resorts to fictions " . Lyell goes on , assuming for the sake of argument that Lamarck was right about the creation of new organs , that Lamarck 's theory would mean that instead of the nature and form of an animal giving rise to its behaviour , its behaviour would determine
the form of its body , the number and condition of its organs , in short , the faculties which it enjoys . Thus otters , beavers , waterfowl , turtles , and frogs , were not made web @-@ footed in order that they might swim ; but their wants having attracted them to the water in search of prey , they stretched out the toes of their feet to strike the water and move rapidly along its surface . By the repeated stretching of their toes , the skin which united them at the base , acquired a habit of extension , until , in the course of time , the broad membranes which now connect their extremities were formed .
Lyell similarly criticises the way Lamarck supposed the antelope and gazelle acquired " light agile forms " able to run swiftly ; or the " camelopard " ( giraffe ) became " gifted with a long flexible neck " .
Lamarckism was popularised in the English @-@ speaking world by the speculative Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844 .
In 1887 Thomas Henry Huxley , the comparative anatomist known as " Darwin 's Bulldog " for his energetic advocacy of Darwinian evolution , wrote that
With respect to the Philosophie Zoologique , it is no reproach to Lamarck to say that the discussion of the Species question in that work , whatever might be said for it in 1809 , was miserably below the level of the knowledge of half a century later . In that interval of time the elucidation of the structure of the lower animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of their relations ; histology and embryology , in the modern sense , had been created ; physiology had been reconstituted ; the facts of distribution , geological and geographical , had been prodigiously multiplied and reduced to order . To any biologist whose studies had carried him beyond mere species @-@ mongering in 1850 , one @-@ half of Lamarck 's arguments were obsolete and the other half erroneous , or defective , in virtue of omitting to deal with the various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since his time . Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the gradual modification of species — effort excited by change of conditions — was , on the face of it , inapplicable to the whole vegetable world . I do not think that any impartial judge who reads the Philosophie Zoologique now , and who afterwards takes up Lyell 's trenchant and effectual criticism ( published as far back as 1830 ) , will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher place in the establishment of biological evolution than that which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science generally , — buccinator tantum .
= = Versions = =
Lamarck : Contents
1809 , vol . I : ( Oxford )
1830 , vol . I : ( Harvard )
1830 , vol . I : ( Michigan )
1830 , vol . II : ( Michigan )
= Spanish general election , 1933 =
Elections to Spain ’ s legislature , the Cortes Generales , were held on 19 November 1933 for all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes of the Second Spanish Republic . Since the previous elections of 1931 , a new constitution had been ratified , and the franchise extended to more than six million women . The governing Republican @-@ Socialist coalition had fallen apart , with the Radical Republican Party beginning to support a newly united political right .
The right formed an electoral coalition , as was favoured by the new electoral system enacted earlier in the year . The Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( Partido Socialista Obrero Español , or PSOE ) won only 59 seats . The newly formed Catholic conservative Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas or CEDA ) gained 115 seats and the Radicals 102 . The right capitalised on disenchantment with the government among Catholics and other conservatives . CEDA campaigned on reversing the reforms that had been made under the Republic , and on freeing political prisoners . Anarchists favoured abstention from the vote . These factors helped the election to result in significant victory for the right over the left .
= = Background = =
Elections in June 1931 had returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists to the Cortes , with the PSOE gaining 116 seats and the Radical Republican Party 94 . The state 's financial position was poor . Wealth redistribution supported by the new government attracted criticism from the wealthy . The government also attempted to tackle poverty in rural areas by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving security of tenure to farm workers , drawing criticism from landlords .
An effective parliamentary opposition was led by three groups . The first included Catholic movements such as the Catholic Association of Propagandists ( Asociación Católica de Propagandistas ) . The second group consisted of organisations that had supported the monarchy , such as the Renovación Española and Carlists , who wanted to see the new republic overthrown in a violent uprising . The third group were fascist organisations . Members of the National Confederation of Labour ( Confederación Nacional del Trabajo , or CNT ) trade union movement willing to cooperate with the Republic were forced out of the CNT , which continued to oppose the government . Opposition parties had the support of the church . A new constitution was ratified on 9 December 1931 . It included many controversial articles , some of which were aimed at curbing the influence of the Catholic Church . The constitution was reformist , liberal , and democratic in nature , and was welcomed by the Republican @-@ Socialist coalition , but opposed by landowners , industrialists , the organised church , and army officers . In opposing educational and religious reforms , Spanish Catholics were forced to oppose the government . The press criticised government actions as barbaric , unjust , and corrupt .
In October 1931 Prime Minister Niceto Alcalá Zamora resigned and was succeeded by Manuel Azaña . Radical Party leader Alejandro Lerroux had wanted that job himself and became alienated , switching his party 's support to the opposition . This left Azaña dependent on the Socialists , but both the Socialists , who favoured reform , and the conservative right , who were against reform , were critical of the government . Socialists continued to support Azaña , but the left became fractured , driving the Socialists to the left , while the right united into CEDA , which tacitly embraced fascism .
On 1 October 1933 , Socialist left leader Largo Cabellero spoke out against Lerroux 's Republicans , suggesting the reform programme of the government , and thus the basis for the Republic itself , was under threat . He warned that if the government itself were the threat , the Socialists would have to withdraw support for it . The following day another Socialist leader , Indalecio Prieto , declared that the Socialists would no longer participate in government , which precipitated its collapse . Alcalá Zamora , who became President in 1931 , now requested that Republican Martínez Barrio form a new government . Socialist opposition on both constitutional and ideological grounds meant the PSOE withheld its support for the Barrio government , which was formed on 8 October , but called for fresh elections to be held on 19 November 1933 .
= = Election = =
In common with the 1936 election , Spain was divided into multi @-@ member constituencies ; for example , Madrid had 17 representatives . However , each member of the electorate could vote for somewhat less than that – in Madrid 's case , 13 . This favoured coalitions , as in Madrid when the Socialists won 13 members and the right , with only 5 @,@ 000 votes less , secured only the remaining 4 . This system had been passed in 1933 . There would be two rounds of voting ; 40 % of the vote was necessary in the first round to win . In the event that no list of candidates reached 40 % , then a second round would be composed of those achieving at least 8 % in the first round . It was the first election in Spain where women had the vote , following the new constitution . This incorporated a new 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 electors .
The governing leftist parties went to the polls divided . The political right , on the other hand , formed the Union of the Right ( Spanish : Unión de Derechas ) which incorporated CEDA , agrarian parties and traditionalists . It stood on a three @-@ point programme : religious and social reforms would be examined and rolled back where needed ; agrarian reform would be reversed ; political prisoners would be released . These parties threw vast resources into their campaign , with ten million leaflets , 300 @,@ 000 posters , radio and cinema addresses and aerial propaganda drops . They called upon Catholics to defend order and religion against the bourgeois Republic . The Radical Party campaigned primarily against the Socialists , since they would need the help of the political right if in government . They used mass @-@ appeal slogans such as ' Republic , order , freedom , social justice , amnesty ' and were confident following successes at municipal level in 1933 . Anarchists such as the CNT @-@ FAI called for absention : politicians were ' vultures ' , who must be overthrown by revolution . If the right were to win the election , there would be an uprising , they promised . Thus , anarchists should avoid voting for the left , since overthrowing the government would be preferable . Abstention was supported by Benito Pábon and Miguel Abós .
Elections were held on 19 November 1933 . A second round of voting was held in sixteen constituencies on 3 December .
= = Outcome = =
It resulted in an overwhelming victory for the right , with the CEDA and the Radicals together winning 219 seats . Although the political situation was complicated , parties of the right won around 3 @,@ 365 @,@ 700 votes , parties of the centre 2 @,@ 051 @,@ 500 votes , and parties of the left 3 @,@ 118 @,@ 000 according to one estimate . Turnout was around 8 @,@ 535 @,@ 200 votes , 67 @.@ 5 % of the electorate . The right had spent far more on their election campaign than the Socialists , who campaigned alone . Women , in their first election , mainly voted for the centre @-@ right . The Communist Party , with perhaps 3 @,@ 000 members , were at this point not significant . Nationalist Basques won twelve of seventeen Basque seats , a considerable victory . Keeping their promise , the CNT proclaimed a revolution . There were many reasons the Socialists and Republicans lost out ; the female vote alone cannot explain the shift . Among them was the disunity of the political left compared to the right , in a system that favoured broad coalitions . The Radicals and their supporters had also shifted to the right . Abstentionalism hindered Socialist and Republican candidates . Overall , the political system in Spain had changed dramatically since the last election .
The Renovación Española and the Spanish Nationalist Party ( Spanish : Partido Nacionalista Español , PNE ) formed the National Block ( Spanish : Bloque Nacional ) , with a total of 14 deputies . Similarly , the Republican Left of Catalonia ( Catalan : Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya , ERC ) , the Socialist Union of Catalonia ( Unió Socialista de Catalunya , USC ) and the Union of Rabassaires ( Unió de Rabassaires , UdR ) formed the Catalan Left ( Esquerra Catalana ) with 18 deputies . Five independents joined the Agrarians and one joined CEDA . The other seven , along with one member of Conservative Republican Party ( Spanish : Partido Republicano Conservador , PRC ) , formed a group of independents called the Independent Right ( Independiente de Derechas ) . The Mallorcan Regionalist deputy joined the Catalan League ( Lliga Catalana ) , and the independent in favour of the Estella Statute joined the Basque Nationalist Party ( Partido Nacionalista Vasco ) . 5 members of the Agrarians and one of the PRC joined CEDA , although the Agrarians as a whole resisted pressure to join CEDA , and formed the Spanish Agrarian Party ( Partido Agrario Español ) .
President of the Republic , Niceto Alcalá Zamora entrusted the formation of a cabinet to Alejandro Lerroux , who was reliant on the support of CEDA .
= = Results = =
= = = Seats = = =
Party divisions at the start of the Cortes , after seats had been awarded between coalitions :
= = = After reorganisation = = =
This left the following divisions in the Cortes :
= New York State Route 812 =
New York State Route 812 ( NY 812 ) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the Lewis County village of Lowville . Its northern terminus is at the Canada – United States border in Ogdensburg , where it crosses the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge and connects to Highway 16 in Ontario . While most of NY 812 passes through rural areas of the North Country , the route also serves several villages and small communities .
The origins of NY 812 date back to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , when the portion of modern NY 812 from Lowville to Croghan became part of NY 26A and the segment of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg was designated as the northernmost portion of New York State Route 87 . NY 87 originally extended as far south as Harrisville ; however , it was truncated north to Edwards in the 1940s and farther north to De Kalb in the 1970s .
In June 1978 , all of NY 87 and the Lowville – Croghan leg of NY 26A were replaced with NY 812 , a new route that began in Lowville and passed through Croghan , Harrisville , Gouverneur , and De Kalb before ending near Ogdensburg . At the time , two sections of the route — from the Croghan village line to a point west of Harrisville and from Harrisville to Fowler — were maintained by the counties that they passed through , and a piece between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village itself . The state of New York assumed maintenance of the Croghan – Harrisville segment in 1980 and took over the Harrisville – Fowler section in 1982 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Lewis County = = =
NY 812 begins at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the center of village of Lowville , which is located in the town of the same name . NY 26 , concurrent with NY 12 south of this point , leaves NY 12 and follows NY 812 for several blocks along North State Street before NY 812 turns northeast onto Bostwick Street . Just before Bostwick ends at East State Street , NY 812 turns off and begins its progression northward through a largely rural area of the North Country . As it exits the village of Lowville ( but remains in the town of the same name ) , it begins to parallel the western bank of the Black River . The two entities remain close for roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before NY 812 crosses over the river and enters New Bremen .
In the hamlet of New Bremen , NY 812 intersects County Route 33 ( CR 33 ) , a riverside roadway bypassing both Croghan and Beaver Falls along the east bank of the Black River , southwest of Duflo Airport . NY 812 continues onward , crossing the Black Creek as it enters Croghan , a village situated on the New Bremen – Croghan town line . At the center of the community , NY 812 meets the eastern terminus of NY 126 .
Outside of Croghan , NY 812 traverses the Beaver River just north of the village line . The route and the river continue northward along parallel routings for a brief distance before the two separate near the hamlet of High Falls . While the river curves east toward the hamlet , NY 812 presses northward through the rural hamlets of Indian River and Dutton Corners into the town of Diana , where NY 812 starts to parallel the west branch of the Oswegatchie River as both continue north through the town . At Tylers Corners , NY 812 intersects NY 3 and joins the route eastward into Harrisville , where the conjoined routes cross over the Oswegatchie . Northeast of Harrisville in extreme southwestern St. Lawrence County , NY 812 breaks from NY 3 and heads northwest through Pitcairn ( crossing over the Oswegatchie once more in the process ) .
= = = St. Lawrence County = = =
From Harrisville , NY 812 travels north through an area of Pitcairn and Fowler . This area contains numerous small lakes and rivers and is predominantly rural in nature . Within Fowler , the route serves the hamlet of Balmat ( located on the eastern edge of Sylvia Lake ) before intersecting NY 58 in the hamlet of Fowler . Here , NY 812 joins NY 58 northeast along the southern bank of the now @-@ unified Oswegatchie River to the village of Gouverneur , located in the town of the same name , where NY 812 leaves NY 58 but joins U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) at the heart of the community .
Outside of the village , US 11 and NY 812 head northeast , roughly paralleling the Oswegatchie once more into the De Kalb village of Richville . The routes quickly exit the village and separate shortly thereafter south of the hamlet of De Kalb , with the Oswegatchie leaving the path of US 11 and following NY 812 . NY 812 heads north , serving De Kalb and crossing over the Oswegatchie south of an intersection with CR 14 , a connector leading to Rensselaer Falls that was once NY 186 . Here , NY 812 begins to the northwest as it approaches the village of Heuvelton .
Within the village , located in the town of Oswegatchie , NY 812 , here known as State Street , intersects NY 184 just before traversing the Oswegatchie one final time . The name remains for three blocks before NY 812 departs the village . Farther north , NY 812 passes by the Ogdensburg International Airport before meeting NY 37 at an interchange just south of the Ogdensburg city limits . NY 812 joins NY 37 here , following the route through the southern reaches of the city . The conjoined routes intersect NY 68 before separating near the northeastern city limits . Past NY 37 , NY 812 continues onto the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge over the St. Lawrence River , where it becomes Highway 16 upon crossing the Canada – United States border into Ontario .
= = History = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , what is now NY 812 between Lowville and Croghan became the southern leg of NY 26A , an alternate route of NY 26 between Lowville and Carthage . Farther north , the portion of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg became part of NY 87 , a route extending from Harrisville to Ogdensburg via Edwards , Russell and De Kalb . From Harrisville to Fowler , NY 87 followed a parallel alignment to modern NY 812 along Hands Flats , Stone , and Pitcairn roads , and CR 24 . Between Fowler and De Kalb , NY 87 used what is now NY 58 , CR 24 , and CR 17 before following current NY 812 north to Ogdensburg . The portion of NY 87 between De Kalb Junction and De Kalb was concurrent with US 11 . Both US 11 and NY 87 were shifted south onto a new highway c . 1936 , at which time the former routing of US 11 between the new road and De Kalb became part of NY 87 .
NY 87 was gradually truncated northward over time . The first change to the route 's southern end came in the early 1940s when it was moved northeastward to the eastern terminus of its former overlap with NY 58 in Edwards . It was moved once more , this time to what was the west end of its overlap with US 11 in De Kalb , in the early 1970s . In 1975 , officials from New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) Region 7 proposed eliminating NY 87 in favor of NY 812 , a new route that would extend from Lowville to Ogdensburg via Croghan , Harrisville , Gouverneur , and De Kalb . The designation would also supplant NY 26A south of Croghan . The proposed route was part of a larger plan to connect the Delaware River at Deposit to the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge over the Saint Lawrence River by way of as few numbered routes as possible . All of the suggested changes were implemented in June 1978 .
When NY 812 was first assigned , it was locally maintained from NY 126 in Croghan to NY 3 in Diana and from NY 3 in Pitcairn to NY 58 in Fowler . The section of the route between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village of Croghan ; however , the rest of the two locally maintained sections were maintained by Lewis and St. Lawrence counties . Most of the Lewis County @-@ owned section was co @-@ designated as CR 11 ; however , the short piece between the Croghan village line and Belfort Road was part of CR 10 . In St. Lawrence County , NY 812 was overlaid on the existing CR 73 from NY 3 to Stone Road , CR 99 between Stone Road and Balmat , and CR 56 from Balmat to Fowler . The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of NY 812 between Croghan and Diana on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and Lewis County that transferred NY 194 to the county . Ownership of NY 812 from Pitcairn to Fowler was transferred to the state on September 1 , 1982 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and St. Lawrence County .
= = Major intersections = =
= Runcorn =
Runcorn is an industrial town and cargo port in Cheshire , England , located within the Borough of Halton . In 2010 , Runcorn 's population was recorded to be 61 @,@ 000 . In May 2014 , it became a member of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority . The town is on the southern bank of the River Mersey , where the estuary narrows to form the Runcorn Gap . Directly to the north across the River Mersey is the town of Widnes . Upstream and 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) to the northeast is the town of Warrington , and downstream 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the west is the city of Liverpool .
Runcorn railway station is on a branch of the West Coast Main Line and provides frequent services to the Liverpool Lime Street , Birmingham New Street , and London Euston stations . The A533 road passes through the town from the south , crossing the Runcorn Gap over the Silver Jubilee Bridge , the lowest bridge crossing of the River Mersey . The Manchester Ship Canal runs alongside the Runcorn bank of the River Mersey ; the Bridgewater Canal terminates in the canal basin in the town centre , as the staircase of locks leading down to the ship canal was filled in many decades ago .
Runcorn was a small , isolated village until the Industrial Revolution . It was a health resort in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Towards the end of the 18th century , a port began to develop on the south bank of the River Mersey . During the 19th century , industries developed the manufacture of soap and alkali , quarrying , shipbuilding , engineering , and tanning . In the early 20th century , the prime industries were chemicals and tanning . The original village has grown to include what were outlying villages .
Except for chemicals , all of the old industries have disappeared and there has been diversification , in particular because of the close links to the motorway system and the development of warehousing and distribution centres . A new town was built to the east of the existing town in the 1960s and 1970s , and areas of private housing have been established farther to the east ; this has resulted in the population more than doubling from around 26 @,@ 000 to its present level of 70 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
The earliest written reference to the town is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , where it is spelled " Rumcofan " , literally meaning " a wide cove or bay " . This word is derived from the Old English words " rúm " ( " wide " or " broad " ) and " cofa " ( " cave " or " cove " ) . Other historical spellings of Runcorn include " Rumcoven " , " Ronchestorn " , " Runckhorne " , and " Runcorne " .
Little is known about the early history of the settlement but isolated findings of objects from the Stone , Bronze , and Iron Ages have been made and there is evidence of a Roman presence in the area . The earliest recorded event in its history is the building by Ethelfleda of a fortification at Runcorn to protect the northern frontier of her kingdom of Mercia against the Vikings in 915 . The fort was built on Castle Rock overlooking the River Mersey at Runcorn Gap .
Following the Norman conquest , Runcorn was not mentioned in the 1086 Domesday survey , although surrounding settlements were . William the Conqueror granted the earldom of Chester to Hugh d 'Avranches who granted the barony of Halton to Nigel . It is likely that Nigel erected a motte and bailey castle on Halton Hill in the 1070s . In 1115 , Nigel 's son , William Fitznigel , founded an Augustinian Priory at Runcorn . In 1134 the priory was moved to Norton , about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 6 km ) away . In 1391 the priory was raised to the higher status of abbey . In 1536 the monastery was dissolved , and around nine years later the buildings and some of the monastic lands were sold to Sir Richard Brooke who converted the habitable part of the abbey into a house .
During the Civil War Halton Castle was held for the Royalists by John Savage , 2nd Earl Rivers , the Steward of Halton . It fell twice to Parliamentarian Roundheads . The first siege was led by Sir William Brereton in 1643 ; the second was during the following year . Following this , a " Council of War " was held in Warrington in 1646 at which it was decided that the castle should be slighted . In 1656 , Runcorn was described as being " nothing but a fair parish church , a parsonage and a few scattered tenements " . And so it remained for over a century , an isolated and poor hamlet . The only through traffic used the ferry which crossed from Runcorn to the north bank of the River Mersey . Towards the end of the 18th century and in the early years of the 19th century the town was a health resort .
During the 18th century water transport had been improved in the area by the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , the Bridgewater Canal and the Trent and Mersey Canal . This gave Runcorn waterway connections with most of the interior of England through the canal system and with the sea along the River Mersey , thus forming the basis for the development of the Port of Runcorn . Later came the Runcorn to Latchford Canal linking with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , and the Weston Canal which gave better access to the Weaver Navigation system . Industries began to develop within and around the town , in particular quarrying for Runcorn sandstone , shipbuilding , engineering , the manufacture of soap and chemicals and tanning . Runcorn was becoming an industrialised and highly polluted town . During the later 19th century the town became increasingly dominated by the chemical and tanning industries .
In 1868 the Runcorn Railway Bridge was opened across the Mersey , giving Runcorn direct rail links with Liverpool and the rest of the country . In the 1880s a pipeline was opened between Northwich and Weston Point , supplying brine to the salt and chemical works . In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was opened throughout its length . This allowed ocean @-@ going ships to travel inland as far as Salford , some of them calling at the port of Runcorn . The rise in population between 1881 and 1891 and the drop by 1901 is explained by the number of people involved in constructing the ship canal . In 1905 the Widnes @-@ Runcorn Transporter Bridge opened , giving a direct link for vehicular traffic for the first time between the two towns .
During the first half of the 20th century the industry of the town continued to be dominated by chemicals and tanning . This growth was largely due to government fixed @-@ priced cost contracts for tanned hides . In 1926 four chemical companies merged to form Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) . As the century progressed there was diversification of industry . In 1961 the Transporter Bridge was replaced by Runcorn Road Bridge ( since named the Silver Jubilee Bridge ) which allowed a more efficient means of road traffic across Runcorn Gap . The designation of Runcorn as a new town in 1964 brought major changes and more than doubled the population . Much of the architecture of the new town was innovative , especially the Southgate development designed by Sir James Stirling and built between 1970 and 1977 . Stirling 's housing development was beset with problems and it was demolished in the early 1990s . During the second half of the 20th century the tanneries closed ( the last to close was the Highfield Tannery in the late 1960s ) and the chemical industry declined . At the same time , light industry developed together with warehouses and distribution centres .
= = Governance = =
= = = Civic history = = =
At the time of the Domesday survey , Runcorn was in the hundred of Tunendune , but later , and until the early 19th century , Runcorn was part of the Bucklow hundred . Under the Runcorn Improvement Act 1852 , a board of Improvement Commissioners was established to administer the civil government of the town . By the Local Government Act 1894 , the administration of the town and the surrounding areas was divided into Runcorn Urban District and Runcorn Rural District . Initially the urban district consisted of only the built @-@ up area of Runcorn itself . By 1937 , this area had been extended to include the communities of Weston and Weston Point to the south . By 1971 it had been further extended to the east to incorporate the village of Halton .
In 1964 , Runcorn was designated as a new town . In 1974 , as part of the Local Government Act 1972 , Runcorn Urban District was abolished and its territory amalgamated with Widnes to form the borough of Halton . In 1998 , this borough became a unitary authority within the ceremonial county of Cheshire .
= = = Political representation = = =
Before the Reform Act 1832 , Runcorn was in the parliamentary constituency of Cheshire which was represented by two Members of Parliament . Following the Reform Act , the town was placed in the North Cheshire constituency and from 1868 in the Mid Cheshire constituency . From 1885 to 1950 the town was in the constituency of Northwich . By an act of Parliament in 1948 , the constituency of Runcorn was created , and in 1950 Runcorn 's first Member of Parliament , Dennis Vosper , was elected . He continued to represent the constituency until 1964 , when he was succeeded by Mark Carlisle .
Runcorn is part of two parliamentary constituencies . The western part of the town , which includes the old town area and part of the new town , is in the constituency of Halton and the eastern part , containing the rest of the new town and private housing to the east of this , is in the Weaver Vale constituency . Being a predominantly working class Labour area and shunted into a voting pool with affluent areas outside Runcorn , has caused much resentment in the town . As Runcorn and Halton as a whole hasn 't been a part of Cheshire since 1998 , locals oppose these changes . Since the 1997 general election the Member of Parliament for the Halton constituency has been Derek Twigg of the Labour party , and he continued to hold the seat in the 2010 general election . In the 2007 election the Weaver Vale constituency was won by Mike Hall , also the Labour candidate . Hall retired at the 2010 election when the seat was won by Graham Evans , the Conservative candidate . The local authority is the borough of Halton . The town is divided into ten electoral wards , with councillors serving for up to four years . Runcorn is in the European parliamentary constituency of North West England .
= = Geography = =
Runcorn is situated on a spur projecting into the River Mersey , which flows to the north and then to the west of the town . On the north bank of the river is another spur forming the West Bank area of Widnes ; together these form Runcorn Gap , a narrowing of the River Mersey . Runcorn Gap is crossed by the Runcorn Railway Bridge , which carries the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line , and the Silver Jubilee Bridge , which carries the A533 . To the south of the town is the River Weaver and the Weston Canal . Both open into the ship canal . To the southeast of the town run the M56 motorway , the Chester – Manchester railway line , and the main branch of the West Coast Main Line . The town has a system of " expressways " , roads designed to divert traffic away from the residential areas . The Central Expressway runs through the centre of the town in a north @-@ south direction . To the west of it lie most of the former settlements which formed the older part of the town , namely Runcorn , Higher Runcorn , Weston , Weston Point and Clifton ( formerly Rocksavage ) , and the new town areas of Halton Brook and Halton Lodge . To the east are the village of Halton , the old settlements of Norton and Stockham , and the new town areas of Castlefields , Palacefields , Windmill Hill , Murdishaw , Brookvale and Hallwood Park .
The density of housing is generally high , but there are open green areas , in particular heathland on Runcorn Hill and the extensive Town Park created as part of the new town . The older industries , particularly the remaining chemical factories , are concentrated mainly to the southwest of the town bordering the Mersey , while newer industries , including warehousing , are to the northeast and southeast .
= = = Geology = = =
The Runcorn area drains into the River Mersey to the north and the River Weaver to the south . The bedrock of the western and northeastern parts of the town is made up of rock from the Sherwood sandstone group ; in the other areas the bedrock is from the Mercia mudstone group . In places there are prominent outcrops of sandstone , particularly at Runcorn Hill and Halton Hill . Elsewhere the bedrock is covered by drift . At the northwestern periphery of the town the drift consists of recently blown sand . Farther to the east and bordering the River Mersey is recent alluvium . Elsewhere the drift consists of till .
= = = Climate = = =
Being close to the west coast and the Irish Sea , the climate is generally temperate with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean average temperature in the years 1971 to 2000 was 9 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 7 ° C , which was slightly above the average for the United Kingdom as was the average amount of annual sunshine at 1 @,@ 391 to 1 @,@ 470 hours . The average annual rainfall was 741 to 870 mm , which was slightly below the average for the UK . The average number of days in the year when snow is on the ground is 0 to 6 , which is low for the United Kingdom . The average number of days of air frost is 2 to 39 , which is also low .
= = Demography = =
Since the borough of Halton became a unitary authority in 1998 , demographic statistics have been collated for the authority as a whole , rather than separately for the towns of Runcorn and Widnes . While the two towns have different histories and come from different historic counties , their demographic features are similar .
The population of Halton in 2011 was 125 @,@ 700 . The change in population during the 20th and 21st centuries is shown in the following table .
In 2003 Halton had the largest proportion of the population in Cheshire in the age groups under 5 , 5 to 15 and 16 to pension age and , at 16 @.@ 1 % the lowest proportion of people at pension age or older . At 1 @.@ 2 % the proportion of non @-@ white ethnic groups in 2001 equalled the lowest in all local authorities in Cheshire . At 11 @.@ 5 per 1 @,@ 000 population , the live birth rate in Halton and Warrington is the highest in the county . At 121 the standardised mortality ratio is the highest in Cheshire , as is the percentage of persons with limiting long @-@ term illness ( 21 @.@ 5 % ) .
There has been an increase in the number of households from 47 @,@ 214 in 1991 to 52 @,@ 501 in 2006 . The average household size has fallen from 2 @.@ 70 in 1991 to 2 @.@ 44 in 2001 . In 1991 , 75 @.@ 8 % of houses were centrally heated , compared with 89 @.@ 8 % in 2001 . The type of housing has also changed , with an increase from 15 @.@ 5 % to 19 @.@ 2 % in detached houses from 1991 to 2001 , an increase over the same years in semi @-@ detached houses from 30 @.@ 0 % to 33 @.@ 0 % , and a corresponding decrease in terraced houses from 44 @.@ 0 % to 37 @.@ 5 % . The percentage of dwellings in council tax bands A – B is , at 69 % , the highest in any Cheshire local authority . The percentages in bands E – F ( 8 % ) and G – H ( 1 % ) are the lowest .
= = Economy = =
Of Runcorn 's former industries , all but the chemical industry have disappeared . The industry was dominated for many years by ICI 's Chlor Chemical division ; since divested and taken over by Ineos . In Runcorn , Ineos manufactures chemicals including chlorine , chlorine @-@ containing compounds including vinyl chloride , heavy chemicals including alkalis , and fluorine @-@ containing compounds . A separate business within the same company manufactures salt from brine transported by pipeline from the saltfields of central Cheshire . The former ICI offices and laboratories now comprise the Heath Business and Technical Park , which provides office , laboratory , conference , and leisure facilities . To the east of the town , diverse industries have been developed including , because of the proximity to the motorway system , warehouses and distribution centres . The town continues to act as a port on the Manchester Ship Canal . There are two adjacent ports . Runcorn Docks is owned by the Manchester Ship Canal Company , which is part of the Peel Ports Group . The Port of Weston is owned by the Stobart Group . In March 2014 the UK 's largest incinerator for burning refuse @-@ derived fuel , managed by Viridor , commenced operation in Weston Point .
There has been a shift in employment from manufacturing to service industries . In 1991 , 34 % worked in the manufacturing sector and 61 % were in the service sector . By 2004 17 % were in manufacturing jobs and 78 % were in service jobs . This trend in the local region is demonstrated in this chart which shows the regional " gross value added " of Halton and Warrington at current basic prices , with figures in millions of pounds .
^ includes hunting and forestry
^ includes energy and construction
^ includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured
^ Components may not sum to totals due to rounding
Runcorn has two shopping centres . The original shopping area was in the older part of the town on High Street , Regent Street and Church Street . This centre continues to exist , but with the coming of the new town , has declined . There is a small supermarket and some specialist shops , but with a higher @-@ than @-@ average proportion of charity shops and take @-@ away food outlets . A small market has been rebuilt adjacent to the old town bus station . In the centre of the new town area Runcorn Shopping Centre ( formerly Halton Lea ) is an enclosed shopping mall with an attached bus station . Adjacent to it is Trident Park containing shopping outlets and a cinema and further away is an Asda supermarket .
Servisair has its head office in Runcorn .
= = Landmarks and places of interest = =
The major landmark in the town is Halton Castle on the top of Halton Hill near the geographical centre of the town . Only ruins of the castle exist , but there are widespread views from the top of the hill . The interior of the castle grounds is open at advertised times . Incorporated in the castle walls is the Castle Hotel , which used to include a courthouse on the first floor . Another landmark is Norton water tower , built of Runcorn sandstone , 112 feet ( 34 m ) high , which holds 672 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 3 million litres ) of water and supplies water to Liverpool .
An important historical site and the major visitor centre in the town is Norton Priory , now a museum . The site contains the remains of a priory with adjacent gardens , formerly of a country house . Nearby are a walled garden , including a national collection of tree quinces , and an ice house .
Much of the architecture of the town is undistinguished , but there are listed buildings of some importance . The listed churches are All Saints Parish Church and Holy Trinity Church in the centre of the older part of the town , St Mary 's in Halton village , St John 's in Weston , and Christ Church in Weston Point . All Saints ' Church , a Grade II * listed building , dates from 1849 and was built by Anthony Salvin in red sandstone . The oldest existing houses are the Seneschal 's House in Halton village ( 1598 ) , Weston Old Hall ( 1607 ) , Brookfield Farmhouse ( 1691 ) and Halton Old Hall ( 1693 ) . Other outstanding houses include Runcorn Town Hall ( formerly Halton Grange ) , Camden House and Cottage in High Street and Bridgewater House near the ship canal .
A war memorial to those who lost their lives in the First and Second World Wars , as well as those killed later conflicts , is located at the end of Moughland Lane . There is a memorial in Castle Road , Halton village , commemorating residents of the village who served in the Boer War .
= = Culture = =
= = = Theatre and cinema = = =
The Brindley is a theatre and arts centre which opened in 2004 . It is situated in the old town centre and named after James Brindley , engineer of the adjacent Bridgewater Canal . It contains a proscenium theatre seating 420 and a multi @-@ purpose theatre seating 108 , The Studio , which doubles as a cinema . There is an exhibition space for art installations , a small café and multi @-@ purpose rooms . The centre is owned and administered by Halton Borough Council which runs community events in the building . In 2007 , it won the title of " Best Arts Project in the UK " at the National Lottery Awards . A multiplex cinema run by Cineworld is in Trident Park .
= = = Filmography = = =
Runcorn has been used for the shooting of films and television programmes . Some of the sequences in the first two series of the BBC police drama Merseybeat were filmed in and around the town . The BBC situation comedy Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps was set in Runcorn . External shots of the Waterloo Hotel in the area of High Street known as Top Locks ( which is known in the show as The Archer ) appear as well . The opening credits show the Silver Jubilee Bridge and Halton Castle . Drop Dead Gorgeous , a drama on BBC Three , was set in Runcorn . Norton Priory has been used as a location in films and television programmes .
= = = Media = = =
Runcorn is served by two weekly papers , the Runcorn Weekly News and the Runcorn World . The town is also home to Halton Community Radio , which broadcasts over the Runcorn and Widnes area on the frequency 92.3FM. This is a non @-@ commercial radio station which is run by volunteers . HCR was launched on 8 August 2008 , and currently has a five @-@ year licence to broadcast .
= = = The Runcorn Ferry = = =
Before the building of Runcorn Railway Bridge and its attached footbridge , the only way to cross the Mersey at or near Runcorn Gap , other than by the dangerous method of fording , was by ferry . The ferry has a history going back to the 12th century . The ferry was celebrated in the monologue entitled The Runcorn Ferry , written by Marriott Edgar and popularised by Stanley Holloway . It includes the lines :
= = Community facilities = =
The main library is at Halton Lea with a branch library in the old town centre . Runcorn has two locations offering One @-@ Stop @-@ Shop facilities ; one is Halton Direct Link in Halton Lea , and the other is in the old town library . Runcorn Direct Link also includes a Tourist Information Centre .
Runcorn Hill Local Nature Reserve has been developed on the site of a quarry and consists of heathland . Adjacent to it is a park which includes a bandstand , a model boating lake and sports facilities . Wigg Island is a nature reserve on a former industrial site . The reserve is on an island between the Manchester Ship Canal and the River Mersey and consists of open spaces and woodland with bird hides and pathways . Other nature reserves in the town are Murdishaw Valley , Oxmoor Woods and Ponds , and Dorchester Park . Further public open areas are Rock Park , Town Hall Park and Phoenix Park . Open areas in Runcorn form part of Mersey Forest , one of Britain 's community forests .
Runcorn 's hospital is Halton General Hospital , which is administered by the Warrington and Halton Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust . Originally planned as a District General Hospital , it was never large enough to provide a full range of services . Acute medical services have been transferred to Warrington Hospital and Halton General has become a centre for non @-@ emergency surgery and rehabilitation . Although it never had its own accident and emergency department the hospital has a minor injuries unit for basic emergency care . On the same site is the Cheshire and Merseyside NHS Treatment Centre , a purpose @-@ built hospital for orthopaedic surgery . Halton Haven Hospice is in the Murdishaw area of the town . The body responsible for planning health services in Runcorn , including primary care , is the Halton Clinical Commissioning Group .
= = Transport = =
When plans for Runcorn New Town were drawn up , they included three distinct types of road : local roads , expressways and the Busway . The expressways are intended to keep all through traffic off the local roads . This system links to the north by the A533 over the Silver Jubilee Bridge to Widnes and Merseyside , to the northeast to Warrington by the A56 , to the east to Northwich and north Cheshire by the A533 , and to the southeast by the A557 to the M56 and to Frodsham . The M56 links to the M6 and , to the north of Widnes , the A557 links to the M62 . The Busway is a system of roads for use by buses only , and bears no resemblance to guided busways or bus lanes in use elsewhere , as it is a totally separate road system , not running alongside ( or down the middle of ) existing roads . In addition , there is a network of dedicated cycleways in the town .
There are two railway stations . Runcorn Mainline Station , located in the old town , is on the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line , and is managed by Virgin Trains , who provide services between Liverpool Lime Street and London Euston . London Midland run a service between Liverpool and Birmingham New Street that calls at the station . Runcorn East station , located in the Murdishaw district of the new town , is managed by Arriva Trains Wales , and provides services to Warrington , Manchester and Chester . Bus services are provided by Halton Transport and Arriva . National Express coaches call at Runcorn , and other coach services are provided by Selwyns Travel , and Anthony 's Travel , who are both based in the town .
The Silver Jubilee Bridge was widened in the mid @-@ 1970s by bolting a new pedestrian way to the side of the original structure and widening the roadways over the old footpaths . It is a bottleneck and becomes congested at peak travel times , and in the event of a breakdown or accident on the bridge , traffic in the area comes to a standstill . To resolve this problem , a second crossing of the Mersey is planned , to be known as the Mersey Gateway .
Runcorn is 8 miles ( 13 km ) from Liverpool John Lennon Airport and 22 miles ( 35 km ) from Manchester Airport .
= = Education = =
There are 29 primary schools in the town and one nursery school at the Grange . The five secondary schools are Ormiston Bolingbroke Academy ( formerly Halton High School ) , St Chad 's RC & CE High , the Grange , and the Heath and Sandymoor School . Two institutions , Halton College and Runcorn Sixth Form College , merged in 2006 to form Riverside College . There is one special school in the town , Cavendish School . There are opportunities for adult education in information technology at the Acorn Lifelong Learning Centre . Other courses for adults are held at different venues in the town .
= = = Performance table = = =
The following table shows the percentage of pupils gaining five GCSE A * – C level grades , including and excluding English and Maths in 2007 .
= = Religion = =
The 2001 census showed , that of the people living in the borough of Halton , 83 @.@ 8 % declared themselves to be Christian , 8 @.@ 7 % stated that they had " no religion , " and 7 @.@ 0 % made no religious claims at all . Those stating their religions as Buddhist , Hindu , Jewish , Islam or Sikh amounted to 0 @.@ 5 % .
The Anglican churches are part of the Diocese of Chester and the deanery of Frodsham . In Runcorn , the parish church is All Saints in the old town centre . Ten other Anglican churches are in the town . Five Roman Catholic churches can be found in Runcorn and are administered by the Diocese of Shrewsbury . There are three Methodist chapels and one Welsh Presbyterian chapel . Wicksten Drive Christian Centre is shared between the Church of England and the Methodists . Hallwood Ecumenical Parish in Beechwood and Palace Fields consists of 3 churches all recognised by the Church of England , the Methodists and the United Reformed Church . Norton Ecumenical Parish , covering Windmill Hill , Norton and Murdishaw , is served by an Ecumenical Partnership between St Berteline 's Church ( Anglican ) and Murdishaw Ecumenical Church ( Methodist run ) .
There is an Independent Baptist chapel , three independent Christian churches , and a LDS Church . The Jehovah 's Witnesses have two Kingdom Halls , and there is a Spiritualist church . In 2013 the former Waterloo Hotel was converted into a Buddhist temple by Wat Phra Singh UK .
= = Sports = =
The main sport played in Runcorn is football , with the town having two senior football teams – Runcorn Linnets FC and Runcorn Town FC – both playing in the North West Counties League , with the town also having a thriving Sunday League and Junior League . There is also an open age women 's team Runcorn Ladies FC , who have recently formed . They are affiliated to Liverpool FA , and play in the Liverpool County Women 's Open Age Division .
Runcorn Linnets were formed as a trust @-@ based team in 2006 from the now defunct Runcorn F.C. Halton . It has existed in various guises since 1918 , and its performance peaked in 1982 when it won the Alliance Premier League , then the highest division below the Football League . The club initially did not have their own ground so , up until the 2009 – 10 season , they took part in a groundshare with Witton Albion to play their home matches at Wincham Park , Northwich . In their first season the club gained promotion to Division 1 of the North West Counties League . In October 2009 planning permission was granted for the club to build a new ground in the Murdishaw area of Runcorn .
Runcorn Town was formed in 1970 as Mond Rangers FC with the club changing their name in 2005 in order to " try and bring a more professional look to the club in general , and increase support from both businesses and individuals in the local community . " After finishing in third place in the West Cheshire League at the end of the 2009 / 10 season , the club were elected to join the North West Counties League at their AGM , the highest level that they have ever played at .
Runcorn Cricket Club and Runcorn Hockey Club are based at the Runcorn Sports Club in Moughland Lane . Runcorn Rugby Union FC is based at Halton Sports Club in Murdishaw . There is an 18 hole golf course at Runcorn Golf Club in Clifton Road and a golf driving range at Sutton Fields . Runcorn Sports Club is a privately run sports club in Moughland Lane and provides facilities and coaching for cricket and hockey . Halton Sports Club is in Murdishaw Avenue . Privately run swimming pools are at Beechwood local centre and Stockham Lodge Raquet and Health Club . Adjacent to the latter are two artificial ski slopes administered by Runcorn Ski Centre . The Runcorn Rowing Club rows on the River Weaver Navigation near Clifton Village . The local authority runs several sports centres , including : Runcorn Swimming Pool ; Brookvale Recreation Centre , offering indoor sporting facilities ; and Phoenix Park , with outdoor sporting facilities . Other sports are also catered for . Runcorn also has its own professional wrestling training @-@ school ( The Runcorn Wrestling Academy ) based in Grangeway , set up in 2005 by Andy Baker and Neil Davis .
In the late 19th century , and prior to the 1895 schism , rugby union footballers from the now defunct Runcorn , Harry Collinge Speakman played during the 1888 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia and Samuel Houghton played for England . When the rugby football schism occurred in 1895 , Runcorn became founder members of the Northern Rugby Football Union ( now Rugby Football League ) . Runcorn played from the 1895 – 96 season through to the end of 1914 – 15 season , they won the Lancashire League in both the 1895 – 96 and 1899 – 1900 seasons , and were losing semi @-@ finalists in 1906 – 07 Rugby Football League Championship , and during the early part of the 20th century five rugby league players from the now defunct Runcorn played for both Great Britain , and England . Runcorn finish bottom of the league in the 1914 – 15 Northern Rugby Football Union season , and did not recommence playing following the aftermath of the First World War . Rugby league in the town is now represented by Runcorn RLC .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Arts and entertainment = = =
John Bishop ( born 1966 ) , comedian , spent part of his teenage years in Runcorn
Francis William Bourdillon ( 1852 – 1921 ) , poet born in Runcorn
Hall Caine ( 1853 – 1931 ) , novelist and playwright
Lewis Carroll ( 1832 – 1898 ) , writer of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , born near Runcorn
Phil Collins ( born 1970 ) , artist
Anna Keaveney ( 1949 – 2004 ) , actress
Kym Marsh ( born 1976 ) , singer and actress
Susan Nickson ( born 1982 ) , television writer and producer
Alistair Taylor ( 1935 – 2004 ) , assistant to Brian Epstein and General Manager of Apple Corps
Nicola Roberts ( born 1985 ) , singer and member of girl band Girls Aloud
Martin Roscoe ( born 1952 ) , classical pianist
Raymond Waring ( 1977 ) , actor
= = = Medical = = =
Nathan Alcock ( 1707 – 1779 ) , physician
= = = Military = = =
Thomas Alfred Jones ( 1880 – 1956 ) , awarded the Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal during World War II
= = = Other = = =
Richard Brooke ( died 1569 ) , bought the manor of Norton
Sir John Chesshyre ( 1662 – 1738 ) , lawyer
Sir William Edward Dudley ( 1868 – 1938 ) , president of the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society
Thomas Hazlehurst ( 1779 – 1842 ) , founder of soap and alkali manufacturer Hazlehurst & Sons
John Riley Holt ( 1918 – 2009 ) , Professor of Experimental Physics at Liverpool University who played a part in the development of the atom bomb
John Savage , 2nd Earl Rivers ( c . 1603 – 1654 ) , royalist
= = = Religious = = =
Thomas Alcock ( 1709 – 1798 ) , Vicar of Runcorn , writer , cider maker
Thomas Hazlehurst ( 1816 – 1876 ) , Methodist who paid for the construction of 12 chapels and three schools in the area
= = = Sports = = =
Graham Abel ( born 1960 ) , footballer
Scott Brown ( born 1985 ) , footballer
Shauna Coxsey ( born 1993 ) , professional rock climber
Robert Done ( 1904 – 1982 ) , footballer
Ray Dutton ( born 1945 ) , rugby league player
Jack Fish ( 1880 – 1940 ) , rugby league player
Samuel Houghton ( 1870 – 1920 ) , rugby union and rugby league player
Michael Jackson ( born 1973 ) , footballer
Kenny Lunt ( born 1979 ) , footballer
James McNulty ( born 1985 ) , footballer
Dick Padbury ( 1886 – unknown ) , rugby league player
Harry Speakman ( 1864 – 1915 ) , rugby union player
Robin Reid ( born 1971 ) , boxer
Lorna Webb ( born 1983 ) , professional cyclist
= Mary Brewster Hazelton =
Mary Brewster Hazelton ( November 23 , 1868 – September 13 , 1953 ) was an American portrait painter . She attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , where she was later an instructor . Among her other achievements , Hazelton was the first woman to win an award open to both men and women in the United States when she won the Hallgarten Prize from the National Academy of Design in 1896 . Her portrait paintings are in the collections of the Massachusetts State House , Harvard University , Peabody Essex Museum , and Wellesley Historical Society . The professional organizations that Hazelton was affiliated with included the Wellesley Society of Artists , of which she was a founding member , and The Guild of Boston Artists , of which she was a charter member . She lived her adult life with her sisters in the Hazelton family home in Wellesley , Massachusetts .
= = Early life = =
Mary Brewster Hazelton was born on November 23 , 1868 in Milton , Massachusetts to Dr. Isaac Hills Hazelton ( 1838 – 1929 ) and Mary Allen Brewster Hazelton ( 1843 – 1923 ) . A Harvard College graduate , Dr. Hazelton served for the United States Navy during the Civil War as an assistant surgeon . He was an innovator in the treatment of the mentally ill . Mary had a brother , Isaac Brewster ( I. B. ) Hazelton ( 1873 – 1943 ) , and two sisters , Olivia Bowditch Hazelton ( 1873 – 1967 ) and Margaret Page Hazelton ( 1876 – 1965 ) . The family moved to Wellesley , Massachusetts , in 1873 . She began making artwork in the 1880s , which she often signed with her nickname , " Daisy " . In 1886 , Hazelton graduated from Wellesley High School . The three sisters lived together in the family home at 319 Washington Street over the course of their lives . The house has been called " Clapp House " and " Hazelton House " .
= = Education = =
Hazelton attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ( MFAB ) under Edmund Tarbell . She was Philip Hale 's assistant and completed her education at MFAB in 1892 . She was a drawing class assistant for Frank Weston Benson after graduation and the following year became an assistant drawing instructor . Both Benson and Tarbell were noted Boston Impressionists .
Rupert Hughes described Hazelton 's painting , Margaret , made by 1895 , as a " more than usually tender bit of Impressionism " . She studied with Impressionist painters in Paris and also studied in Spain , England , the Netherlands and Italy after winning the Paige Traveling Scholarship from the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 1899 . Hazelton was the organization 's first traveling scholar and received $ 800 each year of her two @-@ year study program .
= = Style = =
Hazelton was one of the women that collector Everette James identified as having " demonstrate [ d ] remarkable individual artistic skill " who attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in the late 19th @-@ century . This was at a time , though , that women were not recognized for their individual style and abilities . " Tarbellites " was a phrase used at the time that reflected the belief that women 's skill was derived from their mentors , like Edmund C. Tarbell . Greater public exposure has helped to highlight the individual and unique qualities of some of the women portrait painters " that would rival a Tarbell , Benson or De Camp , " according to James in Antiques Journal .
In his 2001 article Early Women Artists at the Guild of Boston Artists , Bob Jackman noted that Hazelton painted in a creative and assertive style that included " a loose Impressionist manner " that rivals the works of many other Boston painters . Her technical abilities in composition and use and capture of light are exemplified in the painting Two Sisters at the Piano that she made about 1894 .
= = Career = =
Women did not win non @-@ gender specific awards until 1896 when Hazelton won the National Academy of Design Hallgarten Prize for her oil painting In a Studio . It was determined to be the best oil painted made by a person under the age of 35 in the United States that year . The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston awarded her the first Paige Traveling Scholarship in 1899 . Hazelton won an Honorable Mention at the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York in 1901 .
Hazelton had a studio at the old Harcourt Building in Boston in 1904 , when a severe fire burned the life 's work of several artists including Hazelton , Joseph DeCamp , and William M. Paxton . In the aftermath , a group of artists planned for a new building , which became Fenway Studios ( 30 Ipswich Street ) . Hazelton was among the initial group of artists that signed up , and arranged for studio 304 . From 1906 to 1940 , she had a studio at Fenway .
In 1912 , the Wellesley Hills First Congregational Church commissioned Hazelton , who was a member , to paint wall murals for the church . One mural depicts the four virtues — truth , charity , justice , and faith — in eight @-@ foot figures of three women and one man . For instance , the male figure carries a sword and scales to represent justice . She also created murals of the Four Evangelists and a representation of the Trinity .
During World War I , Hazelton designed a Liberty Loan campaign poster , using her painting Victory 's Record . She exhibited The Letter and Reverie at the Panama – Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco , California , in 1915 , where she won a bronze medal . She won the Popular Prize in Newport , Rhode Island in 1916 for The Lady in Black . She also won a prize for The Letter at Newport . John Singer Sargent considered her " one of the foremost portrait painters of her time " , according to Wellesley author Jennifer A. Jovin .
Hazelton was a Wellesley Society of Artists founder and treasurer , charter member of The Guild of Boston Artists , and an early member of the Copley Society . She was a member of the Concord Art Association , American Federation of Arts , and Connecticut Academy of Fine Arts .
= = Death = =
Hazelton suffered a stroke in 1952 , which required her to switch to painting with her left hand . She died at the Newton @-@ Wellesley Hospital on September 13 , 1953 .
In 1965 , the Wellesley Historical Society began purchasing paintings by Hazelton for its collection . Scrapbooks , correspondence , sketchbooks , diaries , photographs , and other materials are also held by the Wellesley Historical Society .
= = Collections = =
Harvard Club of Boston , Harvard University
John Adams , 1914 , after John Singleton Copley
Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts
Paul Jean Louis Azan , 1918 , oil on canvas
George Cheyne Shattuck , 1910 , copy after Gilbert Stuart
Dr. John Warren
Massachusetts General Hospital
William Appleton
Massachusetts State House , Boston , Massachusetts
William Stoughton , 1924
Peabody Essex Museum , Salem , Massachusetts
Francis Henry Appleton
Wellesley Historical Society , Massachusetts – Some of the portraits in their collection of 50 paintings are : Seldon L. Brown
Ralph Coburn
Herbert M. Hazelton
Margaret Page Hazelton
Mrs. John Oldham
= = Gallery = =
Paintings by Mary Brewster Hazelton
= John J. Crittenden =
John Jordan Crittenden ( September 10 , 1787 – July 26 , 1863 ) was a politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . He represented the state in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate and twice served as United States Attorney General in the administrations of William Henry Harrison , John Tyler and Millard Fillmore . He was also the 17th governor of Kentucky and served in the state legislature . Although frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for the U.S. presidency , he never consented to run for the office .
During his early political career , Crittenden served in the Kentucky House of Representatives and was chosen as speaker on several occasions . With the advent of the Second Party System , he allied with the National Republican ( later Whig ) Party and was a fervent supporter of Henry Clay and opponent of Democrats Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren . Jackson supporters in the Senate refused to confirm Crittenden 's nomination by John Quincy Adams to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1828 , but after his brief service as Kentucky Secretary of State , the state legislature elected him to the second of his four non @-@ consecutive stints in the U.S. Senate . Upon his election as president , William Henry Harrison appointed Crittenden as Attorney General , but 5 months after Harrison 's death , political differences prompted him to resign rather than continue his service under Harrison 's successor , John Tyler .
He was returned to the Senate in 1842 , serving until 1848 , when he resigned to run for governor , hoping his election would help Zachary Taylor win Kentucky 's vote in the 1848 presidential election . Taylor was elected , but Crittenden refused a post in his cabinet , fearing he would be charged with making a " corrupt bargain " , as Clay had been in 1825 . Following Taylor 's death in 1850 , Crittenden resigned the governorship and accepted Millard Fillmore 's appointment as attorney general .
As the Whig Party crumbled in the mid @-@ 1850s , Crittenden joined the Know Nothing ( or American ) Party . After the expiration of his term as attorney general , he was again elected to the U.S. Senate , where he urged compromise on the issue of slavery to prevent the breakup of the United States . As bitter partisanship increased the threat of secession , Crittenden sought out moderates from all parties and formed the Constitutional Union Party , though he refused the party 's nomination for president in the 1860 election . In December 1860 , he authored the Crittenden Compromise , a series of resolutions and constitutional amendments he hoped would avert the Civil War , but Congress would not approve them . Crittenden was elected to the House of Representatives in 1861 and continued to seek reconciliation between the states throughout his term . He declared his candidacy for re @-@ election to the House in 1863 , but died before the election took place .
= = Early life = =
John Jordan Crittenden was born September 10 , 1787 , near Versailles , Woodford County , Kentucky . He was the second child and first son of Revolutionary War veteran John Crittenden and his wife Judith Harris . John and Judith Crittenden had four sons and five daughters , all but one of whom survived infancy . On his father 's side , he was of Welsh ancestry , while his mother 's family was French Huguenot . His father had surveyed land in Kentucky with George Rogers Clark , and settled there just after the end of the American Revolution . Two of Crittenden 's brothers , Thomas and Robert , became lawyers , while the third , Henry , was a farmer .
Crittenden began a college preparatory curriculum at Pisgah Academy in Woodford County . He was then sent to a boarding school in Jessamine County . Among his classmates were Thomas Alexander Marshall and Francis P. Blair . Crittenden became especially close friends with Blair , and later political differences did little to diminish their friendship . After a year at boarding school , Crittenden moved to the Lexington , Kentucky , home of Judge George M. Bibb to study law . He began his tertiary studies at Washington College ( now Washington and Lee University ) in Lexington , Virginia . During his brief tenure there , he studied mathematics and belles @-@ lettres and became friends with Hugh Lawson White . Crittenden was dissatisfied with the curriculum at Washington College and matriculated to the College of William and Mary . He studied under St. George Tucker and became acquainted with John Tyler . Crittenden completed his studies in 1806 , and was admitted to the bar the following year . He began his practice in Woodford County , but as central Kentucky was well already supplied with able lawyers , he moved to Logan County , Kentucky , on the then western frontier and opened his practice in Russellville . At age twenty @-@ two , he was appointed by Governor Ninian Edwards of Illinois Territory as its attorney general . The following year , Edwards also made Crittenden his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . [ a ]
On May 27 , 1811 , Crittenden married Sarah O. Lee at her home in Versailles . Lee was a cousin of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor and aunt of US Senator Wilkinson Call . They had seven children before Sarah 's death in mid @-@ September 1824 . Among their children were Confederate major general George Crittenden and Union general Thomas Leonidas Crittenden . Their daughter Sallie Lee " Maria " Crittenden was the mother of John C. Watson , a Rear Admiral in the U.S. Navy during the late 19th century .
= = Early political career = =
Crittenden 's career as an elected official began in the Kentucky House of Representatives , where he represented Logan County from 1811 to 1817 . After the 1811 legislative session , he volunteered as an aide to General Samuel Hopkins in an expedition against the Indians . On the outbreak of the War of 1812 , Kentucky governor Charles Scott appointed him as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the First Kentucky Militia . In 1813 , he became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor Isaac Shelby , serving at the Battle of the Thames in Canada . Following the war , the governor issued him a special commendation for faithfulness in carrying out his orders . He then resumed his law practice in Russellville .
In 1814 , Governor Shelby appointed Crittenden to fill the U.S. Senate seat vacated by his former teacher , George M. Bibb ; later , however , Shelby learned that Crittenden was only twenty @-@ seven years old , three years shy of the constitutional age requirement for senators . Hence he returned to his seat in the Kentucky House , where was elected speaker over John Rowan . He would retain the position from 1815 to 1817 .
As speaker , Crittenden presided over a particularly tumultuous time in the legislature . In October 1816 , recently elected governor George Madison died . He was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter . Slaughter immediately made two extremely unpopular appointments , and quickly fell out of favor with many Kentuckians . A group of legislators , led by John C. Breckinridge , pointed out that the Kentucky Constitution provided only that the lieutenant governor would serve as governor until a new gubernatorial election was held and a qualified successor was chosen . Slaughter , they claimed , was only the " acting governor " . The group presented a bill to the House that called for new elections . The bill was defeated , but Crittenden supported it .
Crittenden 's support of a new election was both popular and politically expedient . When the U.S. Senate term of Martin D. Hardin , one of Slaughter 's unpopular nominees , expired in 1817 , the Kentucky General Assembly chose Crittenden to fill the vacancy . Though he was the youngest member of the body , he served as the second @-@ ever chairman of the newly created Committee on the Judiciary . He was also a member of the Committee on Naval Affairs . During his term , he introduced legislation to reimburse and indemnify persons who were fined under the 1798 Sedition Act . He found state politics more interesting , however , and this fact , coupled with increased financial responsibilities incurred by the birth of his third and fourth children , prompted his decision to resign his seat on March 3 , 1819 .
= = = Legislative interim = = =
After leaving Congress , Crittenden moved to Frankfort , the state capital , to attract more legal clients and be nearer the center of the state 's political activity . Among his clients after moving to Frankfort were former Presidents Madison and Monroe , future Vice @-@ President Richard Mentor Johnson , and future governors James T. Morehead , John Breathitt , and Robert P. Letcher . During this period , he collaborated with Henry Clay in defending Charles Wickliffe , son of Robert C. Wickliffe . Wickliffe was charged with the murder of the editor of the Kentucky Gazette . Crittenden argued that the slaying was self @-@ defense , and Clay delivered a passionate closing argument . The jury returned a verdict of " not guilty " only minutes after the case was submitted to them .
In January 1820 , Crittenden and John Rowan were chosen to help resolve Kentucky 's boundary dispute with Tennessee . The boundary was supposed to run along the line at 36 degrees , 30 minutes north latitude , but when Dr. Thomas Walker surveyed it , he erroneously marked the line farther south . Crittenden and Rowan proposed either that the " Walker Line " remain the boundary from the Cumberland Mountains to the Tennessee River and Tennessee would compensate for the error west of the Tennessee River , or that the boundary be reset at 36 degrees , 30 minutes throughout . Tennessee 's commissioners rejected both proposals , asking instead that the Walker Line be accepted east of the Tennessee River and a more southerly line west of it , with reciprocal agreements between the states to honor existing land grants . Crittenden was inclined to accept the offer , but Rowan was not . The Kentucky commissioners proposed that the matter be submitted to arbitration , but Tennessee refused . In a report to the General Assembly , Crittenden recommended that Kentucky accept the Tennessee proposal . The legislators were swayed by Crittenden 's report , and the articles of agreement were signed on February 2 , 1820 .
Crittenden was elected to the board of trustees for Transylvania University in 1823 , possibly due to lobbying by Henry Clay . A year later , the faculty of the university awarded him an honorary doctor of laws . Crittenden also served as a trustee and attorney for the Kentucky Seminary in Frankfort . Crittenden used his influence in support of Clay in the 1824 presidential election until Clay was eliminated from contention . He then threw his support to Andrew Jackson until he learned that John Quincy Adams , if elected , would likely make Clay Secretary of State . Critics termed Adams ' alleged promise to Clay the " corrupt bargain " , but it resulted in Adams ' election . Upon his appointment as Secretary of State , Clay was prepared to recommend Crittenden to replace him as chief counsel in Kentucky for the Second Bank of the United States , but the bank chose not to hire a replacement .
= = = Old Court – New Court controversy = = =
Crittenden was drawn back into public service by the Old Court – New Court controversy . When legislation aimed at providing relief to the state 's debtors was struck down by the Kentucky Court of Appeals , supporters of the legislation in the General Assembly passed a bill abolishing the Court and creating a new court , which they stocked with sympathetic justices . Opponents of the legislation held that the Assembly 's action was unconstitutional , and for a time , both courts claimed authority as the court of last resort in the state . Though he had served as president of the New Court @-@ backed Bank of the Commonwealth since its formation in 1820 , Crittenden publicly identified himself with the Old Court supporters in April 1825 . In the legislative election of 1825 , friends called on Crittenden to seek election to the state House of Representatives . Many believed that he was the only Old Court supporter that commanded enough respect to win one of the two seats allotted to Franklin County , a bastion of the New Court . When Crittenden consented to run , New Court supporters nominated the state 's Attorney General Solomon P. Sharp and Lewis Sanders , a prominent lawyer . Crittenden and Sharp were elected to the two seats .
In the early hours of the morning of November 7 , 1825 , the very morning the legislature was to convene , Sharp was assassinated . Charges were made that Old Court supporters had instigated the murder . Crittenden tried to blunt these charges by introducing a resolution condemning Sharp 's murder and offering $ 3 @,@ 000 for the murderer 's capture . When assassin Jereboam O. Beauchamp was apprehended , it became clear that the motivation for the killing was personal , not political . ( Beauchamp 's wife had married him on the condition that he kill Sharp , who had refused to claim the child he had fathered with her previously . ) Despite this , Crittenden refused a request to represent Beauchamp in his murder trial because he wanted to avoid any implication in the matter .
The court controversy dominated the legislative session . Crittenden joined the Old Court majority in the House in passing a measure to abolish the New Court . The bill was killed in the Senate , however , by the tie @-@ breaking vote of Lieutenant Governor Robert B. McAfee . Crittenden later served on a committee of six to resolve the conflict , but to no avail . He was unwilling to accept a solution whereby all the justices resigned from both courts , and the governor would appoint a reorganized court made up equally of Old Court and New Court supporters . This position cost him the support of some New Court partisans that had voted for him in the previous election , and he was not returned to the House in 1826 . Ultimately , Old Court partisans gained control of both houses of the legislature , and the New Court was abolished permanently in December 1826 .
On November 15 , 1826 , Crittenden married Maria Knox Todd , a widow who was the daughter of Judge Harry Innes . Crittenden took Todd 's three children as his own , and the couple had two more children : John and Eugene . Todd 's daughter Catherine married her stepbrother , Crittenden 's son Thomas ; their son , John Jordan Crittenden III , was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . Maria Knox Todd Crittenden died on September 8 , 1851 of an unknown illness .
= = Association with the National Republicans = =
As a result of the Old Court – New Court controversy , Kentucky 's politicians became divided between the Democrats and the National Republicans . Crittenden 's alliance with Henry Clay and his own personal political views put him squarely in the National Republican Party . Because of Crittenden 's support of his presidential bid , President Adams appointed him United States district attorney for the district of Kentucky in 1827 . In 1828 , Adams nominated him to replace Kentuckian Robert Trimble as an associate justice of the Supreme Court , but Jackson supporters in the Senate refused to confirm him . When Jackson defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election , he removed Crittenden from his post as district attorney because of his association with Clay and his opposition to Jackson 's financial policies .
Crittenden supporters sought to make him the National Republican nominee for governor in the election of 1828 . Though his nomination was all but certain , Crittenden declined the opportunity , fearing that his association with Clay , who was losing popularity in the state , would cost his party the election . Instead , he threw his support behind Thomas Metcalfe , who went on to carry a very close election over Democrat William T. Barry . Crittenden instead sought another term in the Kentucky House , but was again denied the seat .
In 1829 , Crittenden was elected to the Kentucky House via a special election . He served as Speaker of the House for his entire term . In 1830 , he was the Whig nominee to replace John Rowan in the Senate . Secretly , the party wished to nominate Henry Clay , giving him a springboard from which to launch another presidential campaign , but it was unknown whether he would be able to secure enough votes for confirmation ; it was decided that Crittenden would be the nominee , and if the voting favored the Whigs by a large enough margin , Crittenden would withdraw and allow them to confirm Clay instead . The Democrats countered successively with Richard Mentor Johnson , John Rowan , Charles A. Wickliffe , and John Breathitt . None of them polled more than sixty @-@ four of the sixty @-@ nine votes needed for confirmation . Crittenden garnered sixty @-@ eight votes on fourteen different ballots , but he refused to vote for himself because he wanted Clay to be the nominee . Some of Crittenden 's supporters , however , refused to vote for Clay , and the seat was left vacant .
The following year , a clear majority of the House of Representatives were pledged to Crittenden for the open Senate seat . However , Clay allies pressured Crittenden to step aside and allow Clay to be the Whig nominee . Crittenden obliged , and Clay was elected by a margin of nine votes over Richard M. Johnson . Crittenden went on to manage both the unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign of Richard Aylett Buckner and the campaign to help Clay win Kentucky in the 1832 presidential election . After Clay 's defeat in 1832 , he offered to resign his Senate seat and allow Crittenden to succeed him , but Crittenden refused the offer . Later that year , Crittenden retired from the General Assembly .
= = Association with the Whigs = =
Crittenden was active in organizing the Whig Party from the remnants of the defunct National Republican Party in 1834 . On July 4 , 1834 , he called to order the party 's first organizational meeting in the state at Cove Spring , Kentucky . He was chosen as chair of the committee on resolutions and in a speech on July 5 , bitterly condemned President Jackson . Later in 1834 , Kentucky governor James T. Morehead appointed Crittenden Secretary of State . In the August elections , Whigs won a majority in both houses of the General Assembly . When the Assembly convened , they elected Crittenden to the U.S. Senate over Democrat James Guthrie by a vote of 94 – 40 .
Immediately upon taking his seat in the Senate , Crittenden was named to the Committee on Public Lands and the Committee on the Judiciary , probably due to Clay 's influence . Early in his term , Crittenden vociferously opposed Senator Thomas H. Benton 's proposal to spend the federal budget surplus on public land graduation and military fortifications along the eastern seaboard . He also blasted the Jackson administration for issuing the Specie Circular , requiring that all payment for government land be made in gold or silver . He pointed out that the principles of the circular had been presented in a resolution on the Senate floor , but had been tabled by a large majority . Crittenden maintained that the tabling of the resolution was a condemnation by the Senate , yet the administration issued the circular only months later , overstepping , as Crittenden saw it , the bounds of the executive branch 's authority . Crittenden debated the issue at length with Senator Benton , and Congress ultimately passed a bill requiring the government to accept the notes of specie @-@ paying banks for the purchase of government lands , but President Jackson employed his pocket veto to prevent it from becoming law .
During his term , Crittenden remained an outspoken critic of Jackson and his successor , Martin Van Buren . He supported Henry Clay 's plan for distributing proceeds from the sale of public lands among the states , and also joined Clay in opposing the administration @-@ backed Second Seminole War . One of the few administration proposals he supported was the recognition of the new Republic of Texas . During this period of Crittenden 's service in the Senate , the issue of slavery rose to prominence . Crittenden was regarded as a moderate on the issue , seeking to keep it out of politics altogether . In 1836 , he resisted petitions by the Quakers to abolish slavery in Washington , D.C. , but he also opposed radical pro @-@ slavery measures such as John C. Calhoun 's proposal to ban abolitionist literature from being delivered by mail in the Southern states .
In contrast to his usually conciliatory nature , Crittenden was drawn into a disagreement between congressmen Jonathan Cilley and William J. Graves that ended in a duel . On the floor of the House , Cilley had attacked the integrity of Whig newspaper editor James Watson Webb . Webb demanded a retraction of Cilley 's comments through his friend , Congressman Graves . When Cilley refused to receive the communication from Graves , Graves charged that Cilley was questioning Webb 's honor and challenged him to a duel . Graves , accompanied by Kentucky Congressman Richard Menefee and Virginia Congressman Richard Wise asked Crittenden to serve as a second for Graves in the duel ; Crittenden initially protested , but finally agreed . After two misses by both combatants , Cilley was killed on the third exchange . The House proposed the expulsion of Graves and the censure of the other participants ( excluding Crittenden , who was a senator and not subject to House censure ) . The resolutions of expulsion and censure were eventually tabled , but Crittenden personally felt the sting of what he considered an indirect censure and later regretted his actions .
= = = Harrison and Tyler administrations = = =
In the 1840 presidential election , Crittenden again encouraged Kentucky Whigs to support the nomination of Henry Clay . After Clay lost the nomination , Crittenden supported eventual victor William Henry Harrison . Crittenden was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 1840 even though he was widely expected to be named to a position in Harrison 's presidential cabinet . He was apparently given his choice of cabinet positions , and chose that of Attorney General . He resigned his Senate seat to take this post .
As attorney general , Crittenden issued only one notable opinion . The plaintiff in the case was an individual whose property had been damaged during Andrew Jackson 's invasion of what would become the Florida Territory in 1818 . The case was still being adjudicated in 1841 . A Florida court found in favor of the plaintiff and ordered the federal government to compensate him for the damages and to pay him interest on his claim from the time the damages were incurred . Treasury Secretary Thomas Ewing asked Crittenden whether the court had the authority to award interest and whether or not it should be paid . Crittenden opined that it did not , and Ewing did not pay the interest . Crittenden 's opinion was used as a precedent in similar cases by future attorneys general .
Only a week after being appointed by Harrison , Crittenden was dispatched to New York to mediate tensions with Great Britain over the sinking of the steamboat Caroline by a group of Canadian rebels . In this diplomatic endeavor , Crittenden was acting separately from his official duties as attorney general . He spoke with New York Governor William H. Seward and secured his promise to pardon Alexander McLeod , who had seized and burned the Caroline , if he were convicted of a crime in New York . Ultimately , McLeod was acquitted .
Shortly after the Caroline affair , President Harrison died and Vice @-@ President John Tyler ascended to the presidency . Tyler resisted Clay 's attempts to set the Whig agenda , and vetoed two bank bills against Crittenden 's advice . Crittenden and the other Whigs in Tyler 's cabinet — excepting Daniel Webster — resigned in protest of Tyler 's deviation from the traditional Whig agenda . Crittenden 's resignation was effective September 11 , 1841 . He returned to Kentucky with no political office and very little money . A group of his friends in Woodford County purchased his boyhood home and presented it to him as a gift on his return to Kentucky .
Crittenden was appointed to the United States Senate in 1842 , filling the vacancy caused by Clay 's resignation . In January 1843 , he was elected to a full term over Richard Mentor Johnson . The Whigs ' feud with President Tyler continued unabated , and some even talked of impeaching him , but Crittenden condemned that course of action . During the 27th and 28th Congresses , he served on the Committee on Military Affairs . He was an advocate of moderate protective tariffs and federal internal improvements . He opposed giving states the option to forgo apportionment , which would have allowed them to elect their congressmen at @-@ large .
= = = Polk administration = = =
Crittenden again supported Clay 's presidential bid in 1844 . Clay was widely considered the favorite not only for the Whig nomination , but to win the general election . None of the traditional campaign issues — Tyler 's " executive usurpation , " Clay 's " corrupt bargain " with John Quincy Adams , or the protective tariff — seemed to excite the electorate . However , the issue of the annexation of Texas changed the entire campaign . Clay made a tour of the South just before the Whig nominating convention and concluded that the sentiment in favor of annexation in that part of the country was not as strong as had been assumed in Washington , D.C. Acting on this belief , and against Crittenden 's advice , Clay sent a letter opposing annexation to Crittenden , asking him to have it published in the National Intelligencer .
Clay believed the Democrats would again nominate Martin Van Buren , who was ardently opposed to annexation , and this would keep annexation from becoming an issue in the campaign . Clay was nominated by acclamation at the Whig convention in Baltimore a week later . At the Democratic nominating convention a month later , however , Van Buren was unable to secure his party 's nomination , and the Democrats instead nominated James K. Polk , who strongly favored annexation . Clay tried to moderate his views on annexation , but his changes of position drew opposition from supporters of both sides of the issue as he attempted to find a middle ground . Polk went on to win the election in a close race . This was the last time Clay would be nominated for president , and many Whigs believed that , following Clay 's defeat , Crittenden was the new leader of their party .
In 1845 , the Senate took up the question of ending the joint occupancy of the Oregon Territory with Great Britain . Lewis Cass , a senator from Michigan , supported an immediate termination of the joint occupation agreement and maintained that a war with the British over the matter was inevitable . Crittenden disagreed , and insisted that Britain be given two years notice before the joint occupation of the territory was ended in order to allow time for a diplomatic resolution . Ultimately , Crittenden 's position prevailed , and a compromise with Britain was effected , setting the dividing line between the two nations ' claims at the 49th parallel north .
In 1846 , the United States entered the Mexican – American War in an attempt to gain control of Texas . Crittenden did not support the war , and after war was declared , he insisted that commissioners accompany the U.S. armies and attempt to broker peace at every opportunity . Throughout the war , he corresponded regularly with Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott . Crittenden 's sons , George and Thomas , both served in the war ; Thomas Crittenden served on Scott 's staff . President Polk consulted Crittenden regarding the terms of peace that should be accepted to end the war . Crittenden insisted that the terms of peace should not include the acquisition of territory to which the United States did not have a " just claim " , but the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo submitted to Congress in 1848 called for Mexico to give up not only its claims to Texas , but also to New Mexico , California , and all the territory in between . A few Whigs joined the Democratic majority in Congress to ratify the treaty and defeat the Wilmot Proviso , which would have banned slavery in the newly acquired territory .
Friends encouraged Crittenden to run for president in the 1848 election . A Nashville newspaper declared its support for him as early as 1846 . A Democratic senator from Rhode Island opined that Crittenden could win support from a sizable number of Democrats in addition to the support of his own party . George B. Kinkead desired to have the Kentucky General Assembly nominate Crittenden for president in 1847 . None of these overtures swayed Crittenden . " For Heaven 's sake don 't talk to me about the Presidency , " he said , rebuffing one early offer . Clay hoped Crittenden would again support him , but Crittenden concluded that Clay was no longer a viable candidate and threw his support behind Kentuckian Zachary Taylor . This decision caused a rift between the two friends , and they were not reconciled until years later when Clay lay on his deathbed .
= = = Campaigns of 1848 = = =
The Whig Party was also divided in Kentucky , not only between Clay and Taylor , but between gubernatorial candidates . William J. Graves , out of politics since his fatal shooting of Representative Cilley , had the backing of sitting Whig governor William Owsley , while Archibald Dixon had secured support from former Whig governor Robert P. Letcher . Letcher wrote to Crittenden that a Whig split and Democratic victory in the gubernatorial election would have an injurious effect on Whig hopes of carrying Kentucky in the 1848 presidential election ; another former Whig governor , Thomas Metcalfe , concurred . At the Whig nominating convention , both Graves and Dixon withdrew their names and a delegate from Logan County put forward Crittenden 's name without his consent . The nomination easily carried before Crittenden 's friends could block it . The governorship was less prestigious and paid less than Crittenden 's position in the Senate . He would also have to abandon his growing legal practice before the Supreme Court and would lose input on national issues of importance to him such as the territorial questions that grew out of the Mexican War . Nevertheless , he believed that his candidacy would unite the Whigs and help Taylor win Kentucky 's electoral votes in the general election . He accepted the nomination a week after it was made .
Elijah Hise , Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , was the leading candidate for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination , but after the Whig nomination of Crittenden , Hise withdrew from consideration . The Democratic state convention then nominated Congressman Linn Boyd , but Boyd also declined the nomination . The Democrats were finally able to nominate Henderson lawyer Lazarus W. Powell . As Crittenden canvassed the state , his opponents charged him with disloyalty to Clay because he refused to support him in the 1848 election . Crittenden maintained that he supported Clay for the presidency over anyone else , but he had believed that Clay did not intend to seek the Whig nomination in 1848 . After Clay announced his candidacy , Crittenden said , he remained neutral in the Whigs ' choice . In the gubernatorial election , Crittenden defeated Powell by a vote of 65 @,@ 860 to 57 @,@ 397 . He resigned his Senate seat to assume the governorship .
With his own campaign at a close , Crittenden resumed direction of Taylor 's presidential campaign , dispatching accomplished Whig speakers to all parts of the country . After Taylor was elected , he offered Crittenden the post of Secretary of State . Appeals came in from both Whig and Democratic leaders across the country urging him to serve in the cabinet ; Taylor was inexperienced , and many felt that without Crittenden to guide him , his administration would fail . Taylor personally visited Crittenden in Frankfort on February 15 , 1849 , in hopes of persuading him to accept the appointment . Crittenden refused Taylor 's overtures , and Taylor similarly rejected Crittenden 's appeals to appoint his friend , Robert P. Letcher , as Postmaster General . Crittenden 's input is believed to have contributed significantly to the appointments of John M. Clayton as Secretary of State and Orlando Brown as Commissioner of Indian Affairs .
Crittenden 's reasons for refusing Taylor 's appointment were many . Partially , he declined out of respect for Clay 's feelings and partially he felt it would be viewed in the same way as Clay and Adams ' " corrupt bargain " in 1825 . Resigning the governorship also would have amounted to admitting to the Democrats ' charges that he only sought the office to help Taylor win the presidency . Finally , he had not been able to fully heal the breach in the Whig Party , and he wanted to remedy that situation .
= = = Gubernatorial administration = = =
During Crittenden 's term , he gave strong support to superintendent of public education , Robert Jefferson Breckinridge , who would come to be known as the " Father of public school system in Kentucky . " In response to Crittenden 's call for financial support for the improvement of public education , the General Assembly passed a | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
common school law on February 26 , 1849 . This law established guidelines for several public officials regarding their administration of the common schools . The Assembly also reserved tolls collected on the Kentucky , Green , and Barren rivers for education , and passed a two percent property tax to fund the state 's schools .
Crittenden ordered the refurbishing of the state penitentiary , which had been damaged by a fire , and called for an extensive state geological survey . He also advised the creation of a sinking fund to retire the state 's debt . The state adopted a new constitution during Crittenden 's term , though Crittenden was not a delegate to the constitutional convention and apparently had little influence on the drafting of the document . Most Whigs opposed the calling of a constitutional convention because it would necessarily involve reapportionment of the state 's legislative districts and threaten Whig dominance in the General Assembly ; nevertheless , Crittenden belatedly supported the call for a convention during his 1848 gubernatorial campaign .
With the question of slavery becoming even more critical following the territorial acquisitions of the Mexican – American War , John C. Calhoun delivered an inflammatory address in December 1848 urging leaders of the southern states to resist " Northern aggression " , even if it meant secession from the Union . Crittenden strongly denounced secession in his annual messages to the legislature in 1848 and 1849 . In response , the state senate passed a resolution calling on Kentucky 's citizens to cherish the Union and resist any efforts to secede .
= = = Second term as attorney general = = =
Vice @-@ President Millard Fillmore ascended to the presidency upon Taylor 's death and offered Crittenden the post of Attorney General . Believing the rift in the Whig Party was now much improved , he accepted the offer and resigned the governorship in 1850 . Fillmore , an opponent of slavery , requested an opinion from Crittenden on the constitutionality of the fugitive slave law , one of the bills involved in the Compromise of 1850 . Specifically , he asked if the law suspended the writ of habeas corpus . Crittenden said that it did not , opining that it discharged a duty placed on Congress by the Constitution to return runaway slaves . Crittenden 's opinion was probably motivated by a desire to see the Compromise pass and avert further sectional tension . Fillmore , his misgivings assuaged , signed the bill , keeping the Compromise intact .
Questions regarding claims in Florida , some already considered by Crittenden during his first term as attorney general , continued during his second term . Specifically , some of the claimants objected to a legal provision , passed by Congress years after the Adams – Onís Treaty , that allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to refuse to pay claims awarded by Florida courts that he found not to be " just and equitable " . The claimants contended that this allowed an executive officer to overrule a judicial decision in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers . Crittenden held that the secretary 's ruling was just as much a judicial action as that of the Florida judges . Further , he reiterated his 1841 decision that no interest could be paid on claims arising from damages resulting from Jackson 's invasion . Despite this opinion , a Florida judge awarded interest to one of the claimants , and the government appealed the case to the Supreme Court , with Crittenden serving as the government 's counsel . The Court upheld Crittenden 's entire opinion in its ruling .
Crittenden was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard University in 1851 . Later that year , he acted as Secretary of State during the illness of Daniel Webster . In this capacity , he wrote a vigorous warning to both Britain and France about interfering in the question of Cuban independence . He also encouraged adherence to the United States ' traditional policy of non @-@ interference in Europe during the celebrated visit of Hungarian revolutionary Louis Kossuth to the United States in 1851 .
In November 1851 , the General Assembly convened to elect a successor to Senator Joseph R. Underwood . Underwood , whose term would expire in 1853 , desired re @-@ election , and Whigs Charles S. Morehead and George Robertson had also announced their respective candidacies . Crittenden , whose term as attorney general also expired in 1853 , had publicly announced that he wished to return to the Senate after his service in President Fillmore 's cabinet , and upon learning this , Underwood and Morehead both withdrew from the race . Robertson was not expected to seriously challenge Crittenden , but following the withdrawals of the other candidates , Archibald Dixon entered the race . Historically an ally of Crittenden , Dixon 's entrance into the race after Crittenden 's announcement showed that he had switched his allegiance from Crittenden to Clay . Democrats , desirous to defeat Crittenden and embarrass the Whigs , pledged to vote against him at all costs , even if it meant electing Dixon . Crittenden 's friends , therefore , held back his name from nomination to spare him almost certain defeat . Balloting deadlocked for several days , with Clay supporters throwing their support to Dixon , Robertson , and Lieutenant Governor John B. Thompson , a compromise candidate . Another compromise was proposed whereby Clay , his health failing , would resign his Senate seat , creating two Senate vacancies and allowing both Dixon and Crittenden to be elected , but Clay refused to cooperate . Finally , on the night of December 11 , 1851 , the Whigs met in caucus and agreed to withdraw both Dixon and Crittenden and elect Thompson .
A week after the election , Clay resigned , but Crittenden now declined the appointment to fill his unexpired term . Instead , the legislature elected Dixon to the remainder of Clay 's term , set to expire in March 1855 . Three weeks before Clay 's death in 1852 , he sent for Crittenden , and the two were reconciled ; Critteden delivered a eulogy for Clay in September 1852 , publicly dispelling the feud . After Clay 's death , Crittenden became the most prominent Whig leader in Kentucky . He encouraged the party to support the nomination of Millard Fillmore for the presidency in 1852 , but the nomination ultimately went to Winfield Scott . Crittenden was proposed as the nominee for vice @-@ president , but he declined . Democrat Franklin Pierce carried the state by 2 @,@ 700 votes in the general election and Democrats also captured the governorship that year ; both were harbingers of the demise of the Whig Party in Kentucky .
= = = Return to the Senate = = =
On February 27 , 1853 , the twice @-@ widower Crittenden married his third wife , Elizabeth Moss . Moss was twice @-@ widowed , most recently to General William Henry Ashley . Moss was Crittenden 's wife until his death . Crittenden served as attorney general until the expiration of Fillmore 's term in 1853 . Following his service as attorney general , he returned to private life . He made a substantial amount of money establishing mining claims for his clients in the former Mexican territory .
In 1853 , the legislature was to elect a successor to Senator Dixon . Now satisfied that the feud between Clay and Crittenden had ended , Dixon did not seek re @-@ election , leaving Crittenden with no Whig opposition . On a joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly , Crittenden was elected 78 – 59 over governor Lazarus Powell .
In the period between his election and his taking office , Crittenden was the lead defense counsel in the murder trial of Matt F. Ward , the son of one of Crittenden 's lifelong friends . Ward 's younger brother had been disciplined by the principal at Louisville Male High School the preceding November , and the elder Ward went to argue with the principal on behalf of his brother . In the ensuing encounter , Ward shot and killed the principal with a pistol . Public sentiment was heavily against Ward , and the trial was moved to Hardin County . During the week @-@ long trial , which began in April 1854 , Crittenden emphasized inconsistencies in the accounts of eyewitnesses and called prominent character witnesses such as Louisville mayor James Stephens Speed , Congressman William Preston , and Courier @-@ Journal editor George D. Prentice . He presented a case that Ward had acted in self @-@ defense . Because the prosecution sought the death penalty , Crittenden asserted that if the jury rendered an erroneous conviction , they would have no peace of mind knowing they had sentenced an innocent man to hang .
There was a tremendous public outcry when Ward was found not guilty . Newspapers across the nation condemned the verdict and Crittenden for his role in securing it . Only Prentice , in the Courier @-@ Journal , defended Crittenden and the Ward family . Several public meetings passed resolutions calling for Crittenden 's resignation from the Senate . After one such meeting , a mob gathered and Crittenden , Prentice , the Wards , and the twelve jurors were burned in effigy .
When he assumed his Senate seat in 1855 , Crittenden was sixty @-@ nine years old , the eldest member of that body . The Whig Party had practically dissolved by this time , and he joined many of his fellow Kentuckians in associating with the Know Nothing Party . Although he did not agree with all of the party 's principles , he would not associate with the Democrats , the party he had spent much of his career denouncing , nor would he associate with the new Republican Party because of their stance against slavery . Despite his misgivings about some of the party platform , he campaigned on behalf of Millard Fillmore , the party 's candidate in the 1856 presidential election .
In the early part of his term , Crittenden was concerned with quelling the violence in Kansas Territory . An opponent of the Kansas – Nebraska Act of 1854 , Crittenden also opposed repealing the Missouri Compromise unless the North agreed to substitute popular sovereignty for the exclusion of slavery north of the 36 ° 30 ' line . In early 1856 , he proposed sending General Winfield Scott to the Kansas Territory to ensure that fair elections were held there , but the proposal was blocked by the Pierce administration . He did not agree with all of the act proposed by Robert Toombs to allow for a constitutional convention in Kansas Territory , but he supported it as a step to bring peace there . He regarded the ratifications of both the Topeka Constitution and the Lecompton Constitution as invalid , and made one of the most highly regarded speeches of his career in opposition to the latter . His substitute bill that would have resubmitted the Lecompton Constitution to Kansas for another ratification vote was supported by Republicans , but it was ultimately defeated . So great was Crittenden 's influence after his actions on the Kansas question that Abraham Lincoln felt that Crittenden 's endorsement of Stephen Douglas cost Lincoln the Illinois senatorial election in 1858 .
= = Civil War = =
From 1858 to 1860 , Crittenden sought out moderates from all sections of the country to effect compromise on the territorial and slavery issues , thus averting war . In 1860 , he was named chair of the National Union Executive Committee , a group of congressmen and journalists who feared that sectional differences would destroy the Union . His efforts helped form the Constitutional Union Party later that year . Chosen as the keynote speaker at the party 's national convention on May 9 , 1860 , many urged him to become their nominee for president . At age seventy @-@ three , however , Crittenden was already contemplating retirement and instead orchestrated the nomination of John Bell , whom he actively supported in the 1860 presidential race .
Even after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860 , Crittenden rejected the idea that secession was inevitable and continued to work for the preservation of the Union . He believed that the current sectional crisis could — like all past disagreements in U.S. history — be resolved through compromise . However , he believed that this compromise must not be a simple legislative action , which could be altered or even repealed by a successive Congress , but amendments to the U.S. Constitution , which would be much more difficult to change . To that end , he proposed the Crittenden Compromise — a package of six constitutional amendments and four congressional resolutions — in December 1860 . Among the resolutions were a condemnation of Northern personal liberty laws and an assertion of the constitutionality of the fugitive slave law . The amendments would have restored the Missouri Compromise line and extended it to California as a line of demarcation between slave and free territories . Crittenden 's other amendments would have further guaranteed that slavery would remain legal indefinitely in Washington , D.C. , so long as it was legal in either Maryland or Virginia and that slaveholders would be reimbursed for runaway slaves . Also , the amendments denied Congress any power to interfere with the interstate slave trade or with slavery in the existing Southern states and made the fugitive slave law and Three @-@ Fifths Compromise perpetual in duration .
The compromise proposal was referred to a special committee proposed by Crittenden 's fellow Kentucky senator , Lazarus Powell . Though it was believed that Republicans in general , including their representatives on the committee , were disposed to accept Crittenden 's compromise or one substantially similar to it , President @-@ elect Lincoln had already instructed his trusted allies in the legislature to resist any plan to extend slavery into the territories . Consequently , when the committee held its first meeting , the Republican members blocked Crittenden 's plan and six others from coming to the floor for a vote . Despite their opposition , however , the Republicans presented no alternative plan . After the rejection of Crittenden 's plan in committee , Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , and Georgia followed South Carolina 's lead and passed ordinances of secession .
On January 3 , 1861 , Crittenden tried to salvage his plan by recommending to the full Senate that it be submitted to the people in referendum . It was widely believed that a referendum would recommend adoption of Crittenden 's plan , and Republicans in Congress used a variety of procedures to prevent a vote on allowing it . On January 16 , with procedural delays exhausted , New Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark moved to substitute for Crittenden 's plan a resolution stating that constitutional amendments were unnecessary to preserve the Union , and that enforcement of the Constitution and the present laws would eliminate the need for special sectional guarantees . With the senators from southern states ( both those that had seceded and those that had not ) refusing to vote , Republicans were left with a majority in the chamber and passed Clark 's substitute resolution , effectively killing Crittenden 's proposal .
Crittenden remained in Washington for a few weeks after Congress adjourned . Having learned that John Archibald Campbell , an Alabaman serving on the Supreme Court , had decided to resign in light of his state 's secession , President Lincoln proposed to appoint Crittenden to the vacant seat . Lincoln 's cabinet approved , and the nomination papers were drafted , but Campbell belatedly reconsidered his resignation , and by the time he definitely determined to resign , Lincoln had changed his mind regarding Crittenden 's nomination .
Having failed to secure compromise at the federal level , Crittenden returned to Kentucky in early 1861 , attempting to persuade his home state to reject the overtures of fellow southern states and remain in the Union . On May 10 , 1861 , a conference was held to decide Kentucky 's course in the war . Crittenden joined Archibald Dixon and S. S. Nicholas as Unionist representatives at the conference ; the Southern Rights position was represented by John C. Breckinridge , Governor Beriah Magoffin , and Richard Hawes . The conference failed to produce a united course of action , but adopted the policy of armed neutrality . Unionists in the legislature , however , feared that the state militia and its commander Simon Bolivar Buckner , had Confederate sympathies . To counter any threat that the militia would seize control of the state for the South , the General Assembly organized the Home Guard , a separate militia controlled by a five @-@ man , pro @-@ Union commission . Crittenden enlisted in the Home Guard as a private and was part of a group styled the " Union Defense Committee " that secured weapons for the Home Guard from the federal government .
In April , the General Assembly called a border states convention to be held in Frankfort in May . Slates of delegates were nominated by both the Unionists and Southern Rightists , but war broke out before the election of delegates ; the Southern Rights delegates withdrew from the election , and the Unionist slate , including Crittenden , was chosen by default . On May 27 , 1861 , Crittenden was chosen chair of the convention and called it to order . With war having largely precluded any good the meeting could have accomplished , only nine of Kentucky 's twelve delegates were present , along with four from Missouri ( out of seven elected ) , and one from Tennessee ( and his election was questionable ) ; Virginia , Maryland , and Delaware sent no delegates . Ultimately , the convention accomplished little beyond calling on the southern states to reconsider their secession and on the northern states to moderate their demands .
Against his father 's wishes , Crittenden 's son George resigned his position as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army to join the Confederate States Army ( in which he was promoted brigadier then major general ) , only to effectively lose his career in the early Confederate defeat at Mill Springs , Kentucky . George 's brother , Thomas Leonidas Crittenden , had been a member of Buckner 's State Guard , but joined the Union Army in September 1861 and was advanced to the rank of brigadier general , serving under Don Carlos Buell . Another son , Eugene , also served in the Union Army and attained the rank of colonel . One of John Crittenden 's grandsons , John Crittenden Coleman , enlisted with the Confederate Army , while another grandson , John Crittenden Watson , graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy and participated in David Farragut 's capture of New Orleans during the war .
= = = Service in the House of Representatives and death = = =
President Lincoln called a special session of Congress to convene July 4 , 1861 , and Kentucky held special elections in June to select congressmen for the special session . Crittenden had expressed his desire to retire from public service and initially refused pleas to become a candidate , but he finally consented to run in late May . He was elected over secessionist candidate William E. Simms ; in all , nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional districts selected Unionist candidates in the special election . Upon taking his seat , he was assigned to the Committee on Foreign Affairs . On July 10 , 1861 , he accompanied Simon B. Buckner on a visit to President Lincoln to secure a renewed commitment from Lincoln to respect Kentucky 's neutrality ; Lincoln agreed only to issue a declaration that he had no present designs on Kentucky but would not commit to restrict his future actions . In order to calm the fears of border state citizens concerned about the Union 's objectives in the war , he introduced the Crittenden – Johnson Resolution , which blamed the secessionist states for the war and stated that the object of the war was not the subjugation of those states , but the defense of the Constitution and the preservation of the Union . When those ends were achieved , the resolution stated , the war should cease . Kentucky Representative Henry C. Burnett asked that the question be divided . Burnett was one of only two votes against the portion of the resolution blaming the Southern states for the war ; the only dissent on the remaining portion came from Wisconsin 's John F. Potter and Ohio 's Albert G. Riddle . In the Senate , the resolution passed 30 – 5 , with Kentucky senators Breckinridge and Powell voting in the minority . In December 1861 the House refused , by a vote of 76 – 65 , to reaffirm the resolution .
After Congress adjourned in late July 1861 , Crittenden returned home to Frankfort , but soon had to flee the city as Confederate generals Braxton Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith invaded Kentucky , capturing both Frankfort and Lexington . He took up temporary residence at Louisville 's Galt House hotel and was still residing there when Union General William " Bull " Nelson was killed by a fellow soldier there in 1862 . He returned to his home in Frankfort shortly after the Battle of Perryville drove the Confederates from the state on October 8 , 1862 . Returning for the regular congressional session , he became the conduit through which many reports of unconstitutional military arrests in Kentucky were channeled . He spoke against the admission of West Virginia to the Union on the grounds that Virginia had not consented to the creation of the state from its territory . He also opposed the Emancipation Proclamation and the use of slaves as soldiers in the war .
When he returned to Kentucky following the 37th Congress , Crittenden 's health was failing , and he frequently complained of shortness of breath and chest pain . He had determined to retire from Congress , but once again , friends persuaded him to stand for re @-@ election . Shortly after his nomination , Crittenden and his wife were en route to an alum spring in Indiana to seek treatment to alleviate the symptoms of his failing health when he collapsed in Louisville . After remaining bedfast at the home of a local doctor , he returned home to Frankfort , where he died on July 26 , 1863 . He was interred at the State Cemetery in Frankfort . Among his other notable kinsmen were nephews Thomas Theodore Crittenden , congressman from Missouri , and Thomas Turpin Crittenden , a general in the Union Army . In Kentucky , Crittenden County and the town of Crittenden are named for him .
= Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) =
" Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . Harrison wrote the song as a tribute to Frank Crisp , a nineteenth @-@ century lawyer and the original owner of Friar Park – the Victorian Gothic residence in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire , that Harrison purchased in early 1970 . Commentators have likened the song to a cinematic journey through the grand house and the grounds of the estate .
The recording features backing from musicians such as Pete Drake , Billy Preston , Gary Wright , Klaus Voormann and Alan White . It was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector , whose heavy use of reverb adds to the ethereal quality of the song . AllMusic critic Scott Janovitz describes " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " as offering " a glimpse of the true George Harrison – at once mystical , humorous , solitary , playful , and serious " .
Crisp 's eccentric homilies , which the former Beatle discovered inscribed inside the house and around the property , inspired subsequent compositions of Harrison 's , including " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and " The Answer 's at the End " . Together with the Friar Park @-@ shot album cover for All Things Must Pass , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " established an association between Harrison and his Henley estate that has continued since his death in November 2001 . The composition gained further notability in 2009 when it provided the title for Harrison 's posthumous compilation Let It Roll . My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James and Dhani Harrison are among the artists who have covered the song .
= = Background = =
Since 1965 , George Harrison and his wife , Pattie Boyd , had lived in Kinfauns in Surrey , south of London . The house was a bungalow and too small to accommodate a home recording studio , so the couple began a year @-@ long search for a larger property , concentrating on an area west of London encompassing the counties of Berkshire and Oxfordshire . In January 1970 , Harrison purchased the 120 @-@ room Friar Park , set on 33 acres of land , just west of Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . Previously the home of an order of Roman Catholic nuns , the Salesians of Don Bosco , the four @-@ storey house and its grounds were in a dilapidated state , and it was not until the start of March that the Harrisons moved from a worker 's cottage and into the main residence .
The house was built in the 1898 , on the site of a thirteenth @-@ century monastery , by Sir Frank Crisp , a successful City of London solicitor , microscopist and horticulturalist well known for his eccentricities . Harrison described Crisp as a cross between Lewis Carroll and Walt Disney . While compiling Harrison 's autobiography , I , Me , Mine , in the late 1970s , Derek Taylor observed that Harrison " frequently talks as if [ Crisp ] were still alive " . Clean @-@ up work during the first few months at Friar Park unearthed various legacies of Crisp 's time there , such as stone and wood engravings containing whimsical homilies , some of which the Salesian nuns had concealed or painted over . The 10 acres of Crisp 's formal gardens were so overrun with weeds that Harrison and his friend from the Hare Krishna movement , Shyamasundar Das , used World War II @-@ era flamethrowers to clear some of the land . Among the garden features was a series of tiered lakes connected by tunnels , to the south @-@ east of the house , and an Alpine rock garden topped by a 100 @-@ foot replica of the Matterhorn , to the north @-@ west .
On 17 March 1970 , despite the property 's state of disrepair , the Harrisons threw a party to celebrate Pattie 's 26th birthday and St Patrick 's Day . According to their friend and assistant Chris O 'Dell , the guest list comprised all the other Beatles and their wives , as well as insiders such as Derek and Joan Taylor , Neil Aspinall and his wife Susie , Peter Brown , and Klaus and Christine Voormann . In what was a rare social get @-@ together for the Beatles , three weeks before Paul McCartney announced he was leaving the band , the party was a " great success " , O 'Dell writes . Shortly afterwards , Harrison invited members of the London @-@ based Hare Krishna movement to help with the restoration work , primarily in the grounds of Friar Park , and accommodated the devotees and their families in a wing of the house . While satisfying Harrison 's spiritual convictions , these visitors proved less welcome to Boyd , who found herself shut out of her husband 's life .
= = Composition = =
Following the Beatles ' break @-@ up on 10 April 1970 , and having long discussed the possibility of recording a solo album of his songs , Harrison committed to the project over dinner at Friar Park with Boyd , O 'Dell and Terry Doran , his friend and temporary estate manager . The following month , Harrison performed a selection of his compositions in London for Phil Spector , his co @-@ producer on All Things Must Pass , one of which was " Everybody , Nobody " . With its reference to roads and the UK 's Highway Code , " Everybody , Nobody " has been described by musical biographer Simon Leng as Harrison 's first " motoring " song . Harrison soon completely rewrote the lyrics and took part of the melody for his first musical tribute to Crisp and Friar Park – titled " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " . The result , in Leng 's opinion , was a signpost to its composer 's future involvement in film , an interest that , like gardening and motorsport , would flourish in a dwelling that offered " privacy without imprisonment " .
Leng writes that the song 's lyrics read " like a movie script " , with verse one " panning " from the house outside to the garden :
Let it roll across the floor
Through the hall and out the door
To the fountain of perpetual mirth
Let it roll for all it 's worth ...
In his book The Words and Music of George Harrison , Ian Inglis similarly views the song as " a guided tour of the house and grounds " , with Harrison " pointing out features of particular interest " . After " scene two " ' s setting – " among the weeds " and inside Friar Park 's formal maze – the third verse focuses on the property 's grottos and extended woodland . Verse three includes the lines " Through ye woode , here may ye rest awhile / Handkerchiefs and matching tie " , the last of which Leng describes as Harrison 's " first clear reference " to Monty Python , his favourite comedy troupe .
The song 's " final scene " focuses on what Leng calls " the illusions within the illusion " , as the narrative returns to the interior of the house and the " real people " living there . The lyrics include mentions of housekeepers and " the spiritually awakened Lord and Lady " , Leng writes , before the scene " rolls off into the unknown beyond " :
Fools ' illusions everywhere
Joan and Molly sweeps the stair
Eyes that shining full of inner light
Let it roll into the night ...
Rather than people , Inglis views the first of these lines as a reference to the " many extraordinary features Crisp had installed " , among them " fantastic statues , bizarre gargoyles , illuminated caverns ... and hidden stepping @-@ stones " . In a song otherwise free of religiosity , theologian Dale Allison interprets " Fools illusions everywhere " as a typical Harrison statement regarding māyā – the illusory nature of human existence .
According to Harrison 's later recollection , Spector suggested that " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " might attract a few cover versions if he changed the lyrics . In I , Me , Mine , Harrison acknowledges that the song was " a piece of personal indulgence " , but " those words were written because that 's what it was " – a tribute to Frank Crisp . A number of Crisp 's homilies directly inspired other Harrison songs during the first half of the 1970s , such as " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and " The Answer 's at the End " . Harrison went on to identify philosophically with Crisp , of whom he writes elsewhere in I , Me , Mine : " Sir Frank helped my awareness ; whatever it was I felt became stronger , or found more expression by moving into that house , because everything stepped up or was heightened . " Leng considers that the song , along with " All Things Must Pass " , predicts Harrison 's eventual " retreat into an internal musical dialogue , set amid the woods and gardens of Friar Park " , a change of perspective marked by his 1979 eponymous solo album .
= = Recording = =
Harrison 's solo performance of " Everybody , Nobody " for Phil Spector took place at Abbey Road Studios on 20 May 1970 , a recording since made available unofficially on the Beware of ABKCO ! bootleg . Harrison completed the rewrite , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , within a matter of weeks , judging by the appearance of pedal steel virtuoso Pete Drake on the session , which was held at Abbey Road between 26 May and early June . By late June , Drake was home in Nashville producing Ringo Starr 's second solo album , Beaucoups of Blues ( 1970 ) , the recording of which , author Bob Woffinden suggested in 1981 , " was probably completed more quickly than any one of the tracks on All Things Must Pass " . Part of the reason for Harrison taking so long to make his album was the interruption to recording caused by his frequent visits to Liverpool 's neurological hospital , where his mother was dying of cancer . Following her death on 7 July , Harrison invited his elder brothers Harry and Peter to live on the Friar Park estate and manage a team of full @-@ time gardeners and botanists .
The released recording of " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , in Leng 's words , is as " an ethereal and echoey version of the Band 's minimalist melodicism " , in which Drake 's pedal steel guitar represents the " ectoplasmic " Crisp floating through the song , and Harrison " sounds like he 's recorded his vocal track in one of the park 's legendary caves " . The line @-@ up of musicians included three keyboards players , which Leng and author Bruce Spizer list as Bobby Whitlock ( on piano ) , Billy Preston ( organ ) and Gary Wright ( electric piano ) . Whitlock himself has stated that he played piano very rarely during the All Things Must Pass sessions , however . In his song @-@ by @-@ song discussion of the album , Whitlock offers a line @-@ up that includes Preston on piano and he writes of the other keyboard parts : " This track is swimming with the two Garys " – Wright and Gary Brooker .
Although Leng credits the song 's two acoustic guitar parts to Harrison alone , Spizer suggests that guitarist Peter Frampton may have supplied one of these parts . Playing the bass , as he did on most of All Things Must Pass , was Klaus Voormann , who would be another to find sanctuary at Friar Park . Harrison offered him refuge from the media in March and April 1971 , when reports had Voormann linked to a supposed Beatles offshoot band , along with Harrison , Starr and John Lennon .
While relatively free of the Wall of Sound production style found elsewhere on the album , the song 's " sense of the mysterious " is conveyed through Spector 's liberal use of reverb , Alan Clayson writes , particularly on Alan White 's snare drum and Harrison 's murmured backing vocals following verses two and four . The words that Harrison half @-@ sings are " Oh , Sir Frankie Crisp " ; this part and the lead vocal were overdubbed at Trident Studios in central London , at Spector 's suggestion . Aided by the swirling sound of Hammond organ , and Leslie treatment on the piano and pedal steel tracks , the effect of Spector 's production enshrouded " the whole tale in a reverb @-@ induced haze " , as Scott Janovitz of AllMusic puts it .
= = Release and reception = =
Delayed from its intended release date by over a month due to the extended period of production , All Things Must Pass was issued on Apple Records in late November 1970 to great acclaim . The triple album featured a cover photo of Harrison dressed in gardening attire , seated on the main lawn of Friar Park 's south garden and surrounded by four figures from Crisp 's extensive collection of Bavarian gnomes . Having been stolen " in about 1871 " , according to photographer Barry Feinstein , the figures had just been returned to Friar Park and placed on the grass . Commentators interpret Feinstein 's photo as representing Harrison 's removal from the Beatles ' collective identity , and the cover helped establish a synonymity between Harrison and Friar Park that Alan Clayson has described as equalling that between Queen Elizabeth II and Windsor Castle .
On release , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " ' s lyrical affectations provoked comment from American reviewers in particular . Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone remarked that there were " lots of ' Ye 's ' to remind us it 's a ballad " , but identified the song as part of the album 's " musical core " , the " brooding essays on living , loving , and dying " . Village Voice contributor Nicholas Schaffner recognised it as an " olde English ballad " dedicated to what he mistakenly called " George 's 17th @-@ century castle " . To the NME 's Alan Smith , the track was a " meandering song @-@ tale ... which may take a little longer for me to appreciate " . Acknowledging that listeners in 1970 – 71 might have been " mystified " by Harrison 's lyrics , Bruce Spizer has written of this " catchy ballad " : " its beautiful melody and hook @-@ laden refrain ensured that it would be one of the album 's highlights . "
More recently , Clayson has described " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as " [ c ] ouched in mediaeval expression " and the most " Beatle @-@ esque " of all the songs found on All Things Must Pass , featuring an arrangement that is " a breath of fresh air " . Former Mojo editor Mat Snow also acknowledges the cryptic quality of the lyrics – " unless one happened to know that George and Pattie had just moved to ... a magnificent Gothic pile near Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames " – and considers the song " hauntingly beautiful " . Less impressed , in The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham deems the track " drearily whimsical " and an example of how " the main song set [ on All Things Must Pass ] dips in the middle " .
Along with his description of it as a " rolling filmic snapshot " of Friar Park , Simon Leng views " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as a " musical companion piece " to Feinstein 's album cover image : " [ The song ] conjures an allegorical dream world , populated by smirking gnomes ... a disembodied Victorian lawyer , and , in George Harrison , a refugee from the world 's attention . " Leng sees Harrison 's 1976 film clip for " Crackerbox Palace " as " the celluloid realization of the ' Let it Roll ' script " . Scott Janovitz likewise views the track as " a tour of the grounds " while praising its " darkly beautiful " melody . " Like no other Harrison song , " Janovitz adds , " ' The Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ' offers a glimpse of the true George Harrison – at once mystical , humorous , solitary , playful , and serious . "
= = Subsequent releases and cover versions = =
The title of Harrison 's only career @-@ spanning compilation album , Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison ( 2009 ) , was derived from " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " , which also appears on the album . Shortly after Harrison 's death on 29 November 2001 , My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James recorded the track for his EP of George Harrison cover songs , Tribute To , issued in August 2009 .
In 2010 , the producers of CBS 's situation comedy How I Met Your Mother used " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as a musical theme bookending season 6 of the show . Coinciding with the release of Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , a version of the song by Alessi 's Ark appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
Los Angeles band Big Black Delta and Harrison 's son Dhani performed " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " on the US television show Conan in September 2014 . The performance was part of a week @-@ long promotion for George Harrison 's The Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who performed on the recording are believed to be as follows :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Pete Drake – pedal steel
Bobby Whitlock – piano
Billy Preston – organ
Gary Wright – electric piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Alan White – drums
uncredited – tambourine
= The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz =
The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz is a 2005 American @-@ Canadian television film directed by Kirk Thatcher and starring Ashanti and The Muppets with supporting roles done by Jeffrey Tambor , Quentin Tarantino , David Alan Grier , and Queen Latifah . The film was produced by Bill Barretta and written by Debra Frank , Steve L. Hayes , Tom Martin , and Adam F. Goldberg based on a story by Frank and Hayes .
A modernized adaptation of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz , the story follows young Dorothy Gale , who works in her Aunt Em 's diner , but dreams of becoming a singer somewhere beyond her small Kansas town . Swept up by a tornado , in her trailer home with pet prawn Toto , she lands in Oz and embarks on a journey to meet the Wizard who can help make her dreams come true .
The film co @-@ produced by The Muppets Studio , Touchstone Television , and Fox Television Studios , in association with The Jim Henson Company . Right after Disney bought the rights to The Muppets in 2004 , pre @-@ production on The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz took place throughout February 2004 , and filming occurred during September 2004 . ABC made several changes to the film after the initial script was written , ultimately deciding to adapt plot elements from Baum 's original novel rather than the 1939 MGM film , The Wizard of Oz . As with the preceding Muppet films , The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz became a musical , and included five new songs written and composed by Michael Giacchino . The production marked the feature film debut of Eric Jacobson as the performer of Sam Eagle , a character originally performed by Frank Oz .
The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz premiered on April 27 , 2005 at the Tribeca Film Festival . The film 's television premiere was broadcast on ABC on May 20 , 2005 , as the final ABC Movie of the Week . Overall , the film ended up receiving negative reviews from critics . Most critics agreed that the film was too mature for young audiences , and that the cameo scenes and popular culture references were unnecessary .
= = Plot = =
Dorothy Gale ( Ashanti ) is an orphaned teenage girl living in a trailer park in Kansas . Her Aunt Em ( Queen Latifah ) and Uncle Henry ( David Alan Grier ) own a diner , to which Dorothy works for room and board . Her dream of becoming a singer is slim , but when waiting on some truckers Dorothy overhears that the Muppets are conducting a cross @-@ country show called " Star Hunt " and are looking for a backup singer . Aunt Em disapproves , but with Uncle Henry 's best wishes , she goes to the audition . However , the Muppets are about to end the audition , and Dorothy only manages to give them a demo CD that she created beforehand . In returning home , the civil defense sirens sound as a tornado is headed for Dorothy 's trailer park . When Aunt Em and Uncle Henry run into the county storm shelter for safety , Dorothy hurries back to her family 's mobile home to get Toto , her pet prawn . She does not make it out in time , and the two are swept by the tornado across the vast fields of Kansas . When Dorothy climbs out of the wreckage , she finds that Toto ( Pepé the King Prawn ) can talk and that she is no longer in Kansas .
Dorothy and Toto discover that they are in Munchkinland , a small town part of the vast Land of Oz . After discussing her situation with the town 's people , the Munchkins ( played by Rizzo the Rat and the other rats ) , she learns that the land 's ruler the Wizard , has the power to grant her wish of becoming a famous singer . She meets the Good Witch of the North ( Miss Piggy ) , and receives a pair of magic silver slippers from the Wicked Witch of the East ( Miss Piggy ) , the Witch of the North 's sister who was killed when Dorothy 's trailer fell on her . Soon after , she embarks on a journey with Toto on the yellow brick road to meet the Wizard of Oz , who lives in the Emerald City , the capital of Oz . On her journey , she meets three creatures : a Scarecrow ( Kermit ) , a Tin Thing ( Gonzo ) , and a Cowardly Lion ( Fozzie ) . They are also seeking the Wizard of Oz to give them a brain , heart , and courage , respectively . The group meets various obstacles involving a deep gorge where the Kalidah Critics ( Statler and Waldorf ) are heckling them and a Poppy Field Club run by Clifford which nearly puts them to sleep . After arriving at the Emerald City and meeting the Wizard , Dorothy and her friends are sent to retrieve the Wicked Witch of the West 's magic eye , a tool she uses to see anything she desires in the Land of Oz .
The group assumes that completing this task will result in the granting of their wishes . The Wicked Witch of the West ( Miss Piggy ) sees them coming and consults with her pet Foo @-@ Foo and her henchman Johnny Fiama . When the Wicked Witch of the West plans to have either her pack of 40 great man @-@ eating wolves , a flock of 40 crows of despair , a swarm of angry black bees , a group of vicious squirrels , or a group of bloodthirsty cockatoos to do away with them , Johnny tells her that the animals that work for her are unavailable due to various reasons . This forces her to resort to using her Magic Biker Cap to call Sal Minella and the other Flying Monkeys ( played by Sweetums , Crazy Harry , Black Dog , Calico , Old Tom , Spotted Dick , and Aretha from Fraggle Rock ) to deal with them . The Witch and the Flying Monkeys capture Dorothy and Lion while Scarecrow and Tin Thing are dismantled by the Flying Monkeys .
After being threatened to be killed by her , Toto calls the Munchkins , who set Dorothy free and hold up the witch . During the final battle , it cuts away to a scene where Quentin Tarantino is with Kermit , discussing ideas for how Dorothy can defeat the Wicked Witch of the West . Tarantino 's ideas are deemed too expensive and too violent for a Muppet movie , so they agree for Dorothy to do a powerful kick on the witch . Cutting back to the action , Dorothy kicks the witch into her own " bottled water bath " which contains tap water ( to which she is severely allergic ) . Angel Marie admitted that he filled the water bottles with tap water to restock them . This action causes the Wicked Witch of the West to melt as Johnny averts Foo @-@ Foo 's eyes . With the Wicked Witch of the West dead , Dorothy finds the magic eye unharmed and floating in the tub and grabs it .
Dorothy gains control of the Flying Monkeys by giving back the group 's Magic Biker Cap to Sal Minella . She has Scarecrow and Tin Thing rebuilt by the Flying Monkeys . Then she and her friends travel back to the Emerald City to have their wishes granted . When they all storm into the Wizard 's room , they discover it is merely a Hollywood effects stage and that the Wizard ( Jeffrey Tambor ) is just an ordinary man , pretending . He asked for the witch 's eye so that she could not see him for who he really was . Even so , he still proceeds to grant their wishes . Dorothy finally becomes a singer in the Land of Oz , but she realizes that all she ever really wanted was to go back home and be with her family . After traveling back to Munchkinland , she meets Glinda the Good Witch of the South ( Miss Piggy ) , who tells her that if she clicks her heels together three times , she will be able to go anywhere she desires , contrary to how the Good Witch of the North said to get to the Emerald City . She does so , saying " take me home to Aunt Em " .
She is then spun by the slippers ' charm into Kansas , and , much to her surprise , she finds out that Kermit was looking for her , saying that she had the best voice they heard on the whole search , and that she has been chosen to go on the Star Hunt . Dorothy , having been reunited with her aunt and uncle , and feeling that she is not ready to leave Kansas to become a real star , rejects , but Aunt Em says that she wants her to go with the Muppets on their Star Hunt , much to her even bigger surprise . She then sings " Good Life " on television with them as the film ends .
= = Cast = =
Ashanti as Dorothy Gale : A Kansas teen dreaming of leaving her home and becoming a singer .
Queen Latifah as Aunt Em : Dorothy 's aunt and co @-@ owner of the family diner in Kansas .
David Alan Grier as Uncle Henry : Dorothy 's uncle and co @-@ owner of the family diner .
Jeffrey Tambor as The Wizard of Oz : The legendary Wizard of Oz . This is Tambor 's second appearance in a Muppet film , the first being Muppets from Space .
Quentin Tarantino as Himself ( Extended version ) : In a short appearance with Kermit the Frog , Tarantino discusses ideas on how to stop the Wicked Witch of the West . Despite the fact that his role is small his name is still mentioned in the movie trailer and listed on the cover of both the Video and DVD .
Kelly Osbourne as Dorothy Gale ( post @-@ makeover ) ( Extended version ) : Appears in a brief cameo as Dorothy when she first comes out of the Magic Makeover Machine in Emerald City .
= = = Muppet performers = = =
Steve Whitmire as :
Kermit the Frog as Himself / Scarecrow : A scarecrow in search of a brain . Scarecrow is constantly mocked by the crows in Oz , as he is defenseless and cannot do anything to stop them . Prior to Dorothy 's journey , Kermit organizes a talent scout for a star for a new show . After Dorothy 's return , he hires her .
Beaker : He appears as an Emerald City Technician . Beaker also appears at the end in the Muppets ' show .
Rizzo the Rat as Mayor of Munchkinland / Himself . He occasionally aids Dorothy when she is in danger . Prior to Dorothy 's journey , Rizzo is seen assisting Bean Bunny in loading equipment into the Muppets ' bus . He returns for the Muppets ' show at the end of the film .
Statler as Kalidah Critic # 1 . He heckles Dorothy and her friends as they try to cross a log .
Dave Goelz as :
The Great Gonzo as the Tin Thing / Himself : A robot in search of a heart . Originally human , the Tin Thing was turned into a robot by the Wicked Witch of the West who was angry at him for asking to leave her palace and marry his fiancée , Camilla the Chicken . He also appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .
Dr. Bunsen Honeydew : He appears as an Emerald City Technician . He also appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .
Waldorf as Kalidah Critic # 2 . He and the other Kalidah Critic heckles Dorothy and her friends as they try to cross a log .
Zoot : He performs backup for the songs " Naptime " , and for the " The Witch is in the House " , and appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' new show .
Bill Barretta as :
Pepé the King Prawn as Toto : Dorothy 's pet prawn and first companion on her journey . In Kansas , Toto was a prawn that lived in a fish bowl in Dorothy 's room . Strangely , Pepé doesn 't appear in the finale with the other Muppets .
Dr. Teeth : He performs " Naptime " , and also performs in " The Witch is in the House " . He appears again at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .
Johnny Fiama : He appears as one of the henchmen of the Wicked Witch of the West , and is supposedly her love interest .
Lew Zealand : He briefly appears in Emerald City at the red carpet event , asking Dorothy to sign his boomerang fish .
The Swedish Chef : He provides the Bran Flakes for the Wizard .
Bubba the Rat : He assists the Mayor of Munchkin Land in getting Dorothy and the Lion out of Poppyfields .
Eric Jacobson as :
Miss Piggy as Herself : She appears early on with Kermit , and tries to get rid of Dorothy . She returns at the end of the film for the Muppets ' show .
as The Wicked Witch of the West : The Wicked Witch that terrifies all that meet her .
as The Tattypoo the Good Witch of the North : The Good Witch that gives Dorothy the silver slippers .
as The Glinda the Good Witch of the South : The other Good Witch that shows Dorothy how to get home .
as The Wicked Witch of the East : The original owner of the magic slippers who was killed by Dorothy 's falling mobile home .
Fozzie Bear as The Cowardly Bear / Himself : A nervous and frightened lion stand @-@ up comic that accompanies Dorothy and the others on their journey . Fozzie shows up at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .
Animal : He performs in the songs " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .
Sam Eagle : He appears as the Guardian of the Gates . Sam doesn 't appear in the Muppets ' show at the end of the film .
Brian Henson as :
Sal Manilla as Sal , a Flying Monkey : He accompanies Johnny for much of the film .
Kevin Clash as :
Clifford : He appears as the manager of the Poppy Field Club .
Mulch : He appears briefly in Poppyfields .
Black Dog as a Flying Monkey
John Kennedy as :
Angel Marie as a Flying Monkey : A servant of the Wicked Witch of the West .
Floyd Pepper : He performs in " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .
Rickey Boyd as :
Scooter : He appears as the Wizard 's Assistant .
Crazy Harry as a Flying Monkey
Tyler Bunch as :
Janice : She performs in " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .
Old Tom as a Flying Monkey
Pop and Treelo
Julianne Buescher as
Wizard 's Green Lady and Chicken Forms
John Henson as
Sweetums as a Flying Monkey : He provides the keys for the Cowardly Lion 's escape from his cage .
Mike Quinn as
Spotted Dick as a Flying Monkey
Allan Trautman as
Crow : He bothers the Scarecrow .
Old Tom as a Flying Monkey
Alice Dinnean as :
Camilla the Chicken : The Tin Thing 's girlfriend . The two are reunited later on in the film .
Foo @-@ Foo : Foo @-@ Foo appears as the pet of the Wicked Witch of the West .
Additional Muppets performed by Adam Behr , Jeny Cassidy , Drew Massey , Gord Robertson , Geoff Redknap , and James Rowley .
Steve Whitmire and Dave Goelz appear as audience members at Aunt Em 's Diner during the finale .
= = Production = =
When The Walt Disney Company acquired the Muppets franchise from The Jim Henson Company in February 2004 , the Muppets were re @-@ introduced to the public by marketing products and guest appearing on television shows such as Good Morning America and America 's Funniest Home Videos . After a new film titled The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz was announced by The Jim Henson Company , Fox Television Studios , Touchstone Television , and the Muppets Holding Company signed on to help produce it .
Filming took place throughout September 2004 in Vancouver , British Columbia . Before filming , ABC announced that the production would adapt elements from the original 1900 book , rather than the 1939 film. such as the Silver Shoes instead of the Ruby slippers . On August 25 , 2004 , it was announced that Hilary Duff , Jessica Simpson , and Ashanti had auditioned for the role of Dorothy Gale , but Ashanti had won the part . When asked about how she felt about working with the Muppets , Ashanti replied , " I love children , and to me , the Muppets are just like little kids . " She also stated , " The director had to give me a few pointers and tips for acting with them , but the most important thing that I learned was to keep eye contact . " Also in August 2004 , BBC News reported that Quentin Tarantino would appear in the film .
= = Music = =
Michael Giacchino , who had previously worked on a Muppet @-@ related project which is video game Muppet Monster Adventure and would become an Academy Award @-@ winning composer , worked with Jeannie Lurie , Adam Cohen , Debra Frank , and Steve Hayes to write five original songs for the film . The five songs created were " Kansas " , " When I 'm With You " , " It 's a Good Life " , " The Witch is in the House " , and " Nap Time " . " When I 'm With You " was later nominated for a Primetime Emmy in the Outstanding Music and Lyrics category , but lost to " Mary Jane / Mary Lane " from Reefer Madness . Ashanti and the Muppet cast , mainly Bill Barretta and Eric Jacobson , contributed the vocals for each of the songs . Ted Kryczko produced the album , Booker T. Washington White prepared the songs for recording , and Paul Silveira and Brandon Christy mixed the film 's songs .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz official soundtrack was released on May 17 , 2005 . The album was an enhanced soundtrack titled Best of Muppets featuring The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz as it was not a film @-@ specific soundtrack , but an album featuring the Muppets ' best songs from The Muppet Show as well as songs from the film .
Track listing
" ( Gotta Get Outta ) Kansas " - Ashanti
" When I 'm With You " – Ashanti , Kermit , Gonzo , Fozzie & Pepe
" The Witch Is in the House " – Miss Piggy with Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem
" Calling All Munchkins " – The Munchkin Tap @-@ Your @-@ Knuckles Choir
" Good Life " – Ashanti
" Nap Time " – Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem
" The Muppet Show Theme " – The Muppets
" Mah Nà Mah Nà " – Mahna Mahna & the Two Snowths
" Bein ' Green " – Kermit the Frog
" Rainbow Connection " – Kermit & Muppets With Sesame Street Gang
" Lady of Spain " – Marvin Suggs & his Muppaphone
" Halfway Down the Stairs " – Kermit & Robin
" What Now My Love ? " – Miss Piggy
" Tenderly " – Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem
" Happy Feet " – Kermit and the Frog Chorus
= = Release = =
The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz premiered on April 27 , 2005 at the Tribeca Film Festival . The television premiere was on May 20 , 2005 at 8 : 00pm on ABC in the US , where it was rated TV @-@ PG . It aired in Canada on CBC Television , and in the UK on December 18 , 2005 . In the US , the film 's official soundtrack was released on May 17 , 2005 . Buena Vista Home Entertainment released the DVD and VHS in both the US and in international territories . The film was released to Region 1 DVD and VHS on August 9 , 2005 . The Canadian Home Video Classification System rated the film G for all home video releases within Canadian territories . The Region 2 DVD was released on April 3 , 2006 . The film was rated U by the British Board of Film Classification , K @-@ 3 in Finland , and G in Australia . The DVD and VHS were released under the title Extended Version in the US and Anniversary Edition outside the US . The extended version contains 20 minutes of footage cut from the feature film , including the footage of the Kelly Osbourne and Quentin Tarantino cameos . The DVD and VHS included an extended interview with Quentin Tarantino , a blooper reel , and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at the film guided by Pepe the Prawn . In the US , the DVD and VHS release of the film was in a 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ( fullscreen ) aspect ratio , whereas the international versions are in the original 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ( widescreen ) aspect ratio . During Macy 's annual Flower Show promotion , the store 's windows along Broadway displayed flower arrangements illustrating six scenes from the movie , while the store sold The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz @-@ related merchandise , such as plush dolls .
= = = Critical reception = = =
7 @.@ 75 million viewers watched The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz on its television premiere night in the United States ; it ranked as the forty @-@ second most @-@ watched television program of the week . Michael Schneider of Variety wrote that it " performed solidly ... particularly with adults 18 – 34 , teens and kids . " The film received negative reviews from critics . At Rotten Tomatoes , the movie currently holds a 38 % " rotten " rating , with an average of three out of eight critics giving the film a positive review .
For the film 's positive response , Kevin Carr stated that " When you dig down and actually find ( and watch ) the new Muppet material , some of the magic is still there . " MaryAnn Johanson of Flick Filosopher said that , " It 's not on a par with the Muppet movie madness of old , but it 's darn close . " According to the Bums Corner 's review the film was a " treat for all ages , and that it was a colorful , musical , humorous romp . " Keith Allen of Movie Rapture gave the film 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 3 , explaining that the film 's humor was surprisingly clever , and that the film would frequently make you laugh . Mutant Reviewers commented that although the Muppet deal with Walt Disney was " disappointing " , the film managed to be funny and witty .
For the film 's " negative " response , David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews warned that the film was " strictly for kids " Nusair stated that although Ashanti can sing , she cannot act . Joshua Tyler of Cinema Blend explained that Dorothy visiting the Wizard of Oz to become a star instead of going back home was a big mistake , and that it showed how shallow society has become . R.J. Carter of The Trades gave the film a B- , also stating that Dorothy 's wish to become a star was a selfish one . Ultimate Disney 's review found that the extended version of the film did more harm than good ; Andy Dursin of The Aisle Seat said that the original film was " dull " and that the extended version was actually an improvement . Cold Fusion Video felt that although the film was entertaining , it lacked the heart and wit of Jim Henson 's Muppet films . Bryan Pope of DVD Verdict said that the film drained the Muppets of their spirit and was slightly gratuitous . Techtite TV reviews felt that the film was done poorly on all levels , and that the film was on the higher end of TV @-@ PG .
Other reviewers felt that the film 's attempt to appeal to an older , more mature audience was ultimately a bad idea . Kerry Bennett of Parent Previews warned that it sometimes steered " dangerously off course " due to an excess of sexual content and violence . Referential humor to the marriage of Jennifer Lopez , Manolo Blahnik style silver shoes , and films such as Girls Gone Wild , The Passion of the Christ , Apocalypse Now , and Kill Bill : Volume 1 were seen as too mature . Cold Fusion Video judged the Kelly Osbourne cameo as " pointless " . Dursin contrasted the two guest appearances and found that the Tarantino cameo dragged the film down . Critics were split on the merits of ABC 's modernized adaptation to rely on plot elements from the original novel instead of the iconic 1939 film .
= Mourning dove =
The mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) is a member of the dove family , Columbidae . The bird is also known as the turtle dove , American mourning dove or the rain dove , and was once known as the Carolina pigeon or Carolina Turtledove . It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds . It is also a leading gamebird , with more than 20 million birds ( up to 70 million in some years ) shot annually in the U.S. , both for sport and for meat . Its ability to sustain its population under such pressure is due to its prolific breeding ; in warm areas , one pair may raise up to six broods of two young each in a single year . The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take @-@ off and landing , a form of sonation . The bird is a strong flier , capable of speeds up to 88 km / h ( 55 mph ) .
Mourning doves are light grey and brown and generally muted in color . Males and females are similar in appearance . The species is generally monogamous , with two squabs ( young ) per brood . Both parents incubate and care for the young . Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds , but the young are fed crop milk by their parents .
= = Taxonomy = =
The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove ( Zenaida auriculata ) and the Socorro dove ( Zenaida graysoni ) . Some authorities describe them as forming a superspecies and these three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genus Zenaidura , but the current classification has them as separate species in the genus Zenaida . In addition , the Socorro dove has at times been considered conspecific with the mourning dove , although several differences in behavior , call , and appearance justify separation as two different species . While the three species do form a subgroup of Zenaida , using a separate genus would interfere with the monophyly of Zenaida by making it paraphyletic .
There are five subspecies of mourning dove :
Eastern Z. m. carolinensis ( Linnaeus , 1766 )
Clarion Island Z. m. clarionensis ( C.H.Townsend , 1890 )
West Indian Z. m. macroura ( Linnaeus , 1758 )
Western Z. m. marginella ( Woodhouse , 1852 )
Panama Z. m. turturilla Wetmore , 1956
The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap a little , with three in the United States or Canada . The West Indian subspecies is found throughout the Greater Antilles . It has recently invaded the Florida Keys . The eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America , as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas . The western subspecies is found in western North America , including parts of Mexico . The Panamanian subspecies is located in Central America . The Clarion Island subspecies is found only on Clarion Island , just off the Pacific coast of Mexico .
The mourning dove is sometimes called the " American mourning dove " to distinguish it from the distantly related mourning collared dove ( Streptopelia decipiens ) of Africa . It was also formerly known as the " Carolina turtledove " and the " Carolina pigeon " . The genus name was bestowed in 1838 by French zoologist Charles L. Bonaparte in honor of his wife , Princess Zénaide , and macroura is from Ancient Greek makros , " long " and oura , " tail " . The " mourning " part of its common name comes from its call .
The mourning dove was thought to be the passenger pigeon 's closest living relative , based on morphological grounds . The mourning dove was even suggested to belong to the same genus , Ectopistes , and was listed by some authors as E. carolinensis .
= = Distribution = =
The mourning dove has a large range of nearly 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The species is resident throughout the Greater Antilles , most of Mexico , the Continental United States , and southern Canada . Much of the Canadian prairie sees these birds in summer only , and southern Central America sees them in winter only . The species is a vagrant in northern Canada , Alaska , and South America . It has been spotted as an accidental at least seven times in the Western Palearctic with records from the British Isles ( 5 ) , the Azores ( 1 ) and Iceland ( 1 ) . In 1963 , the mourning dove was introduced to Hawaii , and in 1998 there was still a small population in North Kona . The mourning dove also appeared on Socorro Island , off the western coast of Mexico , in 1988 , sixteen years after the Socorro dove was extirpated from that island .
= = Description = =
The mourning dove is a medium @-@ sized , slender dove approximately 31 cm ( 12 in ) in length . Mourning doves weigh 112 – 170 g ( 4 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 oz ) , usually closer to 128 g ( 4 @.@ 5 oz ) . The elliptical wings are broad , and the head is rounded . Its tail is long and tapered ( " macroura " comes from the Greek words for " large " and " tail " ) . Mourning doves have perching feet , with three toes forward and one reversed . The legs are short and reddish colored . The beak is short and dark , usually a brown @-@ black hue .
The plumage is generally light gray @-@ brown and lighter and pinkish below . The wings have black spotting , and the outer tail feathers are white , contrasting with the black inners . Below the eye is a distinctive crescent @-@ shaped area of dark feathers . The eyes are dark , with light skin surrounding them . The adult male has bright purple @-@ pink patches on the neck sides , with light pink coloring reaching the breast . The crown of the adult male is a distinctly bluish @-@ grey color . Females are similar in appearance , but with more brown coloring overall and a little smaller than the male . The iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders are nearly absent , but can be quite vivid on males . Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance , and are generally darker .
All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable . The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings , and is darker and more buff @-@ colored than the " average " mourning dove . Z. m. carolinensis has longer wings and toes , a shorter beak , and is darker in color . The western subspecies has longer wings , a longer beak , shorter toes , and is more muted and lighter in color . The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs , a longer beak , and is grayer in color . The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet , a larger beak , and is darker brown in color .
= = Habitat = =
The mourning dove occupies a wide variety of open and semi @-@ open habitats , such as urban areas , farms , prairie , grassland , and lightly wooded areas . It avoids swamps and thick forest . The species has adapted well to areas altered by humans . They commonly nest in trees in cities or near farmsteads .
= = Migration = =
Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land . On rare occasions , mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico , but this is exceptional . Spring migration north runs from March to May . Fall migration south runs from September to November , with immatures moving first , followed by adult females and then by adult males . Migration is usually during the day , in flocks , and at low altitudes . However , not all individuals migrate . Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter , sustained by the presence of bird feeders .
= = Sounds = =
This species ' call is a distinctive , plaintive cooOOoo @-@ woo @-@ woo @-@ woooo , uttered by males to attract females , and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first . ( Close up , a grating or throat @-@ rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo . ) Other sounds include a nest call ( cooOOoo ) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites , a greeting call ( a soft ork ) by males upon rejoining their mates , and an alarm call ( a short roo @-@ oo ) by either male or female when threatened . In flight , the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear . The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take @-@ off and landing .
= = Reproduction = =
Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male , followed by a graceful , circular glide with outstretched wings and head down . After landing , the male will approach the female with a puffed @-@ out breast , bobbing head , and loud calls . Mated pairs will often preen each other 's feathers .
The male then leads the female to potential nest sites , and the female will choose one . The female dove builds the nest . The male will fly about , gather material , and bring it to her . The male will stand on the female 's back and give the material to the female , who then builds it into the nest . The nest is constructed of twigs , conifer needles , or grass blades , and is of flimsy construction . Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves , other birds , or arboreal mammals such as squirrels .
Most nests are in trees , both deciduous and coniferous . Sometimes , they can be found in shrubs , vines , or on artificial constructs like buildings , or hanging flower pots . When there is no suitable elevated object , mourning doves will nest on the ground .
See link below for : courtship dance and mating .
The clutch size is almost always two eggs . Occasionally , however , a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair , leading to three or four eggs in the nest . The eggs are white , 6 @.@ 6 ml ( 0 @.@ 23 imp fl oz ; 0 @.@ 22 US fl oz ) , 2 @.@ 57 – 2 @.@ 96 cm ( 1 @.@ 01 – 1 @.@ 17 in ) long , 2 @.@ 06 – 2 @.@ 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 81 – 0 @.@ 91 in ) wide , 6 – 7 g ( 0 @.@ 21 – 0 @.@ 25 oz ) at laying ( 5 – 6 % of female body mass ) . Both sexes incubate , the male from morning to afternoon , and the female the rest of the day and at night . Mourning doves are devoted parents ; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults . When flushed from the nest , an incubating parent may perform a nest @-@ distraction display , or a broken @-@ wing display , fluttering on the ground as if injured , then flying away when the predator approaches it .
Incubation takes two weeks . The hatched young , called squabs , are strongly altricial , being helpless at hatching and covered with down . Both parents feed the squabs pigeon 's milk ( dove 's milk ) for the first 3 – 4 days of life . Thereafter , the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds . Fledging takes place in about 11 – 15 days , before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food . They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging .
Mourning doves are prolific breeders . In warmer areas , these birds may raise up to six broods in a season . This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high . Each year , mortality can reach 58 % a year for adults and 69 % for the young .
The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds . Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season , and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter . However , lone doves will find new partners if necessary .
= = Ecology = =
Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds , which make up more than 99 % of their diet . Rarely , they will eat snails or insects . Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting . They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion . The species usually forages on the ground , walking but not hopping . At bird feeders , mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird , with a preference for canola , corn , millet , safflower , and sunflower seeds . Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds , though they will push aside ground litter ; instead they eat what is readily visible . They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there .
Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others . Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts , sweetgum seeds , and the seeds of pokeberry , amaranth , canary grass , corn , sesame , and wheat . When their favorite foods are absent , mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants , including buckwheat , rye , goosegrass and smartweed .
Mourning doves can be afflicted with several different parasites and diseases , including tapeworms , nematodes , mites , and lice . The mouth @-@ dwelling parasite Trichomonas gallinae is particularly severe . While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms , it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually starve the host to death . Avian pox is a common , insect @-@ vectored disease .
The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey , such as falcons and hawks . During nesting , corvids , grackles , housecats , or rat snakes will prey on their eggs . Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests . Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests , and the mourning dove 's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds .
= = Behavior = =
Like other columbids , the mourning dove drinks by suction , without lifting or tilting its head . It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk .
Mourning doves sunbathe or rainbathe by lying on the ground or on a flat tree limb , leaning over , stretching one wing , and keeping this posture for up to twenty minutes . These birds can also waterbathe in shallow pools or bird baths . Dustbathing is common as well .
Outside the breeding season , mourning doves roost communally in dense deciduous trees or in conifers . During sleep , the head rests between the shoulders , close to the body ; it is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as in many other species . During the winter in Canada , roosting flights to the roosts in the evening , and out of the roosts in the morning , are delayed on colder days .
= = Conservation status = =
The number of individual mourning doves is estimated to be approximately 475 million . The large population and its vast range explain why the mourning dove is considered to be of least concern , meaning that the species is not at immediate risk . As a gamebird , the mourning dove is well @-@ managed , with more than 20 million ( and up to 40 – 70 million ) shot by hunters each year .
= = As a symbol and in the arts = =
The eastern mourning dove ( Z. m. carolinensis ) is Wisconsin 's official symbol of peace . The bird is also Michigan 's state bird of peace .
The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle @-@ dove on plate 286 of Audubon 's Birds of America .
References to mourning doves appear frequently in Native American literature . Mourning dove imagery also turns up in contemporary American and Canadian poetry in the work of poets as diverse as Robert Bly , Jared Carter , Lorine Niedecker , and Charles Wright .
= = Closest related species = =
The mourning dove is a related species to the passenger pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius ) , which was hunted to extinction in the early 1900s . For this reason , the possibility of using mourning doves for cloning the passenger pigeon has been discussed .
= Prince Alfred of Great Britain =
The Prince Alfred ( 22 September 1780 – 20 August 1782 ) was a member of the British Royal Family as the 14th child and 9th son of King George III and his queen consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . Alfred became ill after his inoculation against the smallpox virus ; his early death at the age of nearly two , along with the demise of his brother Prince Octavius six months later , was a shock to their parents . In his later bouts of madness King George would have imagined conversations with both of his youngest sons .
= = Life = =
Prince Alfred was born , on 22 September 1780 , at Windsor Castle , Windsor , England . His father was King George III , his mother Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . The prince was baptised by Frederick Cornwallis , The Archbishop of Canterbury , in the Great Council Chamber at St James 's Palace on 21 October 1780 . His godparents were The Prince of Wales ( his eldest brother ) , The Prince Frederick ( his second brother ) and The Princess Royal ( his eldest sister ) . As his parents ' fourteenth child and ninth son , his birth was no surprise but it did bring joy to his family , especially to his older sister Sophia , who , their sister Elizabeth reported , called the new baby her " grandson " .
= = = Death and aftermath = = =
In 1782 , Prince Alfred was inoculated against smallpox . The sickness proved too much for the baby and in June he was taken to Deal with his nurse Lady Charlotte Finch to recover . It was hoped that the sea air , bathing in the water , and horseback riding would improve his condition . While he was there , Alfred endeared himself to many , including an old woman whom he waved to . In spite of his charming disposition , he continued to break out in spots and his chest was troubling him . When he returned to Windsor in August 1782 , the doctors inspected him and realized that the boy had only weeks to live . After suffering bouts of fever and continuing problems with his chest , Prince Alfred died on 20 August 1782 , at Windsor Castle , Berkshire , not even two years old .
Although the household did not go into mourning ( it was not prescribed for royal children younger than fourteen ) , his parents took the loss harshly . According to Lady Charlotte Finch , the Queen " cried vastly " and was " very much hurt by her loss and the King also . " Alfred was buried at Westminster Abbey , though his remains were later moved to the Royal Vault in St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle on 11 February 1820 . His father continued to dwell on his death , and the sight of Alfred 's posthumous portrait in a family painting by Thomas Gainsborough nearly a year after Alfred 's death sent his three eldest sisters into tears . Six months after Alfred 's death , his elder brother Octavius succumbed to the smallpox virus , further devastating the king . During one of his bouts of madness in 1812 , George would have imaginary conversations with his two youngest sons .
His youngest sister Princess Amelia was conceived in the months after Alfred 's death , born almost exactly a year after he died . The first of George III and Queen Charlotte 's children to die , Alfred died nearly seventy five years before his older sister Mary , who was the last survivor of George III and Queen Charlotte 's fifteen children . Alfred is also unique among their first fourteen children for never being an older sibling while he was alive , as the only child younger than him was born after his death .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
22 September 1780 – 20 August 1782 : His Royal Highness The Prince Alfred
= = Ancestry = =
= United States Assay Commission =
The United States Assay Commission was an agency of the United States government from 1792 to 1980 . Its function was to supervise the annual testing of the gold , silver , and ( in its final years ) base metal coins produced by the United States Mint to ensure that they met specifications . Although some members were designated by statute , for the most part the commission , which was freshly appointed each year , consisted of prominent Americans , including numismatists . Appointment to the Assay Commission was eagerly sought after , in part because commissioners received a commemorative medal . These medals , different each year , are extremely rare , with the exception of the 1977 issue , which was sold to the general public .
The Mint Act of 1792 authorized the Assay Commission . Beginning in 1797 , it met in most years at the Philadelphia Mint . Each year , the President of the United States appointed unpaid members , who would gather in Philadelphia to ensure the weight and fineness of silver and gold coins issued the previous year were to specifications . In 1971 , the commission met , but for the first time had no gold or silver to test , with the end of silver coinage . Beginning in 1977 , President Jimmy Carter appointed no members of the public to the commission , and in 1980 , he signed legislation abolishing it .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early days ( 1792 – 1873 ) = = =
In January 1791 , Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton submitted a report to Congress proposing the establishment of a mint . Hamilton concluded his report :
The remedy for errors in the weight and alloy of the coins , must necessarily form a part , in the system of a mint ; and the manner of applying it will require to be regulated . The following account is given of the practice in England , in this particular : A certain number of pieces are taken promiscuously out of every fifteen pounds of gold , coined at the Mint , which are deposited , for safe keeping , in a strong box , called the pix [ sic , more commonly " pyx " ] . This box , from time to time , is opened in the presence of the Lord Chancellor , the officers of the Treasury , and others , and portions are selected from the pieces of each coinage , which are melted together , and the mass assayed by a jury of the Company of Goldsmiths ... The expediency of some similar regulation seems to be manifest .
In response to Hamilton 's report , Congress passed the Mint Act of 1792 . In addition to setting the standards for the new nation 's coinage , Congress provided for an American version of the British Trial of the Pyx :
That from every separate mass of standard gold or silver , which shall be made into coins at the said Mint , there shall be taken , set apart by the Treasurer and reserved in his custody a certain number of pieces , not less than three , and that once in every year the pieces so set apart and reserved , shall be assayed under the inspection of the Chief Justice of the United States , the Secretary and Comptroller of the Treasury , the Secretary for the Department of State , and the Attorney General of the United States , ( who are hereby required to attend for that purpose at the said Mint , on the last Monday in July in each year ) ... and if it shall be found that the gold and silver so assayed , shall not be inferior to their respective standards herein before declared more than one part in one hundred and forty @-@ four parts , the officer or officers of the said Mint whom it may concern shall be held excusable ; but if any greater inferiority shall appear , it shall be certified to the President of the United States , and the said officer or officers shall be deemed disqualified to hold their respective offices .
The following January , Congress passed legislation changing the date on which the designated officials met to the second Monday in February . Meetings did not take place immediately ; the Mint was not yet striking gold or silver . Minting of silver began in 1794 and gold in 1795 , and some coins were saved for assay : the first Mint document mentioning assay pieces is from January 1796 and indicates that exactly $ 80 in silver had been put aside . The first assay commissioners did not meet until Monday , March 20 , 1797 , a month later than the prescribed date . Once they did , annual meetings took place each year until 1980 , except in 1817 as there had been no gold or silver struck since the last meeting ( until 1837 , the commission examined the coins since the last testing , rather than for a particular calendar year ) .
In 1801 , the usual meeting was delayed , causing Mint Director Elias Boudinot to complain to President John Adams that depositors were anxious for an audit so the Mint could release coins struck from their bullion . Numismatist Fred Reed suggested that the delay was probably due to poor weather , making it difficult for officials to travel from the new capital of Washington , D.C. , to Philadelphia for the assay . In response , on March 3 , 1801 , Congress changed the designation of officials required to attend to " the district judge of Pennsylvania , the attorney for the United States in the district of Pennsylvania , and the commissioner of loans for the State of Pennsylvania " . The meeting finally took place on April 27 , 1801 . The 1806 and 1815 sessions were delayed because of outbreaks of disease in Philadelphia ; the one in 1812 was held a month late because of a heavy snowstorm which prevented the commissioners from reaching the Mint . No meeting took place in 1817 ; a fire had damaged the Philadelphia Mint in January 1816 , and no gold or silver awaited the commission . In 1818 , Congress substituted the Collector of the Port of Philadelphia for the Pennsylvania loans commissioner as a member of the Assay Commission . With the Coinage Act of 1834 , Congress removed the automatic disqualification of Mint officers in the event of an unfavorable assay , leaving the decision to the president .
The Mint Act of 1837 established the Assay Commission in the form it would have for most of the remainder of its existence . It provided that " an annual trial shall be made of the pieces reserved for this purpose [ i.e. , set aside for the assay ] at the Mint and its branches , before the judge of the district court of the United States , for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , the attorney of the United States , for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , and the collector of the port of Philadelphia , and such other persons as the President shall , from time to time , designate for that purpose , who shall meet as commissioners , for the performance of this duty , on the second Monday in February , annually " . The usual procedure for members of the public to be named to the commission after public appointments began was for the Mint Director to send the president a list of candidates for his approval . According to Jesse P. Watson in his monograph on the Bureau of the Mint , the admission of members of the public to the Assay Commission meant " that permanency and high official dignity were no longer characteristic of the commission " .
In 1861 , as the American Civil War broke out , North Carolina joined the Confederate States . The Charlotte Mint , taken over by the Confederacy , eventually closed as the dies that had been shipped from the Philadelphia Mint wore out , and it could obtain no more . Nevertheless , 12 half eagles ( $ 5 gold coins ) were sent from Charlotte to Philadelphia , through enemy lines , in October 1861 . They were duly tested by the 1862 Assay Commission , and were found to be correct .
In 1864 , with the metal nickel , used in the cent in short supply , Mint Director James Pollock asked that year 's commission to opine on a substitute for the copper @-@ nickel used in the cent . The members endorsed French bronze ( 95 % copper and 5 % tin or zinc ) as a metal to be used in the cent and a proposed two @-@ cent piece . Pollock sent the conclusions to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , who forwarded them ( and draft legislation ) to Maine Senator William P. Fessenden , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . The Coinage Act of 1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April 22 , 1864 .
= = = Later years ( 1873 – 1949 ) = = =
The Coinage Act of 1873 revised the laws relating to coinage and the Mint and retired several denominations including the two @-@ cent piece . The act also changed the officers required to serve on the Assay Commission :
That to secure a due conformity in the gold and silver coins to their respective standards of fineness and weight , the judge of the district court of the United States for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , the Comptroller of the Currency , the assayer of the assay @-@ office at New York , and such other persons as the President shall , from time to time , designate , shall meet as assay @-@ commissioners , at the mint in Philadelphia , to examine and test , in the presence of the Director of the Mint , the fineness and weight of the coins reserved by the several mints for this purpose , on the second Wednesday in February , annually .
The act also required the Mint to put aside one of every thousand gold coins struck , and one of every two thousand silver coins for the assay . It provided the procedure for putting the coins aside , sealing them in envelopes , and placing them in a pyx to be opened by the assay commissioners .
The 1881 Assay Commission found that approximately 3 @,@ 000 silver dollars struck at the Carson City Mint ( 1881 @-@ CC ) had been struck in .892 silver rather than the legally mandated .900 . It is unclear if the Treasury took any steps to attempt to recover the issued pieces . The 1885 commission detected a single silver dollar which was 1 @.@ 51 grains ( 0 @.@ 098 g ) below specifications , the permitted tolerance being 1 @.@ 50 grains ( 0 @.@ 097 g ) . In 1921 , the Assay Commission found that some coins struck at the Denver Mint were struck in .905 or .906 silver , above the legal .900 by more than the permitted tolerance . Investigation found that ingots which had been rejected and were intended for melting had instead been used for coin . In the early 20th century , the San Francisco Mint struck silver coins for the Philippines , then a US possession ; those pieces were included in the assay . Proof coins struck by the Mint for collectors were included in the assay ; pieces struck under contract with foreign governments were not .
The pyx was a rosewood box , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) square , of European work , and sealed by heavy padlocks . It was not filled by the coins put aside for the 1934 Assay Commission , of which there were 759 with a total face value of $ 12 @,@ 050 . This had increased by 1940 to 79 @,@ 847 coins , all silver as gold coins were no longer being struck , and by 1941 , many reserved coins could not be kept in the pyx , instead being placed in packing boxes , overflowing with sealed envelopes . By the late 1940s , more than ten million coins were being struck each day at Philadelphia alone ; in 1947 , Congress reduced the number of silver coins required to be put aside for assay from one in 2 @,@ 000 to one in 10 @,@ 000 . This was done at the urging of the Department of the Treasury , as having to store so many assay coins was a burden to the Mint , and it felt that the number of coins available to the commission would still be sufficient .
= = = Final years and abolition ( 1950 – 1980 ) = = =
By the 1950s , there was considerable competition among numismatists to be appointed an assay commissioner . Appointees received no compensation , but the appointment was prestigious and carried with it a prized assay medal . The procedure was changed so that the Mint Director submitted the names of more individuals than would actually be appointed to the White House , where the final choices were made . It remained possible for the director to ask for special consideration for certain individuals . Later nominations were also screened by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and by the IRS . The Mint Director received nominations for assay commissioner from legislators , political organizations , government officials , and from members of the public .
In 1971 , for the first time , the Assay Commission had no silver coins to test ; none were struck by the Mint for circulation in 1970 . Although part @-@ silver Kennedy half dollars were struck in 1970 , they were only for collectors and were not put aside for assay . Commissioners could instead test 21 @,@ 975 dimes and 11 @,@ 098 quarters , all made from copper @-@ nickel clad , though as the Associated Press , reporting on the 1973 Assay Commission , put it , " a discovery of a bum coin hasn 't occurred in years . " Only one in every 100 @,@ 000 clad or silver @-@ clad pieces was put aside for the Assay Commission , and only one in every 200 @,@ 000 dimes . At the 1974 meeting , one copper @-@ nickel Eisenhower dollar was discovered which weighed 15 grains ( 0 @.@ 97 g ) below specification ; after reference to the rules , the coin was deemed barely within guidelines . Numismatist Charles Logan , in his 1979 article about the impending end of the Assay Commission , stated that this incident pointed out " the basic problem with the annual trial . First , the members were not exactly sure how their job was done , or what the requirements were . Second , they really did not want to report a fault in the coinage . Finally , even if the one dollar coin had been found faulty , [ it would have had ] little consequence , except to prompt greater vigilance at the Mint . "
In early 1977 , outgoing Mint Director Mary Brooks sent a list of 117 nominees to the new president , Jimmy Carter , from which it was expected that about two or three dozen names would be selected . Carter refused to make any public appointments , feeling the Assay Commission was unneeded given that the Mint performed the same work through routine internal checks and that the $ 2 @,@ 500 appropriated each year was a poor use of taxpayer money . Only government members served on the Assay Commission in 1977 – 1980 . Even so , hundreds of numismatists applied to be on the 1978 commission . Carter made no appointments that year ; the only members were those designated by statute .
The 1979 meeting , attended by the government @-@ employed commission members and Mint Director Stella Hackel Sims , was held eight days late on February 22 due to schedule conflicts . In June 1979 , Carter 's Presidential Reorganization Project recommended the abolition of the Assay Commission and two other small agencies . The report estimated that having an Assay Commission cost the federal government about $ 20 @,@ 000 and that the work was done better by vending machine manufacturers to avoid having their machines jam . In August , columnist Jack Anderson deemed the commission an example of wasteful spending in Washington , characterizing its activities , " more than a decade ago , the government stopped putting either gold or silver in its coins — but the commission continues to hold its annual luncheon meeting . Solemnly , the commissioners measure the amounts of nonprecious metals in U.S. coins , and strike a medal to commemorate their activities . This useless exercise costs the taxpayers about $ 20 @,@ 000 a year . " As coin collector and columnist Gary Palmer put it in 1979 , " who really cares if the weight of a cupro @-@ nickel quarter is off by a grain or two ? "
On March 14 , 1980 , Carter approved legislation abolishing the Assay Commission , as well as the other two agencies , as recommended by his Reorganization Project . The President wrote in a signing statement that with the end of gold and silver coinage , the need for the commission had diminished . Numismatic leaders objected to the ending of the commission , considering the expense small and the tradition worth keeping , although they concurred the commission " had become an anachronism " . At the time of its abolition , the Assay Commission was the oldest existing government commission . In 2000 and 20 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
dwaffe and personally directed German fighter operations .
Mölders also flew unofficially on missions , and actively commanded his old unit , JG 51 , for several more months . On 9 August 1941 , he took Herbert Kaiser on a " teaching " mission against a formation of Il @-@ 2 Sturmoviks . Mölders showed Kaiser how to shoot them down . He recalled later : " He positioned himself off to one side of @-@ and some distance away from @-@ the last Il @-@ 2 in a formation of six . He then turned in quickly and opened fire at the enemy 's cockpit from an angle of some 30 degrees . The Il @-@ 2 immediately burst into flames and crashed . ' Do you see how it 's done ? ' , Oberst Mölders ' voice came over the R / T. ' Right , now you take the next one . ' I carried out the same manoeuvre and , sure enough , the next Il @-@ 2 went down on fire . ' And again ! ' It was like being on a training flight . Another short burst and the third Il @-@ 2 was ablaze . The whole lesson had lasted no more than 12 minutes ! " In this way , Kaiser scored his 23rd and 24th kills . But because Mölders was officially banned from operational flying , the first Soviet aircraft was never officially credited to him . Within the next two months , it is speculated that Mölders unofficially shot down around another 30 Soviet aircraft . At least six of Mölders ' unofficial victories are recorded in his fellow pilots ' private log books .
= = = Death = = =
On 22 November 1941 , Mölders travelled as a passenger in a Heinkel He 111 of Kampfgeschwader 27 " Boelcke " from the Crimea to Germany to attend the funeral of his superior , Ernst Udet , who had committed suicide . Attempting to land at Breslau during a thunderstorm , the aircraft crashed . Mölders , pilot Oberleutnant Kolbe and flight engineer Oberfeldwebel Hobbie were killed . Major Dr. Wenzel and radio operator Oberfeldwebel Tenz survived the crash landing . Dr. Wenzel sustained a broken arm and leg as well as a concussion , and Tenz a broken ankle . Mölders ' fatal injuries included a broken back and a crushed ribcage . Accident investigators then and since have speculated whether Mölders would have survived the crash if he had used his seat belt .
Mölders was given a state funeral in Berlin on 28 November 1941 . His coffin was laid out in the honour court of the Imperial Air Ministry . The guard of honour consisted of Johann Schalk , Günther Lützow , Walter Oesau , Joachim Müncheberg , Adolf Galland , Wolfgang Falck , Herbert Kaminski and Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . Mölders was buried next to Ernst Udet and Manfred von Richthofen at the Invalidenfriedhof in Berlin . The 8 @.@ 8 cm flak in Berlin Tiergarten fired a salute ; Hermann Göring gave the eulogy .
= = Personal life and character = =
Mölders was well known for his strength of character . His men nicknamed him " Vati " ( Daddy ) , in recognition of his paternal attitude toward them , and the care he took of their well @-@ being . He was a devoutly religious individual who demanded that all Allied aviators captured by those under his command be treated civilly , and often would invite captured pilots to dine with him .
Mölders married Luise Baldauf , née Thurner , the widow of a friend who had been killed in active service , on 13 September 1941 . Erich Klawitter , Mölders ' childhood mentor , performed the religious ceremony in Falkenstein , Taunus . Witnesses to the wedding included Leutnant Erwin Fleig and Oberleutnant Hartmann Grasser . The marriage produced a posthumous daughter , Verena .
Third Reich authorities disapproved of his choice of a Catholic marriage ceremony , performed by Klawitter . Klawitter had been barred from membership in the Reichskulturkammer ( Reich Culture Chamber ) and was considered politically unreliable after a 1936 breach of the Pulpit Law , a remnant of the 1870s Kulturkampf that among other religions barred Catholics from criticizing the state from the pulpit .
= = Legacy = =
Werner Mölders ' old unit , Jagdgeschwader 51 , was renamed " Mölders " in his honour , on 22 November 1941 , only hours after his death . Its members were entitled to wear the " Mölders " cuffband . His death , however , was also put to other uses . Shortly after Mölders died , the British Intelligence agency dropped a flyer over Germany . The so @-@ called Möldersbrief ( Mölders @-@ letter ) was a copy of correspondence supposedly written by Mölders to the provost of Schwerin . In this letter , he expressed his strong belief in Catholicism and stated that , especially in the face of death , many supporters of National Socialism still find strength and courage with Catholicism .
Mölders ' premature death , just shortly after Udet 's own suicide , was too great an opportunity for Sefton Delmer , the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive ( PWE ) , to ignore . His idea was to use Mölders ' popularity in Germany , distributing a letter thus creating the assumption that Mölders strong belief led him to oppose the Nazi regime in Germany . The letter was extremely well conceived . It did not bluntly call for opposition against the state . It never even mentioned the National Socialists by name but rather used metaphors like " the godless " . Nevertheless , every German reader knew what was meant .
The letter caused a stir in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime . In his diaries , Joseph Goebbels , Reich Minister of Propaganda , assumed that someone in the German Catholic church organisation wrote , and distributed , the letter . A bounty of 100 @,@ 000 Reichsmark , posted by the Führer himself , revealed no clues to its origins . Even the strongest repressive actions could not hinder the distribution of the letter .
= = = Post @-@ war honours = = =
The Invalidenfriedhof , where Mölders is buried , lay in East Berlin and in 1975 East German officials ordered all the graves leveled . After the 1990 German reunification , Mölders ' grave was rebuilt and rededicated on 11 October 1991 by Mölders ' school friend and Domherr of the St. Hedwig 's Cathedral , Heribert Rosal . The ceremony was witnessed by guests from the United States , Great Britain , Austria , Spain and Hungary .
After the war , on 13 April 1968 , a destroyer of the Bundesmarine ( Federal German Navy ) was christened Mölders in Bath , Maine ( USA ) . It was in service between 1969 and 2003 . As of 24 June 2005 , it is the central attraction at the Navy Museum in Wilhelmshaven . On 9 November 1972 , a base of a battalion of the 34th Signal Regiment of the Bundeswehr ( Federal German Army ) in Visselhövede received the name " Mölders " . Most recently , the Fighter Wing 74 ( Jagdgeschwader 74 ) , stationed in Neuburg an der Donau , received the name " Mölders " in 1973 . Fighter Ace Generalleutnant Günther Rall presented the cuffbands .
= = = Reversal of honours = = =
Mölders ' career and legacy offer an example of the challenges posed in placing the heroism of the German armed forces in the post @-@ war cultural , political and social setting . In 1998 , on the occasion of the 61st anniversary of the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War , the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion , such as Mölders , should " no longer be honoured " . In 2005 , the German Ministry of Defence ( Bundesministerium der Verteidigung ) decided to remove the name " Mölders " from the JG 74 . The decision was confirmed on 11 March 2005 by the Federal Minister of Defence Peter Struck , and at 10 : 00 , the flags and cufftitles were removed .
Mölders ' supporters challenged the ruling , and pointed out that Mölders had been posted to Spain well after the bombing of Guernica . They pointed to his equivocal political attitude towards National Socialism and his unequivocal moral commitment to Catholicism . Not only did he have a Catholic religious marriage ceremony but Klawitter , regarded by the Third Reich as politically " unreliable , " had performed the ceremony . Furthermore , Mölders had joined the Catholic youth organisation Bund Neudeutschland ( Union for New Germany ) on 1 October 1925 and had been a youth leader of the organisation from 1929 to 1931 . The Third Reich clearly had considered the Bund Neudeutschland as a threat : The Völkischer Beobachter ( The People 's Observer , the official newspaper of the party ) had reported on 26 January 1938 that the Bund had been outlawed for its proven subversive activities against the Reich , based on the Verordnung des Reichspräsidenten zum Schutz von Volk und Staat ( Reich Presidential Decree for the Protection of People and State ) of 28 February 1933 . Despite petitions from politicians and high @-@ ranking active and retired servicemen , among them Horst Seehofer , Günther Rall and Jörg Kuebart , the Office for Military History ( MGFA ) noted that Mölders ' membership in the Bund Neudeutschland did not provide sufficient evidence of his having been critical of the regime , but rather showed the contrary and concluded that it was questionable whether Mölders had distanced himself enough from National Socialism before his death in 1941 . Consequently , the decision remained in force .
Other evidence has surfaced illustrating Mölders ' ambiguous relationship with the National Socialist regime . Mölders may have been in contact with bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen , who was highly critical of the Nazi regime . Von Galen publicly criticised the regime for the Gestapo 's tactics and the deportation and euthanasia of the mentally ill . According to the diary kept by Heinrich Portmann , von Galen 's secretary and chaplain , Mölders threatened to return his awards if von Galen 's euthanasia accusation turned out to be true . Furthermore , Portmann stated that Hitler had asked Mölders during the presentation of the Diamonds to the Knight 's Cross if there was anything he wished for . Mölders reportedly responded , " Please leave the bishop of Münster alone . " Hitler assured him that " Yes , nothing will happen to the bishop of Münster . " The MGFA concluded in 2004 that this story was most likely false . The MGFA revised its position again on 28 June 2007 , concluding that there had been contact between Mölders and von Galen .
Evidence also demonstrates Mölders ' propensity to value friendships over political expediency . According to Viktor Mölders , his brother had saved Georg Küch , one of Werner Mölders ' closest friends , who had been classified as a half @-@ Jew by the Nuremberg Laws , from death in the concentration camps . Mölders ' and Küch 's friendship dated to their school days at the Saldria @-@ Gymnasium in Brandenburg an der Havel . Küch 's mother , Alice née Siegel , was of Jewish birth . Küch 's father , Richard Küch , owned and operated a pharmacy in Brandenburg . Georg , himself a pharmacy student , was expelled from university under the Nuremberg Laws , just two semesters shy of his graduation . In 1940 , Richard Küch fell ill , and owning and operating the pharmacy became a bureaucratic problem for the family . Georg Küch contacted his friend Mölders in mid @-@ February 1941 , asking for help . Werner Mölders immediately responded to Küch on 16 February 1941 , stating that he had taken care of the matter and asking Küch not to pursue the issue on his own . When Richard Küch died in June 1941 , his wife was able to sell the pharmacy for fair market value . Normally , since she was Jewish , it would have been confiscated . She also remained exempt from wearing the detested yellow badge until late 1943 . She was then taken to the Theresienstadt concentration camp , where she worked as a cook . Georg Küch , Alice Küch , and Georg 's sister Friedel survived the Holocaust . Friedel Küch repeatedly stated that Werner Mölders had been responsible for protecting the family ; the mantle of his protection had persisted beyond his death . The MGFA ruled this assertion " highly speculative , " and did not investigate further .
= = Summary of career = =
= = = Awards = = =
Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th Class ( 2 October 1936 )
Medal for the Campaign of 1936 − 1939 ( Medalla de la Campaña 1936 − 1939 or Medalla de la Campaña ) ( Spain , 4 May 1939 )
Military Medal ( Medalla Militar ) ( Spain , 4 May 1939 )
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 June 1939 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold and Diamonds
Wound Badge in Black
Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( August 1940 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 20 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 2 April 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross ( 29 May 1940 ) as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of III . / Jagdgeschwader 53
2nd Oak Leaves ( 21 September 1940 ) as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51
2nd Swords ( 22 June 1941 ) as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51
1st Diamonds ( 15 July 1941 ) as Oberst and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51
Mentioned eleven times in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Promotions = = =
= Brainard Homestead State Park =
Brainard Homestead State Park , and alternatively Brainerd Homestead State Park , is a 25 acre undeveloped Connecticut state park located in the town of East Haddam , Connecticut , United States . A farmhouse was built on the site by Timothy Green in 1842 before being purchased by Selden Tyler Brainerd in March 1854 . The ownership of the property was willed to Geraldine W. Hayden . Upon her death in 1929 , the property was willed to the State of Connecticut with the condition that William Brainerd be able to use the property for life . William Brainerd died in 1936 , the buildings were later dismantled , but the Brainard Homestead State Park was established prior to May 1 , 1932 . The undeveloped park is said to offer bird watching , sports fields and hiking according to the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . As of 2012 , the fields were noted to be actively farmed and there were no established trails for hiking .
= = History = =
The known history of Brainard Homestead State Park begins in 1842 when Timothy Green constructed a farmhouse on the property . Green never lived in the farmhouse , but leased it to Jonathan Morgan . In March 1854 , the property was sold to Selden Tyler Brainerd . Brainerd with his wife , Harriet , raised five children in the 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) farmhouse . At some point ownership of the property was transferred to Geraldine W. Hayden in a will . In March 1929 , Hayden died and willed the property to the State of Connecticut so that the homestead could be utilized as a memorial to her grandfather . A report by the Connecticut State Park and Forest Commission noted that it was not an ideal situation due the concerns about identifying a proposed site in advance and establishing the adaptability of the land for public use . The report also notes that Mrs. Hayden was unknown to the commissioners and despite the land having significant liabilities was waiting to become a state park by 1930 . The delay in its transformation stemmed from a request that William Brainerd , one of Selden and Harriet 's sons , have life use of the property . William Brainerd died in 1936 and the terms of the will were completed . At a later date , the State of Connecticut dismantled the buildings and established the Brainard Homestead State Park .
Land use records show that two fields on the farm were once leased and used by Mortimer Gelston , but the fields surrounding or on the Brainard Homestead State Park continue to be actively farmed . Leary writes that the park preserves the Brainard Homestead and notes that the foundations and cellar pits are visible and provides a picture of the fieldstone foundation .
The establishment date of the Brainard Homestead State Park is unknown , but it predates the death of William Brainard . The 1934 State of Connecticut Register and Manual lists the Brainard Homestead State Park as the 39th State Park and consists of 25 acres . Though it is unspecific , the 1932 State of Connecticut Register and Manual notes that there were 40 state parks as of May 1 , 1932 .
= = Activities = =
The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website highlights three activities for Brainard Homestead State Park : bird watching , field sports and hiking . In 2004 , Leary noted that the open fields were perfect for field sports and picnics . Use of field for sports seem to have ended soon after because a geocache placed within Brainard Homestead State Park and referenced on the Geocaching website notes that the fields were used for farming . In 2012 , the " The A to Z of CT State Parks " Tumblr website noted that the fields were unusable and were currently being farmed . The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website continues to note the park 's " field sports " use as of 2014 . Also " The A to Z of CT State Parks " states that there were no established trails for hiking . Leary writes that there are limited views of the Connecticut River in winter , but the foliage in summer " precludes much of a vista . " Al Braden writes in his book that the park provides access to the Salmon River with parking , boat ramp and docks , but this is the " Salmon River Boat Launch East Haddam " and not a part of the state park .
= Tropical Storm Nicole ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Storm Nicole was a short @-@ lived and unusually asymmetric tropical cyclone that caused extensive rainfall and flooding in Jamaica during the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the sixteenth tropical cyclone and the fourteenth named storm of the season , as well as the last of a record eight tropical storms to form in September . Originating from a broad monsoonal low , Nicole became a tropical depression over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on September 28 . It maintained an unusual structure as it tracked northeastward , with a poorly defined wind circulation and few thunderstorms near its center . Nicole approached the coast of Cuba as a weak tropical storm , losing its status as a tropical cyclone over the territory on September 29 . The remnants emerged over the Bahamas and eventually became absorbed by a separate extratropical system .
Due to Nicole 's atypical structure , the strongest thundershowers were well removed from the center ; most of the weather activity occurred over the north @-@ central Caribbean . In Jamaica , the storm triggered widespread power outages across more than 288 @,@ 000 residences . Extreme precipitation of up to 37 @.@ 42 inches ( 940 mm ) caused disastrous flooding in several parishes , severely damaging or destroying 528 houses . The devastation extended to the island 's farmland and environment , which suffered from expansive water pollution . In all , Nicole wrought an estimated $ 240 million ( 2010 USD ) in damage throughout Jamaica , and there were sixteen fatalities . Elsewhere , minor flooding occurred in Cuba , Florida , and the Cayman Islands . The remnants of the storm contributed to a large disturbance along the East Coast of the United States , causing additional damage and deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late September 2010 , a wide band of disturbed weather and low pressure associated with the monsoon trough and remnant tropical moisture from Tropical Storm Matthew meandered over the northwestern Caribbean Sea . With a broad upper ridge anchored along the Yucatán coast , diffluence aloft in the vicinity of the disturbance provided focus for the development of scattered convection . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted an environment supportive of tropical development , and by September 27 a broad surface low formed amid the convection . The next day , surface pressures steadily dropped as sustained winds around the low increased to near tropical storm force . Throughout the development process , moderate westerly wind shear over the region caused the disturbance to exhibit a rather asymmetric structure ; it developed an elongated low @-@ pressure center by September 28 , well to the northwest of its strongest wind field . Despite the asymmetry , the NHC initiated advisories on a tropical depression around 15 : 00 UTC that day , after surface and satellite observations revealed a sufficiently defined circulation center west of the deep convection . Post @-@ season reassessments , however , indicated that a tropical storm had in fact formed three hours earlier , about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south of Cuba 's Isle of Youth .
For most of its duration , Nicole maintained a generally northeastward motion , caught in the steering flow between a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough and an anticyclone to the west . Within hours of the storm 's formation , observations from a Hurricane Hunters flight confirmed a composition similar to the one initially discerned , with the strongest gusts and thunderstorms dislocated 250 mi ( 400 km ) east from the ill @-@ defined center . In comparison , the core consisted of light winds and sporadic convection — a structure rather characteristic of a North Indian Ocean monsoon depression . The system 's ambiguous nature led to disagreement among weather specialist over its classification : while the NHC maintained its tropical cyclone status , Cuban meteorologist José Rubiera stated that " no tropical storm exists over [ Cuba ] , or near it , " noting a lack of significant winds in the country 's vicinity .
Over the course of September 29 , radar data showed the convection increasing over the northern half of the storm ; bands of intense thunderstorms in the southeastern periphery also formed closer to the center , and weather buoys and ships in that region observed sustained tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Around 12 : 00 UTC , Nicole attained an estimated peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds and a minimum pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) , just south of Cuba . Despite the increase in strength , Nicole 's circulation soon became exceedingly elongated and untrackable over central Cuba , prompting the NHC to declassify it as a tropical cyclone by 15 : 00 UTC . The remnant low began interacting with the neighboring trough that had steered Nicole in its tropical stages , resulting in significant amounts of precipitation along the southeastern coastlines of the United States . Accelerating toward the northeast , the system acquired frontal characteristics and became extratropical over the Bahamas by 0600 UTC , September 30 , twelve hours before merging with a developing system over eastern North Carolina . Lingering low pressure and broad cyclonic flow over the north @-@ central Caribbean in Nicole 's wake contributed to the development of Hurricane Paula in the first weeks of October .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
In anticipation of a tropical storm , warnings were issued for the Cayman Islands , the northwestern and central Bahamas , and the Cuban provinces of Matanzas , Cienfuegos , Villa Clara , Sancti Spíritus , and Ciego de Ávila on September 28 . However , the warnings were discontinued the following day after reports of the storm 's prompt dissipation . After forecasters warned of severe weather across the Cayman Islands , schools and government offices closed in low @-@ lying areas , and emergency teams cleaned out storm drains and readied shelters . Thunderstorms in Grand Cayman forced Cayman Airways to cancel all express flights to Cayman Brac and Little Cayman on October 29 ; weather @-@ resistant jet service was provided to stranded passengers . A marine warning was required for all three islands due to rough sea conditions .
In Jamaica , a flash flood warning remained in effect for flood @-@ prone regions for four days , ultimately discontinued on October 3 . Schools and several businesses , including the US Embassy in Kingston , closed on September 29 – 30 as the island braced for heavy rains . Public transit was suspended islandwide on the evening of September 29 , and shipping interests were cautioned to secure their vessels . At the height of the storm , army and police officials patrolled the island in case of emergencies .
= = = United States = = =
Tropical storm warnings were issued for the Florida Keys , the Florida Bay , and from the Jupiter Inlet coast southward to Cape Sable on September 28 . A tropical storm watch was in place for the mainland north from the Jupiter Inlet to the Sebastian Inlet and north of East Cape Sable to Chokoloskee . The warnings and watch were discontinued the next day , after a direct impact was no longer expected . At the time , a flood watch remained in effect for Palm Beach , Broward , Miami @-@ Dade , Collier , and Monroe counties into September 30 . An airport weather warning was issued for Orlando International Airport and Executive Airport on September 28 ; arriving flights were put on hold , and pilots rerouted to other airports if possible . Eight Southwest Airlines flights were diverted to the airports of Tampa and Jacksonville , and one JetBlue flight to West Palm Beach . Though airport officials later reported normalized conditions , an additional 26 flights were canceled at Miami International Airport the next day .
In Brunswick and New Hanover counties , North Carolina , officials readied shelters on September 29 to accommodate stranded residents unable to access their homes . Multiple schools in New Hanover and Pender County remained closed the next morning due to worsening storm conditions from the disturbance succeeding Nicole . At the threat of prolonged rainfall , a flood watch was issued for Kent County , Maryland , from September 30 to October 1 . Also in the area , the National Weather Service declared both a coastal flood advisory and wind advisory for September 30 .
= = Impact = =
= = = Jamaica = = =
For several days , Nicole and its precursor disturbance brought great amounts of rainfall to much of Jamaica . A maximum total of 37 @.@ 42 inches ( 940 mm ) was recorded in Belleisle , Westmoreland Parish , from September 26 to 30 ; most other parishes received over 12 in ( 300 mm ) during this time . With a return period of 30 years , these quantities tripled the monthly rainfall average for September at several locations . Though the broad @-@ scale wind regime over the island remained gentle , the storm 's intense convective bands produced three microbursts — small downdrafts of intense winds . Following the degradation of river banks and waterways , the heaviest impact was due to landslides and particularly severe flooding across numerous communities , primarily in the southern parishes .
The disaster affected a total of 507 @,@ 831 people ; it resulted in 16 deaths — 14 of which confirmed — and 42 injuries . In Saint Andrew Parish 's Sandy Park , a house next to a street gully succumbed to the effects of the storm ; five bodies were recovered near the site , while the remaining missing inhabitant was later presumed dead . Elsewhere in Saint Andrew , three construction workers were killed when the shed in which they were sleeping caved in . A girl was crushed to death under the weight of a collapsed board house in Saint Catherine Parish . Rushing waters in different parts of the island swept away three people , all of whom drowned . A waterspout hit Westmoreland Parish 's capital of Savanna @-@ la @-@ Mar amid a microburst , tearing the roofs off buildings and hospitalizing five residents . In the wake of the storm , a body was recovered from debris along a road in Saint Catherine . Nationwide , floods trapped hundreds of residents in their homes . The obstruction of roads and bridges isolated various communities across seven of the island 's parishes .
Jamaica 's infrastructure was devastated in the deluge , accounting for most of the material damage on the island . At the height of the storm , more than 288 @,@ 000 residences lost power due to downed electricity lines and poles , and over 40 percent of the island 's water supply was disrupted . Dozens of bridges collapsed under the force of swollen rivers and creeks . In Kingston , underpasses suffered severe flooding as prolonged rainfall overwhelmed storm drains ; subsequent surface inundations left several of the city 's roads impassable . Destruction to the transport infrastructure was especially extensive in Westmoreland , Saint Elizabeth , and Hanover parishes , though overall 543 of the island 's principle roads sustained some degree of damage . The value of costs linked to the infrastructure neared J $ 20 billion ( US $ 235 @.@ 4 million ) .
Nicole wreaked widespread property damage , encompassing 2 @,@ 169 houses : 474 sustained severe damage , while 54 were beyond repair . The losses totaled J $ 274 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) , J $ 75 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) hereof required to replace destroyed housing units . With much of its crops and livestock washed away , the island 's agricultural sector suffered about J $ 576 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) in losses , including 40 percent of the season 's banana produce . The storm had a discernible impact on the environment , which plays a crucial role in the Jamaica 's economy and tourism . Surface runoffs and spills along industrial zones and sewage systems infiltrated wide stretches of land , leading to scattered pollution , coastal erosion , and deterioration in the ecosystems of the affect regions . In addition , light damage occurred to vegetation as evidenced by uprooted trees .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
While intensifying offshore , Nicole 's outer bands produced heavy downpours over drought @-@ stricken Cuba . Locally , rain along the southeastern coast was particularly high ; a 48 @-@ hour total of 9 @.@ 22 inches ( 235 mm ) fell at Cape Cruz , in the mountainous Granma Province . The region briefly observed gale @-@ force winds , gusting to 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) at Guantánamo Bay . Throughout eastern Cuba , 300 people sought refuge during the storm . As rivers overflowed in Granma , eight houses collapsed and more than 300 others endured flooding in the coastal town of Pilón . Several roads were obstructed , with part of the highway between Granma and Santiago de Cuba destroyed . The floods resulted in 5 @,@ 000 lbs ( 2 @.@ 5 tons ) of losses in crops and livestock . These effects were nevertheless considered minor , and the rains helped alleviate a persistent dry spell in the country .
In the Cayman Islands , gusts to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) stirred up a rough sea with 8 – 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 – 3 m ) high waves , causing light erosion along south and western shores . Though heavy rainfall over the region was widespread , the greatest quantities fell on Grand Cayman , where the Owen Roberts International Airport recorded 9 @.@ 02 in ( 229 mm ) of rain over a period of two days . The storm flooded low @-@ lying areas , caused roof leaks , and knocked out the power in parts of eastern Grand Cayman , but overall damage across the islands was limited .
Despite initial threats of heavy thunderstorms and strong gusts , Florida was spared a direct impact from Nicole . The storm only skirted the state with showers ; a rainfall total of 12 @.@ 71 inches ( 323 mm ) was recorded at North Key Largo , though the mainland received considerably less . Street flooding occurred in Miami Beach and the northern Florida Keys , but only one residence sustained damage . Similarly , inclement weather spread over parts of the Bahamas without significant consequences .
= = = Post @-@ tropical system = = =
The extratropical remnants of Nicole retained plenty of moisture and ultimately combined with a large low @-@ pressure system slowly tracking up the US East Coast . The resultant disturbance produced torrential thunderstorms over entire coastlines and inland as far north as Canada , resulting in widespread power outages and shattering numerous precipitation records throughout the region . The most extreme weather was concentrated over Eastern North Carolina ; in the week of September 24 – October 1 , most communities recorded rainfall totals of 8 – 10 in ( 200 – 250 mm ) . Wilmington measured 22 @.@ 54 inches ( 573 mm ) of rain , the most it had received over a five @-@ day period since 1871 , while Kinston recorded 15 in ( 380 mm ) during that time . The rains caused widespread flooding exacerbated by overflowing creeks and rivers , surrounding and isolating several homes . About 150 roads were closed due to the hazardous conditions ; traffic accidents across the state nonetheless resulted in seven deaths .
In the Mid @-@ Atlantic , the event broke daily rainfall records for September 30 at several locations including the Norfolk , Baltimore – Washington , and Ronald Reagan Washington airports , which recorded 7 @.@ 85 in ( 199 mm ) , 6 @.@ 02 in ( 153 mm ) , and 4 @.@ 66 in ( 118 mm ) respectively . In Maryland , two buses collided amid the stormy weather , injuring 26 passengers . With localized estimates of up to 8 in ( 200 mm ) , the state of New York experienced some of its most historic rainfall ; an official 4 @.@ 24 in ( 108 mm ) shattered the 24 @-@ hour record for any calendar day in Binghamtom . Flash floods throughout the state led to one drowning and about US $ 10 @,@ 000 in damage . Considerable flooding also occurred in Vermont and Pennsylvania , with a 24 @-@ hour rainfall maximum of 10 @.@ 5 in ( 265 mm ) observed in Moscow . Farther north , the remnant low enhanced a pressure gradient over southern New England , generating strong winds that knocked out power in Litchfield County . Rainfall there additionally caused minor flooding . In Quebec , torrents following 3 @.@ 5 in ( 90 mm ) of rainfall inundated basements and caused two drownings . Despite the deaths and damage , the rains alleviated prolonged drought conditions in those regions .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 5 , a national disaster was declared for Jamaica due to the effects of Nicole . In response , the USAID 's Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the purchase and delivery of relief supplies and fuel for emergency vehicles . About J $ 4 million ( US $ 46 @,@ 800 ) was donated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries to the Greenhouse Growers Association for the repair of greenhouses . In conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization , an estimated J $ 12 million ( US $ 140 @,@ 400 ) was made available to initiate the planting of about 50 @,@ 000 crop seedlings . The Veterinary Division provided financial assistance to livestock farmers and dispatched animal technicians providing prophylactic medication and vitamins to avert foot rot disease in small ruminants , including goats and sheep . The cost of the medication was estimated at J $ 2 million ( US $ 23 @,@ 400 ) . The Banana Board 's Catastrophe Fund , which at the time comprised J $ 50 million ( US $ 585 @,@ 000 ) , delivered both monetary support and human resources to local banana and plantain farmers .
Eleven days after the storm , the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies allocated CHF150,644 ( US $ 156 @,@ 221 ) to sustain the Jamaica Red Cross in distributing aid to about 500 families — or 2 @,@ 500 beneficiaries — in need of life supplies . In late December 2010 , the Jamaica – Canadian Association in Toronto , Canada raised a total of CDN $ 10 @,@ 153 @.@ 87 ( US $ 10 @,@ 221 @.@ 33 ) in relief funds to assist flood victims . The Hanover Parish Council requested J $ 30 million ( US $ 351 @,@ 000 ) to assist the Saint James Parish Council and other municipal authorities across the country in post @-@ storm clean @-@ up and beautification work . A grant of J $ 279 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 26 million ) was approved for the reconstruction of a major roadway section in Westmoreland Parish .
In spite of the timely relief efforts , Nicole 's effects were still felt for months in its wake . The gross domestic product for Jamaica , which had been suffering from a substantially slow economic growth rate , further declined following the extensive storm damage . The agriculture sector sustained slight losses from reduced egg production due to the traumatizing effects on farm chickens , and the storm 's impact contributed to below @-@ standard levels of holiday season consumption .
= John Madden Football ' 93 =
John Madden Football ' 93 is a 1992 sports video game developed by Blue Sky Productions ( later Looking Glass Studios ) and Electronic Arts and published by EA Sports Network . Based on the sport of American football , the game puts the player in control of a football team in modes such as tournament play and sudden death . It was officially endorsed by John Madden .
The game 's Sega Genesis version was developed by Blue Sky Productions , which was simultaneously creating Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss . John Madden Football ' 93 adds new animations and features , and it allows players to play as and against famous teams such as the Oakland Raiders of 1976 . Aside from Madden Football 64 , the game was the last in the Madden franchise to lack the NFL license , which was featured in Madden NFL ' 94 onward .
With over one million units in sales , John Madden Football ' 93 was a commercial success . Critics awarded the game high scores and praised its updated graphics ; but several reviewers complained that little had changed since John Madden Football ' 92 . Royalties from the game funded the expansion of Blue Sky Productions , and the company 's director , Paul Neurath , later commented that the size of these royalties led Electronic Arts to develop future Madden titles in @-@ house .
= = Gameplay = =
John Madden Football ' 93 is an adaptation of American football that takes place from an isometric perspective in a two @-@ dimensional environment . The player begins each match by selecting such variables as the game mode , weather conditions and team . Game modes include 16 @-@ team tournaments and sudden death , among other things . In addition to the game 's single @-@ player mode , two @-@ player competitive and cooperative modes are available . Unlike prior games in the series , a coin toss at the beginning of every match determines which team will defend each goal , and which team will kick off .
Between every down , the player selects a formation , play and , on defense , coverage shell from a menu . The game contains fifty @-@ five offensive plays and seventy @-@ one defensive plays , such as screen and play @-@ action passes , blitzes and man @-@ to @-@ man defense . During a down , the player may control one team member at a time or allow the entire team to execute a play automatically . On offense , depending on the play , the player controls the quarterback , running back or kicker . After a pass , control automatically changes to the ball receiver . On defense , the player may at any time switch control between any members of the team . Instant replay is available to review plays .
New features in John Madden Football ' 93 include no @-@ huddle offense , overturning certain calls made by referees , taunting , stumbling , head @-@ butting and one @-@ handed catches . As with its predecessors , the game features updated statistics for the twenty @-@ eight NFL teams in the game , based on their performance in the previous season . In addition to these teams , eight famous team line @-@ ups , such as the Oakland Raiders of 1976 and the Dallas Cowboys of 1977 , are available . Two " All @-@ Madden Greats " teams are compiled from the best players in the history of the sport . No official player or team names , colors , or stadium names are used . A rental @-@ only version of the game , John Madden Football : Championship Edition , uses only " championship caliber " line @-@ ups from the 1966 @-@ 1991 era . Although it still lacks official names , this version features correct team colors .
= = Development = =
John Madden Football ' 93 was developed for the Sega Genesis by Blue Sky Productions ( credited as " Looking Glass Technology " ) , which was simultaneously working on Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss . The game was not a port , but was rather an original work by the company . They were approached by Electronic Arts soon after production on Ultima Underworld began , an event that company head Paul Neurath later attributed to contacts he had within the publisher , thanks to his involvement with the Electronic Arts project Chuck Yeager 's Advanced Flight Trainer . Neurath said that Electronic Arts was dissatisfied with the work that another studio had been doing on John Madden Football ' 93 , and that the publisher was " scrambling to find a [ replacement ] team " to meet the game 's rapidly approaching deadline . Blue Sky received the source code of John Madden Football ' 92 and had to develop a sequel in five months . Neurath later said that development was " part out @-@ of @-@ house and part in @-@ house " . The game 's visuals were made by Doug Wike , who also created graphics for Ultima Underworld . In 1991 , Neurath contracted the outside programmer Mark Lesser , who had previously worked on Mean 18 , to develop the game 's technical aspects . According to Lesser , this was necessary because none of Blue Sky 's employees had experience programming for the Sega Genesis .
Neurath believed that Blue Sky introduced " some nice improvements " to the franchise . A preview in Mega noted that the game had " a lot of added animation " compared to its predecessors . A writer for Mega Drive Advanced Gaming believed that " the most obvious addition is the digitised speech " , which did not appear in the game 's Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) version . In its November 1992 issue , Electronic Gaming Monthly estimated that the game was " 100 % complete " . The game 's Genesis and SNES versions were released at the same time . As with earlier John Madden Football titles , John Madden Football ' 93 lacks the NFL license , which prevented the inclusion of official teams , colors , player names and stadiums . Sega 's competing title , the Joe Montana @-@ endorsed NFL Sports Talk Football ' 93 , had received the license that year .
= = Reception = =
John Madden Football ' 93 was a commercial success , with over one million copies sold . It has been cited as the highest @-@ selling game developed by Looking Glass Studios , and Neurath later called it " one of the most successful games I 've ever worked on " . Paul Mellerick of Mega commented that " the only noticeable difference between [ John Madden Football ' 93 ] and its two predecessors is the animation " . He wrote that this new animation " makes the game incredibly good to look at " and that new motions like stumbling increase the game 's difficulty . Although he believed that the " two @-@ player mode is just as exciting as ever " , he was disappointed by the lack of a full @-@ season mode , which he called " unforgivable " in light of this feature 's appearance in Sega 's NFL Sports Talk Football ' 93 . He concluded that John Madden Football ' 93 was " the best game the Mega Drive has to offer " , but he wrote , " If you own John Madden Football ' 92 , or even the original John Madden American Football for that matter , then you should ignore this game completely " .
A writer for GamePro noted that John Madden Football ' 93 was " at first glance " largely identical to its predecessor ; but he believed that , " once you get down to serious business , you 'll notice a wealth of All @-@ Star enhancements " . He wrote that the " game play is now faster and smoother " , and that " the graphics are sharper , more detailed , and even better animated " . He believed that " Electronic Arts has [ ... ] made the best even better " , and he concluded , " John Madden Football ' 93 is even more fun to play than Madden ' 92 " . The staff of Mean Machines Sega called the game " hopelessly redundant " and " very , very disappoint [ ing ] " , and they believed that the John Madden Football series was " on its last legs " . They considered the game to be arguably worse than its predecessors , largely because of framerate problems . The reviewers concluded that it was " not a bad game at all " , but they suggested that readers buy " the slightly better John Madden Football ' 92 if [ they are ] after the definitive American Football game " .
Reviewing the SNES version of John Madden Football ' 93 , a GamePro writer believed that it was " a major improvement " over the previous SNES John Madden Football title . He wrote that the game 's visuals were the biggest leap , particularly after the " slow and chunky " graphics of the earlier release . He enjoyed its sound effects , but he noted the lack of voice clips present in the Genesis version . He concluded that the series was now roughly even across the two consoles , and he wrote that the game was " a strong candidate for SNES Sports Cart of the Year " . A writer for Nintendo Power wrote , " Madden ' 93 is easy to play and has the feel of the real game " . He believed that the most noticeable additions were the new teams and " new play options " , although he found it " awkward " to select plays . He finished , " Really the only thing missing is an option to play an entire season " . Carl Rowley of N @-@ Force called the visuals " sharper than ever " and believed that the character sprites were " small but well defined " . He found that the game played " brilliantly " , and he praised the instant replay feature as " superb " and " amazing " . He wrote that his " only niggle is the lack of sampled speech " , which he considered to be " a bit of a let down " . Finishing his review , Rowley wrote that the game was the " best American football game available " .
= = = Legacy = = =
After the game 's development concluded , programmer Mark Lesser was contracted by Electronic Arts to work on NHL ' 94 , a series that he remained on " for many years " . Neurath said that the royalties Blue Sky ( later Looking Glass Studios ) received from John Madden Football ' 93 " were quite substantial " , and that " it was really the royalties of Madden more than anything else [ ... ] that allowed us to grow the [ company ] " . Neurath believed that the size of these royalties led Electronic Arts to develop future Madden games in @-@ house , in order to maximize profit . Aside from Madden Football 64 , John Madden Football ' 93 was the last game in the Madden franchise to lack the NFL license , which the series first obtained with Madden NFL ' 94 . In 2012 , Michael Rundle wrote in The Huffington Post that John Madden Football ' 93 " really set the bar " for the franchise , and he believed that its gameplay was superior to that of Madden NFL 13 .
= Beyond Fantasy Fiction =
Beyond Fantasy Fiction was a US fantasy fiction magazine edited by H. L. Gold , with only ten issues published from 1953 to 1955 . The last two issues carried the cover title of Beyond Fiction , but the publication 's name for copyright purposes remained as before .
Although not a commercial success , it included several significant short stories by distinguished authors , such as Isaac Asimov , Ray Bradbury and Philip K. Dick . The publication has been described by critics as a successor to the tradition of Unknown , a fantasy magazine that ceased publication in 1943 . It was noted for printing fantasy with a rational basis such as werewolf stories that included scientific explanations . A selection of stories from Beyond was published in paperback form in 1963 , also under the title Beyond .
James Gunn , a historian of science fiction , regarded the magazine as the best of the fantasy magazines launched in the early 1950s , and science fiction encyclopedist Donald H. Tuck contended it printed very good material . Not every critic viewed Beyond as completely successful , however ; P. Schuyler Miller , in a 1963 review , commented that the stories were most successful when they did not try to emulate Unknown .
= = History and significance = =
Beyond Fantasy Fiction was a fantasy @-@ oriented companion to the more successful Galaxy Science Fiction , which launched in 1950 ; Beyond had been planned by editor H. L. Gold from the time Galaxy was launched , but it had to wait until Galaxy was firmly established . Beyond 's first issue , dated July 1953 , included an editorial by Gold in which he laid out the magazine 's scope , excluding ( in his words ) only " the probably possible " and " the unentertaining " . Gold recruited Sam Merwin , who had recently quit as editor of Fantastic Universe , to help in editing , though the masthead of both magazines listed Gold as editor . A typical issue of Beyond included several stories that were long enough to be listed as novellas or novelettes , with the contents augmented with shorter works , usually for a total of at least seven stories .
The first issue featured Theodore Sturgeon , Damon Knight , Frank M. Robinson , and Richard Matheson . Other writers who appeared in the magazine included Jerome Bixby , John Wyndham , James E. Gunn , Fredric Brown , Frederik Pohl ( both under his own name and with Lester del Rey under the joint pseudonym " Charles Satterfield " ) , Philip José Farmer , Randall Garrett , Zenna Henderson , and Algis Budrys .
Five of the ten covers were surrealist , which was an unusual artistic choice for a genre magazine . The cover painting for the first issue was by Richard M. Powers ; Gold was one of the very few American magazine editors to use his work , though Powers was prolific in providing artwork for paperback covers . In addition to Powers , René Vidmer and Arthur Krusz ( among others ) contributed cover art . The magazine also carried interior artwork , usually multiple illustrations , for almost every story ; in addition , each story included a facsimile of the author 's signature , set at the end of the text . The best @-@ known interior artist Beyond used was Ed Emshwiller , though there were several other regular artists . The magazine carried almost no non @-@ fiction , though there were occasional " filler " pieces to occupy spaces at the end of stories . The publication contained no book reviews , and only the first issue carried an editorial .
The magazine was not commercially successful : at that time circulation figures were not required to be published annually , as they were later , so the actual circulation figures are not known . Its demise after less than two years can be attributed in part to the decreasing popularity of fantasy and horror fiction . In a 1958 advertisement in Galaxy for complete sets of the magazine for $ 3 @.@ 50 , the publisher described Beyond as " a princely experiment to determine whether there were enough readers to support a truly handsome , fantastically high @-@ quality fantasy fiction magazine . There weren 't " , " as the rest of the country seemed to be ... out of town at the time and missed it on the newsstands " .
= = Reception = =
According to science @-@ fiction historian Donald H. Tuck , Beyond published " some very good material , " with appearances by many well @-@ known authors , and the magazine is often cited as being the successor to the unusual fantasy tradition of Unknown . Author James Gunn said of the new fantasy magazines that appeared in the 1950s that " the best of these was Beyond , created by Horace Gold as a companion fantasy magazine to Galaxy , which he had created three years before . Beyond Fantasy Fiction aimed at the same rationalized fantasy niche that Unknown had established and to which Gold had contributed stories . " Not everyone thought the magazine was completely successful in emulating Unknown , however ; P. Schuyler Miller , reviewing an anthology drawn from the pages of Beyond , was generally approving but commented that " Except for Budrys , Pohl , Brown and Sturgeon , these stories from Beyond are rather self @-@ conscious . They are best when they are not trying to be like Unknown . " Miller 's assessment of the magazine overall was that it " made a pass at the same position [ as Unknown ] but didn 't make it . "
Beyond 's selection of stories has been described by science fiction historian Michael Ashley as " seeking to achieve … high quality fantasy fiction acceptable to all readers " ; he adds that Beyond was more successful than Fantastic Science Fiction , a competitor in this niche , because Gold " had a clearer vision and was more determined … to achieve it . … despite sales problems , Gold persisted in publishing fiction that sought to stretch the boundaries of imagination . "
Several significant or widely reprinted stories appeared during Beyond 's short history :
" … And My Fear Is Great … " , by Theodore Sturgeon ( July 1953 )
" The Wall Around the World " , by Theodore R. Cogswell ( September 1953 )
" Kid Stuff " , by Isaac Asimov ( September 1953 )
" The Watchful Poker Chip " , by Ray Bradbury ( March 1954 ) . Generally reprinted under the title " The Watchful Poker Chip of H. Matisse "
" Sine of the Magus " , by James E. Gunn ( May 1954 )
" The Green Magician " , by L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt ( November 1954 ) . Part of the Incompleat Enchanter series
" Upon the Dull Earth " , by Philip K. Dick ( November 1954 )
Although no Hugo Awards were presented in 1954 , the 2004 World Science Fiction Convention awarded " Retro Hugos " for that year . Two Beyond stories appeared as runners @-@ up : Sturgeon 's " … And My Fear Is Great … " placed third in the novella category , and Cogswell 's " The Wall Around the World " fifth in the novelette category . In addition , Gold placed fifth in the editor category , though this recognized his work at Galaxy as well as at Beyond .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The publisher was Galaxy Publishing Corporation , New York . The magazine was initially titled Beyond Fantasy Fiction , and this remained the title on the masthead throughout the ten @-@ issue run . However , issue 9 changed the title to simply Beyond Fiction on the cover , spine , and table of contents . Issue 10 used the new , shorter title on the cover and spine , but reverted to Beyond Fantasy Fiction for the table of contents . As a result , the magazine is often listed as having changed its name for the last two issues .
The magazine began as a 160 @-@ page digest , priced at 35 cents . The price stayed the same throughout the run , but the page count was cut to 128 for the eighth issue , September 1954 . The magazine was bimonthly , but issues 9 and 10 did not carry month and year dates , which has led different bibliographers to catalogue them in different ways . However , the masthead for these issues indicates that the magazine remained bimonthly , and so they are now usually catalogued as November 1954 and January 1955 , respectively ; the copyright dates on the last two issues correspond to these dates . The volume numbering was completely regular ; volume 1 had six numbers , and volume 2 ceased with its fourth number . The stories were printed in the two @-@ column format usual to digest magazines .
A British edition of the magazine ran for four issues on a bimonthly schedule starting in November 1953 and finishing in May 1954 . These copied the first four issues of the US version , with slightly cut contents . They were numbered 1 to 4 but were not dated . Ten years after the magazine folded , nine stories from Beyond were collected into the 160 @-@ page paperback Beyond , published in 1963 by Berkley Books ( F712 ) and edited by Thomas Dardis ( who was not credited on the book ) .
= HMS Majestic ( 1895 ) =
HMS Majestic was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy . Commissioned in 1895 , she was the largest predreadnought launched at the time . She served with the Channel Fleet until 1904 , following which she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . In 1907 , she was part of the Home Fleet , firstly assigned to the Nore Division and then with the Devonport Division . From 1912 , she was part of the 7th Battle Squadron .
When World War I broke out Majestic , together with the rest of the squadron , was attached to the Channel Fleet during the early stages of the war before being detached for escort duties with Canadian troop convoys . She then had spells as a guard ship at the Nore and the Humber . In early 1915 , she was dispatched to the Mediterranean for service in the Dardanelles Campaign . She participated in bombardments of Turkish forts and supported the Allied landings at Gallipoli . On 27 May 1915 , she was torpedoed by a U @-@ boat at Cape Helles , sinking with the loss of 49 men .
= = Design = =
Majestic was laid down at the Portsmouth Dockyard in February 1894 . She was launched on 31 January 1895 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the Royal Navy less than a year later , in December 1895 . The ship was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 t ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered good seaboats with an easy roll and good steamers , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on pear @-@ shaped barbettes ; six of her sisters had the same arrangement , but her sisters Caesar and Illustrious and all future British battleship classes had circular barbettes . Majestic also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher . Majestic and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Majestic and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .
= = Operational history = =
HMS Majestic commissioned into the Channel Squadron on 12 December 1895 , and served at the Portsmouth division . She was present at the Fleet Review at Spithead for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria on 26 June 1897 , and was later flagship to Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Harry Rawson , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Channel Fleet . Captain George Egerton was appointed in command on 28 June 1899 , and paid off in April 1901 , when Captain Edward Eden Bradford was appointed in command as she became the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Arthur Wilson , who had been appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Channel Squadron . She was present at the Coronation Review for King Edward VII on 16 August 1902 . She underwent a refit at Portsmouth from February to July 1904 , and then became a unit of the Atlantic Fleet when a reorganisation resulted in the Channel Fleet becoming the Atlantic Fleet in January 1905 . On 1 October 1906 , she paid off into reserve at Portsmouth .
Majestic recommissioned at Portsmouth on 26 February 1907 to become flagship of the Nore Division in the new Home Fleet , stationed at the Nore . She began a refit later that year in which she received radio and new fire control systems . When the flag was transferred to another ship in January 1908 , she became a private ship in the Nore Division . In June 1908 , Majestic transferred to the Devonport Division of the Home Fleet , stationed at Devonport . Her refit was completed in 1909 , and in March 1909 she transferred to the 3rd Division at Devonport , then in August 1910 to the 4th Division at Devonport , where she underwent another refit in 1911 . In May 1912 , Majestic became part of the 7th Battle Squadron in the 3rd Fleet at Devonport . On 14 July 1912 she collided with her sister ship Victorious during manoeuvres , suffering no serious damage .
= = = World War I = = =
Upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Majestic and the rest of the 7th Battle Squadron were assigned to the Channel Fleet . Majestic underwent a refit in August and September 1914 , then covered the passage of the British Expeditionary Force to France in September 1914 . She was detached from the 7th Battle Squadron from 3 October 1914 to 14 October 1914 to escort the first Canadian troop convoy . At the end of October 1914 , Majestic was transferred to the Nore to serve as guard ship there . On 3 November 1914 , she transferred to the Humber to serve as guard ship there . In December 1914 she became a unit of the Dover Patrol , and combined with battleship Revenge to bombard German coastal artillery from off of Nieuwpoort , Belgium , on 15 December 1914 . In January 1915 , she was based at Portland .
= = = = Dardanelles campaign = = = =
In February 1915 , Majestic was assigned to participate in the upcoming Dardanelles Campaign to open the Turkish Straits , and she departed early that month under the command of Captain H. F. G. Talbot to join the Mediterranean Fleet . Upon arriving at Malta , she was fitted with what was termed " mine @-@ catching " gear so that she could serve as a " mine @-@ bumper " . She joined the Dardanelles force on 24 February 1915 , and on 26 February 1915 departed Tenedos to bombard the Ottoman Turkish inner forts at the Dardanelles that morning . On 26 February 1915 , Majestic and battleships Albion and Triumph became the first Allied heavy ships to enter the Turkish Straits during the campaign , firing on the inner forts from 0914 until 1740 hours . Majestic took a hit below the waterline , but was able to continue operations and patrolled the area again on 27 February 1915 . She supported the early landings , shelling the forts from 1125 until 1645 hours on 1 March 1915 and again while patrolling on 3 March 1915 . She arrived at Mudros on 8 March 1915 .
On 9 March 1915 , Majestic circumnavigated the entrance to the Dardanelles and bombarded Ottoman Turkish positions from 1007 until 1215 hours . She returned to Tenedos on 10 March 1915 , patrolled off the Dardanelles again on 15 March 1915 , and again returned to Tenedos on 16 March 1915 . Majestic participated in the final attempt to force the straits by naval power alone on 18 March 1915 . She opened fire on Fort 9 at 1420 hours and also engaged Turkish field guns hidden in woods . She shelled Fort 9 until she ceased fire at 18 : 35 ; the fort meanwhile fired on the mortally damaged battleship Ocean . Majestic was hit four times , twice in her lower tops and twice on her forecastle , and returned to Tenedos at 2200 hours with one dead and some wounded crew members . Majestic returned to patrol duties on 22 March 1915 . She shelled Turkish positions on 28 March 1915 from 0950 to 1015 and from 1250 to 1340 hours and again opened fire on 14 April at 1458 hours . On 18 April , she fired on the abandoned British submarine E15 aground near Fort Dardanos and in danger of being captured ; two picket boats , one from Majestic and one from Triumph , destroyed E15 with torpedoes , although the boat from Majestic was itself sunk by Turkish shore batteries while retiring . Majestic returned to Tenedos on 21 April 1915 .
On 25 April 1915 , Majestic was back in action , signalling London that Allied landings had begun at Gallipoli and supporting them with coastal bombardments until 1915 hours . She brought 99 wounded troops aboard at 2110 hours and recovered all her boats before anchoring off Gallipoli for the night . On 26 April 1915 , she was back in action early , opening fire at 0617 hours . On 27 April 1915 she exchanged fire with Turkish guns , with several Turkish shells achieving very near misses before both sides ceased firing at 1130 hours . On 29 April 1915 she again was anchored off Gallipoli . Majestic relieved Triumph as flagship of Admiral Nicholson , commanding the squadrons supporting the troops ashore off Cape Helles , on 25 May 1915 .
= = = Loss = = =
On 27 May 1915 , while stationed off W Beach at Cape Helles , Majestic became the third battleship to be torpedoed off the Gallipoli peninsula in two weeks . Around 0645 hours , Commander Otto Hersing of the German submarine U @-@ 21 fired a single torpedo through the defensive screen of destroyers and anti @-@ torpedo nets , striking Majestic and causing a huge explosion . The ship began to list to port and in nine minutes had capsized in 54 feet ( 16 m ) of water , killing 49 men . Her masts hit the mud of the sea bottom , and her upturned hull remained visible for many months until it was finally submerged when her foremast collapsed during a storm .
= Spoken For =
Spoken For is the second studio album by Christian rock band MercyMe . Released on October 1 , 2002 , Spoken For sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number 41 on the Billboard 200 ; it also peaked at number two on the Christian Albums chart and number six on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . The album received a generally positive reception from critics , some of whom praised the album as being both a lyrical and musical progression from their debut album Almost There . Several critics also noted a shift in sound from Almost There , describing Spoken For as having a roots rock sound . At the 34th GMA Dove Awards , Spoken For was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year ; the album was certified Gold by the RIAA in October 2003 .
Three singles were released in promotion of Spoken For . The lead single and title track , " Spoken For " , peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts . The second single from the album , " Word of God Speak " , spent a record 23 weeks at the top of the Billboard Christian Songs chart , and also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts . " The Change Inside of Me " was released as the final single from the album , and peaked at number eight on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart .
= = Background and recording = =
All songs on the album were written and composed by MercyMe personnel , Bart Millard , Jim Bryson , Robby Shaffer , Mike Scheuchzer , Nathan Cochran , and Pete Kipley . Mark Stuart also contributed to " All the Above " .
Discussing the progression from MercyMe 's first album Almost There to the songs on Spoken For , MercyMe 's lead singer Bart Millard said in an interview : " Our goal early on was to make sure our songs were ' singable ' and make sure they fit on power point because we wanted to write songs for corporate worship . Spoken For is filled with songs that I pray the church will use . " He added that this album leaned more toward rock than Almost There . Millard said of the origin of the album title : " Over the last year I ’ ve been consumed with the idea that God is so crazy in love with us — just knowing that we are part of something bigger and we worship a God who ’ s in complete control no matter how good or bad things get . The phrase " spoken for " really stuck with me . "
Spoken For was recorded in several locations : Luminous Sound in Dallas , Texas , The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee , Indigo Room in Franklin , Tennessee , HydeAway Sound Lab in Jeckyll Island , Georgia , The Scwoodio in Greenville , Texas , Mountain View Recorders in Glorieta , New Mexico , and Playground Recording in Wylie , Texas . It was mastered by Richard Dodd at Vital Recordings , and mixed by F. Reid Shippen at Recording Arts in Nashville , Tennessee , with the exceptions of " All Because of This " , " Word of God Speak , and " Love of God " , ( which were mixed at Salvo Mix by Salvo ) , and " Go " ( which was mixed by J. R. McNeely ) .
= = Composition = =
MercyMe had considered themselves a rock band when they started out . On Spoken For they have progressed to sound " like a solid roots rock band " while retaining an " inspirational adult contemporary sound . " Several critics described the overall sound of the album as roots rock , also regarding Spoken For as a progression or shift beyond the sound of Almost There . The lyrical content has been described as ' refreshingly deep ' and ' thoughtful ' . The instrumentation on Spoken For includes electric guitar , acoustic guitar , bass guitar , and keyboard ; string instruments are also present . The songs on Spoken For are generally guitar @-@ driven , although " Word of God Speak " features only piano and strings over Millard 's vocals .
" Spoken For " , the title track , " offers a look at Jesus recognizing His children at heaven ’ s gate " and has been referred to as ' worshipful ' . Among the individual tracks on the album , " The Change Inside of Me " has been described as " firmly on the pop side of adult contemporary music " , as well as " upbeat pop / rock " . " All The Above " has also been described as ' pop ' ; lyrically , it describes " the elation that rang through the heavens when we became children of God " . " Your Glory Goes On " is also an upbeat pop / rock song . " Crazy " is described as a driving ballad " which explores the merits of heaven over earth " , with its opening bars sounding " a little like a slower version of The Police 's " Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic " . " Come One , Come All " sounds like a cross between the sounds of Sonicflood and John Mellencamp .
= = Singles = =
" Spoken For " was released as the lead single from Spoken For ; it peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , spending seven and six weeks respectively at the top of the charts . It also peaked at number six on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " was released as the second single from the album , and peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , as well as at number one Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , and at number 25 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " spent 23 weeks atop the Christian Songs chart , a record for that chart . A third and final single , " The Change Inside pf Me " , peaked at number eight on the Christian CHR chart .
= = Release = =
Spoken For was released on October 1 , 2002 . It sold 23 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number 41 on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Christian Albums chart and at number six on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . Spoken For ranked at number ten on the 2003 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart , and at number 20 on the 2004 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart . It also ranked at number 46 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Albums chart . The RIAA certified Spoken For Gold in 2003 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reception to Spoken For was generally positive . Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday gave the album four out of five stars , comparing the album favorably to MercyMe 's previous material . Marcia Bartenhagen of CCM Magazine gave the album a positive review , noting a progression in musical focus , songwriting , and vocals . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today praised the album for its cohesiveness , and found the album an improvement upon the band 's debut album Almost There in its songwriting ; he also praised what he regarded as a shift to a roots rock musical style . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album seven out of ten stars , praising the songs as being " beautifully crafted " . Wendy Lee Nentwig of Crosswalk.com praised the band 's musical and lyrical growth since their debut effort , as well as the " passionate intensity and emotion " of lead singer Bart Millard 's vocals .
Marcia Bartenhagen of CCM Magazine concluded : " While not a perfect sophomore effort , as the group occasionally sways to the triteness so often found on AC / pop projects , MercyMe has progressed in musical focus , songwriting and vocals . "
Spoken For was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 34th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Track listing = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Flying Eagle cent =
The Flying Eagle cent is a one @-@ cent piece struck by the Mint of the United States as a pattern coin in 1856 , and for circulation in 1857 and 1858 . The coin was designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , with the eagle in flight based on the work of Longacre 's predecessor , Christian Gobrecht .
By the early 1850s , the large cent ( about the size of a half dollar ) being issued by the Mint was becoming both unpopular in commerce and expensive to coin . After experimenting with various sizes and compositions , the Mint decided on an alloy of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel for a new , smaller cent . After the Mint produced patterns with an 1856 date and gave them to legislators and officials , Congress formally authorized the new piece in February 1857 .
The new cent was issued in exchange for the worn Spanish colonial silver coin that had circulated in the U.S. until then , as well as for its larger predecessor . So many cents were issued that they choked commercial channels , especially as they were not legal tender and no one had to take them . The eagle design did not strike well , and was replaced in 1859 by Longacre 's Indian Head cent .
= = Inception = =
The cent was the first official United States coin to be struck at the Philadelphia Mint in 1793 . These pieces , today known as large cents , were made of pure copper and were about the size of a half dollar . They were struck every year , except 1815 due to a shortage of metal , but were slow to become established in commerce . Worn Spanish colonial silver pieces were then commonly used as money throughout the United States .
The Mint then struck silver or gold in response to deposits by those holding bullion , and made little profit from those transactions . By the 1840s , profits , or seignorage , from monetizing copper into cents helped fund the Mint . In 1849 , copper prices rose sharply , causing the Department of the Treasury to investigate possible alternatives to the large one @-@ cent pieces . The cent was unpopular in trade ; as it was not a legal tender , nobody had to take it , and banks and merchants often refused it . The cent was disliked for its large size as well . In 1837 , the eccentric New York chemist Lewis Feuchtwanger had experimented with a smaller cent size in making model coins as part of a plan to sell his alloy ( similar to base @-@ metal German silver ) to the government for use in coinage . His pieces circulated as hard times tokens in the recession years of the late 1830s and early 1840s .
By 1850 , it was no longer profitable for the Mint to strike cents , and on May 14 , New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson introduced legislation for a cent made out of billon , copper with a small amount of silver . At the time , it was widely felt that coins should contain a large proportion of their face value in metal . The coin would be annular ; that is , it would have a hole in the middle . The Mint struck experimental pieces , and found that it was difficult to eject such pieces from the presses where they were struck , and that it was expensive to recover the silver from the alloy . Provisions for a smaller cent were dropped from the legislation that gave congressional approval for the three @-@ cent piece in 1851 . Numismatic historian Walter Breen suggested that one factor in rejecting the holed coins was that they reminded many of Chinese cash coins with their minimal purchasing value . A drop in copper prices in 1851 and early 1852 made the matter of a smaller cent less urgent at the Department of the Treasury , which supervised Mint activities .
Copper prices resurged in late 1852 and into 1853 past the $ 0 @.@ 40 per pound that the Mint viewed as the break @-@ even point for cent manufacture after considering the cost of production ; 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of copper made 42 ⅔ large cents . In 1853 , patterns using a base @-@ metal alloy were struck using a quarter eagle obverse die , about the size of a dime . Some of the proposed alloys contained the metal nickel . Also considered for use in the cent was " French bronze " ( 95 % copper with the remainder tin and zinc ) and various varieties of German silver . In his 1854 annual report , Mint Director James Ross Snowden advocated the issue of small , bronze cents , as well as the elimination of the half cent , which he described as useless in commerce . A number of pattern cents were struck in 1854 and 1855 . These featured various designs , including several depictions of Liberty and two adaptations of work by the late Mint chief engraver , Christian Gobrecht : one showing a seated Liberty , which Gobrecht had placed on the silver coins in the 1830s , and another of a flying eagle , which Gobrecht had created based upon a sketch by Titian Peale .
= = Preparation = =
In early 1856 , Snowden proposed legislation to allow him to issue a smaller cent , but leaving the size and metallic composition up to him and Secretary of the Treasury James Guthrie . Under the plan , the new piece would be legal tender , up to ten cents . It would be issued in exchange for the old Spanish silver still circulating in the United States . In the exchange , the Spanish silver would be given full value ( 12 ½ cents per real , or bit ) when normally such pieces traded at about a 20 % discount due to wear . The loss the government would take on the trade would be paid for by the seignorage on the base @-@ metal pieces . The new cents would also be issued for the old cents , and in exchange for the same value in half cents — that denomination was to be discontinued . The bill was introduced in the Senate on March 25 , 1856 . The old cent weighed 168 grains ( 10 @.@ 9 g ) ; on April 16 , the bill was amended to provide for a cent of at least 95 % copper weighing at least 96 grains ( 6 @.@ 2 g ) and passed the Senate in that form .
While the legislation was being considered , Mint Melter and Refiner James Curtis Booth was conducting experiments on alloys that might be appropriate for the new cent . In July 1856 , Snowden wrote to Guthrie , proposing an alloy of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel as ideal and suggesting amendments to the pending bill that would accomplish this . Booth also wrote to Guthrie to boost the alloy ; both men proposed a weight of 72 grains ( 4 @.@ 7 g ) as convenient as 80 cents would | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
draw listeners into the borough 's lifestyle with poetic efficiency . " Touré , writing for Rolling Stone , hailed Nas as an elite rapper because of his articulation , detailed lyrics , and Rakim @-@ like tone , all of which he said " pair [ Illmatic 's ] every beautiful moment with its harsh antithesis . "
Christopher John Farley of Time praised the album as a " wake @-@ up call to [ Nas ' ] listeners " and commended him for rendering rather than glorifying " the rough world he comes from " . USA Today 's James T. Jones IV cited his lyrics as " the most urgent poetry since Public Enemy 's " and also commended Nas for honestly depicting dismal ghetto life without resorting to the sensationalism and misogyny of contemporary gangsta rappers . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post praised Nas for " balancing limitations and possibilities , distinguishing hurdles and springboards , and acknowledging his own growth from roughneck adolescent to a maturing adult who can respect and criticize the culture of violence that surrounds him " .
In a mixed review , Heidi Siegmund of the Los Angeles Times found most of Illmatic hampered by " tired attitudes and posturing " , and interpreted its acclaim from East Coast critics as " an obvious attempt to wrestle hip @-@ hop away from the West " . Charles Aaron of Spin felt that the comparisons to Rakim " will be more deserved " if Nas can expand on his ruminative lyrics with " something more personally revealing " . In his review for Playboy , Robert Christgau called it " New York 's typically spare and loquacious entry in the post @-@ gangsta sweepstakes " and recommended it to listeners who " crave full @-@ bore authenticity without brutal posturing " .
A February 19 , 2014 Village Voice cover story ranked Illmatic as the Most New York City album ever .
= = = The Source = = =
Upon its release , The Source gave Illmatic a five mic rating , their highest rating and a prestigious achievement at the time , given the magazine 's influence in the hip hop community . Jon Shecter , co @-@ founder of The Source , had received a copy of the album eight months before its scheduled release , after which he raved about it , and soon lobbied for it to receive a five mic rating . In his twitter blog , Schecter recounts hearing Illmatic in a meeting with editors on the staff :
It 's about 9pm … I get to the office and I gather all the heads in the conference room . I remember who was there : @ MatteoGlen [ the twitter account of Matty C , then The Source 's " Unsigned Hype " editor ] @ CeeWild [ twitter account of Chris Wilder , another editor ] , @ FrozenFiles [ twitter account of Schott ' Free ' Jacobs , another contemporary editor ] . Everyone is nodding their heads , eyes wide , mouths open , it 's hip @-@ hop paradise . We had a pretty shitty system in there but it didn ’ t matter , I pop in the tape and the powerful musical magic emits from the speakers . When those funky / eerie / powerful xylophone notes from ' One Love ' come on , I remember @ FrozenFiles is literally lying on the floor … He can ’ t comprehend how good it is . None of us can . It 's the best shit we ’ ve heard in our lives … Internally , we start debating how we ’ re gonna handle this . I say right away that it 's gotta get a " 5 "
Eventually , the review for Illmatic was handled by the magazine 's columnist Minya Oh ( then writing under the nom de plume , " shortie " ) , who shared Schecter 's enthusiasm for Nas 's album . In her review of Illmatic , Minyah wrote , " I must maintain this is one of the best hip @-@ hop albums I have ever heard " and wrote of its content , " Lyrically , the whole shit is on point . No cliched metaphors , no gimmicks . Never too abstract , never superficial . " She also commented on the impact of Nas 's " poetic realism " writing : “ Nas ’ images remind me of the personal memories and people , both passed and present … All this may sound like melodrama but it not just me . I 've been hearing similar responses all over . While ' Memory Lane ' is my shit , my homies claim ' The World Is Yours , ' and if you 've got peoples doing time , then ' One Love ' may hit you the hardest . " . With the backing of Schecter and the other editors on the staff , Minya awarded Illmatic with the magazine 's highest rating .
= = = = Controversy = = = =
At the time , it was unheard of for a debuting artist to receive the coveted rating . Author Matthew Gasteier writes , “ It 's difficult to overestimate the impact of receiving the five out of five mics , the first such rating given to any new release by the magazine since its then @-@ editor Reginald Dennis put a moratorium on them . " Reginald Dennis , former music editor of the magazine and XXL co @-@ founder , later recounted , " Awarding records 5 mics – classic status – has always been , on some levels , troubling to me . I mean , we are not only saying that a particular piece of music is superior to everything that is out now , but it will be better than most things released in the future as well [ ... ] I only gave one 5 under my watch and it went to Nas 's Illmatic . " Dennis cited it as " the only time I ever broke the ' no 5 ' rule " and added , " I told Jon that we 'd work all of that stuff out when it was time to review the album . But everyday , Jon was like , ' yo , this album is 5 mics — seriously , Reg , 5 mics ! '
The rating did not come without its share of controversy . Reginald Dennis described to the reaction that followed Minya Oh 's review : " I was happy , Jon was happy , Nas was happy , everybody was happy — except for all of the people who felt that The Chronic should have also gotten a 5 . " Only two years prior , Dr. Dre 's groundbreaking The Chronic failed to earn the coveted rating , despite redefining the musical landscape of hip hop . It was later revealed that while everybody at the magazine knew it was an instant classic , they decided to comply with the strict policy of staying away from a perfect rating . Subsequently , when Nas 's album was exempted from this moratorium , many fans pointed to this decision as a confirmation of journalistic bias towards East Coast hip hop . Despite receiving criticism over his staff 's earlier review of The Chronic , Reginald Dennis continues to defend the decision to award Illmatic with the magazine 's highest rating : " I ’ m just happy that Illmatic is universally acclaimed as a classic , so no one can accuse me of dropping the ball ... And if I hadn ’ t gone through what I did with The Chronic , I wouldn ’ t have had the flexibility to allow for the bending of my policy . So I think it all worked out well . ”
= = = Retrospect = = =
Since its initial reception , Illmatic has been viewed by music writers as one of the quintessential hip hop recordings of the 1990s , while its rankings near the top of many publications ' " best album " lists in disparate genres have given it a reputation as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time . Jon Pareles of The New York Times cited Illmatic as a " milestone in trying to capture the ' street ghetto essence ' " . The album has been described by a number of writers and critics as " classic " . Chris Ryan , writing in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called Illmatic " a portrait of an artist as a hood , loner , tortured soul , juvenile delinquent , and fledgling social critic , " and wrote that it " still stands as one of rap 's crowning achievements " . Similar to The Source 's initial sentiment , XXL later gave the album a classic " XXL " rating in a retrospective review . In a retrospective review for MSN Music , Christgau said the record was " better than I thought at the time for sure — as happens with aesthetes sometimes , the purists heard subtleties principled vulgarians like me were disinclined to enjoy " , although he still found it inferior to The Notorious B.I.G. ' s debut album Ready to Die ( 1994 ) . In 2002 , Prefix Mag 's Matthew Gasteier re @-@ examined Illmatic and its musical significance , stating :
Illmatic is the best hip @-@ hop record ever made . Not because it has ten great tracks with perfect beats and flawless rhymes , but because it encompasses everything great about hip @-@ hop that makes the genre worthy of its place in music history . Stylistically , if every other hip @-@ hop record were destroyed , the entire genre could be reconstructed from this one album . But in spirit , Illmatic can just as easily be compared to Ready to Die , It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , and Enter the Wu @-@ Tang as it can to Rites of Spring , A Hard Day 's Night , Innervisions , and Never Mind the Bollocks . In Illmatic , you find the meaning not just of hip @-@ hop , but of music itself : the struggle of youth to retain its freedom , which is ultimately the struggle of man to retain his own essence .
Illmatic has been included in numerous publications ' " best album " lists in disparate genres . Pitchfork listed the album at number 33 on its list of the Top 100 Albums of the 1990s , and the publication 's columnist Hartley Goldstein called the album " the meticulously crafted essence of everything that makes hip @-@ hop music great ; it 's practically a sonic strand of the genre 's DNA . " It was listed as one of 33 hip hop / R & B albums in Rolling Stone 's " Essential Recordings of the 90s " . It was ranked number five in " The Critics Top 100 Black Music Albums of All Time " and number three in Hip Hop Connection 's " Top 100 Readers Poll " . The album was also ranked number four in Vibe 's list of the Top 10 Rap Albums and number two on MTV 's list of The Greatest Hip Hop Albums of All Time . In 1998 , it was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 400 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ; it was ranked number 314 in a revised list in 2012 . On March 30 , 2004 , Illmatic was remastered and re @-@ released with a bonus disc of remixes and new material produced by Marley Marl and Large Professor , in commemoration of its tenth anniversary . Upon its 2004 re @-@ release , Marc Hill of PopMatters dubbed it " the greatest album of all time " and stated , " Ten years after its release , Illmatic stands not only as the best hip @-@ hop album ever made , but also one of the greatest artistic productions of the twentieth century . " The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = East Coast Hip @-@ Hop = = =
Illmatic has been noted as one of the most influential hip hop albums of all time , with pundits describing it as an archetypal East Coast hip hop album . Jeff Weiss of Pitchfork writes : " No album better reflected the sound and style of New York , 94 . The alembic of soul jazz samples , SP @-@ 1200s , broken nose breaks , and raw rap distilled the Henny , no chaser ideal of boom bap . " Citing Illmatic as part of a string of notable albums released in 1994 , David Drake of Stylus Magazine writes " This was the critical point for the East Coast , a time when rappers from the New York area were releasing bucketloads of thrilling work " . John Bush of Allmusic compares Illmatic to another DJ Premier production , The Sun Rises in the East ( 1994 ) , as " one of the quintessential East Coast records " . Along with the critical acclaim of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) ( 1993 ) and the success of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s debut Ready to Die ( 1994 ) , Illmatic was also instrumental in restoring interest in the East Coast hip hop scene . " Rarely has the birthplace of hip @-@ hop , " wrote Rob Marriott of Complex , " been so unanimous in praise of a rap record and the MC who made it . " As Nas later recounted : " It felt amazing to be accepted by New York City in that way ... at the time a lot of West Coast hip @-@ hop was selling ; East Coast wasn 't selling as much , especially for a new artist . So back then you couldn 't tell in the sales , but you could tell in the streets " .
= = = = Production = = = =
Illmatic has been noted as a creative high point for East Coast hip hop , since it featured production from renowned New York @-@ based producers Large Professor , Pete Rock and DJ Premier . The album solidified the reputation of these producers , whose contributions to Illmatic became influential in shaping the soundscape of New York 's regional scene . According to music writer Rob Marriott , Illmatic helped to establish DJ Premier as " the go @-@ to producer for the jazz @-@ and @-@ blues @-@ inflected knock that became so central to East Coast sound . "
Following the album 's release , hip hop artists increasingly began to draw upon a broad stable of producers for their projects . At the time , the assembly of big @-@ name producers was unprecedented , since most hip hop albums had primarily been the work of one dedicated producer and sometimes an embedded production team . Yet author Adam Mansbach reflects on the impact of Illmatic 's noteworthy producers , writing : " The psychological impact on the listener of having all these elite producers – some of whom , like Q @-@ Tip , really weren ’ t known yet for doing outside production work at all – coming together to lace the debut of this kid from Queensbridge was tremendous . " This same template would also be used by other successful East Coast rappers . In an article on New York hip hop , Mosi Reeves of Creative Loafing wrote that " Nas ' Illmatic . . . is the first to draw together top hip hop producers in the recording industry . That formula , most successfully mined by the late Notorious B.I.G. ( 1997 's Life After Death ) , Puff Daddy ( 1997 's No Way Out ) and Jay @-@ Z ( 1998 's Vol . 2 ... Hard Knock Life ) , is what most N.Y. prospects still use today . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times writes that after Illmatic 's release , “ [ I ] t became commonplace for rappers to search around for different producers who could enhance their sound . "
Yet while hip @-@ hop artists continue to draw upon this template for album production , the practice has earned some criticism . In an article titled , " How Nas ' " Illmatic " Ruined Hip @-@ Hop , " Insanul Ahmed of Complex argues that one " unintended consequence " of Illmatic was the overall decline in the cohesion and quality of rap albums : " Next thing you knew , rap albums started having a different producer for every song . And like a film that has a different director for every scene , albums became unfocused affairs . This also meant that producers weren ’ t tied to artists anymore . "
= = = = Queensbridge = = = =
Illmatic is also credited with reviving the Queensbridge rap scene . Once home to prestigious pioneers such as Marley Marl , MC Shan , Roxanne Shanté , Queensbridge had been one of the most productive hip hop scenes in the country during the 1980s . In an April 2006 article , an XXL columnist wrote of the history and impact of the Queensbridge hip hop scene , stating " Since the 1980s , New York City 's Queensbridge Housing Projects has been documented perhaps better than any other geographic location . Starting with super producer Marley Marl 's dominant Juice Crew in the ’ 80s all the way through ’ 90s mainstays like Nas , Cormega and Capone , the Bridge has produced the highest per @-@ capita talent of any ’ hood . " Yet during the early 1990s , the Queensbridge rap scene was otherwise stagnant . According to Nas : " I was coming from the legacy of Marley Marl , MC Shan , Juice Crew kind of vibe . Knowing these guys out in the neighborhood . At that time , the Queensbridge scene was dead . Dropping that album right there said a lot for me to carry on the legacy of the Queensbridge pioneers . "
Following Illmatic 's release , Queensbridge returned to prominence after years of obscurity , with the ascendancy of the influential hardcore rap group , Mobb Deep ( who gained credibility due to their affiliation with Nas ) and later with the emergence of the trend @-@ setting duo , Capone @-@ n @-@ Noreaga . Nas appeared on Mobb Deep 's critically acclaimed studio album The Infamous ( 1995 ) . Furthermore , the album is credited with launching the career of the East New York @-@ based rapper , AZ . AZ , who gained instant exposure and underground credibility due to his appearance on " Life 's a Bitch " , became a frequent collaborator of Nas , who appeared on his debut album Doe or Die ( 1995 ) .
= = = = Decline of Alternative Hip @-@ Hop = = = =
Illmatic was one of the first major recordings to emerge from New York 's burgeoning hardcore hip hop scene , at a time when much of East Coast hip hop was still dominated by alternative hip hop acts such as A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul ( groups often known for their jazz @-@ inspired production and playful sensibilities ) . Adam Heimlich of The New York Press comments on the appeal of alternative hip @-@ hop in New York City 's music scene , and points out that , " In 1994 , there appeared likely to be more money ( and definitely more cultural rewards ) in working with Arrested Development or Digable Planets . "
Yet according to Heimlich , Illmatic provided an " explosive , explicit rejection of the cultural assimilation of most previous hip @-@ hop , " due to its rugged use of language and its uncompromising portrayal of crime . Heimlich cites Nas ' role in the resurgent hardcore movement , writing : " [ Nas ] came on the scene as hardcore 's golden child . Along with Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Nas and Mobb Deep . . . all but invented 90s New York rap , back when the notion of an ' East Coast gangsta ' still meant Schoolly D or Kool G. Rap . Those three ... designed the manner and style in which New York artists would address what Snoop and Dre had made rap 's hottest topics : drugs and violence . " Similarly , Duke University Professor , Mark Anthony Neal , writes , “ Nas was at the forefront of a renaissance of East Coast hip hop ” in which “ ... a distinct East Coast style of so @-@ called gangsta rap appeared , ” as heard in similarly styled recordings such as Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's “ C.R.E.A.M. ” and Notorious B.I.G. ' s " Everyday Struggle " .
According to Steve Huey of Allmusic , while Illmatic contains strong elements of jazz rap , it nonetheless signaled a major regional shift towards hardcore aesthetics , marking " the beginning of a shift away from Native Tongues @-@ inspired alternative rap . " Professor Sohail Dalautzai of the University of Southern California comments on Illmatic 's indebtedness to hardcore hip hop : “ [ B ] ecause in bridging the gap and embodying the street swagger of Kool G Rap , the metaphysics of Rakim , and the revolutionary lumpen philosophies of Ice Cube , Nas ... unified the disparate threads of urban rebellion that were conflagrating from hip @-@ hop 's street corner ciphers . ”
= = = = West Coast Hip @-@ Hop = = = =
The critical acclaim surrounding the album also helped to shift attention away from the melodious , synth @-@ driven , and funk @-@ induced G @-@ funk subgenre , which dominated the charts for some time after Dr. Dre 's The Chronic ( 1992 ) . Citing the example of Snoop Dogg 's wildly popular Doggystyle ( released six months prior to Nas ' debut ) author Matthew Gasteier writes , " The first thing immediately noticeable about the [ Source magazine ] review , is that , like essentially every other review about Illmatic in publications like Vibe , Spin , Rolling Stones , and The New York Times , it mentions Snoop Doggy Dogg 's Doggystyle in the first paragraph . " That nearly every reviewer felt the need to contextualize their response to Illmatic within the frame of West Coast G @-@ Funk " is a reminder of just how pervasive the style was within the hip hop world and the music community as a whole . "
Yet according to writer Mickey Hess , Illmatic was among those East Coast records that helped " create sparse , rough and rugged soundscapes that clearly differed from Dre 's multi @-@ layered melodies . " As Allmusic 's Steve Huey writes , " It helped spearhead the artistic renaissance of New York hip hop in the post @-@ Chronic era , leading a return to street aesthetics . " Contrasting these aesthetics with the themes found in G @-@ Funk , writer and filmmaker Dream Hampton writes , " Illmatic was a dirty bomb thrown at the orchestral sonic soundtrack that was The Chronic ... This wasn ’ t a backyard bikini barbeque where the Ohio Players and DJ Quik were mashed up ; this was a three @-@ month bid on Rikers Island , a dirty dice game , blunts of brown Brooklyn sparked in the park after dark . "
Despite these regional differences , Hampton credits Illmatic with providing a common artistic ground for rappers on the West Coast and East Coast rap scenes . In the 2009 essay " Born Alone , Die Alone , " she recounts the album 's impact on West Coast artist , Tupac Shakur . While working as a journalist for The Source in 1994 , Hampton covered three court cases involving Tupac . Around this time , she received an advance @-@ copy of Illmatic and immediately dubbed a cassette version for Tupac , who became " an instant convert " of the album . The next day , she writes , Tupac " arrived in his assigned courtroom blasting Illmatic so loudly that the bailiff yelled at him to turn it off before the judge took his seat on the bench . " In her essay , Hampton implies that Nas ' lyricism might have influenced Tupac 's acclaimed album , Me Against the World , which was recorded that same year .
West Coast artist The Game also recounts the impact of Illmatic for fans like himself outside of New York . In his collaboration with Nas on " Hustlers " ( 2006 ) , he retells an episode taking place during his youth , where he decided to shoplift both Illmatic and The Chronic : " 1995 , eleven years from the day / I 'm in the record shop with choices to make Illmatic on the top shelf , The Chronic on the left , homie / Wanna cop both but only got a twenty on me / So fuck it , I stole both , spent the twenty on a dub @-@ sack / Ripped the package of Illmatic and bumped that / For my niggas it was too complex when Nas rhymed / I was the only Compton nigga with a New York State of Mind "
= = = Lyricism = = =
During the time of its release , Illmatic brought a renewed focus on lyricism to hip hop — hearkening back to the heyday of Kool G Rap , Big Daddy Kane , and Rakim . Music journalist Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote of Illmatic , stating that Nas " perfected a dense , rat @-@ a @-@ tat rhyme style that built upon the legacy of 1980s pioneers like Rakim and Big Daddy Kane . " In his book To the Break of Dawn : A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic , William Jelani Cobb writes of Nas ' impact on lyricism and the comparisons to eminent rapper Rakim at the time :
Nas , the poetic sage of the Queensbridge projects , was hailed as the second coming of Rakim — as if the first had reached his expiration date . [ ... ] Nas never became ' the next Rakim , ' nor did he really have to . Illmatic stood on its own terms . The sublime lyricism of the CD , combined with the fact that it was delivered into the crucible of the boiling East @-@ West conflict , quickly solidified [ his ] reputation as the premier writer of his time .
Despite its initial low sales , the album had a profound impact on the hip hop underground circuit , and marked a major stylistic change in hip hop music by introducing a new standard of lyricism . Before the album 's release , hip @-@ hop lyricism was mostly defined by two popular forms . One was characterized by a fast @-@ paced ragga @-@ flow accompanied with a whimsical , often nonsensical lyrical delivery , and had been popularized by the Brooklyn @-@ based groups Das EFX and The Fu @-@ Schnickens . The other was characterized by a slurred " lazy drawl " that sacrificed lyrical complexity for clarity and rhythmic cadence , and was exemplified by West Coast hip hop emcees including Snoop Doggy Dogg and Warren G. However , Nas ' content , verbal pace , and intricate internal rhyme patterns inspired several rappers to modify their lyrical abilities . Music critic Rob Marriott notes , " [ R ] appers like Mobb Deep , Tragedy Khadafi , Nature , Cormega , Noreaga , Capone , Raekwon , Ghostface , and even the Windy City wordsmith Common seemed to find new inspiration in Nas ' self awareness , internal rhyme schemes , and mastery of street detail . " Marriott also describes the impact of Illmatic 's " poetic approach " on Jay @-@ Z , writing : " The Brooklyn MC switched his style up from his fast @-@ talking Jaz @-@ O days enough to produce Reasonable Doubt , an album marked by Nas @-@ like introspection ... "
Many rappers have taken note of Illmatic 's influence on their lyricism . Ghostface Killah recounted , “ When I used to listen to Nas back in the days , it was like , ‘ Oh shit ! He murdered that . ’ That forced me to get my pen game up ... The whole Illmatic album forced you to go ahead and do shit ... It was inspiration . " Detroit rapper Elzhi states , " [ A ] round the time Nas did Illmatic , it made me wanna step my game up ... He 's one of the reasons I did go off into storytelling because his pictures were so vivid . When he displayed his rhyme schemes and his word play and his songs , it made me wanna create visual pictures as well . " Casey Veggies also recounts the impact Nas ' lyricism had on his own work as an underground rapper in the 2000s : “ I [ got into ] Illmatic when I was 14 , 15 . I didn ’ t get onto to it till late , but when I did , that 's probably the only thing I listened to for six months to a year ... After I got heavy on Illmatic , I put out Sleeping In Class ( 2010 ) . That 's when I really tried to sharpen my skills and get better . ”
= = = = Hip @-@ Hop poetry = = = =
In addition to his rapping , Nas achieved significance for his poetic use of language . Professor Adilifu Nama of California State University Northridge writes , “ With Illmatic , hip @-@ hop witnessed the birth of an urban griot telling hard @-@ boiled tales of ghetto alienation and triumph like a spoken @-@ word of a Chester Himes novel " Author and music writer Todd Boyd wrote of Nas ' urban realism , stating that his " poetic lyrics are some of the most poignant words ever to describe the postindustrial urban experience . His spoken @-@ word like delivery and his vivid use of metaphor placed him at the top of the game in terms of overall skills as an MC and as a cultural commentator . " An OhWord.com columnist similarly described Nas as a " genius introvert who rose out of the rubble of Reaganomics to bless the mic with a forward brand of introspective , redemptive street poetry " . Princeton University professor Imani Perry also describes Illmatic as " ars poetica , a definitive statement for the art of hip @-@ hop poetry . "
According to author and poet Kevin Coval , Nas “ raise [ d ] the bar for MCs ” by advancing his lyricism “ from punch lines and hot lines to whole thought pictures manifest in rhyme form . ” Together with Paul Beatty ’ s seminal collection of poems , Joker Joker Deuce ( 1994 ) Coval cites the release of Illmatic as a " generational moment " that marked the development of hip hop poetry . Just as hip @-@ hop poetics were being written and published for the first time on paper , Nas provided a sonic production that definitively captured " the poetic response " to hip hop music . “ It is from this point on , ” he writes , “ that style , technique and craft merge with collage / pastiche , braggadocio , stark portrait @-@ painting from the margins , frenetic , fun and funny wordplay , and the rupture of linear storytelling schemes . These become tropes in a burgeoning school of American letters that 's moving toward an aesthetics of hip @-@ hop poetics . "
Many of the poetic tropes found in Illmatic have also become terms and phrases within hip @-@ hop lexicon . " ' The World Is Yours , ' Nas ' reference to the blimp in Scarface , " writes Rob Marriott , " has remained a trope hip @-@ hop has taken to heart ... Even the word " Illmatic " itself [ ... ] became synonymous with anything surprisingly excellent , street @-@ born and / or out of left field . " In 2013 , music writer Jeff Weiss commented on the extensive vernacular usage of Illmatic , writing : " The phrases and images are so deeply rooted in rap consciousness to have become cliché . Over the last 19 years , a million secret handshakes and scratched hooks have been executed to lines from Illmatic . "
= = = Hip @-@ Hop artists = = =
Many respected mainstream and underground rappers have acknowledged Illmatic 's influence . These wide range of artists include the battle rappers , SunN.Y. and Reef The Lost Cauze , conscious rappers Talib Kweli and Lupe Fiasco , the producers Just Blaze and 9th Wonder , as well as the platinum @-@ selling artists Wiz Khalifa , Alicia Keys and The Game , who makes references to the album on his debut , The Documentary In 2006 , Illmatic was featured in a list of acclaimed hip hop albums , compiled by Clipse . Malice , a member of the hip hop duo , claimed : " Illmatic captured the whole New York state of mind for me . It embraced everything I knew New York to be . The album had 10 songs , all of them flawless . Me and my homies got great memories of rolling around listening to that , huslin ' , smokin ' , chillin ' . That embodied everything that was right with hip @-@ hop . That CD never came out my deck . " Speaking in 2012 , British producer , DJ Semtex described Illmatic as " an exemplary album of perfection that forced the evolution of lyricism and production values within hip hop . Eighteen years later it remains omnipotent . "
In 2006 , Marc Mac of the electronic music duo 4hero , produced a cover version of " The World Is Yours " as part of his jazz and hip @-@ hip fusion project , The Visioneers . Lyrics from Illmatic have also been sampled by other rappers , most notably Big L 's " Ebonics " ( which samples " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " ) , Milkbone 's " Keep It Real " ( which samples " Life 's a Bitch " ) , Real Live 's " Real Live Shit " ( which samples " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " ) , Damu the Fudgemunk 's " Prosper " ft . Raw Poetic ( which samples " N.Y. State of Mind " ) , Blu & Exile 's " In Remembrance " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " and " One Love " ) , Mac Miller 's " Nikes On My Feet " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " ) and Jay @-@ Z 's " Rap Game / Crack Game " ( which samples " Represent " ) and " Dead Presidents II " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " ) .
= = = = Legacy and tributes = = = =
Since its release , Illmatic has become a benchmark for upcoming rappers whose albums are widely anticipated by critics . Hip hop pundits have viewed debut albums as crucial in generating publicity and shaping the legacy of an artist 's career . Given the historic anticipation and acclaim surrounding Nas ' debut , Illmatic has become a byword for this sort of phenomenon . As one columnist for the Complex Magazine writes , " Think about the question that pops into your head whenever a new rapper drops his first album : ' Is it the next Illmatic ? ' " In 2012 , the release of Kendrick Lamar 's album , Good Kid , M.A.A.D City , drew comparisons to Illmatic from critics and journalists . In an interview with 2 Dope Boyz , Lamar commented on these comparisons , stating :
“ Illmatic ? For people to even put my album in the light of that , is an accomplishment . It 's crazy to even be mentioned with it but it 's scary at the same time ... That era – I wanna say the age range now would be 30 , 30 to 40 – they can recognize this was the album . Illmatic ’ s the album for the ’ 90s era when I was growing up ... it 's just a weird feeling to be in that same type of light , ‘ cus it takes a whole lot of responsibility to keep that up in the long run and longevity , and that 's something I don ’ t have yet … so Illmatic will always be # 1 . ”
Illmatic has also been cited as a musical template for other hip hop artists . Common 's critically acclaimed album Be ( 2005 ) has been said to have been molded after Illmatic . In 2010 , underground hip hop artist Fashawn released the mixtape Ode to Illmatic to " pay homage , ' cause Illmatic was one of them kinda albums that really impacted my life ” . Detroit rapper Elzhi released a remake of Illmatic titled Elmatic ( 2011 ) . Taking note of a trend of tributes to Illmatic in 2011 , Richard Watson of The Guardian wrote , " To quote Nasir Jones himself ... ' It Ain 't Hard To Tell ' why today 's rappers are paying tribute to his debut album . Illmatic has become a totem , a work that both looked back into hip @-@ hop history and pointed towards its future . "
= = = Intellectual response = = =
Illmatic has also received notable attention from scholars and authors outside the music industry . Since its release , the album has become the subject of scholarship within academic and literary circles . In 2009 , as part of the 33 ⅓ book series , author Matthew Gasteier published a deconstruction of Illmatic , that focuses on the dualities that inform its narratives . In 2012 , playwright Shaun Neblett created a tribute play titled Homage 3 : Illmatic , which tells the story of an aspiring artist and explores the themes found in Nas ' debut . " [ A ] s its title suggests , " writes one reviewer , " ... the play is completely based on and acts as a tribute to Nas ’ Illmatic album . The rappers ’ bars come alive on stage through Homage 3 , which deliberately shows how intellectually well @-@ versed Nas truly is , and much bigger than that , how much Hip @-@ Hop has to offer , culturally , outside of the radio , clubs and the street . "
Illmatic is also the focus of a significant work of hip @-@ hop scholarship , Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic ( 2009 ) , edited by Michael Eric Dyson and Sohail Daulatzai . With contributions from figures such as Greg Tate , Adam Mansbach , Eddie Glaude , Dream Hampton , Marc Lamont Hill , and Suheir Hammad , Born to Use Mics ... is the first academic project to assemble a group of scholars , poets , filmmakers , journalists , novelists , and musicians to reflect on a specific hip hop album . In the introduction , Daulatzai explains the singular focus on Illmatic , writing :
[ S ] ome might ask , why Illmatic ? Why not Boogie Down Productions ’ Criminal Minded , Public Enemy ’ s It Takes a Nation to Hold Us Back , or Ice Cube ’ s AmeriKKKa 's Most Wanted ? No doubt these were great albums , coming at a moment when hip hop was cutting its teeth on social commentary and refining its ear on dusty breaks , hard snares , and sonic mayhem . But there is something about Illmatic that transcends the categories that have ever existed about hip @-@ hop . Something complex about its simplicity , something elusive that we felt we wanted to explore . Straight up though , Illmatic is just a dope album , embodying everything that is hip @-@ hop while mastering what matters most : beats and rhymes .
= = = = Hip @-@ Hop debates = = = =
Illmatic has also helped to shape the attitudes and perceptions of hip hop fans , who cherish it as a music template that defines the genre 's conventions . As music critic Jeff Weiss writes , “ Illmatic is the gold standard that boom @-@ bap connoisseurs refer to in the same way that Baby Boomers talk about Highway 61 Revisited . The evidence they point to when they want to say : this is how good it can be . ” New York Times columnist Jon Caramanica also credits the album with inadvertently spawning hip hop 's counterculture . " Illmatic " he writes , " mobilized a national network of dissidents craving something true to the streets but eager to distance themselves from what was beginning to be perceived as a scourge – gangster rap . " According to Caramanica , Nas ' debut was received by these fans as a " rebuke " towards trends that were beginning to shape mainstream rap : " the pop crossover , the exuberant production values , [ and ] the splintering of rap into blithe and concerned wings . "
For this reason , Caramanica considers Illmatic to be " unusually significant to the intellectual development of the [ hip @-@ hop ] genre " yet he also remains critical of the divisiveness spawned by its " zealots . " In his essay , " ' Night Time is More Trife Than Ever ' : The Many Misuses of Nas , " he writes : " Illmatic is responsible for countless pointless ' rap versus hip @-@ hop debates , ' a shocking amount of hip @-@ hop self @-@ righteousness , the emergence of the backpack movement as something more than a regional curio , and the persistence of the idea that lyricism is the only standard great rap music should be held to . " Commenting on these polarized debates , Jeff Weiss suggests that Illmatic is " best heard by ignoring the dogma , culture wars , Nas clones , and would @-@ be saviors that have accreted since April of 1994 . Who cares whether it 's the greatest rap album of all @-@ time or not ? It 's an example of how great rap can be , but not necessarily the way it should be . " '
= = = Subsequent work by Nas = = =
While its success helped Nas ' career immeasurably , hip hop aficionados have cited the album as his inextricable " gift and curse " . Due to its critical fame , Nas ' subsequent studio albums have been weighed against Illmatic , despite all of them outselling his debut . Against this standard , they are often critically deemed as mediocre follow @-@ ups . After manager Steve Stoute convinced Nas to aim his efforts in a more commercial direction for his follow @-@ up album It Was Written ( 1996 ) , he enlisted the production team Trackmasters , who were known for their mainstream work at the time . It was criticized for its embrace of gangsta / mafioso themes and materialistic subject matter , but proved to be a commercial success , selling over three million copies . Critics gave it mixed reviews , and general consensus was that it failed to live up to the classic status of Illmatic . Many fans of Illmatic labeled his subsequent efforts as ' selling out ' , due to his crossover sensibilities ( e.g. his participation with the hip hop group The Firm ) and radio @-@ friendly hits aimed at the pop charts , such as " If I Ruled the World ( Imagine That ) " ( 1996 ) and " Hate Me Now " ( 1999 ) .
When he released his third and fourth studio albums , I Am … and Nastradamus ( 1999 ) , which underwent editing due to bootlegging of the recording sessions , many fans and critics feared that his career was deteriorating , as both albums received further criticism for their commercially oriented sound . Reflecting this widespread perception in the hip hop community and adding to his ongoing feud with Nas at the time , Jay @-@ Z mocked him in the song " Takeover " ( 2001 ) for having a " one hot album [ Illmatic ] every ten year average " . A journalist writing for The Source commented on the demanding legacy of Nas ' debut : " Blame excellence , blame perfection and aggression . Blame one of hip @-@ hop 's most beautiful moments for the prison that traps Nasir Jones today – blame Illmatic . " Nas , however , made something of a comeback with his fifth album Stillmatic ( 2001 ) and the acclaimed follow @-@ up God 's Son ( 2002 ) , as well as The Lost Tapes ( 2002 ) , a compilation of previously unreleased tracks from the I Am … and Nastradamus sessions . Afterwards , his subsequent albums have all been well received by critics . Nevertheless , most fans have regarded Illmatic as his definitive album .
In 2011 , Nas performed the album in its entirety at Rock the Bells music festival . The show featured the album 's personnel , including Pete Rock , DJ Premier , and AZ , and a stage design depicting the urban landscape of Queensbridge , with graffiti @-@ lined streets , a subway entrance , and models of Queensbridge 's housing project . In 2012 , he also performed the album in its entirety at South by Southwest music festival , with the same personnel and stage design . Illmatic will be reissued as a deluxe CD bundled with a 48 @-@ page hardcover book featuring photos , reproduced artwork , lyrics , and liner notes courtesy of The Source founder Jon Schecter .
In 2014 Nas announced Illmatic XX , the 20th Anniversary Edition of the original album Illmatic , released April 15 , 4 days prior to the 20th Anniversary of the original 's release date ( April 19 ) . Illmatic XX includes a remastered version of Illmatic , an extra disc of demos , remixes , and unreleased records from that era of Nas ' career . He also announced his plans for a tour where he will perform the whole album front to back on each stop .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Samples = = =
= = Personnel = =
Faith N. - Executive Producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to Illmatic is adapted from Acclaimed Music .
= Siege of Constantinople ( 717 – 718 ) =
The Second Arab siege of Constantinople in 717 – 718 ( 98 – 100 AH ) was a combined land and sea offensive by the Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate against the capital city of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople . The campaign marked the culmination of twenty years of attacks and progressive Arab occupation of the Byzantine borderlands , while Byzantine strength was sapped by prolonged internal turmoil . In 716 , after years of preparations , the Arabs , led by Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , invaded Byzantine Asia Minor . The Arabs initially hoped to exploit Byzantine civil strife and made common cause with the general Leo III the Isaurian , who had risen up against Emperor Theodosius III . Leo , however , tricked them and secured the Byzantine throne for himself .
After wintering in the western coastlands of Asia Minor , the Arab army crossed into Thrace in early summer 717 and built siege lines to blockade the city , which was protected by the massive Theodosian Walls . The Arab fleet , which accompanied the land army and was meant to complete the city 's blockade by sea , was neutralized soon after its arrival by the Byzantine navy through the use of Greek fire . This allowed Constantinople to be resupplied by sea , while the Arab army was crippled by famine and disease during the unusually hard winter that followed . In spring 718 , two Arab fleets sent as reinforcements were destroyed by the Byzantines after their Christian crews defected , and an additional army sent overland through Asia Minor was ambushed and defeated . Coupled with attacks by the Bulgars on their rear , the Arabs were forced to lift the siege on 15 August 718 . On its return journey , the Arab fleet was almost completely destroyed by natural disasters and Byzantine attacks .
The siege 's failure had wide @-@ ranging repercussions . The rescue of Constantinople ensured the continued survival of Byzantium , while the Caliphate 's strategic outlook was altered : although regular attacks on Byzantine territories continued , the goal of outright conquest was abandoned . Historians consider the siege to be one of history 's most important battles , as its failure postponed the Muslim advance into Southeastern Europe for centuries .
= = Background = =
Following the first Arab siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) , the Arabs and Byzantines experienced a period of peace . After 680 , the Umayyad Caliphate was in the throes of the Second Muslim Civil War and the consequent Byzantine ascendancy in the East enabled the emperors to extract huge amounts of tribute from the Umayyad government in Damascus . In 692 , as the Umayyads emerged as victors from the Muslim Civil War , Emperor Justinian II ( r . 685 – 695 and 705 – 711 ) re @-@ opened hostilities . The result was a series of Arab victories that led to the loss of Byzantine control over Armenia and the Caucasian principalities , and a gradual encroachment upon Byzantine borderlands . Year by year , the Caliphate 's generals , usually members of the Umayyad family , launched raids into Byzantine territory and captured fortresses and towns . After 712 , the Byzantine defensive system began to show signs of collapse : Arab raids penetrated further and further into Asia Minor , border fortresses were repeatedly attacked and sacked , and references to Byzantine reaction in the sources become more and more scarce . In this , the Arabs were aided by the prolonged period of internal instability that followed the first deposition of Justinian II in 695 , in which the Byzantine throne changed hands seven times in violent coups . In the words of the Byzantinist Warren Treadgold , " the Arab attacks would in any case have intensified after the end of their own civil war ... With far more men , land and wealth than Byzantium , the Arabs had begun to concentrate all their strength against it . Now they threatened to extinguish the empire entirely by capturing its capital . "
= = Opening stages of the campaign = =
The Arab successes opened the way for a second assault on Constantinople , an undertaking already initiated under Caliph al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) . Following his death , his brother and successor Sulayman ( r . 715 – 717 ) took up the project with increased vigour , according to Arab accounts because of a prophecy that a Caliph bearing the name of a prophet would capture Constantinople ; Sulayman ( Solomon ) was the only member of the Umayyad family to bear such a name . According to Syriac sources , the new Caliph swore " to not stop fighting against Constantinople before having exhausted the country of the Arabs or to have taken the city " . The Umayyad forces began assembling at the plain of Dabiq north of Aleppo , under the direct supervision of the Caliph . As Sulayman was too sick to campaign himself , however , he entrusted command to his brother Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik . The operation against Constantinople came at a time when the Umayyad state was undergoing a period of continuous expansion to the east and west . Muslim armies advanced into Transoxiana , India and the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania .
Arab preparations , especially the construction of a large fleet , did not go unnoticed by the worried Byzantines . Emperor Anastasios II ( r . 713 – 715 ) sent an embassy to Damascus under the patrician and urban prefect , Daniel of Sinope , ostensibly in order to plea for peace , but in reality to spy on the Arabs . Anastasios , in turn , began to prepare for the inevitable siege : the fortifications of Constantinople were repaired and equipped with ample artillery ( catapults and other siege weapons ) , while food stores were brought into the city . In addition , those inhabitants who could not stockpile food for at least three years were evacuated . Anastasios strengthened his navy and in early 715 dispatched it against the Arab fleet that had come to Phoenix — usually identified with modern Finike in Lycia , it may also be modern Fenaket across Rhodes , or perhaps Phoenicia ( modern Lebanon ) , famed for its cedar forests — to collect timber for their ships . At Rhodes , however , the Byzantine fleet , encouraged by the soldiers of the Opsician Theme , rebelled , killed their commander John the Deacon and sailed north to Adramyttium . There , they acclaimed a reluctant tax collector , Theodosius , as emperor . Anastasios crossed into Bithynia in the Opsician Theme to confront the rebellion , but the rebel fleet sailed on to Chrysopolis . From there , it launched attacks against Constantinople , until , in late summer , sympathizers within the capital opened its gates to them . Anastasios held out at Nicaea for several months , finally agreeing to resign and retire as a monk . The accession of Theodosios , who from the sources comes across as both unwilling and incapable , as a puppet emperor of the Opsicians provoked the reaction of the other themes , especially the Anatolics and the Armeniacs under their respective strategoi ( generals ) Leo the Isaurian and Artabasdos .
In these conditions of near @-@ civil war , the Arabs began their carefully prepared advance . In September 715 , the vanguard , under general Sulayman ibn Mu 'ad , marched over Cilicia into Asia Minor , taking the strategic fortress of Loulon on its way . They wintered at Afik , an unidentified location near the western exit of the Cilician Gates . In early 716 , Sulayman 's army continued into central Asia Minor . The Umayyad fleet under Umar ibn Hubayra cruised along the Cilician coast , while Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik awaited developments with the main army in Syria .
The Arabs hoped that the disunity among the Byzantines would play to their advantage . Maslama had already established contact with Leo the Isaurian . French scholar Rodolphe Guilland theorized that Leo offered to become a vassal of the Caliphate , although the Byzantine general intended to use the Arabs for his own purposes . In turn , Maslama supported Leo hoping to maximize confusion and weaken the Empire , easing his own task of taking Constantinople .
Sulayman 's first objective was the strategically important fortress of Amorium , which the Arabs intended to use as a base the following winter . Amorium had been left defenceless in the turmoil of the civil war and would have easily fallen , but the Arabs chose to bolster Leo 's position as a counterweight to Theodosios . They offered the city terms of surrender if its inhabitants would acknowledge Leo as emperor . The fortress capitulated , but still did not open its gates to the Arabs . Leo came to the vicinity with a handful of soldiers and executed a series of ruses and negotiations to garrison 800 men in the town . The Arab army , thwarted in its objective and with supplies running low , withdrew . Leo escaped to Pisidia and , in summer , supported by Artabasdos , was proclaimed and crowned as Byzantine emperor , openly challenging Theodosios .
Leo 's success at Amorium was fortunately timed , since Maslama with the main Arab army had in the meantime crossed the Taurus Mountains and was marching straight for the city . In addition , as the Arab general had not received news of Leo 's double @-@ dealing , he did not devastate the territories he marched through — the Armeniac and Anatolic themes , whose governors he still believed to be his allies . On meeting up with Sulayman 's retreating army and learning what had transpired , Maslama changed direction : he attacked Akroinon and from there marched to the western coastlands to spend the winter . On his way , he sacked Sardis and Pergamon . The Arab fleet wintered in Cilicia . Leo , in the meantime , began his own march on Constantinople . He captured Nicomedia , where he found and captured , among other officials , Theodosios 's son , and then marched to Chrysopolis . In spring 717 , after short negotiations , he secured Theodosios 's resignation and his recognition as emperor , entering the capital on 25 March . Theodosios and his son were allowed to retire to a monastery as monks , while Artabasdos was promoted to the position of kouropalates and received the hand of Leo 's daughter , Anna .
= = Opposing forces = =
From the outset , the Arabs prepared for a major assault on Constantinople . The late 8th @-@ century Syriac Zuqnin Chronicle reports that the Arabs were " innumerable " , while the 12th @-@ century Syriac chronicler Michael the Syrian mentions a much @-@ inflated 200 @,@ 000 men and 5 @,@ 000 ships . The 10th @-@ century Arab writer al @-@ Mas 'udi mentions 120 @,@ 000 troops , and the account of Theophanes the Confessor 1 @,@ 800 ships . Supplies for several years were hoarded , and siege engines and incendiary materials ( naphtha ) were stockpiled . The supply train is said to have numbered 12 @,@ 000 men , 6 @,@ 000 camels and 6 @,@ 000 donkeys , while according to the 13th @-@ century historian Bar Hebraeus , the troops included 30 @,@ 000 volunteers ( mutawa ) for the Holy War ( jihad ) . Whatever the true numbers , the attackers were considerably more numerous than the defenders ; according to Treadgold , the Arab host may have outnumbered the entire Byzantine army . Little is known on the detailed composition of the Arab force , but it appears that it mostly consisted of and was led by Syrians and Jazirans of the elite ahl al @-@ Sham ( " People of Syria " ) , the main pillar of the Umayyad regime and veterans of the struggle against Byzantium . Alongside Maslama , Umar ibn Hubayra , Sulayman ibn Mu 'ad , and Bakhtari ibn al @-@ Hasan are mentioned as his lieutenants by Theophanes and Agapius of Hierapolis , while the later Kitab al- ' Uyun replaces Bakhtari with Abdallah al @-@ Battal .
Although the siege consumed a large part of the Caliphate 's manpower and resources , it was still capable of launching raids against the Byzantine frontier in eastern Asia Minor during the siege 's duration : in 717 , Caliph Sulayman 's son Daud captured a fortress near Melitene and in 718 Amr ibn Qais raided the frontier . On the Byzantine side , the numbers are unknown . Aside from Anastasius II 's preparations ( which may have been neglected following his deposition ) , the Byzantines could count on the assistance of the Bulgars , with whom Leo concluded a treaty that may have included alliance against the Arabs .
= = Siege = =
In early summer , Maslama ordered his fleet to join him and with his army crossed the Hellespont ( Dardanelles ) at Abydos into Thrace . The Arabs began their march on Cοnstantinople , thoroughly devastating the countryside , gathering supplies , and sacking the towns they encountered . In mid @-@ July or mid @-@ August , the Arab army reached Constantinople and isolated it completely on land by building a double siege wall of stone , one facing the city and one facing the Thracian countryside , with their camp positioned between them . According to Arab sources , at this point Leo offered to ransom the city by paying a gold coin for every inhabitant , but Maslama replied that there could not be peace with the vanquished , and that the Arab garrison of Constantinople had already been selected .
The Arab fleet under Sulayman ( often confused with the Caliph himself in the medieval sources ) arrived on 1 September , anchoring at first near the Hebdomon . Two days later , Sulayman led his fleet into the Bosphorus and the various squadrons began anchoring by the European and Asian suburbs of the city : one part sailed south of Chalcedon to the harbours of Eutropios and Anthemios to watch over the southern entrance of the Bosporus , while the rest of the fleet sailed into the strait , passed by Constantinople and began making landfall on the coasts between Galata and Kleidion , cutting the Byzantine capital 's communication with the Black Sea . But as the Arab fleet 's rearguard , twenty heavy ships with 2 @,@ 000 marines , was passing the city , the southerly wind stopped and then reversed , drifting them towards the city walls , where a Byzantine squadron attacked them with Greek fire . Theophanes reported that some went down with all hands , while others , burning , sailed down to the Princes ' Islands of Oxeia and Plateia . The victory encouraged the Byzantines and dejected the Arabs , who , according to Theophanes , had originally intended to sail to the sea walls during the night and try to scale them using the ships ' steering paddles . The same night , Leo drew up the chain between the city and Galata , closing the entrance to the Golden Horn . The Arab fleet became reluctant to engage the Byzantines , and withdrew to the safe harbour of Sosthenion further north on the European shore of the Bosporus .
The Arab army was well @-@ provisioned , with Arab accounts reporting high mounds of supplies piled up in their camp , and had even brought along wheat to sow and harvest the next year . The failure of the Arab navy to blockade the city , however , meant that the Byzantines too could ferry in provisions . In addition , the Arab army had already devastated the Thracian countryside during its march and could not rely on it for foraging . The Arab fleet and the second Arab army , which operated in the Asian suburbs of Constantinople , were able to bring in limited supplies to Maslama 's army . As the siege drew into winter , negotiations opened between the two sides , extensively reported by Arab sources but ignored by Byzantine historians . According to the Arab accounts , Leo continued to play a double game with the Arabs . One version claims that he tricked Maslama into handing over most of his grain supplies , while another claims that the Arab general was persuaded to burn them altogether , so as to show the inhabitants of the city that they faced an imminent assault and induce them to surrender . The winter of 718 was extremely harsh ; snow covered the ground for over three months . As the supplies in the Arab camp ran out , a terrible famine broke out : the soldiers ate their horses , camels , and other livestock , and the bark , leaves and roots of trees . They swept the snow of the fields they had sown to eat the green shoots , and reportedly resorted to cannibalism and eating their own excrement . Consequently , the Arab army was ravaged by epidemics ; with great exaggeration , the Lombard historian Paul the Deacon put the number of their dead of hunger and disease at 300 @,@ 000 .
The situation looked set to improve in spring when the new Caliph , Umar II ( r . 717 – 720 ) , sent two fleets to the besiegers ' aid : 400 ships from Egypt under a commander named Sufyan and 360 ships from Africa under Izid , all laden with supplies and arms . At the same time , a fresh army began marching through Asia Minor to assist in the siege . When the new fleets arrived in the Sea of Marmara , they kept their distance from the Byzantines and anchored on the Asian shore . The Egyptians were in the Gulf of Nicomedia near modern Tuzla and the Africans south of Chalcedon ( at Satyros , Bryas and Kartalimen ) . Most of the Arab fleets ' crews were composed of Christian Egyptians , however , and they began deserting to the Byzantines upon their arrival . Notified by the Egyptians of the advent and disposition of the Arab reinforcements , Leo launched his fleet in an attack against the new Arab fleets . Crippled by the defection of their crews , and helpless against Greek fire , the Arab ships were destroyed or captured along with the weapons and supplies they carried . Constantinople was now safe from a seaborne attack . On land too the Byzantines were victorious : their troops managed to ambush the advancing Arab army under a commander named Mardasan and destroy it in the hills around Sophon , south of Nicomedia .
Constantinople could now be easily resupplied by sea and the city 's fishermen went back to sea , as the Arab fleet did not sail again . Still suffering from hunger and pestilence , the Arabs lost a major battle against the Bulgars , who killed , according to Theophanes , 22 @,@ 000 . It is unclear , however , whether the Bulgars attacked the Arab encampment because of their treaty with Leo or whether the Arabs strayed into Bulgar territory seeking provisions , as reported by the Syriac Chronicle of 846 . Michael the Syrian mentions that the Bulgars participated in the siege from the beginning , with attacks against the Arabs as they marched through Thrace and subsequently on their encampment , but this is not corroborated elsewhere . The siege had clearly failed , and Caliph Umar sent orders to Maslama to retreat . After thirteen months of siege , on 15 August 718 , the Arabs departed . The date coincided with the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos ( Assumption of Mary ) , and it was to her that the Byzantines ascribed their victory . The retreating Arabs were not hindered or attacked on their return , but their fleet lost more ships in a storm in the Marmara Sea while other ships were set afire by ashes from the volcano of Santorini , and some of the survivors were captured by the Byzantines , so that Theophanes claims that only five vessels made it back to Syria . Arab sources claim that altogether 150 @,@ 000 Muslims perished during the campaign , a figure which , according to the Byzantinist John Haldon , " while certainly inflated , is nevertheless indicative of the enormity of the disaster in medieval eyes " .
= = Aftermath = =
The expedition 's failure weakened the Umayyad state . As historian Bernard Lewis commented , " Its failure brought a grave moment for Umayyad power . The financial strain of equipping and maintaining the expedition caused an aggravation of the fiscal and financial oppression which had already aroused such dangerous opposition . The destruction of the fleet and army of Syria at the sea walls of Constantinople deprived the regime of the chief material basis of its power " . The blow to the Caliphate 's might was severe , and although the land army did not suffer losses in the same degree as the fleet , Umar is recorded as contemplating withdrawing from the recent conquests of Hispania and Transoxiana , as well as a complete evacuation of Cilicia and other Byzantine territories that the Arabs had seized over the previous years . Although his advisors dissuaded him from such drastic actions , most Arab garrisons were withdrawn from the Byzantine frontier districts they had occupied in the lead @-@ up to the siege . In Cilicia , only Mopsuestia remained in Arab hands as a defensive bulwark to protect Antioch . The Byzantines even recovered some territory in western Armenia for a time . In 719 , the Byzantine fleet raided the Syrian coast and burned down the port of Laodicea and , in 720 or 721 , the Byzantines attacked and sacked Tinnis in Egypt . Leo also restored control over Sicily , where news of the Arab siege of Constantinople and expectations of the city 's fall had prompted the local governor to declare an emperor of his own , Basil Onomagoulos . It was during this time , however , that effective Byzantine control over Sardinia and Corsica ceased . Besides this , the Byzantines failed to exploit their success in launching attacks of their own against the Arabs . In 720 , after a hiatus of two years , Arab raids against Byzantium resumed , although now they were no longer directed at conquest , but rather seeking booty . The Arab attacks would intensify again over the next two decades , until the major Byzantine victory at the Battle of Akroinon in 740 . Coupled with military defeats on the other fronts of the overextended Caliphate , and the internal instability which culminated in the Abbasid Revolution , the age of Arab expansion came to an end .
= = Historical assessment and impact = =
The second Arab siege of Constantinople was far more dangerous for Byzantium than the first as , unlike the loose blockade of 674 – 678 , the Arabs launched a direct , well @-@ planned attack on the Byzantine capital , and tried to cut off the city completely from land and sea . The siege represented a final effort by the Caliphate to " cut off the head " of the Byzantine Empire , after which the remaining provinces , especially in Asia Minor , would be easy to capture . The Arab failure was chiefly logistical , as they were operating too far from their Syrian bases , but the superiority of the Byzantine navy through the use of Greek fire , the strength of Constantinople 's fortifications , and the skill of Leo III in deception and negotiations also played important roles .
The failure of the Arab siege led to a profound change in the nature of warfare between Byzantium and the Caliphate . The Muslim goal of conquest of Constantinople was effectively abandoned , and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the Taurus and Antitaurus Mountains , over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter @-@ raids . In this incessant border warfare , frontier towns and fortresses changed hands frequently , but the general outline of the border remained unaltered for over two centuries , until the Byzantine conquests of the 10th century . Indeed , with the exception of the advance of the Abbasid army under Harun al @-@ Rashid up to Chrysopolis in 782 , no other Arab army would ever come within sight of the Byzantine capital again . Consequently , on the Muslim side the raids themselves eventually acquired an almost ritual character , and were valued mostly as a demonstration of the continuing jihad and sponsored by the Caliph as a symbol of his role as the leader of the Muslim community .
The outcome of the siege was of considerable macrohistorical importance . The Byzantine capital 's survival preserved the Empire as a bulwark against Islamic expansion into Europe until the 15th century , when it fell to the Ottoman Turks . Along with the Battle of Tours in 732 , the successful defence of Constantinople has been seen as instrumental in stopping Muslim expansion into Europe . As military historian Paul K. Davis wrote , " By turning back the Moslem invasion , Europe remained in Christian hands , and no serious Moslem threat to Europe existed until the fifteenth century . This victory , coincident with the Frankish victory at Tours ( 732 ) , limited Islam 's western expansion to the southern Mediterranean world . " Thus the historian John B. Bury called 718 " an ecumenical date " , while the Greek historian Spyridon Lambros likened the siege to the Battle of Marathon and Leo III to Miltiades . Consequently , military historians often include the siege in lists of the " decisive battles " of world history .
= = Cultural impact = =
Among Arabs , the 717 – 718 siege became the most famous of their expeditions against Byzantium . Several accounts survive , but most were composed at later dates and are semi @-@ fictional and contradictory . In legend , the defeat was transformed into a victory : Maslama departed only after symbolically entering the Byzantine capital on his horse accompanied by thirty riders , where Leo received him with honour and led him to the Hagia Sophia . After Leo paid homage to Maslama and promised tribute , Maslama and his troops — 30 @,@ 000 out of the original 80 @,@ 000 that set out for Constantinople — departed for Syria . The tales of the siege influenced similar episodes in Arabic epic literature . A siege of Constantinople is found in the tale of Omar bin al @-@ Nu 'uman and his sons in the Thousand and One Nights , while both Maslama and the Caliph Sulayman appear in a tale of the Hundred and One Nights from the Maghreb . The commander of Maslama 's bodyguard , Abdallah al @-@ Battal , became a celebrated figure in Arab and Turkish poetry as " Battal Gazi " for his exploits in the Arab raids of the next decades . Similarly , the 10th @-@ century epic Delhemma , related to the cycle around Battal , gives a fictionalized version of the 717 – 718 siege .
Later Muslim and Byzantine tradition also ascribed the building of Constantinople 's first mosque , near the city 's praetorium , to Maslama . In reality , the mosque near the praetorium was probably erected in about 860 , as a result of an Arab embassy in that year . Ottoman tradition also ascribed the building of the Arap Mosque ( located outside Constantinople proper in Galata ) to Maslama , although it erroneously dated this to around 686 , probably confusing Maslama 's attack with the first Arab siege in the 670s . The passing of the Arab army also left traces at Abydos , where " Maslama 's Well " and a mosque attributed to him were still known in the 10th century .
Eventually , following their repeated failures before Constantinople , and the continued resilience of the Byzantine state , the Muslims began to project the fall of Constantinople to the distant future . Thus the city 's fall came to be regarded as one of the signs of the arrival of the end times in Islamic eschatology . The siege became a motif in Byzantine apocalyptic literature as well , with decisive final battles against the Arabs before the walls of Constantinople being featured in the early 8th @-@ century Greek translation of the Syriac Apocalypse of Pseudo @-@ Methodius and the Apocalypse of Daniel , written either at about the time of the siege or a century later .
= Denmark Street =
Denmark Street is a street on the edge of London 's West End running from Charing Cross Road to St Giles . It is near St Giles in the Fields Church and Tottenham Court Road station . The street was developed in the late 17th century and named after Prince George of Denmark . Since the 1950s it has been associated with British popular music , first via publishers and later by recording studios and music shops . A blue plaque was unveiled in 2014 commemorating the street 's importance to the music industry .
The street was originally residential , but became used for commercial purposes in the 19th century . At first , metalwork was a popular trade but it became most famous as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " housing numerous music publishers ' offices . This market declined in the 1960s to be replaced by music shops and independent recording studios . The Rolling Stones recorded at Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 and popular musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 , including David Bowie and the Small Faces . Elton John and Bernie Taupin wrote songs at offices on the street through the 1960s , while the Sex Pistols lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . The comic book store , Forbidden Planet and the Helter Skelter music bookshop have also been based on the street . In the 2010s , the surrounding area was redeveloped . Parts of Denmark Street are listed to protect them , but other parts , away from the street itself , are planned to be demolished .
= = Location = =
Denmark Street is located at the southern end of the London Borough of Camden , close to its boundary with the London Borough of Westminster . It is east of Soho Square , south of St Giles Circus and close to the St Giles in the Fields Church .
The street is 108 metres ( 354 ft ) long and connects Charing Cross Road with St Giles High Street . Vehicular traffic is now only allowed to travel westbound . The nearest London Underground station is Tottenham Court Road , between two and three minutes ' walk away .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The land on which Denmark Street lies was formerly part of the grounds for St Giles Hospital , founded as a house for lepers in the early 12th century by Henry I 's wife , Matilda ( Maud ) . In 1612 , it was recorded as being owned by Tristram Gibbs . The grounds were laid out for development during the reign of James II and developed by Samuel Fortrey and Jacques Wiseman in the late 1680s . Historical evidence suggests the street was formed between 1682 and 1687 , as it was not shown on Morden and Lea 's Map of 1682 . It was named after Prince George of Denmark , who had married Princess Anne in 1683 . By 1691 , 20 houses had been completed , of which eight remain standing .
Dr John Purcell , a London physician who published A Treatise on Vapours or Hysteric Fits , lived at number 10 in 1730 , while the Reverend Doctor John James Majendie – who became Canon of Windsor – lived there from 1758 to 1771 . The painter Johann Zoffany lived at number 9 . In the late 18th century , the Jacobite Sir John Murray , lived there until the day he was " carried off by a party of strange men " .
The area around the street was known as the rookery of St Giles , which developed in the 18th century as an unplanned slum to the west of the City , and described as a " Pandora 's box of pollution , plague and pestilence " . Though much of the area was cleared by the end of the 19th century , Denmark Street is the only street in London to retain 17th century terraced facades on both sides . In 2010 , a study by Camden London Borough Council suggested that only six other streets in London have a comparable heritage to Denmark Street . A small court connected by passages ( originally known as Dudley Court , then Denmark Court and now known as Denmark Place ) runs along the back of the north side of the street , connecting to it via an opening at No. 27 .
The street started being used for commercial purposes at the beginning of the 19th century and houses were converted for this use . Ground floors became used as shops , while upper floors and back rooms were used as workshops , particularly for metalwork . Augustus Siebe , the pioneer of the diving helmet , lived and worked on the street , and today there is an English Heritage blue plaque commemorating him on the house where he lived .
In the 1930s , several Japanese businesses were established in the street , which became known as " Little Tokyo " . Azakami and Co. at No. 6 sold books , newspapers , televisions and radios . The Tokiwa restaurant and hotel were based at No. 8 and No. 22 respectively having moved from Charing Cross Road in 1927 . Other businesses included a hairdresser , jewellers , tailor and gift shop .
= = = Tin Pan Alley = = =
= = = = 1920s – 50s = = = =
Lawrence Wright was the first music publisher to set up premises on Denmark Street in 1911 . He was initially based at No. 8 and moved to No. 11 after World War I. He subsequently founded the musicians ' journal Melody Maker in 1926 . The same year , another music publisher , Campbell Connelly , moved from their original offices in Tottenham Court Road to Denmark Street . The New Musical Express was founded at No. 5 in 1952 and remained there until 1964 . By the end of the 1950s , the street had established itself as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " and housed numerous music publishers and other venues connected with the business .
Larry Parnes became a successful manager and entrepreneur of pop singers during the mid @-@ 1950s , and regularly took material from songwriters and publishers based in Denmark Street . Lionel Bart , writer of the musical Oliver ! , started his writing career for publishers and was subsequently known as " the king of Denmark Street " .
= = = = 1960s = = = =
The music publishing trade on Denmark Street began to decline during the 1960s , as the traditional producers lost touch with changing tastes and groups like the Rolling Stones showed it was possible to write their own material . For example , Paul Simon was based in London at this time but Mills Music at number 20 , told him that his songs " Homeward Bound " and " The Sound of Silence " were uncommercial .
Recording studios began to be operated in the street . Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 was founded in July 1961 to serve as a unit for publishers to record their songs . The studio was based above the offices of Essex Music and was frequently used by then Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham . The band recorded their first album at Regent in 1964 and the single " Not Fade Away " became their first major hit to be recorded there . Oldham liked the atmosphere in the studio as he could " stretch out a bit , experiment and learn from our mistakes " . The studios eventually expanded and moved into new premises on Tottenham Court Road , while the Denmark Street premises became the sales office . They were subsequently bought by Eddie Kassner at the end of the 1960s . Publishers Box & Cox had their offices at number 7 . Their greatest hit was " I 've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts " . Southern Music , at No. 8 , also had a studio in the ground floor , which was used to record Donovan 's hit , " Catch The Wind " .
The Carter & Lewis songwriting partnership evolved when John Carter and Ken Lewis arrived in London in 1959 and decided " if you want to be in the music business , that [ Denmark Street ] was the place to be , that was the rule " . Session musicians such as Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones regularly played in Denmark Street studios . In 1964 , The Kinks with Page on guitar and Jon Lord ( later to form Deep Purple ) on piano , recorded " You Really Got Me " in one of the basement studios .
Musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 . David Bowie recruited his first backing band , The Lower Third , in the bar , while the Small Faces formed after the original members socialised around the Gioconda . Other regular patrons included David Bowie and Jimi Hendrix . In April 2014 , a number of music industry figures , including disc jockey Mike Read , unveiled a blue plaque above the premises that included a QR Code to access a multimedia presentation about the history of music .
= = = = 1970s = = = =
In 1970 Bernie Taupin and Elton John wrote " Your Song " , John 's first hit single , at No. 20 Denmark Street . John had started work at a music publisher in the street in 1963 , and Taupin wrote the lyrics while sitting on the roof ( " I sat on the roof and kicked off the moss " ) while waiting for John one morning . They mentioned the street in their 1974 song " Bitter Fingers " , on the semi @-@ autobiographical concept album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy . Also in 1970 , a song named " Denmark Street " appeared on the Kinks ' album Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One .
Manager Malcolm McLaren asked architect Ben Kelly to refurbish a basement rehearsal room he had bought from Badfinger . The Sex Pistols rehearsed in this room , lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . Johnny Rotten drew cartoons of the members as graffiti which turned up later in an archaeological survey of the site . Scott Gorham bought his first guitar with Thin Lizzy on Denmark Street . He had turned up at the audition with a Japanese Les Paul Copy — when he got the job , Phil Lynott took him shopping on Denmark Street . After being told several guitars were too expensive , he settled on a Sunburst Gibson Les Paul Deluxe . Andy 's Guitars was established in 1978 at No. 27 and survived for many years before closing in 2007 because of increased shop rates .
The comic and science @-@ fiction bookshop , Forbidden Planet started at number 23 in 1978 before moving to New Oxford Street and becoming an international chain . When Douglas Adams attempted to attend a signing for the first The Hitch @-@ Hiker 's Guide to the Galaxy book in October 1979 , the queue to the shop was so long that Adams thought a demonstration was taking place elsewhere .
= = = = 1980s – present = = = =
By 1980 , there were a number of unlicensed nightclubs operating on Denmark Place , running adjacent to the street . The clubs were housed in buildings that had previously functioned as a hostel for musicians , which adjoined a music shop on the street , and the fire brigade had insisted that a fire escape be fitted . By the time the clubs were in operation , the shop had closed and the fire escape had fallen into disrepair . 18 Denmark Place was home to two such clubs ; on the first floor was " Rodo 's " , a salsa club popular with South American immigrants and above that " The Spanish Rooms " on the second floor which was a late night bar frequented by locals including Irish and Jamaican immigrants . On 14 August 1980 John Thompson , a local petty criminal , was ejected from The Spanish Rooms following a fight which may have been caused by a dispute about being overcharged . Thompson returned shortly thereafter and poured petrol into the ground floor of the building and ignited it . The inferno resulting from this act of arson killed 37 people from eight different nationalities and was described as the worst fire in London in terms of loss of life since World War II . Thompson was imprisoned having been convicted of murder and died in prison in 2008 on the anniversary of the tragedy .
Numbers 1 – 3 had become a Job Centre by the 1980s , specialising in vacancies for the catering industry . The serial killer Dennis Nilsen worked there and brought in a large cooking pot , in which he had boiled his victims heads , as a utensil for preparing a Christmas 1980 party .
The last major music publisher in the street , Peer Music , moved from No. 8 in 1992 , completing the gradual transformation of premises from publishers to instrument stores . In May 1990 , Andy Preston , owner of Andy 's Guitars , set up a traders association and attempted to have the street re @-@ branded as " Music Land " , similar to Drury Lane being marked Theatreland and Gerrard Street as Chinatown . Helter Skelter was set up as a bookshop dedicated to music titles in 1995 by Sean Body . The shop operated at the old Essex Music and Regent Sound building at No. 4 until rising rents forced it to close in 2004 .
= = Redevelopment = =
In 2009 , Denmark Street was identified in English Heritage 's " Heritage at Risk " register as being at risk in view of the nearby development of Crossrail . Particular attention was drawn to No. 26 , which is a Grade II listed building . In 2010 , Camden London Borough Council identified the street and adjacent properties as a Conservation Area .
In 2013 , the council announced that Denmark Street would be redeveloped by the architectural firm ORMS as part of a major development in conjunction with the Crossrail construction work around Tottenham Court Road tube station and Centre Point . The proposed development includes the construction of an 800 @-@ seat subterranean performance venue . Numbers 1 – 6 and 17 – 21 Denmark Place , which run parallel along the back of the street , and the York and Clifton Mansions will be demolished , along with partial demolition of No. 21 Denmark Street .
The scheme has been condemned by the local music industry and shopkeepers . Writer Henry Scott @-@ Irvine launched a petition to stop the planned redevelopment , which has gathered 10 @,@ 000 signatures . In an interview to Mojo , Scott @-@ Irvine said " This should be stopped " , adding that Denmark Street " should be given full heritage status like Covent Garden Market , Hatton Garden and Savile Row " . He discovered that , although demolition was scheduled to start in late 2014 , the plans were approved by the newly elected borough council . Consolidated Developments , developers for the new site , stated they were " committed to preserving and enhancing the rich musical heritage of Tin Pan Alley " .
In January 2015 , following the closure of the 12 Bar Club and clearance of Enterprise Studios on Denmark Place , a group of musicians and supporters squatted in the club 's premises and staged a demonstration in the street , protesting against redevelopment . Former Oasis manager and head of Creation Records , Alan McGee supported the protestors , saying " you really couldn ’ t say a bad word against any of them . And they know the law , so they can 't just be thrown out of there . " However , a report in the Independent judged the protest to be misguided , as most shops along the street are still trading .
= = Current occupants = =
On the corner of the street with Charing Cross Road is Chris Bryant 's Musical Instruments . Denmark Street Guitars claims to have over 3 @,@ 000 instruments in stock and to have the largest selection of guitars in the UK . Regent Sounds , formerly the recording studio , which specialises in Fender and Gretsch guitars and Essex Music at No. 4 ; the Alleycat Bar and Club sits in the basement below the store . No.Tom Vintage and Classic Guitars has a store at No. 6 . Macaris , a guitar retailer , was established in 1958 and specialises in Gibson models . As well as their shop at No. 25 , they have an additional shop nearby on Charing Cross Road .
The sheet music shop Argents is currently based at No. 19 . It was founded by The Zombies ' Rod Argent as a keyboard shop and was previously based next door , at No. 20 . Since then it has undergone two changes of owners and now specialises in sheet music and DVD sales , covering a wide variety of styles including jazz and classical .
Rose Morris have been established in Denmark Street since 1919 . Originally based at No. 11 , they now occupy No. 10 in the former offices of Southern Music Publishing . The company became the first British distributor of Rickenbacker guitars in 1962 , which had a surge in popularity after musicians noticed the Beatles ' John Lennon playing one . Rose Morris purchased instruments directly from Rickenbacker 's factory instead of their sales office , in order to keep up with demand . The British models carry unique serial numbers such as the 325 , the Rose Morris 1996 . The Early Music Shop 's London branch is based on the first floor of number 11 , above Rose Morris . The shop contains early music instruments including recorders and sheet music .
There has been a recording studio in the basement of No. 22 since Tin Pan Alley Studios was established in 1954 . It was originally founded by session violinist Ralph Elman , and was previously the premises of the Acid Jazz Records label . In 2013 , producer Guy Katsav took over management of the premises , renaming them Denmark Street Studios .
The 12 Bar Club was at No. 26 , a small live music venue with a capacity of about 100 people which was established in 1994 . The building was originally stables , built in 1635 , before becoming a blacksmiths until after World War I. It closed in January 2015 as part of the redevelopment work .
= = Listed buildings = =
Denmark Street has eight Grade II listed buildings . Though the refurbishment plans allow modernisation of these buildings , the council are keen to ensure that the affected properties remain solely in use for the music industry . A report added , " Music industry activities make a fundamental contribution to the special character of Denmark Street and support associated retail provision . "
= Pokey Mom =
" Pokey Mom " is the tenth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . In the episode , Marge befriends Jack Crowley , a convict who she believes has some artistic potential . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole and finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School . Meanwhile , Homer suffers from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . Despite this his pain remains and it is not until he accidentally falls backwards onto a garbage can that his back injury disappears . Homer makes a successful business out of this injury @-@ healing garbage can , much to the dismay of chiropractors in town .
The episode was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson , and it features guest appearances from Michael Keaton as Jack , Charles Napier as a prison warden , Robert Schimmel as a prisoner , and Bruce Vilanch as himself . " Pokey Mom " has been met with generally negative reviews from critics , being described as bland and drawn out . The staff members of the series received complaints from chiropractors after it aired , and some chiropractors have characterized the portrayal of the profession in the episode as stereotypical . Around 8 @.@ 79 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing , and in 2009 it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the twelfth season .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family attends a prison rodeo where Marge meets Jack Crowley , a convict whom she believes to have great artistic potential after becoming impressed with his work . She later teaches a class on being an artist to the prisoners and befriends Jack . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole under her custody . Marge soon finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School for him . Jack paints a powerful , epic mural symbolizing school spirit with a warrior woman riding a puma , which the whole school likes , but Principal Skinner ( who hates it ) demands that he tone it down using Skinner 's own childish idea of kittens in a fantasy land . Jack reluctantly gives into Skinner 's wishes ; however , upon its unveiling , the new mural is panned by everyone in town ( even Ned Flanders ) . Skinner blames Jack and fires him .
Sometime later , the mural is set on fire by a mystery arsonist . There are no suspects ; however , everyone in the school immediately assumes that Jack did it to get back at Skinner . While the police are out searching for Jack , Marge stumbles upon him hiding in the school playground . He swears to her that he did not start the fire , and Marge believes him . She then distracts Skinner and Chief Wiggum so he can escape ; however , instead , he immediately sets fire to Skinner 's car as he did to the mural , and dances around it laughing maniacally . Jack is arrested , and Marge is furious that he looked her in the eye and flat @-@ out lied to her . When Jack attempts to lie to her again — claiming this time that although he did burn the mural , he did not burn Skinner 's car ( despite the fact that she had just seen him do it ) — she ends all her involvement with him , and on the way to jail , Jack and Wiggum make conversation .
Meanwhile , Homer begins suffering from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . However , he fails to follow the instructions given to him by the chiropractor and his suffering continues . Later , Homer accidentally falls backwards onto a round garbage can at home and discovers that it solved his back problems . He names the garbage can " Dr. Homer 's Miracle Spine @-@ o @-@ Cylinder " , and makes a business out of his discovery . It turns out to be a successful method of solving problems with pain , causing the chiropractic business to go in decline until the chiropractors in town denounce the method and destroy the garbage can at the Simpsons ' home .
= = Production = =
" Pokey Mom " was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson as part of the twelfth season of The Simpsons ( 2000 – 2001 ) . According to then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully , the story of this episode originated from the fact that the staff members of The Simpsons wanted to do an episode about Marge but felt they did not want it to revolve around her getting a new job , as that had been seen on the show " too often " . They decided to explore one of Marge 's attributes that had been seen in earlier episodes , eventually choosing her interest in art . Martin conceived of the sub @-@ plot surrounding Homer following a visit to a chiropractor . He has said that the " heart " of that story is that the chiropractors in Springfield become opposed to Homer 's method of healing people and try to stop it after losing business , in reference to how chiropractors in real @-@ life " are a bit hated by the AMA ( American Medical Association ) " and how the AMA has tried to restrict their businesses in the past . Martin has also noted that the episode shows how " a lot of chiropractors are these great healers and they do great work , and then there 's some that are crooked . "
Several famous Americans made guest appearances in the episode . Actor Michael Keaton guest starred as Jack Crowley , while stand @-@ up comedian Robert Schimmel appeared as a prisoner in Marge 's art class that wants to smell her clothes . Actor Charles Napier voiced the prison warden that commentates the rodeo at the prison and later grants Jack his parole . Comedy writer and actor Bruce Vilanch guest starred in the episode as himself at the unveiling of Jack 's mural painting . There , Principal Skinner jokes to the audience that " when Superintendent Chalmers suggested a school mural , I almost thought he said a ' school Muriel ' , " referencing Chalmers ' sister Muriel . When no one laughs at his joke and the audience is dead silent , Skinner sarcastically says " Well , thank you , Bruce Vilanch , " to which Vilanch replies " Whoopi would 've made it work . " This is a reference to the fact that Vilanch has written comedy material for actress Whoopi Goldberg .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . It was viewed in approximately 8 @.@ 79 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , " Pokey Mom " tied with an episode of 60 Minutes for the 38th place in the ratings for the week of January 8 – 14 , 2001 . It was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following episodes of Temptation Island and Boston Public . On August 18 , 2009 , " Pokey Mom " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Twelfth Season . Staff members Tom Martin , Bob Anderson , Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , John Frink , Don Payne , Matt Selman , and Joel H. Cohen , as well as cast members Dan Castellaneta and Joe Mantegna , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
Critics have given " Pokey Mom " generally negative reviews . Nancy Basile of About.com said she " loathed " it . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " Other than a nice guest turn from Michael Keaton , ' Mom ' doesn ’ t do much to stand out from the crowd . Oh , like much of Season 12 , it keeps us interested , but that ’ s not exactly a strong endorsement . ' Mom ' provides a watchable show but nothing more . " Den of Geek critic Matt Haigh wrote that the episode " starts well , but begins to feel tired and drawn out , and there just doesn 't seem to be much of a story there . "
Following the original broadcast of the episode , the staff members of the series received several complaints from chiropractors . The February 26 , 2001 issue of the magazine Dynamic Chiropractic featured an article about the episode that noted : " [ The Simpsons ] has poked fun at numerous people , and about every institution and profession imaginable . On January 17 , it was chiropractic 's turn . " In an article of the magazine Canadian Chiropractor , Steven R. Passmore ( D.C. , M.S. ) and Lorraine Kochanowski @-@ Sutter ( D.C. ) analyzed the portrayal of chiropractors in the media . They gave " Pokey Mom " as an example of how " chiropractors on sitcoms pok [ e ] fun at themselves as they prescribe the duration of a course of care . [ ... ] Dr. Steve on The Simpsons corroborates this stereotype when telling Homer that he will need to see him ' three times a week for many years . ' " Passmore and Kochanowski @-@ Sutter also noted that in the episode " we see a dreamcatcher on the wall behind Dr. Steve as he treats Homer . This strategically placed decoration could suggest that the chiropractor is in touch with native and / or natural healing , or it could be a jab at the field ’ s more esoteric practitioners . "
= History of Sesame Street =
The preschool educational television program Sesame Street was first aired on public broadcasting television stations November 10 , 1969 , and will reach its 46th season in 2016 . The history of Sesame Street has reflected changing attitudes to developmental psychology , early childhood education and cultural diversity . Featuring Jim Henson 's Muppets , animation , live shorts , humor and celebrity appearances , it was the first television program of its kind to base its content and production values on laboratory and formative research , and the first to include a curriculum " detailed or stated in terms of measurable outcomes " . Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews , some controversy and high ratings . By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries , and 20 independent international versions had been produced .
The show was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Corporation vice president Lloyd Morrisett . Their goal was to create a children 's television show that would " master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them " , such as helping young children prepare for school . After two years of research , the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) received a combined grant of $ 8 million from the Carnegie Corporation , the Ford Foundation and the U.S. federal government to create and produce a new children 's television show .
By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily , and several studies showed it was having a positive educational impact . The cast and crew expanded during this time , including the hiring of women in the crew and additional minorities in the cast . In 1981 , the federal government withdrew its funding , so the CTW turned to other sources , such as its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing and foreign income . During the 1980s , Sesame Street 's curriculum expanded to include topics such as relationships , ethics and emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast and crew , most notably the death of Will Lee — who played Mr. Hooper — and the marriage of Luis and Maria .
In recent decades , Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges , including changes in the viewing habits of young children , more competition from other shows , the development of cable television and a drop in ratings . After the turn of the 21st century , the show made major structural adaptations , including changing its traditional magazine format to a narrative format . Because of the popularity of the Muppet Elmo , the show incorporated a popular segment known as " Elmo 's World " . Sesame Street has won eight Grammys and over a hundred Emmys in its history — more than any other children 's show .
= = Background = =
In the late 1960s , 97 % of all American households owned a television set , and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week ; programs created for them were widely criticized for being too violent and for reflecting commercial values . Producer Joan Ganz Cooney called children 's programming a " wasteland " , and she was not alone in her criticism . Many children 's television programs were produced by local stations , with little regard for educational goals , or cultural diversity and the use of children 's programming as an educational tool was " unproven " and " a revolutionary concept " .
According to children 's media experts Edward Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch , children 's television programs of the 1950s and 1960s duplicated " prior media forms " . For example , they tended to show simple shots of a camera 's @-@ eye view of a location filled with children , or they recreated storybooks with shots of book covers and motionless illustrated pages . The hosts of these programs were " insufferably condescending " , though one exception was Captain Kangaroo , created and hosted by Bob Keeshan , which author Michael Davis described as having a " slower pace and idealism " that most other children 's shows lacked .
Early childhood educational research had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school , they earned higher grades and learned more effectively . Children from low @-@ income families had fewer resources than children from higher @-@ income families to prepare them for school . Research had shown that children from low @-@ income , minority backgrounds tested " substantially lower " than middle @-@ class children in school @-@ related skills , and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school . The field of developmental psychology had grown during this period , and scientists were beginning to understand that changes in early childhood education could increase children 's cognitive growth . Because of these trends in education , along with the great societal changes occurring in the United States during this era , the time was ripe for the creation of a show like Sesame Street .
= = Pre @-@ production ( 1966 – 1969 ) = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Since 1962 , Cooney had been producing talk shows and documentaries at educational television station WNDT , and in 1966 had won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America . In early 1966 , Cooney and her husband Tim hosted a dinner party at their apartment in New York ; experimental psychologist Lloyd Morrisett , who has been called Sesame Street 's " financial godfather " , and his wife Mary were among the guests . Cooney 's boss , Lewis Freedman , whom Cooney called " the grandfather of Sesame Street " , also attended the party , as did their colleague Anne Bower . As a vice @-@ president at the Carnegie Corporation , Morrisett had awarded several million dollars in grants to organizations that educated poor and minority preschool children . Morrisett and the other guests felt that even with limited resources , television could be an effective way to reach millions of children .
A few days after the dinner party , Cooney , Freedman and Morrisett met at the Carnegie Corporation 's offices to make plans ; they wanted to harness the addictive power of television for their own purposes , but did not yet know how . The following summer , despite Cooney 's lack of experience in the field of education , Morrisett hired her to conduct research on childhood development , education and media , and she visited experts in these fields across the United States and Canada . She researched their ideas about the viewing habits of young children and wrote a report on her findings .
Cooney 's study , titled " Television for Preschool Education " , spelled out how television could be used to help young children , especially from low @-@ income families , prepare for school . The focus on the new show was on children from disadvantaged backgrounds , but Cooney and the show 's creators recognized that in order to achieve the kind of success they wanted , it had to be equally accessible to children of all socio @-@ economic and ethnic backgrounds . At the same time , they wanted to make the show so appealing to inner @-@ city children that it would help them learn as much as children with more educational opportunities . This was the show 's primary criterion for success .
Cooney proposed that public television , even though it had a poor track record in attracting inner @-@ city audiences , could be used to improve the quality of children 's programming . She suggested using the television medium 's " most engaging traits " , including high production values , sophisticated writing , and quality film and animation , to reach the largest audience possible . In the words of critic Peter Hellman , " If [ children ] could recite Budweiser jingles from TV , why not give them a program that would teach the ABCs and simple number concepts ? " Cooney wanted to create a program that would spread values favoring education to nonviewers — including their parents and older siblings , who tended to control the television set . To this end , she suggested that humor directed toward adults be included , which , as Lesser reported , " may turn out to be a pretty good system in forcing the young child to stretch to understand programs designed for older audiences " . Cooney also believed cultural references and guest appearances by celebrities would encourage parents and older siblings to watch the show together .
= = = Development = = =
As a result of Cooney 's proposal , the Carnegie Corporation awarded her a $ 1 million grant in 1968 to establish the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) to provide support to the creative staff of the new show . Morrisett , who was responsible for fundraising , procured additional grants from the United States federal government , the Corporation for Public Broadcasting , and the Ford Foundation for the CTW 's initial budget , which totaled $ 8 million ; obtaining funding from this combination of government agencies and private foundations protected the CTW from economic pressures experienced by commercial networks . Sesame Street was an expensive program to produce because the creators decided they needed to compete with other programs that invested in professional , high quality production .
The producers spent eighteen months preparing the new show , something unprecedented in children 's television . The show had an " impressive " budget of $ 28 @,@ 000 per episode . After being named executive director of the CTW , Cooney began to assemble a team of producers : Jon Stone was responsible for writing , casting , and format ; David Connell took over animation and volume ; and Samuel Gibbon served as the show 's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team . Stone , Connell , and Gibbon had worked on Captain Kangaroo together , but were not involved in children 's television when Cooney recruited them . At first , Cooney planned to divide the show 's production of five episodes a week among several teams , but she was advised by CBS vice @-@ president Mike Dann to use only one . This production team was led by Connell , who had gained experience producing many episodes in a short period of time , a process called " volume production " , during his eleven years working on Captain Kangaroo .
The CTW hired Harvard University professor Gerald S. Lesser to design the show 's educational objectives and establish and lead a National Board of Advisers . Instead of providing what Lesser called " window dressing | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
" , the Board actively participated in the construction of educational goals and creative methods . At the Board 's direction , Lesser conducted five three @-@ day curriculum planning seminars in Boston and New York City in summer 1968 . The purpose of the seminars was to ascertain which school @-@ preparation skills to emphasize in the new show . The producers gathered professionals with diverse backgrounds to obtain ideas for educational content . They reported that the seminars were " widely successful " , and resulted in long and detailed lists of possible topics for inclusion in the Sesame Street curriculum ; in fact , the seminars produced more suggested educational objectives than could ever be addressed by one television series .
Instead of focusing on the social and emotional aspects of development , the producers decided to follow the suggestions of the seminar participants and emphasize cognitive skills , a decision they felt was warranted by the demands of school and the wishes of parents . The objectives developed during the seminars were condensed into key categories : symbolic representation , cognitive processes , and the physical and social environment . The seminars set forth the new show 's policy about race and social issues and provided the show 's production and creative team with " a crash course " in psychology , child development , and early childhood education . They also marked the beginning of Jim Henson 's involvement in Sesame Street . Cooney met Henson at one of the seminars ; Stone , who was familiar with Henson 's work , felt that if they could not bring him on board , they should " make do without puppets " .
The producers and writers decided to build the new show around a brownstone or an inner @-@ city street , a choice Davis called " unprecedented " . Stone was convinced that in order for inner @-@ city children to relate to Sesame Street , it needed to be set in a familiar place . Despite its urban setting , the producers decided to avoid depicting more negativity than what was already present in the child 's environment . Lesser commented , " [ despite ] all its raucousness and slapstick humor , Sesame Street became a sweet show , and its staff maintains that there is nothing wrong in that " .
The new show was called the " Preschool Educational Television Show " in promotional materials ; the producers were unable to agree on a name they liked and waited until the last minute to make a decision . In a short , irreverent promotional film shown to public television executives , the producers parodied their " naming dilemma " . The producers were reportedly " frantic for a title " ; they finally settled on the name that they least disliked : Sesame Street , inspired by Ali Baba 's magical phrase , although there were concerns that it would be too difficult for young children to pronounce . Stone was one of the producers who disliked the name , but , he said , " I was outvoted , for which I 'm deeply grateful " .
The responsibility of casting for Sesame Street fell to Jon Stone , who set out to form a cast where white actors were in the minority . He did not begin auditions until spring 1969 , several weeks before five test shows were due to be produced . He filmed the auditions , and Palmer took them into the field to test children 's reactions . The actors who received the " most enthusiastic thumbs up " were cast . For example , Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of " I 'm a Little Teapot " . Stone reported that casting was the only aspect that was " just completely haphazard " . Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers . Stone hired Bob McGrath ( an actor and singer best known at the time for his appearances on Mitch Miller 's sing @-@ along show on NBC ) to play Bob , Will Lee to play Mr. Hooper , and Garrett Saunders to play Gordon .
= = = Use of research in production = = =
Sesame Street was the first children 's television program that used a curriculum with clear and measurable outcomes , and was the first to use research in the creation of the show 's design and content . Research in Sesame Street had three functions : to test if the show was appealing to children , to discover what could be done to make the show more appealing , and to report to the public and the investors what impact the show had on its young viewers . Ten to fifteen percent of the show 's initial budget of $ 8 million was devoted to research , and researchers were always present in the studio during the show 's filming . A " Writer 's Notebook " was developed to assist writers and producers in translating the research and production goals into televised material ; this connected the show 's curriculum goals and its script development . The Muppet characters were created to fill specific curriculum needs : Oscar the Grouch , for example , was designed to teach children about their positive and negative emotions . Lesser called the collaboration between researchers and producers , as well as the idea of using television as an educational tool , the " CTW model " . Cooney agreed , commenting , " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " .
The producers of Sesame Street believed education through television was possible if they captured and sustained children 's attention ; this meant the show needed a strong appeal . Edward Palmer , the CTW 's first Director of Research and the man Cooney credited with building the CTW 's foundation of research , was one of the few academics in the late 1960s researching children 's television . He was recruited by the CTW to test if the curricula developed in the Boston seminars were reaching their audience effectively . Palmer was also tasked with designing and executing the CTW 's in @-@ house research and with working with the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) . His research was so crucial to Sesame Street that Gladwell asserted , " ... without Ed Palmer , the show would have never lasted through the first season " .
Palmer and his team 's approach to researching the show 's effectiveness was innovative ; it was the first time formative research was conducted in this way . For example , Palmer developed " the distractor " , which he used to test if the material shown on Sesame Street captured young viewers ' attention . Two children at a time were brought into the laboratory ; they were shown an episode on a television monitor and a slide show next to it . The slides would change every seven seconds , and researchers recorded when the children 's attention was diverted away from the episode . They were able to record almost every second of Sesame Street this way ; if the episode captured the children 's interest 80 – 90 % of the time , the producers would air it , but if it only tested 50 % , they would reshoot . By the fourth season of the show , the episodes rarely tested below 85 % .
= = = July 1969 test episodes = = =
During the production of Sesame Street 's first season , producers created five one @-@ hour episodes to test the show 's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material . Not intended for broadcast , they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969 . The results were " generally very positive " ; children learned from the shows , their appeal was high , and their attention was sustained over the full hour . However , the researchers found that although children 's attention was high during the Muppet segments , their interest wavered during the " Street " segments , when no Muppets were on screen . This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together . As a result of this decision , the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target .
The Street scenes , as Palmer described them , were " the glue " that " pulled the show together " , so producers knew they needed to make significant changes . On the basis of their experience on Captain Kangaroo , Cannell , Stone , and Gibbon thought the experts ' opinions were " nonsense " ; Cooney agreed . Lesser called their decision to defy the recommendations of their advisers " a turning point in the history of Sesame Street " . The producers reshot the Street segments ; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors , specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird , who became two of the show 's most enduring characters . In addition , the producers found Saunders ' role as Gordon not to be as likable by children watching the show , resulting in the character being recast by Matt Robinson , who was initially the show 's filmed segments producer . These test episodes were directly responsible for what Gladwell called " the essence of Sesame Street — the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults " .
= = Premiere and first season ( 1969 – 1970 ) = =
Two days before the show 's premiere , a thirty @-@ minute preview entitled This Way to Sesame Street aired on NBC . The show was financed by a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from Xerox . Written by Stone and produced by CTW publicist Bob Hatch , it was taped the day before it aired . Newsday called the preview " a unique display of cooperation between commercial and noncommercial broadcasters " .
Sesame Street premièred November 10 , 1969 . It was widely praised for its originality , and was well received by parents as well as children . The show reached only 67 @.@ 6 % of the nation , but earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , meaning 1 @.@ 9 million households and 7 million children watched it each day . In Sesame Street 's first season , the ETS reported that children who watched the show scored higher in tests than less @-@ frequent viewers .
In November 1970 , the cover of Time magazine featured Big Bird , who had received more fan mail than any of the show 's human hosts . The magazine declared , " ... It is not only the best children 's show in TV history , it is one of the best parents ' shows as well " . David Frost , speaking about the versions of Sesame Street that were being produced in other countries , declared it was " a hit everywhere it goes " . An executive at ABC , while recognizing that Sesame Street was not perfect , said the show " opened children 's TV to taste and wit and substance " and " made the climate right for improvement " . Other reviewers predicted commercial television would be forced to improve its children 's programming , something that did not substantially occur until the 1990s . Sesame Street won a Peabody Award , three Emmys , and the Prix Jeunesse award in 1970 . President Richard Nixon sent Cooney a congratulatory letter , and Dr. Benjamin Spock predicted the program would result in " better @-@ trained citizens , fewer unemployables in the next generation , fewer people on welfare , and smaller jail populations " .
Sesame Street was not without its detractors ; there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi voted to not air the show on the state 's newly launched public television network . A member of the commission leaked the vote to The New York Times , stating that " Mississippi was not yet ready " for the show 's integrated cast . Cooney called the ban " a tragedy for both the white and black children of Mississippi " . The state commission reversed its decision after the vote made national news .
The producers of Sesame Street made a few changes in its second season . Segments that featured children became more spontaneous and allowed more impromptu dialogue , even when it meant cutting other segments . Since federal funds had been used to produce the show , more segments of the population insisted upon being represented on Sesame Street ; for example , the show was criticized by Hispanic groups for the lack of Latino characters in the early years of production . A committee of Hispanic activists , commissioned by the CTW in 1970 , called Sesame Street " racist " and said the show 's bilingual aspects were of " poor quality and patronizing " . The CTW responded to these critics by hiring Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers . By the mid @-@ 70s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " .
While New York Magazine reported criticism of the presence of strong single women in the show , organizations like the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) expressed concerns that the show needed to be " less male @-@ oriented " . For example , members of NOW took exception to the character Susan , who was originally a housewife . They complained about the lack of , as Morrow put it , " credible female Muppets " on the show ; Morrow reported that Henson 's response was that " women might not be strong enough to hold the puppets over the long hours of taping " . The show 's producers responded by making Susan a nurse and by hiring a female writer .
= = 1970s = =
By the mid @-@ 1970s , Sesame Street , according to Davis , had become " an American institution " . ETS conducted two " landmark " studies of the show in 1970 and 1971 which demonstrated Sesame Street had a positive educational impact on its viewers . The results of these studies led to the producers securing funding for the show over the next several years , and provided the CTW with additional ways to promote it . By the second season , Sesame Street had become so popular that the design of ETS ' experiments to track the show 's educational outcomes had to be changed : instead of comparing viewers with a control group of non @-@ viewers , the researchers studied the differences among levels of viewing . They found that children who watched Sesame Street more frequently had a higher comprehension of the material presented .
Producer Jon Stone was instrumental in guiding the show during these years . According to Davis , Stone " gave Sesame Street its soul " ; without him " there would not have been Sesame Street as we know it " . Frank Oz regarded Stone as " the father of Sesame Street " , and Cooney considered Stone " the key creative talent on Sesame Street and " probably the most brilliant writer of children 's material in America " . Stone was able to recognize and mentor talented people for his crew . He actively hired and promoted women during a time when few women earned top production jobs in television . His policies provided the show with a succession of female producers and writers , many of whom went on to lead the boom in children 's programming at Nickelodeon , the Disney Channel , and PBS in the 1990s and 2000s . One of these women was Dulcy Singer , who later became the first female executive producer of Sesame Street .
After the show 's initial success , its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources . The CTW decided to depend upon government agencies and private foundations to develop the show . This would protect it from the financial pressures experienced by commercial networks , but created problems in finding continued support . This era in the show 's history was marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government ; in 1978 , the US Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of the CTW 's fiscal year . As a result , the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements , publishing , and international sales for its funding . Henson owned the trademarks to the Muppet characters : he was reluctant to market them at first , but agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys , books , and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW . The producers demanded complete control over all products and product decisions ; any product line associated with the show had to be educational , inexpensive , and not advertised during its airings . The CTW approached Random House to establish and manage a non @-@ broadcast materials division . Random House and the CTW named Christopher Cerf to assist the CTW in publishing books and other materials that emphasized the curriculum . In 1980 , the CTW began to produce a touring stage production based upon the show , written by Connell and performed by the Ice Follies .
Shortly after the premiere of Sesame Street , the CTW was approached by producers , educators , and officials in other nations , requesting that a version of the show be aired in their countries . Former CBS executive Mike Dann left commercial television to become vice @-@ president of the CTW and Cooney 's assistant ; Dann began what Charlotte Cole , vice president for the CTW 's International Research department , called the " globalization " of Sesame Street . A flexible model was developed , based upon the experiences of the creators and producers of the original show . The shows came to be called " co @-@ productions " , and they contained original sets , characters , and curriculum goals . Depending upon each country 's needs and resources , different versions were produced , including dubbed versions of the original show and independent programs . By 2009 , Sesame Street had expanded into 140 countries ; The New York Times reported in 2005 that income from the CTW 's international co @-@ productions of the show was $ 96 million .
Sesame Street 's cast expanded in the 1970s , better fulfilling the show 's original goal of greater diversity in both human and Muppet characters . The cast members who joined the show were Sonia Manzano ( Maria ) , who also wrote for the show , Northern Calloway ( David ) , Alaina Reed ( Olivia ) , Emilio Delgado ( Luis ) , Linda Bove ( Linda ) , and Buffy Sainte @-@ Marie ( Buffy ) . In 1975 , Roscoe Orman became the third actor to play Gordon , succeeding Hal Miller , who had briefly replaced Matt Robinson .
New Muppet characters were introduced during the 1970s . Count von Count was created and performed by Jerry Nelson , who also voiced Mr. Snuffleupagus , a large Muppet that required two puppeteers to operate . Richard Hunt , who , in Jon Stone 's words , joined the Muppets as a " wild @-@ eyed 18 @-@ year @-@ old and grew into a master puppeteer and inspired teacher " , created Gladys the Cow , Forgetful Jones , Don Music , and the construction worker Sully . Telly Monster was performed by Brian Muehl ; Marty Robinson took over the role in 1984 . Frank Oz created Cookie Monster . Matt Robinson created the " controversial " ( as Davis called him ) character Roosevelt Franklin . Fran Brill , the first female puppeteer for the Muppets , joined the Henson organization in 1970 , and originated the character Prairie Dawn . In 1975 , Henson created The Muppet Show , which was filmed and produced in London ; Henson brought many of the Muppet performers with him , so opportunities opened up for new performers and puppets to appear on Sesame Street .
The CTW wanted to attract the best composers and lyricists for Sesame Street , so songwriters like Joe Raposo , the show 's music director , and writer Jeff Moss were allowed to retain the rights to the songs they wrote . The writers earned lucrative profits , and the show was able to sustain public interest . Raposo 's " I Love Trash " , written for Oscar the Grouch , was included on the first album of Sesame Street songs , The Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 . Moss ' " Rubber Duckie " , sung by Henson for Ernie , remained on the Top @-@ 40 Billboard charts for seven weeks that same year . Another Henson song , written by Raposo for Kermit the Frog in 1970 , " Bein ' Green " , which Davis called " Raposo 's best @-@ regarded song for Sesame Street " , was later recorded by Frank Sinatra and Ray Charles . " Sing " , which became a hit for The Carpenters in 1973 , and " Somebody Come and Play " , were also written by Raposo for Sesame Street .
In 1978 , Stone and Singer produced and wrote the show 's first special , the " triumphant " Christmas Eve on Sesame Street , which included an O Henry @-@ inspired storyline in which Bert and Ernie gave up their prized possessions — Ernie his rubber ducky and Bert his paper clip collection — to purchase each other Christmas gifts . Bert and Ernie were played by Frank Oz and Jim Henson , who in real life were , like the puppets they played , colleagues and friends . To Davis , this demonstrated the puppeteers ' remarkable ability to play " puppetry 's Odd Couple " . In Singer 's opinion , the special — which Stone also wrote and directed — demonstrated Stone 's " soul " , and Sonia Manzano called it a good example of what Sesame Street was all about . The special won Emmys for Stone and Singer in 1979 .
By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . Four out of five children had watched it over a six @-@ week period , and 90 % of children from low @-@ income inner @-@ city homes regularly viewed the show .
= = 1980s = =
In 1984 , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) deregulated commercial restrictions on children 's television . Advertising during network children 's programs almost doubled , and deregulation resulted in an increase in commercially oriented programming . Sesame Street was successful during this era of deregulation despite the fact that the United States government terminated all federal funding of the CTW in 1981 . By 1987 , the show was earning $ 42 million per year from its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing , and foreign income — enough to cover two @-@ thirds of its expenses . Its remaining budget , plus a $ 6 million surplus , was covered by revenue from its PBS broadcasts .
According to Davis , Sesame Street 's second decade was spent " turning inward , expanding its young viewers ' world " . The show 's curriculum grew to include more " affective " teaching — relationships , ethics , and positive and negative emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast , and crew . In 1982 , Will Lee , who had played Mr. Hooper since the show 's premiere , died . For the 1983 season , the show 's producers and research staff decided they would explain Mr. Hooper 's death to their preschool audience , instead of recasting the role : the writer of that episode , Norman Stiles , said , " We felt we owed something to a man we respected and loved " . They convened a group of psychologists , religious leaders , and other experts in the field of grief , loss , and separation . The research team conducted a series of studies before the episode to ascertain if children were able to understand the messages they wanted to convey about Mr. Hooper 's death ; the research showed most children did understand . Parents ' reactions to the episode were , according to the CTW 's own reports , " overwhelmingly positive " . The episode , which won an Emmy , aired on Thanksgiving Day in 1983 so parents could be home to discuss it with their children . Author David Borgenicht called the episode " poignant " ; Davis called it " a landmark broadcast " and " a truly memorable episode , one of the show 's best " . Caroll Spinney , who played Big Bird and who drew the caricatures prominently used in the episode , reported the cast and crew were moved to tears during filming .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Americans were becoming more aware of the prevalence of child abuse , so Sesame Street 's researchers and producers decided to " reveal " Mr. Snuffleupagus in 1985 . " Snuffy " had never been seen by any of the adults on the show and was considered Big Bird 's " imaginary friend " . The show 's producers were concerned about the message being sent to children ; " If children saw that the adults didn 't believe what Big Bird said ( even though it was true ) , they would be afraid to talk to adults about dramatic or disturbing things that happened to them " .
For the 1988 and 1989 seasons , the topics of love , marriage , and childbirth were addressed when the show presented a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love , marry , and have a child named Gabi . Sonia Manzano , the actress who played Maria , had married and become pregnant ; according to the book Sesame Street Unpaved , published after the show 's thirtieth anniversary in 1999 , Manzano 's real @-@ life experiences gave the show 's writers and producers the idea . Before writing began , research was done to gain an understanding of what previous studies had revealed about preschoolers ' understanding of love , marriage , and family . The show 's staff found that at the time that there was very little relevant research done about children 's understanding of these topics , and no books for children had been written about them . Studies done after the episodes about Maria 's pregnancy aired showed that as a result of watching these episodes , children 's understanding of pregnancy increased .
= = 1990s = =
Davis called the 1990s a " time of transition on Sesame Street " . Several people involved in the show from its beginnings died during this period : Jim Henson in 1990 at the age of 53 " from a runaway strep infection gone stubbornly , foolishly untreated " ; songwriter Joe Raposo from non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma fifteen months earlier ; long @-@ time cast member Northern Calloway of cardiac arrest in January 1990 ; puppeteer Richard Hunt of AIDS in early 1992 ; CTW founder and producer David Connell of bladder cancer in 1995 ; director Jon Stone of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in 1997 ; and writer Jeff Moss of colon cancer in 1998 .
By the early 1990s , Sesame Street was , as Davis put it , " the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television " . Entertainment Weekly reported in 1991 that the show 's music had been honored with eight Grammys . The show 's dominance , however , was soon challenged by another PBS television show for preschoolers , Barney & Friends , and Sesame Street 's ratings declined . The producers of Sesame Street responded , at the show 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary in 1993 , by expanding and redesigning the show 's set , calling it " Around the Corner " . New human and Muppet characters were introduced , including Zoe ( performed by Fran Brill ) , baby Natasha and her parents Ingrid and Humphrey , and Ruthie ( played by comedian Ruth Buzzi ) . The " Around the Corner " set was dismantled in 1997 . Zoe , one of the few characters that survived , was created to include another female Muppet on the show : her spunky and fearless personality was intended to break female stereotypes . According to Davis , she was the first character developed on the show by marketing and product development specialists , who worked with the researchers at the CTW . ( The quest for a " break @-@ out " female Muppet character continued into 2006 with the creation of Abby Cadabby , who was created after nine months of research . ) In 1998 , for the first time in the show 's history , Sesame Street pursued funding by accepting corporate sponsorship . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader , who had been a guest on the show , urged parents to protest the move by boycotting the show .
For Sesame Street 's 30th anniversary in 1999 , its producers researched the reasons for the show 's lower ratings . For the first time since the show debuted , the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street 's content and structure during a series of two @-@ week @-@ long workshops . They also studied how children 's viewing habits had changed in the past thirty years . They found that although the show was produced for those between the ages of three and five , children began watching it at a younger age . Preschool television had become more competitive , and the CTW 's research showed the traditional magazine format was not the best way to attract young children 's attention . The growth of home videos during the ' 80s and the increase of thirty @-@ minute children 's shows on cable had demonstrated that children 's attention could be sustained for longer periods of time , but the CTW 's researchers found that their viewers , especially the younger ones , lost attention in Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes .
Beginning in 1998 , a new 15 @-@ minute segment shown at the end of each episode , " Elmo 's World " , used traditional elements ( animation , Muppets , music , and live @-@ action film ) , but had a more sustained narrative . " Elmo 's World " followed the same structure each episode , and depended heavily on repetition . Unlike the realism of the rest of the show , the segment took place in a stylized crayon @-@ drawing universe as conceived by its host . Elmo , who represented the three- to four @-@ year @-@ old child , was chosen as host of the closing segment because he had always tested well with this segment of their audience . He was created in 1980 and originally performed by Brian Muehl , and later Richard Hunt , but did not become what his eventual portrayer , Kevin Clash , called a " phenomenon " until Clash took over the role in 1985 . Eventually , Elmo became , as Davis reported , " the embodiment " of Sesame Street , and " the marketing wonder of our age " when five million " Tickle Me Elmo " dolls were sold in 1996 . Clash believed the " Tickle Me Elmo " phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the " Elmo 's World " segment . Michael Jeter was a favorite with younger audiences in his role as Mr. Noodle 's brother , Mister Noodle on Sesame Street from 1999 to 2003 .
= = 2000s and 2010s = =
In 2002 , Sesame Street 's producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic , fundamentally changing the show 's structure , which had relied on " Street scenes " interrupted by live @-@ action videos and animation . The target age for Sesame Street shifted downward , from four years to three years , after the show 's 33rd season . As co @-@ executive producer Arlene Sherman stated , " We basically deconstructed the show " . The producers expanded upon the " Elmo 's World " by changing from a magazine format to a narrative format , which made the show easier for young children to navigate . Sherman called the show 's new look " startlingly different " . Following its tradition of addressing emotionally difficult topics , Sesame Street 's producers chose to address the attacks of 9 / 11 during this season on its premiere episode , which aired February 4 , 2002 . This episode , as well as a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , were used in Sesame Workshop 's Community Outreach program .
In 2006 , the United States Department of State called Sesame Street " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " . Over half of the show 's international co @-@ productions were made after 2001 ; according to the 2006 documentary The World According to Sesame Street , the events of 9 / 11 inspired the producers of these co @-@ productions . In 2003 , Takalani Sesame , a South African co @-@ production , elicited criticism in the United States when its producers created Kami , the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , whose purpose was educating children in South Africa about the epidemic of AIDS . The controversy , which surprised the Sesame Workshop , was short @-@ lived and died down after Kofi Annan and Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop 's efforts . By 2006 , Sesame Street had won more Emmy Awards than any other children 's show , including winning the outstanding children 's series award for twelve consecutive years — every year the Emmys included the category . By 2009 , the show had won 118 Emmys throughout its history , and was awarded the Outstanding Achievement Emmy for its 40 years on the air .
By Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television . When the show premiered in 1969 , 130 episodes a year were produced ; in 2009 , because of rising costs , twenty @-@ six episodes were made . In 2009 , the Children 's Television Workshop , which had changed its name to the Sesame Workshop ( SW ) in June 2000 to better reflect its entry into non @-@ television and interactive media , launched a website with a library of free video clips and free podcasts from throughout the show 's history . The 2008 – 2009 recession , which led to budget cuts for many nonprofit arts organizations , severely affected Sesame Street ; in spring 2009 , the SW had to lay off 20 % of its staff .
Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary was commemorated by the 2008 publication of Street Gang : The Complete History of Sesame Street , by Michael Davis , which has been called " the definitive statement " about the history of the show .
Starting in 2009 , the producers of Sesame Street took steps to bring back older viewers ; it was also successful in increasing its audience viewership among 3 @-@ to @-@ 5 year @-@ olds by the end of the 40th season . In 2012 , the show 's 43rd season , Elmo 's World was replaced with Elmo the Musical , which was targeted at the program 's older viewers . Subsequently in September 2014 , starting with the show 's 45th season , Sesame Workshop began distributing a half @-@ hour version of the program to PBS member stations . The new version , which complemented the existing hour @-@ long broadcast and focuses more on interstitial segments ( although certain segments such as Elmo the Musical or Abby 's Flying Fairy School are omitted from that version ) , was added because of increasing mobile and online viewing among children as well as growing competition for preschoolers on linear and online television , an increase in use of PBS Kids ' mobile video app during 2013 and decreasing broadcast viewership ; the half @-@ hour version airs weekday afternoons on PBS member television stations ( with the hour @-@ long version continuing to air in the morning ) and was made available for streaming online and on mobile devices through PBS ' website , mobile app and Roku channel .
On August 13 , 2015 , as part of a five @-@ year programming and development deal , Sesame Workshop announced that first @-@ run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO ( which had not aired any original children 's programming since 2005 ) in late 2015 . Sesame Workshop sought the deal because of declining revenue from viewer donations , and decreases in distribution fees paid by PBS member stations and licensing for merchandise sales ( particularly through Sesame Workshop 's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales ) , with the intent to having the show remain on PBS in some fashion ( HBO already had involvement in public television at the time of the deal , providing funding for the talk show Charlie Rose ) ; the deal also came in the wake of changing viewer habits of American children over the previous ten years . HBO will hold first @-@ run rights to all newer episodes of the series starting with season 46 , after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine @-@ month exclusivity window , with no charge to the stations for airing the content ; however , HBO has not announced whether first @-@ run episodes will air on the pay service 's main channel or its multiplex channel HBO Family . The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix . On August 14 , Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in @-@ house subscription streaming service , Sesame Go , as a standalone service ; instead of shutting it down entirely , it intends to scale back its offerings to either provide access to a reduced slate of free content or act as a portal for Sesame Street 's website .
= Hands All Over ( Maroon 5 song ) =
" Hands All Over " is a song recorded by American band Maroon 5 , for their 2010 third studio album of the same name . It was written by Adam Levine , Jesse Carmichael , Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Robert John " Mutt " Lange . A funk metal and rock song , " Hands All Over " features an instrumentation consisting of electronic tones , drums , guitar , piano and percussion accompanied with heavy backing vocals ; lyrically , the song speaks of sexiness .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some of them calling it the best track on the album . It received comparison to the works of Prince , Nine Inch Nails and most notably to English band Def Leppard . Upon the release of the album , " Hands All Over " debuted on national charts in South Korea and Spain ; it peaked at number 20 on the Gaon Chart and 38 on the Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . A music video for the song was shot by Don Tyler was released on December 24 , 2010 . It features a nude animated woman flirting and dancing for the band members .
= = Background and production = =
Maroon 5 began writing material for their third studio album , Hands All Over , after completion of a world tour that was launched in support of their 2007 studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long . Months later , the band received a phone call from Robert John " Mutt " Lange , who had heard that the band were beginning to write a new album , and expressed an interest in producing it . In a press release on their official website , the album is described as " a killer hybrid of rock , pop , funk and R & B. " The band 's frontman Adam Levine described Mutt as one of the most successful producers who have ever lived . Jesse Carmichael , the band ’ s keyboardist , said , " Mutt really helped us play to the best of our ability . And it drove us to be bigger and better than ever . " Hands All Over was released on September 21 , 2010 in the United States . It received generally favorable reviews from music critics and debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 .
The album 's title track was written by Levine , Jesse Carmichael and Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Mutt . The additional production , engineering and programming was provided by Farrar and Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy . The song was recorded at Mutt 's studio in Vevey ( Lake Geneva ) , Switzerland by Olle Romo who also provided the Pro @-@ Tools . Mike Shipley did the additional recording and also mixed " Hands All Over " . Additional engineering of the song was done by Isha Erskine , while Eric Rose and Chad Hugo did the additional programming . Scott Cooke and Lenny Castro played the percussion . Brad Blackwood from Euphonic Masters was the mastering engineer .
= = Composition = =
" Hands All Over " is a funk metal and rock song with a length of three minutes and thirteen seconds ( 3 : 13 ) . It has an instrumentation consisting of drums , guitar , piano and percussion . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote for the song , " crunchy guitars and a rock star sway animate the title song " . Contactmusic 's Nima Baniamer stated that " Hands All Over " , follows a trend consisting of heavy percussions and more heavier backing vocals . Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that the song " is a heavy thump of a song that sounds pure Lange with a big kick drum propelling it forward . " In a review of the album , Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that the track contains a " rude guitar sleaze " , while according to Ben Czajkowski of 411mania " Hands all Over " borders on anthemic rock with a biting guitar technique " .
Written in the key of C minor , the song is placed in common time , with a moderate funk tempo . " Hands " All Over " starts with dark and shadowed electronic undertones before " sudden " bursts of electronic guitars start playing before transitioning into a " rock @-@ studded " production . The track also contains a lot of electronic guitar solo 's in the chorus and the verses , in the verses and the bridges and so forth . According to a reviewer of Billboard , at some points during the duration of the song , the guitars " just bleed " throughout the verses . " Put your hands all over me " , " Levine bellows over burly power chords " according to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone . Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , lyrically , " Hands All Over " together with " Never Gonna Leave This Bed " speak of sexiness .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jakob Dorof of Slant Magazine wrote that " Hands All Over " is " the one real gamble " ; despite the fact that it tries to hard to find a missing connection between the works of Prince , Queen and Nine Inch Nails , " it 's certainly one of the more interesting things the band has ever recorded . " Similarly , McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that on songs like " Hands All Over " and " Stutter " , the Maroon 5 shows a band " who are really at their best when they play pop music like the sleazy rockers they clearly are . " Contactmusic 's Banimaer stated that although the track is a little repetitive , it shows what kind of band Maroon 5 wants to be .
Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that it is a " big , silly arena @-@ rock song reminiscent of Def Leppard " . She further noted , " but Maroon 5 are too meticulous , a little too uptight , to make good on the song 's party @-@ hearty promise . Levine and crew could be blue @-@ eyed @-@ soul godheads , the 21st @-@ century Hall and Oates . But they need to loosen up first . " Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly also spotted the Def Leppard influence on " Hands All Over " . Writing for the Bay of Plenty Times , Tamlyn Stewart said that the song is sexy and funky and is similar to the band 's works on their second studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . Billboard 's reviewer labeled " Hands All Over " the best track among others including " Give a Little More " , " Misery " and " Out of Goodbyes " .
= = = Commercial = = =
Upon the release of Hands All Over , due to the strong digital downloads , " Hands All Over " appeared on the national charts in South Korea and Spain . The song debuted and peaked at number 20 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart . On the Spanish Singles Chart , " Hands All Over " peaked at number 38 and stayed on the chart for one week .
= = Music video = =
A music video for the song was released on December 24 , 2010 . It was directed by Don Tyler , who previously worked on videos for the bands A Day to Remember and Flyleaf . It was digitally released on June 14 , 2011 via iTunes Store and the same day was also uploaded on the band 's Vevo channel on YouTube . Shot in an animated technique , the video starts with an animated version of lead singer Levine singing on a microphone while hands are behind his back touching his body . As the video progresses , a nude animated woman is shown dancing around him and flirting with the other members of the band . Several animation effects such as angel wings and devil elements are shown behind Levine as he is singing , while the woman is also dancing for the other members . The video finishes with a close shot of Levine 's face .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Hands All Over , A & M / Octone Records .
= = Charts = =
= Glassheart Tour =
The Glassheart Tour was the second headlining concert tour by British recording artist Leona Lewis . It was launched in support of her third studio album , Glassheart ( 2012 ) . Announced on 8 October 2012 , with an initial run of sixteen dates in the United Kingdom , the Glassheart Tour was extended to include five dates in Germany and one in Switzerland . English singer @-@ songwriter Ryan Keen served as the support act . It marks the first time that Lewis has performed material in Europe as part of a headline tour ; her previous tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) , only visited the UK .
Lewis was inspired by American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's style of performance and noted British playwright William Shakespeare as inspiration for the tour . Lewis performed the set list with her band which consisted mostly of a string quartet and acoustic song arrangements . It was the acoustic performances and Lewis ' vocals that garnered the most praise from critics ; however , there was a mixed reaction to some of the arrangements such as the reggae influences on " Better in Time " . Critics were also divided over the lack of diversity from previous live performances though Lewis ' stage presence was commended .
= = Background and development = =
Lewis released her third studio album Glassheart on 12 October 2012 , almost a year after the original release date of November 2011 . The album had been conceptualised in July 2010 , following Lewis ' completion of her first tour , The Labyrinth . The album title Glassheart was inspired from a conversation that Lewis had with Ryan Tedder . During the conversation , Tedder asked Lewis about her past experiences with love and life in general . Lewis ' response led him to the word " Glassheart . " During an interview with Clyde 1 radio , Lewis said " Glassheart represents protecting your heart , yourself and protecting your emotions , its very poignant " . On 8 October 2012 , a week before the album 's UK release , Lewis announced her supporting tour of the same name . The tour is named after the album , and although Lewis said she is not American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's " biggest fan " , she was inspired by his tour performances where he appeared on stage alone and just " did his thing " .
During an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis told Tom Eames that Glassheart has a running theme about " star @-@ crossed lovers that can 't be together " , and so it was likely that this idea would feature on the tour . Lewis also cited William Shakespeare as another source of inspiration . She spent the three days of the final tour rehearsals at The Backstage Centre in Purfleet , Essex ( UK ) . The Glassheart Tour was scheduled to visit twenty @-@ one venues across Germany and the United Kingdom . The tour was expected to begin on 15 April in Berlin . The list had expanded from an initial sixteen to include five dates in Germany . Lewis would then proceed with UK dates beginning in Glasgow , including two dates at London 's Royal Albert Hall before finishing on 18 May in Plymouth . Speaking about the tour , Lewis said " I can 't wait to get out there and play my new songs . I had such fun on my last tour and I 'm really excited about doing it again next year . " Barclaycard ran a competition which gave fans the chance to win tickets to 6 May concert at Birmingham 's National Indoor Arena .
= = Critics ' reviews = =
In a review for the Express & Star , Elizabeth Joyce said although Lewis was not like her contemporaries : " meat dress @-@ wearing " Lady Gaga or the Russell Brand @-@ marrying Katy Perry , " no one can reach those soft lows or soaring highs quite like her " . Joyce praised the concert for showing the best of Lewis ' vocal abilities . Focussing predominately on songs from Spirit ( 2007 ) and Glassheart ( 2012 ) , the concert was largely acoustic music with a band and string quartet . In particular Joyce praised Lewis ' performances of " First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " and " Bleeding Love " which earned her standing ovations , in addition to the " note perfect " rendition of " Run " . Katherine Hollisey @-@ McLean for the Worthing Herald largely agreed , commenting that if anyone expected Lewis to be " belting out song after song " they were right . Hollisey @-@ McLean praised the decisions to switch the song arrangements , for example adding reggae beats to " Better in Time " and performing the acoustic version of " Trouble " . She ended by saying that Lewis ' vocals were " flawless " and that her stage presence and confidence had vastly improved over the last seven years .
The Guardian 's Malcolm Jack was less impressed ; he stated that when Lewis tried to diversify the show by dancing or switching the arrangements , she risked becoming the British diva that pop music forgot . Jack said that during a " sassy dance routine " for " Forgive Me " Lewis came off as a " budget Beyoncé " , whilst on the " cringey windin ' and grindin ' reggae take on ' Better in Time ' song " she comes across like a " reasonably priced Rihanna " . Jack concluded by saying the show was in need of a shot of " adrenaline " . In writing for the Nottingham Post , Paul Hindle agreed , saying that when the tempo increased and choreography was introduced " Lewis looked endearingly uncomfortable " ; however , Hindle was positive about Lewis ' vocals , calling her vocal performance " virtuoso " . He concluded that Lewis ' " spellbinding rendition " of " Run " was a highlight of the concert , and that fans should not have left disappointed .
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show in Berlin on 15 April 2013 . It may not represent the setlist from all of the shows .
" Come Alive "
" Fireflies "
" A Moment Like This " ( Acoustic version )
" Collide "
" Forgive Me "
" Better in Time " ( contains elements of " Man Down " , a song originally performed by Rihanna )
" Happy "
" Sugar "
" I to You "
" Broken "
" Trouble " ( Acoustic version )
" Locked Out of Heaven " ( A cover originally performed by Bruno Mars )
" Footprints in the Sand "
" The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face "
" Bleeding Love "
" Glassheart "
" Run "
Notes
Lewis performed a cover of the Rihanna song " Diamonds " in Scarborough on 12 July 2013 .
= = Shows = =
= New Jersey Route 177 =
Route 177 was the shortest state highway recorded in Somerset County , New Jersey and the second shortest around the entire state of New Jersey . ( New Jersey Route 59 is the shortest recorded route in the state at 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long . ) Route 177 went for a short , 0 @.@ 24 miles ( 0 @.@ 39 km ) state @-@ maintained portion of Bridge Street in Somerville . One of only three state highways in Somerset County after the 1953 state highway renumbering , Route 177 was the only one to be decommissioned later on . ( The other two highways are Route 27 further south and Route 28 further north ) The short @-@ lived designation went from U.S. Route 206 in Somerville , up Bridge Street near the Old Cemetery to Fifth Street , where state maintenance terminated . In 1974 , the Department of Transportation turned maintenance of this short highway over to the borough of Somerville for future use .
= = Route description = =
Route 177 began at a traffic light intersection with U.S. Route 206 in the city of Somerville . At the intersection , southbound traffic on Route 206 had to use a jughandle to connect to Route 177 . The state highway went northeastward , progressing along as South Bridge Street through a curve . Heading northward , the route passed the Somerville Old Cemetery before intersecting with Fifth Street . There , state @-@ maintenance ended , and the designation of Route 177 terminated . Entering downtown Somerville , South Bridge Street continued northward into a large residential community . Passing to the east and west of several residential homes , South Bridge Street continued into the downtown portion , crossing the current @-@ day Raritan Valley Line tracks maintained by New Jersey Transit and served the Somerville train station . After a couple of blocks of residential homes and businesses , South Bridge Street came to an intersection with New Jersey Route 28 , where it switched to North Bridge Street .
= = History = =
The alignment of Route 177 was a former alignment of State Highway Route 31 through Somerville . The highway was instated in 1926 as U.S. Route 206 and 1927 as State Highway Route 31 by the New Jersey State Highway Department and the Federal Highway Administration respectively . By 1930 , Routes 206 and 31 was shifted off of Bridge Street , running along a partially completed bypass of Somerville . By 1938 , this was completed and Route 206 was shifted to the southern terminus of Bridge Street south of the old cemetery . Bridge Street remained unnumbered until the second state highway renumbering on January 1 , 1953 . That day , the unnumbered alignment became Route 177 , running from US 206 to Fifth Street , where it met US 206 's former alignment . The route remained intact for a couple of decades , as one of three state highways in Somerset County ( along with Route 28 and Route 27 ) until 1974 , when the route was decommissioned and turned over to the borough of Somerville .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Somerville , Somerset County .
= Dan Leno =
George Wild Galvin ( 20 December 1860 – 31 October 1904 ) , better known by the stage name Dan Leno , was a leading English music hall comedian and musical theatre actor during the late Victorian era . He was best known , aside from his music hall act , for his dame roles in the annual pantomimes that were popular at London 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , from 1888 to 1904 .
Leno was born in St Pancras , London , and began to entertain as a child . In 1864 , he joined his parents on stage in their music hall act , and he made his first solo appearance , aged nine , at the Britannia Music Hall in Coventry . As a youth , he was famous for his clog dancing , and in his teen years , he became the star of his family 's act . He adopted the stage name Dan Leno and , in 1884 , made his first performance under that name in London . As a solo artist , he became increasingly popular during the late 1880s and 1890s , when he was one of the highest @-@ paid comedians in the world . He developed a music hall act of talking about life 's mundane subjects , mixed with comic songs and surreal observations , and created a host of mostly working @-@ class characters to illustrate his stories . In 1901 , still at the peak of his career , he performed his " Huntsman " sketch for Edward VII at Sandringham . The monarch was so impressed that Leno became publicly known as " the king 's jester " .
Leno also appeared in burlesque and , every year from 1888 to 1904 , in the Drury Lane Theatre 's Christmas pantomime spectacles . He was generous and active in charitable causes , especially to benefit performers in need . Leno continued to appear in musical comedies and his own music hall routines until 1902 , although he suffered increasingly from alcoholism . This , together with his long association with dame and low comedy roles , prevented him from being taken seriously as a dramatic actor , and he was turned down for Shakespearean roles . Leno began to behave in an erratic and furious manner by 1902 , and he suffered a mental breakdown in early 1903 . He was committed to a mental asylum , but was discharged later that year . After one more show , his health declined , and he died aged 43 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early life = = =
Leno was born in St Pancras , London . He was the youngest of six children , including two elder brothers , John and Henry , and an elder sister , Frances . Two other siblings died in infancy . His parents , John Galvin ( 1826 – 1864 ) and his wife Louisa ( née Dutton ; 1831 – 1891 ) , performed together in a music hall double act called " The Singing and Acting Duettists " . They were known professionally as Mr. and Mrs. Johnny Wild . They were not very successful , and the family struggled in poverty .
Having had very little schooling , and being raised by performers , Leno learned to entertain as a child . In 1862 , Leno 's parents and elder brothers appeared at the Surrey Music Hall in Sheffield , then performed in northern cities later in the year . In 1864 , at the age of four , Leno joined his parents on stage for the first time , at the Cosmotheca Music Hall in Paddington , under the billing " Little George , the Infant Wonder , Contortionist , and Posturer " .
When Leno was still four , his father , an alcoholic , died at the age of 37 . The family moved to Liverpool a few months later , where his mother married William Grant ( 1837 – 1896 ) , on 7 March 1866 . Grant was a comedian of Lancastrian and Irish descent , who performed in music halls throughout the British provinces under the stage name of William Leno . He was a seasoned actor and had previously been employed by Charles Kean in his theatre company at the Princess 's Theatre in London . In 1866 , the family home in Marylebone was demolished to make way for St Pancras railway station and , as a result , Leno 's sister Frances was sent to live with an uncle , while his brother John , who performed occasionally with his parents , took full @-@ time employment . Leno , his mother , stepfather and brother Henry moved north and settled in Liverpool , where they performed in various halls and theatres , including the Star Music Hall , but they often returned to London to perform in the capital 's music halls .
= = = Early career = = =
In 1865 , Leno and his brother Henry , who first taught Leno to dance , formed a clog dancing double act known as " The Great Little Lenos " . This was the first time that Leno used his stepfather 's stage name , " Leno " , which he never registered legally . The same year , Leno also appeared in his first pantomime , in Liverpool , where he had a supporting part as a juvenile clown in Fortunatus ; or , The Magic Wishing Cap alongside his parents , who appeared as " Mr and Mrs Leno – Comic Duettists " . On 18 July 1866 , Leno , Henry and their parents appeared on the opening night of the Cambridge Music Hall in Toxteth , Liverpool , under the billing " Mr. and Mrs. Leno , the Great , Sensational , Dramatic and Comic Duettists and The Brothers Leno , Lancashire Clog , Boot and Pump Dancers " . The following year , the brothers made their first appearance without their parents at the Britannia music hall in Hoxton . Although initially successful , the pair would experience many bouts of unemployment and often busked outside London pubs to make a living . Tired of surviving on little or no money , Henry left the clog dancing act to take up a trade in London , forcing Leno to consider a future as a solo performer . Henry later founded a dance school . Soon , however , Henry was replaced intermittently in the act by the boys ' uncle , Johnny Danvers , who was a week older than Leno . Leno and Danvers were close from an early age .
Leno made his debut as a solo performer in 1869 , returning to the Britannia music hall in Hoxton , where he became known as " The Great Little Leno , the Quintessence of Irish Comedians " . The name was suggested by his stepfather , William , who thought the Irish connection would appeal to audiences on their upcoming visit to Dublin . Arriving in Ireland the same year , the Lenos were struggling financially and stayed with William 's relatives . In addition to his performances as part of the family act , young Leno appeared as a solo act under an Irish @-@ sounding stage name , " Dan Patrick " . This allowed him to earn a separate fee of 23 shillings per performance plus living expenses . The name " Dan " was chosen to honour Dan Lowery , a northern music hall comedian and music hall proprietor whom the Lenos had met a few months earlier . During this tour of Ireland , the Lenos appeared in Dublin in a pantomime written by Leno 's father : Old King Humpty ; or , Harlequin Emerald Isle and Katty of Killarney ( 1869 ) , in which Leno received praise from Charles Dickens , who was in the audience and told him : " Good little man , you 'll make headway ! "
In 1870 , the Lenos appeared in another pantomime by Leno 's father , Jack the Giant Killer ; or , Harlequin Grim Gosling , or the Good Fairy Queen of the Golden Pine Grove , in which Leno played the title character and also featured in the variety entertainment that preceded the pantomime . This was his last theatrical role until 1886 . Throughout the 1870s , Leno and his parents performed as " The Comic Trio ( Mr. & Mrs. Leno and Dan Patrick ) In Their Really Funny Entertainments , Songs and Dances " . In the family act with his parents and Danvers , young Leno often took the leading role in such sketches as his stepfather 's The Wicklow Wedding . Another of their sketches was Torpedo Bill , in which Leno played the title role , an inventor of explosive devices . His parents played a " washerwoman " and a " comic cobbler " . This was followed by another sketch , Pongo the Monkey . Opening at Pullan 's Theatre of Varieties in Bradford on 20 May 1878 , this burlesque featured Leno as an escaped monkey ; it became his favourite sketch of the period .
The teenage Leno 's growing popularity led to bookings at , among others , the Varieties Theatre in Sheffield and the Star Music Hall in Manchester . At the same time , Leno 's clog dancing continued to be so good that in 1880 he won the world championship at the Princess 's Music Hall in Leeds , for which he received a gold and silver belt weighing 44 @.@ 5 oz ( 1 @.@ 26 kg ) . His biographer , the pantomime librettist J. Hickory Wood , described his act : " He danced on the stage ; he danced on a pedestal ; he danced on a slab of slate ; he was encored over and over again ; but throughout his performance , he never uttered a word " .
= = = 1880s = = =
In 1878 , Leno and his family moved to Manchester . There , he met Lydia Reynolds , who , in 1883 , joined the Leno family theatre company , which already consisted of his parents , Danvers and Leno . The following year , Leno and Reynolds married ; around this time , he adopted the stage name " Dan Leno " . On 10 March 1884 , the Leno family took over the running of the Grand Varieties Theatre in Sheffield . The Lenos felt comfortable with their working class Sheffield audiences . On their opening night , over 4 @,@ 000 patrons entered the theatre , paying sixpence to see Dan Leno star in Doctor Cut ' Em Up . In October 1884 , facing tough competition , the Lenos gave up the lease on the theatre .
In 1885 , Leno and his wife moved to Clapham Park , London , and Leno gained new success with a solo act that featured comedy patter , dancing and song . On the night of his London debut , he appeared in three music halls : the Foresters ' Music Hall in Mile End , Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane and Gatti 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Road , where he earned £ 5 a week in total ( £ 487 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) . Although billed as " The Great Irish Comic Vocalist and Clog Champion " at first , he slowly phased out his dancing in favour of character studies , such as " Going to Buy Milk for the Twins " , " When Rafferty Raffled his Watch " and " The Railway Guard " . His dancing had earned him popularity in the provinces , but Leno found that his London audiences preferred these sketches and his comic songs . Leno 's other London venues in the late 1880s included the Collins Music Hall in Islington , the Queen 's Theatre in Poplar and the Standard in Pimlico .
Leno was a replacement in the role of Leontes in the 1888 musical burlesque of the ancient Greek character Atalanta at the Strand Theatre , directed by Charles Hawtrey . It was written by Hawtrey 's brother , George P. Hawtrey , and it starred Frank Wyatt , Willie Warde and William Hawtrey . The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News praised Leno 's singing and dancing and reported that : " He brings a good deal of fun and quaintness to the not very important part of Leontes . " Leno accepted the role at short notice , with no opportunity to learn the script . But his improvised comedy helped to extend the life of the show . When Leno and another leading actor left a few months later , the production closed .
= = = Music hall = = =
During the 1890s , Leno was the leading performer on the music hall stage , rivalled only by Albert Chevalier , who moved into music hall from the legitimate theatre . Their styles and appeal were very different : Leno 's characters were gritty working @-@ class realists , while Chevalier 's were overflowing in romanticism , and his act depicted an affluent point of view . The two represented the opposite poles of cockney comedy .
For his music hall acts , Leno created characters that were based on observations about life in London , including shopwalkers , grocer 's assistants , beefeaters , huntsmen , racegoers , firemen , fathers , henpecked husbands , garrulous wives , pantomime dames , a police officer , a Spanish bandit , a fireman and a hairdresser . One such character was Mrs. Kelly , a gossip . Leno would sing a verse of a song , then begin a monologue , often his You know Mrs. Kelly ? routine , which became a well @-@ known catchphrase : " You see we had a row once , and it was all through Mrs. Kelly . You know Mrs. Kelly , of course . ... Oh , you must know Mrs. Kelly ; everybody knows Mrs. Kelly . "
For his London acts , Leno purchased songs from the foremost music hall writers and composers . One such composer was Harry King , who wrote many of Leno 's early successes . Other well @-@ known composers of the day who supplied Leno with numbers included Harry Dacre and Joseph Tabrar . From 1890 , Leno commissioned George Le Brunn to compose the incidental music to many of his songs , including " The Detective " , " My Old Man " , " Chimney on Fire " , " The Fasting Man " , " The Jap " , " All Through A Little Piece of Bacon " and " The Detective Camera " . Le Brunn also provided the incidental music for three of Leno 's best @-@ known songs that depicted life in everyday occupations : " The Railway Guard " ( 1890 ) , " The Shopwalker " and " The Waiter " ( both from 1891 ) . The songs in each piece became instantly distinctive and familiar to Leno 's audiences , but his occasional changes to the characterisations kept the sketches fresh and topical .
" The Railway Guard " featured Leno in a mad characterisation of a railway station guard dressed in an ill @-@ fitting uniform , with an unkempt beard and a whistle . The character was created by exaggerating the behaviour that Leno saw in a real employee at Brixton station who concerned himself in other people 's business while , at the same time , not doing any work . " The Shopwalker " was full of comic one @-@ liners and was heavily influenced by pantomime . Leno played the part of a shop assistant , again of manic demeanour , enticing imaginary clientele into the shop before launching into a frantic selling technique sung in verse . Leno 's depiction of " The Waiter " , dressed in an oversized dinner jacket and loose @-@ fitting white dickey , which would flap up and hit his face , was of a man consumed in self @-@ pity and indignation . Overworked , overwrought and overwhelmed by the number of his customers , the waiter gave out excuses for the bad service faster than the customers could complain :
Yes , sir ! No , sir ! Yes , sir ! When I first came here these trousers were knee @-@ breeches . Legs worn down by waiting . Sir ! What did you say ? How long would your steak be ? Oh , about four inches I should say , about four inches . No , sir ! sorry sir . Can 't take it back now , sir . You 've stuck your fork in and let the steam out !
= = = Pantomime = = =
Leno 's first London appearance in pantomime was as Dame Durden in Jack and the Beanstalk , which he performed at London 's Surrey Theatre in 1886 , having been spotted singing " Going to Buy Milk " by the Surrey Theatre manager , George Conquest . Conquest also hired Leno 's wife to star in the production . The pantomime was a success , and Leno received rave reviews ; as a result , he was booked to star as Tinpanz the Tinker in the following year 's pantomime , which had the unique title of Sinbad and the Little Old Man of the Sea ; or , The Tinker , the Tailor , the Soldier , the Sailor , Apothecary , Ploughboy , Gentleman Thief .
After these pantomime performances proved popular with audiences , Leno was hired in 1888 by Augustus Harris , manager at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , to appear in that year 's Christmas pantomime , Babes in the Wood . Harris 's pantomime productions at the huge theatre were known for their extravagance and splendour . Each one had a cast of over a hundred performers , ballet dancers , acrobats , marionettes and animals , and included an elaborate transformation scene and an energetic harlequinade . Often they were partly written by Harris . Herbert Campbell and Harry Nicholls starred with Leno in the next fifteen Christmas productions at Drury Lane . Campbell had appeared in the theatre 's previous five pantomimes and was a favourite of the writer of those productions , E. L. Blanchard . Blanchard left the theatre when Leno was hired , believing that music hall performers were unsuitable for his Christmas pantomimes . This was not a view shared by audiences or the critics , one of whom wrote :
I am inclined to think " the cake " for frolicsome humour is taken by the dapper new @-@ comer , Mr. Dan Leno , who is sketched as the galvanic baroness in the wonderfully amusing dance which sets the house in a roar . The substantial " babes " , Mr. Herbert Campbell and Mr. Harry Nicholls , would have no excuse if they did not vie in drollery with the light footed Dan Leno .
Babes in the Wood was a triumph : the theatre reported record attendance , and the run was extended until 27 April 1889 . Leno considerably reduced his music @-@ hall engagements as a consequence . Nevertheless , between April and October 1889 , Leno appeared simultaneously at the Empire Theatre and the Oxford Music Hall , performing his one @-@ man show . By this time , Leno was much in demand and had bookings for the next three years . On 9 May 1889 he starred for George P. Hawtrey in a matinee of Penelope , a musical version of a famous farce The Area Belle , to benefit the Holborn Lodge for Shop Girls . In this benefit , he played the role of Pitcher opposite the seasoned Gilbert and Sullivan performer Rutland Barrington . The Times considered that his performance treated the piece " too much in the manner of pantomime " . During Leno 's long association with the Drury Lane pantomimes , he appeared chiefly as the dame . After Harris died in 1896 , Arthur Collins became the manager of the theatre and oversaw ( and often helped to write ) the pantomimes .
In their pantomimes , the diminutive Leno and the massive Campbell were a visually comic duo . They would often deviate from the script , improvising freely . This was met with some scepticism by producers , who feared that the scenes would not be funny to audiences and observed that , in any event , they were rarely at their best until a few nights after opening . George Bernard Shaw wrote of one appearance : " I hope I never again have to endure anything more dismally futile " , and the English essayist and caricaturist Max Beerbohm stated that " Leno does not do himself justice collaborating with the public " . He noted , however , that Leno " was exceptional in giving each of his dames a personality of her own , from extravagant queen to artless gossip " . In Sleeping Beauty , Leno and Campbell caused the audience to laugh even when they could not see them : they would arrive on stage in closed palanquins and exchange the lines , " Have you anything to do this afternoon , my dear ? " – " No , I have nothing on " , before being carried off again . Leno and Campbell 's pantomimes from 1889 were Jack and the Beanstalk ( 1889 and 1899 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1890 and 1900 ) , Humpty Dumpty ( 1891 and 1903 ) , Little Bo @-@ Peep ( 1892 ) , Robinson Crusoe ( 1893 ) , Dick Whittington and His Cat ( 1894 ) , Cinderella ( 1895 ) , Aladdin ( 1896 ) , Babes in the Wood ( 1897 ) and the Forty Thieves ( 1898 ) .
Leno considered the dame roles in two of his last pantomimes , Bluebeard ( 1901 ) and Mother Goose ( 1902 ) , written by J. Hickory Wood , to be his favourites . He was paid £ 200 ( £ 19 @,@ 582 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for each of the pantomime seasons . Leno appeared at Drury Lane as Sister Anne in Bluebeard , a character described by Wood as " a sprightly , somewhat below middle aged person who was of a coming on disposition and who had not yet abandoned hope " The Times drama critic noted : " It is a quite peculiar and original Sister Anne , who dances breakdowns and sings strange ballads to a still stranger harp and plays ping @-@ pong with a frying @-@ pan and potatoes and burlesques Sherlock Holmes and wears the oddest of garments and dresses her hair like Miss Morleena Kenwigs , and speaks in a piping voice – in short it is none other than Dan Leno whom we all know " . Mother Goose provided Leno with one of the most challenging roles of his career , in which he was required to portray the same woman in several different guises . Wood 's idea , that neither fortune nor beauty would bring happiness , was illustrated by a series of magical character transformations . The poor , unkempt and generally ugly Mother Goose eventually became a rich and beautiful but tasteless parvenu , searching for a suitor . The production was one of Drury Lane 's most successful pantomimes , running until 28 March 1903 .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1896 , the impresario Milton Bode approached Leno with a proposal for a farcical musical comedy vehicle devised for him called Orlando Dando , the Volunteer , by Basil Hood with music by Walter Slaughter . Leno 's agent declined the offer , as his client was solidly booked for two years . Bode offered Leno £ 625 ( £ 82 @,@ 880 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for a six @-@ week appearance in 1898 . Upon hearing this , the comedian overrode his agent and accepted the offer . Leno toured the provinces in the piece and was an immediate success . So popular was his performance that Bode re @-@ engaged him for a further two shows : the musical farce In Gay Piccadilly ! ( 1899 ) , by George R. Sims , in which Leno 's uncle , Johnny Danvers appeared ( The Era said that Leno was " attracting huge houses " and called him " excruciatingly funny " ) ; and the musical comedy Mr. Wix of Wickham ( 1902 ) . Both toured after their original runs . In 1897 , Leno went to America and made his debut on 12 April of that year at Hammerstein 's Olympia Music Hall on Broadway , where he was billed as " The Funniest Man on Earth " . Reviews were mixed : one newspaper reported that the house roared its approval , while another complained that Leno 's English humour was out of date . His American engagement came to an end a month later , and Leno said that it was " the crown of my career " . Despite his jubilation , Leno was conscious of the few negative reviews he had received and rejected all later offers to tour the United States and Australia .
The same year , the comedian lent his name and writing talents to Dan Leno 's Comic Journal . The paper was primarily aimed at young adults and featured a mythologised version of Leno – the first comic paper to take its name from , and base a central character on , a living person . Published by C. Arthur Pearson , Issue No. 1 appeared on 26 February 1898 , and the paper sold 350 @,@ 000 copies a year . Leno wrote most of the paper 's comic stories and jokes , and Tom Browne contributed many of the illustrations . The comedian retained editorial control of the paper , deciding which items to omit . The Journal was known for its slogans , including " One Touch of Leno Makes the Whole World Grin " and " Won 't wash clothes but will mangle melancholy " . The cover always showed a caricature of Leno and his editorial staff at work and play . Inside , the features included " Daniel 's Diary " , " Moans from the Martyr " , two yarns , a couple of dozen cartoons and " Leno 's Latest – Fresh Jokes and Wheezes Made on the Premises " . After a run of nearly two years the novelty wore off , and Leno lost interest . The paper shut down on 2 December 1899 .
A journalist wrote , in the late 1890s , that Leno was " probably the highest paid funny man in the world " . In 1898 , Leno , Herbert Campbell and Johnny Danvers formed a consortium to build the Granville Theatre in Fulham , which was demolished in 1971 . Leno published an autobiography , Dan Leno : Hys Booke , in 1899 , ghostwritten by T. C. Elder . Leno 's biographer J. Hickory Wood commented : " I can honestly say that I never saw him absolutely at rest . He was always doing something , and had something else to do afterwards ; or he had just been somewhere , was going somewhere else , and had several other appointments to follow . " That year , Leno performed the role of " waxi omo " ( a slang expression for a black @-@ face performer ) in the Doo @-@ da @-@ Day Minstrels , an act that included Danvers , Campbell , Bransby Williams , Joe Elvin and Eugene Stratton . The troupe 's only performance was at the London Pavilion on 29 May 1899 as part of a benefit . Leno 's song " The Funny Little Nigger " greatly amused the audience . His biographer Barry Anthony considered the performance to be " more or less , the last gasp of black @-@ face minstrelsy in Britain " .
Between 1901 and 1903 , Leno recorded more than twenty @-@ five songs and monologues on the Gramophone and Typewriter Company label . He also made 14 short films towards the end of his life , in which he portrayed a bumbling buffoon who struggles to carry out everyday tasks , such as riding a bicycle or opening a bottle of champagne . On 26 November 1901 , Leno , along with Seymour Hicks and his wife , the actress Ellaline Terriss , was invited to Sandringham House to take part in a Royal Command Performance to entertain King Edward VII , Queen Alexandra , their son George and his wife , Mary , the Prince and Princess of Wales . Leno performed a thirty @-@ five @-@ minute solo act that included two of his best @-@ known songs : " How to Buy a House " and " The Huntsman " . After the performance , Leno reported , " The King , the Queen and the Prince of Wales all very kindly shook hands with me and told me how much they had enjoyed it . The Princess of Wales was just going to shake hands with me , when she looked at my face , and couldn 't do it for some time , because she laughed so much . I wasn 't intending to look funny – I was really trying to look dignified and courtly ; but I suppose I couldn 't help myself . " As a memento , the king presented Leno with a jewel @-@ encrusted royal tie pin , and thereafter , Leno became known as " the King 's Jester " . Leno was the first music hall performer to give a Royal Command Performance during the king 's reign .
= = Personal life = =
In 1883 , Leno met Sarah Lydia Reynolds ( 1866 – 1942 ) , a young dancer and comedy singer from Birmingham , while both were appearing at King Ohmy 's Circus of Varieties , Rochdale . The daughter of a stage carpenter , Lydia , as she was known professionally , was already an accomplished actress as a teenager : of her performance in Sinbad the Sailor in 1881 , one critic wrote that she " played Zorlida very well for a young artiste . She is well known at this theatre and with proper training will prove a very clever actress . " She and Leno married in 1884 in a discreet ceremony at St. George 's Church , in Hulme , Manchester , soon after the birth of their first daughter , Georgina . A second child died in infancy , and John was born in 1888 . Their three youngest children – Ernest ( b . 1889 ) , Sidney ( b . 1891 ) and May ( b . 1896 ) – all followed their father onto the stage . Sidney later performed as Dan Leno , Jr . After Leno 's mother and stepfather retired from performing , Leno supported them financially until their deaths .
Leno owned 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of land at the back of his house in Clapham Park , and was self @-@ sufficient , producing cabbages , potatoes , poultry , butter and eggs . He would also send these as gifts to friends and family at Christmas . In 1898 , Leno and his family moved to 56 Akerman Road , Lambeth , where they lived for several years . A blue plaque was erected there in 1962 by the London County Council .
= = = Charity and fundraising = = =
The Terriers Association was established in 1890 to help retired artists in need of financial help . Leno was an active fundraiser in this and in the Music Hall Benevolent Fund , of which he became President . He was an early member of the entertainment charity Grand Order of Water Rats , which helps performers who are in financial need , and served as its leader , the King Rat , in 1891 , 1892 and 1897 . Near the end of his life , Leno co @-@ founded The Music Hall Artistes Railway Association , which entered a partnership with the Water Rats to form music hall 's first trade union . Some of Leno 's charity was discreet and unpublicised .
In the late 1890s , Leno formed a cricket team called the " Dainties " , for which he recruited many of the day 's leading comedians and music hall stars . They played for charity against a variety of amateur teams willing to put up with their comedic mayhem , such as London 's Metropolitan Police Force ; Leno 's and his teammates ' tomfoolery on the green amused the large crowds that they drew . From 1898 to 1903 , the Dainties continued to play matches across London . Two films of action from the matches were produced in 1900 for audiences of the new medium of cinema . In September 1901 , at a major charity match , the press noted the carnival atmosphere . The comedians wore silly costumes – Leno was dressed as an undertaker and later as a schoolgirl riding a camel . Bands played , and clowns circulated through the crowd . The rival team of professional Surrey cricketers were persuaded to wear tall hats during the match . 18 @,@ 000 spectators attended , contributing funds for music hall and cricketers ' charities , among others .
= = = Decline and mental breakdown = = =
Leno began to drink heavily after performances , and , by 1901 , like his father and stepfather before him , he had become an alcoholic . He gradually declined physically and mentally and displayed frequent bouts of erratic behaviour that began to affect his work . By 1902 , Leno 's angry and violent behaviour directed at fellow cast members , friends and family had become frequent . Once composed , he would become remorseful and apologetic . His erratic behaviour was often a result of his diminishing ability to remember his lines and inaudibility in performance . Leno also suffered increasing deafness , which eventually caused problems on and off stage . In 1901 , during a production of Bluebeard , Leno missed his verbal cue and , as a result , was left stuck up a tower for more than twenty minutes . At the end of the run of Mother Goose in 1903 , producer Arthur Collins gave a tribute to Leno and presented him , on behalf of the Drury Lane Theatre 's management , with an expensive silver dinner service . Leno rose to his feet and said : " Governor , it 's a magnificent present ! I congratulate you and you deserve it ! "
Frustrated at not being accepted as a serious actor , Leno became obsessed with the idea of playing Richard III and other great Shakespearean roles , inundating the actor – manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree with his proposals . After his final run of Mother Goose at the Drury Lane Theatre in early 1903 , Leno 's delusions overwhelmed him . On the closing evening , and again soon afterwards , he travelled to the home of Constance Collier , who was Beerbohm Tree 's leading lady at His Majesty 's Theatre , and also followed her to rehearsal there . He attempted to persuade her to act alongside him in a Shakespearean season that Leno was willing to fund . On the second visit to her home , Leno brought Collier a jewellery box holding a diamond @-@ encrusted plaque . Recognising that Leno was having a mental breakdown , she sadly and gently refused his offer , and Leno left distraught .
Two days later , he was admitted into an asylum for the insane . Leno spent several months in Camberwell House Asylum , London , under the care of Dr. Savage , who treated Leno with " peace and quiet and a little water colouring " . On his second day , Leno told a nurse that the clock was wrong . When she stated that it was right , Leno remarked , " Well if it 's right , then what 's it doing here ? " Leno made several attempts to leave the asylum , twice being successful . He was found each time and promptly returned .
= = = Last year and death = = =
Upon Leno 's release from the institution in October 1903 , the press offered much welcoming commentary and speculated as to whether he would appear that year in the Drury Lane pantomime , scheduled to be Humpty Dumpty . Concerned that Leno might suffer a relapse , Arthur Collins employed Marie Lloyd to take his place . By the time of rehearsals , however , Leno persuaded Collins that he was well enough to take part , and the cast was reshuffled to accommodate him . Leno appeared with success . Upon hearing his signature song , the audience reportedly gave him a standing ovation that lasted five minutes . He received a telegram from the King congratulating him on his performance . Leno 's stage partner Herbert Campbell died in July 1904 , shortly after the pantomime , following an accident at the age of fifty @-@ seven . The death affected Leno deeply , and he went into a decline . At that time , he was appearing at the London Pavilion , but the show had to be cancelled owing to his inability to remember his lines . So harsh were the critics that Leno wrote a statement , published in The Era , to defend the show 's originality . On 20 October 1904 , Leno gave his last performance in the show . Afterwards , he stopped at the Belgrave Hospital for Children in Kennington to leave a donation of £ 625 ( £ 60 @,@ 527 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) .
Leno died at his home in London on 31 October 1904 , aged 43 , and was buried at Lambeth Cemetery , Tooting . The cause of death is not known . His death and funeral were national news . The Daily Telegraph wrote in its obituary : " There was only one Dan . His methods were inimitable ; his face was indeed his fortune ... Who has seen him in any of his disguises and has failed to laugh ? " Max Beerbohm later said of Leno 's death : " So little and frail a lantern could not long harbour so big a flame " . His memorial is maintained by the Grand Order of Water Rats , which commissioned the restoration of his grave in 2004 .
= 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1980 regular season , played between the Houston Astros and the Los Angeles Dodgers to decide the winner of the National League 's ( NL ) West Division . The game was played on October 6 , 1980 , at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California . It was necessary after the Dodgers overcame a three @-@ game deficit in the final three games of the season and both teams finished with identical win – loss records of 92 – 70 . The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game .
The Astros won the game , 7 – 1 , with Houston starter Joe Niekro throwing a complete game . This victory advanced the Astros to the 1980 NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) , in which they lost to the Philadelphia Phillies , ending the Astros ' season . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The Cincinnati Reds won the West division the previous season with the Astros finishing 1 @.@ 5 games back in second , and the Dodgers 11 @.@ 5 back in third . However , the Reds went on to lose the 1979 NLCS in three games to the Pittsburgh Pirates , ending their season . The Astros acquired Joe Morgan and Nolan Ryan via free agency during the offseason and the Dodgers signed Dave Goltz . Dave Kindred of the Washington Post , George Vecsey of The New York Times , and Astros ' relief pitcher Joe Sambito all credited Morgan 's leadership with the Astros ' success in 1980 .
The Reds maintained early success in 1980 with an eight @-@ game winning streak to open the season and held at least a share of first place in the division until April 30 . They were not as successful over the remainder of the season , only occasionally taking the division lead and last holding it on August 16 . The Astros held the lead for the majority of the season thereafter , including a three @-@ game lead over Los Angeles entering the final series of the season . The series matched the Astros with the Dodgers for three games at Dodger Stadium . The Dodgers won all three games , all by a single run , stopping the Astros from clinching a division championship as the two teams sat tied at 92 – 70 . Kindred described the Astros as losing each game of the series by " fail [ ing ] to make elementary fielding plays . " The final game included a run @-@ scoring pinch hit single by Manny Mota , who had been almost exclusively a coach and not a player that season , and a home run by Ron Cey which also scored Steve Garvey , who had reached base in the previous at bat on an error . The Dodgers needed each of these runs as they won the game 4 – 3 .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for Monday October 6 , 1980 — 3 : 10 p.m. ( PT ) at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California
The Astros took their lead early , scoring in the top of the first inning . Terry Puhl led off the game reaching base on an error by the second baseman . Enos Cabell followed Puhl with a single and , while Joe Morgan batted , stole second base to put runners at second and third . Morgan struck out and José Cruz appeared to hit into a fielder 's choice but a catching error by the catcher allowed Puhl to score , Cabell to advance to third base , and Cruz to reach safely all with no out recorded . Cabell then scored on a César Cedeño ground out to make the game 2 – 0 . Art Howe singled to advance Cruz to third , but Dodgers ' starting pitcher Dave Goltz escaped the inning without further scoring .
The Astros ' Joe Niekro retired the Dodgers in order in the first and second innings . The Astros added to their lead in the top of the third as Cedeño singled , stole second ( after Cruz had been caught stealing earlier in the inning ) , and scored on Art Howe 's home run to make the game 4 – 0 . Niekro allowed two successive singles to lead off the bottom of the inning , but proceeded to retire three straight Dodgers without allowing either runner to score . The Astros further added to their lead in the fourth , as Puhl singled on a bunt to third base and then stole second and third base while Cabell batted . Both he and Morgan walked to load the bases with one out . Puhl scored on a Cruz sacrifice fly , Cedeño walked to re @-@ load the bases , and finally a Howe single gave the Astros another two runs to make the game 7 – 0 .
The Dodgers scored their only run in the bottom of the fourth as Dusty Baker singled , advanced to second on an error , and scored on another single . They threatened again in the sixth inning , loading the bases , though they failed to score . That was the only inning after the fourth in which a Dodgers ' runner reached scoring position . Niekro steadied again after the sixth , allowing just one baserunner on a two @-@ out ninth @-@ inning single over the remaining three innings .
= = Aftermath = =
Houston 's win clinched the team 's first postseason berth in franchise history . The Astros lost the five @-@ game NLCS to the Phillies 3 – 2 , ending their season . Due to the 1981 Major League Baseball strike , the following season was split into halves and the winner of each half advanced to the postseason . The Dodgers won the first half and the Astros the second and so met in the first National League Division Series . The Dodgers won , and went on to win the 1981 World Series . The Astros did not return to the NLCS until 1986 and did not win a NL pennant until 2005 , leading to a loss in the 2005 World Series .
In baseball statistics , tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . Niekro , for example , reached his 20th win to break a tie with Jim Bibby for the 2nd most wins in the NL that season . Similarly , Steve Garvey played in his 163rd game of the season , leading the league with a figure which could not have been equaled by anyone not on the Astros or Dodgers . Dusty Baker won a Silver Slugger Award and Steve Howe , who pitched the final two scoreless innings of the tie @-@ breaker for the Dodgers in relief , won the Rookie of the Year Award for their performances in the regular season . Additionally six Dodgers ( Garvey , Davey Lopes , Bill Russell , Reggie Smith , Jerry Reuss , and Bob Welch ) and two Astros ( J. R. Richard and Cruz ) were named to the National League 's All @-@ Star team .
= Hutchinson Letters Affair =
The Hutchinson Letters Affair was an incident that increased tensions between the colonists of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and the British government prior to the American Revolution . In June 1773 letters written several years earlier by Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver , governor and lieutenant governor of the province at the time of their publication , were published in a Boston newspaper . The content of the letters was propagandistically claimed by Massachusetts radical politicians to call for the abridgement of colonial rights , and a duel was fought in England over the matter .
The affair served to inflame tensions in Massachusetts , where implementation of the 1773 Tea Act was met with resistance that culminated in the Boston Tea Party in December 1773 . The response of the British government to the publication of the letters served to turn Benjamin Franklin , one of the principal figures in the affair , into a committed Patriot .
= = Background = =
During the 1760s , relations between Great Britain and some of its North American colonies became strained by a series of Parliamentary laws ( including the 1765 Stamp Act and the 1767 Townshend Acts ) , intended to raise revenue for the crown , and to assert Parliament 's authority to pass such legislation despite a lack of colonial representation . These laws had sparked strong protests in the Thirteen Colonies ; the Province of Massachusetts Bay in particular saw significant unrest and direct action against crown officials . The introduction of British Army troops into Boston in 1768 further raised tensions that escalated to the Boston Massacre in 1770 .
In the years after the enactment of the Townshend Acts , Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his colonial secretary ( and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) Andrew Oliver wrote a series of letters concerning the acts , the protests against them , and containing suggestions on how to respond , to Thomas Whately , an assistant to Prime Minister George Grenville . Whateley died in 1772 , and his papers were turned over to his brother William . Whateley at one point gave access to his brother 's papers to John Temple , another colonial official who sought to recover letters of his own from those papers .
Hutchinson was appointed governor of Massachusetts in 1770 , following the critical publication by opposition politicians of letters written by his predecessor , Francis Bernard . Over the next two years Hutchinson engaged in an extended and rancorous written debate with the provincial assembly and the governor 's council , both of which were dominated by radical leadership hostile to Parliamentary authority . The debate centered on the arbitrariness of executive prerogative and the role of Parliament in colonial governance , and greatly deepened divisions in the province .
The Massachusetts debate reached a pitch in England when the colonial secretary , Lord Dartmouth , insisted that Benjamin Franklin , then acting as agent for Massachusetts in London , demanded that the Massachusetts assembly retract its response to a speech the governor gave early in 1772 as part of this ongoing debate . Franklin had acquired a packet of about twenty letters that had been written to Whately . Upon reading them , Franklin concluded that Hutchinson and Oliver had mischaracterized the situation in the colonies , and thus misled Parliament . He felt that wider knowledge of these letters would then focus colonial anger away from Parliament and at those who had written the misleading letters . Franklin sent the letters to Thomas Cushing , the speaker of the Massachusetts assembly , in December 1772 . He insisted to Cushing that they not be published or widely circulated . He specifically wrote that they should be seen only by a few people , and that he was not " at liberty to make the letters public . "
The letters arrived in Massachusetts in March 1773 , and came into the hands of Samuel Adams , then serving as the clerk of the Massachusetts assembly . By Franklin 's instructions , only a select few people , including the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence , were to see the letters . Alarmed at what they read , Cushing wrote Franklin , asking if the restrictions on their circulation could be eased . In a response received by Cushing in early June , Franklin reiterated that they were not to be copied or published , but could be shown to anyone .
= = Publication = =
A longtime opponent of Hutchinson 's , Samuel Adams narrowly followed Franklin 's request , but managed to orchestrate a propaganda campaign against Hutchinson without immediately disclosing the letters . He informed the assembly of the existence of the letters , after which it designated a committee to analyze them . Strategic leaks suggestive of their content made their way into the press and political discussions , causing Hutchinson much discomfort . The assembly eventually concluded , according to John Hancock , that in the letters Hutchinson sought to " overthrow the Constitution of this Government , and to introduce arbitrary Power into the Province " , and called for the removal of Hutchinson and Oliver . Hutchinson complained that Adams and the opposition were misrepresenting what he had written , and that nothing he had written in them on the subject of Parliamentary supremacy went beyond other statements he had made . The letters were finally published in the Boston Gazette in mid @-@ June 1773 , causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England .
= = Content of the letters = =
The letters were written primarily in 1768 and 1769 , principally by Hutchinson and Oliver , although the published letters also included some written by Charles Paxton , a customs official and Hutchinson supporter , and Hutchinson 's nephew Nathaniel Rogers . The letters written by Oliver ( who became lieutenant governor when Hutchinson became governor ) proposed a significant revamping of the Massachusetts government to strengthen the executive , while those of Hutchinson were ruminations on the difficult state of affairs in the province . Historian Bernard Bailyn confirms Hutchinson 's own assertion that much of the content of his letters expressed relatively little that had not already been publicly stated .
According to Bailyn , Hutchinson 's ruminations included the observation that it was impossible for colonists have the full rights they would have in the home country , essentially requiring an " abridgement of what are called English liberties " . Hutchinson , unlike Oliver , made no specific proposals on how the colonial government should be reformed , writing in a letter that was not among those published , " I can think of nothing but what will produce as great an evil as that which it may remove or will be of a very uncertain event . " Oliver 's letters , in contrast , specifically proposed that the governor 's council , whose members where then elected by the assembly with the governor 's consent , be changed to one whose members were appointed by the crown .
= = Consequences = =
In England , speculation ran rampant over the source of the leak . William Whately accused John Temple of taking the letters , which Temple denied , challenging Whately to a duel . Whately was wounded in the encounter in early December 1773 , but neither participant was satisfied , and a second duel was planned . In order to forestall that event , Franklin on Christmas Day published a letter admitting that he was responsible for the acquisition and transmission of the letters , to prevent " further mischief " . He justified his actions by pointing out that the letters had been written between public officials for the purpose of influencing public policy .
When Hutchinson 's opponents in Massachusetts read the letters , they seized on key phrases ( including the " abridgement " phrase ) to argue that Hutchinson was in fact lobbying the London government to make changes that would effect such an abridgement . Combined with Oliver 's explicit recommendations for reform , they presented this as a clear indication that the provincial leaders were working against the interests of the people and not for them .
Bostonians were outraged at the content of the published letters , burning Hutchinson and Oliver in effigy on Boston Common . The letters were widely reprinted throughout the British North American colonies , and acts of protest took place as far away as Philadelphia . The Massachusetts assembly and governor 's council petitioned the Board of Trade for Hutchinson 's removal . In the Privy Council hearing concerning Hutchinson 's fate , in which the aftermath of the Boston Tea Party was also discussed , Franklin stood silently while he was lambasted by Solicitor General Alexander Wedderburn for his role in the affair . He was accused of thievery and dishonor , and called the prime mover in England on behalf of Boston 's radical Committee of Correspondence . The Board of Trade dismissed Franklin from his post as colonial Postmaster General , and dismissed the petition for Hutchinson 's removal as " groundless " and " vexatious " . Parliament then passed the so @-@ called " Coercive Acts " , a package of measures designed to punish Massachusetts for the tea party . Hutchinson was recalled , and the Massachusetts governorship was given to the commander of British forces in North America , Lieutenant General Thomas Gage . Hutchinson left Massachusetts in May 1774 , never to return . Andrew Oliver suffered a stroke and died in March 1774 .
Gage 's implementation of the Coercive Acts further raised tensions that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 . Franklin , who had been politically neutral with respect to the colonial radicals prior to his appearance before the Board of Trade , returned to America in early 1775 , committed to independence . He went on to serve in the Second Continental Congress and became a leading figure in the American Revolution .
= = Who gave Franklin the letters ? = =
A number of candidates have been proposed as the means by which Benjamin Franklin acquired the letters . John Temple , despite his political differences with Hutchinson , was apparently able to convince the latter in 1774 that he was not involved in their acquisition . He did , however , claim to know who was involved , but refused to name him , because that would " prove the ruin of the guilty party . " Several historians ( including Bernard Bailyn and Bernard Knollenberg ) have concluded that Thomas Pownall was the probable source of the letters . Pownall was Massachusetts governor before Francis Bernard , had similar views to Franklin on colonial matters , and had access to centers of colonial administration through his brother John , the colonial secretary . Other individuals have also been suggested , but all appear to have an only tenuous connection to Franklin or the situation . Historian Kenneth Penegar believes the question will remain unanswerable unless new documents emerge to shed light on the episode .
= Massive Attack ( song ) =
" Massive Attack " is a song by American rapper Nicki Minaj and American recording artist Sean Garrett . Written by Minaj , co @-@ written and produced by Garrett and Alex da Kid , " Massive Attack " was released on April 13 , 2010 . It was initially intended to be the first single from Minaj 's debut studio album Pink Friday , but the release was later scrapped in favor of " Your Love " . The song was a distinct change in Minaj 's previous work on mixtapes and features , thus receiving mixed to positive reviews from critics , commending lyrical content and distinctiveness , and critiquing that it did not fit her " Barbie " persona well . An accompanying music video which features a helicopter chase , and militaristic jungle and desert scenes , was positively received .
Commercially , the song had limited success , reaching number 65 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart but only managing to bubble under the Billboard Hot 100 at 22 . Later in an interview with Billboard magazine , Garrett revealed that the song would not be included on Pink Friday and that the poor performance of the song was out of his control , " I was only able to do as much as I was allowed to do . Sometimes you have to step back and get off the wheel . I didn 't have control of the entire creative process . A lot of [ other ] artists trust me enough and allow me to do what I know is best to do as a producer " .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rap @-@ Up in March 2010 , Minaj revealed the title to the song , and Garrett later hinted around details around his single with Minaj , stating ,
" I just did Nicki ’ s first single featuring me . It ’ s gonna be a fucking bomb . It ’ s very , very explosive ! It ’ s a club banger . It ’ s a lot broader than what people would expect her to come with . The record puts her in the game in a way that says she should ’ ve been here a long time ago . She has a real way of how she wants to do this . It ’ s just gonna be a surprise when it comes . She just wants to make it as huge as possible . "
Additionally , co @-@ producer Alex da Kid said , " I started on the train and finished in the studio . I knew it was special from the start . It wasn 't like I was aiming for Nicki with this track ; I had a idea I thought was crazy . Nicki heard it and the rest was history . " In an interview with MTV News , Minaj stated when she first heard the song she felt she was in Africa and fell in love with the drum beats , and commented , " It 's a very rare . ... You 're not gonna get the song the first time you hear it . After the second or third time , you 're gonna be like , ' Whoa , what is this ? ' It sounds nothing like anything that 's out right now . " She also called the song " next @-@ level futuristic " , and said that she chose Garrett for the song in that he would be the best to " illustrate Nicki Minaj " , as he got her and her personality " . In an interview on the set of the video shoot for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said , " I 'm excited for people to hear me ... doing more than one verse . It 's really creative . I wanted to be theatrical , but I am very serous about what I do . " Also on the set of the video , Garrett said , " We wanted to give her something that was global , " he continued . " We wanted to give her something that was urban ; we wanted to give her something that was mainstream pop , you know what I mean , that the world could get a chance to see her out on this pedestal . And of course , you know , I had to come along with her , because I 've got an album dropping soon . " The song made its debut March 29 , 2010 on WQHT . The song leaked onto the Internet on March 30 , 2010 , the day before its music video premiere on 106 & Park . The single 's art cover was revealed on April 1 , 2010 , featuring a still of Minaj in the music video as a ninja and comic book font designs . Alex da Kid said that a lot of artists wanted the beat such as Jamie Foxx and Young Jeezy but he gave it to Nicki because it fit her " quirky , left @-@ field vibe . "
Alex da Kid was also interviewed by Rap @-@ Up , and when asked about the commercial flop of the song and he said , " My whole thing [ is that ] I don ’ t want to do anything that ’ s the same as what ’ s out there , I think ' Massive Attack ' may have been too different . If we would 've put a big feature on it , like a Kanye or Rihanna or someone , I think it might 've done a bit better . It needed something familiar about it . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song fuses hip @-@ hop and dance as Minaj delivers her lyrics in a Caribbean accent . It is composed in a " futuristic " style with heavy drum beats . It carries a " chaotic " beat with " screechy Euro @-@ club synths " compared to Timbaland . Minaj references E.T. The Extra Terrestrial , Mr. Miyagi , The Phantom of the Opera , and Simba and Mufasa of The Lion King film in her lines .
= = Critical reception = =
Monica Herrera of Billboard gave the single a mixed review , stating that Minaj , being " one of the most visually distinctive rappers to come along in years " , that the single was an " anticlimatic coming out song " , " considering the hype Minaj has generated through mixtapes , cameos and her co @-@ starring role in Lil Wayne 's Young Money project " . However Hererra did commend the lyrical content , stating " her sassy one @-@ liners are as entertaining as always " , and the overall production although it didn 't suit Minaj 's " her mental @-@ patient delivery nearly as well as , say , Kane Beatz ' simpler track for Young Money 's " BedRock " . Robbie Daw of ' Idolator ' said , " we wouldn ’ t expect Nicki to do any less than come out of the gate charging full force , lyrically , on her debut single . That said , we were expecting maybe a tad more of a melody on the track . " Chris Ryan of ' MTV Buzzworthy ' gave the song a positive review , stating " you get the feeling , listening to the song 's air @-@ raid keyboards and thunderous beats , that the Young Money princess really wants to separate herself from the rap pack and carve out a space all her own " . Ryan also said , " her verbal dexterity , complex flow and humor , Nicki is reminiscent of classic Missy Elliott -- and that 's a compliment of the highest order " .
= = Music video = =
A music video for the single was shot on March 15 , 2010 in the deserts of Lancaster , California , directed by Hype Williams . When talking to ' MTV News ' about the video Minaj stated ,
" I didn 't want to shoot the typical new @-@ artist vision . Thank God I have a wonderful label that stands behind me and my vision . I met Hype in a freakin ' airport ... and it happened to be a week before I wanted to shoot a video . I told him the idea . Of course , I had to let Baby and Slim know and hope they would understand my expensive taste . It all came together . " It 's just beautiful — the clothes , everything . The ambiance .. It 's for all the girls that like to play dress @-@ up . They 're gonna love this one ... we get on the walkie @-@ talkie , like , ' Mayday ! Mayday ! ' It 's really fashion and beauty shots , and we 're acting like we 're doing something important . We wanted to make it pretty in the dirt . We wanted to have a very crazy contrast . I didn 't want to do everything clean . I like the dirt . All that pink stuff looks even prettier in the dirt . "
= = = Concept = = =
Sean Garrett appears in the video and Birdman , Amber Rose , and Ringmasters of Season 3 of America 's Best Dance Crew make cameos . The video premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on March 31 , 2010 The video comprises a helicopter chase and militaristic desert and jungle scenes . The music video begins with Birdman giving Minaj a stack of money to carry to an unknown area in the desert . As the song begins Minaj appears in a blonde wig with a pink background which than cuts to Minaj riding in a pink Lamborghini with Amber Rose driving as a potential new take on Thelma & Louise in a helicopter chase . Shots of desert creatures and Minaj in her Barbie wig are shown during the first hook . As the helicopter chase progresses , Minaj is seen singing to the camera in military gear and is later shown walking in an attacking line with her Harajuku Army , which are all dressed in the same gear with pink wigs under helmets . During the chorus of the song , a shirtless Garrett is shown singing into the camera while clips of the helicopter chase are interpreted . During the second verse Minaj is in the jungle as a ninja with a long pink braid running down her back as she crawls on the ground and walks around the jungle . Some clips of two men ( from Ringmasters ) dancing with double @-@ jointed shoulders are also shown . During the climax of the song Minaj is still in the jungle this time with a green wig were dancing in the mud and comes out of the water , crawling through the forest . The video ends as clips of the entire video are shown and closes with Minaj and Rose escaping in the pink Lamborghini .
= = = Reception and lawsuit = = =
The video garnered media attention , with Monica Herrera of Billboard commenting on a review for the single , " It figures , then , that discussion of her debut single , " Massive Attack , " would take a back seat to its Hype Williams @-@ directed , B @-@ movie @-@ inspired video . " Chris Ryan of MTV News commented on the video , saying , " We L @-@ U @-@ V Barbie because she 's a trendsetter and a strident , unique artist . But with great style comes great responsibility . Her video for ' Massive Attack , ' the first single off her long @-@ awaited debut album , is bananas " .
On June 11 , 2010 Hollywood Exotic Car Rental filed a lawsuit against Minaj for damages and unpaid rental charges on the car . They claimed that the vehicle was driven " off @-@ road " and damaged “ in the approximate amount of $ 11 @,@ 589 @.@ 41 . " Along with damages to the car , Minaj rented the car for $ 1 @,@ 750 a day , and used the vehicle an additional three days totaling in an extra $ 5 @,@ 250 owed . The rental company is suing for unpaid rental charges , property damage , and punitive damage .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Shepseskare =
Shepseskare or Shepseskara ( Egyptian for " Noble is the Soul of Ra " ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty ( 2494 – 2345 BC ) during the Old Kingdom period . Shepseskare lived in the mid @-@ 25th century BC and was probably the owner of an unfinished pyramid in Abusir , which was abandoned after a few weeks of work in the earliest stages of its construction .
Following historical sources , Shepseskare was traditionally believed to have reigned for seven years , succeeding Neferirkare Kakai and preceding Neferefre on the throne , making him the fourth ruler of the dynasty . He is the most obscure ruler of this dynasty and the Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has strongly argued that Shepseskare 's reign lasted only a few months at the most , after that of Neferefre . This conclusion is based upon the state and location of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid in Abusir as well as the very small number of artefacts attributable to this king . Verner 's arguments have now convinced several Egyptologists such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung .
Shepseskare 's relations to his predecessor and successor are not known for certain . Verner has proposed that he was a son of Sahure and a brother to Neferirkare Kakai , who briefly seized the throne following the premature death of his predecessor and probable nephew , Neferefre . Shepseskare may himself have died unexpectedly or he may have lost the throne to another of his nephews , the future pharaoh Nyuserre Ini . The possibility that Shepseskare was a short @-@ lived usurper from outside the royal family cannot be totally excluded .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =
Shepseskare was a king of Ancient Egypt , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty . Egypt was unified at the time , with its capital located at Memphis . Shepseskare is the least @-@ known king of the Fifth Dynasty as very few artefacts dating to his reign have survived to this day . Only two cylinder seals of Shepseskare are known : one , made of bronze , bears Shepseskare 's Horus name and was uncovered in the ruins of Memphis in the early 20th century . The second seal , of unknown provenance , is made of black serpentine and reads " Shepseskare beloved of the gods , Shepseskare beloved of Hathor " . Beyond these two seals the only surviving artefacts attributable to Shepseskare are five fragments of seal impressions on clay from Abusir and six further fragments discovered in the mortuary temple and Sanctuary of the Knife of the Pyramid of Neferefre , also in Abusir . These fragments probably come from three different seals and were most likely placed on the doors of magazine rooms in the temple .
Finally , there is a single scarab seal reading " Shepeskare " [ sic ] that the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie attributed to Shepseskare at the end of the 19th century . Modern scholars doubt this attribution and rather believe the scarab to be a work of the much later Saite period ( 685 – 525 BC ) executed in archaic style . Equally , the scarab could belong to Gemenefkhonsbak Shepeskare , an obscure kinglet of Tanis during the 25th Dynasty ( 760 – 656 BC ) .
= = = Historical sources = = =
The only ancient Egyptian king list mentioning Shepseskare is the Saqqara Tablet ( on the 28th entry ) . The tablet was inscribed during the reign of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) , around 1200 years after Shepseskare 's lifetime , and records the dynastic succession Neferikare → Shepseskare → Neferkhare ( a variant name of Neferefre ) . Shepseskare is completely absent from another king list dating to the same period : the Abydos king list , written during the reign of Seti I ( 1294 – 1279 BC ) . He is also absent from the Turin canon ( reign of Ramses II ) , although in this case a lacuna affects the papyrus on which the list is written at the place where Shepseskare and Neferefre 's names should have been . Of the two entries concerning Shepseskare and Neferefre on the king list , only one reign length is still legible and it has been variously read as one year , eleven years or one to four months . The damaged state of the papyrus also makes it impossible to decide safely whose reign length this is .
Shepseskare was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession " Nefercheres → Sisires → Cheres " for the mid Fifth Dynasty . Nefercheres and Cheres are believed to be the hellenized forms for Neferirkare and Neferkhare ( that is Neferefre ) , respectively . Thus , " Sisires " is traditionally believed to be the Greek name of Shepseskare , making Manetho 's reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty in good agreement with the Saqqara tablet . Furthermore , according to Africanus , Manetho credits Sisires with seven years of reign while other sources report Manetho 's figure as nine years .
= = Reign = =
= = = Chronological position = = =
Both the relative chronological position and absolute dates of Shepseskare 's reign are uncertain . The Saqqara Tablet records Shepseskare as the successor of Neferirkare Kakai and the predecessor of Neferefre , which became the traditional opinion among Egyptologists . Following discoveries in the early 1980s , the Czech Egyptologist Miroslav Verner advocates the hypothesis that Shepseskare succeeded , rather than preceded , Neferefre .
In support of this hypothesis , Verner first emphasizes the presence of several clay seal impressions bearing Shepseskare 's Horus name " Sekhemkaw " ( meaning " He whose apparitions are powerful " ) in the oldest part of Neferere 's mortuary temple , which was not built " until Neferefre 's death " . This appears to suggest that Shepseskare ruled after — rather than before — Neferefre . Verner 's second argument concerns the alignment of pyramids of Sahure , Neferirkare Kakai and Neferefre : they form a line pointing to Heliopolis , just as the three pyramids of Giza do . In contrast , Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid does not fall on the line to Heliopolis , which strongly suggests that Neferefre 's pyramid had already been in place when Shepseskare started his . Finally , Verner observes that Neferefre is known to have been Neferirkare 's eldest son and around 20 years old when his father died so that he was in optimal position to inherit the throne . Shespeskare thus most likely took the throne after Neferefre . As Verner notes , while Shepseskare is noted as the immediate predecessor of Neferefre in the Saqqara tablet , " this slight discrepancy can ... be attributed to the [ political ] disorders of the time and its dynastic disputes . "
= = = Duration = = =
In two articles published in 2000 and 2001 Verner argues that , contrary to what Manetho indicates , Shepseskare must have reigned for a couple of months at the most , an hypothesis already proposed by the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal in 1988 . Verner 's conclusion is based on the archeological record , in particular Shepseskare 's intended pyramid at Abusir . Verner emphasizes that the progress of the pyramid , which is unfinished ,
was interrupted [ and ] corresponds to the work of several weeks , perhaps no more than one or two months . In fact , the place was merely leveled and the excavation of the pit for the construction of the underground funerary apartment had only commenced . Moreover , the owner of the building obviously wanted to demonstrate by his choice of place ( half @-@ way between Sahure 's pyramid and the sun temple of Userkaf ) his relationship to either Sahure or Userkaf . Theoretically , only two kings of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramids had not yet been identified can be taken into consideration – Shepseskara or Menkauhor . However , according to a number of contemporaneous documents , Menkauhor ... probably completed [ his ] pyramid elsewhere , in North Saqqara or Dahshur . Shepseskara , therefore , seems to be the likelier owner of the unfinished platform for a pyramid in North Abusir . Anyway , the builder of the platform [ viz . , Shepseskare ] must have reigned for a very short time .
The rediscovery in 2008 of the Headless Pyramid in Saqqara and its subsequent attribution to Menkauhor Kaiu by the excavators under the direction of Zahi Hawass confirms Verner 's attribution of the unfinished pyramid of Abusir to Shepseskare .
Unlike the other kings of the Fifth Dynasty , Shepseskare 's name appears neither in the personal names of people of the time nor in the names of funerary estates . He is also absent from the titles and biographies of state officials . For example , the stela of the Fifth Dynasty official Khau @-@ Ptah lists an uninterrupted sequence of kings whom he served under , namely Sahure , Neferirkare , Neferefre and Nyuserre . The omission of Shepseskare , be it between Neferirkare and Neferefre or between Neferefre and Nyuserre , indicates that his reign must have been very short . Since Manetho 's Aegyptiaca dates to the 3rd century BC , Khau @-@ Ptah 's contemporary account can be regarded as a more accurate indication of the political situation during the Fifth Dynasty .
Verner 's arguments together with the scarcity of artefacts attributable to Shepseskare have now convinced many Egyptologists , such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung , that Shepseskare 's reign was indeed ephemeral .
= = Family = =
In view of the scarcity of sources concerning Shepseskare , nothing is known for certain about his relation to his predecessors . He was most likely a member of the royal family , although the possibility that he was a usurper unrelated to his predecessors cannot be totally excluded .
Verner has proposed that Shepseskare was a son of Sahure who managed to briefly seize power after the premature death of Neferefre . This would explain the proximity of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid to that of Sahure . Lending credence to this theory is the discovery by Verner and Tarek El Awady in 2005 of reliefs from the causeway of Sahure 's pyramid complex showing him , his wife Meretnebty and their two sons Ranefer and Netjerirenre . The relief gives both sons the title of " king 's eldest son " , indicating that they were possibly twins . The relief further indicates that Ranefer took the throne as " Neferirkare king of Upper and Lower Egypt " . Verner and Awady thus speculate that while Ranefer and his son Neferefre became kings , Netjerirenre could have attempted to seize the throne at the death of the latter . In this hypothesis Shepseskare would be the throne name of Netjerirenre .
Shepseskare 's reign may have been cut short by his unexpected death or his claim to the throne could have been thwarted by Nyuserre Ini , Neferefre 's younger brother and the younger son of King Neferirkare and Queen Khentkaus II . Khentkaus II 's pivotal role in Nyuserre 's eventual accession to the throne might explain her high esteem in Egyptian folklore and " the additional enlargement and upgrading of her mortuary temple " by Nyuserre . Nyuserre also seemed to have been favored by powerful courtiers and officials , foremost among whom was Ptahshepses , who would become Nyuserre 's son @-@ in @-@ law and vizier .
= = Building activities = =
= = = Pyramid = = =
An unfinished pyramid located in north Abusir , between the sun temple of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Sahure , is believed to belong to Shepseskare . The structure was discovered in 1980 by a Czechoslovakian archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner and seems to have been abandoned after no more than a few weeks or months of work . A square area of roughly 100 m2 ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft ) was leveled and the digging of a T @-@ shaped ditch was just started in its center . This ditch was to be left open during the pyramid construction to allow for simultaneous works on the pyramid filling and its substructures . This construction technique is common to all pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty and can directly be seen in the case of the Pyramid of Neferefre , which was also left unfinished . This technique as well as the location of the unfinished pyramid in the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty indicates that it belonged in all likeliness to Shepseskare , the pyramids of the other kings of the dynasty being already known . If finished according to the established pattern , the pyramid would have reached 73 m ( 240 ft ) high , similar to the Pyramid of Neferirkare .
Analyzing the fragments of clay seals bearing Shepeseskare 's name , the Swiss Egyptologist Peter Kaplony has proposed that the ancient name of Shepseskare 's pyramid could be reconstructed as Rsj @-@ Špss @-@ k3 @-@ Rˁ , reading " Resj @-@ Shespeskare " and meaning " The awakening of Shepseskare " . Verner rejects this hypothesis , and he contests the reading of certain signs and their interpretation as the name of a pyramid .
= = = Sun temple = = =
Kaplony has proposed that Shepseskare started to build a sun temple named Ḥtp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , reading " Hotepibre " and meaning " Satisfied is the heart of Ra " . Although all the kings of the early to mid @-@ Fifth Dynasty , from Userkaf to Menkauhor Kaiu , did build sun temples , Verner regards Kaplony 's hypothesis as " sheer speculation " since it is based on the tentative reconstruction of a single clay seal . Verner first argues that this seal is not inscribed with Shepseskare 's name but rather bears traces of a Horus name which could equally well be that of Djedkare Isesi . Second , Verner notes that the name of a sun temple is rarely found with that of the king who built it : more often it is found with the name of another king during whose reign the seal was made . Finally , he doubts that the sign reading Ḥtp , " Hotep " , is really part of the name of a sun temple . Instead , he believes it is more probable that the seal either refers to the sun temple of Neferirkare , named St @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ.w , that is " Setibraw " ; or to that of Nyuserre , which was called Šsp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , " Shesepibraw " .
= = = Mortuary temple of Neferefre = = =
It is possible that Shepseskare continued the construction of the funerary complex of his predecessor . As Neferefre had died after a short reign , his pyramid complex was far from finished and neither the burial chamber nor the mortuary temple had been built . The planned pyramid was thus hastily changed into a square mastaba representing a stylized primeval hill and the accompanying mortuary temple was completed during the reign of Nyuserre . The presence of seals of Shepseskare in the oldest part of Neferefre 's mortuary temple could indicate that the former also undertook construction works there . The evidence for such works is uncertain : these seals could have been placed on boxes which were later moved into the magazine rooms of the temple . For example , seals of Userkaf , Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai were also found in the temple , while these three pharaohs died before Neferefre 's reign .
= Lum You =
Lum You ( ca . 1861 – January 31 , 1902 ) — sometimes spelled Lum Yu — was an immigrant Chinese laborer and convicted murderer in the Pacific Northwest . He is famous for being the only person to have been legally executed in Pacific County , Washington , and for his death row prison break supposedly arranged by the very jailers charged with his captivity .
= = Biography = =
Lum You was among the many Chinese laborers who came to Washington near the turn of the century . A proud , sociable dandy , You was well @-@ liked in the white community . He spoke a little English , and acted as an agent between the Chinese workers and their employers .
In 1894 You approached the South Bend police chief , Marion Egbert , complaining that a fellow Chinese resident by the name of Ging had threatened him . Egbert brushed You off and suggested he deal with the situation himself . You took this advice , attacking Ging with an axe . For this act he was convicted of assault ; he was fined $ 500 and was sentenced to a prison term of six months .
In the summer of 1901 , You was employed as a cannery worker and living in Bay Center . While playing cards on August 6 of that year , he was assaulted , threatened , and robbed by Oscar Bloom , a white man with a reputation as a bully . This time You did not approach the police , but instead immediately took matters into his own hands : he went to his room to retrieve his gun , sought out and shot Bloom in the abdomen , and then fled the scene . Bloom survived long enough to swear a deathbed affidavit identifying You as his killer .
Public sympathy for You was high , but white employers of the Chinese workers pressed officials for action to be taken against him . Accordingly , You was arrested on August 7 and in October 1901 was tried and convicted for the murder of Oscar Bloom . Contrary to the jurors ' belief that You would receive a light sentence , the judge ordered that You be hanged . The execution was scheduled for January 31 , 1902 .
Even after his conviction You continued to enjoy public support . Petitions for clemency , one of which was signed by one of the jurors , were sent to the state governor . County officials sympathized with You , supposedly leaving his cell door unlocked at night and encouraging him to escape . You eventually did escape , early in the morning of January 14 : one news report claimed the improvised lock to his cell door had been picked with the aid of a confederate . You hid in the environs of South Bend for several days , during which he was hunted by a squad led by sheriff Thomas A. Roney . On January 15 he was sighted by two men ; the following day the county commissioners met and agreed to offer a reward of $ 200 for You 's capture . On January 17 You was finally apprehended by a three @-@ man posse . You offered no resistance , and when asked how he escaped , said only that the door was open and he walked out .
On January 27 governor Henry McBride rejected one of the petitions for clemency on procedural grounds , and on January 30 confirmed by wire that he would not be commuting You 's sentence . Anticipation of the execution became so great that Roney was besieged with requests to attend . Roney issued 500 invitation cards , some examples of which survive .
You 's hanging proceeded as planned inside the courthouse of the county seat , South Bend , on the morning of January 31 , 1902 . Though it had been expected that he would break down , You ate fairly well that morning and went to the gallows without assistance . He bade his friends goodbye and then uttered his last words , to his executioners : " Kill me good . " The trap was sprung by means of a rope which , along with three dummy ropes , extended into an adjoining room . Each of the four executioners concealed in that room pulled his rope simultaneously , but only the sheriff knew which was the trigger .
You 's was the first and only official execution ever to take place in Pacific County . A month after his arrest , a new act of the Washington State Legislature took effect which required executions for any future crimes to be carried out at the Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla .
= = Legacy = =
Lum You 's trial and execution attracted a great deal of contemporary publicity in Pacific County , and has since passed into the realm of folk legend . His story has been researched and recounted by local historians Ruth Dixon , Willard R. Espy , and Sydney Stevens . Espy , also a nationally renowned poet , memorialized You in a humorous epitaph . You was also the subject of a biographical play , The Hanging of Lum You by the Oysterville @-@ based Shoalwater Storytellers .
= Henry Allingham =
Henry William Allingham ( 6 June 1896 – 18 July 2009 ) was a British supercentenarian , the oldest British man ever , First World War veteran and , for one month , the verified oldest living man in the world . He is also the second @-@ oldest military veteran ever , and at the time of his death , he was the 12th @-@ verified oldest man of all time .
Allingham was the oldest ever surviving member of any of the British Armed Forces and one of the oldest surviving veterans of the First World War . He was the last survivor of the Battle of Jutland , the last surviving member of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and the last surviving founding member of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In 2001 he became the face of the First World War veterans ' association and made frequent public appearances to ensure that awareness of the sacrifices of the First World War was not lost to modern generations . He received many honours and awards for his First World War service and his longevity .
= = Early life = =
Allingham was born in 1896 in Clapton , County of London . When he was 14 months old , his father , Henry Thomas Allingham ( 1868 | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
@-@ 1897 ) , died at age 29 of tuberculosis . Henry is recorded in the 1901 census with his widowed mother Amy Jane Allingham ( née Foster ) ( 1873 @-@ 1915 ) , a laundress forewoman , living with her parents and brother at 23 Verulam Avenue , Walthamstow . His mother remarried in 1905 to Hubert George Higgs and in 1907 the family moved to Clapham , London . Henry and his mother are recorded in the 1911 Census living at 21 Heyford Avenue , Lambeth , while his stepfather was lodging away from home working as a wheelwright . Henry attended a London County Council school before attending the Regent Street Polytechnic . Allingham remembered seeing the City Imperial Volunteers return from the Second Boer War , and also recalled watching W. G. Grace play cricket . On leaving school , Allingham started work as a trainee surgical instrument maker at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital . He did not find this job very interesting , and so left to work for a coachbuilder specialising in car bodies .
= = First World War = =
Allingham wanted to join the war effort in August 1914 as a despatch rider , but his critically ill mother managed to persuade him to stay at home and look after her . However , after his mother died in 1915 , aged 42 , Allingham enlisted with the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . He became formally rated as an Air Mechanic Second Class on 21 September 1915 , and was posted to Chingford before completing his training at Sheerness , Kent . His RNAS serial number was RNAS F8317 .
After graduation , Allingham was posted to the RNAS Air Station at Great Yarmouth where he worked in aircraft maintenance . On 13 April 1916 , King George V inspected the air station and its aircraft . Allingham later reported disappointment at barely missing an opportunity to speak with the king .
Allingham also worked in Bacton , Norfolk , further up the coast , where night @-@ flying was conducted and was later involved in supporting anti @-@ submarine patrols . A typical patrol would last two or three days and would involve the manual labour of hoisting a seaplane in and out of the water by means of a deck @-@ mounted derrick .
During the preparations for what has become known as the Battle of Jutland , Allingham was ordered to join the naval trawler HMT Kingfisher . Onboard was a Sopwith Schneider seaplane that was used to patrol the surrounding waters for the German High Seas Fleet . Allingham 's responsibilities included helping to launch this aircraft . Although the Kingfisher was not directly involved in the battle ( it shadowed the British Grand Fleet and then the High Seas Fleet ) , Allingham still rightfully claimed to be the last known survivor of that battle and could recall " seeing shells ricocheting across the sea . "
In September 1917 , Allingham , by then an Air Mechanic First Class , was posted to the Western Front to join No. 12 Squadron RNAS . This unit acted as a training squadron for other RNAS squadrons based on the Western Front . There is also some evidence that the squadron was involved in combat operations . When Allingham arrived at Petite @-@ Synthe , both the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) and the RNAS were involved in the Ypres offensive . Allingham also instrumented the very first reconnaissance aircraft camera during the First World War . On 3 November 1917 , he was posted to the aircraft depot at Dunkirk , France where he remained for the rest of the war , on aircraft repair and recovery duties . He recalls being bombed from the air and shelled from both the land and the sea .
He transferred to the Royal Air Force when the RNAS and the RFC were merged on 1 April 1918 . The creation of the Royal Air Force did not initially have a big impact on Allingham and he later remarked that at that time he still considered himself a navy man . In the RAF he was ranked as a Rigger Aero , Aircraft Mechanic Second Class and was given a new service number : 208317 . Allingham returned to the Home Establishment in February 1919 and was formally discharged to the RAF Reserve on 16 April 1919 . During the last few years of his life Allingham was recognized as the last surviving founding member of the RAF . Speaking with Dennis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association , Allingham said , " It is a shock as well as a privilege to think that I am the only man alive from that original reorganisation when the RAF was formed . "
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
= = = Career = = =
In addition to his military service as a mechanic , Allingham spent the vast majority of his professional life as an engineer . His employers included Thorns Car Body Makers , Vickers General Motors and H.J.M. Car Body Builders . He started his longest stretch of employment in 1934 designing new car bodies for the Ford Motor Company at their Dagenham plant which had opened only a few years previously in 1931 .
= = = Family life = = =
Allingham met Dorothy Cator ( 1895 – 1970 ) in Great Yarmouth , Norfolk in 1918 . They married the same year in Romford , when she was 22 . They moved to Eastbourne , Sussex in 1960 and remained married until she died there from acute and chronic lymphatic leukaemia . They had two daughters , Betty ( born 1920 ) and Jean ( 1923 – 2001 ) . Jean emigrated to the United States and died aged 78 in 2001 . At the time of his death Allingham believed that Betty had died . He had lost touch with her in the 1970s following a family rift after the death of his wife in 1970 . In fact Betty Hankin was still alive aged 89 when her father died , and living in Stroud , Gloucestershire . In addition to his one remaining daughter Betty , at the time of his death Allingham had seven grandchildren , 16 great @-@ grandchildren , 14 great @-@ great @-@ grandchildren , and one great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandchild .
= = Second World War = =
During the Second World War , Allingham was in a reserved occupation and worked on a number of projects . Perhaps his most significant contribution was the design of an effective counter @-@ measure to the German magnetic mines . During his Christmas lunch in 1939 he was called away to help design a system that would neutralise the mines and open the port of Harwich , Essex . Nine days later , he had successfully completed the task .
= = Later life = =
After the Second World War Allingham continued to work for Ford until he retired in 1960 . After Denis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association tracked him down in 2001 , Allingham took a prominent role in telling his story so that later generations would not forget . On 16 October 2003 , he helped launch the 2003 Royal British Legion Poppy Appeal with model Nell McAndrew aboard the cruiser HMS Belfast . He was quoted as saying " [ The veterans ] have given all they have got for the country ... I owe them ... we all owe them . "
A ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , London on 4 August 2004 , marked the 90th anniversary of Britain 's entry into the First World War . Allingham attended , together with three other First World War veterans , William Stone , Fred Lloyd and John Oborne . Allingham also marched past the Cenotaph on Remembrance Sunday in 2005 and laid wreaths at memorials in Saint @-@ Omer on Armistice Day . That was the last time a First World War veteran marched past the Cenotaph and it marked the end of an era . No First World War veterans were present at the Cenotaph for the 2006 Remembrance Sunday Parade .
As the last surviving member of the RNAS , and the last living founding member of the RAF , Allingham was an honoured guest when the British Air Services Memorial was unveiled at Saint @-@ Omer on 11 September 2004 . During the ceremony Allingham was given the Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer , which marked the award of the Freedom of the Town . The group of RAF technical trainees that joined him at this ceremony continued to visit Allingham at his retirement home in Eastbourne , demonstrating the bond of respect that these men had for Allingham .
In November 2005 Allingham accepted an invitation from the International Holographic Portrait Archive to have his holographic portrait taken . His image was recorded for posterity in December 2005 . At the same time , an exhibition was being planned for London 's floating naval museum on board HMS Belfast , entitled the Ghosts of Jutland . A copy of this portrait was donated to the museum and HRH The Duchess of Gloucester unveiled the portrait to mark the opening of the exhibition .
Allingham was awarded the freedom of his home town of Eastbourne by the mayor on 21 April 2006 . He lived on his own until May 2006 when , one month before his 110th birthday and with failing eyesight , he moved to St Dunstan 's , a charity for blind ex @-@ service personnel , at Ovingdean , near Brighton . Aside from his poor eyesight , he was reportedly in good health , with visitors remarking on his memory and voice . Allingham attended the 1 July 2006 commemorations at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing . He did not attend the 2006 Remembrance Day parade on 11 November at the Cenotaph as he was in France at a wreath @-@ laying ceremony and to receive the Freedom of The Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He did , however , launch the Eastbourne Poppy Appeal before leaving for this trip .
On 18 April 2007 Allingham visited Wilnecote High School in Tamworth , Staffordshire to answer students ' questions about the First World War , after they wrote to veterans asking them about their experiences . In October 2007 he was honoured at the Pride of Britain Awards . Between his 110th and 111th birthdays Allingham made over 60 public appearances , including a visit to The Oval on 5 June 2007 , the day before his 111th birthday , where he was wheeled around the boundary in front of the spectators .
On his 111th birthday , a Royal Marines band played to Allingham on board HMS Victory before he returned with friends and relatives to the Queen 's Hotel on the Portsmouth seafront for afternoon tea . Asked how it felt , Allingham replied , " I 'm pleased to be seeing another tomorrow . It 's just the same as it was as at any age , it 's no different . I 'm happy to be alive and I 'm looking forward to the celebrations . I never imagined I 'd get to 111 . "
On 1 April 2008 , the 90th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Air Force , Allingham was guest of honour at the celebratory events at RAF Odiham in Hampshire . By then , Allingham was the only surviving founder member of the RAF .
Allingham celebrated his 112th birthday with members of his family at RAF Cranwell , Lincolnshire as the guest of honour at a luncheon at the college . During the day the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight performed a flypast which was followed by an aerobatic display from two Tutor aircraft . In June 2008 , at his personal request , Allingham was taken on a guided tour of the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft at BAE Systems in Warton , Lancashire , as part of the National Veterans ' Day celebrations .
On 23 September 2008 , Allingham launched a book about his life , co @-@ written by Denis Goodwin , with an event at the RAF Club in London . On 11 November 2008 , marking the 90th anniversary of the end of the First World War , together with Harry Patch and Bill Stone , Allingham laid a commemorative wreath for the Act of Remembrance at The Cenotaph in London . Allingham was invested as a Scout on 18 November 2008 , 100 years after he first joined as a youth . He said he was only able to spend six weeks with his local group as a boy . Allingham celebrated his 113th birthday on HMS President , at an event hosted by the Royal Navy . He received a signed birthday card from First Sea Lord Sir Jonathon Band and saw a Mark 8 Royal Navy Lynx flying overhead while he was sitting outside in his wheelchair . When asked the secret of his long life , Allingham said , " I don 't know , but I would say , be as good as you possibly can . "
= = Oldest living man = =
Allingham credited " cigarettes , whisky and wild , wild women – and a good sense of humour " for his longevity .
Allingham overtook George Frederick Ives as the longest lived member of the British Armed Forces on 1 November 2007 . He was therefore the longest lived British First World War veteran to date .
Following the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 , Allingham became the oldest living man . At his death , he was the oldest living veteran of the First World War , but not the longest lived member of any armed force in any conflict ; this record is held by Emiliano Mercado del Toro of Puerto Rico , who also served in the First World War .
Allingham was the oldest living man in England for several years . Official recognition by Guinness World Records came in January 2007 . On 8 February 2007 , when 110 @-@ year @-@ old Antonio Pierro died , Allingham became the oldest known living veteran of the First World War , and the third @-@ oldest living man in the world . After French supercentenarian Maurice Floquet died on 10 November 2006 , Allingham was the oldest validated living man in Europe . After Japanese man Sukesaburo Nakanishi died on 22 August 2007 , Allingham shared the position of second @-@ oldest man in the world with George Francis , an American man also born on 6 June 1896 , for more than a year until Francis died on 27 December 2008 . On 29 March 2009 , Allingham became the oldest British man of all time . With the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 he became the oldest living man in the world ; after Allingham died , that title passed to Walter Breuning of Montana .
On 13 February 2007 , he became Britain 's second @-@ oldest living person , behind Florrie Baldwin , and on 29 March 2009 , he became the oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died aged 112 years and 295 days . He was also the first ever verified British man to reach the age of 113 . On 18 July 2009 , Allingham died of natural causes aged 113 years and 42 days .
As the number of First World War veterans dwindled , calls grew to give the last remaining veteran a state funeral . The calls resulted in Her Majesty 's Government approving on 27 June 2006 a National Memorial Service at Westminster Abbey to take place after the death of the last known British First World War veteran . Prior to this announcement Allingham often said that he tried not to think about the prospect , but has also been quoted as saying " I don 't mind — as long as it 's not me . " Allingham received a letter from Member of Parliament Tom Watson on 14 July 2006 explaining the reasoning for a national memorial service rather than a state funeral , as the intention is to commemorate the entire generation that fought in the war rather than single out an individual .
In Harry Patch 's book The Last Fighting Tommy , the author claims that Allingham planned to leave his body to medical science . In his own book Kitchener 's Last Volunteer Allingham confirmed that he was intending to leave his body to medical science . However he was persuaded by Denis Goodwin to change his mind , as he became a symbol of World War I to remind people of the sacrifices made during the conflict . To that end he agreed to a funeral and cremation .
= = = Milestones = = =
6 June 1996 – 100th birthday
20 July 2003 – Oldest verified living British veteran of the First World War upon the death of Jack Davis
6 December 2005 – Oldest man living in Britain upon the death of Jerzy Pajączkowski @-@ Dydyński
6 June 2006 – 110th birthday
10 November 2006 – Oldest living man in Europe following the death of Frenchman Maurice Floquet
13 February 2007 – Second oldest person in Britain upon the death of Aida Mason
1 November 2007 – Oldest ever member of any British armed forces , surpassing George Ives who died in 1993 aged 111 years and 146 days
13 March 2008 – Oldest ever English man , surpassing John Mosely Turner who died in 1968 aged 111 years and 280 days
29 March 2009 – Oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died in 1990 aged 112 years and 295 days
6 June 2009 – First British man to reach the age of 113
19 June 2009 – Oldest living man in the world following the death of Japanese man Tomoji Tanabe
18 July 2009 – Died aged 113 years 42 days , the second oldest man ever to die in Europe , behind only Joan Riudavets of Spain who died in 2004 aged 114 years and 81 days .
= = Awards = =
= = = War medals and awards = = =
Allingham was awarded four medals , two of which were medals from the First World War . The Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer was awarded to Allingham on 11 September 2004 when he was given the Freedom of the Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He was also awarded France 's highest military honour , the Légion d 'honneur , in which he was appointed a chevalier in 2003 and promoted to officier in 2009 . The remaining two medals are British Campaign Medals from the First World War : the British War Medal and the Victory Medal ; those two medals are colloquially known as " Mutt and Jeff " . These two medals are replacement medals supplied by the Ministry of Defence after discovering at a recent cenotaph parade that Allingham 's original campaign medals were destroyed during the Blitz of the Second World War .
= = = Honorary awards = = =
As well as the above @-@ mentioned decorations , Allingham won several awards and honorary memberships . Examples include the Pride of Britain award , and a position as an honorary member of the Fleet Air Arm Association .
Although not formally qualified he was recognised by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers ( IMechE ) who presented him with a Chartered Engineer award on 19 December 2008 .
Allingham had the following to say about the award :
Since entering the engineering profession I always hoped to become a chartered engineer , but when I was younger we just couldn ’ t afford it . It ’ s something I never thought would happen for me , so to receive this honorary certificate from IMechE is a lifetime ’ s goal finally realised . I am very grateful to the Institution for presenting me with the award .
This was followed on 22 May 2009 with the award of an honorary doctorate in engineering at the Southampton Solent University by the university 's chancellor , the former First Sea Lord Alan West , for his contribution to Britain and its allies during two world wars and his continuing charity work , especially connected with veteran servicemen and women .
= = Death and funeral = =
Allingham died of natural causes in his sleep at 3 : 10 am on 18 July 2009 at his care home , St Dunstan 's Centre in Ovingdean near Brighton , aged 113 years and 42 days . After his death Walter Breuning took over as the world 's oldest man .
Allingham 's funeral took place at St Nicholas ' Church , Brighton at noon on 30 July 2009 , with full military honours . His coffin was carried by three Royal Navy seamen and three RAF airmen . The service was preceded by a half @-@ muffled quarter peal on the church 's bells , rung by local ringers and members of the RAF and Royal Navy change ringing associations . Among the mourners were the Duchess of Gloucester , representing the Queen , and Veterans ' Minister Kevan Jones . Senior Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officers , including Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Adrian Johns and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Peter Dye , represented the two services of which Allingham had been a member . Allingham 's surviving daughter , Betty Hankin , 89 , attended the funeral , with several members of her family . The funeral was followed by a flypast of five replica First World War aircraft ; British and French buglers played the Last Post and Reveille ; and a bell was tolled 113 times , once for each year of his life .
The BBC commissioned Carol Ann Duffy , the Poet Laureate , to write a poem to mark the deaths of Allingham and Harry Patch , who died one week after Allingham on 25 July 2009 . The result , Last Post , was read by Duffy on the BBC Radio 4 programme Today on the day of Allingham 's funeral . A tree was planted , and a commemorative plaque unveiled , at the Eastbourne Redoubt on 22 May 2010 to mark Allingham 's residence in the town .
= = = Autobiography = = =
Allingham , Henry ; Goodwin , Denis ( 2008 ) . Kitchener 's Last Volunteer . Mainstream Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84596 @-@ 416 @-@ 0 .
= Ottoman ironclad Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik ( Ottoman Turkish : God 's Favor ) was an ironclad warship of the Ottoman Navy built in the 1860s , the only member of her class . She was built as part of a major expansion program for the Ottoman fleet in the 1860s following the Crimean War . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was a 4 @,@ 600 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 4 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 5 @,@ 100 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barbette ship armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns in a central battery . In 1903 – 1906 , the ship was extensively rebuilt in Germany and a new battery of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) quick @-@ firing guns replaced the older weapons .
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik served in the Ottoman fleet for more than four decades . During this period , she saw action in two major wars , the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 and the First Balkan War in 1913 . During the first conflict , she was torpedoed by a Russian torpedo boat but was only slightly damaged . She took part in the abortive Battle of Elli against the Greek Navy in December 1912 during the First Balkan War . While operating against Bulgarian positions in February 1913 , she ran aground ; Bulgarian field artillery then shelled the ship . The damage they inflicted , coupled with heavy seas , destroyed the ship .
= = Design = =
In the aftermath of the Crimean War , where an entire Ottoman squadron was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop , the Ottoman Empire began a small naval construction program , limited primarily by the chronically weak Ottoman economy . The design for Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was based on contemporary French warships like the Colbert @-@ class ironclads , although significantly reduced in size .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was 83 @.@ 01 meters ( 272 @.@ 3 ft ) long between perpendiculars and she had a beam of 16 m ( 52 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 687 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 613 long tons ; 5 @,@ 167 short tons ) normally . The ship had an iron hull with a partial double bottom and a ram bow , as was customary for ironclads of the period . She had a crew of 320 officers and enlisted men . In 1903 – 06 , the ship was substantially rebuilt . Both ends were cut down , a single military mast was installed amidships , and a new conning tower was built .
The ship was powered by a single horizontal compound steam engine that drove one screw propeller . Steam was provided by six box boilers , which were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines and boilers were both manufactured by her builder at the La Seyne shipyard . The engines were rated at 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) for a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , though by 1895 poor maintenance over her career had reduced her top speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The steam engine was supplemented by a barque sailing rig . During the reconstruction , the sailing rig was removed and the old boilers were replaced with newer Niclausse boilers . She also received a new engine , the performance of which is unknown .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) muzzle @-@ loading guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . Six of the guns were mounted in an armored battery amidships , with three on each broadside , and the other two were placed directly above in open barbettes . In 1891 , the two barbette guns were replaced with 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) breech @-@ loading guns built by Krupp , and several smaller Krupp guns were installed . These included a pair of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) guns and a pair of 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Two 25 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 in ) Nordenfelt guns were also added .
The ship 's armament was radically revised during the 1903 – 06 reconstruction . All of the old guns were removed and a battery of medium @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns manufactured by Krupp was installed . Three 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single shielded mounts were placed forward , with one on the forecastle and the other two abreast of the conning tower . The central battery guns were replaced with six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) SK L / 40 guns , with a seventh gun mounted on the stern . Six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF guns were also added .
As built , the ship was protected with an iron armored belt that was 200 mm ( 8 in ) thick . The transverse bulkheads that connected both ends of the belt were 75 mm ( 3 in ) thick . The central battery had thinner iron plating than the belt , at 150 mm ( 6 in ) , and the barbette guns were protected with 130 mm ( 5 in ) of iron . The reconstruction added a 75 mm armored deck , and the new conning tower was protected with 150 mm thick armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered in 1865 by the government of Egypt as Ibrahimiye and laid down two years later at the French Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne . The ship was launched in 1868 and completed by 1869 for sea trials . In the meantime , Egypt had transitioned from a state directly ruled by the Ottoman government to the autonomous Khedivate of Egypt , and on 29 August 1868 the Khedivate transferred the ship to the Ottoman Navy . She was commissioned as Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik in 1870 .
= = = Russo @-@ Turkish War = = =
The ship saw action during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 . She spent the war in the Black Sea squadron . The Ottoman fleet , commanded by Hobart Pasha , was vastly superior to the Russian Black Sea Fleet ; the only ironclads the Russians possessed there were the two Admiral Popov @-@ class ships , circular vessels that had proved to be useless in service . The presence of the fleet did force the Russians to keep two corps in reserve for coastal defense , but the Ottoman high command failed to make use of its naval superiority in a more meaningful way , particularly to hinder the Russian advance into the Balkans . Hobart Pasha took the fleet to the western Black Sea , where he was able to make a more aggressive use of it to support the Ottoman forces battling the Russians in the Caucasus . The fleet bombarded Poti and assisted in the defense of Batumi .
In June , the Russian Baltic Fleet began a campaign to neutralize the Ottoman ironclads using torpedo boats equipped with towed and spar torpedoes . On the night of 23 – 24 August 1877 , three Russian torpedo boats , Miner , Navarin , and Sinop , attempted to sink the ship with spar torpedoes while she was moored in Sukhumi . Gunfire from the Ottoman ships , along with troops on the shore , made the Russian attack difficult . Sinop detonated her torpedo against a boat that was protecting Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , causing only minor damage to the ironclad , though the Russians initially believed they had sunk her . The ship was able to steam to Batumi , where she was repaired . The attackers had been aided by a fire burning on the beach , which illuminated the Ottoman vessels in the harbor . The Ottoman fleet continued to support the Ottoman garrison at Batumi , when held out against constant Russian attacks to the end of the war . After the end of the war , the ship was laid up in 1878 at Constantinople , the Ottoman capital .
= = = Modernization = = =
From 1890 to 1892 , the ship was re @-@ boilered at the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn . Following the Greco @-@ Turkish War in 1897 , which highlighted the seriously degraded state of the Ottoman fleet , the government decided to begin a naval reconstruction program . The first stage was to rebuild the older armored warships , including Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Requests for proposals were sent to foreign shipyards , and in October 1898 the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa requested permission to survey the ship and the ironclad Mesudiye . Both vessels were accordingly sent to Genoa in January 1899 , arriving on the 28th . There she was briefly laid up . Instead , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was transferred to the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany for a major reconstruction , arriving on 29 May 1900 , with the transport İzmir .
After docking in Kiel , the men from Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik were transferred to İzmir , but with no funds to buy coal , the men were stranded in Germany . Germaniawerft stripped down Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , but then halted work to await the first Ottoman payment . By mid @-@ 1901 , the men had accumulated significant debt and the Ottoman government had made no effort to return them or pay the installments for the modernization program . Even Kaiser Wilhelm II became involved in an attempt to press the Ottoman government to settle the debts incurred by the sailors . Instead , the Ottomans demanded that Krupp , the owner of the Germaniawerft shipyard , make an advance of 6 @,@ 000 lira so that İzmir could be prepared for the voyage back to Constantinople . The Ottomans were at the time negotiating for a large armament contract with Krupp for the Army , and used this as leverage ; by late 1901 , Krupp conceded , rather than risk the lucrative contract . The debts in Kiel were paid and İzmir finally departed for home .
No work was done to the ship over the following two years . On 18 January 1904 , Ottoman negotiators began a new round of talks with Krupp , demanding a reduction in the cost of the modernization from 282 @,@ 000 lira to 65 @,@ 000 lira ; this amount does not cover the preparatory work that had been initially carried out , let alone the reconstruction . In return , the Ottoman government would order a pair of torpedo cruisers — the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class — from Germaniawerft . With the armament contract still under negotiation , Krupp was forced to concede , despite the significant financial loss the reconstruction deal represented . By April , the armament contract was signed , and so work began slowly on Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Work was completed by late 1906 . The reconstructed ship departed Kiel on 19 November , and arrived in Constantinople on 4 January 1907 .
In 1909 , she participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was assigned to the Reserve Division , along with Mesudiye and the torpedo cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port . This was in part due to the rising tensions in the Balkans that presaged the Balkan Wars ; the Ottomans kept their fleet in port so it could be prepared for the inevitable conflict .
= = = First Balkan War = = =
The ship saw significant service during the First Balkan War of 1912 – 13 . At the start of the war , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was suffering from boiler trouble , which necessitated repairs that lasted until 9 November . She was then sent to support the Ottoman troops defending the Çatalca Line against Bulgarian troops . She took up a position off Tekirdağ to provide gunfire support . After the Bulgarians occupied the town , she bombarded their positions , but the attack had little effect . The ship was then moved to Büyükçekmece , where she joined the rest of the fleet . They had no contact with Bulgarian forces during this period .
She took part in the Battle of Elli , the first Ottoman surface action involving major warships since the Russo @-@ Turkish War , on 16 December 1912 . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik joined a fleet consisting of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , Mesudiye , and several smaller warships . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships .
The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides . At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire . By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . When they approached the straits , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik and Mesudiye took up positions to cover the withdrawal of the damaged pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik had not been hit in the engagement . The battle was considered a Greek victory , because the Ottoman fleet remained blockaded .
On 10 January 1913 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik supported another sortie by the fleet , this time patrolling off the Dardanelles while the rest of the fleet raided Imbros . While protecting the fleet 's flank , she encountered Greek destroyers and forced them to withdraw after firing a few shots . Neither side scored any hits in the engagement . The ship was lost while operating in the Black Sea against Bulgarian forces . On 7 February , the ship was ordered to proceed to Yalıköy to support a raid by the Army . The following day , the raid was launched on the town , but was quickly forced to withdraw from heavy Bulgarian resistance ; Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered to move in and shell the town , but ran aground on an uncharted sandbank at 12 : 45 . On 10 February , salvage work began , beginning with the removal of equipment . By the 12th , all armament and coal had been removed , but the ship could not be freed . Heavy seas and Bulgarian artillery damaged the wreck , which rendered her a total loss .
= Jill Marsden ( EastEnders ) =
Detective Chief Inspector Jillian " Jill " Marsden is a fictional character in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Sophie Stanton . She made her first appearance on 5 March 2001 investigating the shooting of Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) , which was part of the whodunit storyline " Who Shot Phil ? " . Marsden returned in 2002 , 2003 and 2009 ( for another whodunit storyline , " Who Killed Archie ? " ) . She returned on 5 January 2012 for her third whodunit storyline , " Who 's Stalking Phil ? " , departing four months later on 10 May 2012 . Marsden returned for two episodes on 17 August 2012 to conclude the latter storyline . On 16 July 2015 , she returned for part of the " Who Killed Lucy Beale ? " whodunit storyline .
When she was brought back in 2009 , Marsden 's feelings were explored in a segment of the BBC EastEnders homepage entitled " Marsden 's Video Diaries " , documenting the character 's thoughts about the storyline in which she was involved . Marsden 's relationship with Phil has been explored since her first appearance , with the BBC describing their relationship as a " romance in negative ... her ultimate dream is that some day she 'll get [ Phil ] behind bars " and the Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart calling her Phil 's " arch enemy " .
The character has been criticised by police detectives who felt that Marsden 's habit of discussing investigation details with suspects ( as her colleagues accepted bribes ) did not properly represent their profession . In response , the BBC said it had sought advice from a police consultant for storylines involving Marsden .
= = Storylines = =
= = = 2001 – 03 = = =
Marsden first arrives in Albert Square in March 2001 , investigating Phil Mitchell 's shooting in her first case as detective chief inspector . She identifies the five main suspects : Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) , Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) , Steve Owen ( Martin Kemp ) , Mark Fowler ( Todd Carty ) and Lisa Shaw ( Lucy Benjamin ) . Marsden arrests Dan for the shooting , although he is later acquitted due to lack of evidence . Dan was set up by Phil but it was , in fact , Lisa who shot him . Marsden later arrests Little Mo Slater ( Kacey Ainsworth ) for the attempted murder of her husband Trevor Morgan ( Alex Ferns ) . Little Mo claims self @-@ defence , since she has been a victim of domestic violence at the hands of Trevor . The trial ends , with Trevor 's treatment of Little Mo revealed . In 2003 , Sonia Jackson ( Natalie Cassidy ) visits Marsden with evidence that Phil killed his ex @-@ girlfriend Lisa . Jill helps set up a honey @-@ trap for Phil in order to obtain a confession from him , with PC Kate Morton ( Jill Halfpenny ) and DI Dominic Price ( Paul Brennen ) , but it fails when Kate falls in love with Phil and Marsden fires her . Marsden arrests Phil , but with insufficient evidence and no confession he is released . It later emerges that Lisa is safe and well , and Phil is innocent . Marsden later arrests Phil when Dennis Rickman ( Nigel Harman ) and Den Watts ( Leslie Grantham ) set him up in an armed robbery .
= = = 2009 – 10 = = =
Marsden reappears on Albert Square in 2009 when Archie Mitchell ( Larry Lamb ) is murdered . She arrives on the scene when several people say they suspect Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) , but Marsden waits before questioning her , and questions the Mitchells first . She makes a televised appeal for witnesses and later interviews Phil , but he is provided an alibi by his girlfriend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) . A few days later , a red fingernail is found at the scene of the murder ; Marsden visits the female locals , checking their hands . Seeing an upset Heather Trott ( Cheryl Fergison ) , knowing that she is vulnerable and lives with Shirley , she talks to Heather about Christmas Day and Heather accidentally tells Marsden that Phil wasn 't there . Marsden interviews Phil and later visits his home , asking to see the clothes he was wearing on Christmas Day . Shirley shows her a clean shirt ; Marsden closes the laundrette , hoping anyone with blood @-@ stained clothes will not be able to wash them . After a tip @-@ off Marsden arrests Sam Mitchell ( Danniella Westbrook ) ; Sam accuses her mother , Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , of the murder . Marsden confirms that she was there to talk to Peggy , questioning Peggy and Sam at the police station . Peggy is released without charge ; however , Sam is detained for jumping bail . Marsden visits Janine , who insists that people will say anything to get her in trouble . She asks Janine why she was out in the cold on Christmas Day , and asks if Janine knows where Archie 's laptop as it had gone missing .
On 18 January , Marsden arrests Ian after Janine told her that Ian took advantage of her , stole Archie 's laptop , which had a recording of them having sex on it , and dumped it in the canal . Ian refuses to talk , but when Marsden shows him CCTV footage of him dumping the laptop , and then shows him the recovered laptop , he admits visiting Archie on Christmas Day , claiming that Archie was threatening him . He wanted to delete the recording and denies murdering Archie , but Marsden charges him . Days later , Janine tells Marsden she saw Ian leave the Queen Victoria on Christmas Day but the bust of Queen Victoria was on the bar after he left . Marsden places Janine at the scene , but she also denies murdering Archie . Marsden tells Ian that although the murder charge will be dropped , he will still be charged with burglary and theft of Archie 's laptop . She and DC Wayne Hughes ( Jamie Treacher ) attend Archie 's funeral , watching people 's reactions in the hope of a new lead . Peggy returns to Archie 's grave ; when Marsden asks why , she explains that she didn 't believe him when he said his cancer had returned .
The following week , Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) spots her ex @-@ boyfriend Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) talking to Marsden ; Jack tells Ronnie that he was fishing for information . With no new leads , Marsden 's boss threatens to take her off the case . She reviews the suspects and decides to question Jack , since he is asking more questions than he has answered . In the café Marsden and Hughes discuss new information she has obtained , ensuring that she is overheard . Chinese whisper @-@ style rumours circulate , ending with the certainty that Marsden would arrest Ronnie . Ronnie sees Marsden in the Square , and a struggle ensues . She knocks Marsden down , is arrested and charged with assaulting a police officer but is released on bail . Marsden suspects Ronnie further , saying that she has now shown her true colours . Later , DC Jasmine Field ( Karen Ascoe ) enters the pub with other officers to arrest a suspect ; frightened , Ronnie leaves Walford . The police officers are there to arrest Dot Branning ( June Brown ) , who was accused by Dotty Cotton ( Molly Conlin ) after Dot slapped her . Jack confronts Marsden for unnecessarily sending a uniformed officer to arrest Dot and unsettling the locals , and realises there was no new information .
Janine tells Marsden that Ronnie has fled , but Marsden finds her at the Queen Vic . Marsden remarks that a new forensic profile has been found , and DNA screening of white males will shortly begin . After Hughes accepts a bribe from Jack to make the DNA samples disappear , Marsden receives an anonymous tip @-@ off . The police search Janine 's flat , finding the engagement ring that went missing the night of Archie 's murder , and Janine is arrested but later released for lack of evidence . Becca Swanson ( Simone James ) calls the police , saying that Bradley Branning ( Charlie Clements ) attacked Archie on Christmas Day , and the police arrive to arrest him . Marsden spots him when his phone rings ; two officers chase him to the roof , where he stumbles and falls to his death . The investigation ends , since the police believe that Bradley had killed Archie ; however , his killer was actually Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) .
= = = 2012 = = =
In January 2012 , Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) gives Marsden a letter incriminating Phil in the death of a homeless man , who died when he torched the car lot in an insurance scam in 1994 ; she adds that Phil also murdered Stella Crawford ( Sophie Thompson ) , and Marsden thanks Denise for the information . Marsden arrives in Walford and begins trailing Phil . She asks Denise not to tell Phil that she is in town , wanting to ensure Phil 's imprisonment . Marsden then targets Phil 's son Ben ( Joshua Pascoe ) , interviewing him about Stella 's death . Ben was abused by Stella and finds Marsden 's questions distressing ; however , she continues to press him . After a falling @-@ out with Phil Ben changes his statement , telling Marsden that Phil told Stella to jump off a building or he would push her . Marsden then arrests Phil for murder , and Ben reveals he was stalking him . She informs Phil 's partner , Shirley , that he has been charged with Stella 's murder . Ben pleads with Marsden to keep his statement a secret from the Mitchells , but she tells him he must accept that his father will learn about Ben 's involvement in his arrest eventually . After discovering Ben 's lies about Phil , Ian then passes this information on to Marsden and Ben is arrested . On the day of Phil 's release he helps Ben hide his involvement in Heather 's murder ; Marsden tells Phil at the police station she will contact him about Ben 's accusations . The charges against Ben are dropped ; Marsden visits Phil , taunting him that he will eventually slip up , and suggests that Ben may ultimately bring Phil down .
In August , Marsden reappears when Ben confesses Heather 's murder . She does not believe his confession , thinking it is another lie to get attention from Phil . However , Ben is arrested and charged with the murder after Marsden helps DS Luke Crisp ( Rufus Wright ) convince Jay Brown ( Jamie Borthwick ) to implicate Ben as Heather 's killer .
= = = 2015 – = = =
In July 2015 , the Beales are informed by DI Samantha Keeble ( Alison Newman ) that the police have a new DCI dealing with the murder of Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) , who is making an arrest . At Phil 's house , Marsden knocks on his door and Phil is shocked to see her . Marsden wants to speak to Ben about Lucy 's murder , but Phil slams the door in her face and then attempts to delay Marsden so Ben can flee Walford , but Ben is eventually arrested .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Nicknamed the " female sleuth " by the Daily Record , Marsden 's profile on the EastEnders website describes her as " fearless , [ a ] no @-@ nonsense copper and the scourge of Walford ’ s criminal fraternity . " The East Anglian Daily Times described Marsden as " tough " , Ian Hyland from The Mirror called her " scary " and Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian characterised her as " strict " . Naomi Mcelroy described Marsden as a " curly @-@ haired copper " , but said as a detective she was " rubbish " ; Polly Hudson from The Daily Mirror similarly opined , saying she was " useless " ( as did Mcelroy ) , and stated that Marsden was " making a right pig 's ear " of investigating Archie 's ( Lamb ) murder . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart characterised her as " vindictive " .
= = = Introduction , 2002 and 2003 returns = = =
Marsden first appeared on 5 March 2001 in the " Who Shot Phil ? " storyline . In the whodunit storyline the five main suspects were Dan Sullivan , Steve Owen , Lisa Shaw , Ian Beale and Mark Fowler . A source in the Daily Record said , " Sooner or later the truth will out . But until then there 's going to be a lot of probing going on . " She left on 27 March 2001 after unsuccessfully identifying the shooter ( who turned out to be Lisa ) . In 2002 she appeared in January , April and from 14 November to 6 December . In November , when Marsden returns , the police suspect that Phil has murdered his ex @-@ wife Lisa . The Daily Mirror said , " They are the words Phil Mitchell has heard many times before . ' You 're nicked ' , baldy . Intrepid DCI Marsden may not be a Jane Tennison , but she 's nabbed her prime suspect . " I 've got some good news for you , Phil , " she says , after arresting him on suspicion of murder . " The police in Portugal found your jacket . Unfortunately for you , it 's covered in blood . Mrs Fowler 's blood ... " In 2003 , Marsden returned in March July , August , November and for a longer stint in December .
= = = Who Killed Archie ? and 2012 returns = = =
In November 2009 , it was reported that Stanton would reprise her role as Jill . Digital Spy forum members had previously pointed out that her return was hinted at in a photo on the official EastEnders website and in a feature ( " Script Peek " ) where Phil is quoted as saying , " I know exactly what makes her tick " before adding " I 've wriggled off her hook so many times . She 's already picturing me standing in the dock " in the 29 December episode . Marsden returned to investigate the murder of Archie Mitchell . A source told Digital Spy , " Marsden has a score to settle with Phil . She was never far behind Phil when he put a foot out of place all those years ago and she 's back with a vengeance ... With so many people in the frame for Archie 's murder , Marsden has a difficult job on her hands if she wants to pin it on Phil . " Of her return she said , " It came completely out of the blue , and knocked me for six . " ... I really thought Marsden was no more . It was a really great surprise because I ’ d just finished a year ’ s run at the National Theatre , appearing in a new play called England People Very Nice – so it couldn ’ t have come at a better time . " She returned on 28 December 2009 .
Although Stanton did not know who murdered Archie , she guessed that it could be Stacey Slater ( which turned out to be correct ) . Speaking of this , she said that Sophie was one of the few to correctly guess it was Stacey . " I had an epiphany about a week before the live episode . It was a memory of the whole Who Shot Phil ? storyline , and how there were eight different suspects , including some really hard blokes , and it turned out to be Lisa . I knew DCI Marsden wasn ’ t going to get the culprit , because of a couple of scenes of the following episode we ’ d shot in December , and I thought that narratively , Stacey was the only person who the audience would forgive , and who could get away with it . That was my theory and it turned out to be right ! " Naomi Mcelroy from The Sunday Mirror thought that Marsden could be Archie 's killer . Marsden left on 22 February 2010 , and returned on 5 January 2012 . She returned after Phil is framed for Kevin Wicks ' ( Phil Daniels ) ' s death and that of a homeless man , who died accidentally in a car @-@ lot fire ( part of an insurance scam ) . According to Inside Soap the police would begin questioning Phil 's former fiancée Stella Crawford 's death , teasing Marsden 's return : " The investigation is set to bring Phil face to face with his old nemisis , DCI Marsden – and this time she 'll stop at nothing to put the bad boy permanently behind bars " . Digital Spy reported that Marsden re @-@ opens the investigation into Stella 's death , " suspecting that all is not what it seems " . Finally , Marsden returned for two single episodes on 17 August 2012 .
= = = Who Killed Lucy Beale ? = = =
In July 2015 , it was revealed that Stanton would be reprising her role as Marsden for the continuation of the Who Killed Lucy Beale ? storyline . Whilst viewers know Bobby Beale is the culprit , Marsden , Samantha Keeble and Cameron Bryant will reportedly make an arrest for the murder , arresting an innocent suspect .
= = Related media = =
The BBC used viral promotion on the EastEnders homepage to further develop the storyline of Who Killed Archie ? , with Marsden the main character in the nine videos . A new section ( " Marsden 's Video Diaries " ) was launched , encompassing events on the show from 25 December 2009 onwards in diary style from Marsden 's point of view . Insight was provided on the character 's thoughts and feelings on the events surrounding her each week , beginning with the introduction : " Christmas Day . I should be at home with my feet up eating a mince pie and watching the Doctor Who Christmas special . Instead , I ’ ve been called into work . Murder . A bloody one too . The victim , one Archibald Mitchell . Not the first time a Mitchell 's ruined my night . Still , if this leads to Phil Mitchell all wrapped up in Walford nick by New Years day , might be the best present I ’ ve ever had . " On the videos Marsden discussed evidence , suspects she had brought in and her relationship with Phil .
During the next three video diaries , Marsden talks about the suspects and the evidence against them . In episode three it is Ronnie , Peggy and Sam ; in episode four she talks about Janine Butcher , and in episode five she discusses Ian 's motives . Towards the end of the series ( in episode seven ) , Marsden 's boss threatens to fire her if she does not capture the culprit : " I ’ ve got to get someone . I ’ ve got to pin this on someone . Every address in the immediate area door @-@ stopped . Five suspects questioned , one arrest . Nothing . They tell me nothing . Mitchell , the ex wife , the daughter , Beale , Butcher , [ Jack ] Branning , I ’ m getting closer , I just need time . Of course my boss is putting pressure on . Says I ’ m losing my touch , That he 'll take the case of me . This is my case . Somebody 's going down for it and it ain ’ t going to be me . " In the penultimate episode , Marsden announces that the DNA results have come through ; this is aired on EastEnders . The final episode of Marsden 's Video Diaries aired on 19 February 2010 , three days before Marsden 's departure in 2010 . In this episode ( " Case Closed " ) , the Lionel Richie song " Hello " plays as the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline replays with the focus on Marsden . The BBC described the episode : " DCI Marsden 's caught Archie 's killer – or she 's collared someone for it at least . But Hello ! ? Was it Phil she was looking for ? Don 't tell us you didn 't spot the latent chemistry between this pair . Shirley must have been livid . We wouldn 't like to surmise what the DCI planned to do with Phil if she got him behind bars . But we do hope this is one Endless Love that will be revisited ... "
= = Reception = =
When Marsden returned in December 2002 , Ian Hyland of The Mirror said he disliked the " smouldering " sexual tension between Phil and Marsden . Jo Atkison of the Western Mail discussed the Marsden @-@ Kate @-@ Phil storyline , saying , " Betrayal with a capital B is the order of the day in the Square this week . It 's the cop Kate plot I 'm interested in . To shop or not to shop is a dilemma that Kate finds hard to cope with as she waits for the confession that will nail Phil for good " . In an interview with the East Anglian Daily Times , Stanton remarked that she was frequently asked to have her photo taken due to her role in EastEnders .
Real @-@ life police detectives criticised the portrayals of detectives Marsden and her colleague DC Wayne Hughes in the show , saying that viewers who see them talking to residents about the case and accepting bribes may believe that the police operate that way in reality . The BBC insisted that a police consultant was used , adding that " this is heightened fiction and all the things that we show might not always represent real life . " A spokesperson said , " We always have a police consultant on shows like this that we go to before casting . " Jane Simon and Brian Mclver described Marsden as having an " appetite for making random arrests " . Simon added , " While the list of suspects includes the entire northern hemisphere , it 's time for DCI Marsden to make another of her daily arrests . Like a Formula One pit stop , she has got it down to a fine art . " Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror commented on the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline : " Despite widespread apathy , Albert Square 's Cockney rabble trundle on with the life @-@ sapping saga of Who Killed Archie ? Who gives a toss ? While potential murderers Phil , Ian , Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) and the gang hint furtively at their guilt , the absurd DCI Marple – sorry Marsden – keeps arresting bunny @-@ boiler Ronnie without a shred of evidence . " I 've spent 20 years building a career on hunches , " bragged Miss Marsden . Yeah , and you 've made it all the way to Walford nick . A real high flyer ! "
In 2015 , Laura @-@ Jayne Tyler from Inside Soap bemoaned Marsden 's return , saying " Can someone please explain to us why DCI Marsden is now in charge of the Lucy Beale case ? She couldn 't catch a bus , let along a killer . "
= Roxy Ann Peak =
Roxy Ann Peak is a 3 @,@ 576 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) mountain in the Western Cascade Range at the eastern edge of Medford , Oregon . Composed of several geologic layers , the majority of the peak is of volcanic origin and dates to the early Oligocene . It is primarily covered by oak savanna and open grassland on its lower slopes , and mixed coniferous forest on its upper slopes and summit . Despite the peak 's relatively small topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , it rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above Medford and is visible from most of the Rogue Valley . The mountain is Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource .
The peak was originally settled 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago by ancestors of the Latgawa Native American tribe . In the early 1850s , a sudden influx of non @-@ indigenous settlers resulted in the Rogue River Wars . After the wars , the Latgawa were forced away from the region onto reservations . The peak was named in the late 1850s after one of its first landowners , Roxy Ann Bowen .
In 1883 , the city of Medford was established to the west of the mountain , and became incorporated two years later . After acquiring a large amount of land from the Lions Club and the federal government between 1930 and 1933 , the city created the 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ( 704 ha ) Prescott Park in 1937 . The park protects much of the upper slopes and summit of the peak and remains largely undeveloped . The peak 's southern foothills have some quickly expanding single @-@ family residential subdivisions .
= = Geology = =
Roxy Ann Peak is part of the old and deeply eroded Western Cascades , along with nearby Pilot Rock , Grizzly Peak , and Baldy . It is composed of several distinct geologic layers . The oldest layer , the 35- to 50 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Payne Cliffs Formation , forms the base of the peak and consists of sedimentary sandstone , shale , and conglomerates . Most of the rest of the mountain is made up of 30- to 35 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old volcanic basalt , breccias , and agglomerates , known as the Roxy Formation . These rocks are some of the oldest in the Cascades . At the summit , younger basalt dikes and intrusions K – Ar dated to 30 @.@ 82 ± 2 million years ago form a relatively erosion @-@ resistant cap , likely contributing to the peak 's isolation and familiar conical shape . Much of the lower slopes of Roxy Ann are covered by a 4 @-@ to @-@ 5 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) layer of dense , sticky clay . Due to the clay 's low shear strength , the soil is prone to creep , earthflows , and landslides . Several large subdivisions lie on top of these deposits , some of which are up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) thick .
The peak stands 3 @,@ 576 feet ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) above sea level with a topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , and rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above the surrounding Rogue Valley . The unique rounded top , location , and height of the peak create a landmark distinguishable from as far away as Shady Cove , 15 @.@ 5 miles ( 24 @.@ 9 km ) to the north , and the Siskiyou Summit , 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) to the south .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Humans have lived in the vicinity of Roxy Ann Peak for the past 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years . The first inhabitants were semi @-@ nomadic , most likely living off edible bulbs and large mammals such as mastodons and giant bison . Within the last millennium , the region became home to the Latgawa Native American tribe , who called the peak Al @-@ wiya . They probably used the mountain for gathering acorns and hunting black @-@ tailed deer and small birds , animals which are still abundant there .
The first European Americans to visit the area were a group of fur trappers led by Peter Skene Ogden who traveled north through the Rogue Valley on February 14 , 1827 . The first non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived a few decades later . The sudden increase in population created conflicts with the Latgawa , which ultimately led to the Rogue River Wars of 1855 and 1856 . After the wars , the remaining Latgawa were forced hundreds of miles north to the Siletz Reservation on the central Oregon Coast .
Early settlers named the peak Skinner Butte , after Alonzo A. Skinner , the Rogue Valley Indian agent between 1851 and 1853 . The current name of the mountain originates from one of its first residents , Roxy Ann Bowen . Two couples — Roxy Ann and her husband John McKee and Stephen and Mary Taylor — claimed almost the entire peak in 1853 , and by the late 1850s , it came to be known as Roxy Ann Peak .
In November 1883 , the Oregon and California Railroad was built through the center of the Rogue Valley , bypassing Jacksonville , the county seat . The railroad company also constructed a train depot halfway between Central Point and Phoenix , and platted 82 city blocks around it . The townsite was named Medford in December . In 1884 , residents celebrated the town 's first Independence Day by firing 38 cannon blasts — one for each U.S. state — from Roxy Ann Peak 's summit . Medford grew quickly , and was incorporated on February 24 , 1885 .
Beginning in the early 1900s , the mountain 's foothills were predominantly used for pear orchards and lignite mining . Mining ceased at the onset of World War I , and many of the orchards were abandoned during the Great Depression , but some still remain .
= = = Prescott Park = = =
In 1929 , the Lions Club purchased two sizable portions of land on the peak , and deeded 200 acres ( 80 @.@ 9 ha ) to Medford for recreational use the following year . In 1931 , the city acquired another 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 607 @.@ 0 ha ) via the Recreation and Public Purposes Act , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) more in 1933 . The park was dedicated in 1937 to George J. Prescott , a Lions Club leader and Medford police officer who was killed on duty on March 16 , 1933 .
Starting in 1933 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) made the first improvements to Prescott Park , including constructing 18 miles ( 29 km ) of trails and a 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) access road ( Roxy Ann Road ) , creating several picnic areas and overlooks , and digging drainage ditches . The CCC stopped work in 1942 , soon after the beginning of World War II . Park maintenance ceased due to municipal budget problems , and gasoline rationing caused the number of visitors to drop markedly . By 1956 , the CCC 's improvements had suffered $ 110 @,@ 000 in damage . The trend of disrepair continued for several decades .
During the late 1990s , the park experienced a surge in vandalism , littering , and wildfires caused by off @-@ roading , and Roxy Ann Road became nearly impassable because of lack of maintenance . Medford police officers had to devote much of their time to patrolling the mountain , made difficult by the park 's remote location . To alleviate these problems , the city regraded Roxy Ann Road in 1998 , and installed two gates near the park entrance two years later . By 2006 , vandalism had decreased by 70 percent .
At 1 @,@ 740 acres ( 704 @.@ 2 ha ) , Prescott Park is Medford 's largest park , covering much of the upper slopes and summit of Roxy Ann . It is two and a half times larger than the city 's other parks combined .
= = = 21st century = = =
Prescott Park and Roxy Ann Peak 's upper slopes remain relatively undeveloped , being outside of Medford 's city limits and urban growth boundary . The summit of the peak is home to a 180 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) radio tower built in 2007 ; the new tower replaced three of four existing 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) towers . Roxy Ann Peak and nearby Baldy are the only two primary transmitter station sites in the Rogue Valley .
Residential development of the mountain 's southern foothills has been on the rise for several years , primarily in the form of single @-@ family residences . Construction costs have continued to rise as well , in part because of a bill passed in 2003 . Oregon House Bill 3375 required that new construction on slopes of 20 percent or greater with unstable soil undergo increased regulation and an extended approval process . The bill doubled the cost of new foundations to around $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 , and the cost of retrofitting an existing structure approached $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Roxy Ann Peak 's southern foothills are also home to the RoxyAnn Winery , a Rogue Valley AVA winery founded in 2002 . On the opposite side of the mountain is the first bioreactor landfill in Southern Oregon , the Dry Creek Landfill , which began a program in 2006 to generate power from collected methane .
On September 21 , 2009 , a wildfire broke out on Roxy Ann Peak 's western slopes and consumed approximately 633 acres ( 256 ha ) . It left 25 @,@ 000 residents without electricity , forced the evacuation of over 100 homes , and cost over $ 1 @.@ 3 million to fight , but no structures were damaged .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Roxy Ann Peak 's high biodiversity is due to its wide range of elevations and its location between the Cascade , Klamath , and Eastern Cascade ecoregions . The lower slopes of the peak support chaparral , oak savanna , and open grassland . Scattered California black oak , Oregon white oak , and Pacific madrone trees grow in these areas , as do sclerophyllous shrubs such as birchleaf mountain mahogany , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , buckbrush , antelope bitterbrush , and Pacific poison oak . Common grasses include blue wildrye and prairie Junegrass . Wildflowers including Southern Oregon buttercup , common yarrow , and Tolmie star @-@ tulip also grow in these regions . At higher elevations , the vegetation transitions to mixed coniferous forest , dominated by Douglas fir , ponderosa pine , incense cedar , western juniper , and Pacific madrone trees . Shrubs such as common snowberry , bearbrush , greenleaf manzanita , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , deerbrush , and Pacific poison oak make up the understory of the forest , along with herbaceous plants such as creeping snowberry and Idaho fescue .
The peak is home to many species of birds , including blue @-@ gray gnatcatchers , lazuli buntings , oak titmice , acorn woodpeckers , and California quail on the lower slopes , and mountain quail , mountain chickadees , and red @-@ breasted nuthatches on the upper slopes . Wild turkeys and raptors such as Cooper 's hawks , golden eagles , bald eagles , and prairie falcons are also common . A few species migrate to the peak in the winter , including ruby @-@ crowned kinglets , yellow @-@ rumped warblers , and golden @-@ crowned sparrows . Mammals that inhabit the mountain include black @-@ tailed deer , cougars , bobcats , skunks , raccoons , coyotes , bears , weasels , and squirrels . A large herd of Roosevelt elk frequent the peak 's western foothills . The herd swelled to over 100 individuals in the mid @-@ 2000s , causing traffic problems and severe damage to local pear orchards , but shrank to about 40 members by 2009 after an Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife relocation effort . Other common animals on the peak include western rattlesnakes and western blacklegged ticks .
= = Recreation = =
Roxy Ann Peak and Prescott Park serve as Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource . Popular recreational activities on the peak include picnicking and hiking , mountain biking , and horseback riding on the 4 miles ( 6 km ) of designated trails in Prescott Park , which range in difficulty from moderate to steep . In August 2013 , the city of Medford and the International Mountain Bicycling Association released a conceptual plan detailing future improvements to the park 's trail system . The plan would add 30 miles ( 48 km ) of new multi @-@ use trails throughout the park , improve existing trails and trail signage , and add a new trailhead on the mountain 's western slope , at an estimated cost of between $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 720 @,@ 000 . If approved , construction on the first phase could begin by 2015 .
A challenge course opened in Prescott Park in April 2012 , operated by the Tigard @-@ based company Synergo . The course has 15 elements — eight low and seven high — each formed by various combinations of ropes , wires , platforms , ladders , and swings . They range from 2 to 40 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 12 m ) above the ground .
The peak and park can be accessed via Roxy Ann Road on the southern side of the mountain . There are two gates on the road ; the first is near the base of the peak and is opened and closed on a set schedule , and the second is about one mile beyond it at the park boundary , and is closed to all unauthorized motor vehicles . One mile past the second gate , the road splits into a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) loop around the summit . Tower Road begins on the north side of the loop and ascends to the summit of the peak . The peak offers expansive views of the surrounding landscape , including the Rogue Valley , Mount Ashland , Mount McLoughlin , Pilot Rock , the Crater Lake rim , and even Mount Thielsen , 66 miles ( 110 km ) to the north , and Mount Shasta , 72 miles ( 120 km ) to the south .
= I Take Thee Quagmire =
" I Take Thee Quagmire " is the 21st episode of season four of Family Guy , originally broadcast on March 12 , 2006 . Peter wins free maid service for a week ; he intentionally creates extra work for the maid , Joan . Quagmire meets her and instantly falls in love with her , leading him to propose to her after the second date . After the marriage , Quagmire comes to regret his new relationship , but learns that Joan will kill him and herself if he leaves her , so he fakes his own death .
The episode was written by Tom Maxwell , Don Woodard and Steve Callaghan and directed by Seth Kearsley . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 06 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Adam Carolla , Stephan Cox , Bryan Cranston , Darrel Heath , Beth Littleford , Christy Carlson Romano , Nicole Sullivan , Fred Tatasciore , Alex Thomas , and Alex Trebek , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Peter is a contestant on Wheel of Fortune , advances to the bonus round , and wins , despite choosing Z , 4 , three Qs , and the Batman symbol for his consonants and vowel , and taking a self @-@ described " shot in the dark " with his answer , " Alex Karras in ' Webster ' " , managing to get the correct answer on his first try , to Pat 's shock . He chooses , among several other prizes , one week of free maid service . When his maid Joan arrives , Peter has her pull items out of his belly button ( including , among other things , a ColecoVision set and a carton of Parliament Cigarettes to the shock of Peter , who says he hasn 't smoked in ten years ) , and rides her back to the store . Peter decides to over @-@ work Joan on her last night by giving Meg a watermelon filled with chocolate pudding and firecrackers , which explodes in her face . After being introduced to her by Peter , Quagmire falls in love with her . After dating Joan , Quagmire proposes marriage to her , which she accepts and the couple prepare their marriage ceremony . Lois , Peter and their neighbors visit Quagmire 's house , finding that he has changed his personality significantly . Peter still believes this to be a prank and shows Quagmire porn magazines in an attempt to change him back to his former ways . Meanwhile , Lois begins to question whether she should keep breastfeeding Stewie , as he 's hurting her when feeding .
By the time of Quagmire 's wedding , Lois ' breasts have gotten very large after deciding to wean Stewie , on the advice of Brian . While at the reception , the top of her shirt rips open . Peter notices that Quagmire is staring at Lois ' huge breasts , and spills champagne on them . Peter then " helps " Lois by shaking her , which makes her large breasts jiggle . This arouses Quagmire , and he realizes that he has made a mistake by marrying Joan . He informs Joan that some of his friends think they should get an annulment after discussing it with Peter , Joe and Cleveland , but she threatens to cut herself and him if he annuls their marriage . As a result , Peter decides to help Quagmire fake his death . He shows Joan a video of Quagmire being attacked by a ninja ( Joe ) , a Nazi ( Cleveland ) , a " pots and pans " robot ( Peter ) , and the body being consumed by a dinosaur held by Peter ( to the theme of Jurassic Park ) . Joan is unconvinced by the video . Peter and his friends then operate plan B , which consists of Quagmire pretending to suffer a heart attack and die . Quagmire is buried in a coffin with enough oxygen to last him a short period of time so Peter can return after the funeral has finished and dig him up . However , when Mayor West announces that all coffins must be buried in concrete ( to guard against zombies ) , Peter exclaims that Quagmire is not dead , and brings him out of the coffin , alive . Death shows up to retrieve his body . Joan pleads for Quagmire 's life , and touches Death 's arm , which kills her instantly . Death takes Joan instead , as " she was suicidal and her last name was Quagmire . " However , before he leaves , Quagmire asks Death to leave the body for another five minutes , thus turning him back into his old usual self .
Meanwhile , Stewie has been having drug @-@ like withdrawals since Lois decided to wean him . He becomes so desperate that when he and Lois are at the park , he jumps on a woman breastfeeding her baby and greedily suckles on her , but is pulled off by Lois . One night , he then tries to milk Lois in her sleep . He pumps her breasts and succeeds , but spills and desperately tries licking it up . Stewie realizes how pathetic he is and accepts his weaning . He comes to Brian and informs that he is now off breast milk , but Lois has other plans . Lois allows Stewie to be breastfed again , thus delighting him .
= = Production = =
This episode starts by depicting the game show Wheel of Fortune . When Brian is watching Malcolm in the Middle on television , a scene begins showing the mother of the fictional family screaming at the children and father . Jane Kaczmarek was asked to do the voice as she was the original actor in the series , however she refused . MacFarlane said that he gets a message that Kaczmarek wishes to portray that character as likable , and does not wish to jeopardize that . The father during that scene was voiced by Bryan Cranston , the original actor in the series , who accepted the role . Seth MacFarlane comments that " this is the first real Quagmire story we 've ever done . " A scene was made of Stewie attending a meeting similar to those at Alcoholics Anonymous , however the meeting was designed for those who are too addicted to breast milk . The format of Wheel of Fortune is somewhat similar to the layout of the modern @-@ day program , but the scene also features several aspects which are now no longer broadcast , such as not automatically being given R , S , T , L , N , and E , and were featured in the 1980s .
Two scenes during this episode were censored for television broadcasting . When Quagmire meets Joan and invites her out on a date , Cleveland asks , " Is that a banana in your pocket , or a erection in your pocket ? " Although this entire scene was not censored , Fox Broadcasting Company bleeped " erection " , which , according to DVD commentary , made what Cleveland said sound worse than what was intended . The scene where Peter is promoting ' Crystal Pepsi ' was shown only on the DVD , because it is prohibited to promote one product over another on television .
There is also a scene after the watermelon exploding trick where Meg was supposed to say " Fuck you , asshole ! I 'll kick your ass to hell ! " , but Fox also censored the line and was replaced by " I hate you ! I hate you ! " instead .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Adam Carolla , actor Stephan Cox , actor Bryan Cranston , actor Darrel Heath , actress Beth Littleford , actress Christy Carlson Romano , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , voice actor Fred Tatasciore , actor Alex Thomas , and game show host Alex Trebek guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , actress Jennifer Tilly , and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made appearances in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Peter is shown playing on the gameshow Wheel of Fortune , with hosts Pat Sajak and Vanna White also appearing . When Mayor West is playing as a contestant on Jeopardy ! , he spells the name of the host , Alex Trebek backwards ( Kebert Xela ) , sending him back to the fifth dimension ; this is a reference to when DC Comics supervillain and nemesis to Superman , Mister Mxyzptlk , is sent to the fifth dimension when someone makes him say his own name backwards . A Family Guy fan later did this in a real life episode of Jeopardy ! When Peter and the children are flying through space and singing , this is a reference to The Great Space Coaster . The two Asian men who meet Peter at the traffic lights when riding Joan 's back speak in a very similar tone to Howard Cosell , a reference to the 1985 cult film Better Off Dead . When Quagmire fantasizes about being alone in the forest with Joan and speaking to her in Elvish , this is a reference to a scene from The Lord of the Rings ; Quagmire goes on to imagine himself with Joan dancing dressed as the title characters from Beauty and the Beast , eating a plate of spaghetti similar to that shown in Lady and the Tramp , and flying on a magic carpet dressed as Aladdin and Princess Jasmine . They also fly through Baghdad which is in ruins from terrorism . Adam West 's response to seeing the Statue of Liberty is taken from the original Planet of the Apes . Also , there is a scene where Brian watches Malcolm in the Middle . In the scene , Lois nags the boys so much that she will go on strike , so Hal ends up killing her with a refrigerator door and walks away blissfully with the boys . Twice during the episode Quagmire engraves his name with his nose much like Woody Woodpecker . In the end , he engraves " giggity giggity goo " in the same fashion .
= = Reception = =
Bob Sassone of TV Squad commented that " this episode had one of the more hysterical / disturbing images of this TV season : Lois flashing her breasts to Brian after giving Stewie his lunch . " Michael Drucker of IGN noted that " the volume four episodes are easily funnier than the volume three ones " , referring to the episode .
= Episode 3 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 3 " , later also known as " Rest in Pain " , is the fourth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Harley Peyton , and directed by Tina Rathborne . " Episode 3 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean and Ray Wise , and introduces Sheryl Lee 's second role , Maddy Ferguson .
Rathborne has highlighted the episode 's introduction of Jungian analytical psychology to the series . She also described MacLachlan 's character Dale Cooper as not only a wholesome , grounded anchor against which the series ' more bizarre elements could be contrasted ; but as the central component of the series ' coming @-@ of @-@ age " Bildungsroman " narrative .
" Episode 3 " was first broadcast on April 26 , 1990 , and was viewed by approximately 18 percent of the available audience in its initial airing . The episode received positive reviews from critics , with its mix of comedy and tragedy seen as a highlight , and Miguel Ferrer 's character Albert Rosenfield singled out as a particularly successful example of this . The episode also drew praise from The New York Times for its compelling and unusual cast of characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions : the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) is seen as a possible suspect . Cooper experiences a surreal dream in which a dwarf and a woman resembling Laura reveal the identity of the killer .
= = = Events = = =
Cooper and Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) share breakfast , as he realizes she had slipped a note under his hotel room door ; the note referred to One @-@ Eyed Jacks , a brothel over the Canadian border . When she leaves , Cooper discusses his dream with Sheriff Harry S. Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , believing it to be a coded solution to the murder .
Cooper 's colleague , Albert Rosenfield ( Miguel Ferrer ) wishes to conduct a further post @-@ mortem on Laura 's body , but it is due to be released for the funeral that day . As the argument grows more heated , Truman ends it by punching Rosenfield and knocking him down . Later , Rosenfield shares what he has found ; Laura had been bound when she was killed , had been addicted to cocaine , and had been clawed by a bird . An unidentified plastic shard was also found in her stomach .
Leland Palmer ( Ray Wise ) is at home when he is visited by his niece , Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) . Ferguson is identical to Laura save for having black hair , not blonde . At the same time , Cooper and Truman question Johnson about Laura 's death , believing him to be lying when he denies knowing her . Later , Hurley arrives at Laura 's funeral late , watching from a distance . Briggs begins to accost the mourners , accusing them of doing nothing when they knew Laura had been troubled . Hurley intervenes and the two begin fighting ; Leland falls on the casket as it is being lowered into the grave , sobbing uncontrollably .
That night , Cooper , Truman , Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) and Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) meet at the RR Diner . Truman explains that someone has been smuggling cocaine into town ; he suspects that Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) , bartender at the town 's Roadhouse Bar , is involved . He also explains that the woods around the town seem to contain a " darkness " , and reveals that there is a secret society of men gathered to stand watch against this : the Bookhouse Boys . Truman and the others bring Cooper to their headquarters , where James has Jacques ' brother Bernard ( Clay Wilcox ) bound and gagged . They question Bernard but he denies any crime .
Elsewhere , Jacques realizes his brother is in trouble , and calls Johnson for help . When Johnson leaves , his abused wife Shelley ( Mädchen Amick ) hides a gun in a secret drawer . Meanwhile , sawmill owner Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) tells Truman , her lover , that her sister @-@ in @-@ law Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) is scheming to take over the mill . Packard knows there are two account books , one fake and one real , but cannot locate the real one Martell has been hiding .
= = Production = =
" Episode 3 " was the first of the series to be written by Harley Peyton ; Peyton returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by Tina Rathborne , who would also go on to helm " Episode 17 " in the second season . Rathborne had previously worked with series co @-@ creator David Lynch when she had cast him in her 1988 feature film Zelly and Me .
The episode introduces the character of Maddy Ferguson , Laura 's nearly identical cousin , the second role in the series played by Sheryl Lee . Lee had been a stage actor living in Washington , where " Pilot " was filmed , and had remained there after production moved to Los Angeles as she believed that , with her character dead , she would have no further part in the series . However , Lynch was impressed with her performance and called to ask her to return , telling her he would " figure [ ... ] out " a way for her to continue appearing .
Rathborne chose to open the episode with a shot centered on Sherilyn Fenn , finding the actress to be " seductive " and " absorbing " in a similar manner to screen icon Marilyn Monroe . Rathborne had initially worried that the episode featured too many static scenes of characters sitting and talking , with little action , and asked Lynch if she could borrow some of the imagery of the previous episode 's surreal dream sequence to keep these conversations more interesting , adding brief snippets of footage as Cooper discussed the dream with the others . Rathborne has noted that this dream @-@ centric approach to the character of Cooper is rooted in Carl Jung 's theories of analytical psychology . She felt this was something that had not been seen on television before , and credits Lynch with introducing it to the series . She has also described the narrative , both of " Episode 3 " and of Twin Peaks as a whole , as a " Bildungsroman " showing Cooper 's development into a more rounded and enlightened person .
Working on studio sets was a new experience for Rathborne , whose previous work had all been filmed on location . She also found it refreshing to work with the series ' ensemble cast , recalling that Miguel Ferrer often had the cast and crew laughing at the way he approached his material , imbuing the atmosphere during filming with a mix of comedy and drama . Rathborne has also noted the use of ordinary , almost banal , daily life in the series , finding it a necessary element to be able to play the series ' more violent and surreal elements against effectively . She particularly singled out Cooper as a wholesome " boy next door " character who allowed the town 's more unusual residents to stand out more starkly .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 3 " was first broadcast by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on April 19 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 11 @.@ 3 percent of US households , representing 18 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight decline from the previous episode , which had attracted 13 @.@ 1 percent of the population and 21 percent of the available audience .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps rated the episode a B + , finding that it struggled to live up to the preceding episode ; however , he felt that this was understandable , as " after pushing television to the limits of sanity there was nowhere to go but back " . Phipps also described the funeral scene as a highlight of the episode , finding that he grew to appreciate its mix of tragic and comic more over repeated viewings . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five .
John J. O 'Connor , writing for The New York Times praised the episode , stating that it features " the most bizarrely compelling collection of characters ever to hit prime time " . O 'Connor spoke positively of the intricate plot seen in the episode and the series as a whole , noting that " the overall narrative is paramount " and affirming his belief that the series " seems to have been mapped out carefully " by Lynch and Frost . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau praised the episode 's black humour , singling out in particular the scene in which Ferrer 's character is punched after an argument in the town morgue . However , Blau was critical of guest stars Olkewicz and Wilcox , finding their attempted French @-@ Canadian accents particularly poor . Writing for Digital Spy , Tony Delgado has also praised Ferrer 's role as Rosenfield , adding that his dialogue " may not appear to be the epitome of wit , but the way [ Ferrer ] delivered such lines caused plenty of howling hysterics in living rooms across the globe " .
= Gunther E. Rothenberg =
Gunther Erich Rothenberg ( 11 July 1923 – 26 April 2004 ) was an internationally known military historian , best known for his publications on the Habsburg military and Napoleonic Wars . He had a fifteen @-@ year military career , as a British Army soldier in World War II , a Haganah officer in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , and in the United States Air Force during the Korean War .
= = Escape from Nazi Germany and military service = =
Gunther Erich Rothenberg was born in Berlin . His family was a culturally assimilated German Jewish family . In 1937 , Rothenberg moved to the Netherlands with his mother ; his father later joined them . The family moved next to Britain , where Rothenberg had some schooling . In 1939 , he moved to Mandatory Palestine , then under British rule . There he joined the Zionist movement and Hashomer Hatzair ( The Youth Guard ) , a Socialist @-@ Zionist youth movement . He retained his passion for a Jewish homeland throughout his life .
On 13 July 1941 , his parents emigrated to the United States on the Villa de Madrid , an overcrowded ocean @-@ liner that left Barcelona on 20 June . His father , Erich Joseph Rothenberg , was an importer , and both his parents spoke English , Hebrew , French , and German . Their visas , issued in Lisbon , Portugal , claimed Cuban citizenship . At the age of 57 , his father registered for the fourth draft in 1942 , listing his residence as New York City , and his next of kin as his wife , Lotte .
In 1941 , Gunther Rothenberg volunteered for the British army , serving in an all @-@ Jewish unit . He was wounded in North Africa . He transferred from the Royal Army Service Corps to the Intelligence Corps and fought with the Eighth Army . He served in the Italian campaign , in the Yugoslav war of liberation and in Austria . His service continued in the occupation of Austria until 1946 . He was a civilian employee of U.S. Intelligence 1946 @-@ 1948 . Rothenberg returned to Palestine and joined the Haganah for Israel 's War of Independence . He rose to the rank of captain in the Israel Defense Forces .
By 1948 , Rothenberg 's father had died and his mother , Lotte ( 1894 – 1990 ) , had become a naturalized United States citizen . To be with her in New York City , Rothenberg journeyed to Canada , arriving in Halifax , Nova Scotia ; traveling from there to Toronto , he lived for a while at Wycliffe College , where he worked briefly as a construction laborer . On 19 November 1948 , he crossed the international border into the United States at Buffalo , with $ 12 @.@ 00 in his pocket . In 1951 , he volunteered for the United States Army , transferred to the Air Force , and served in the Korean War until 1955 . He remained guided by a deep sense of duty and a strong sense of American patriotism throughout his life .
= = Education and career = =
After military service in the United States Air Force , he graduated from the University of Illinois with an undergraduate degree . Two years later , he had a master 's degree from the University of Chicago . In 1959 he finished his doctoral degree at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . He retired from Purdue University , was appointed Professor Emeritus , and lived in Canberra , Australia , where he continued to write about the Napoleonic Wars .
He wrote several ground @-@ breaking books on the organization of the Habsburg military and the military reforms of Archduke Charles in the first decade of the Napoleonic Wars . His last book , The Emperor 's Last Victory , about the Battle of Wagram in 1809 , was published posthumously . Although he had never finished high school , with the help of the GI Bill , Rothenberg completed a bachelor 's degree from the University of Illinois in 1954 . He attended graduate school at the University of Chicago , where he was recognized as an argumentative , sometimes abrasive , graduate student with a keen mind . As a graduate student , Rothenberg reviewed W.E.D. Allen 's Caucasian Battlefields : A History of the Wars on the Turco @-@ Caucasian Border , 1828 – 1921 ( Cambridge University Press , 1953 ) for Journal of Modern History , He wrote his 1956 masters ' thesis entitled General Crook and the Apaches , 1871 – 1874 : the campaign in the Tonto Basin . Rothenberg received his doctorate from the University of Illinois : his 1959 dissertation , Antemurales Christianitatis : then military border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 , was published in 1960 by the University of Chicago Press , as The Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 ; he followed this with a second study , The Military Border in Croatia , 1750 – 1888 : a study of an imperial institution in 1966 , also published by University of Chicago Press . Both volumes were translated into German in 1970 .
In part @-@ time temporary teaching positions in Illinois and four years at the Southern Illinois University , Rothenberg taught European and world history , and published an instructor 's manual on history of the world , with Henry C. Boren . In 1962 , Rothenberg joined the faculty of the University of New Mexico ; over the following ten years , he rose to the position of full professor . In 1972 , he accepted a position at Purdue University . There , he taught courses in military and European history . As a teacher , his popular course on World War II attracted more than 250 undergraduates annually .
In the 1970s , Rothenberg also established himself as an international Napoleonic scholar with The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon , published in 1977 . He also mentored hundreds of graduate and doctoral students . He regularly published in such peer @-@ reviewed publications as Journal of Military History and served on the editorial board of War in History . In 1985 , Rothenberg was a visiting Fulbright fellow in the Department of History in the Faculty of Military Studies at the Australian Royal Military College , Duntroon . He retired from Purdue in 1999 and was named Professor Emeritus .
From 1995 – 2001 , Rothenberg was a visiting fellow at the School of Historical Studies , Monash University . After his retirement , he moved to Melbourne , Australia , and then to Canberra , where his third wife , Eleanor Hancock , taught at the Australian Defence Force Academy . Although retired , he continued to teach , lecture , and publish reviews . He also wrote two more books .
Life in Australia did not always please him ; he missed both his colleagues in North America and his Purdue students . His politics — he " was anything but politically correct " — did not mesh well with Australia 's leftist atmosphere . He wrote indignantly to a friend in the United States that he regretted moving to Australia when the authorities confiscated his muzzle loaders , which were prohibited " Down Under . "
In 2004 , he returned to the United States to present the keynote address at the 34th Annual Conference of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe . He had recently completed The Emperor ’ s Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram , which was published posthumously in November 2004 . He died at the age of 80 .
= = Legacy = =
Rothenberg 's legacy is not only the generations of scholars he prepared , but also his vast historiographical contribution to understanding the Revolutionary era . For many years , his Army of Francis Joseph ( 1976 ) was the standard and the only English language analysis of the Habsburg Army in the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic wars . He changed the widespread perception of Archduke Charles ' military acumen . A masterful historian , Rothenberg was known furthermore as an eminently fair scholar . After publishing a critique of a publication , the author contacted him , and proved the critique unjust ; Rothenberg immediately wrote to a review retracting the criticism , and the two scholars remained friends for the remainder of his life .
Some of his colleagues considered Rothenberg " the greatest scholar of the Napoleonic era of our day . " His adventurous life and diverse experiences gave him a deep understanding of human nature . This made him a valuable colleague and a treasured mentor for his many graduate students .
High Point University conducts the Gunther E. Rothenberg Seminar in Military History .
= = Personal life and family = =
His first marriage in 1952 ended in a 1967 divorce . In 1969 , Rothenberg married Ruth Gillah Smith , a widow with three daughters ( Judith Goris , Laura Allman , Georgia Jones ( all born Herron ) ) , whom he helped to raise ; she died in 1992 . In 1995 , he married for a third time , to Eleanor Hancock , a lecturer at Monash University in Australia . She is now a Senior Lecturer in History at the Australian Defence Force Academy at the University of New South Wales , and has written the first biography of Ernst Julius Röhm . Her 1988 doctoral thesis , National Socialist Leadership And Total War , 1941 – 45 for the Australia National University was published by St. Martin 's Press in 1992 .
= = Publications = =
Rothenberg published hundreds of journal articles , reviews , and lectures . This is a partial list .
= = = Books = = =
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1960 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1747 . Urbana , IL : University of Illinois Press . LCCN 60015931 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1966 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1740 – 1881 ; a Study of an Imperial Institution . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . LCCN 66013887 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1976 ) . The army of Francis Joseph . West Lafayette , Indiana : Purdue University Press . ISBN 0911198415 . LCCN 75016051 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1979 ) . The anatomy of the Israeli army . London : B. T. Batsford . ISBN 0713419660 . LCCN 79321715 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1982 ) . Napoleon 's Great Adversaries : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army , 1792 – 1814 . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0253339693 . LCCN 82047512 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 . ( Subsequent editions titled Napoleon 's Great Adversary : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army . )
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1978 ) . The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 31076 @-@ 8 . LCCN 77086495 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2000 ) . Keegan , John , ed . The Napoleonic Wars . London : Cassell . ISBN 0304352675 . LCCN 2001347125 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2004 ) . The Emperor 's Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 0297846728 . LCCN 2005440770 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Király , Béla Kalman ; Rothenberg , Gunther E. , eds . ( 1979 ) . Special topics and generalizations on the 18th and 19th centuries . New York : Brooklyn College Press . ISBN 0930888049 . LCCN 79051780 . Distributed by Columbia University Press
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ; Király , Béla K. ; Sugar , Peter F. , eds . ( 1982 ) . East Central European society and war in the prerevolutionary eighteenth century . New York : Boulder Social Science Monographs . ISBN 0930888197 . LCCN 81050886 . Distributed by Columbia University Press
= = = Journal articles = = =
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( June 1960 ) . " The Origins of the Austrian Military Frontier in Croatia and the Alleged Treaty of 22 December 1522 " . The Slavonic and East European Review ( Modern Humanities Research Association ) 38 ( 91 ) : 493 – 498 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1961 ) . " Venice and the Uskoks of Senj : 1537 – 1618 " . The Journal of Modern History 33 ( 2 ) : 148 – 156 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 238780 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1963 ) . " Aventinus and the Defense of the Empire Against the Turks " . Studies in the Renaissance 10 : 60 – 67 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2857048 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Croatian Military Border and the Rise of Yugoslav Nationalism " . The Slavonic and East European Review 43 ( 100 ) : 34 – 45 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Struggle Over the Dissolution of the Croatian Military Border , 1850- 1871 " . Slavic Review 23 ( 1 ) : 63 – 78 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2492376 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1968 ) . " The Austrian Army in the Age of Metternich " . The Journal of Modern History 40 ( 2 ) : 155 – 165 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 240187 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1972 ) . " Toward a National Hungarian Army : The Military Compromise of 1868 and its Consequences " . Slavic Review 31 ( 4 ) : 805 – 816 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2493764 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Austrian Sanitary Cordon and the Control of the Bubonic Plague : 1710 – 1871 " . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhmas / XXVIII.1.15.
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Habsburg Army in the Napoleonic Wars " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 37 ( 1 ) : 1 – 5 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986561 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1976 ) . " Nobility and Military Careers : The Habsburg Officer Corps , 1740 @-@ 1914 " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 40 ( 4 ) : 182 – 186 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986702 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1988 ) . " The Origins , Causes , and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon " . Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 ( 4 ) : 771 – 793 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 204824 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1989 ) . " The Austro @-@ Hungarian Campaign Against Serbia in 1914 " . Journal of Military History 53 ( 2 ) : 127 – 146 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1985745 .
= Symphony Six =
The Symphony Six were a group of Canadian musicians under contract to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra ( TSO ) who were denied entry to the United States for a concert tour in November 1951 . Coming at the height of the McCarthy era in the US , the six musicians – Ruth Budd , Dirk Keetbaas , William Kuinka , Abe Mannheim , John Moskalyk , and Steven Staryk – were denied visas on the suspicion of being involved in communist activities . The TSO sent other musicians in their place and completed its tour . The six musicians resumed playing with the orchestra upon its return to Canada .
At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , the TSO refused to renew the contracts of these musicians , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements . The six musicians appealed this decision to its union , the Toronto Musicians ' Association ; the Mayor of Toronto ; the Canadian Civil Liberties Association ; and many other bodies , without success . They received support from the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts , but not from the Canadian Congress of Labour . The incident garnered extensive media coverage in both Canada and the United States , and sparked a protest against the TSO 's decision . The orchestra 's director , Ernest MacMillan , did not speak about the matter in public , which also prompted criticism , and two members of the TSO board resigned . The six musicians were viewed with suspicion by their colleagues and people avoided them to protect themselves from guilt by association . Budd and Staryk later returned to the TSO , while the four other musicians continued their careers elsewhere .
= = Background = =
The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was founded by Luigi von Kunits in 1922 . From 1931 to 1956 it was conducted by Sir Ernest MacMillan , who achieved renown as " the leading figure in Canadian music " . By the 1940s the orchestra 's popularity had increased , but its financial condition did not allow it to tour or invite many guest conductors and soloists . In 1951 @-@ 52 it received CA $ 56 @,@ 000 in donations and grants , CA $ 10 @,@ 000 less than the amount raised by the smaller Vancouver Symphony Orchestra . Some TSO musicians freelanced for the CBC Symphony Orchestra and a few left the TSO to work for the CBC . MacMillan hoped that the TSO could boost its reputation through international engagements .
= = Event = =
The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was invited to perform at the Detroit Masonic Temple auditorium on November 27 , 1951 as part of the Major Symphony Series , which also featured the Boston Symphony Orchestra , the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , the Cleveland Orchestra , and the Philadelphia Orchestra . TSO director MacMillan viewed this first @-@ ever US invitation as a golden opportunity to garner more international invitations for the orchestra . He added vocal soloist Lois Marshall to the orchestra , as well as a piece by an American composer , Herbert Elwell 's work Pastorale , and Edward Elgar 's Enigma Variations , to the repertoire .
At this time in the United States , McCarthyism was at its height , generating fear and suspicion of entertainment industry figures , academics , military figures , and government officials by accusing them of real or suggested links to communist activities . The TSO was required to submit to United States immigration authorities all the names of its musicians and other staff who would be accompanying the tour . The immigration department approved visas for all but seven musicians , suspecting them of communist activities . One of the musicians was later cleared , leaving six musicians who were denied entry .
These six musicians , who became known as the Symphony Six , were :
Ruth Budd , double bassist . Born in Winnipeg , she joined the TSO in 1947 , becoming Canada 's first professional female bassist .
Dirk Keetbaas , Jr . , principal flautist . Born in the Netherlands , Keetbaas was a naturalized Canadian citizen . He also performed in the CBC Symphony Orchestra and in chamber music groups . He joined the TSO in 1949 .
William Kuinka , double bassist . Born in British Columbia , he had served in the Second World War . He was self @-@ taught in mandolin and guitar as well . The 1951 @-@ 1952 season was his first and last year in the TSO .
Abe Mannheim , bassist . This was his fourth season with the orchestra . Immigration officials had questioned him for 4 hours .
John Moskalyk , violinist . He joined the TSO in 1945 .
Steven Staryk , violinist . Born in Toronto , he studied violin as a child with , among others , John Mosklyk , and performed in his first recital on CBC Radio at the age of 14 . He joined the TSO in 1950 when he was still in his teens .
Several of the six musicians had been involved with Canadian @-@ Russian friendship organizations formed in the 1940s for the purposes of artistic collaboration ; however , they denied charges of political involvement . Staryk related that he had played at Ukrainian and other ethnic events , and Budd admitted to being a member of a left @-@ wing youth group . John Moskalyk 's surname was listed in the TSO 's programs as " Moscow " ; he had conducted the Budapest orchestra for two concert performances in August 1949 . Keetbaas could not recall any association with left @-@ wing groups . Harry Freedman , who was on the board of the Toronto Musicians ' Association at the time and whose vote thwarted unanimous decisions against the Symphony Six , stated that he was not aware of any of the six musicians promoting communism . Later , he felt that he should have taken " more direct action " .
MacMillan himself had been involved in the National Council for Canadian @-@ Soviet Friendship in the 1940s , though he had since quit that organization . In 1950 , with an eye to taking the orchestra on international tours , he had written a letter to the American consul in Toronto admitting his former affiliation . He received his visa in November 1951 without any difficulties . After the six musicians were denied entry and before the orchestra had left for the United States , MacMillan solicited help for them from the Canadian ambassador in Washington , but his plea was unsuccessful . In January 1952 he wrote to US immigration officials trying to clear Staryk 's name , lauding him as " an exceptionally talented violinist and valuable member of the orchestra . I have no reason to doubt that he has no Communist affiliations other than that he played from ages twelve to fourteen with a Ukrainian orchestra that is under some suspicion " . His entreaties on behalf of Staryk did not help to exonerate the musician .
The TSO board sent other musicians in place of the six who had been denied visas , and the concert went on as planned . The orchestra 's performance was a success and received positive reviews from both the American and Canadian press . After the TSO returned to Canada , the six musicians resumed their positions .
= = Refusal to renew contracts = =
At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , with more American concerts planned for the orchestra in Boston , New York , and Philadelphia in the coming season , the TSO did not renew its contracts with all six musicians . Jack Elton , manager of the orchestra , discussed the problem of these six players with the TSO board in a meeting held on April 21 , 1952 . At the meeting , Elton said that " for artistic reasons there could be no substitutes for such an important concert " . The board agreed with Elton 's arguments and contended that the six musicians had not fulfilled their contractual agreement to join the orchestra on international tours , and that being barred from entering the United States would prevent them from joining the orchestra in future US appearances . Ernest MacMillan was not present at the meeting .
The incident and the board 's decision not to renew the musicians ' contracts created controversy when it became public , garnering media attention both nationally and internationally . Members of the press castigated the TSO for not cancelling the US tour in protest over the immigration department ’ s decision , citing a similar case in which the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam had cancelled its US tour when several of its musicians were denied entry . One reporter , Langford Dixon of The Globe and Mail , " defended the six so vehemently that it led to his dismissal from the paper " . Many people wrote letters to the TSO and some even cancelled their subscriptions . For its part , the TSO board blamed the newly established Canadian television for the unprecedented decline in subscriptions . A letter to the editor of Toronto Daily Star called the firing " an offence against Canadian independence . "
The TSO board gave orchestra manager Jack Elton the authority to decide what steps should be taken . Elton asked the Toronto Musicians ' Association to intervene . The union upheld the board 's decision . The six musicians appealed but the union turned them down , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements and so the orchestra had the right not to renew their contracts . Walter Murdoch , president of the Toronto Musicians ' Association , said that it was " a straight contractual matter " and " there is nothing wrong in the orchestra 's not rehiring musicians " .
On May 26 , 1952 twelve members of the TSO board met to review their decision not to renew the contracts . Nine of the members voted in favor of the decision while three voted against it . It was decided that the contracts would not be renewed , but if the United States immigration officials would issue entry permits to the six musicians by September 1 , the TSO would renew the contracts . This decision created a controversy and a split within the TSO board , which eventually led to the resignation of two members , Mrs. Edmund Boyd and Mrs. R. B. Whitehead , although these two remained members of the orchestra 's women 's committee .
The Assembly for the Canadian Arts called a rally in support of the Symphony Six on May 29 . The Toronto Musicians ' Association instructed its members not to attend and sent members to stand outside the entrance " to intimidate members from entering " . Aspersions were cast on the Assembly for the Canadian Arts as being a communist front organization , and the Toronto Evening Telegram called the gathering " a communist meeting " . Several members of the Assembly quit the group in fear " of being labelled communists " . On June 4 the United Church of Canada urged the TSO board to reconsider its decision .
The controversy continued into the orchestra 's 1952 @-@ 1953 season . The six musicians appealed again to the TSO board and the Toronto Musicians ' Association , but made no headway . The musicians also held meetings with the Canadian Civil Liberties Association and the Toronto Board of Control , and pleaded their case to the Mayor of Toronto , Allan A. Lamport , and the American Federation of Musicians , without success . While the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts supported the six musicians , the Canadian Congress of Labour rejected a proposal to back them . In 1952 then @-@ Canadian foreign minister Lester Pearson was quoted as saying that it would not " serve any useful purpose to take the matter up again " . Pearson blamed the Cold War for such incidents , and added that the Canadian government was also denying entries to people wishing to attend communist meetings and was providing US officials with " security information " . A special committee was set up by the TSO board to screen all its members .
MacMillan stayed out of the matter ; he did not attend meetings of the TSO board and maintained a public silence through the spring and summer of 1952 . According to TSO archivist Warren , MacMillan 's correspondence indicates that he supported the board 's decision not to rehire the six musicians .
While the Symphony Six garnered support from many corners , they did not receive widespread support from their peers . While some orchestra members were " genuinely supportive " , according to Budd , many others publicly shunned them for fear of being perceived as communist sympathizers and losing their own jobs .
= = Aftermath = =
Only two of the Symphony Six eventually returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra : Ruth Budd and Stephen Staryk . After her contract was not renewed , Budd played with orchestras in Halifax and other Canadian cities . She was rehired by the TSO in 1964 and continued as a double bassist until 1989 , becoming " one of the most beloved members of the orchestra " . Staryk played in the CBC Symphony Orchestra from 1952 to 1956 and then traveled to London , where he was appointed concertmaster of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . In 1960 he became concertmaster of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam and toured the US with them , although he had not been officially cleared by the US immigration department . Staryk was the first Canadian concertmaster of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra from 1963 to 1967 . He returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1982 , serving as concertmaster until 1986 .
Keetbaas became the principal flautist for the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra and the CBC Winnipeg Orchestra from 1953 to 1968 . From 1956 to 1966 he directed and performed with the Dirk Keetbaas Players , a wind quintet featuring flute , oboe , clarinet , bassoon , and French horn .
Kuinka performed with the Toronto Renaissance Quintet from 1963 to 1965 . In 1964 he formed the Toronto Mandolin Chamber Ensemble , which existed until 1969 . He also performed with the orchestra of the National Ballet of Canada . He received a research grant from the Canada Council to study European teaching methods and repertoire in 1966 .
Mannheim later performed in the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra and the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra .
Moskalyk joined the Faculty of Music at the University of Toronto and also became a faculty member of The Royal Conservatory of Music .
The TSO board had not renewed the musicians ' contracts hoping that it would receive more concert invitations from the United States . However , it received only eight invitations in the following four years , all from the state of Michigan . The eighth tour had to be cancelled because of a snowstorm .
In a letter written to Dan Cameron , President of the Canadian Federation of Music Teachers , in November 1952 , MacMillan reflected that " the orchestra , far from suffering musically , has in some respects improved . "
= Alisia Dragoon =
Alisia Dragoon ( Japanese : アリシアドラグーン , Hepburn : Arishia Doragūn ) is a 1992 platform game developed by Game Arts for the Sega Genesis . The player controls Alisia , a young woman who is on a quest to avenge her father and save the world . She can fire lightning from her hands and summon four faithful beasts to aid her .
The game was released outside of Japan by Sega , who packaged the heroine as a rugged gladiator instead of the dainty @-@ looking sorceress she originally was . Due to the lack of publicity for the game internationally , Alisia Dragoon did not make a big impact on the video game market , despite the critical acclaim it received .
= = Gameplay = =
In Alisia Dragoon , the player controls the female protagonist , Alisia , in her quest to save the world by defeating the evil forces that killed her father . The game consists of eight levels of side @-@ scrolling environments ; Alisia has to jump across gaps and kill the enemies that stand in her way . Each stage is completed by defeating the boss at the end .
Alisia attacks by shooting streaks of lightning from her hands . The attack automatically targets enemies in range but gets weaker with each volley as Alisia 's power is depleted . Her power recharges when she stops attacking ; when fully charged , it allows her to unleash a smart @-@ bomb @-@ like attack , hitting every enemy on the screen . The energy system introduces an element of strategy , encouraging the player to manage Alisia 's power to have her able to defend herself at critical moments .
Helping Alisia in her quest are her pet monsters . These creatures fly around the heroine on their own , attacking her foes , and blocking enemy attacks from hitting her . There are four pets , each with its own type of attack . The Dragon Frye spits fireballs , and the Boomerang Lizard hurls boomerangs . The Thunder Raven emits a thunder blast that affects enemies across the screen , and the Ball O ' Fire burns enemies on contact . Only one pet can fight alongside Alisia in her quest , but the player can select any of the four ( or none ) as the active companion at any time .
Over the course of the game , Alisia and her monsters can improve their abilities by collecting power @-@ ups . These enhancement items are placed throughout the first seven stages , mostly in hidden locations . The various power @-@ ups can heal Alisia and her monsters , increase their maximum life bars , improve their attacks , or grant invulnerability for a certain time . Life bars are lost by taking damage from enemy attacks and traps . When Alisia 's pets lose all their life bars , they are removed from play and cannot be brought back until a " Revive " power @-@ up is collected . If Alisia loses all her life bars , she can restart the level by expending a continue . The game ends if all the continues have been used . Alisia Dragoon has no features for saving the player 's progress . After the game is completed , a screen is shown , charting the overall performance of the player based on the number of kills , the power level of Alisia 's attack , and the frequency the pet monsters are used .
= = Plot = =
Similar to most action games on the Sega Genesis , the plot in Alisia Dragoon is simple and short . The game goes straight into the action , tasking Alisia to kill everything in sight . After defeating the final boss , the player is treated to a cinematic cutscene of Alisia 's triumphant return to her home .
For the Japanese release , much of the back @-@ story was described in the manual . Alisia is the daughter of a sorcerer who has imprisoned the main villain , Baldour , in a cocoon and sent it into outer space . Her father is in turn tortured to death by Baldour 's followers . When the villain crashes back to the planet and begins to awaken , Alisia sets out to defeat him and his followers . The American and European versions of the game promoted a different back @-@ story , with Alisia as a gladiator who champions the cause of the people with her four pet companions . Her task is to eradicate the evil monsters and the source of their production , a " silver star " that has crashed to Earth .
= = Development = =
In 1992 , Japanese animation studio Gainax was in a collaboration with Game Arts , the makers of the Lunar role @-@ playing games , to produce an action video game . Gainax 's video game product line tended to target a niche crowd who generally preferred dating simulations and anime @-@ based adventure games . Alisia Dragoon is a departure from this tradition . The animation studio handled the artistic end of the production , writing the story and creating the artwork that would be used for the design of the game 's environments and characters . Several of its founders had worked on Hayao Miyazaki 's animated films , and the influences of Miyazaki 's 1984 science fiction animated film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind were evident in certain levels of the game . Similarly , due to the predominance of mixing science fiction with fantasy themes in the Japanese animation circles at that time , Alisia Dragoon featured high @-@ tech spaceships and robots alongside mythical zombies and dragons . The composition of the soundtrack was delegated to Mecano Associates , who had produced the music for other works from Game Arts , such as the action games Fire Hawk : Thexder 2 and Silpheed . Game Arts , however , did most of the work in producing Alisia Dragoon , adapting the artwork into environments and creatures that can be rendered by the console hardware , and writing them as lines of software code .
= = Reception = =
Due to a small customer base in Japan , Alisia Dragoon sold few copies on its release ( April 24 , 1992 ) ; the console it was made for , the Sega Mega Drive , was not a popular device in Japan , selling 3 – 3 @.@ 5 million units ( 10 % of all Mega Drives / Genesis sold around the world ) . The game was published earlier by Sega for North America and Europe , on March 30 . However , it was a subdued release ; Sega did not place major advertisements for the game in the media . To localize the contents for the Western market , the video game publisher made several cosmetic changes to Alisia Dragoon . Instead of a big @-@ eyed heroine drawn in typical anime styling , Alisia was portrayed as a golden bikini @-@ wearing female barbarian on the box covers outside Japan . The Western version of Alisia was likened to the scantily clad females in artist Boris Vallejo 's work .
Westerners were more enthusiastic toward the game than were the Japanese , although there were a few negative appraisals . GamePro magazine opined Alisia Dragoon 's responsive controls , coupled with the hectic action and handsome graphics , made the game highly desirable for owners of the Genesis console . The Lessers of Dragon magazine were equally impressed with the gameplay , praising Alisia Dragoon for its " solid arcade action " that satisfied their " need for fast reflexes " . Mean Machines 's Julian Rignall praised the game for its pet monsters design , calling the management of the pets in the game an encouragement toward tactics . His fellow reviewer , Richard Leadbetter , wrote the game was visually attractive with " beautiful sprites " and " amazing backdrops " . He found the gameplay challenging , being forced to conserve energy as the game " [ threw ] everything but the kitchen sink at [ him ] " . Rignall agreed with Leadbetter on the game 's difficulty , which along with the secret rooms and power @-@ ups to be discovered made Alisia Dragoon an excellent action platform game that had long @-@ lasting appeal . Of the hundreds of Genesis games , Mega magazine rated Alisia Dragoon among the top 100 games , calling it " [ probably ] the best dragon @-@ based platform game around . " Despite the positive sentiments , sales of the game outside Japan were weak .
Sixteen years after the game 's release , Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network reviewed | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
was described as a rip @-@ off of Aaliyah 's " Rock the Boat " by Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine . " Next to You , " written by R. Kelly , is part of the album 's second half of ballads , and was said to capture " Ciara 's youthful indecisiveness . " " Hotline " features a " funky clap " and beatboxing .
= = Singles = =
Goodies ' lead single , the title track , featuring Petey Pablo , was released on June 8 , 2004 . Conceived as a crunk female counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah , " the lyrical content goes against the grain , speaking of abstinence , rejecting advances because " the goodies will stay in the jar . " Critics hailed it as an " anthem of the summer " and one of the best singles of the year , complementing its dance @-@ feel and beat , and the irony of the " clever " lyrics . The single performed well worldwide , topping the charts in Canada , the United States and the United Kingdom , and charting in the top ten of other charts , receiving Platinum certification in the United States . The music video shot for the song features Ciara partying with friends . " 1 , 2 Step , " featuring Missy Elliott , was released as the second single , incorporating a hip @-@ hop and dance @-@ pop feel , deriving influences from 1980s electro music . While topping the charts in Canada , it additionally appeared the in top ten of six other countries , and was certified Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The accompanying music video features Ciara and others performing the dance . The song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards .
" Oh , " featuring Ludacris , proclaimed as a love song to Atlanta , was released as the album 's third single on March 5 , 2005 . Carrying a slow , dark tone , critics noted " Oh " as a standout track from Goodies . The song performed well worldwide , appearing the top ten of seven charts , and certified either Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The song 's music video , which is similar to that of " Goodies , " takes place at a block party , and was nominated for Best R & B Video at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . The album 's final single , " And I , " was released on August 30 , 2005 , and only managed to peak at ninety @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for " And I " is loosely based on the 1992 film , The Bodyguard , and NBA player Carmelo Anthony portrayed Ciara 's love interest .
= = Critical reception = =
Raymond Fiore of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B and commented , " If Aaliyah had lived to make another CD , it might have sounded like Goodies , " and said that other album cuts " prove she 's no one @-@ track pony . " Noting the singles " Goodies , " " 1 , 2 Step , " and " Oh " as standout tracks , Allmusic gave the album three and a half out of five stars . Steve Jones of USA Today said , " The voice doesn 't blow you away , but as with Goodies , she takes a lyrically intriguing offbeat path from time to time . Though not every song is a goodie , she does have a few treats in store . " Even though he said the album wasn 't a perfect work , Azeem Ahmad of musicOMH said , " The talent is obviously there but if we are to carry out Ciara 's wish of forgetting about " the other chicks " then there 's some fine @-@ tuning needed . For now there 's no direct threat to any other hip @-@ hop divas , but the void left by Aaliyah is still there for someone to try and fill . There 's no reason why Ciara can 't one day hold her own with the best . " Jalylah Burrell of PopMatters commented that " Goodies is nothing new , but it is executed well . "
Although pointing out the flaws of Goodies , Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian said , " Ciara has no conviction as a sweet @-@ talker but her disconnected style clicks perfectly with the cold , clinical ( in a good way ) hits . " Mike Pattenden of The Times said , " Goodies has some tasty treats , but they 're all stacked on top of the jar , " commenting that Ciara 's " whispery , girlish voice that is often relegated to the background by stronger performers , suggesting she is little more than a pretty mouthpiece for Jon and his posse of producers . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani compared it to the work to Aaliyah , stating some of it was not up to par with the late singer , but complimented the title track @-@ esque tracks .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its initial week . It topped the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , before being dethroned by the Usher 's Confessions . Goodies had a seventy @-@ one week stint on the Billboard 200 , and certified three times @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 10 , 2006 , and has sold around 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of June 2010 .
Charting at twenty @-@ two on the Canadian Albums Chart , it was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . The album charted at twenty @-@ six in on the UK Albums Chart , and spent twenty weeks on the chart . It was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry , remaining to be Ciara 's sole certified album in the UK . Goodies charted moderately in other countries , including the top forty on the New Zealand Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart .
= = Legacy = =
With the release of her debut single " Goodies " , Ciara was referred to as the Princess of Crunk & B. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post commented that she has a " reedy , agile voice , capable of conveying the only three emotions ( sexy , sassy , sad ) an R & B singer needs . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times commented that " Ciara has been the most synthetic of the R & B divas over the past decade , an electro @-@ leaning vocalist whose instrumental palate has heavily favored stark 808 beats , sassy and seductive vocal lines . " In the early to mid @-@ 2000s , some crunk music hits like " Get Low " , " Goodies " , " Yeah ! " and " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " produced by Lil Jon climbed to the Top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 charts . Both " Yeah ! " and " Goodies " were the first tracks to introduce the substyle of crunk music and contemporary R & B , called crunk & B , to the public . Both of those tracks ( performed by Usher and Ciara , respectively ) were the main mainstream hits of 2004 . Since then , crunk & B has been one of the most popular genres of sung African @-@ American music , along with electropop , the genre that replaced crunk and crunk & B in the charts in 2008 . After the album 's lead single reached the summit of the US Billboard Hot 100 , it spent seven weeks at number one , becoming the longest @-@ running number @-@ one debut single by a female artist since 1977
The album 's lead singles success exemplified urban music 's commercial dominance during the early 2000s , which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R & B and hip hop artists . In 2004 , all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were African @-@ American recording artists and accounted for 80 % of the number @-@ one R & B hits that year . Along with Usher 's streak of singles , Top 40 radio and both pop and R & B charts were topped by OutKast 's " Hey Ya ! " , Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , Terror Squad 's " Lean Back " , and Ciara 's " Goodies " . Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that " by the early 2000s , urban music was pop music . "
The work helped Ciara earn several nominations , including Best New Artist at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards . Several Goodies singles received several nominations at different ceremonies , which included " 1 , 2 Step " being nominated at the 48th Grammy Awards for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song " 1 , 2 Step " from the album Goodies has received numerous awards , including both " Best Performed Songs in the ASCAP Repertory " and " Most Performed Songs " from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , " Best Collaboration " from the BET Awards , and " Best Dance Cut " from the Soul Train Lady of Soul Music Awards , and " Choice Music R & B / Hip Hop Track " from the Teen Choice Awards . Ciara has received nine nominations from the BET Awards , winning one of them .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" The Title " contains a sample from " Love Ballad " , written by Skip Scarborough , as performed by L.T.D.
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Goodies at Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season =
The 2012 – 13 Big Ten men 's basketball season began with practices in October 2012 , followed by the start of the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season in November . Conference play began in early @-@ January 2013 , and concluded in March with the 2013 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . All conference regular season and tournament games were broadcast nationally . For the 37th consecutive season , the conference led the nation in attendance .
The conference enjoyed nine postseason invitations including seven to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ( NCAA Tournament ) . Eight of the nine posteason participants posted at least one win . The Conference compiled a 19 – 9 postseason record including a 14 – 7 record in the NCAA Tournament . Michigan was runner up in the NCAA Tournament and Iowa was runnerup in the 2013 National Invitation Tournament .
Trey Burke won almost every National Player of the Year award ( Oscar Robertson Trophy , John R. Wooden Award , Associated Press POY , Sports Illustrated POY , NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year ) , while Victor Oladipo won the Sporting News POY and Adolph Rupp Trophy . Oladipo also shared NABC Defensive Player of the Year with Jeff Withey . Four Big Ten athletes ( Burke , Oladipo , Cody Zeller and Deshaun Thomas ) earned 2013 NCAA All @-@ American recognition ( Burke , Oladipo and Zeller as consensus All @-@ Americans ) . In addition , Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award and Aaron Craft earned Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ American of the Year . Burke was the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year , Oladipo was the Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year , and Craft was the Most Outstanding Player at the 2013 Big Ten Tournament . Craft earned national defensive player of the year recognition by CBSSports.com. Burke also earned the Bob Cousy Award .
With Oladipo , Zeller and Burke being selected 2nd , 4th and 9th respectively in the 2013 NBA Draft , the Big Ten had its first trio of top ten selections since the 1990 NBA Draft . All five players who declared early for were drafted ( Hardaway 24th and Thomas 58th ) .
= = Preseason = =
Five teams were ranked in the preseason AP Poll and USA Today / ESPN Coaches ' poll : Indiana ( number 1 AP / number 1 Coaches ) , Ohio State ( 4 / 4 ) Michigan ( 5 / 5 ) , Michigan State ( 14 / 14 ) and Wisconsin ( 23 / 21 ) . Minnesota was also receiving votes .
= = = Preseason watchlists = = =
Below are lists selected by notable committees prior to the season that represent what they anticipate to be the most likely candidates to be recognized at the end of the season for their specific awards . They are called watchlists because they are lists of players to watch for each award .
= = = Preseason honors = = =
The following players were selected to the CBS Sports , Associated Press , Sporting News and ESPN preseason All @-@ American teams and the preseason media All @-@ Big Ten team .
= = = Preseason national polls = = =
= = Preconference schedules = =
Ohio State won the four @-@ team Hall of Fame Tipoff tournament on November 18 at Mohegan Sun Arena . Indiana won the four @-@ team Legends Classic on November 20 at Barclays Center . Illinois won the eight @-@ team Maui Invitational Tournament on November 21 at Lahaina Civic Center . Michigan won the sixteen @-@ team NIT Season Tip @-@ off tournament on November 23 at Madison Square Garden . On November 24 , Northwestern won the four @-@ team South Padre Island Invitational .
= = = Early @-@ season tournament victories = = =
* Although these tournaments include more teams , only the number listed play for the championship .
= = = 2012 ACC – Big Ten Challenge = = =
ACC – Big Ten Challenge results :
* All Times Eastern
= = Rankings = =
By achieving high rankings throughout the season , the Big Ten was able to keep at least three teams in the top 10 of the national polls during 10 of the 11 weeks of the conference portion of the season . As a result , the Big Ten set a record for most matchups between two top 10 opponents in conference play with a total of 9 such games . Michigan played in six with a 3 – 3 record and Indiana played in five , winning all of them . Michigan State , Minnesota and Ohio State also played in top 10 games .
= = Conference Schedules = =
Before the season , it was announced that for the sixth consecutive season , all regular season conference games and conference tournament games would be broadcast nationally by CBS Sports , ESPN Inc. family of networks including ESPN , ESPN2 and ESPNU , and the Big Ten Network . During the season , the Big Ten led the nation in attendance for the 37th consecutive season with an average attendance of 13 @,@ 114 , which paced the nation 's conferences by over 2 @,@ 400 per game .
= = = Conference Matrix = = =
This table summarizes the head @-@ to @-@ head results between teams in conference play . ( x ) indicates games remaining this season .
On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( number 1 AP / number 2 Coaches ) and Indiana ( 3 / 3 ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay at Assembly Hall . Indiana won 81 – 73 , and the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers .
The Iowa vs. Nebraska game , scheduled for February 21 , 2013 at the Devany Center , was rescheduled for February 23 due to a winter storm .
= = Big Ten Tournament seeding = =
These are the Big Ten standings including tiebreakers and conference tournament games . Bold indicates the winner of the Big Ten Tournament .
* Regular season record
* * Conference record including Big Ten Tournament games
All tournament games were nationally broadcast . The tournament set an attendance record with 124 @,@ 000 spectators attending 6 sessions , shattering the 109 @,@ 769 total set for the 2001 tournament .
= = Player of the week = =
Players of the week
Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named one or two players of the week each Monday .
On December 11 , Paul also earned United States Basketball Writers Association Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week recognition . On January 8 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Players of the Week . On April 1 , Burke earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition .
= = Postseason = =
= = = Big Ten Tournament = = =
March 14 – 17 , 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , United Center , Chicago , IL .
= = = NCAA Tournament = = =
The Big Ten entered seven teams in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , ranging from Indiana making its 37th trip and earning a number one seed to Minnesota making its 8th appearance and earningn an eleven seed . The Big Ten became the first conference to send four teams to the Sweet Sixteen in back @-@ to @-@ back years since the 1997 and 1998 tournaments . Although it was the Big Ten 's fifth time advancing four teams , it was the first time with consecutive occurrences . Entering Sweet Sixteen round with four strong contenders spread across four regions , there was talk of the conference matching or surpassing the 1985 Big East Conference performance with three final four entrants . Only Michigan advanced . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . Michigan made its fourth appearance in the final four , giving the conference a total of 43 such appearances . Michigan was part of the highest attendance National Championship game to date with an attendance of 74 @,@ 326 .
= = = National Invitation Tournament = = =
Iowa made the school 's first trip to the NIT semifinals at Madison Square Garden and marked the conference 's second consecutive year sending a team to the semifinals .
= = = College Basketball Invitational = = =
= = = CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament = = =
There were no entrants from the Big Ten Conference in the CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament .
= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =
Junior Deshaun Thomas declared for the draft on April 5 . On April 9 , junior Oladipo entered the draft . On April 10 sophomore Zeller announced plans to enter the draft . On April 14 , sophomore Burke entered the Draft . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . Those 5 first team All @-@ Big Ten selections were the only players from the conference to declare early for the NBA Draft . Burke , Hardaway , Trevor Mbakwe , Oladipo , Brandon Paul , Thomas , and Zeller were among the 60 players invited to the 2013 NBA Draft Combine . The following all @-@ conference selections were listed as seniors : Jared Berggren , Mbakwe , Paul , Christian Watford and D. J. Richardson .
Victor Oladipo ( 2nd ) , Cody Zeller ( 4th ) and Burke ( 9th ) combined to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway ( 24th ) joined his father ( 14th in 1989 NBA Draft ) as a first round selection .
= = Honors and Awards = =
= = = Watchlists = = =
On January 9 , 4 Big Ten points guards ( Burke , Keith Appling , Craft and Andre Hollins ) among the 20 Cousy Award finalists . On January 10 the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list was announced and it included Burke , Brandon Paul and Deshaun Thomas . On January 31 , Burke , Victor Oladipo , Thomas and Cody Zeller were named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Yogi Ferrell , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Jared Berggren , Aaron Craft , Jordan Hulls and Zeller were first team All @-@ District selections placing them among the 40 candidates for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ American team . On February 26 , Oladipo , Zeller , Thomas , Paul , Burke and Berggren were among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award . On March 4 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were announced on the 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist , while Gary Harris was among 8 players on the Tisdale watchlist . On March 9 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were named as top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . On March 24 , Burke and Oladipo was named among four finalists for the Naismith Award .
= = = All @-@ Americans = = =
Jordan Hulls was named a finalist for the Senior CLASS Award , making him one of ten Senior All @-@ Americans . Craft , a repeat Academic All @-@ America selection , was named the Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ America Team Members of the Year . He was joined on the Academic All @-@ America first team by Zeller , and Hulls was a third team selection .
Burke and Oladipo were named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News ( TSN ) on March 11 , while Thomas was a second @-@ team selection and Zeller was named to the third @-@ team . Burke and Oladipo were also named to the first team by the USBWA On March 18 , while Zeller was named to its second team . Burke and Zeller were named All @-@ American by Sports Illustrated ( SI ) on March 19 . On March 20 Burke and Oladipo were named to the CBSSports.com All @-@ American first team , while Thomas was a second team selection , Zeller was a third team selection and Craft was Defensive Player of the Year . On March 26 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas , and Zeller were selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team . On March 28 , Burke and Oladipo were named first team All @-@ American by the NABC , while Zeller was a second team selection and Thomas was a third team selection . On April 1 , the Associated Press gave the Big Ten the same recognitions as the NABC : 1st team : Burke and Oladipo , 2nd team : Zeller and 3rd team : Thomas . On the same day , Burke , Oladipo , Zeller and Thomas were named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award . Also on April 1 , Glenn Robinson III and Gary Harris were named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team .
= = = National awards = = =
TSN named Oladipo National Player of the Year on March 13 . SI also named Burke National Player of the Year on the 19th . On April 4 , Burke was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke also won the Bob Cousy Award on April 4 . On April 5 , Burke won the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award . Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award . On April 7 , Burke won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards . Oladipo was named co @-@ National Defensive Player of the Year ( along with Jeff Withey ) by the NABC . Oladipo also won the Adolph Rupp Trophy .
= = = All @-@ Big Ten Awards and Teams = = =
On March 11 , The Big Ten announced most of its conference awards . On March 27 , 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players were recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten honorees for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages .
= = = USBWA = = =
On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based upon voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast , and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions .
= = = NABC = = =
The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 26 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . The following list represented the District 7 players chosen to the list .
= = = Coaching = = =
Tom Izzo will be recognized with the 2013 Wayman Tisdale Humanitarian Award on April 15 . John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Bo Ryan earned the NABC 's Coaches vs. Cancer Champion Award .
= = = USA Basketball = = =
In addition to Beilein being a coach for the World University Games , the Big Ten was represented at the games by Yogi Ferrell , Will Sheehey , Aaron White and Adreian Payne .
= Cool Hand Peter =
" Cool Hand Peter " is the eighth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Peter Griffin and his friends Joe , Quagmire and Cleveland ( who has returned to Quahog ) decide to go on a road trip to New Orleans , Louisiana . Whilst driving they are stopped by a police officer , arrested and thrown in jail by the sheriff who abuses his power , and plants marijuana in their car . The group then attempt to escape the prison due to their stay being extended indefinitely , and return to Quahog .
The episode served as a follow @-@ up to the exit of the main character Cleveland Brown , who left Family Guy in order to star in his own Fox spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show . Main cast member and former series writer Mike Henry returned to the series to provide the voice of Cleveland . The episode also featured a crossover between Family Guy and The Cleveland Show , both of which were created by executive producer Seth MacFarlane , and included cameo appearances by two of The Cleveland Show 's main characters .
First announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , and directed by Brian Iles . The episode received mixed reviews , praising its structure and humor , but criticizing it for not living up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , which the episode was named after . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million people in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Ralph Garman , Bob Gunton , Sanaa Lathan , Julius Sharpe , and Jennifer Tilly , along with several recurring guest voice actors from the series .
= = Plot = =
When Cleveland Brown returns to Quahog for a week , he visits his old friends Peter , Joe and Quagmire . When Peter gets tired of his wife constantly demanding that he do chores , the group decides to take a road trip to New Orleans . While their husbands are away , Lois , Bonnie and Donna proceed to enjoy " girl time " , eventually resulting in wine @-@ induced childish antics , such as making Brian wear a bumblebee costume .
While driving through a rural area in Georgia , Peter and his group are pulled over by the local sheriff , and Peter makes every effort to talk as annoyingly and rudely to him as possible . The Sheriff is more offended by Cleveland 's attempt to calmly explain themselves , prompting him to punch out one of their headlights and plant a bag of marijuana in their trunk . The group is then sentenced to work at a county work camp for two weeks . As their stay nears its scheduled end , the warden approaches them and tells them that their stay has been extended , without any judicial oversight . Learning from another prisoner that they might be locked up forever , the group decides to break out of the prison when the prison guard 's eyes are diverted . Successful in their attempt , they soon come across a house where they discover a set of handcuff and shackle keys .
They then discover that they are in the sheriff 's home , who returns soon after . Peter , who almost gives them away after accidentally farting , pretends to be the sheriff 's wife while hiding in a closet , and he convinces the sheriff to let the fugitives go free . This exchange ends with the sheriff asking for a hug , prompting Peter to jump out of the closet and reveal the group , causing the sheriff to give chase to them after revealing that he was never married . The entire police force then chases them , until they are able to jump on a train and arrive in Quahog , only to be met by the Georgia sheriff and his deputies . Joe , however , had called ahead and arranged for the Quahog police department to arrive and rescue them . Joe then smashes the sheriff 's vehicle and shoots him in the leg as retribution for the sheriff 's corruption and abuse towards the group . Joe tells the sheriff that just because he has a badge does not mean he can treat anyone the way he wants to . Without hesitation , Joe angrily demands that the sheriff and his deputies leave Quahog , which they reluctantly do . The gang congratulates Joe when Mayor West appears , riding on a bike and says , " Hey , what are you guys , on a date ? Gay ! " At the end of the show , Peter acknowledges that they 've done a wrap @-@ up of what they 've learned hundreds of times and just mumbles the cadence , which is then picked up by Lois and the family .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was directed by series regular Brian Iles and written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , in their first episode of the series . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . The episode saw the re @-@ appearance of former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spinoff , entitled The Cleveland Show , which was co @-@ created by Henry . Sanaa Lathan , who portrays Donna Tubbs on The Cleveland Show , also guest starred as her character in the episode . " Cool Hand Peter " was first announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 23 , 2011 by series showrunners and executive producers Steve Callaghan and Mark Hentemann .
In addition to the regular cast and Lathan , actor Bob Gunton , voice actor Julius Sharpe , and actress Jennifer Tilly , who portrayed the sheriff , warden , UPS Guy and Bonnie Swanson , respectively , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , voice actor Ralph Garman , and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring cast members Adam West , and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode , portraying the characters of Adam West and Joe Swanson , respectively . Bob Gunton 's voicing of the warden is probably a nod to his most famous role , that of the warden in the film The Shawshank Redemption .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the 1967 American film Cool Hand Luke . In the opening scene of the episode , while Peter , Joe , Cleveland and Quagmire are drinking at the local bar , Peter 's wife , Lois , calls him on his phone . The theme song from The Cleveland Show then begins playing as Peter 's ringtone . While the group drives to New Orleans , they attempt to pass the time by playing various games in the car . One of the games involves deciding whether to be a " hobo , " or former German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . After the group is pulled over by the sheriff , and arrested for drug possession , they are all taken to court , where the jury is revealed to be various characters from the Fox animation series The Simpsons . The warden of the prison resembles the warden in the movie The Shawshank Redemption , who is also authoritarian and cruel . In fact , the voice of the warden is the voice of Bob Gunton , the actor who portrayed the warden in The " Shawshank Redemption " . After the group escapes from jail , Peter remarks that he is filled with hunger , and would like to stop at a " Burger Queen " or " McDaniels " along the way back to Quahog , a reference to the American fast food restaurants Burger King and McDonalds , as indicated by Quagmire .
= = Reception = =
" Cool Hand Peter " was broadcast on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . It was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Good Wife on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 6 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Allen Gregory and The Cleveland Show , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous week 's episode , " Amish Guy " .
The episode received mixed reviews , with Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club calling the storyline " disappointing . " He wrote of the episode , " At this juncture , disappointment is an expectation , something I have to fight against whenever I sit down to watch the show in an attempt to give each episode a fair shake . " He continued , " This week , I was at a bit of a loss , because despite a return to an older , more successful formula , with a clearly plotted path , Family Guy didn 't muster up enough material to fill out the A @-@ plot of a half hour . " McFarland also stated that the episode did not live up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , that the title of the episode was named after . He concluded his review of the episode by giving the episode a grade of C. Terren R. Moore of Ology also found the episode to be unimpressive , noting , " It 's good fun while it 's on , but nothing here really sticks or adds to anything new to love about Family Guy . " Moore also commented , " it 's a pretty weak episode of Family Guy , where the most memorable joke of the night involves a thought bubble where Quagmire pulls a string of beads out of a woman 's vagina . " In the conclusion of the review , Moore gave the episode a 6 / 10 score .
= University of Campinas =
The University of Campinas ( Portuguese : Universidade Estadual de Campinas ) , commonly called Unicamp , is a public research university in the state of São Paulo , Brazil , and one of the best universities in the country and in Latin America .
Established in 1962 , Unicamp was designed from scratch as an integrated research center unlike other top Brazilian universities , usually created by the consolidation of previously existing schools and institutes . Its research focus reflects on almost half of its students being graduate students , the largest proportion across all large universities in Brazil , and also in the large number of graduate programs it offers : 153 compared to 70 undergraduate programs . It also offers several non @-@ degree granting open @-@ enrollment courses to around 8 @,@ 000 students through its extension school .
Its main campus occupies 3 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 860 acres ) located in the Barão Geraldo district , a suburban area 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas , and , built shortly after the creation of the university . It also has satellite campuses in Limeira , Piracicaba and Paulínia , and manages two technical high schools located in Campinas and Limeira . Funding is provided almost entirely by the state government and , like other Brazilian public universities , no tuition fees or administrative fees are charged for undergraduate and graduate programs .
Unicamp is responsible for around 15 % of Brazilian research , a disproportionately high number when compared to much larger and older institutions in the country such as the University of São Paulo . It also produces more patents than any other research organization in Brazil , being second only to the state @-@ owned oil company , Petrobras . Multiple international university rankings place it amongst the best universities in the world , with QS placing it in the Top 200 globally and ranking it the 11th best university under 50 years , and in 2015 it was rated as the best university in the country by Brazil 's Ministry of Education .
= = History = =
= = = 1960s : Foundation = = =
In the early 1960s the Government of the State of São Paulo planned to open a new research center in the interior of the state to promote development and industrialization in the region , and commissioned Zeferino Vaz , founder of the University of São Paulo 's School of Medicine in Ribeirão Preto , to organize it . In parallel , a medical school was being planned in Campinas , a demand from the local population that dated from the early 1940s . The School of Medicine of Campinas was created by law in 1959 , but actual implementation never took place .
The new university was created by law on December 28 , 1962 , but effective functioning begun in 1966 . Before that , only the School of Medicine functioned . In April of 1963 the first vestibular , the general admissions exam , happened , with 1 @,@ 592 candidates competing for 50 spots in the medicine program . The first lecture in the newly created University of Campinas took place on May 20 of the same year . By 1965 , the organizing commission for the new university started looking for a location for a new campus .
A large area comprising 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) was donated by the Almeida Prado family , located in a valley in the district of Barão Geraldo in the city of Campinas , near the intersections of multiple highways . Until then , Barão Geraldo was a small village surrounded by farmland , in particular sugar cane plantations . The new development brought dramatic change to the district , resulting in entire new neighborhoods being zoned , planned and built , usually by the same Almeida Prado family .
Work on the new campus begun on October 5 , 1966 , and the first building completed was the Institute of Biology , followed by administrative buildings . In the same year , Zeferino Vaz was nominated the rector . In parallel to the new campus , new units were opened in other cities , absorbing local schools . The Dental School of Piracicaba was absorbed in 1967 , and in 1969 the Engineering School of Limeira .
= = = 1970 – 1990 : Growth and crisis = = =
Over the following two decades , the new university expanded rapidly . The campus quickly grew to 19 institutes and schools , and after Zeferino Vaz died in 1981 was named after him . With the campus construction completed , the School of Medical Sciences ( formerly the School of Medicine of Campinas ) was moved into the new campus , and its teaching hospital , Hospital de Clínicas , became the largest public hospital in the region .
Expansion on the campus continued rapidly , with new buildings , institutes and expansions being added nearly every year . But by the late 1970s , the university faced a crisis . During its fast expansion , it relied on draft bylaws , mostly borrowed from the University of São Paulo , and lacked formal internal regulations with the aging Zeferino Vaz , while no longer the rector , acting as a moderating force between parties with conflicting interests , in particular the leftist academic community and the State 's government , appointed by the conservative military regime ruling the country .
After Zeferino 's death in 1981 , a conflict took place between the university 's General Coordinator , appointed and backed by the government , and the Directive Council , composed of directors of the different institutes . The rector introduced new rules reducing the power of the General Coordinator . As retaliation , the State 's government removed 6 members of the Directive Council , replacing them with people from the state 's Education Council , loyal to the governor , Paulo Maluf .
Tensions between the academic community and the government @-@ appointed counselors increased , with the future Minister of Education , Paulo Renato Costa Souza , then president of the Faculty Association , classifying the episode as a " white intervention " . Following the dismissal of several institute heads and members of the administration , the administrative workers went on strike , with the support of students and faculty . With activities in the university frozen by the strike , the governor declared a formal intervention in the university in October 1981 .
Despite the police @-@ backed intervention , the university continued on strike . The appointed institute heads failed to break the stalemate between internal and external forces , and by early 1982 , discussions begun on a new list of candidates to the rectorship . Eventually , José Aristodemo Pinotti , a former dean of the School of Medical Sciences generally considered a moderate , was selected by the academic community and accepted by the governor . In the following week , on April 19 , 1982 , the intervention was lifted , and academic activities resumed normally .
After the crisis , Unicamp saw a period of renewal and restructuring . In 1983 the bylaws were rewritten , ensuring the autonomy of the academic community , and the new management structure for the campus was implemented . In 1986 the newly created University Council replaces the previous Directive Council as the supreme body of the university . The last years of the 1980s saw a reformulation of the admissions exam , expansion of the laboratories and the completion of the first units of the student housing .
= = = 1990 onwards = = =
With a new administrative structure capable of supporting continuous growth and with its autonomy secured , Unicamp went through a period of consolidation in the 1990s . There was an increase in night programs , created to provide an alternative for low @-@ income students who had to work during the day , and to increase utilization of classrooms and the existing infrastructure , reaching one third of total available places .
The period also saw an expansion of the technology industry in the region , centered around Unicamp , with Motorola , IBM , Solectron , Lucent Technologies and many others set up research labs and production centers in the region driven by the large number of highly qualified students graduating every year , culminating in the opening of the Institute of Computing in 1996 .
In the 2000s Unicamp consolidated itself as one of the leading research and education centers in Latin America but also brought new challenges : just as with other public universities in Brazil , the high payroll costs ( over 90 % of the total budget ) constrain investment and expansion . This is further aggravated by the economic depression that Brazil is facing since 2014 , the largest in the country 's history .
= = Campus = =
= = = Main campus = = =
The flagship campus of the University of Campinas is located in the district of Barão Geraldo , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas . It currently occupies an area of 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) situated in a valley surrounded by gentle rolling hills and is bounded on the west by the urban area of Barão Geraldo , on the south and east by farmland and to the north by a lake and a new industrial park built in the 2000s .
= = = = Design = = = =
The campus has a unique design , with the main library , student service buildings and restaurant in a central circular plaza , and most of the academic buildings located in blocks emanating from the center in a radial fashion . The different areas of study are grouped in larger sections , but neighboring other areas with which they share similarities : the philosophy buildings mark the frontier between human sciences , mathematics and economics , while the School of Food Engineering is bordered by the chemical engineering and biology buildings . The architect responsible for the overall design of the campus was João Carlos Bross .
Streets are named after significant contributors to each field , including Elis Regina and Carlos Gomes Streets , a Brazilian singer and a composer , respectively , Alan Turing Avenue and others .
= = = = History = = = =
The area occupied by the campus was part of the much larger Rio das Pedras farm , owned by the prominent Almeida Prado family . To set up a new campus , Zeferino Vaz was looking for a large , flat area in the outskirts of the city , where he would have the freedom to design the campus and its surroundings from scratch . Interested in developing the area of the farm around Barão Geraldo , the family donated an initial area of 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) to the university . The remainder of the farmland was eventually zoned and developed into multiple neighborhoods , but the main historical farmhouse and its surroundings remain , now a protected heritage site and a natural reserve .
With the land secured , the campus was designed in a way to ensure the maximum collaboration between the different sciences , with buildings laid along radial streets emanating from a central circular plaza , which also hosted administrative buildings . The layout of the campus would eventually be used on the design of the university 's logo , created by Max Schiefer , which is essentially a simplified map of the core circle of the campus . This design is similar to the University of California , Irvine campus , build around the same time .
Construction started in 1966 , with General Castello Branco , the first president of Brazil 's military regime , laying the cornerstone of the Institute of Biology , which was inaugurated in 1968 , and classes started in the new campus on the following year . In 1971 the area of the campus was expanded by 130 hectares ( 320 acres ) , more than doubling its size , to accommodate the move of the School of Medical Sciences , until then located across several buildings in Campinas , to the new campus . This expansion saw the construction of a massive public hospital , the Hospital das Clínicas ( HC ) , which began serving the public in 1979 .
While initial construction was considered complete by 1978 , the campus has grown through continuous addition of new buildings and institutes . In 2014 , after years of negotiation , the university decided to buy the Argentina Farm , located on the east side of the campus , increasing the total area by 60 % to 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) . This purchase will allow for expansion of the medical sciences and athletics areas , as well as new laboratories .
= = = = Medical center = = = =
Unicamp 's main campus houses the School of Medical Sciences ' teaching hospital , the Hospital das Clinicas . Construction started in 1975 and the hospital opened its first clinics and patient facilities in 1979 , but was only fully operational in 1985 , when the School of Medical Sciences was transferred from Campinas ' maternity to the new campus .
The hospital has almost 1 @,@ 000 beds , and serves half a million people every year through Brazil 's unified public health system , SUS , performing on average 40 surgeries and 13 births every day . In the 2000 's , the hospital was changed from a primary and secondary care to a specialized tertiary care center , receiving complex cases from other hospitals and clinics in the region , but around 60 % of patients in the hospital are still cases that could be handled by local health centers .
The hospital directly employs 3 @,@ 100 people , and also serves as a practice center for the university 's faculty and a training and residency center for the students of medicine , nursery and speech therapy .
= = = = Synchrotron lab = = = =
While not part of Unicamp , the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory ( LNLS ) is a research institution focused on physics , structural biology and nanotechnology that maintains close ties with the university and is operated as part of the National Center for Research in Energy and Materials ( CNPEM ) . The laboratory was designed in 1983 and began operating in 1997 , located next to the main campus . The LNLS has Latin America 's only particle accelerator , a synchrotron , used as a synchrotron light source designed and built in Brazil for various physical , chemical , geological , and biological studies .
= = = Limeira = = =
Unicamp 's presence in Limeira , a city about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Campinas , dates from the late 1960s , when the young university absorbed the Engineering School of Limeira , which became the School of Civil Engineering . While this school was eventually transferred to the Campinas campus in 1989 , new programs were launched by the university in Limeira , creating CESET , the School of Technology of Limeira , which still exists and is located near the center of the city , focused on technical higher education .
In 2008 Unicamp decided to establish a new campus in Limeira , and in 2008 the School of Applied Sciences was created , offering programs such as public administration , business management , nutrition and industrial engineering . The total undergraduate class size for the new campus is 480 students per year .
= = = Piracicaba = = =
In 1967 Unicamp absorbed the School of Odontology of Piracicaba , founded in 1955 and located 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) northwest of the main campus in Campinas . With over 1 @,@ 000 students , the school was initially located in a historic building near the center of the city , and in the 1970s a new campus was built , occupying an area of 60 hectares ( 150 acres ) in what was then the outskirts of the city , and a short distance from USP 's ESALQ .
= = = Paulínia = = =
In the neighboring city of Paulínia , the university operates a multidisciplinary research center focused on biosciences , acquired in 1986 from Monsanto and integrated into the university as CPQBA . As part of the acquisition , Unicamp gained access and continued research into subjects previously explored at the center , specially agricultural sciences . Research is usually funded by external parties , such as companies and other universities .
= = = COTUCA and COTIL = = =
In addition to the higher education programs , Unicamp is also responsible for running and funding two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) . Cotuca was located for 50 years in a historical building near the center of the city built in 1918 which also housed Unicamp for a brief period before the current campus was built . In 2014 it was transferred to the main campus as the old building went through renovations . Both schools are amongst the best public high schools in the country , and are highly competitive , with admissions done through a selection exam open to middle @-@ school students .
= = Organization and administration = =
Similarly to other Brazilian institutions , Unicamp is composed of several semi @-@ autonomous teaching units , designated as schools and institutes . Each unit is headed by a director from the faculty , equivalent to a dean , elected by the faculty and student representatives .
The university 's administration is structured in a way similar to other public universities in Brazil . The supreme decision body is the University Council ( CONSU ) , composed of all deans , plus several representatives from the academic community , students , administrative staff and the external community . The council meets roughly 4 to 5 times per year , ruling on high level administrative decisions such as approving the budget and has the final word in internal administrative processes . Routine administration is left to the rector , similar to a university chancellor in English @-@ speaking countries , and the rectorate .
= = = Rectors = = =
The rector is chosen by the governor of the State of São Paulo from a list of 3 candidates elected by the university 's community , including students and administrative staff . Traditionally , the governor always selects the candidate with the largest number of votes , but it retains the power to choose a different one should it decide to do so . The rector serves for a term of 4 years before a new election is held , and can not be reelected in the following term . Zeferino Vaz was the first rector and held the position for 12 years until his mandatory retirement .
Zeferino Vaz ( 1966 – 1978 )
Plínio Alves de Moraes ( 1978 – 1982 )
José Aristodemo Pinotti ( 1982 – 1986 )
Paulo Renato Costa Souza ( 1986 – 1990 )
Carlos Vogt ( 1990 – 1994 )
José Martins Filho ( 1994 – 1998 )
Hermano Tavares ( 1998 – 2002 )
Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz ( 2002 – 2005 )
José Tadeu Jorge ( 2005 – 2009 )
Fernando Ferreira Costa ( 2009 – 2013 )
José Tadeu Jorge ( 2013 – present )
= = = Schools and Institutes = = =
Unicamp is composed of a total of 24 units , 10 of which are institutes and 14 are schools . The university is also home to 22 interdisciplinary centers which conduct research and outreach on topics ranging from dance ( such as LUME ) to computing and education ( such as NIED ) .
Unicamp is also responsible for two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) .
= = = Funding & financial information = = =
Like other public universities in Brazil , Unicamp is almost entirely funded by the government , in this particular case of the State of São Paulo . Funding is provided mainly from sales taxes , but a small percentage of total budget is obtained from donations , paid extension programs and corporate sponsors .
The total budget proposed for 2016 is of R $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , a decrease by almost 7 % in real terms when compare to 2015 . Fixed costs ( payroll , interest and debt service ) will account for 92 @.@ 2 % of the government funding . And additional 4 % is spent on student assistance and 2 % on utilities .
A problem faced by Unicamp , and other public universities in Brazil , is the high dependency on economic conditions , that directly impact tax earnings , while most of the expenses , payroll specially , are indexed to inflation . While not as critical as in similar universities ( at the University of São Paulo payroll accounted for over 106 % of the total funding available in 2014 ) , Unicamp currently faces a funding crisis , with total funding expected to decrease in real terms while payroll , which takes around 85 % of total university funding , is expected to increase in line with inflation . This situation is aggravated by the long @-@ running trend of raising staff salaries above inflation as a response to the annual strikes led by the workers ' union , STU .
= = Academics = =
At Unicamp , academic studies are usually divided into four main areas : exact sciences ( which includes formal and physical sciences ) , human sciences ( roughly equivalent to social science , including Arts ) , biological sciences ( roughly equivalent to life sciences ) and technologies ( including engineering and technical studies ) . This division reflects on how the university are structured how the campuses was designed .
= = = Undergraduate programs = = =
Unicamp offers 70 different degree @-@ granting undergraduate programs , covering nearly all different areas of science . Completing an undergraduate program grants either a bachelor 's degree or a licentiate degree , although some programs offer both degrees . In line with the Brazilian educational system , no graduate education is required to practice any profession , including law and medicine , so undergraduate programs vary in length to provide all the necessary training . Most programs at Unicamp last a total of 4 years , with engineering programs typically lasting 5 years and medicine lasting 6 years .
The academic year is aligned with the calendar year , with classes usually starting in late February , and ending in early December , the beginning of summer in Brazil . The year is divided into two semester terms , and all courses are a semester long . While there is a suggested curriculum for each program , students are free to choose any classes to attend during a specific semester , and class attribution is done in the basis of grade average , with higher @-@ graded students having priority when choosing classes .
Students are admitted to a single program and are expected to take all the classes required to complete that program in the number of semesters prescribed , although they can take 50 % longer before facing administrative measures . While each program is usually managed by a single school or institute ( exceptions apply , such as Computer Engineering , co @-@ managed by the Institute of Computing and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering ) , classes are usually ministered across different institutes or schools .
Program class sizes usually range between 30 and 60 students per year for each program , but some programs can have over 100 students per year , and are named by the year of admission : the class of 2015 is composed of all students entering in the year of 2015 , regardless of the program length or expected graduation . There is no campus @-@ wide graduation ceremony , with each school or institute conducting its own .
= = = Graduate programs = = =
Unicamp offers 153 postgraduate programs , with about half of those being masters , serving almost 16 thousand students , one third of which come from outside the State of São Paulo , and around 5 % are international students . Just as with undergraduate studies , students pay no tuition fees . While the programs are coordinated by the rectorship , the individual institutions have a lot of freedom on defining the focus , length and admission process of each program .
= = = Extension programs and community outreach = = =
Unicamp offers over one thousand extension programs to the community , with different levels of minimum requirements ( high school degree , undergraduate degree , etc . ) and across all areas of study , focusing mainly on specialization courses and community outreach . The programs are mainly coordinated by the Pro @-@ Rectorate for Extension and Outreach ( Pró @-@ Reitoria de Extensão e Assuntos Comunitários , PREAC ) . PREAC aims to promote actions of extension and culture through integration with society , disseminating and acquiring knowledge through the academic community .
Specialization programs are either offered by Unicamp 's extension school , Extecamp , or directly by the schools and institutes . In the past 25 years , over 100 @,@ 000 students have been reached and in 2014 , Unicamp joined Coursera and currently eight online courses are being offered , two of them are between the most popular Coursera courses in Brazil . Outreach actions take a variety of forms , including events , publications , technological , educational , cultural and social products and services . The Department for Cultural Development hosts several events , usually open for the surrounding community . Events are also held at the Casa do Lago Cultural Space and at the Cultural Center for Social Inclusion and Integration .
Every year , Unicamp also hosts an open doors event ( Unicamp de Portas Abertas , UPA ) , in which the main campus is visited by over 50 thousand high school students from across the country . The event provides presentations and discussions on the role of the university in the society , as well as career presentations and tours , with the students visiting several areas of the university and gaining a better understanding of the different areas of study .
= = = Faculty = = =
Unicamp employs close to 1 @,@ 800 professors , nearly all with at least a doctoral degree . The faculty career is structured in three major tiers :
Doctor Professor ( Professor Doutor , equivalent to assistant professor ) : candidates must have a doctoral or equivalent degree
Associate Professor ( Professor Associado ) : candidates must have a Livre Docente title , similar to the German Habilitation
Tenured Professor ( Professor Titular ) – MS @-@ 6 ( top rank , only MS @-@ 6 professors are allowed to hold positions such as Dean of a Faculty / School or Rector of the University )
Hiring is done through a civil service examination , including a written test , a teaching examination , academic history analysis and other additional criteria . The same process is required for professors changing tiers : an associate professor pursuing a tenure position must go through the same examination process compete with other external candidates for the position . The two initial tiers also include sub levels , and professors are promoted between them for merit . Monthly starting salary for a full @-@ time assistant professorship is around R $ 10 thousand , and for a tenured position around R $ 15 thousand . Uniquely among public universities in Brazil , Unicamp has a career focused on full @-@ time research . Currently there are approximately 100 full @-@ time researchers at the university .
= = = Library system = = =
The university 's library system ( Sistema de Bibliotecas da Unicamp ; SBU ) comprises a large central library named in honor of César Lattes , and 27 other satellite libraries , located in the individual institutions , housing over 1 million volumes , in addition to hundreds of thousands of ebooks and academic journals . The system was officially created in 1983 , aggregating the several independent libraries that operated across the university . The large central library was inaugurated six years later , in 1989 .
The library system is automated and its collections may be accessed and searched on the Internet . Its Digital Library section supports a database with more than 25 @,@ 000 dissertations presented in the university , as well access to the largest electronic libraries of academic journals in the world . It also includes several historical libraries and media archives focused on specific authors and topics , such as the Edgard Leuenroth Archive and collections honoring César Lattes , Sérgio Buarque de Holanda , Monteiro Lobato and others .
= = Admissions = =
= = = Undergraduate programs = = =
Similarly to other Brazilian public universities , admissions to undergraduate programs are through a comprehensive general examination , called vestibular . While other Brazilian public universities , specially federally managed ones , which use the National High School Exam ( ENEM , in Portuguese Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio ) as an entrance exam , Unicamp has its own national entrance exam applied yearly by its Vestibular Commission ( COMVEST , in Portuguese Comissão Permanentes para os Vestibulares ) in two rounds . Generally , the first round happens in November and is a test composed of 90 multiple @-@ choice general knowledge questions . Students applying to programs that require specific skills ( such as music , architecture , dance , and others ) must take a specific knowledge test even before the first phase .
Selection in the admissions process is program @-@ specific . Applicants that score a minimum standardized grade in the first round are selected to participate in the second round , which takes place over three days in January , where they must answer 48 short @-@ answer written questions , plus write two long @-@ form essays , on themes selected by the evaluation board .
The Unicamp national exam is very competitive and is considered one of the most difficult in Brazil . In 2015 there were 77 @,@ 145 applications for only 3 @,@ 320 possible places , with 23 candidates competing for each position in an undergraduate program , an average acceptance rate of 4 @.@ 3 % . The exam covers all topics taught in the Brazilian high school system , including Portuguese , mathematics , Brazilian and world history , geography , biology , physics , chemistry , sociology , philosophy , arts and English . Despite that , questions in the exams are generally interdisciplinary .
The most competitive undergraduate programs are Medicine with a 0 @.@ 5 % acceptance rate , Architecture and Urbanism with 0 @.@ 6 % , and Communication with 2 % . Such high competitivity leads many students to take preparatory courses during or after the last regular high school year called cursinhos in Portuguese , generally privately offered or managed by some association or organization . Many private cursinhos have special classes focused on highly competitive programs like medicine , making them very expensive . It is common to find students admitted in Medicine , Engineering and other programs after several years of preparatory courses .
While the selection process is need @-@ blind and race @-@ blind , most of the best high schools and preparatory schools in Brazil are private and very expensive , and represent a majority of admissions in Brazilian public universities , leading to increased inequality in the country . To remedy this , Unicamp introduced in 2004 the Social Inclusion and Affirmative Action Program ( PAAIS , in Portuguese Programa de Ação Afirmativa e Inclusão Social ) that allows high schoolers coming from public schools to receive a bonus score in their overall vestibular score . While not focused on racial and ethnical factors , over the years , the PAAIS initiative has increased the number of admission of minorities from public high school , especially black and native @-@ Brazilians , historically the most economical and social fragile groups in Brazil . With this program , around 30 % of admissions come from public schools , and the participation of minorities increased from 10 % to around 30 % .
= = = Graduate programs = = =
Unlike undergrad admissions , there is no single admission process for graduate students . Each institution inside Unicamp has its own set of procedures , which usually include an admissions exam which can be specific for Unicamp or a standard exam applied across the country ( such as ANPEC ( in Portuguese ) for economics , and PosComp ( in Portuguese ) for computer science . Besides the exam , the process usually includes an academic history analysis , interviews and in many cases requires a submission of a research project to be undertaken during the graduate studies .
= = Student life = =
= = = Housing = = =
Similarly to other Brazilian universities , Unicamp offers no large @-@ scale in @-@ campus housing , and most students live either near the campus or in Campinas . A student tradition in Brazil , inherited from the Portuguese universities , is the república , a fraternity @-@ style private housing where multiple students rent large houses or apartments and live together . Dues to the suburban campus and the large number of students coming from other cities , repúblicas play a key role in the student life , serving as centers for social life , parties and also study and work areas . While some repúlicas have existed for decades , sometimes moving from one house to another , most are formed by students in the same or similar classes , and last for a few years .
Besides repúblicas , studio apartments are very common around the university . While more expensive than the shared houses , they afford more privacy and have more flexible contracts , are well as being furnished .
= = = = University housing = = = =
Unicamp provides a limited amount of free housing to low income students in the Student Residence compound . Built in 1992 , it is located near the center of Barão Geraldo , about four kilometers from Unicamp , and is served by a university shuttle that takes student to the campus and back free of charge . The compound has 226 houses of 60 square metres ( 650 sq ft ) , with a capacity of four students per house , and 27 studios of 46 square metres ( 500 sq ft ) , for couples with children , a total of 904 vacancies in houses and 54 adults in the studios . Assignment criteria is means @-@ based , with lower income students receiving priority .
The Student Residence supports several cultural projects developed by voluntary and worker students and open to the participation of internal and external community . It encourages interdisciplinary training and integration between the resident students and the external community . The diversity of races and cultures , brought by colleagues from other states and countries is an advantage for the residents who live in the house , facilitating full citizenship , through the exercise of their rights and duties within the community .
= = = University restaurants = = =
There are multiple restaurants operated and subsidized by the university serving only the academic community . Commonly called bandejão ( " large tray " in Portuguese ) due to the metal trays used to serve the students , the restaurants provide up to three meals per day , each one costing R $ 2 , a price that has not been updated in over a decade , despite the strong inflation . The main bandejão is located near the center of the circular campus , receiving students from all different areas of the university and acting as the informal social heart of the university where events , parties and political campaigns are announced to the students .
The restaurants at the University are staffed with nutritionists and food engineers , often students at the university , offering balanced menu that meets the nutritional needs of the university population , serving over 10 thousand meals per day at the main campus . The menu usually consists of rice and beans , a traditional staple food in Brazil , a type of meat ( chicken , beef , sausage , pork , etc . ) , textured soy protein for vegetarians , salad , juice , and dessert .
There are three such restaurants in the main campus , with two additional restaurants located in the Limeira and Piracicaba campuses . In all of them access is restricted to those who have a university @-@ issued smart card ID , which is also used to pay for the food . In addition to the subsidized restaurants , there are several smaller , privately ran restaurants across the campus and many more located in Barão Geraldo , often just a short walk away from the campus .
= = = Athletics = = =
There are no university @-@ sponsored athletic programs at Unicamp , and sporting competitions , either internal or played with other schools , are entirely organized by the students . The Liga das Atléticas da Unicamp , a university @-@ wide league of the different athletic associations , is responsible for organizing internal sporting events , such as the Unicamp Olympics .
In addition to internal competitions , there are multiple external competitions between several universities focused on different areas of study : in the Intermed medical students from different universities compete against each other , and in the Engenharíadas , engineering students gather to play sports . The games are usually held in the city of one of the participating universities over a long weekend , with students being housed in public schools , farms and hotels .
The university has a sports center with courts for basketball , volleyball , a full size regulation football field , an athletics field with running tracks , a competition swimming pool , a covered gymnasium for indoor spectator sports , attached to a convention center .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Varginha incident = = =
Unicamp is generally regarded by the Brazilian population as Brazil 's Area 51 , with the government running a secret underground area purportedly called Pavilion 18 , located under the Institute of Chemistry . In 1996 there were reports of an extraterrestrial sighting in the city of Varginha , commonly called the Varginha Incident , followed by additional reports of military intervention in the region and that the extraterrestrial would have been taken to the secret Pavilion 18 area at Unicamp .
= Ones ( album ) =
Ones ( Spanish : Unos ) is the twelfth compilation album by American Tejano singer Selena , released in the United States on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin . It was released on November 11 , 2002 in Spanish @-@ speaking countries , while the limited edition included a bonus DVD of her music videos . Ones was released building on the popularity of the 1997 biographical film Selena . The singer 's father Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. and sister Suzette Quintanilla told CBS TV host Julie Chen that the album was aimed at Selena 's new generation of fans . Ones was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection — a nine @-@ disc series of her studio , live , soundtrack and compilation albums . The recording features six number one singles namely , " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " , and her duets with Alvaro Torres on " Buenos Amigos " and Barrio Boyzz on " Donde Quiera Que Estés " .
Selena 's brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , remixed three of her singles ( " Amor Prohibido " , " Como la Flor " and " Si Una Vez " ) into a medley mash @-@ up entitled " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , the same tracks found on the album . The track was released as a promotional single to radio stations , and received a mixed response from music critics . The album also received a mixed reception , with Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic noting that the record label ignored Selena 's self @-@ titled debut album from the track listing on Ones . The recording peaked at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . Ones peaked at number 159 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background and release = =
Selena 's family was interviewed by Julie Chen of The Early Show about Ones . Chen asked Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , about his intention to re @-@ release her songs on Ones . Quintanilla , Jr. told Chen that because of the success of the 1997 biopic about Selena 's life , many new fans know who she was . Chris Pérez , her widower , told Chen that the recording was released for Selena 's new fans ; building on the film 's popularity , explaining that the family used the DVD to showcase the singer for those who never saw her perform live .
The recording was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection series , a retrospective of Selena 's musical career . Ones was released on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin , and included audio statements by her family , friends and members of Selena y Los Dinos , her former band . On November 11 , 2002 , Unos was released in Spanish @-@ speaking countries with the same track listing as the American edition .
= = Songs = =
The first of Selena 's number ones on the album was " Buenos Amigos " , a duet with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres . " Baila Esta Cumbia " and " No Quiero Saber " are from Selena 's second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) ; the latter track peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Como la Flor " , Selena 's signature song , and " La Carcacha " are both originally on 1992 's Entre a Mi Mundo . " Como la Flor " launched her on the Latin music scene , according to journalists . The song was acclaimed by music critics and was credited as Selena 's first solo number one single in popular culture despite Billboard 's official record of the single peaking at number six . " No Debes Jugar " , the lead single from 1993 's Live ! , and " La Llamada " made the album cut . Sally Jacobs of the Boston Globe called " No Debes Jugar " one of " her cumbia signature songs " and " most popular cumbia song [ s ] " . Four of the six number ones on the album are singles from Selena 's last studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . The song of the same name was number one on the Hot Latin Tracks chart for nine consecutive weeks , one week short of the record for most weeks at number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart . " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , the second single off of Amor Prohibido , spent five consecutive weeks at the top of the Hot Latin Tracks chart . The third single from Amor Prohibido to be featured on the album , " No Me Queda Más " , peaked at number one for seven weeks .
" Si Una Vez " peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Songs chart , while " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " failed to chart . Her posthumous number one single " Fotos y Recuerdos " spent seven consecutive weeks atop the Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Techno Cumbia " peaked at number four on Billboard 's Latin charts . " Donde Quiera Que Estés " , a duet with the Barrio Boyzz , is Selena 's second number one duet . " I Could Fall in Love " and " Dreaming of You " are the only English @-@ language tracks on Ones , and are her most recognizable recordings to American music fans . Both tracks were taken from her crossover attempt , Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , which was released posthumously . The only other track from that album , " Tú Sólo Tú " , also appears on Ones , Selena 's sixth number one single on the album . " Siempre Hace Frio " was originally released on Siempre Selena ( 1996 ) , her first remix album . Quintanilla III and Pete Astudillo composed " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , a medley mash @-@ up of " Amor Prohibido " , " Si Una Vez " and " Como la Flor " . The track was produced by Kike Santander and Jose Luis Arroyae . Tatiana Morales of CBS called it a " beautiful ballad " , but John Lannert had the impression that the medley was composed to " fit [ in ] various Latin radio formats . " He noted that the recording had a pop twist with acoustic guitar and " discreet strings " , calling it " tasteful bolero @-@ like percussion " . Because of the mariachi trumpets used in the " Como la Flor " part of the medley , Lannert thought the track was aimed at regional Mexican radio stations . He was disappointed by the dissolution of the " saucy cumbia beats " that " originally took these songs to the top of the charts " , but called " Con Tanto Amor Medley " " [ a ] rare medley that achieves a seamless transition from track to track " and " manages to sound cohesive , generic arrangements notwithstanding " . Lannert ended his review by calling the track " an appropriate balance for an homage . "
= = Reception and chart performance = =
The album was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express News compared Ones to the greatest hit collections of musicians such as Buddy Holly , Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix . Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic wrote that Ones ignores Selena 's self @-@ titled EMI debut album , focusing on her career between 1990 and 1995 . Ones was nominated for Latin Greatest Hits Album of the Year at the 2003 Billboard Latin Music Awards . It debuted ( and peaked ) at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart , achieving a Hot Shot Debut on October 19 , 2002 . The album debuted at number 162 on the Billboard 200 chart . It peaked two weeks later at number 159 the week of November 9 , 2002 . Ones was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2003 , signifying 100 @,@ 000 units shipped in the United States . The recording became the 13th Top Latin Album of 2002 and the ninth Top Latin Pop Album of that year , ranking number 88 on the Top Latin Album of the 2000s chart .
Ones reentered the Top Latin Albums chart the week of February 7 , 2004 at number 74 before slipping off and reentering the chart the week of March 13 at number 65 . After 77 weeks of release , Ones was in 70th position on the Top Latin Albums chart the week of April 10 , 2004 . The following week ( April 17 ) it rose to number 11 , achieving " greatest gainer " status from its previous position . Ones slipped off the chart the week of May 29 from number 66 . The 14th anniversary of Selena 's death sparked a 51 @-@ percent increase in sales for Ones , which rose to number four on the Top Latin Albums chart ( up 61 percent from its previous position ) . In February 2010 the RIAA certified the album gold , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= Day One ( Torchwood ) =
" Day One " is the second episode of the first series of the British science fiction television series Torchwood . Directed by Brian Kelly , the episode was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 22 October 2006 with the series pilot , " Everything Changes " , and later repeated on terrestrial channel BBC Two on 25 October . It was the first work in the Doctor Who universe to be written by future Doctor Who showrunner Chris Chibnall .
The episode centres on Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) working her first case with Torchwood Three in Cardiff . A purple alien gas is loose in the city and takes Carys Fletcher ( Sara Lloyd Gregory ) host ; the gas kills its victims by orgasm , leaving behind a pile of dust . Over the course of the episode , the team hunt for Carys before the gas kills her . In the end they track her down to a fertility clinic ; the gas leaves Carys to take Gwen host , but is stopped by a portable prison cell and dies out .
Originally entitled " New Girl " , the episode was written to interpret Gwen 's " first day in hell " . On the sex gas , series creator Russell T Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster " . The episode was filmed during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 , with much of it filmed before the first episode in the same production block . " Day One " was originally seen by 2 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it one of the highest @-@ rated BBC Three broadcasts of all time , but was met with generally mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
A date between Gwen Cooper and her boyfriend Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) is cut short when they witness a meteor crashing outside Cardiff . Gwen receives a message on her mobile phone , and is called into action . As the Army secures the area , Torchwood investigate the meteor . Colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) taunts Gwen by calling her the " new girl " . In an attempt to retaliate , she throws a chisel at him , but misses and cracks open the meteor , allowing a purple gas entity to escape . The gas finds a young woman , Carys Fletcher , outside a nightclub and takes her host . In the club , a possessed Carys seduces a man and takes him to a restroom , where they proceed to have sex . At the moment of climax however , the man dissolves into dust while Carys absorbs the energy that remains .
The Torchwood team become aware of the bizarre death and realises through CCTV that the gas has taken over Carys . Gwen feels guilty at having caused the man 's death , but team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) assures her that everybody makes mistakes . Gwen also learns that she is the only team member who 's in a relationship , as the others are too busy working to find time . They later find where Carys lives and arrives there before she could harm a postman . When she tries to escape , Owen traps her using a portable prison cell , much to Jack 's chagrin , as he forbids the removal of alien technology from Torchwood 's base without his permission .
Carys is placed in a Torchwood holding cell . As tests are run on Carys , Gwen feels uncontrollable urges to kiss her , showing that Carys is emitting high levels of pheromones , effectively becoming a " walking aphrodisiac " , but the gas is also slowly killing her . Later , Carys escapes from her cell after seducing Owen . Jack attempts to apprehend her , but she manages to get hold of a jar containing a severed hand , which Jack finds valuable . He allows her to leave for the jar 's safety , but she destroys it anyway .
In an attempt to capture her again , the team run on Toshiko Sato 's ( Naoko Mori ) hunch that she will be after her ex @-@ boyfriend ; they arrive at his house to find Carys already killed him . Later they discover Carys works as a temp at a fertility clinic . They race to the clinic to find Carys has been inside for some time killing some of the clients . After eventually cornering Carys , they find that she has moments before she dies . Jack buys her some time by kissing her , transferring some of his " excess " of life onto her . Gwen offers the gas presence her own body as a host to save Carys ; it leaves Carys , but before it could enter Gwen , Jack throws the portable prison cell at it . Since it cannot survive in Earth 's atmosphere for long , the gas dies out . As Jack inspects its remains , Gwen kisses Jack on the lips , saying " thank you " , leaving Jack puzzled .
In the end , Carys is reunited with her father . The team returns to Torchwood , and as she leaves for home , Jack advises Gwen not to let the job consume her because her perspective is important to the team . He then encourages Gwen to go home and spend time with Rhys .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The working title for the episode was " New Girl " , which changed to the current " Day One " by the beginning of October 2006 . Head writer Chris Chibnall , who wrote the episode , found that writing the second episode was hard , as there was a challenge to demonstrate how Torchwood works , and set the formula for the rest of the series . He wanted to write an episode that would centre on Gwen about her " first day in hell " , and show the audience that Torchwood is unlike any normal job , as one small mistake can have major ramifications on the city . The scene where Gwen accidentally opens the meteor was meant to " extend the metaphor of breaking the photocopier on your first day at work " . It is also set to show the separate dynamic between the team and Gwen . Series creator Russell T Davies stated that as the rest of the team are for the aliens , science , technology and mythology , Gwen is for " the people " ; she 's the only person in the team who cares about what happens to Carys . Eve Myles also noted in the episode 's audio commentary that throughout the episode , it added a mix between her domestic life and the science fiction .
The idea behind using the sex gas came from Chibnall , but he admitted to having " genuinely no idea where the episode came from " . Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster . " He also emphasised that the episode is not solely about " having a laugh " with the sex gas , as it also has " something to say about the world " . The scene where Carys walks down the street featuring sex in advertisements and couples kissing in public was one of Davies ' favourite scenes in the episode , as it explores how sexualised the Western world is . The episode was originally much lighter in tone , however , the majority of the comedic moments had to be cut on the final script , as they got in the way of the plot . Also , Carys was originally meant to have two or three boyfriends , but because of scheduling restrictions , there could only be one . This ended up being beneficial to the episode , as it made it more emotive . There was a scene that would be filmed with Carys and a second boyfriend , but that would be cut and added on the deleted scenes on the DVD boxset of the first series .
After it was written , BBC controller of fiction , Jane Tranter , fed back to the producers and suggested that the Torchwood team take a " breather " and talk about the mysteries behind Captain Jack while having a Chinese takeway . Through the read through of the script before filming , Burn Gorman noted that he saw " big smiles " and giggling from several readers because of its content . Sara Gregory read the script with her mother .
= = = Filming = = =
Much of the episode was filmed in the first production block along with " Everything Changes " , but much of it was filmed before the pilot . It took place during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 in and around Cardiff , the city where the series was set . The majority of the episode was filmed during the night , to keep with the style that the majority of the series is set during the night as well . However , because it was approaching summer , where nights are shorter , night sequences had to be shot between 10 pm and 4 : 30 am during each night of filming . Even the scenes set in the Torchwood hub were mostly filmed at nighttime . The first sequence to be shot was where the team stop Carys from having sex with the postman . However , the sequence had to be shot again twelve days later .
The meteor crash site was filmed at a natural erosion site just outside Cardiff , which the location managers found by chance , and felt it was the perfect location for a crash site . The producers included an easter egg in the Torchwood Hub set by including the picture of Craig @-@ y @-@ Nos Castle , used as a location of Torchwood House in the Doctor Who episode " Tooth and Claw " ; in the end of the episode the Torchwood Institute was established by Queen Victoria . To film the scene where Gwen and Carys kiss , actresses Eve Myles and Sara Gregory discussed how they would execute it beforehand and agreed that they have to imagine Gregory as Johnny Depp , and Myles as Brad Pitt . To film the exploding rat sequence , episode director Brian Kelly filmed a rat in a cage , and then replace it with a fur covered condom filled with " chicken bits " and red dye to simulate guts , then exploded with a squib .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
" Day One " was the first episode to include a teaser in the beginning with shots from the series . The episode 's visual effects were produced by The Mill . To complete the effect of the gas , 3D artist Paul Burton based his design of the alien from the water creature in The Abyss .
= = Continuity = =
The Doctor 's severed hand appears in this episode when Carys uses it as her bargaining chip to escape .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Day One " was broadcast on Sunday , 22 October 2006 on BBC Three , just after the first episode , " Everything Changes " . The second episode received overnight viewing figures of 2 @.@ 3 million with a 13 @.@ 8 % audience share , holding the majority of the audience from the first episode . Together both episodes received the largest multichannel audience for a UK @-@ originated non @-@ sports programme and the at the time largest audience for BBC Three . The finale figure for the episode was 2 @.@ 498 million viewers . The record would be held until the broadcast of EastEnders Live : The Aftermath on 19 February 2010 . The repeat of " Day One " on analogue channel BBC Two on 25 October was seen by 2 @.@ 8 million with a 13 % audience share . " Day One " was given an Appreciation Index of 83 .
Daniel Montesinos @-@ Donaghy of Den of Geek stated " After the excellent pilot episode , ' Day One ' is both a step forward and a step backward . As silly as the idea of a nymphomaniac extra @-@ terrestrial gas is , the cast throw themselves into it with aplomb , quipping their way to the relatively gripping conclusion . " Patrick Holm of Total Sci @-@ Fi felt that the second episode " equates the word ' adult ' with sex and swearing – more of a playground definition than a serious drama . In the conclusion of his review , Jonathan Capps of Noise to Signal felt that the episode was " certainly nothing to get excited about , but I think it won 't be too indicative of later episodes , as we 're still getting to know these characters , and that has to take the fore in the first few episodes . However , Chris ' [ Chibnall ] painfully simplistic , heavy @-@ handed and often clichéd interpretation of sci @-@ fi ( some of Jack 's techno @-@ babble is frankly embarrassing ) could prove to be a worrying factor later in the series . " A reviewer of TV Fodder felt " Day One " was a " great second episode " , adding " there doesn 't seem to be anything I don 't like about this show " .
= 808s & Heartbreak =
808s & Heartbreak is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Kanye West , released on November 24 , 2008 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . It was recorded during September and October 2008 at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii , with the help of producers No I.D. , Jeff Bhasker and others .
Conceived in the wake of a series of distressing personal events , 808s & Heartbreak marked a major musical departure for West from his previous rap records , instead featuring a sparse , electronic sound and West singing through an Auto @-@ Tune vocal processor . His lyrics explored themes of loss , alienated fame , and heartache , while the album 's production abandoned conventional hip hop sounds in favor of a minimalist sonic palette , which included prominent use of the titular Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Despite varying responses from audiences , the album received positive reviews from most critics and was named one of 2008 's best records in several year @-@ end lists .
808s & Heartbreak debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 copies in its first week . By 2013 , it had sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . Four singles were released to promote the record , including the hit singles " Love Lockdown " and " Heartless " . In the years since its release , 808s & Heartbreak has been cited as a prominent influence on subsequent hip hop , pop , and R & B music , as a new wave of rappers , singers , and producers came to adopt aspects of its style and thematic content . In 2014 , Rolling Stone named it one of the 40 most groundbreaking albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Following the release of his third studio album Graduation , the remainder of 2007 and the following year featured events that profoundly affected Kanye West . On November 10 , 2007 , West 's mother Donda West died due to complications arising from cosmetic surgery involving a tummy tuck and breast reduction procedure . Months later , West and fiancée Alexis Phifer ended their engagement and their long @-@ term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . At the same time , West struggled to adapt to his newfound pop star status he had once striven to achieve , often becoming the subject of media scrutiny . The loss , loneliness and longing for companionship and a sense of normality served to inspire 808s & Heartbreak . West stated that " This album was therapeutic – it 's lonely at the top . " A photograph taken by Danny Clinch of West kissing his mother on the cheek was included in the album 's booklet liner notes .
West felt that his emotions could not be fully expressed simply through rapping , which he said had limitations . There were " melodies that were in me " , he explained . " What was in me I couldn 't stop . " West went to classify 808s & Heartbreak as a pop album , asserting his disdain towards the contemporary backlash to the concept of pop music and expressed admiration for what some pop stars have accomplished in their careers . He later stated that he wishes to present the music as a new genre called " pop art , " clarifying that he was well aware of the visual art movement of the same name and wished to present a musical equivalent . " Either call it ' pop ' or ' pop art , ' either one I 'm good with , " he later stated .
= = Recording and production = =
The album was recorded over a span of approximately three weeks from September to October 2008 . Recording sessions took place at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii . As implied by its title , 808s & Heartbreak prominently features the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Drawing inspiration from 1980s synthpop and electropop performers such as Phil Collins , Gary Numan , TJ Swan and Boy George , West felt that the 808 is a resourceful instrument that can be used to evoke emotion ; the concept was introduced to him by Jon Brion . West utilized the sounds created by the 808 and manipulated its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound , an effect he referred to as " heartbreak " . He felt the characteristic of the sound was representative of his state of mind . According to West , the fact that Hawaii 's area code was " 808 " was coincidental , as he had already developed the album 's title before being informed . The realization inspired him to pursue his direction with the album , however . In terms of musical direction , West 's intentions , according to Mike Dean , were to go against the typical sound of hip hop beat , instead evoking the presence of tribal drums . Overall , West maintained a " minimal but functional " approach towards the album 's studio production .
The album makes prominent use of the voice audio processor technology of Auto @-@ Tune . West had previously experimented with the technology on The College Dropout for the background vocals of " Jesus Walks " and " Never Let Me Down " , but he had not used it for lead vocals until 2008 . " We were working on the remixes for Lil Wayne 's ' Lollipop ' and Young Jeezy 's ' Put On ' and he fell in love with the Auto @-@ Tune " , producer Mike Dean explained . Towards the end , West enlisted T @-@ Pain for coaching on how to utilize the technology . West himself openly stated that he loved using Auto @-@ Tune and was dismayed that the term has been commonly associated with being " wack " . He considers the technology " the funnest thing to use " and compared the situation to when he was a child and thought the color pink was cool until someone told him " it was gay " , producing an analogy of how the views of society can rob people of their confidence and self @-@ esteem . He later went on to state that he enjoyed the electronic feel produced by Auto @-@ Tune and sought out to juxtapose the mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks .
Rapper Kid Cudi , who had signed onto West 's G.O.O.D. Music label , contributed to two of the album 's songs . Young Jeezy contributed a rap verse on the track " Amazing " while " See You in My Nightmares " is a duet with Lil Wayne . Singer @-@ songwriter Esthero provided the few female vocals found on the album ; credited under birth name Jenny @-@ Bea Englishman , she co @-@ wrote three tracks . When " RoboCop " appeared on the Internet , West disclaimed responsibility and was upset that the leak had occurred as the track was an unfinished version . Mike Dean had previously stated that the track was expected to receive additional treatment by Herbie Hancock before the album 's release .
= = Music and lyrics = =
808s & Heartbreak is a radical departure from West 's previous hip hop albums . According to 33 ⅓ writer Kirk Walker Graves , 808s & Heartbreak is an avant @-@ garde electropop album . Rolling Stone magazine called it an " introspective , synthpop album , " while The 405 described it as West 's " experimental pop record . " According to The Independent , West abandoned his customary hip hop sound in favor of sparse , drum machine @-@ based electropop . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Plagenhoef also categorized the album as " an introspective , minimal electro @-@ pop record " , but added that it is " steeped in regret , pain , and even more self @-@ examination than a typical Kanye West album " . Music writer Robert Christgau called it a " slow , sad @-@ ass and self @-@ involved ... breakup album " and analyzed that West 's choice to " robotize as well as pitch @-@ correct his voice both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " . Christgau asserted that its final track " Pinocchio Story " is " the only track here about what 's really bringing [ West ] down : not the loss of his girlfriend but the death of his mother , during cosmetic surgery that somewhere not too deep down he 's sure traces all too directly to his alienated fame . " Andre Grant of HipHopDX wrote that " to combat this trenchant melancholia , he poured himself into an all @-@ autotunes R & B album " which would prove divisive in hip hop . West 's singing has been characterized as " flat " and " nearly unmelodic " which " underscores his own cyborgish detachment . " Canadian writer Stephen Marche viewed that West used " the shallow musical gimmickry of Auto @-@ Tune , a program designed to eliminate individuality , and produced a hauntingly personal album . "
The music of 808s & Heartbreak draws heavily on electronic elements , particularly virtual synthesis , the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , and explicitly auto @-@ tuned vocal tracks . Tracks on the album utilize step input drum machine and synth @-@ bass parts . Step input sequencing , a product of vintage analogue devices limited to recording only 16 individual notes , was popular in music production during the 1980s , but also became available in digital workstations . The album 's music features austere production and elements such as dense drums , lengthy strings , droning synths , and somber piano . Andy Kellman of AllMusic writes of the music , " Several tracks have almost as much in common with irrefutably bleak post @-@ punk albums , such as New Order 's Movement and The Cure 's Pornography , as contemporary rap and R & B. " These musical elements help convey moods of despair and dejection that reflect the album 's subject matter . Critic Trist McCall wrote that the record " stripped modern art @-@ pop down to its iconic rudiments — beats , charismatic personalities , hand @-@ selected melodies , and computer @-@ assisted vocals . " Most of the lyrics are directed at an ex @-@ lover ; West refers to her treatment of him as " the coldest story ever told " on " Heartless " , and on " RoboCop " , she is called a " spoiled little L.A. girl " and is compared to the antagonist in the 1990 film Misery . On " Welcome to Heartbreak " , West 's character faces an existential crisis as he dispassionately recounts sitting alone on a flight , with a laughing family seated ahead of him . He longs for his late mother on the album 's penultimate track " Coldest Winter " , which samples the desolate 1983 song " Memories Fade " by Tears for Fears .
= = Release and promotion = =
On September 24 , West announced that he had finished the album and would be releasing it sometime in November . In his blog post , he wrote " I changed my album to November something cause I finished the album and I felt like it .. I want y 'all to hear it as soon as possible " . West later stated that the album would be released on November 25 , 2008 . However , Island Def Jam , the distributing label , brought the date forward by one day to capitalize on Thanksgiving weekend . 808s & Heartbreak was also released on November 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom and the Philippines . A limited edition in a digipak case was first released in Germany on November 21 , 2008 . A special edition of the album was released on December 16 that contains the album in CD and dual LP format , and also features album artwork redone by the artist of the original cover , KAWS .
On October 16 , West released an excerpt of " Coldest Winter " on the radio station Power 106 in Los Angeles . The track recreates elements of the song " Memories Fade " by the band Tears for Fears . The song " Paranoid " later leaked onto the Internet and features Mr. Hudson in the chorus . A remixed version of " Paranoid " was reported to feature pop singer Rihanna , but did not materialize . Also appearing prior to the release date were " Amazing " featuring Young Jeezy , " See You in My Nightmares " featuring Lil Wayne , " Street Lights " , " Say You Will " , " Welcome to Heartbreak " and " Bad News " . An additional track , " Pinocchio Story " is a freestyle recorded at a live concert in Singapore . It was included in the album at the request of Beyoncé Knowles .
On October 14 , West , in collaboration with Italian artist Vanessa Beecroft , hosted a promotional album listening event at Ace Gallery . Over 700 guests were invited to preview the entirety of 808s & Heartbreak . Under Beecroft 's guidance , the event featured approximately forty nude women wearing nothing besides wool masks who silently stood in the center of the room . The women were illuminated by multicolored lights that would change as the music progressed . When it came time for him to speak , West stated that he 'd been a fan of Beecroft 's work and strong imagery , saying that he liked the idea of nudity because " society told us to wear clothes at a certain point " . Beecroft had been contacted a month prior and conceptualized and generated the installation in a week . Beecroft admitted that while he had caught her offguard , she had the opportunity to hear the album for herself and heard things that touched her own life . Five days later , promotional photos for the album by photographer Willy Vanderperre were released . The images portrayed West wearing a grey glen plaid suit , large browline glasses , and a heart @-@ shaped pin .
In October 2009 , West was scheduled to embark on a tour , Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga tour , in promotion of Gaga 's The Fame , and West 's 808s & Heartbreak . It was canceled on October 1 , 2009 , without reason . Several songs from the album were performed by West during his live VH1 Storytellers performance , such as " Heartless " , " Amazing " and " Say You Will . " In the interim , director Nabil Elderkin directed two additional promotional videos for the album . " Welcome to Heartbreak " , which featured an artistic use of liberal compression artifacts , was released in June 2009 . A remixed version of " Coldest Winter " was released in February 2010 . This video featured a woman in a wedding gown running away from a cult group through a moonlit forest .
= = Public reaction = =
Before its release , reaction to 808s & Heartbreak was mixed , ranging from anticipation to bewilderment and indifference to the album 's concept . Upon the unveiling of the lead single " Love Lockdown " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , music audiences were taken aback by the uncharacteristic production style and the presence of Auto @-@ Tune . The negative feedback intensified when West revealed that the entire album would be primarily sung with Auto @-@ Tune rather than rapped and would focus on themes of love and heartache .
Numerous hip hop fans and certain rappers mocked West for becoming " sappy " while others deemed the upcoming LP as a throwaway experimental album . Comparisons were drawn to Electric Circus , an album recorded by West 's labelmate and close friend Common . MTV eventually interviewed Common to share his thoughts and views on the artistic direction of the album . Common expressed both his understanding and his support for West 's intentions , stating " I love it . I 'mma tell you , as an artist , you wanna be free . I 'mma do what I feel . You can 't just cater to the audience . You gotta say , ' Hey , y 'all , this is where I 'm at . ' For him to do an album called 808s and Heartbreak , you know that 's where he is at this moment . I heard some songs , and I think it 's fresh . I think the people are ready for it . "
West received similar approval from Lil Wayne and Young Jeezy , both of whom contributed to the album . During an interview , when asked what music today inspires him , Wayne stated " everybody 's doing their thing , but they 're not exciting . Everybody is doing the same thing . That 's terrible . Do I love the music that 's out right now ? I love it with a passion . Does it motivate me ? | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Not one bit . That 's because 808s & Heartbreak isn 't out yet . " Despite the approval from the rap superstars , as well as the record @-@ breaking chart performances of the first two singles , hip hop audiences remained indifferent towards the album , predicting it would flop . Responding to reviews , West stated that he didn 't care about sales or getting good ratings , saying that it came from the heart and that 's all that matters to him . When asked about the current state of hip hop , West compared it to a high school , stating that hip hop used to be all about being fearless and standing out , and that now it is about being afraid and fitting in .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In its first week of sales , 808s & Heartbreak reached the number one spot on Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 units in its first week . In the last week of the year , 808s & Heartbreak sold 165 @,@ 100 copies , jumping from the eleventh spot back up to the number five on the Billboard 200 . The album moved up again the following week , selling 70 @,@ 900 units and landing at number three . On January 27 , 2009 , 808s & Heartbreak was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , serving as West 's fourth album to ship one million copies in the United States . As of June 14 , 2013 , it has sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Despite the debate and uncertainty surrounding the album 's conception , its preceding singles demonstrated outstanding chart performances . Upon its release , the lead single " Love Lockdown " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and became a " Hot Shot Debut " . It is the highest debut of West 's career , the second highest debut on the Hot 100 that year and the tenth song of the millennium to debut in the top three . Grossing over 1 @.@ 3 million copies at the iTunes Store alone , the single was certified platinum by the RIAA by the end of the year . On August 18 , 2010 , it was certified triple platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of three million units in the US . The single was also met by positive reviews from music critics , eventually culminating with being crowned " Song of the Year " by Time . The second single , " Heartless " performed similarly and became his second consecutive " Hot Shot Debut " by debuting at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified double platinum by the RIAA , having shipped two million units in the US . Due in part to the momentum produced by the album 's release , certain tracks were met by chart success despite not actually being released as singles . The tenth track " See You in My Nightmares " became yet another " Hot Shot Debut , " peaking at number twenty @-@ one in the US and at number twenty @-@ two in Canada while the fourth track " Amazing " charted at 81 on the Hot 100 . Following suit , " Welcome to Heartbreak " peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Pop 100 .
= = Critical reception = =
808s & Heartbreak received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 75 , based on 36 reviews . Chris Richards from The Washington Post called it " an information @-@ age masterpiece " , while USA Today critic Steve Jones said " West deftly uses the 808 drum machine and Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect to channel his feelings of hurt , anger and doubt through his well @-@ crafted lyrics " . Dan Cairns from The Times stated , " This so should not work ... Yet 808s & Heartbreak is a triumph , recklessly departing from the commercially copper @-@ bottomed script and venturing far beyond West ’ s comfort zone . " Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen commended West 's incorporation of the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine and described the album as " Kanye 's would @-@ be Here , My Dear or Blood on the Tracks , a mournful song @-@ suite that swings violently between self @-@ pity and self @-@ loathing " . In the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot called it West 's " most radical yet " and said while West 's fans may be disappointed , " this one is for him . It remains to be seen if he goes back to making records for everybody else . For now , this is one fascinatingly perverse detour . " PopMatters critic Dave Heaton was impressed by West 's " song and album construction , and with the way he captures a particular feeling through unusual , evocative , carefully crafted music that ’ s both simple and complex , cold and warm , mechanical and human , melodic and harsh " . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau found it " brilliant " with a unique " dark sound " and " engaging tunes " , despite a second @-@ half drop @-@ off , and praised West 's use of Auto @-@ Tune , which he felt " both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " .
In a less enthusiastic review , The Independent found West 's " immersion in personal misery " uncomfortable and commented that the " stylistic tropes quickly become irritating " . AllMusic editor Andy Kellman stated " no matter its commendable fearlessness , the album is a listless , bleary trudge along West 's permafrost " . Charles Aaron of Spin criticized the songs ' musical structures , calling the album " a long processional that starts and restarts and never reaches the ceremony " . Slant Magazine 's Wilson McBee panned West 's singing , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times singled it out as the " weakness for which this album will ultimately be remembered , some solid songs notwithstanding . " Caramanica wrote that , " at best , it is a rough sketch for a great album , with ideas he would have typically rendered with complexity , here distilled to a few words , a few synthesizer notes , a lean drumbeat . At worst , it ’ s clumsy and underfed , a reminder that all of that ornamentation served a purpose " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis stated , " If West had interspersed the more mechanical tracks with some that were the exact opposite — say , simple piano interludes provided by his old collaborators John Legend or Jon Brion — he might have made a masterpiece . Instead , he 's merely given us an extremely intriguing , sporadically gripping , undeniably fearless and altogether unexpected piece of his troubled soul . "
= = = Accolades = = =
808s & Heartbreak was voted the tenth best album of 2008 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent American critics . The album was also named one of the ten best albums of 2008 by a number of publications , including the Associated Press ( number four ) , The Hartford Courant ( number seven ) , NOW ( number four ) , The Observer ( number eight ) , Vibe ( no order ) and Time ( number six ) . Pitchfork Media named 808s & Heartbreak the twenty @-@ first best album of 2008 . Dan Leroy of LA Weekly cited it as one of the top ten hip hop albums of the year . Jam ! named it the top album of 2008 . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis included the album on his list of the year 's ten best albums and wrote , " With every listen , the poignancy of these personal tales of loss grows deeper , perfectly matched by the cold , lonely , robotic but nevertheless winning grooves that accompany them . Upon further reflection , it is a brave and daring 4 @-@ star effort that deserves to be heard by any fan of adventurous pop music . " Time Out New York featured the album on its list of the Best and Worst Albums of 2008 . The magazine 's writer Colin St. John cited 808s & Heartbreak as one of the worst of 2008 , and editor Steve Smith named it third on his best @-@ of list , while calling the album " the year 's most misunderstood triumph . "
Despite its accolades , 808s & Heartbreak was largely overlooked as a contender for the 52nd Grammy Awards . According to Vibe magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jermaine Hall , West 's controversial incident at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the ensuing backlash against West " probably hurt him " , but perceived West 's stylistic change on the album as the primary reason for it not being nominated . West received one solo nomination , Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for " Amazing " , and five other nominations for his guest appearances and collaborational work . 808s & Heartbreak received a nomination for Outstanding Album at 40th annual NAACP Image Awards . The album also received a nomination for Best Album at the 2009 MOBO Awards . In 2009 , Rolling Stone ranked it number 63 on its list of the 100 Best Album of the Decade , and Q named it the decade 's 81st best record . On similar lists , Slant Magazine and PopMatters ranked it 124th and 42nd , respectively .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Although West designed it as a melancholic pop album , 808s & Heartbreak had a significant effect on hip hop music . While his decision to sing about love , loneliness , and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences and the album predicted to be a flop , its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music . During the release of The Blueprint 3 , New York rap mogul Jay @-@ Z revealed that his next studio album would be an experimental effort , stating , " ... it 's not gonna be a # 1 album . That 's where I 'm at right now . I wanna make the most experimental album I ever made . " Jay @-@ Z elaborated that like West , he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop , was being inspired by indie @-@ rockers like Grizzly Bear and asserted his belief that the indie rock movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip hop .
The album impacted hip hop stylistically and laid the groundwork for a new wave of hip hop artists who generally eschewed typical rap braggadocio for intimate subject matter and introspection , including B.o.B , Kid Cudi , Childish Gambino , Frank Ocean , The Weeknd , and Drake . Jake Paine of HipHopDX dubbed the album as " our Chronic " , noting West 's effect on hip hop with 808s & Heartbreak as " a sound , no different than the way Dr. Dre 's synthesizer challenged the boom @-@ bap of the early ' 90s . " Fact described the record as an " art @-@ pop masterpiece [ which ] broke the shackles of generations of one @-@ upmanship [ in hip hop ] . " Rolling Stone journalist Matthew Trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote in a 2012 article , " Now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & Heartbreak has revealed itself to be Kanye ’ s most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . "
According to Greg Kot , 808s & Heartbreak initiated the " wave of inward @-@ looking sensitivity " and " emo " -inspired rappers during the late 2000s : " [ It ] presaged everything from the introspective hip @-@ hop of Kid Cudi 's Man on the Moon : The End of Day ( 2009 ) to the wispy crooning , plush keyboards and light mechanical beats of Bon Iver 's Justin Vernon and British dub @-@ step balladeer James Blake . " Consequence of Sound credited it with shaping subsequent developments in " indie R & B or electropop or whatever you want to call it " : " 808s ' is flooded with R & B and it digitizes the raw emotion and isolated feelings that [ James Blake and The Weeknd ] have carved their brands out of today . " Craig D. Linsey from The Village Voice wrote that the album 's " naked humanity ... practically set off the emo @-@ rap / r & b boom that everyone from Drake to Frank Ocean to The Weeknd now traffic in . " Marcus Scott of GIANT said rappers such as B.o.B , Drake , and Kid Cudi followed West 's album with similarly @-@ minded works , citing West 's introspective , emotional themes and synthpop / " Vangelis @-@ inspired " music as influences . In the opinion of Billboard senior editor Alex Gale , the album was " the equivalent of ( Bob ) Dylan going electric , and you still hear that all the time , in hip @-@ hop and outside of hip @-@ hop . " Drake 's 2009 mixtape So Far Gone received comparisons from critics to 808s & Heartbreak . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times cited 808s & Heartbreak as " the template [ ... ] for essentially the entirety of Drake 's young career " , and that wrote that he " shares West 's love for mood and never @-@ ending existential analysis " . In a 2009 interview , Drake cited West as " the most influential person " in shaping his own sound .
= = Track listing = =
Songwriting credits , production credits , and notes for tracks 1 – 11 adapted from the liner notes of 808s & Heartbreak . Songwriting credits for track 12 adapted from BMI .
Notes
^ [ a ] co @-@ producer
" RoboCop " embodies portions of " Kissing in the Rain " , written by Doyle .
" Bad News " contains a sample of the recording " See Line Woman " as performed by Nina Simone and written by Bass .
" Coldest Winter " embodies an interpolation of " Memories Fade " , written by Orzabal .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for 808s & Heartbreak adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= History of supernova observation =
The known history of supernova observation goes back to 185 CE , when , supernova SN 185 appeared , the oldest appearance of a supernova recorded by humankind . Several additional supernovae within the Milky Way galaxy have been recorded since that time , with SN 1604 being the most recent supernova to be observed in this galaxy .
Since the development of the telescope , the field of supernova discovery has expanded to other galaxies . These occurrences provide important information on the distances of galaxies . Successful models of supernova behavior have also been developed , and the role of supernovae in the star formation process is now increasingly understood .
= = Early history = =
The supernova explosion that formed the Vela Supernova Remnant most likely occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1976 , NASA astronomers suggested that inhabitants of the southern hemisphere may have witnessed this explosion and recorded it symbolically . A year later , archaeologist George Michanowsky recalled some incomprehensible ancient markings in Bolivia that were left by Native Americans . The carvings showed four small circles flanked by two larger circles . The smaller circles resemble stellar groupings in the constellations Vela and Carina . One of the larger circles may represent the star Capella . Another circle is located near the position of the supernova remnant , George Michanowsky suggested this may represent the supernova explosion as witnessed by the indigenous residents .
In 185 CE , Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky , and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky . It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet . These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova , and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind . SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature , though no records have survived . The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event , and recent X @-@ ray studies show a good match for the expected age .
In 393 CE , the Chinese recorded the appearance of another " guest star " , SN 393 , in the modern constellation of Scorpius . Additional unconfirmed supernovae events may have been observed in 369 CE , 386 CE , 437 CE , 827 CE and 902 CE . However these have not yet been associated with a supernova remnant , and so they remain only candidates . Over a span of about 2 @,@ 000 years , Chinese astronomers recorded a total of twenty such candidate events , including later explosions noted by Islamic , European , and possibly Indian and other observers .
The supernova SN 1006 appeared in the southern constellation of Lupus during the year 1006 CE . This was the brightest recorded star ever to appear in the night sky , and its presence was noted in China , Egypt , Iraq , Italy , Japan and Switzerland . It may also have been noted in France , Syria , and North America . Egyptian physician , astronomer and astrologer Ali ibn Ridwan gave the brightness of this star as one @-@ quarter the brightness of the Moon . Modern astronomers have discovered the faint remnant of this explosion and determined that it was only 7 @,@ 100 light @-@ years from the Earth .
Supernova SN 1054 was another widely observed event , with Arab , Chinese , and Japanese astronomers recording the star 's appearance in 1054 CE . It may also have been recorded by the Anasazi as a petroglyph . This explosion appeared in the constellation of Taurus , where it produced the Crab Nebula remnant . At its peak , the luminosity of SN 1054 may have been four times as bright as Venus , and it remained visible in daylight for 23 days and was visible in the night sky for 653 days .
There are fewer records of supernova SN 1181 , which occurred in the constellation Cassiopeia just over a century after SN 1054 . It was noted by Chinese and Japanese astronomers , however . The pulsar 3C58 may be the stellar relic from this event .
The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was noted for his careful observations of the night sky from his observatory on the island of Hven . In 1572 he noted the appearance of a new star , also in the constellation Cassiopeia . Later called SN 1572 , this supernova was associated with a remnant during the 1960s .
A common belief in Europe during this period was the Aristotelian idea that the world beyond the Moon and planets was immutable . So observers argued that the phenomenon was something in the Earth 's atmosphere . However Tycho noted that the object remained stationary from night to night — never changing its parallax — so it must lie far away . He published his observations in the small book De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ( Latin for " Concerning the new and previously unseen star " ) in 1573 . It is from the title of this book that the modern word nova for cataclysmic variable stars is derived .
The most recent supernova to be seen in the Milky Way galaxy was SN 1604 , which was observed October 9 , 1604 . Several people noted the sudden appearance of this star , but it was Johannes Kepler who became noted for his systematic study of the object . He published his observations in the work De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii .
Galileo , like Tycho before him , tried in vain to measure the parallax of this new star , and then argued against the Aristotelian view of an immutable heavens . The remnant of this supernova was identified in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory .
= = Telescope observation = =
The true nature of the supernova remained obscure for some time . Observers slowly came to recognize a class of stars that undergo long @-@ term periodic fluctuations in luminosity . Both John Russell Hind in 1848 and Norman Pogson in 1863 had charted stars that underwent sudden changes in brightness . However these received little attention from the astronomical community . Finally , in 1866 , English astronomer William Huggins made the first spectroscopic observations of a nova , discovering lines of hydrogen in the unusual spectrum of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis . Huggins proposed a cataclysmic explosion as the underlying mechanism , and his efforts drew interest from other astronomers .
In 1885 , a nova @-@ like outburst was observed in the direction of the Andromeda galaxy by Ernst Hartwig in Estonia . S Andromedae increased to 6th magnitude , outshining the entire nucleus of the galaxy , then faded in a manner much like a nova . In 1917 , George W. Ritchey measured the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy and discovered it lay much farther than had previously been thought . This meant that S Andromedae , which did not just lie along the line of sight to the galaxy but had actually resided in the nucleus , released a much greater amount of energy than was typical for a nova .
Early work on this new category of nova was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory . They identified S Andromedae , what they considered a typical supernova , as an explosive event that released radiation approximately equal to the Sun 's total energy output for 107 years . They decided to call this new class of cataclysmic variables super @-@ novae , and postulated that the energy was generated by the gravitational collapse of ordinary stars into neutron stars . The name super @-@ novae was first used in a 1931 lecture at Caltech by Zwicky , then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society . By 1938 , the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use .
Although supernovae are relatively rare events , occurring on average about once every 50 years in the Milky Way , observations of distant galaxies allowed supernovae to be discovered and examined more frequently . The first supernova detection patrol was begun by Zwicky in 1933 . He was joined by Josef J. Johnson from Caltech in 1936 . Using a 45 @-@ cm Schmidt telescope at Palomar observatory , they discovered twelve new supernovae within three years by comparing new photographic plates to reference images of extragalactic regions .
In 1938 , Walter Baade became the first astronomer to identify a nebula as a supernova remnant when he suggested that the Crab Nebula was the remains of SN 1054 . He noted that , while it had the appearance of a planetary nebula , the measured velocity of expansion was much too large to belong to that classification . During the same year , Baade first proposed the use of the Type Ia supernova as a secondary distance indicator . Later , the work of Allan Sandage and Gustav Tammann helped refine the process so that Type Ia supernovae became a type of standard candle for measuring large distances across the cosmos .
The first spectral classification of these distant supernovae was performed by Rudolph Minkowski in 1941 . He categorized them into two types , based on whether or not lines of the element hydrogen appeared in the supernova spectrum . Zwicky later proposed additional types III , IV , and V , although these are no longer used and now appear to be associated with single peculiar supernova types . Further sub @-@ division of the spectra categories resulted in the modern supernova classification scheme .
In the aftermath of the Second World War , Fred Hoyle worked on the problem of how the various observed elements in the universe were produced . In 1946 he proposed that a massive star could generate the necessary thermonuclear reactions , and the nuclear reactions of heavy elements were responsible for the removal of energy necessary for a gravitational collapse to occur . The collapsing star became rotationally unstable , and produced an explosive expulsion of elements that were distributed into interstellar space . The concept that rapid nuclear fusion was the source of energy for a supernova explosion was developed by Hoyle and William Fowler during the 1960s .
The first computer @-@ controlled search for supernovae was begun in the 1960s at Northwestern University . They built a 24 @-@ inch telescope at Corralitos Observatory in New Mexico that could be repositioned under computer control . The telescope displayed a new galaxy each minute , with observers checking the view on a television screen . By this means , they discovered 14 supernovae over a period of two years .
= = 1970 – 1999 = =
The modern standard model for Type Ia supernovae explosions is founded on a proposal by Whelan and Iben in 1973 , and is based upon a mass @-@ transfer scenario to a degenerate companion star . In particular , the light curve of SN1972e in NGC 5253 , which was observed for more than a year , was followed long enough to discover that after its broad " hump " in brightness , the supernova faded at a nearly constant rate of about 0 @.@ 01 magnitudes per day . Translated to another system of units , this is nearly the same as the decay rate of cobalt @-@ 56 ( 56Co ) , whose half @-@ life is 77 days . The degenerate explosion model predicts the production of about a solar mass of nickel @-@ 56 ( 56Ni ) by the exploding star . The 56Ni decays with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 8 days to 56Co , and the decay of the nickel and cobalt provides the energy radiated away by the supernova late in its history . The agreement in both total energy production and the fade rate between the theoretical models and the observations of 1972e led to rapid acceptance of the degenerate @-@ explosion model .
Through observation of the light curves of many Type Ia supernovae , it was discovered that they appear to have a common peak luminosity . By measuring the luminosity of these events , the distance to their host galaxy can be estimated with good accuracy . Thus this category of supernovae has become highly useful as a standard candle for measuring cosmic distances . In 1998 , the High @-@ Z Supernova Search and the Supernova Cosmology Project discovered that the most distant Type Ia supernovae appeared dimmer than expected . This has provided evidence that the expansion of the universe may be accelerating .
Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since 1604 , it appears that a supernova exploded in the constellation Cassiopeia about 300 years ago , around the year 1667 or 1680 . The remnant of this explosion , Cassiopeia A — is heavily obscured by interstellar dust , which is possibly why it did not make a notable appearance . However it can be observed in other parts of the spectrum , and it is currently the brightest radio source beyond our solar system .
In 1987 , Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was observed within hours of its start . It was the first supernova to be detected through its neutrino emission and the first to be observed across every band of the electromagnetic spectrum . The relative proximity of this supernova has allowed detailed observation , and it provided the first opportunity for modern theories of supernova formation to be tested against observations .
The rate of supernova discovery steadily increased throughout the twentieth century . In the 1990s , several automated supernova search programs were initiated . The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search program was begun in 1992 at Leuschner Observatory . It was joined the same year by the Berkeley Automated Imaging Telescope program . These were succeeded in 1996 by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope at Lick Observatory , which was primarily used for the Lick Observatory Supernova Search ( LOSS ) . By 2000 , the Lick program resulted in the discovery of 96 supernovae , making it the world 's most successful Supernova search program .
In the late 1990s it was proposed that recent supernova remnants could be found by looking for gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 . This has a half @-@ life of 90 years and the gamma rays can traverse the galaxy easily , so it permits us to see any remnants from the last millennium or so . Two sources were found , the previously discovered Cassiopeia A remnant , and the RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 remnant , which had just been discovered overlapping the Vela Supernova Remnant
This remnant ( RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 ) had been found in front ( apparently ) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant . The gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 showed that it must have exploded fairly recently ( perhaps around 1200 AD ) , but there is no historical record of it . The flux of gamma rays and x @-@ rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us ( perhaps 200 parsecs or 600 ly ) . If so , this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100 @,@ 000 years .
= = 2000 to present = =
The " SN 2003fg " was discovered in a forming galaxy in 2003 . The appearance of this supernova was studied in " real @-@ time " , and it has posed several major physical questions as it seems more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit would allow .
First observed in September 2006 , the supernova SN 2006gy , which occurred in a galaxy called NGC 1260 ( 240 million light @-@ years away ) , is the largest and , until confirmation of luminosity of SN 2005ap in October 2007 , the most luminous supernova ever observed . The explosion was at least 100 times more luminous than any previously observed supernova , with the progenitor star being estimated 150 times more massive than the Sun . Although this had some characteristics of a Type Ia supernova , Hydrogen was found in the spectrum . It is thought that SN 2006gy is a likely candidate for a pair @-@ instability supernova . SN 2005ap , which was discovered by Robert Quimby who also discovered SN 2006gy , was about twice as bright as SN 2006gy and about 300 times as bright as a normal type II supernova .
On May 21 , 2008 , astronomers announced that they had for the first time caught a supernova on camera just as it was exploding . By chance , a burst of X @-@ rays was noticed while looking at galaxy NGC 2770 , 88 million light @-@ years from Earth , and a variety of telescopes were aimed in that direction just in time to capture what has been named SN 2008D . " This eventually confirmed that the big X @-@ ray blast marked the birth of a supernova , " said Alicia Soderberg of Princeton University .
One of the many amateur astronomers looking for supernovae , Caroline Moore , a member of the Puckett Observatory Supernova Search Team , found supernova SN 2008ha late November 2008 . At the age of 14 she has now been declared the youngest person ever to find a supernova . However , in January 2011 , 10 @-@ year @-@ old Kathryn Aurora Gray from Canada was reported to have discovered a supernova , making her the youngest ever to find a supernova . Ms. Gray , her father , and a friend spotted SN 2010lt , a magnitude 17 supernova in galaxy UGC 3378 in the constellation Camelopardalis , about 240 million light years away .
In 2009 , researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 AD , as well as from around 1060 AD . The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae . This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years .
On November 15 , 2010 , astronomers using NASA 's Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory announced that , while viewing the remnant of SN 1979C in the galaxy Messier 100 , they have discovered an object which could be a young , 30 @-@ year @-@ old black hole . NASA also noted the possibility this object could be a spinning neutron star producing a wind of high energy particles .
On August 24 , 2011 , the Palomar Transient Factory automated survey discovered a new Type Ia supernova ( SN 2011fe ) in the Pinwheel Galaxy ( M101 ) shortly after it burst into existence . Being only 21 million lightyears away and detected so early after the event started , it will allow scientists to learn more about the early developments of these types of supernovae .
On 16 March 2012 , a Type II supernova , designated as SN 2012aw , was discovered in M95 .
On January 22 , 2014 , students at the University of London Observatory spotted an exploding star SN 2014J in the nearby galaxy M82 ( the Cigar Galaxy ) . At a distance of around 12 million light years , the supernova is one of the nearest to be observed in recent decades .
= = Future = =
The estimated rate of supernova production in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way is about one every 50 years . This is much higher than the actual observed rate , implying that a portion of these events have been obscured from the Earth by interstellar dust . The deployment of new instruments that can observe across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum , along with neutrino detectors , means that the next such event will almost certainly be detected .
= W. B. Yeats =
William Butler Yeats ( / ˈjeɪts / ; 13 June 1865 – 28 January 1939 ) was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th @-@ century literature . A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments , in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms . Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and , along with Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn , and others , founded the Abbey Theatre , where he served as its chief during its early years . In 1923 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Irishman so honoured for what the Nobel Committee described as " inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . Yeats is considered to be one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize ; such works include The Tower ( 1928 ) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems ( 1933 ) .
William Butler Yeats was born in Sandymount , Ireland and educated there and in London ; he spent his childhood holidays in County Sligo . He studied poetry in his youth and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends and the occult . Those topics feature in the first phase of his work , which lasted roughly until the turn of the 20th century . His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889 , and its slow @-@ paced and lyrical poems display Yeats 's debts to Edmund Spenser , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and the poets of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood . From 1900 , Yeats 's poetry grew more physical and realistic . He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth , though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks , as well as with cyclical theories of life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Of Anglo @-@ Irish descent , William Butler Yeats was born at Sandymount in County Dublin , Ireland . His father , John Butler Yeats ( 1839 – 1922 ) , was a descendant of Jervis Yeats , a Williamite soldier , linen merchant , and well @-@ known painter who died in 1712 . Benjamin Yeats , Jervis 's grandson and William 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , had in 1773 married Mary Butler of a landed family in County Kildare . Following their marriage , they kept the name Butler in the family name . Mary was a descendant of the Butler of Ormond family from the Neigham ( pronounced Nyam ) Gowran branch of the family . They were descendants of the first Earls of Ormond .
At the time of his marriage , William 's father John Yeats was studying law but abandoned his studies to study art at Heatherley 's Art School in London . His mother , Susan Mary Pollexfen , came from a wealthy merchant family in Sligo , who owned a milling and shipping business . Soon after William 's birth the family relocated to the Pollexfen home at Merville , Sligo to stay with her extended family , and the young poet came to think of the area as his childhood and spiritual home . Its landscape became , over time , both literally and symbolically , his " country of the heart " . The Butler Yeats family were highly artistic ; his brother Jack became an esteemed painter , while his sisters Elizabeth and Susan Mary — known to family and friends as Lollie and Lily — became involved in the Arts and Crafts Movement .
Yeats grew up as a member of the former Protestant Ascendancy at the time undergoing a crisis of identity . While his family was broadly supportive of the changes Ireland was experiencing , the nationalist revival of the late 19th century directly disadvantaged his heritage , and informed his outlook for the remainder of his life . In 1997 , his biographer R. F. Foster observed that Napoleon 's dictum that to understand the man you have to know what was happening in the world when he was twenty " is manifestly true of W.B.Y. " Yeats 's childhood and young adulthood were shadowed by the power shift away from the minority Protestant Ascendancy . The 1880s saw the rise of Parnell and the home rule movement ; the 1890s saw the momentum of nationalism , while the Catholics became prominent around the turn of the century . These developments had a profound effect on his poetry , and his subsequent explorations of Irish identity had a significant influence on the creation of his country 's biography .
In 1867 , the family moved to England to aid their father , John , to further his career as an artist . At first the Yeats children were educated at home . Their mother entertained them with stories and Irish folktales . John provided an erratic education in geography and chemistry , and took William on natural history explorations of the nearby Slough countryside . On 26 January 1877 , the young poet entered the Godolphin school , which he attended for four years . He did not distinguish himself academically , and an early school report describes his performance as " only fair . Perhaps better in Latin than in any other subject . Very poor in spelling " . Though he had difficulty with mathematics and languages ( possibly because he was tone deaf ) , he was fascinated by biology and zoology . For financial reasons , the family returned to Dublin toward the end of 1880 , living at first in the suburbs of Harold 's Cross and later Howth . In October 1881 , Yeats resumed his education at Dublin 's Erasmus Smith High School . His father 's studio was nearby and William spent a great deal of time there , where he met many of the city 's artists and writers . During this period he started writing poetry , and , in 1885 , the Dublin University Review published Yeats 's first poems , as well as an essay entitled " The Poetry of Sir Samuel Ferguson " . Between 1884 and 1886 , William attended the Metropolitan School of Art — now the National College of Art and Design — in Thomas Street .
His first known works were written when he was seventeen , and included a poem — heavily influenced by Percy Bysshe Shelley — that describes a magician who set up a throne in central Asia . Other pieces from this period include a draft of a play about a bishop , a monk , and a woman accused of paganism by local shepherds , as well as love @-@ poems and narrative lyrics on German knights . The early works were both conventional and , according to the critic Charles Johnston , " utterly unIrish " , seeming to come out of a " vast murmurous gloom of dreams " . Although Yeats 's early works drew heavily on Shelley , Edmund Spenser , and on the diction and colouring of pre @-@ Raphaelite verse , he soon turned to Irish mythology and folklore and the writings of William Blake . In later life , Yeats paid tribute to Blake by describing him as one of the " great artificers of God who uttered great truths to a little clan " . In 1891 , Yeats published " John Sherman " and " Dhoya " , one a novella , the other a story .
= = = Young poet = = =
The family returned to London in 1887 . In March 1890 Yeats joined the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . That same year Yeats and Ernest Rhys co @-@ founded the Rhymers ' Club , a group of London @-@ based poets who met regularly in a Fleet Street tavern to recite their verse . Yeats later sought to mythologize the collective , calling it the " Tragic Generation " in his autobiography , and published two anthologies of the Rhymers ' work , the first one in 1892 and the second one in 1894 . He collaborated with Edwin Ellis on the first complete edition of William Blake 's works , in the process rediscovering a forgotten poem , " Vala , or , the Four Zoas " . In a late essay on Shelley , Yeats wrote , " I have re @-@ read Prometheus Unbound ... and it seems to me to have an even more certain place than I had thought among the sacred books of the world . "
Yeats had a life @-@ long interest in mysticism , spiritualism , occultism and astrology . He read extensively on the subjects throughout his life , became a member of the paranormal research organisation " The Ghost Club " ( in 1911 ) and was especially influenced by the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg . As early as 1892 , he wrote : " If I had not made magic my constant study I could not have written a single word of my Blake book , nor would The Countess Kathleen ever have come to exist . The mystical life is the centre of all that I do and all that I think and all that I write . " His mystical interests — also inspired by a study of Hinduism , under the Theosophist Mohini Chatterjee , and the occult — formed much of the basis of his late poetry . Some critics disparaged this aspect of Yeats 's work ; W. H. Auden called it the " deplorable spectacle of a grown man occupied with the mumbo @-@ jumbo of magic and the nonsense of India . "
His first significant poem was " The Island of Statues " , a fantasy work that took Edmund Spenser and Shelley for its poetic models . The piece was serialized in the Dublin University Review . Yeats wished to include it in his first collection , but it was deemed too long , and in fact was never republished in his lifetime . Quinx Books published the poem in complete form for the first time in 2014 . His first solo publication was the pamphlet Mosada : A Dramatic Poem ( 1886 ) , which comprised a print run of 100 copies paid for by his father . This was followed by the collection The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems ( 1889 ) , which arranged a series of verse that dated as far back as the mid @-@ 1880s . The long title poem contains , in the words of his biographer R.F. Foster , " obscure Gaelic names , striking repetitions [ and ] an unremitting rhythm subtly varied as the poem proceeded through its three sections " ;
We rode in sorrow , with strong hounds three ,
Bran , Sceolan , and Lomair ,
On a morning misty and mild and fair .
The mist @-@ drops hung on the fragrant trees ,
And in the blossoms hung the bees .
We rode in sadness above Lough Lean ,
For our best were dead on Gavra 's green .
" The Wanderings of Oisin " is based on the lyrics of the Fenian Cycle of Irish mythology and displays the influence of both Sir Samuel Ferguson and the Pre @-@ Raphaelite poets . The poem took two years to complete and was one of the few works from this period that he did not disown in his maturity . Oisin introduces what was to become one of his most important themes : the appeal of the life of contemplation over the appeal of the life of action . Following the work , Yeats never again attempted another long poem . His other early poems , which are meditations on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects , include Poems ( 1895 ) , The Secret Rose ( 1897 ) , and The Wind Among the Reeds ( 1899 ) . The covers of these volumes were illustrated by Yeats ' friend Althea Gyles .
During 1885 , Yeats was involved in the formation of the Dublin Hermetic Order . The society held its first meeting on 16 June , with Yeats acting as its chairman . The same year , the Dublin Theosophical lodge was opened in conjunction with Brahmin Mohini Chatterjee , who travelled from the Theosophical Society in London to lecture . Yeats attended his first séance the following year . He later became heavily involved with the Theosophical Society and with hermeticism , particularly with the eclectic Rosicrucianism of the Golden Dawn . During séances held from 1912 , a spirit calling itself " Leo Africanus " apparently claimed it was Yeats 's Daemon or anti @-@ self , inspiring some of the speculations in Per Amica Silentia Lunae . He was admitted into the Golden Dawn in March 1890 and took the magical motto Daemon est Deus inversus — translated as Devil is God inverted or A demon is a god reflected . He was an active recruiter for the sect 's Isis @-@ Urania Temple , and brought in his uncle George Pollexfen , Maud Gonne , and Florence Farr . Although he reserved a distaste for abstract and dogmatic religions founded around personality cults , he was attracted to the type of people he met at the Golden Dawn . He was involved in the Order 's power struggles , both with Farr and Macgregor Mathers , and was involved when Mathers sent Aleister Crowley to repossess Golden Dawn paraphernalia during the " Battle of Blythe Road " . After the Golden Dawn ceased and splintered into various offshoots , Yeats remained with the Stella Matutina until 1921 .
= = = Maud Gonne = = =
In 1889 , Yeats met Maud Gonne , then a 23 @-@ year @-@ old English heiress and ardent Irish Nationalist . Gonne was eighteen months younger than Yeats and later claimed she met the poet as a " paint @-@ stained art student . " Gonne had admired " The Island of Statues " and sought out his acquaintance . Yeats developed an obsessive infatuation with her beauty and outspoken manner , and she had a significant and lasting effect on his poetry and his life thereafter .
In later years he admitted , " it seems to me that she [ Gonne ] brought into my life those days — for as yet I saw only what lay upon the surface — the middle of the tint , a sound as of a Burmese gong , an over @-@ powering tumult that had yet many pleasant secondary notes . " Yeats ' love initially remained unrequited , in part due to his reluctance to participate in her nationalist activism .
In 1891 , he visited Gonne in Ireland and proposed marriage , but she rejected him . He later admitted that from that point " the troubling of my life began " . Yeats proposed to Gonne three more times : in 1899 , 1900 and 1901 . She refused each proposal , and in 1903 , to his horror , married the Irish nationalist Major John MacBride . His only other love affair during this period was with Olivia Shakespear , whom he first met in 1894 , and parted from in 1897 .
Yeats continually sought to deride and demean John MacBride both in his letters and his poetry , but there were two main reasons why he was horrified by Gonne 's marriage to him . Firstly , to lose his muse to another man affected his reputation with the public . Secondly , Gonne converted to Catholicism before her marriage , and Yeats was Protestant / agnostic . He worried his muse would come under the influence of the priests and do their bidding .
Gonne 's marriage to MacBride , as forecast by both their sets of friends and relations , was a disaster early on . This pleased Yeats , as Gonne began to visit him in London . After the birth of her son , Seán MacBride , in 1904 , Gonne and MacBride agreed to end the marriage , although they were unable to agree on the child 's welfare . Despite the use of intermediaries , a divorce case ensued in Paris in 1905 . Gonne made a series of allegations against her husband with Yeats as her main ' second , ' though he did not attend court or travel to France . A divorce was not granted as the only accusation that held up in court was that MacBride had been drunk once during the marriage . A separation was granted with Gonne having custody of the baby and John having visiting rights .
Yeats 's friendship with Gonne persisted , and , in Paris , in 1908 , they finally consummated their relationship . " The long years of fidelity rewarded at last " was how another of his lovers described the event . Yeats was less sentimental and later remarked that " the tragedy of sexual intercourse is the perpetual virginity of the soul . " The relationship did not develop into a new phase after their night together , and soon afterwards Gonne wrote to the poet indicating that despite the physical consummation , they could not continue as they had been : " I have prayed so hard to have all earthly desire taken from my love for you and dearest , loving you as I do , I have prayed and I am praying still that the bodily desire for me may be taken from you too . " By January 1909 , Gonne was sending Yeats letters praising the advantage given to artists who abstain from sex . Nearly twenty years later , Yeats recalled the night with Gonne in his poem " A Man Young and Old " :
My arms are like the twisted thorn
And yet there beauty lay ;
The first of all the tribe lay there
And did such pleasure take ;
She who had brought great Hector down
And put all Troy to wreck .
In 1896 , Yeats was introduced to Lady Gregory by their mutual friend Edward Martyn . Gregory encouraged Yeats ' nationalism , and convinced him to continue focusing on writing drama . Although he was influenced by French Symbolism , Yeats concentrated on an identifiably Irish content and this inclination was reinforced by his involvement with a new generation of younger and emerging Irish authors . Together with Lady Gregory , Martyn , and other writers including J. M. Synge , Seán O 'Casey , and Padraic Colum , Yeats was one of those responsible for the establishment of the " Irish Literary Revival " movement . Apart from these creative writers , much of the impetus for the Revival came from the work of scholarly translators who were aiding in the discovery of both the ancient sagas and Ossianic poetry and the more recent folk song tradition in Irish . One of the most significant of these was Douglas Hyde , later the first President of Ireland , whose Love Songs of Connacht was widely admired .
= = = Abbey Theatre = = =
In 1899 , Yeats , Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn and George Moore established the Irish Literary Theatre for the purpose of performing Irish and Celtic plays . The ideals of the Abbey were derived from the avant @-@ garde French theatre , which sought to express the " ascendancy of the playwright rather than the actor @-@ manager à l 'anglais . " The group 's manifesto , which Yeats wrote , declared , " We hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted & imaginative audience trained to listen by its passion for oratory ... & that freedom to experiment which is not found in the theatres of England , & without which no new movement in art or literature can succeed . "
The collective survived for about two years but was not successful . Working with two Irish brothers with theatrical experience , William and Frank Fay , Yeats 's unpaid yet independently wealthy secretary Annie Horniman , and the leading West End actress Florence Farr , the group established the Irish National Theatre Society . Along with Synge , they acquired property in Dublin and on 27 December 1904 opened the Abbey Theatre . Yeats 's play Cathleen Ní Houlihan and Lady Gregory 's Spreading the News were featured on the opening night . Yeats remained involved with the Abbey until his death , both as a member of the board and a prolific playwright . In 1902 , he helped set up the Dun Emer Press to publish work by writers associated with the Revival . This became the Cuala Press in 1904 , and inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement , sought to " find work for Irish hands in the making of beautiful things . " From then until its closure in 1946 , the press — which was run by the poet 's sisters — produced over 70 titles ; 48 of them books by Yeats himself .
In 1909 , Yeats met the American poet Ezra Pound . Pound had travelled to London at least partly to meet the older man , whom he considered " the only poet worthy of serious study . " From that year until 1916 , the two men wintered in the Stone Cottage at Ashdown Forest , with Pound nominally acting as Yeats 's secretary . The relationship got off to a rocky start when Pound arranged for the publication in the magazine Poetry of some of Yeats 's verse with Pound 's own unauthorised alterations . These changes reflected Pound 's distaste for Victorian prosody . A more indirect influence was the scholarship on Japanese Noh plays that Pound had obtained from Ernest Fenollosa 's widow , which provided Yeats with a model for the aristocratic drama he intended to write . The first of his plays modelled on Noh was At the Hawk 's Well , the first draft of which he dictated to Pound in January 1916 .
The emergence of a nationalist revolutionary movement from the ranks of the mostly Roman Catholic lower @-@ middle and working class made Yeats reassess some of his attitudes . In the refrain of " Easter , 1916 " ( " All changed , changed utterly / A terrible beauty is born " ) , Yeats faces his own failure to recognise the merits of the leaders of the Easter Rising , due to his attitude towards their ordinary backgrounds and lives .
= = = Politics = = =
Yeats was an Irish Nationalist at heart , looking for the kind of traditional lifestyle displayed through poems such as ' The Fisherman ' . However , as his life progressed , he sheltered much of his revolutionary spirit and distanced himself from the intense political landscape until 1922 , when he was appointed Senator for the Irish Free State .
In the earlier part of his life , Yeats was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood . Due to the escalating tension of the political scene , Yeats distanced himself from the core political activism in the midst of the Easter Rising , even holding back his poetry inspired by the events until 1920 .
= = = Marriage to Georgie Hyde Lees = = =
By 1916 , Yeats was 51 years old and determined to marry and produce an heir . John MacBride had been executed by British forces for his role in the 1916 Easter Rising , and Yeats thought that his widow might remarry . His final proposal to Maud Gonne took place in mid @-@ 1916 . Gonne 's history of revolutionary political activism , as well as a series of personal catastrophes in the previous few years of her life , including chloroform addiction and her troubled marriage to MacBride made her a potentially unsuitable wife and biographer R.F. Foster has observed that Yeats 's last offer was motivated more by a sense of duty than by a genuine desire to marry her .
Yeats proposed in an indifferent manner , with conditions attached , and he both expected and hoped she would turn him down . According to Foster " when he duly asked Maud to marry him , and was duly refused , his thoughts shifted with surprising speed to her daughter . " Iseult Gonne was Maud 's second child with Lucien Millevoye , and at the time was twenty @-@ one years old . She had lived a sad life to this point ; conceived as an attempt to reincarnate her short @-@ lived brother , for the first few years of her life she was presented as her mother 's adopted niece . When Maud told her that she was going to marry , Iseult cried and told her mother that she hated MacBride . At fifteen , she proposed to Yeats . In 1917 he proposed to Iseult , but was rejected .
That September , Yeats proposed to 25 @-@ year @-@ old Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees ( 1892 – 1968 ) , known as George , whom he had met through Olivia Shakespear . Despite warnings from her friends — " George ... you can 't . He must be dead " — Hyde @-@ Lees accepted , and the two were married on 20 October . Their marriage was a success , in spite of the age difference , and in spite of Yeats 's feelings of remorse and regret during their honeymoon . The couple went on to have two children , Anne and Michael . Although in later years he had romantic relationships with other women and possibly affairs , George herself wrote to her husband " When you are dead , people will talk about your love affairs , but I shall say nothing , for I will remember how proud you were . "
During the first years of his marriage , he and George experimented with automatic writing , and George contacted a variety of spirits and guides they called " Instructors " while in a trance . The spirits communicated a complex and esoteric system of philosophy and history , which the couple developed into an exposition using geometrical shapes : phases , cones , and gyres . Yeats devoted much time to preparing this material for publication as A Vision ( 1925 ) . In 1924 , he wrote to his publisher T. Werner Laurie admitting : " I dare say I delude myself in thinking this book my book of books " .
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
In December 1923 , Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature , " for his always inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . He was aware of the symbolic value of an Irish winner so soon after Ireland had gained independence , and sought to highlight the fact at each available opportunity . His reply to many of the letters of congratulations sent to him contained the words : " I consider that this honour has come to me less as an individual than as a representative of Irish literature , it is part of Europe 's welcome to the Free State . " Yeats used the occasion of his acceptance lecture at the Royal Academy of Sweden to present himself as a standard @-@ bearer of Irish nationalism and Irish cultural independence . As he remarked , " The theatres of Dublin were empty buildings hired by the English travelling companies , and we wanted Irish plays and Irish players . When we thought of these plays we thought of everything that was romantic and poetical , because the nationalism we had called up — the nationalism every generation had called up in moments of discouragement — was romantic and poetical . " The prize led to a significant increase in the sales of his books , as his publishers Macmillan sought to capitalise on the publicity . For the first time he had money , and he was able to repay not only his own debts , but those of his father .
= = = Old age and death = = =
By early 1925 , Yeats ' health had stabilised , and he had completed most of the writing for " A Vision " ( dated 1925 , it actually appeared in January 1926 , when he almost immediately started rewriting it for a second version ) . He had been appointed to the first Irish Senate in 1922 , and was re @-@ appointed for a second term in 1925 . Early in his tenure , a debate on divorce arose , and Yeats viewed the issue as primarily a confrontation between the emerging Roman Catholic ethos and the Protestant minority . When the Roman Catholic Church weighed in with a blanket refusal to consider their anti position , the Irish Times countered that a measure to outlaw divorce would alienate Protestants and " crystallise " the partition of Ireland .
In response , Yeats delivered a series of speeches that attacked the " quixotically impressive " ambitions of the government and clergy , likening their campaign tactics to those of " medieval Spain . " " Marriage is not to us a Sacrament , but , upon the other hand , the love of a man and woman , and the inseparable physical desire , are sacred . This conviction has come to us through ancient philosophy and modern literature , and it seems to us a most sacrilegious thing to persuade two people who hate each other ... to live together , and it is to us no remedy to permit them to part if neither can re @-@ marry . " The resulting debate has been described as one of Yeats 's " supreme public moments " , and began his ideological move away from pluralism towards religious confrontation .
His language became more forceful ; the Jesuit Father Peter Finlay was described by Yeats as a man of " monstrous discourtesy " , and he lamented that , " It is one of the glories of the Church in which I was born that we have put our Bishops in their place in discussions requiring legislation " . During his time in the Senate , Yeats further warned his colleagues : " If you show that this country , southern Ireland , is going to be governed by Roman Catholic ideas and by Catholic ideas alone , you will never get the North ... You will put a wedge in the midst of this nation " . He memorably said of his fellow Irish Protestants , " we are no petty people " .
In 1924 , he chaired a coinage committee charged with selecting a set of designs for the first currency of the Irish Free State . Aware of the symbolic power latent in the imagery of a young state 's currency , he sought a form that was " elegant , racy of the soil , and utterly unpolitical " . When the house finally decided on the artwork of Percy Metcalfe , Yeats was pleased , though he regretted that compromise had led to " lost muscular tension " in the finally depicted images . He retired from the Senate in 1928 because of ill health .
Towards the end of his life — and especially after the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression , which led some to question whether democracy could cope with deep economic difficulty — Yeats seems to have returned to his aristocratic sympathies . During the aftermath of the First World War , he became sceptical about the efficacy of democratic government , and anticipated political reconstruction in Europe through totalitarian rule . His later association with Pound drew him towards Benito Mussolini , for whom he expressed admiration on a number of occasions . He wrote three " marching songs " — never used — for the Irish General Eoin O 'Duffy 's Blueshirts .
At the age of 69 he was ' rejuvenated ' by the Steinach operation which was performed on 6 April 1934 by Norman Haire . For the last five years of his life Yeats found a new vigour evident from both his poetry and his intimate relations with younger women . During this time , Yeats was involved in a number of romantic affairs with , among others , the poet and actress Margot Ruddock , and the novelist , journalist and sexual radical Ethel Mannin . As in his earlier life , Yeats found erotic adventure conducive to his creative energy , and , despite age and ill @-@ health , he remained a prolific writer . In a letter of 1935 , Yeats noted : " I find my present weakness made worse by the strange second puberty the operation has given me , the ferment that has come upon my imagination . If I write poetry it will be unlike anything I have done " . In 1936 , he undertook editorship of the Oxford Book of Modern Verse , 1892 – 1935 .
He died at the Hôtel Idéal Séjour , in Menton , France , on 28 January 1939 . He was buried after a discreet and private funeral at Roquebrune @-@ Cap @-@ Martin . Attempts had been made at Roquebrune to dissuade the family from proceeding with the removal of the remains to Ireland due to the uncertainty of their identity . His body had earlier been exhumed and transferred to the ossuary . Yeats and George had often discussed his death , and his express wish was that he be buried quickly in France with a minimum of fuss . According to George , " His actual words were ' If I die bury me up there [ at Roquebrune ] and then in a year 's time when the newspapers have forgotten me , dig me up and plant me in Sligo ' . " In September 1948 , Yeats ' body was moved to Drumcliff , County Sligo , on the Irish Naval Service corvette LÉ Macha . The person in charge of this operation for the Irish Government was Sean MacBride , son of Maud Gonne MacBride , and then Minister of External Affairs . His epitaph is taken from the last lines of " Under Ben Bulben " , one of his final poems :
Cast a cold Eye
On Life , on Death .
Horseman , pass by !
= = Style = =
Yeats is generally considered one of the twentieth century 's key English language poets . He was a Symbolist poet , in that he used allusive imagery and symbolic structures throughout his career . Yeats chose words and assembled them so that , in addition to a particular meaning , they suggest other abstract thoughts that may seem more significant and resonant . His use of symbols is usually something physical that is both itself and a suggestion of other , perhaps immaterial , timeless qualities .
Unlike other modernists who experimented with free verse , Yeats was a master of the traditional forms . The impact of modernism on his work can be seen in the increasing abandonment of the more conventionally poetic diction of his early work in favour of the more austere language and more direct approach to his themes that increasingly characterises the poetry and plays of his middle period , comprising the volumes In the Seven Woods , Responsibilities and The Green Helmet . His later poetry and plays are written in a more personal vein , and the works written in the last twenty years of his life include mention of his son and daughter , as well as meditations on the experience of growing old . In his poem , " The Circus Animals ' Desertion " , he describes the inspiration for these late works :
Now that my ladder 's gone
I must lie down where all the ladders start
In the foul rag and bone shop of the heart .
During 1929 , he stayed at Thoor Ballylee near Gort in County Galway ( where Yeats had his summer home since 1919 ) for the last time . Much of the remainder of his life was lived outside Ireland , although he did lease Riversdale house in the Dublin suburb of Rathfarnham in 1932 . He wrote prolifically through his final years , and published poetry , plays , and prose . In 1938 , he attended the Abbey for the final time to see the premier of his play Purgatory . His Autobiographies of William Butler Yeats was published that same year . In 1913 , Yeats wrote the preface for the English translation of Rabindranath Tagore 's Gitanjali ( Song Offering ) for which Tagore received Nobel Prize in literature .
While Yeats 's early poetry drew heavily on Irish myth and folklore , his later work was engaged with more contemporary issues , and his style underwent a dramatic transformation . His work can be divided into three general periods . The early poems are lushly pre @-@ Raphaelite in tone , self @-@ consciously ornate , and , at times , according to unsympathetic critics , stilted . Yeats began by writing epic poems such as The Isle of Statues and The Wanderings of Oisin . His other early poems are lyrics on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects . Yeats 's middle period saw him abandon the pre @-@ Raphaelite character of his early work and attempt to turn himself into a Landor @-@ style social ironist .
Critics who admire his middle work might characterize it as supple and muscular in its rhythms and sometimes harshly modernist , while others find these poems barren and weak in imaginative power . Yeats 's later work found new imaginative inspiration in the mystical system he began to work out for himself under the influence of spiritualism . In many ways , this poetry is a return to the vision of his earlier work . The opposition between the worldly minded man of the sword and the spiritually minded man of God , the theme of The Wanderings of Oisin , is reproduced in A Dialogue Between Self and Soul .
Some critics claim that Yeats spanned the transition from the nineteenth century into twentieth @-@ century modernism in poetry much as Pablo Picasso did in painting while others question whether late Yeats has much in common with modernists of the Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot variety .
Modernists read the well @-@ known poem The Second Coming as a dirge for the decline of European civilisation in the mode of Eliot , but later critics have pointed out that this poem is an expression of Yeats 's apocalyptic mystical theories , and thus the expression of a mind shaped by the 1890s . His most important collections of poetry started with The Green Helmet ( 1910 ) and Responsibilities ( 1914 ) . In imagery , Yeats 's poetry became sparer and more powerful as he grew older . The Tower ( 1928 ) , The Winding Stair ( 1933 ) , and New Poems ( 1938 ) contained some of the most potent images in twentieth @-@ century poetry .
Yeats 's mystical inclinations , informed by Hindu Theosophical beliefs and the occult , provided much of the basis of his late poetry , which some critics have judged as lacking in intellectual credibility . The metaphysics of Yeats 's late works must be read in relation to his system of esoteric fundamentals in A Vision ( 1925 ) .
His 1921 poem , " The Second Coming " contains some of literature 's most potent images of the twentieth century .
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer
Things fall apart ; the centre cannot hold ;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world ,
The blood @-@ dimmed tide is loosed , and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned .
The best lack all conviction , while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity .
Here , Yeats incorporates his ideas on the gyre – a historical cycle of about 2000 years . He first published this idea in A Vision , which predicted the anarchy expected to be released around 2000 years after the birth of Christ .
According to some interpretations " the best " referred to the traditional ruling classes of Europe who were unable to protect the traditional culture of Europe from materialistic mass movements . The concluding lines also refer to Yeats 's belief that history was cyclic , and that his age represented the end of the cycle that began with the rise of Christianity .
And what rough beast , its hour come round at last ,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born ?
= The Baby Show =
" The Baby Show " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 4 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Rachel Dratch , John Lutz , Bridget Moloney , Maulik Pancholy , Chris Parnell , Keith Powell , and Lonny Ross .
In the episode , Cerie Xerox ( Bowden ) gets engaged so that she can be a " young hot mom " , causing Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to think about marriage and having a family . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) has trouble dealing with his own domineering mother , who wants to move in with him , and at the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) becomes upset by Josh Girard 's ( Ross ) impression of him .
" The Baby Show " received mixed reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) announces her engagement during a gathering for Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) birthday , and says that she wants to be a " young hot mom " . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) confronts her own marital and maternal status . She speaks with Jenna about this , and Jenna proceeds to tell all of the men in the office — Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) — that Liz is looking for someone to get her pregnant . Later that day , Liz sees Cerie in the makeup department getting herself made up . Anna ( Bridget Moloney ) , the makeup artist has her baby at work with her . She asks Liz to hold the baby for a while , so Liz takes the baby for a stroll around the 30 Rock building . Suddenly she realizes that she is no longer in the building , but is now in her apartment . She hurries back to the office with the baby , and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) fixes the situation .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is being harassed by his mother over the phone . She calls him repeatedly , with the intention of moving in with him . The situation causes him to exhibit some stress @-@ eating tendencies . At the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) begin to hang out , but Tracy gets annoyed of Josh 's impression of him . He demands that Liz fire Josh , but she refuses , so instead she tries to fix the situation , but Tracy threatens to go to Jack if she does not . Josh tries to avoid getting in trouble by calling Tracy and impersonating Jack , and then calling Jack and impersonating Tracy . It is not long before he is caught and Jack and Tracy have their revenge on him . As part of his punishment , Jack forces Josh talk to his mother " Every day , for the rest of your or her life . "
= = Production = =
" The Baby Show " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . This was Burditt 's second writing credit , having written the episode " Jack Meets Dennis " , and was Engler 's first directed episode . " The Baby Show " originally aired on January 4 , 2007 on NBC as the ninth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series . This was the first of several episodes to make reference to Liz 's desire to become a mother . This plot came to a head in the third season episode " Do @-@ Over " in which Liz attempts to adopt a child .
Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) alumna of series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , the latter who was the show 's head writer from 1999 until 2006 , was originally cast to portray Jenna Maroney . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , actress Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In the pilot and in this episode , Dratch played Greta Johansen , the The Girlie Show 's cat wrangler . In this episode , Greta tells Liz Lemon that she would be interested in carrying her baby , after hearing that Liz was looking for someone to get her pregnant . Actor Chris Parnell appeared as | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Dr. Leo Spaceman in " The Baby Show " , in which Liz calls him for fertility purposes . Various other cast members of SNL have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis , Molly Shannon , Horatio Sanz , and Jan Hooks . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " The Baby Show " was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households , the same as the previous week 's episode " The Break @-@ Up " , in its original American broadcast . It received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
IGN contributor Robert Canning said the episode " had plenty of standout bits " but that it " represented a major flaw " and " perhaps in the program as a whole " , citing that " [ t ] here seems to be more of an emphasis on comedic ' bits ' rather than comedic ' situations , ' which doesn 't bode well for a situation comedy . " He explained that " The Baby Show " in particular " felt very disjointed , bouncing between jokes more than storylines . It even opened with a Jenna surprise @-@ birthday segment that was funny for what it was , but had absolutely nothing to do with the rest of the show . " Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 out 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich liked that Josh had a story in this episode , and said that his impression of Tracy was " pretty good " . He remarked that " The Baby Show " was " a solid episode , if a bit too theme @-@ y for my broad @-@ sitcom liking . "
= SMS Prinz Adalbert ( 1865 ) =
For other ships of the same name , see SMS Prinz Adalbert
SMS Prinz Adalbert was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy , originally ordered by the Confederate States Navy . Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark , though the vessel was not delivered until after the war . The vessel was designed as an armored ram , but also carried three guns : one 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) pieces in armored turrets . She was named after Prince Adalbert of Prussia , an early proponent of German naval power .
The ship was poorly constructed and as a result had a very limited service career . She was heavily modified after her delivery to Prussia in 1865 and briefly served with the fleet between 1866 and 1871 . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 – 1871 , the ship was assigned as a guard ship in Hamburg . After the war , it was discovered that the internal wood construction was badly rotted ; she was therefore removed from service in October 1871 . Prinz Adalbert was stricken from the naval register in May 1878 and broken up for scrap that year .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and propulsion = = =
Prinz Adalbert was 50 @.@ 48 meters ( 165 @.@ 6 ft ) long at the waterline and 56 @.@ 96 m ( 186 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 9 @.@ 92 m ( 32 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 96 m ( 16 @.@ 3 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 02 m ( 16 @.@ 5 ft ) aft . She was designed to displace 1 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 420 long tons ; 1 @,@ 590 short tons ) at a normal load and up to 1 @,@ 560 t ( 1 @,@ 540 long tons ; 1 @,@ 720 short tons ) at combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed from transverse frames , and included both iron and timber . The hull was sheathed in copper to protect it from parasites . The Prussians regarded the ship as a poor sea boat . The ram bow caused the vessel to ship a great deal of water . It was , however , responsive to commands from the helm and had a very tight turning radius . Prinz Adalbert had a crew of ten officers and 120 enlisted men .
Prinz Adalbert 's propulsion system was provided by Mazeline , based in Le Havre . The ship was powered by a pair of 2 @-@ cylinder single expansion engines , each of which drove a four @-@ bladed screw that was 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 ft 10 in ) in diameter . The engines were placed in a single engine room . Two trunk boilers , also in a single boiler room , supplied steam to the engines at 1 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 150 kPa ) . Two rudders were fitted side by side to control the vessel . The ship was initially fitted with a 740 square meter ( 2 @,@ 428 sq ft ) brig rig , though this was subsequently replaced with a 677 square meter topsail schooner rig .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , Prinz Adalbert was armed with three rifled 36 pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . One was placed in an integral five @-@ port bow turret , while the other two were located in a fixed two @-@ port turret amidships . After delivery in 1865 , the French guns were replaced with a 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 19 gun in the bow and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) L / 25 guns in a revolving turret . The forward gun was supplied with 76 rounds of ammunition while the central guns had 71 shells each . Prinz Adalbert was armored with wrought iron , which was mounted on the wooden hull . The armored belt , which protected the waterline of the ship , was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The turrets were protected by 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of armor plating on the sides .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Adalbert was built under the cover name Cheops by the French shipyard of the Arman brothers in Bordeaux . Her sister ship , built under the cover name Sphinx , was delivered to the Confederate Navy and renamed CSS Stonewall . The French emperor , Napoleon III , ordered the Arman brothers to sell Cheops to another navy immediately ; Prussia purchased the ship on 25 May 1864 . The Second Schleswig War between Denmark and Prussia and its ally Austria delayed delivery of the ship . Cheops was commissioned into the Prussian fleet on 29 October 1865 as Prinz Adalbert . Along with the turret ship Arminius , Prinz Adalbert was among the first armored vessels acquired by the Prussian Navy . The ship was named for Prince Adalbert of Prussia , one of the creators of the German fleet . While conducting trials off Denmark in June 1865 , Prinz Adalbert ran aground . During the Austro @-@ Prussian War in 1866 , Prinz Adalbert was mobilized in Kiel under the command of Admiral Jachmann , but due to the lack of opponents in the North and Baltic Seas , the ship remained in the Baltic for the duration of the war .
The ship did not last long in service due to her poor construction ; this necessitated significant refurbishment , which was carried out at the naval depot at Geestemünde in 1868 – 1869 . Her armor plating had to be removed and reinstalled , a breakwater was installed at the stern of the ship , and the main mast had to be relocated . She was re @-@ rigged to a schooner rig during this refit . Prinz Adalbert also suffered from severe leaking throughout her short career . In 1870 , shortly before the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War , the Prussian fleet was mobilized for a training cruise into the Atlantic . Prinz Adalbert and the recently commissioned broadside ironclad König Wilhelm steamed to Plymouth , England , where they rendezvoused with the rest of the fleet . While in Plymouth , the squadron received news of imminent hostilities with France , and made for safety in Wilhelmshaven , arriving on 16 July , three days before the outbreak of war . For the duration of the conflict , Prinz Adalbert served as a harbor guard ship in Hamburg . Her timber hull was found to be rotten in 1871 , which forced her decommissioning . She was removed from service on 23 October 1871 and disarmed in 1875 – 1876 . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 28 May 1878 . She was broken up that year in Wilhelmshaven , and her engines were removed and reused .
= Battle of Lissa ( 1811 ) =
The Battle of Lissa ( sometimes called the Battle of Vis ; French : Bataille de Lissa ; Italian : Battaglia di Lissa ; Croatian : Viška bitka ) was a naval action fought between a British frigate squadron and a larger squadron of French and Venetian frigates and smaller ships on 13 March 1811 during the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars . The engagement was fought in the Adriatic Sea for possession of the strategically important island of Lissa ( also known as Vis ) , from which the British squadron had been disrupting French shipping in the Adriatic . The French needed to control the Adriatic to supply a growing army in the Illyrian Provinces , and consequently dispatched an invasion force in March 1811 consisting of six frigates , numerous smaller craft and a battalion of Italian soldiers .
The French invasion force under Bernard Dubourdieu was met by Captain William Hoste and his four ships based on the island . In the subsequent battle , Hoste sank the French flagship , captured two others , and scattered the remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron . The battle has been hailed as an important British victory , due to both the disparity between the forces and the signal raised by Hoste , a former subordinate of Horatio Nelson . Hoste had raised the message " Remember Nelson " as the French bore down , and had then manoeuvred to drive Dubourdieu 's flagship ashore and scatter his squadron in what has been described as " one of the most brilliant naval achievements of the war " .
= = Background = =
The Napoleonic Wars , the name for a succession of connected conflicts between the armies of the French Emperor Napoleon and his European opponents , were nine years old when the War of the Fifth Coalition ended in 1809 . The Treaty of Schönbrunn that followed the war gave Napoleon possession of the final part of Adriatic coastline not under his control : the Illyrian Provinces . This formalised the control the French had exercised in Illyria since 1805 and over the whole Adriatic Sea since the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 . In the Treaty of Tilsit , Russia had granted France control over the Septinsular Republic and withdrawn their own forces from the region , allowing Napoleon freedom of action in the Adriatic . At Schönbrunn , Napoleon made the Illyrian Provinces part of metropolitan France and therefore under direct French rule , unlike the neighbouring Kingdom of Italy which was nominally independent but in reality came under his personal rule . Thus , the Treaty of Schönbrunn formalised Napoleon 's control of almost the entire coastline of the Adriatic and , if unopposed , would allow him to transport troops and supplies to the Balkans . The French army forming in the Illyrian Provinces was possibly intended for an invasion of the Ottoman Empire in conjunction with the Russians ; the two countries had signed an agreement to support one another against the Ottomans at Tilsit .
To disrupt the preparations of this army , the British Royal Navy , which had controlled most of the Mediterranean since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , seized the Dalmatian Island of Lissa in 1807 and used it as a base for raiding the coastal shipping of Italy and Illyria . These operations captured dozens of ships and caused panic and disruption to French strategy in the region . To counter this , the French government started a major shipbuilding programme in the Italian seaports , particularly Venice , and despatched frigates of their own to protect their shipping . Commodore Bernard Dubourdieu 's Franco @-@ Venetian forces were unable to bring the smaller British force under William Hoste to a concerted action , where Dubourdieu 's superior numbers might prove decisive . Instead , the British and French frigate squadrons engaged in a campaign of raids and counter @-@ raids during 1810 .
In October 1810 , Dubourdieu landed 700 Italian soldiers on Lissa while Hoste searched in vain for the French squadron in the Southern Adriatic . The island had been left in the command of two midshipmen , James Lew and Robert Kingston , who withdrew the entire population of the island into the central mountains along with their supplies . The Italian troops were left in possession of the deserted main town , Port St. George . The French and Italians burnt several vessels in the harbour and captured others , but remained on the island for no more than seven hours , retreating before Hoste returned . The remainder of the year was quiet , the British squadron gaining superiority after being reinforced by the third @-@ rate ship of the line HMS Montagu .
Early in 1811 the raiding campaigns began again , and British attacks along the Italian coast prompted Dubourdieu to mount a second invasion of Lissa . Taking advantage of the temporary absence of Montagu , Dubourdieu assembled six frigates and numerous smaller craft and embarked over 500 Italian soldiers under Colonel Alexander Gifflenga . The squadron amassed by Dubourdieu not only outnumbered the British in terms of men and ships , it was also twice as heavy in weight of shot . Dubourdieu planned to overwhelm Hoste 's frigate squadron and then invade and capture the island , which would eradicate the British threat in the Adriatic for months to come .
= = Battle = =
Dubourdieu ( as commodore ) led a squadron consisting of six frigates ( four of 40 guns and two of 32 guns ) , a 16 @-@ gun brig , two schooners , one xebec , and two gunboats . Three of his ships were from the French Navy , and the others from the Navy of the Kingdom of Italy . In addition the squadron carried 500 Italian soldiers . In the absence of Montagu , Hoste 's squadron consisted of three frigates ( one of 38 guns and two of 32 guns ) and one 22 @-@ gun post ship . The island of Lissa itself was defended by a small number of local troops under the command of two midshipmen .
Dubourdieu 's squadron was spotted approaching the island of Lissa at 03 : 00 on 12 March 1811 by Captain Gordon in HMS Active , which had led the British squadron from Port St George on a cruise off Ancona . Turning west , the British squadron awaited the French approach in line ahead , sailing along the north coast of the island within half a mile of the shoreline . By 06 : 00 , Dubourdieu was approaching the British line from the north @-@ east in two divisions , leading in Favorite at the head of the windward or western division . Dubourdieu hoped to pass ahead of Active at the head of the British line and cross it further east with Danaé , which led the leeward division . Dubourdieu intended to break the British line in two places and destroy the British squadron in the crossfire .
Over the next three hours the squadrons continued to close , light winds restricting them to a little over three knots . A protege of Nelson , Hoste recalled the inspirational effect of Nelson 's signal before the Battle of Trafalgar and raised his own : " Remember Nelson " , which was greeted with wild cheering from the squadron . As he closed with Hoste 's force , Dubourdieu realised that he would be unable to successfully cross Active 's bow due to the British ship 's speed , and would also be unable to break through their line due to the British ships ' close proximity to one another . He instead sought to attack the second ship in the British line , Hoste 's flagship HMS Amphion . Dubourdieu possessed not only a significant advantage in ships but also in men , the Italian soldiers aboard giving him the opportunity to overwhelm the British crews if he could board their frigates successfully . The first shots of the battle were fired at 09 : 00 , as the British used their wider field of fire to attack the leading French ships , Favorite and Danaé , unopposed for several minutes . The French squadron held their fire , Dubourdieu gathering his troops and sailors into Favorite 's bow in order to maximise the effect of his initial attack once his flagship came into contact with Amphion .
Hoste was aware of Dubourdieu 's intentions and the French advantage in numbers , and consequently ordered a large 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) howitzer on Amphion 's deck triple @-@ shotted until the cannon contained over 750 musket balls Once Favorite was within a few yards of Amphion 's stern , Hoste gave permission for the gun to be fired and the cannon 's discharge instantly swept the bow of Favorite clear of the French and Italian boarding party . Among the dozens killed and wounded were Dubourdieu and all the frigate 's officers , leaving Colonel Gifflenga in command of Favorite . As Favorite and Amphion closed with one another , firing continued between the British rear and the French leeward division , led by Danaé . Several of the French ships came at an angle at which they could bring their guns to bear on HMS Cerberus , the rearmost British ship , and both sides were firing regular broadsides at one another .
= = = Hoste 's manoeuvre = = =
Following the death of Dubourdieu , Captain Péridier on Flore ordered the French and Venetian ships to attack the British line directly . The battered Favorite led with an attempt to round Amphion and rake her before catching her in crossfire , as had been Dubourdieu 's original intention . The remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron followed this lead and attempted to bring their superior numbers to bear on the British squadron . Hoste was prepared for this eventuality and immediately ordered his ships to wear , turning south and then east to reverse direction . This movement threw the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron into confusion and as a result the squadron 's formation became disorganised . Favorite , which had lost almost its entire complement of officers , was unable to respond quickly enough to the manoeuvre and drove onto the rocky coastline in confusion , becoming a total wreck .
Thrown into further confusion by the loss of Favorite , the French and Venetian formation began to break up and the British squadron was able to pull ahead of their opponents ; the leading French ships Flore and Bellona succeeded in only reaching Amphion , which was now at the rear of the British line . Amphion found herself caught between the two frigates and this slowed the British line enough that the French eastern division , led by Danaé , was able to strike at HMS Volage , now the leading British ship after overtaking Cerberus during the turn . Volage was much smaller than her opponent but was armed with 32 @-@ pounder carronades , short range guns that caused such damage to Danaé that the French ship was forced to haul off and reengage from a longer range . The strain of combat at this greater distance ruptured Volage 's short @-@ ranged carronades and left the ship much weakened , with only a single gun with which to engage the enemy .
= = = Chase = = =
Behind Volage and Danaé , the Venetian Corona had engaged Cerberus in a close range duel , during which Cerberus took heavy damage but inflicted similar injuries on the Italian ship . This exchange continued until the arrival of Active caused the Danaé , Corona and Carolina to sheer off and retreat to the east . To the rear , Amphion , succeeded in closing with and raking Flore , and caused such damage that within five minutes the French ship 's officers threw the French colours overboard in surrender . Captain Péridier had been seriously wounded in the action , and took no part in Flore 's later movements . Amphion then attacked Bellona and in an engagement that lasted until 12 : 00 , forced the Italian ship 's surrender . During this combat , the small ship Principessa Augusta fired on Amphion from a distance , until the frigate was able to turn a gun on them and drive them off . Hoste sent a punt to take possession of Bellona but due to the damage suffered was unable to launch a boat to seize Flore . Realising Amphion 's difficulty , the officers of Flore , who had made hasty repairs during the conflict between Amphion and Bellona , immediately set sail for the French harbour on Lesina ( Hvar ) , despite having already surrendered .
Active , the only British ship still in fighting condition , took up pursuit of the retreating enemy and at 12 : 30 caught the Corona in the channel between Lissa and the small island of Spalmadon . The frigates manoeuvred around one another for the next hour ; captains Gordon and Pasqualigo each seeking the best position from which to engage . The frigates engaged in combat at 13 @.@ 45 , Active forcing Corona 's surrender 45 minutes later after a fire broke out aboard the Italian ship . Active too had suffered severely and as the British squadron was not strong enough to continue the action by attacking the remaining squadron in its protected harbour on Lesina , the battle came to an end . The survivors of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron had all reached safety ; Carolina and Danaé had used the conflict between Active and Corona to cover their escape while Flore had indicated to each British ship she passed that she had surrendered and was in British possession despite the absence of a British officer on board . Once Flore was clear of the British squadron she headed for safety , reaching the batteries of Lesina shortly after her Carolina and Danaé and ahead of the limping British pursuit . The smaller craft of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron scattered during the battle 's final stages and reached Lesina independently .
= = = Conclusion = = =
Although Favorite was wrecked , over 200 of her crew and soldier @-@ passengers had reached the land and , having set fire to their ship , prepared to march on Port St. George under the leadership of Colonel Gifflenga . Two British midshipmen left in command of the town organised the British and indigenous population into a defensive force and marched to meet Gifflenga . The junior British officers informed Gifflenga that the return of the British squadron would bring overwhelming numbers of sailors , marines and naval artillery to bear on his small force and that if he surrendered immediately he could expect better terms . Gifflenga recognised that his position was untenable and capitulated . At Port St. George , the Venetian gunboat Lodola sneaked unnoticed into the harbour and almost captured a Sicilian privateer , Vincitore . The raider was driven off by the remaining garrison of the town without the prize , while attempting to manoeuvre her out of the bay .
In the seas off Lissa , British prize crews were making strenuous efforts to protect their captures ; Corona was heavily on fire in consequence of her engagement with Active and the British prize crew fought the blaze alongside their Italian prisoners . The fire was eventually brought under control , but not without the death of five men and several more seriously burnt when the blazing mainmast collapsed . Problems were also experienced aboard Bellona , where Captain Duodo planned to ignite the powder magazine and destroy the ship following its surrender . Duodo had been mortally wounded in the action , and so ordered his second in command to light the fuse . The officer promised to do so , but instead handed control of the magazine to the British prize crew when they arrived . Duodo died still believing that the fuse had been lit .
Hoste also remained at sea , cruising in the battered Amphion beyond the range of the shore batteries on Lesina . Hoste was furious at the behaviour of Flore 's officers and sent a note into Lesina demanding that they give up the ship as indicated by its earlier surrender . In surrendering and then escaping , the officers of Flore had breached an informal rule of naval conflict under which a ship that voluntarily struck its flag submitted to an opponent in order to prevent continued loss of life among its crew . Flore had been able to pass unmolested through the British squadron only because she was recognised to have surrendered , and to abuse this custom in this way was considered , in the Royal Navy especially , to be a dishonourable act . The French at Lesina did not respond to Hoste 's note , and the British squadron was eventually forced to return to Lissa to effect repairs .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties of the action were heavy on both sides . The British ships suffered 190 killed or wounded in the battle and a number lost afterwards in the fire aboard Corona . Captains Hoste and Hornby were both badly wounded and the entire British squadron was in need of urgent repair before resuming the campaign . In the French and Italian squadron the situation was even worse , although precise losses are not known . At least 150 had been killed aboard Favorite either in the action or the wreck , and the 200 survivors of her crew and passengers were all made prisoner . Bellona had suffered at least 70 casualties and Corona 's losses were also severe . Among the ships that escaped less is known of their casualties , but all required repair and reinforcement before the campaign could resume . Total French and Italian losses are estimated at no less than 700 . Losses among the officers of the combined squadron were especially high , with Commodore Dubourdieu and captains Meillerie and Duodo killed and Péridier seriously wounded .
The immediate aftermath saw renewed efforts by Hoste to induce the French to hand over Flore , efforts that were rebuffed by the captain of the Danaé , who had assumed command of the French squadron . The surviving French and Venetian ships were initially laid up in Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) awaiting supplies to continue the campaign , but a separate British squadron discovered and sank the supply ship at Parenzo ( Poreč ) , necessitating a full French withdrawal from the area . In Britain , Hoste 's action was widely praised ; the squadron 's first lieutenants were all promoted to commander and the captains all presented with a commemorative medal . Nearly four decades later the battle was also recognized in the issue of the clasp Lissa to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded to all British participants still living in 1847 . On their arrival in Britain , Corona and Bellone were repaired and later purchased for service in the Royal Navy , the newly built Corona being named HMS Daedalus and Bellone becoming the troopship HMS Dover . Daedalus was commissioned in 1812 under Captain Murray Maxwell , but served less than a year ; wrecked off Ceylon in July 1813 .
British numerical superiority in the region was assured ; when French reinforcements for the Adriatic departed Toulon on 25 March they were hunted down and driven back to France by Captain Robert Otway in HMS Ajax before they had even passed Corsica . Throughout the remainder of 1811 however , British and French frigate squadrons continued to spar across the Adriatic , the most significant engagement being the action of 29 November 1811 , in which a second French squadron was destroyed . The action had significant long @-@ term effects ; the destruction of one of the best @-@ trained and best @-@ led squadrons in the French Navy and the death of the aggressive Dubourdieu ended the French ability to strike into the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire .
= = Order of battle = =
Key
A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received .
The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle .
= British Royal Navy , =
French Navy , = Navy of the Kingdom of Italy .
= Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier =
Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier , 1st Comte Sérurier ( 8 December 1742 – 21 December 1819 ) led a division in the War of the First Coalition and became a Marshal of France under Emperor Napoleon . He was born into the minor nobility and in 1755 joined the Laon militia which was soon sent to fight in the Seven Years ' War . After transferring into the regular army as an ensign , he was wounded at Warburg in 1760 . He fought in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War in 1762 . He married in 1779 after a promotion to captain . A newly minted major in 1789 , the French Revolution sped up promotion so that he was colonel of the regiment in 1792 . After leading Army of Italy troops in a number of actions , he became a general of brigade in 1793 and a general of division the following year .
Sérurier led a division in Napoleon Bonaparte 's Italian campaign of 1796 , except during bouts of illness . He especially distinguished himself at the Battle of Mondovì and the Siege of Mantua . In 1799 , he again fought in Italy during the War of the Second Coalition at Verona , Magnano and Cassano , being captured in the latter action . After being paroled , he supported Napoleon 's rise to political power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in late 1799 . The apex of his career occurred on 19 May 1804 when Napoleon appointed him a Marshal of the Empire . His active military career over , Sérurier served in the French Senate and was ennobled by Napoleon . In 1814 as the First French Empire was crumbling , he burned all the many flags captured by the French armies . His troops called him the " Virgin of Italy " for his rigorous standards of discipline and honesty in an army known for generals who enriched themselves by plundering the conquered territories . His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .
= = Early life = =
Sérurier was born at Laon on 8 December 1742 , the son of Mathieu @-@ Guillaume Sérurier . The family formed part of the minor provincial nobility , his father holding the title Seigneur de Sort and the job of mole @-@ catcher to the king 's breeding stud . After 1750 his father 's title became Seigneur de Saint @-@ Gobert . Sérurier got a good education and was of sober character . He received a commission as lieutenant in the Laon militia battalion on 25 March 1755 , his uncle being the unit 's commander . He transferred to the Soissons militia battalion on 12 June 1758 . When he heard that the Laon battalion was called to serve in the Seven Years ' War he switched back to his old unit on 30 November 1758 . After sustaining a bayonet wound , he transferred into the Mazarin Infantry Regiment as a cadet on 1 October 1759 . At the Battle of Warburg on 31 July 1760 , Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised the French under Louis Nicolas Victor de Felix d 'Ollieres , Count Du Muy . While defending a critical post , Sérurier was hit on the right side of his face by a bullet , which broke his jaw and left a lasting scar . The injury also cost him most of his teeth . He was promoted to second lieutenant on 25 April 1762 .
Sérurier 's regiment was ordered to Bayonne where it joined a force under Charles Juste de Beauvau , Prince of Craon . These troops entered Spain on 3 June 1762 to take part in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War . The first battalion , in which Sérurier served , participated in the siege of Almeida which fell to the Franco @-@ Spanish on 25 August 1762 . The unit returned to France in November that year and after the Treaty of Paris was renamed the Beauce Regiment . After the peace Sérurier was demoted to sous @-@ lieutenant and spent six years as a drill instructor . He was promoted to second lieutenant again on 21 February 1767 and was shipped to Corsica in 1770 . The Republic of Genoa transferred Corsica to France in 1764 but Pasquale Paoli led an insurrection against the occupiers which resulted in a few skirmishes . His superiors called Sérurier an " excellent officer " but he was not promoted to first lieutenant until 28 February 1778 . A year later he was promoted to captain . He married Louise @-@ Marie @-@ Madeleine Itasse on 3 July 1779 . Her father was the Registrar of the bail bondsmen of Laon .
On 29 July 1781 Sérurier was awarded the Order of Saint @-@ Louis . On 10 May 1782 he assumed the rank of captain commandant and on 1 June 1783 he took command of the regiment 's Chasseur company . Irked by the lack of promotion , he asked to retire on pension on 8 September 1788 . His commanding officer argued to retain such a good officer and Sérurier transferred into the Médoc Regiment as a major on 17 May 1789 . He became lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1791 . Since the French Revolution the garrison at Perpignan became agitated so the regiment was sent there to calm down the other troops . Instead , the Médoc Regiment itself became affected by the troubles . On 23 July 1791 , fearing that Sérurier was about to leave the country with the regiment 's colors , a body of soldiers removed them from his quarters . In January 1792 , 19 officers from the regiment emigrated to Spain . A story existed that Sérurier and a companion tried to flee to Spain but were nearly caught by a patrol and only his companion made it across the border . In June 1792 the Médoc , renamed the 70th Infantry Regiment , marched to the Camp of Tournoux in the Alps . Sérurier became the commanding officer of the 70th with the rank of colonel on 7 August 1792 .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
= = = 1792 – 94 = = =
On 29 September 1792 , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man division under Jacques Bernard d 'Anselme crossed the Var River and occupied Nice , then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia . This force was part of the Army of the Midi which was split on 1 October 1792 , with the troops on the Alpine front becoming the Army of the Alps . On 7 November d 'Anselme 's division became the Army of Italy , which included the 70th Regiment . At about this time Sérurier was arrested for harboring royalist sentiments , but Paul Barras got his rank restored . On 19 May 1793 , the new army commander Gaspard Jean @-@ Baptiste Brunet sent him with a column to occupy Saint @-@ Sauveur @-@ sur @-@ Tinée . Sérurier moved north up the Tinée River and captured Isola on the 21st . With 3 @,@ 000 troops , he attacked the Col de Raus west of Belvédère but was repulsed on 8 June . During the First Battle of Saorgio he led a major attack on the Massif de l 'Authion on 12 June , but it was defeated with losses of 280 dead and 1 @,@ 252 wounded . At the end of July Brunet made another assault on Massif de l 'Authion while Sérurier attacked the Col de Raus again but both efforts failed . The representatives on mission were pleased with Sérurier 's performance and nominated him general of brigade on 25 June ; the promotion was confirmed on 22 August 1793 . Meanwhile , Brunet was arrested and executed on 15 November 1793 .
In September 1793 the Sardinian army tried to recapture the County of Nice . The French right flank held its ground , but on the left Sérurier gave up the east bank of the Vésubie River and fell back to Utelle on 10 September . Jacques François Dugommier took command of the left wing three days later and Sérurier took charge of the right wing of the Army of the Alps at Entrevaux . Sérurier was arrested for retreating too much and for being of noble blood . He was reinstated after the representatives on mission and the War Minister Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte termed the charges as unimportant while the citizens of Laon sent a petition vouching for his patriotism . After the fighting petered out in the December snow , Sérurier 's division was transferred to form the left flank of the Army of Italy . In January 1794 he was denounced for listening to aristocratic songs and for not caring about desertions , but Bouchotte and the representatives brushed aside these charges . Under army commander Pierre Jadart Dumerbion a French offensive began on 5 April and Oneglia was seized . André Masséna commanded the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ man main column on the right wing while François Macquard directed the center division and Pierre Dominique Garnier led the left division . Sérurier , who commanded Garnier 's left brigade , reoccupied Isola and went on to seize the Colle delle Finestre against weak resistance . In the Second Battle of Saorgio on 24 April 1794 , Masséna defeated Michelangelo Alessandro Colli @-@ Marchi , the French inflicting 2 @,@ 800 casualties on the Sardinians while losing 1 @,@ 500 killed and wounded . In the aftermath , Macquard occupied Saorge and the Col de Tende while Masséna held Ormea in the Tanaro valley . At the end of June , Sérurier took part in a small operation in the Valle Stura di Demonte .
In September 1794 the Sardinians and Austrians advanced to Carcare , threatening to cut the French link to Genoa , where supplies were obtained . Advised by his artillery chief Napoleon Bonaparte , Dumerbion struck back on 15 September . While Sérurier feinted at Vinadio on the left and Macquard feinted at Limone Piemonte in the center , Masséna mounted the main thrust on the right . In the First Battle of Dego on 21 September , 18 @,@ 000 French troops beat Olivier , Count of Wallis and 8 @,@ 000 Austro @-@ Sardinians . Though the allies escaped encirclement , the French later seized the port of Vado Ligure . Dumerbion and Garnier both recommended Sérurier 's promotion and he was nominated general of division on 22 December 1794 . Given command of the right flank division in place of Masséna who was sick , his brigadiers were Barthélemy Catherine Joubert and Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis .
= = = 1795 = = =
On 4 November 1794 , Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer replaced the ill Dumerbion as army commander . Schérer wrote that Sérurier was " a very good officer , devoted to his duties ; his patriotism has been attacked in the time of Hébert and his consorts ; he has emerged victorious from all these charges . In my opinion he is worthy of the post he holds on the right of the active army . " Sérurier 's promotion was not confirmed until 13 June 1795 . The Austro @-@ Sardinian commander Joseph Nikolaus De Vins attacked the French lines on 24 June . Most of the assaults failed but since a few positions were captured and could not be retaken , the French withdrew from Vado to Borghetto Santo Spirito by 5 July . In the new line , Masséna with 14 @,@ 000 troops held the coast while Sérurier and 6 @,@ 000 men defended Ormea . On 5 July Sérurier reported that a key position had been partly lost , causing consternation at army headquarters . Later that day he reported that one of his brigadiers , Louis Pelletier , retook the position . Curiously , this incident did not count against him ; instead Sérurier was given command of the left wing in place of Garnier . On the evening of 31 August , his headquarters at Saint @-@ Martin @-@ Vésubie was surrounded by the enemy . Though only 318 soldiers were at hand , Sérurier resisted successfully until early the following morning when he attacked and scattered his attackers , capturing 86 of them . The enemy commander , the émigré Chevalier Bonnaud committed suicide . Not only was he a good soldier , but Sérurier 's troops liked him , he treated the local civilians with decency and his diplomacy allowed him to serve as a link between his army and the neighboring Army of the Alps . François Christophe Kellermann then in command of both armies , wrote , " It is to the coolness and courage of this excellent officer that was due the success of this glorious day . "
On 23 – 24 November 1795 , the Battle of Loano was fought . Schérer deployed Pierre Augereau with 6 @,@ 961 troops on the right , Masséna with 13 @,@ 276 men in the center and Sérurier with 5 @,@ 155 soldiers on the left . The plan called for Sérurier to pin down the Allied right while Masséna broke through the center and rolled up the Allied left with the help of Augereau . By luck , Wallis replaced De Vins in command of the Allies on 22 November . That day Sérurier 's attack on the Colle San Bernardo was repulsed but it tied down Colli 's division . The plan was carried out with success . Masséna and Augereau both defeated the forces in front of them . The Austro @-@ Sardinians suffered losses of 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , 48 guns and five colors while French losses numbered 2 @,@ 500 killed and wounded and 500 captured . Snow soon compelled both armies to withdraw into winter quarters . The French soldiers were in a wretched state , with very little food ; they became insubordinate and the generals quarreled . Sérurier got into a dispute with Schérer and nearly left the army . On 18 March 1796 Sérurier 's division refused to obey orders .
= = = 1796 = = =
After the winter campaign , Schérer placed the divisions in the positions where they would start the 1796 campaign . From right to left , they were Masséna with two divisions on the coast , Augereau on the Bormida River , Sérurier on the Tanaro , Macquard at the Col de Tende and Garnier on the far left . On 27 March 1796 Bonaparte arrived to take command of the Army of Italy . At this date Sérurier was 53 years old with 40 years of military service . He applied to retire on a pension due to his age , health and wounds , but after meeting Bonaparte he decided to stay . Masséna later wrote that Bonaparte did not impress his generals at first . Then the new commander put on his hat and sharply questioned them ; the generals went away believing that they had a true leader at last . Bonaparte 's plan was to mass over 20 @,@ 000 men under Masséna and Augereau near Carcare where the Austrian and Sardinian armies linked . Sérurier 's division would join the others near Ceva as they moved west . His 9 @,@ 448 @-@ strong division consisted of the 39th , 69th and 85th Line Infantry Demi @-@ brigades .
In the Montenotte Campaign , the French won victories at Montenotte , Millesimo and Dego between 11 and 15 April . In the Battle of Ceva Colli 's Sardinians repelled Augereau 's attack but they retreated to the west when Sérurier 's division appeared . Colli detailed Jean @-@ Gaspard Dichat de Toisinge with 8 @,@ 000 Sardinians and 15 guns to defend San Michele Mondovi against a French attack . On 19 April , Sérurier formed his division into two 3 @,@ 000 @-@ man brigades under Pascal Antoine Fiorella and Jean Joseph Guieu plus a reserve under his personal command . The Corsaglia River was unfordable due to the spring thaw and the French attack soon stalled . However , some of Guieu 's skirmishers found an unguarded footbridge and made a lodgement on the west bank . The French captured San Michele but the unpaid , hungry soldiers went on a looting spree . Led by a company of Swiss troops , Colli organized a counterattack which drove Sérurier 's division out of the town , though Guieu 's brigade maintained its bridgehead . The repulse cost the French about 600 casualties while the Sardinians lost 300 .
Colli 's troops withdrew toward Mondovì on the night of 20 April , but the move was soon discovered by the French who caught up with them at Vicoforte at mid @-@ morning . In the Battle of Mondovì on 21 April , the brigades of Fiorella , Guieu and Elzéar Auguste Cousin de Dommartin fought their way into Vicoforte and routed the Sardinians . Dichat was killed and Henri Christian Michel de Stengel mortally wounded . Mondovì surrendered in the late afternoon . There was no looting but large requisitions of food were made from the town . Auguste de Marmont recalled of Sérurier , " To form his men into three columns , put himself at the head of the central one , throw out a cloud of skirmishers , and march at the double , sword in hand , ten paces in front of his column : that is what he did . A fine spectacle , that of an old general , resolute and decided , whose vigor was revived by the presence of the enemy . I accompanied him in this attack , the success of which was complete " . On 28 April the Armistice of Cherasco was signed , taking Sardinia out of the war .
In May 1796 , Bonaparte detailed Sérurier to demonstrate with his division at Valenza while the rest of the army crossed the Po River near Piacenza . After the Battle of Lodi , Bonaparte divided the Army of Italy into a cavalry reserve and four divisions including one under Sérurier . During the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May , his division feinted at the upper Mincio River while other troops made the main thrust against Johann Peter Beaulieu 's army at Valeggio sul Mincio . On 1 June , the 4 @,@ 700 @-@ strong division took position on the north side of the fortress of Mantua . On 8 June , Sérurier , artillerist Augustin de Lespinasse and engineer Francois , marquis de Chasseloup @-@ Laubat reconnoitered the fortress . Two days later Bonaparte put Sérurier in charge of the Siege of Mantua with about 8 @,@ 000 soldiers . Soon after , Bonaparte wrote to the French Directory , " I shall not speak to you of the conduct of the intrepid General Sérurier , whose military reputation is established , and to whom we owe , amongst other things since the campaign began , the victory of Mondovi " . Because of the approach of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's Austrian army , the siege was raised on 31 July , the heavy cannons were buried and the division withdrew behind the Oglio River . Sérurier then became feverish with malaria , so that Fiorella and Gaspard Amédée Gardanne directed the division during the Battle of Castiglione . The general returned to France to recuperate . On 14 August 1796 Bonaparte wrote a confidential assessment of his generals to the Directory . In it he wrote , " Sérurier , fights like a private , takes nothing on himself , firm ; has not a good enough opinion of his troops , is ill " .
= = = 1797 = = =
After his recovery Sérurier took command at Livorno ( Leghorn ) but he was thrilled to get the order to return to the army . On 27 December 1796 he resumed command of the Mantua siege corps , replacing Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine who had also become ill . The corps consisted of 10 @,@ 000 men in two divisions under Thomas @-@ Alexandre Dumas and Claude Dallemagne . On 14 – 15 January 1797 Bonaparte defeated József Alvinczi in the Battle of Rivoli , inflicting terrible losses on the Austrians . Meanwhile , a relief column under Giovanni Marchese di Provera reached the north side of Mantua and on 16 January there was a battle . The Mantua garrison launched a sortie led by Karl Philipp Sebottendorf that made progress at first but was beaten back by reinforcements under Claude Perrin Victor . At the same time , Sérurier and 1 @,@ 500 troops at La Favorita Palace blocked Provera from joining the garrison . By noon Provera was hemmed in by French reinforcements and at 2 : 00 pm he surrendered to Sérurier with 7 @,@ 000 men , 22 field guns , a pontoon train and a food convoy . Afterward , Sérurier got into a dispute with Dumas , who had commanded armies but was now a mere division commander . Angry that his contributions were not recognized , Dumas sent an abusive note to the army chief of staff Louis @-@ Alexandre Berthier and was demoted by Bonaparte . On 30 January , Wurmser began negotiations with Sérurier for the capitulation of Mantua ; this was signed on 2 February 1797 by the two generals . The articles permitted Wurmser , his staff , his generals , 700 soldiers and six artillery pieces to go free , but 16 @,@ 324 men of the garrison became prisoners of war .
For the spring 1797 campaign , Bonaparte organized his army into eight divisions of which the 3rd Division under Sérurier counted 6 @,@ 543 soldiers . In the Battle of Valvasone on 16 March , Bonaparte drove back the rear guard of Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen . During the operation Sérurier 's division was in reserve , but in the subsequent advance it was on the right flank while Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte 's division was in the center and Guieu 's division was on the left flank . On 19 March Bernadotte attacked Gradisca d 'Isonzo and was repulsed . After Sérurier 's division swung around the south side of Gradisca and gained the heights in the rear of the town , the garrison surrendered . The French captured four battalions of Austrian infantry totaling 2 @,@ 500 soldiers , 10 guns and eight colors . While Bernadotte continued advancing to the east , Guieu 's division followed by Sérurier turned north in pursuit of a column under Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza . At this time Sérurier fell ill and command of his division passed to Louis François Jean Chabot . Trapped between Massena and Guieu , Bajalics was forced to surrender with 4 @,@ 000 men in the Battle of Tarvis . After recovering , Sérurier resumed command of his division at Graz on 20 April and after the Treaty of Leoben the unit withdrew from Austria and took position at Sacile .
On 3 June 1797 Bonaparte notified the French government that he was sending Sérurier with 22 captured colors . He wrote that he , " has in the last two campaigns displayed as much talent as bravery and patriotism ... General Sérurier is extremely severe with himself : he is sometimes so with others . A strict friend of discipline , and of the order and virtues most necessary to the maintenance of society , he disdains intrigue and intriguers , which has sometimes made him enemies amongst those men who are always ready to accuse of unpatriotism any one who wishes to see them submitted to their superiors " . He was received in Paris by a large audience of government officials on 28 June who he assured of his loyalty and that of his soldiers . He was back with his division on 9 August and missed the Coup of 18 Fructidor . A little later Louis Desaix described him , " tall , 55 years old ... honest , estimable in every respect , considered to be an aristocrat but supported by General Bonaparte , who values and admires him " . Venice was occupied by French troops but by the recent treaty was to be handed over to Austria . Bonaparte ordered Sérurier to carry out the unpleasant job of removing all military stores and ships as well as all works of art . Over the objection of the Austrians and the inhabitants , the city was thoroughly plundered . Although he was the target of anger and abuse , Sérurier did not personally benefit from the looting and did his best to prevent others from doing so . He confiscated the salt and biscuits in the Venice arsenal but that was to raise money to pay his soldiers . In the same army , Masséna and Augereau were notorious for looting for personal gain , and many lesser officers also did it . Sérurier earned such a reputation for honesty that his soldiers called him the " Virgin of Italy " .
= = = 1798 – 99 = = =
Early in 1798 Sérurier temporarily commanded the divisions left in Italy where he had his hands full trying to calm unpaid soldiers who were on the verge of mutiny . Bonaparte did not take him on the French campaign in Egypt and Syria because he was too old . Sometime after February 1798 , he was ordered to the Army of England where he made his headquarters at Rennes . On 15 September he became Inspector General of the troops in the interior of France . On 5 November 1798 he transferred back to Italy to serve under Army of Italy commander Joubert . Sérurier was ordered by Joubert to occupy Livorno , but instructions soon changed to invade the Republic of Lucca . His cavalry entered Lucca on 22 December 1798 and extorted large sums of cash and clothing for the army 's use . Sérurier 's 6 @,@ 000 infantry arrived at the city on 2 January 1799 . After declaring that Lucca was a French @-@ style republic on 25 January , he handed it over to Miollis on 5 February and returned to Mantua . At that time , the Army of Italy was led by Schérer who gave Sérurier command of the Tyrol Division with a paper strength of 8 @,@ 328 men .
The outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition saw Schérer with 43 @,@ 000 troops facing Paul Kray with 50 @,@ 700 Austrians near Verona and 24 @,@ 551 Russians under Alexander Suvorov marching up in support . Hoping to maul Kray before his Russians allies arrived , Schérer opted to attack . On 26 March 1799 in the Battle of Verona , the French gained a success at Pastrengo in the north , fought to a draw in front of Verona and were drubbed in the south at Legnago . In the north Sérurier drove the Austrians from Rivoli Veronese . On the 27th Kray rapidly shifted his strength to the north to assist his outnumbered right wing . Schérer shuffled the positions of his divisions which exhausted the soldiers without accomplishing anything . Belatedly , Schérer tried push his advantage in the north by sending Sérurier with 6 @,@ 000 troops to advance on Verona from the north . On 30 March he ran into 15 @,@ 000 Austrians at Parona and was badly defeated , losing 600 killed and wounded and 1 @,@ 177 prisoners . Austrian casualties numbered only 390 .
The Battle of Magnano on 5 April 1799 resulted in a French defeat . In the fighting Sérurier 's division included three battalions each of the 18th , 29th and 30th Light Infantry Demi brigades , one battalion of the 1st Light , 180 grenadiers , 850 cavalry and 60 gunners . Both armies advanced , Sérurier successfully capturing Villafranca on the left . However , the divisions of Claude Perrin Victor and Paul Grenier were routed on the right . The French lost 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 men , seven colors and eight cannons , while Kray 's army sustained 5 @,@ 228 casualties . The worst casualty was the confidence of the French generals and the morale of the troops . When Schérer found that 12 @,@ 000 Austrians were marching from the County of Tyrol to turn his north flank , he withdrew from the line of the Mincio , leaving 12 @,@ 000 soldiers to defend Mantua . During the retreat many Italian and Swiss allies deserted from the Army of Italy .
By the end of April 1799 , Schérer had 28 @,@ 000 troops behind the Adda River , strung out on a line 115 kilometres ( 71 mi ) in length . The army was arranged in three small corps under Sérurier on the left , Grenier in the center and Victor on the right . By the morning of 27 April , Suvorov 's Austro @-@ Russian army had won crossings over the Adda at Capriate San Gervasio and Brivio . That day Jean Victor Marie Moreau replaced Schérer in command of the Army of Italy and the Allies defeated the French in the Battle of Cassano . After a struggle , Grenier 's soldiers were beaten at Trezzo while the Austrians broke through Victor 's defenses at Cassano . The French withdrew toward Milan leaving Sérurier isolated and without orders between Trezzo and Brivio . During the night the old veteran entrenched 2 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 000 troops in an all @-@ around defense near Verderio . Finding the French in his path , Josef Philipp Vukassovich split his division into three columns and enveloped Sérurier 's position . Vukassovich reported that his enemies put up a " desperate " fight , but out of ammunition , Sérurier surrendered on the evening of 28 April . By the terms of the capitulation , the general and his officers were released on parole to France . The Austrians reported capturing 243 officers and 3 @,@ 487 soldiers . Vukassovich 's troops suffered 2 @,@ 750 casualties , over half of the Allied losses at Cassano . Sérurier 's left wing near Lake Como escaped and rejoined the main army .
Suvorov invited the captured general to dinner and found it impossible to coax any military information from him . The Russian wondered why such a reputable man should be fighting for the First French Republic . Sérurier retorted , " My father , in giving me my sword , expressly ordered me to use it only to defend my country " . Historian Ramsay Weston Phipps considered Verderio to be the biggest blunder of Sérurier 's career . He suggested that the general was accustomed to seeing Bonaparte save dire situations with brilliant maneuvers . When Moreau next saw the paroled general , he severely reprimanded him but later admitted to the government that Sérurier 's only mistake was hewing to his orders too rigidly . This was the last time Sérurier led troops in combat .
Meanwhile , the French Directory sank in popularity after military defeats and mismanagement . Back in Paris , Sérurier became part of the Bonaparte faction , having seen nothing but disaster since serving under the military genius . Bonaparte launched the Coup of 18 Brumaire on 9 November 1799 during which Sérurier led a reserve detachment of soldiers at the Pont @-@ du @-@ Jour . The next day , the coup almost collapsed when Bonaparte had to be rescued from the Council of Five Hundred . However , Lucien Bonaparte convinced the Council 's own guard battalion that only a minority of members opposed his brother . These soldiers soon evicted the lawmakers from their own hall . During these events , Sérurier 's troops arrived at Saint @-@ Cloud and the general was heard addressing them , " The wretches ! They wished to kill General Bonaparte . Do not stir soldiers ; wait until you get orders " . In the aftermath of the coup , Sérurier was put on a commission to determine how to use auxiliary battalions on 15 November 1799 . He became a member of the Sénat conservateur ( Senate ) on 27 December .
= = Later life = =
In time Sérurier became vice @-@ president of the Senate and in 1803 was appointed president of a commission that determined the border between France and Piedmont . In 1804 he was named governor of Les Invalides , a hospital and retirement home for veterans . On 19 May that year Emperor Napoleon named him an honorary Marshal of France . Out of 18 marshals appointed on this date , the other three honorary ones were Bon Adrien Jeannot de Moncey , François Christophe de Kellermann and Catherine @-@ Dominique de Pérignon . Sérurier was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Légion d 'Honneur and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Iron Crown . He was ennobled as a Count of the Empire in 1808 and granted a pension of 40 @,@ 000 francs per year .
On 31 March 1814 , upon the arrival of the Sixth Coalition armies at Paris , Sérurier publicly destroyed the 1 @,@ 417 captured enemy flags and personally burned the sword and sash of Frederick the Great as to not let them fall into the Allies ' hands . The restored King Louis XVIII made Sérurier a Peer of France , but he joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days , when the former emperor briefly returned to power . This caused him to lose his post at Les Invalides and his marshal 's salary after Napoleon 's second downfall . Despite his Bonapartist sympathies , as Peer Sérurier voted in favour of the death penalty for Marshal Michel Ney .
Sérurier was restored to the dignity of marshal in 1819 . He died on 21 December that year in Paris and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery . His body was not transferred to Les Invalides until 26 February 1847 SERURIER is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .
= Daniel Santos ( singer ) =
Daniel Santos ( February 5 , 1916 – November 27 , 1992 ) was a singer and composer of boleros , and an overall performer of multiple Caribbean music genres , including guaracha , plena and rumba . Over the course of his career he adopted several names created by the public and became known as " El Jefe " and " El Inquieto Anacobero " .
= = Early years = =
Santos ( birth name : Daniel Doroteo Santos Betancourt ) was born and raised with his three sisters , Sara , Rosa Lydia and Luz América in Trastalleres , a poor section of Santurce , Puerto Rico . He attended Las Palmitas Elementary School . Although he was doing well in school his father Rosendo took him out of school when he was in the fourth grade and forced him to shine shoes because of his family 's poverty .
In 1924 , his family moved to New York City looking for a better way of life . When his parents , Rosendo and María enrolled him in school , he had to start from the first grade again because he did not know enough English . Santos joined his high school 's choir , but he dropped out of high school in his second year and moved out of his parents ' apartment . When he was fifteen years old he began looking for work in Manhattan .
Santos moved into a small apartment , where , one day , he started to sing " Te Quiero , Dijiste " ( You said ' I Love You ' ) . A member of the Trío Lírico was passing by and heard him sing . He then knocked on Santos ' door . The trio member invited Daniel to join the trio and he accepted . Santos debuted with them on September 13 , 1930 ; he sang in various social events and was paid a dollar for every song that he sang . He returned to Puerto Rico only to return once more to Manhattan after he unsuccessfully tried to acquire a job as a singer at WKAQ , which was one of the island 's main radio stations .
= = Musical career = =
= = = " Cuarteto Flores " with Pedro Flores = = =
In late 1933 and 1934 , Santos performed in a nightclub named Los Chilenos located near Broadway and was paid twenty dollars per weekend . Personally , Santos led a life of excesses , including maintaining several romantic relationships at once . In 1938 , Santos was working at the Cuban Casino Cabaret in Manhattan , which was normally visited by Puerto Ricans and other Latinos . His chores included singing , waiting on tables and on occasions he was the master of ceremonies for which he was paid a salary of thirty dollars . On one occasion , he was singing " Amor Perdido " ( Lost Love ) , without knowing that the composer of the song Pedro Flores was in the audience . Flores liked what he heard and invited Santos to join his group " El Cuarteto Flores " which also included Myrta Silva , and would in the future also include Pedro Ortiz Davila ( also known by his stage name " Davilita " ) . Santos recorded many songs with the Cuarteto Flores and started to gain fame . Among the songs he recorded were : " Perdon " ; " Amor " ; " El Ultimo Adios " " Si Yo Fuera Millonario " by singer / composer Miguel Poventud and Borracho no Vale ' .
= = = Participation in World War II = = =
In the early 1940s , many young Puerto Rican men were drafted for World War II , among them Santos . Santos recorded " Despedida " ( My Good @-@ bye ) , a farewell song written by Flores from the viewpoint of an Army recruit who had to leave behind his girlfriend and his ailing mother , which became a hit . Santos recalled in an interview once that he had to hold back tears while recording the song , since his draft papers had just arrived and he would soon have to live a situation similar to what the song 's lyrics described , but that a friend started mocking him at the control booth , to which he decided to curse him on the spot , trading the word mama 'o ( an expletive in Puerto Rican Spanish ) for mamá ( mother ) . This incident produced two mannerisms that Santos eventually adopted in his singing style : chopped delivery ( almost syllable by syllable , as suggested by Flores ) and stretched last vowel in the last verse of each stanza , in almost every song he recorded afterwards .
He was sent to Maui Island , after completing his basic military training in Kentucky . In Maui , he was assigned to a US Army infantry unit which was used to replenish casualties in the Pacific theatre . Santos would joke that he escaped the " replenishment levies " because of his guitar playing skills . Nevertheless , he was sent to Okinawa towards the end of the war . While in the military Santos teamed up with Juanito Jiménez as a part of a duo dubbed Los Cumbancheros . After the war concluded Santos returned to New York , where he received a tribute upon his arrival . There he recorded " Linda " , written specially for him by Flores for one of Santos ' old girlfriends .
= = = International performances = = =
Santos became active in the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and identified himself with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and its president Pedro Albizu Campos after he was discharged from the military because of the prejudice which he experienced within the Army . His devotion for Albizu lasted throughout his life , to the point of commissioning , later in his life , a bronze bust of Albizu for his estate in Puerto Rico . With Davilita , he recorded " Patriotas " ( " Patriots " ) and " La Lucha por la Independencia de Puerto Rico " ( " The Fight for Puerto Rico 's Independence " ) , which was adopted from one of Juan Antonio Corretjer 's poems .
On March 1946 , Santos inaugurated a bar and restaurant named Borinquen , and administrated the establishment for some weeks . Two months later he began singing Mexican music and boleros at Greenwich Village . Later that year he visited the Dominican Republic , where he had legal problems and was jailed briefly .
= = = Santos in Cuba = = =
By this time Santos ' fame had grown and he decided to travel to Cuba , establishing a residence in Havana in 1946 . At the moment Cuba was experiencing economic growth and Santos developed an interest in the island . Upon arriving he experienced success , making presentations in Paseo del Prado , Miramar and Vedado . These included a special presentation titled Alegrias de Hatuey , which was broadcast by " Radio Progreso " , a radio station . He participated and sang for several other stations , including RHC @-@ Cadena Azul and CMQ , where he participated in a program named Cascabel . This exposition came after he established friendships with local public figures . The Cuban public created two names adopted by Santos , these were Inquieto and Anacobero , which he later fused and became known as El Inquieto Anacobero . He also made five presentations in theaters , among them the Martí theater .
In 1948 , Santos was invited to perform in the Cuban National Palace by the president in office , Carlos Prío Socarrás . This year also marked Santos ' debut with La Sonora Matancera , where he served as vocalist . His first successful single was titled Bigote de Gato , based on an area of Havana named " Luyano " , which was infamous for serving as the home for fortune tellers . Later that year Santos was arrested after becoming involved in a fight where he accidentally injured a woman after trying to defend himself . Santos was subsequently pardoned by Prío Socarrás , but he asked to remain in jail twelve additional days to spend the Christmas celebration with some of the inmates . While in prison he composed a single named El Preso and was asked to write Amnistía as part of a campaign to promote the well @-@ being of inmates . This was followed by several successful productions with the Sonora Matancera . These included Dos gardenias and Pa ' fricasé los pollos , which were based on Cuban music . Among several other contemporary records were : El juego de la vida , El 5 y 6 , El ajiaco , El niño majadero , Ramoncito campeón and El tíbiri tábara .
On March 10 , 1952 , Fulgencio Batista organized a successful coup d 'état and took control of the island 's government . Santos , known for his Puerto Rican independentist preferences , was never in the good graces of the dictator . He made his nationalistic and democratic views well known throughout Latin America . As many people during those days , he viewed Fidel Castro 's fight against Batista very favorably . In 1958 , forbidden by Batista from returning to the island , he composed the song " Sierra Maestra " , which borrowed parts of the official hymn of the 26th of July Movement . Santos donated the profits from " Sierra Maestra " to the Cuban Revolution .
= = = Return to Puerto Rico = = =
He returned to the island later that year and began an international tour on 1953 , among the countries visited were Venezuela , Colombia and Mexico . In 1954 , he returned to Puerto Rico and performed in hotels located in San Juan before continuing his tour throughout America which extended from 1955 to 1956 . The tour concluded with a presentation in New York and he his returned to Cuba . Later that year he visited Ecuador for the first time in his artistic career . Here he was contracted to perform in a theater named " Apolo " , where he worked with a band named the " Costa Rica Swing Boys " . During his third presentation Santos lost his voice without completing the scheduled show , he tried to explain the situation to the public but was unable to calm them down and a riot erupted . While in Ecuador he composed two successful singles , Cataplum pa ' and Cautiverio . Late in 1956 , Santos recorded with a Venezuelan record label named " Discomoda " .
In 1959 , he briefly returned to Cuba . It was during this trip that he confronted Raul Castro and Ernesto " Che " Guevara about the political nature of the Cuban Revolution he had supported . He left Cuba abruptly , never to return , when Castro and Guevara failed to convince him that the Cuban Revolution was " nationalistic " . A self proclaimed " anti @-@ communist " , he explained that he had supported the Cuban Revolution because its leadership had assured him that it was not communist .
On July 22 , 1972 he performed in the inauguration ceremony of El Balcon del Pueblo , a building owned by Radio Cristal , which was located at Guayaquil . In this activity he performed for two consecutive hours , working an additional hour due to public acclaim .
= = Later years = =
During the last years of his life , Santos toured the United States and Latin @-@ America , while experiencing health problems . He continued performing with several music groups . While he performed with the Sonora Matancera , Santos suffered a heart attack while he was sleeping in a hotel located in La Reforma after eating dinner . Santos continued performing during the following decades , making presentations in several Latin American countries . He continued to sing the songs which he had written during his career until he finally retired and established a residence in Florida .
In 1991 , Santos visited some friends in New York City 's Barrio Latino , during this visit Santo 's was walking through the street on a Saturday evening when he fainted and collapsed . He was attended by some bystanders and residents of the neighborhood who called the New York City Police Department . When the police arrived at the scene they transported him to a local hospital , Santos was released two days after . During this time Santos was also suffering from mental illnesses , including memory loss due to Alzheimer 's disease . Despite his health he made final presentations in some of Puerto Rico 's municipalities where he received recognitions in San Juan and Ponce . Santos was also invited to participate in a music festival in Cuba , where he was supposed to receive a homage , but he was unable to attend .
Over the course of his life Daniel Santos was legally married on twelve separate occasions . His first marriage took place in 1934 , where he married Lucy Montilla when he was eighteen years old . In 1947 , he married Cuban socialite Eugenia Perez Portal , who gave him his first son in 1948 , Daniel Jr . After this he was involved in several relationships with women of several Latin American countries , on occasions having more than one consecutively . When he was fifty @-@ six years old he married Luz Dary Pedredín in a ceremony organized on Colombia . The couple had two children , Danilú and David Albizu . Santos ' last marriage was with Ana Rivera , who was originally of Puerto Rico .
Daniel Santos died on November 27 , 1992 , aged 76 , at his ranch , " Anacobero 's Ranch " in Ocala , Florida . He is buried at what is virtually Puerto Rico 's national pantheon , the St. Mary Magdalene of Pazzis cemetery in Old San Juan , geographically quite close to where Albizu Campos and Pedro Flores were interred . Due to the scarcity of empty space in the cemetery , when fellow Puerto Rican singer and Santos boyhood friend Eladio Peguero ( commonly known as " Yayo El Indio " ) later died , he was also buried in Santos ' tomb .
= = Legacy = =
Santos ' life was the subject of one semi @-@ autobiography , El Inquieto Anacobero : confesiones de Daniel Santos a Héctor Mújica , written as Santos told his story to Venezuelan author Héctor Mújica in 1982 . His life was also the subject of three biographical books : Vengo a decirle adiós a los muchachos ( 1989 ) , by Josean Ramos ; La importancia de llamarse Daniel Santos ( 1988 ) , by Luis Rafael Sánchez and El Inquieto Anacobero , by Salvador Garmendia .
= 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak =
The 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak was an occurrence of avian influenza in England caused by the H5N1 subtype of Influenza virus A that began on 30 January 2007 . The infection affected poultry at one of Bernard Matthews ' farms in Holton in Suffolk . It was the third instance of H5N1 @-@ subtype detected in the United Kingdom and a range of precautions were instituted to prevent spread of the disease including a large cull of turkeys , the imposition of segregation zones , and a disinfection programme for the plant .
The cause of the outbreak was not determined . However , it was considered significant that Bernard Matthews regularly transports turkeys and turkey products between the UK and its plant in Hungary , and that the H5N1 strains previously found in Hungary , and those found at Suffolk , were effectively genetically identical .
= = Background = =
= = = H5N1 = = =
H5N1 is a subtype of the Influenza A virus , the viruses responsible for influenza in humans and many other animal species . A bird @-@ adapted strain of H5N1 , called HPAI A ( H5N1 ) for " highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1 " , is the causative agent of H5N1 flu .
HPAI A ( H5N1 ) is considered an avian disease , although there is some evidence of limited human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of the virus . A risk factor for contracting the virus is handling of infected poultry , but transmission of the virus from infected birds to humans is inefficient . Poultry farming practices have changed due to H5N1 . The cost of poultry farming has increased , while the cost to consumers has gone down , due to fears from H5N1 driving demand below supply .
= = = Recent outbreaks in the UK and rest of EU = = =
The outbreak was the third instance of H5N1 detected in the United Kingdom . The first outbreak occurred in October 2005 among exotic birds imported from Taiwan and South America at a privately owned quarantine facility in Essex , England . The second instance involved a dead whooper swan found to have the virus in Cellardyke , Scotland in April 2006 . A corresponding incidence on a farm in south @-@ eastern Hungary was confirmed by the European Commission on 25 January 2007 .
= = The outbreak = =
Initial signs of the outbreak occurred on Tuesday , 30 January when 55 turkey poults died and 16 had to be killed because they were sick . At least 185 more died the following day .
It was not until 1 February that the deaths were reported to Defra . The farm was sealed off while tests were carried out , on samples taken from the dead birds , at the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey . Another 1 @,@ 500 birds died on 2 February . Then on 3 February 2007 the H5N1 causation was confirmed .
A 3 km protection zone , 10 km surveillance zone and a restricted zone encompassing 2000 km2 were set up . Another 159 @,@ 000 turkeys were slaughtered with the cull being completed on the evening of 5 February . Also on 5 February there was criticism that nearby farmers had not been advised as to the action to be taken . Around 320 workers at the plant were given anti @-@ viral drugs . Although a vet from the site was admitted into hospital , suffering from a ' mild respiratory illness ' during the evening of 6 February , it was found not to be bird flu . The plant was thoroughly disinfected , with cleaning complete on 12 February , and permission being given for production to resume .
It emerged in a highly critical report from Defra that there was a series of biosecurity failings at the Holton plant , some of which were drawn to the company 's attention in the past . These included " gulls were taking turkey waste to roosts on top of the turkey @-@ house 500 m away " and " holes in the turkey houses could have allowed in birds or rodents " . Defra minister Jeff Rooker stated in a House of Lords debate on 22 February that the outbreak was " exclusively a Bernard Matthews Holton problem " .
= = Hungarian connection = =
The Government , on 8 February , admitted that the outbreak may have been caused by semi @-@ processed turkey meat imported directly from Hungary , where the disease is prevalent , despite earlier in the week the Environment Secretary , David Miliband assuring the House of Commons that there was " no Hungarian connection " .
Bernard Matthews had been importing 38 tons of partly processed turkey meat on a weekly basis from their Saga Foods company , in Sárvár , Hungary , to a processing plant next to the farm . Though Saga Foods lies 165 miles ( 266 km ) from where the recent Hungarian H5N1 outbreak had occurred , a company director admitted it was " possible " that some of the meat could have come from the exclusion zone . In response to this revelation , Whitehall expressed concern over biosecurity and whether any meat may have been distributed for human consumption in Britain . On 9 February 2007 the Hungarian authorities started an investigation to try to establish whether there was a connection between the Suffolk and Hungarian outbreaks . On 11 February the investigation revealed that turkey products were still being transported , in both directions , between the plant and Hungary with EU regulations being cited as the reason why a transport ban could not be imposed .
The Hungary link was dismissed by the European Commission on 12 February . Even so , the H5N1 bird flu strains found in Hungary and Britain were shown to be 99 @.@ 96 % genetically identical and , according to an analysis of the viruses by the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey , were almost certainly linked . A leak from the Government 's COBRA emergency committee indicated that the authorities were not aware of the Hungarian connection until an investigator found a Gallfoods delivery wrapper in a Bernard Matthews bin . This raised the possibility that the outbreak was due to a " third party abattoir , Gallfoods in Hungary , just outside the restricted zone " . This abattoir might have been a middle man for contaminated poultry farming tools , feed , or product from within the restricted zone , such as a Bernard Matthews owned subsidiary in Hungary .
In response to the incident and allegations of a cover @-@ up , Bernard Matthews himself stated on 14 February " I 'm sorry - but this has not been of our making . There 's been absolutely no cover up at our end . I 've been upset about allegations that we may have withheld information . That is completely untrue . "
Bernard Matthews was given permission to resume its shipments of poultry between the UK and Hungary from 17 February even though Defra indicated that Hungarian turkey products remained the " most plausible " cause of the outbreak .
= = Consequences = =
By 8 February there was a lengthening list of countries that had banned the importation of poultry products from Britain including South Africa , Russia , Japan , and many others but a spokesman for the European Commission condemned the bans as " totally disproportionate " and the British Poultry Council pointed out that exports were less than 9 % of the level of domestic sales . Supermarket sales of Bernard Matthews branded turkeys halved after the onset of the outbreak as shoppers sought out alternatives . One of the biggest ongoing surveys of consumer confidence revealed that , by 13 February 2007 , Bernard Matthews was the least respected and trusted brand in Britain .
Following the outbreak the company confirmed , on 19 February 2007 , that 130 workers would be laid off for a period of twenty days due to a drop in product sales . The Transport and General Workers ' Union then called for the government to provide compensation to the workers affected . The Transport and General Workers ' Union paid out hardship monies from union funds to union members , on top of any state benefits to which the laid @-@ off workers were entitled and a one @-@ off £ 100 payment from Bernard Matthews .
A row broke out on 1 March 2007 when it emerged that the Government were paying compensation to the company for the 159 @,@ 000 culled turkeys while laid @-@ off workers were receiving nothing . At £ 3 @.@ 75 each for hens and £ 3 @.@ 53 for toms , the payout was then estimated at between £ 537 @,@ 000 and £ 570 @,@ 000 . In the event , though , the actual compensation bill came out at £ 589 @,@ 356 @.@ 89 . The crisis cost Bernard Matthews at least £ 20 m in lost sales and costs .
= Norman Whiteside =
Norman Whiteside ( born 7 May 1965 ) is a former Northern Ireland international footballer who played in two World Cups . He played both as a midfielder and as a striker .
Whiteside began his career at Manchester United , signing professional forms in 1982 at the age of 17 and quickly becoming a key member of the side . He scored 68 goals in 278 league and cup appearances for the club over the next seven years , picking up two FA Cup winners medals in 1983 and 1985 , as well as playing in the 1982 FA Youth Cup final , the 1983 League Cup final , and the FA Charity Shield in 1983 .
He remained with United until July 1989 , when he was sold to Everton for £ 600 @,@ 000 . However , he retired from playing two years later , aged only 26 , due to a knee injury .
Whiteside holds records as the youngest player to take part in a World Cup , the youngest player to score in a League Cup and FA Cup final , and the youngest player to score a senior goal for Manchester United . Winning 38 caps for Northern Ireland , he played at the 1982 and 1986 World Cups , and also helped his country to win the last ever British Home Championship in 1984 . After retiring as a player he became a podiatrist , and still works at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford .
= = Early years = =
Born in Belfast to Norman and Aileen Whiteside , he grew up on Shankill Road , and because of his aggressive , physical playing style he was later nicknamed the " Shankill Skinhead " by Manchester United supporters . The family later moved to 10 Danube Street , and the family 's poverty meant that Whiteside had to share a bed with his two brothers . He remained relatively unscathed by The Troubles as his Protestant parents kept a firm watch on their children to ensure that they did not stray far from home and that none of them became involved with Ulster loyalism . At the age of around seven he joined the Boys ' Brigade , and quickly showed his natural talent for football , scoring ten goals in a game against boys almost twice his age . He was educated at Cairnmartin High School , and became famous in the Shankill area as a footballing prodigy by the age of 11 .
He was said to have been discovered by Ipswich Town scout Jim Rodgers ( his goals at schoolboy level meant that he was already well known to all the football scouts in Northern Ireland ) , who was told by manager Bobby Robson to wait until Whiteside grew older . Instead , it was Manchester United 's 80 @-@ year @-@ old Ulster scout Bob Bishop , who previously unearthed Belfast @-@ born George Best and Sammy McIlroy for the club , who first offered him a trial at an English club . Whiteside 's family were Manchester United supporters , though the youngster himself held no particular allegiance . He found that he had been offered schoolboy terms at the club during a school trip to the United States ; on the trip , he and his classmates met President Jimmy Carter at the Oval Office , a rare and extraordinary occasion for children from a disadvantaged background .
= = Club career = =
= = = Manchester United = = =
A few days before Whiteside was old enough to sign schoolboy terms with Manchester United , he was offered a trial at Liverpool , causing United 's chief scout Joe Brown to fly over to Belfast to immediately offer him the schoolboy contract to sign . Whiteside remained in Belfast , and flew over to Manchester every weekend for training . From age 14 , he was constantly compared to the now @-@ retired George Best , and did little to cease such comparisons when he told a journalist that " the only thing I have in common with George Best is that we come from the same place , play for the same club and were discovered by the same man " .
His injury problems started as early as 1980 , when he was 15 years old and saw Glentoran 's physio Bobby McGregor to resolve a groin strain ; Whiteside said that the highly physical massage he was subjected to damaged his pelvis and robbed him of his natural pace . His lack of pace was later seen as the one weakness in his game . Six weeks into his apprenticeship , in July 1981 , and an innocuous looking challenge by a Preston North End player in an ' A ' team game saw Whiteside requiring an operation on his right knee . Had the injury occurred a couple of years later he would have been able to have pioneering keyhole surgery , which could potentially have saved his career . After a seven @-@ month lay @-@ off and a further operation to remove cartilage , he returned to fitness in January 1982 . He had to adapt his playing style to compensate for his damaged knee and pelvis , and developed well under youth team coach Eric Harrison .
Whiteside became United 's youngest first team player since Duncan Edwards in 1953 , when he made his debut as a substitute against Brighton & Hove Albion in a 1 – 0 league win at the Goldstone Ground on 24 April 1982 , two weeks before his 17th birthday . He later played in the FA Youth Cup final defeat to Watford , though it would be just another year before he appeared in the final of the senior competition . He turned professional at Old Trafford on his 17th birthday , signing a three @-@ year contract , and he shared a room with Steve Coppell , who was heading into retirement due to a knee injury of his own . He also struck up a close friendship with Paul McGrath , who would also face similar problems with his knee . On the final day of the season , eight days after his 17th birthday , he became the club 's youngest goalscorer in a 2 – 0 home win over Stoke City .
His performances at the World Cup convinced manager Ron Atkinson to start Whiteside alongside Frank Stapleton at the front of United 's attack for the 1982 – 83 season . The pair were similar players in that they held the ball up and made frequent runs into the box , allowing midfielder Bryan Robson to join in the attack . Whiteside scored four goals in the first five games of the campaign , before entering a seventeen @-@ game drought . He scored six goals in 16 games in domestic cup competitions that season , helping Manchester United to the finals of both the League Cup and FA Cup , notably by scoring past Arsenal in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . At the age of 17 years and 323 days , he beat Liverpool centre @-@ half Alan Hansen to score in the League Cup final defeat at Wembley , making him the youngest player to score in a League Cup final ; his consistent performances against Liverpool during the 1980s earned him the moniker of the " Scourge of the Scousers " from United supporters . He gave an assist to Stapleton in the FA Cup Final , which finished as a 2 – 2 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion . At the age of 18 years and 18 days , he then scored a headed goal in the replay , which United won 4 – 0 , to become the youngest player score in an FA Cup Final . He also became the first player to score in both domestic cup finals in the same season . He played 57 times in all competitions that season and missed just three league games , scoring a total of 14 goals .
Manchester United later accepted a £ 1 @.@ 5 million offer for Whiteside from A.C. Milan , and offered him £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash to accept the transfer . He refused the move as he felt he still had a good future with Manchester United and because he was given only a brief time to consider whether or not to relocate to a club and location he knew little about . He continued to impress , despite on @-@ loan striker Garth Crooks being tipped to take his first team place and sign a permanent contract ( which never happened ) . United were trophyless however in 1983 – 84 , exiting both domestic cup competitions to Third Division sides . He did though play a part in the memorable 3 – 0 win over Barcelona at Old Trafford in the Third Round of the Cup Winners ' Cup . He lost his starting place to Mark Hughes for the semi @-@ final clash with Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino , which ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .
By February 1985 , he had started just eight games in the 1984 – 85 season , having fallen behind in the pecking order to Stapleton , Hughes , and new signing Alan Brazil . However , injury to midfielder Remi Moses left an opening at the centre of the field , and Whiteside proved to be a revelation in the role with his intelligent play and positioning skills , and stayed in midfield for the rest of manager Ron Atkinson 's time at the club . He formed a solid partnership with Bryan Robson , despite the two being similarly attacking players , and United lost just one of their first 15 games with this new midfield partnership in operation . Whiteside scored the only hat @-@ trick of his professional career in a 4 – 2 home win over West Ham United on 9 March 1985 , in the FA Cup quarter @-@ finals ; it was a ' perfect hat @-@ trick ' in that he scored once with each foot and once with his head . He went on to score the winning goal in the 1985 FA Cup Final , curling a shot in from the right hand side in the 20th minute of extra time , to give ten @-@ man United victory over Everton , and Whiteside his second FA Cup winner 's medal . The goal required vision , timing , and precise shooting ; and The Guardian praised his " cool footballing brain " and " clever concealment of the shot " . After this success he negotiated a new contract of £ 60 @,@ 000 a year .
United won 13 and drew two of their opening 15 league matches of the 1985 – 86 campaign , and seemed destined to win the First Division title . However they dropped off in mid @-@ season and won just six of their final 18 games to end the season in fourth place . The press blamed the decline in form on the club 's drinking culture and Ron Atkinson 's lax disciplinary attitude , though in his autobiography Whiteside denies that this was to blame , and states that stories of the player 's drinking sessions were exaggerated .
Then came a decline in his career at such a young age which began soon after the arrival of new manager Alex Ferguson in November 1986 , the change of manager coming after a dismal start to the season led to the decision to sack Ron Atkinson . Whiteside , still only 21 , was facing trouble from his right knee which was now beginning to require serious medical procedures to prevent it from causing his retirement . Ferguson put Whiteside back up front , and in turn he scored three times in his first four games back from injury . Ferguson did though have to rebuke Whiteside after some of his numerous drinking sessions . He ended the 1986 – 87 season with 10 goals in 37 appearances , however United could only manage an 11th @-@ place finish .
" I felt the excitement that is felt by watching a player of the highest class . He had self @-@ assurance that was extraordinary in a twenty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old . The excellence of his technique gave him easy mastery of the ball and he had the gift of making time for himself in the stamp of quality . He was an island of composure , looking up and unhurriedly making his decisions . He rarely surrendered possession and he increased the angle and weight of his passes so well that the receiver never had to fight the ball . His eyes were as cold as steel and he had the temperament to match . As a player he was close to the genius category . "
At the start of the 1987 – 88 season , Whiteside represented the Football League in a game against the ' Rest of the World ' to celebrate the league 's centenary . He formed a solid partnership with Brian McClair , scoring 10 goals in 35 appearances , though United finished second in the league behind Liverpool , and he often found himself back in midfield or on the bench when Peter Davenport was selected to play alongside McClair . However he felt that he was due a better contract , and decided to ' call the bluff ' of the club by handing in a transfer request . Recovering from injury and abuse from some supporters for his transfer request , he put what many United fans call the best performance of his career at Anfield on 4 April 1988 , when he came off a substitute with his team 3 – 1 down to help United to salvage a point .
He ruptured his Achilles midway through the 1987 – 88 season and missed almost a year of first team action . Whiteside 's goal in a 2 – 1 win over Derby County in a league match at the Baseball Ground on 10 February 1988 would prove to be his last for Manchester United . He was limited to just six goalless appearances in 1988 – 89 . In the summer of 1988 , he came close to joining American club Portland Timbers , before injury put negotiations on hold . In view of Whiteside 's medical reports , Ferguson rejected bids of £ 500 @,@ 000 from Osasuna of Spain and from Ron Atkinson 's new club Sheffield Wednesday , before accepting a bid of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( with £ 150 @,@ 000 to follow if Whiteside reached 50 games ) from Everton in July 1989 . This was to the dismay of some of the club 's supporters , who felt that there was still hope that he could re @-@ establish himself as the key player he had been at the club as recently as three years earlier . Ferguson intended to build his own team having signed midfield duo Neil Webb and Mike Phelan , and also in the hunt for other players including Paul Ince , Gary Pallister and Danny Wallace .
He had played a total of 274 games in all competitions for United , scoring 67 goals , and collected two winner 's medals in the FA Cup , despite only being 24 years old when he left .
= = = Everton = = =
Whiteside signed a four @-@ year contract with Everton , and Alex Ferguson helped him to negotiate a pay deal that would see him earn more in two years at Goodison Park than he had done during his eight years in Manchester . He was also offered £ 50 @,@ 000 to put his name to a tabloid article criticising Ferguson , though he declined the offer . At the time Everton boasted more recent success than Manchester United , having won two league titles , an FA Cup and the European Cup Winners ' Cup . Manager Colin Harvey was planning to boost the " Toffees " chances of more silverware , and also in 1989 signed Mike Newell , Martin Keown , Stefan Rehn and Raymond Atteveld . Whiteside became Everton 's playmaker in 1989 – 90 , and formed an effective partnership with Stuart McCall in midfield to score 13 goals in his 35 appearances . Everton finished the season in sixth place , some 20 points behind rivals Liverpool .
However intense running sessions ran by coach Mick Lyons took their toll on his right knee , and on 20 September 1990 he took a knock in a practice match , which required him to have yet another operation on his right knee . After the return of Howard Kendall as manager in November 1990 , Whiteside managed to appear in a few reserve team games , but this only delayed the inevitable , and he was forced to retire from the game at the age of 26 in June 1991 . He had a testimonial game between Manchester United and Everton at Old Trafford in May 1992 , but as United lost the title the previous week , only 7 @,@ 434 turned out for the occasion .
= = International career = =
Whiteside broke Pelé 's record as the youngest player to appear in a World Cup , when he debuted for Northern Ireland aged 17 years and 41 days at the 1982 World Cup in Spain . When selected for the World Cup squad by manager Billy Bingham , he had played just two competitive games at club level . The opening game against Yugoslavia at the La Romareda in Zaragoza on 17 June was his international debut ; he received a yellow card in the second half for a challenge on Nenad Stojković , and the game finished goalless . Five days later he helped " Norn Iron " to a 1 – 1 draw with Honduras , which was a disappointment , and many believed had doomed Northern Ireland 's chances of advancing in the competition . They needed a win against hosts Spain in the third and final group game at the Mestalla Stadium in Valencia . They faced a partisan atmosphere with a mostly Spanish crowd and a Spanish speaking referee in Héctor Ortiz who was unwilling to punish dirty play from the Spanish players . However a mistake from goalkeeper Luis Arconada gifted Gerry Armstrong the only goal of the game , and despite having Mal Donaghy sent off on 60 minutes , Northern Ireland went on to record an historic 1 – 0 win . Whiteside played at left @-@ midfielder for the 2 – 2 draw with Austria at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . A win against France would take them into the semi @-@ finals , however a French team inspired by Michel Platini won 4 – 1 and therefore eliminated Northern Ireland from the competition .
He featured in qualifying for UEFA Euro 1984 , as the " Green and White Army " suffered heartbreak after winning their final group game 1 – 0 over West Germany , Whiteside managing to get the better of one of the world 's best man @-@ markers in Karlheinz Förster . However the Germans secured the only qualification place in the group in their final match of the group with a late winner over Albania . The nation did though achieve some glory that year , when Whiteside helped Northern Ireland win the 100th and last edition of the British Home Championship in 1984 .
Northern Ireland won qualification to the World Cup for a second successive tournament with a goalless draw with England in their final group game ; Whiteside scored three goals during the qualification process , with his strike again Romania at Windsor Park proving to be crucial as they ended up qualifying at the Romanian 's expense . At the 1986 FIFA World Cup finals in Mexico , he scored in his country 's only result in the tournament , a 1 – 1 draw against Algeria at the Estadio Tres de Marzo . They were beaten in their other two group games , losing 2 – 1 to Spain and 3 – 0 to Brazil . Whiteside won a total of 38 caps and scored nine times in eight years playing for Northern Ireland .
= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =
He married wife Judy on 4 October 1987 ; the two had met when Whiteside was 16 and she was 20 . The relationship blossomed despite fears of reprisal on Shankill , with him being a Protestant and Judy being a Catholic . The marriage ended acrimoniously in 2001 , after the couple had 20 years together and three children : Della , Blaine and Clodagh . He subsequently married Denise .
Upon retirement , Whiteside studied to become a podiatrist , graduating with a degree from the University of Salford , and served Northwich Victoria as their assistant manager / physio from October 1991 until March 1992 . He quit the role as he did not enjoy the amount of time spent travelling between games . During his playing career , he had attended courses at Lilleshall to pick up his coaching badges , but he did not wish to go into coaching . He instead became an after @-@ dinner speaker . He also worked for the Professional Footballers ' Association , while taking a postgraduate course at Manchester Metropolitan University . He later took up private practice as a podiatrist in Manchester . Since 1994 , he has also worked at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford . In 2003 , he released a book entitled My Memories of Manchester United . With the help of writer Rob Bagchi , he released his autobiography entitled Determined in August 2007 , published by Headline , and with a foreword by actor James Nesbitt . When Saturday Comes magazine reviewer Joyce Woolridge wrote that " Determined is an entertaining , well written account of one of the less ordinary 1980s footballers , with the added twist of how Whiteside was able to rebuild his life , if not his knee . " The next month it was reported that Whiteside had been diagnosed with irregular heart rhythms . Whiteside worked as a pundit on ITV 's coverage of UEFA Euro 2016 .
= = Statistics = =
= = = | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
Club statistics = = =
Notes
European statistics : 1982 – 83 & 1984 – 85 ( UEFA Cup ) ; 1983 – 84 ( UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup ) .
Statistics listed in Whiteside 's autobiography :
= = = International statistics = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Northern Ireland 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
Manchester United
FA Cup ( 2 ) : 1983 , 1985
FA Charity Shield ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85
Northern Ireland
British Home Championship ( 1 ) : 1984
= Horace Greeley =
Horace Greeley ( February 3 , 1811 – November 29 , 1872 ) was editor of the New @-@ York Tribune , among the great newspapers of its time . Long active in politics , he served briefly as a congressman from New York , and was the candidate of the Democratic and Liberal Republican parties in the 1872 presidential election . He was defeated by President Ulysses S. Grant , and died before the casting of the electoral vote .
Born to a poor family in New Hampshire , Greeley was apprenticed to a printer in Vermont , and in 1831 went to New York City to seek his fortune . He wrote for or edited several publications , and involved himself in Whig Party politics , taking a significant part in William Henry Harrison 's successful 1840 presidential campaign . The following year , he founded the Tribune , which through weekly editions sent by mail became the highest @-@ circulating newspaper in the country . Among many other issues , he urged the settlement of the American West , which he saw as a land of opportunity for the young and the unemployed . He popularized the phrase " Go West , young man , and grow up with the country , " although it is uncertain whether it originated with him .
Greeley 's alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives , where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper . He helped found the Republican Party in 1854 , but about then broke with Seward and Weed , backing other presidential candidates against Seward at the 1860 Republican National Convention , and supporting the nominee , Abraham Lincoln . When the Civil War broke out , he mostly supported Lincoln , though urging him to commit to the end of slavery before the president was willing to do so . After Lincoln 's assassination , he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson .
Leading against the corruption of Grant 's Republican administration , Greeley was the new Liberal Republican Party 's candidate in the 1872 U.S. presidential election . Despite having the additional support of the Democratic Party , he lost in a landslide . Devastated at the defeat , he died three weeks later . Greeley is the only major @-@ party presidential candidate to have died prior to the electoral vote being cast .
= = Early life = =
Horace Greeley was born on February 3 , 1811 , on a farm about five miles from Amherst , New Hampshire . He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life . It is suggested that this deprivation may have caused him to develop Asperger 's syndrome — some of his biographers , such as Mitchell Snay , maintain that this condition would account for his eccentric behaviors in later life .
Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary ( Woodburn ) Greeley . Zaccheus was not successful , and moved his family several times , as far west as Pennsylvania . Horace attended the local schools , and was a brilliant student . He was of English descent , and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire .
Seeing the boy 's intelligence , some neighbors offered to pay Horace 's way at Phillips Exeter Academy , but the Greeleys were too proud to accept charity . In 1820 , Zaccheus 's financial reverses caused him to flee New Hampshire with his family lest he be imprisoned for debt , and settle in Vermont . Even as his father struggled to make a living as a hired hand , Horace Greeley read everything he could — the Greeleys had a neighbor who let Horace use his library . In 1822 , Horace ran away from home to become a printer 's apprentice , but was told he was too young .
In 1826 , at age 15 , he was made a printer 's apprentice to Amos Bliss , editor of the Northern Spectator , a newspaper in East Poultney , Vermont . There , he learned the mechanics of a printer 's job , and acquired a reputation as the town encyclopedia , reading his way through the local library . When the paper closed in 1830 , the young man went west to join his family , living near Erie , Pennsylvania . He remained there only briefly , going from town to town seeking newspaper employment , and was hired by the Erie Gazette . Although ambitious for greater things , he remained until 1831 to help support his father . While there , he became a Universalist , breaking from his Congregationalist upbringing .
= = First efforts at publishing = =
In late 1831 , Greeley went to New York City to seek his fortune . There were many young printers in New York who had likewise come to the metropolis , and he could only find short @-@ term work . In 1832 , Greeley worked as an employee of the publication Spirit of the Times . He built his resources and set up a print shop in that year . In 1833 , he tried his hand with Horatio D. Sheppard at editing a daily newspaper , the New York Morning Post , which was not a success . Despite this failure and its attendant financial loss , Greeley published the thrice @-@ weekly Constitutionalist , which mostly printed lottery results .
On March 22 , 1834 , he published the first issue of The New @-@ Yorker in partnership with Jonas Winchester . It was less expensive than other literary magazines of the time and published both contemporary ditties and political commentary . Circulation reached 9 @,@ 000 , then a sizable number , yet it was ill @-@ managed and eventually fell victim to the economic Panic of 1837 . He also published the campaign news sheet of the new Whig Party in New York for the 1834 campaign , and came to believe in its positions , including free markets with government assistance in developing the nation .
Soon after his move to New York City , Greeley met Mary Young Cheney . Both were living at a boarding house run on the diet principles of Sylvester Graham , eschewing meat , alcohol , coffee , tea , and spices , as well as abstaining from the use of tobacco . Greeley was subscribing to Graham 's principles at the time , and to the end of his life rarely ate meat . Mary Cheney , a schoolteacher , moved to North Carolina to take a teaching job in 1835 . They were married in Warrenton , North Carolina on July 5 , 1836 , and an announcement duly appeared in The New @-@ Yorker eleven days later . Greeley had stopped over in Washington , D.C. on his way south to observe Congress . He took no honeymoon with his new wife , returning to work while his wife took up a teaching job in New York City .
One of the positions taken by The New @-@ Yorker was that the unemployed of the cities should seek lives in the developing American West ( in the 1830s , the West encompassed today 's Midwestern states ) . The harsh winter of 1836 – 1837 and the financial crisis that developed soon after made many New Yorkers homeless and destitute . In his journal , Greeley urged new immigrants to buy guide books on the West , and Congress to make public lands available for purchase at cheap rates to settlers . He told his readers , " Fly , scatter through the country , go to the Great West , anything rather than remain here ... the West is the true destination . " In 1838 , he advised " any young man " about to start in the world , " Go to the West : there your capabilities are sure to be appreciated and your energy and industry rewarded . "
In 1838 , Greeley met Albany editor Thurlow Weed . Weed spoke for a liberal faction of the Whigs in his newspaper the Albany Evening Journal . He hired Greeley as editor of the state Whig newspaper for the upcoming campaign . The newspaper , the Jeffersonian , premiered in February 1838 and helped elect the Whig candidate for governor , William H. Seward . In 1839 , Greeley worked for several journals , and took a month @-@ long break to go as far west as Detroit .
Greeley was deeply involved in the campaign of the Whig candidate for president in 1840 , William Henry Harrison . He published the major Whig periodical the Log Cabin , and also wrote many of the pro @-@ Harrison songs that marked the campaign . These songs were sung at mass meetings , many organized and led by Greeley . According to biographer Robert C. Williams , " Greeley 's lyrics swept the country and roused Whig voters to action . " Funds raised by Weed helped distribute the Log Cabin widely . Harrison and his running mate John Tyler were easily elected .
= = Editor of the Tribune = =
= = = Early years ( 1841 – 1848 ) = = =
By the end of the 1840 campaign , the Log Cabin 's circulation had risen to 80 @,@ 000 and Greeley decided to establish a daily newspaper , the New @-@ York Tribune . At the time , New York had many newspapers , dominated by James Gordon Bennett 's New York Herald , which with a circulation of about 55 @,@ 000 had more readers than its combined competition . As technology advanced , it became cheaper and easier to publish a newspaper , and the daily press came to dominate the weekly , which had once been the more common format for news periodicals . Greeley borrowed money from friends to get started , and published the first issue of the Tribune on April 10 , 1841 — the day of a memorial parade in New York for President Harrison , who had died after a month in office and been replaced by Vice President Tyler .
In the first issue , Greeley promised that his newspaper would be a " new morning Journal of Politics , Literature , and General Intelligence " . New Yorkers were not initially receptive ; the first week 's receipts were $ 92 and expenses $ 525 . The paper was sold for a cent a copy by newsboys who purchased bundles of papers at a discount . The price of advertising was initially four cents a line , but was quickly raised to six cents . Through the 1840s , the Tribune was four pages , that is , a single sheet folded . It initially had 600 subscribers and 5 @,@ 000 copies were sold of the first issue .
In the early days , Greeley 's chief assistant was Henry J. Raymond , who a decade later founded The New York Times . To place the Tribune on a sound financial footing , Greeley sold a half @-@ interest in it to attorney Thomas McElrath , who became publisher of the Tribune ( Greeley was editor ) and ran the business side . Politically , the Tribune backed Kentucky Senator Henry Clay , who had unsuccessfully sought the presidential nomination that fell to Harrison , and supported Clay 's American System for development of the country . Greeley was one of the first newspaper editors to have a full @-@ time correspondent in Washington , an innovation quickly followed by his rivals . Part of Greeley 's strategy was to make the Tribune a newspaper of national scope , not merely local . One factor in establishing the paper nationally was the Weekly Tribune , created in September , 1841 when the Log Cabin and The New @-@ Yorker were merged . With an initial subscription price of $ 2 a year , this was sent to many across the United States by mail , and was especially popular in the Midwest . In December 1841 , Greeley was offered the editorship of the national Whig newspaper , the Madisonian . He demanded full control , and declined when not given it .
Greeley , in his paper , initially supported the Whig program . As divisions between Clay and President Tyler became apparent , he supported the Kentucky senator and looked to a Clay nomination for president in 1844 . However , when Clay was nominated by the Whigs , he was defeated by the Democrat , former Tennessee governor James K. Polk , though Greeley worked hard on Clay 's behalf . Greeley had taken positions in opposition to slavery as editor of The New @-@ Yorker in the late 1830s , opposing the annexation of the slaveholding Republic of Texas to the United States . In the 1840s , Greeley became an increasingly vocal opponent of the expansion of slavery .
Greeley hired Margaret Fuller in 1844 as first literary editor of the Tribune , for which she wrote over 200 articles . She lived with the Greeley family for several years , and when she moved to Italy , he made her a foreign correspondent . He promoted the work of Henry David Thoreau , serving as literary agent and seeing to it that Thoreau 's work was published . Ralph Waldo Emerson also benefited from Greeley 's promotion . Historian Allan Nevins explained :
The Tribune set a new standard in American journalism by its combination of energy in news gathering with good taste , high moral standards , and intellectual appeal . Police reports , scandals , dubious medical advertisements , and flippant personalities were barred from its pages ; the editorials were vigorous but usually temperate ; the political news was the most exact in the city ; book reviews and book @-@ extracts were numerous ; and as an inveterate lecturer Greeley gave generous space to lectures . The paper appealed to substantial and thoughtful people .
Greeley , who had met his wife at a Graham boarding house , became enthusiastic about other social movements that did not last , and promoted them in his paper . He subscribed to the views of Charles Fourier , a French mathematician and social thinker , then recently deceased , who proposed the establishment of settlements called " phalanxes " with a given number of people from various walks of life , who would function as a corporation and among whose members profits would be shared . Greeley , in addition to promoting Fourierism in the Tribune , was associated with two such settlements , both of which eventually failed , though the town that eventually developed on the site of the one in Pennsylvania was after his death renamed Greeley .
= = = Congressman ( 1848 – 1849 ) = = =
In November 1848 , Congressman David S. Jackson , a Democrat , of New York 's Sixth District was unseated for election fraud . Jackson 's term was to expire in March 1849 , but during the 19th century Congress convened annually in December , making it important to fill the seat . Under the laws then in force , the Whig committee from the Sixth District chose Jackson 's replacement and they chose Greeley , though they did not select him as their candidate for the seat in the following Congress . The Sixth District , or Sixth Ward as it was commonly called , was mostly Irish @-@ American , and Greeley proclaimed his support for Irish efforts towards independence from Great Britain . He took his seat when Congress convened in December 1848 . Greeley 's selection was procured by the influence of his ally , Thurlow Weed .
As a congressman for three months , Greeley introduced legislation for a homestead act that would allow settlers who improved land to purchase it at low rates — a fourth of what speculators would pay . He was quickly noticed because he launched a series of attacks on legislative privileges , taking note of which congressmen were missing votes , and questioning the office of House Chaplain . This was enough to make him unpopular . But he outraged his colleagues when on December 22 , 1848 the Tribune published evidence that many congressmen had been paid excessive sums as travel allowance . In January 1849 , Greeley supported a bill that would have corrected the issue , but it was defeated . He was so disliked , he wrote a friend , that he had " divided the House into two parties — one that would like to see me extinguished and the other that wouldn 't be satisfied without a hand in doing it . "
Other legislation , all failed , introduced by Greeley included attempts to end flogging in the Navy , and to ban alcohol from its ships . He tried to change the name of the United States to " Columbia " , abolish slavery in the District of Columbia , and increase tariffs . One lasting effect of the term of Congressman Greeley was his friendship with a fellow Whig , serving his only term in the House , Illinois 's Abraham Lincoln . Greeley 's term ended after March 3 , 1849 , and he returned to New York and the Tribune , having , according to Williams , " failed to achieve much except notoriety " .
= = = Influence ( 1849 – 1860 ) = = =
By the end of the 1840s , Greeley 's Tribune was not only solidly established in New York as a daily paper , it was highly influential nationally through its weekly edition , which circulated in rural areas and small towns . Journalist Bayard Taylor deemed its influence in the Midwest second only to that of the Bible . According to Williams , the Tribune could mold public opinion through Greeley 's editorials more effectively than could the president . Greeley sharpened those skills over time , laying down what future Secretary of State John Hay , who worked for the Tribune in the 1870s , deemed the " Gospel according to St. Horace " .
The Tribune remained a Whig paper , but Greeley took an independent course . In 1848 , he had been slow to endorse the Whig presidential nominee , General Zachary Taylor , a Louisianan and hero of the Mexican @-@ American War . Greeley opposed both the war and the expansion of slavery into the new territories seized from Mexico , and feared Taylor would support expansion as president . Greeley considered endorsing former president Martin Van Buren , candidate of the Free Soil Party , but finally endorsed Taylor , who was elected ; the editor was rewarded for his loyalty with the congressional term . Greeley vacillated on support for the Compromise of 1850 , which gave victories to both sides of the slavery issue , before finally opposing it . In the 1852 presidential race , he supported the Whig candidate , General Winfield Scott , but savaged the Whig platform for its support of the Compromise . " We defy it , execrate it , spit upon it . " Such party divisions contributed to Scott 's defeat by former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce .
In 1853 , with the party increasingly divided over the slavery issue , Greeley printed an editorial disclaiming the paper 's identity as Whig and declaring it to be nonpartisan . He was confident that the paper would not suffer financially , trusting in reader loyalty . Some in the party were not sorry to see him go : the Republic , a Whig organ , mocked Greeley and his beliefs : " If a party is to be built up and maintained on Fourierism , Mesmerism , Maine Liquor laws , Spiritual Rappings , Kossuthism , Socialism , Abolitionism , and forty other isms , we have no disposition to mix with any such companions . " When in 1854 , Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas introduced his Kansas @-@ Nebraska Bill , allowing residents of each territory to decide whether it would be slave or free , Greeley strongly fought the legislation in his newspaper . After it passed , and the Border War broke out in Kansas Territory , Greeley was part of efforts to send free @-@ state settlers there , and to arm them . In return , proponents of slavery recognized Greeley and the Tribune as adversaries , stopping shipments of the paper to the South and harassing local agents . Nevertheless , by 1858 , the Tribune reached 300 @,@ 000 subscribers through the weekly edition , and it would continue as the foremost American newspaper through the years of the Civil War .
The Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act helped destroy the Whig Party , but a new party with opposition to the spread of slavery at its heart had been under discussion for some years . Beginning in 1853 , Greeley participated in the discussions that led to the founding of the Republican Party and may have coined its name . Greeley attended the first New York state Republican Convention in 1854 , and was disappointed not to be nominated either for governor or lieutenant governor . The switch in parties coincided with the end of two of his longtime political alliances : in December 1854 , Greeley wrote that the political partnership between Weed , William Seward ( who was by then senator after serving as governor ) and himself was ended " by the withdrawal of the junior partner " . Greeley was angered over patronage disputes , and felt Seward was courting the rival The New York Times for support .
In 1853 , Greeley purchased a farm in rural Chappaqua , New York , where he experimented with farming techniques . In 1856 , he designed and built Rehoboth , one of the first concrete structures in the United States .
The Tribune continued to print a wide variety of material . In 1851 , its managing editor Charles Dana recruited Karl Marx as a foreign correspondent in London . Marx collaborated with Friedrich Engels on his work for the Tribune , which continued for over a decade , covering 500 articles . Greeley felt compelled to print , " Mr. Marx has very decided opinions of his own , with some of which we are far from agreeing , but those who do not read his letters are neglecting one of the most instructive sources of information on the great questions of current European politics . "
In 1859 , Greeley traveled across the continent to see the West for himself , to write about it for the Tribune , and to publicize the need for a transcontinental railroad . He also planned to give speeches to promote the Republican Party . He went to Chicago , then to Lawrence in Kansas Territory , and was unimpressed by the local people . Greeley took one of the first stagecoaches to Denver , seeing the town then in course of formation as a mining camp of the Pike 's Peak Gold Rush . Sending dispatches back to be published in the Tribune , Greeley took the Overland Trail , reaching Salt Lake City , where he conducted a two @-@ hour interview with the Mormon leader , Brigham Young , the first newspaper interview Young had given . Greeley encountered Native Americans , and was sympathetic , but like many of his time , deemed Indian culture inferior . In California , he explored widely and gave many addresses .
= = = 1860 campaign = = =
Although he remained on cordial terms with Senator Seward , Greeley never seriously considered supporting him in his bid for the Republican nomination for president . Instead , during the run @-@ up to the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago , he pressed the candidacy of former Missouri representative Edward Bates , an opponent of the spread of slavery who had freed his own slaves . In his newspaper , in speeches , and in conversation , Greeley pushed Bates as a man who could win the North and even make inroads in the South . Nevertheless , when one of the dark horse candidates for the Republican nomination , Abraham Lincoln , came to New York to give an address at Cooper Union , Greeley urged his readers to go hear Lincoln , and was among those who accompanied him to the platform . Greeley thought of Lincoln as a possible nominee for vice president .
Greeley attended the convention as a substitute for a delegate from Oregon who was unable to attend . In Chicago , he promoted Bates but deemed his cause hopeless and felt that Seward would be nominated . In conversations with other delegates , he predicted that , if nominated , Seward could not carry crucial battleground states such as Pennsylvania . Greeley 's estrangement from Seward was not widely known , giving the editor more credibility . Greeley ( and Seward ) biographer Glyndon G. Van Deusen noted that it is uncertain how great a part Greeley played in Seward 's defeat by Lincoln — he had little success gaining delegates for Bates . On the first two ballots , Seward led Lincoln , but on the second only by a small margin . After the third ballot , on which Lincoln was nominated , Greeley was seen among the Oregon delegation , a broad smile on his face . According to Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian Doris Kearns Goodwin , " it is hard to imagine Lincoln letting Greeley 's resentment smolder for years as Seward did " .
Seward 's forces made Greeley a target of their anger at the senator 's defeat . One subscriber cancelled , regretting the three @-@ cent stamp he had to use on the letter ; Greeley supplied a replacement . When he was attacked in print , Greeley responded in kind . He launched a campaign against corruption in the New York Legislature , hoping voters would defeat incumbents and the new legislators would elect him to the Senate when Seward 's term expired in 1861 ( senators were until 1913 elected by state legislatures ) . But his main activity during the campaign of 1860 was boosting Lincoln and denigrating the other presidential candidates . He made it clear that a Republican administration would not interfere with slavery where it already was , and denied that Lincoln was in favor of voting rights for African Americans . He kept up the pressure until Lincoln was elected in November .
Lincoln soon let it be known that Seward would be Secretary of State , meaning he would not be a candidate for re @-@ election to the Senate . Weed wanted William M. Evarts elected in his place , while the anti @-@ Seward forces in New York gathered around Greeley . The crucial battleground was the Republican caucus , as the party held the majority in the legislature . Greeley 's forces did not have enough votes to send him to the Senate , but they had enough strength to block Evarts 's candidacy . Weed threw his support to Ira Harris , who had already received several votes , and who was chosen by the caucus and elected by the legislature in February 1861 . Weed was content to have blocked the editor , and stated that he had " paid the first installment on a large debt to Mr. Greeley " .
= = = Civil War = = =
= = = = War breaks out = = = =
After Lincoln 's election , there was talk of secession in the South . The Tribune was initially in favor of peaceful separation , with the South becoming a separate nation . According to an editorial on November 9 @,@
If the Cotton States shall become satisfied that they can do better out of the Union than in it , we insist on letting them go in peace . The right to secede may be a revolutionary one , but it exists nevertheless .... And whenever a considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out , we shall resist all coercive measures designed to keep it in . We hope never to live in a republic where of one section is pinned to the residue by bayonets .
Similar editorials appeared through January 1861 , after which Tribune editorials took a hard line on the South , opposing concessions . Williams concludes that " for a brief moment , Horace Greeley had believed that peaceful secession might be a form of freedom preferable to civil war " . This brief flirtation with disunion would have consequences for Greeley — it was used by his opponents against him when he ran for president in 1872 .
In the days leading up to Lincoln 's inauguration , the Tribune headed its editorial columns each day , in large capital letters : " No compromise ! / No concession to traitors ! / The Constitution as it is ! " Greeley attended the inauguration , sitting close to Senator Douglas , as the Tribune hailed the beginning of Lincoln 's presidency . When southern forces attacked Fort Sumter , the Tribune regretted the loss of the fort , but applauded the fact that war to subdue the rebels , who formed the Confederate States of America , would now take place . The paper criticized Lincoln for not being quick to use force .
Through the spring and early summer of 1861 , Greeley and the Tribune beat the drum for a Union attack . " On to Richmond " , a phrase coined by a Tribune stringer , became the watchword of the newspaper as Greeley urged the occupation of the rebel capital of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet on July 20 . In part because of the public pressure , Lincoln sent the half @-@ trained Union Army into the field at the First Battle of Manassas in mid @-@ July where it was soundly beaten . The defeat threw Greeley into despair , and he may have suffered a nervous breakdown .
= = = = " Prayer of Twenty Millions " = = = =
Restored to health by two weeks at the farm he had purchased in Chappaqua , Greeley returned to the Tribune and a policy of general backing of the Lincoln administration , even having kind words to say about Secretary Seward , his old foe . He was supportive even during the military defeats of the first year of the war . Late in 1861 , he proposed to Lincoln through an intermediary that the president provide him with advance information as to its policies , in exchange for friendly coverage in the Tribune . Lincoln eagerly accepted , " having him firmly behind me will be as helpful to me as an army of one hundred thousand men . "
By early 1862 , however , Greeley was again sometimes critical of the administration , frustrated by the failure to win decisive military victories , and perturbed at the president 's slowness to commit to the emancipation of the slaves once the Confederacy was defeated , something the Tribune was urging in its editorials . This was a change in Greeley 's thinking which began after First Manassas , a shift from preservation of the Union being the primary war purpose to wanting the war to end slavery . By March , the only action against slavery that Lincoln had backed was a proposal for compensated emancipation in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union , though he signed legislation abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia . Lincoln supposedly asked a Tribune correspondent , " What in the world is the matter with Uncle Horace ? Why can 't he restrain himself and wait a little while ? "
Greeley 's prodding of Lincoln culminated in a letter to him on August 19 , 1862 , reprinted on the following day in the Tribune as the " Prayer of Twenty Millions " . By this time , Lincoln had informed his Cabinet of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation he had composed , and Greeley was told of it the same day the prayer was printed . In his letter , Greeley demanded action on emancipation , and strict enforcement of the Confiscation Acts . Lincoln must " fight slavery with liberty " , and not fight " wolves with the devices of a sheep " .
Lincoln 's reply would become famous , much more so than the prayer that provoked it . " My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union , and is not either to save or to destroy slavery . If I could save the Union without freeing any slave , I would do it , and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that . What I do about slavery , and the colored race , I do because it helps to save the Union ; and what I forbear , I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union . " Lincoln 's statement angered abolitionists ; William Seward 's wife Frances complained to her husband that Lincoln had made it seem " that the mere keeping together a number of states is more important than human freedom . " Greeley felt Lincoln had not truly answered him , " but I 'll forgive him everything if he 'll issue the proclamation " . When Lincoln did , on September 22 , Greeley hailed the Emancipation Proclamation as a " great boon of freedom " . According to Williams , " Lincoln 's war for Union was now also Greeley 's war for emancipation . "
= = = = Draft Riots and peace efforts = = = =
After the Union victory at Gettysburg in early July 1863 , the Tribune wrote that the rebellion would be quickly " stamped out " . A week after the battle , the New York City draft riots erupted . Greeley and the Tribune were generally supportive of conscription , though feeling that the rich should not be allowed to evade it by hiring substitutes . Support for the draft made them targets of the mob , and the Tribune Building was surrounded , and at least once invaded . Greeley secured arms from the Brooklyn Navy Yard and 150 soldiers kept the building secure . Mary Greeley and her children were at the farm in Chappaqua ; a mob threatened them , but dispersed without doing harm .
In August 1863 , Greeley was requested by a firm of Hartford publishers to write a history of the war . Greeley agreed , and over the next eight months penned a 600 @-@ page volume , which would be the first of two , entitled The American Conflict . The books were very successful , selling a total of 225 @,@ 000 copies by 1870 , a large sale for the time .
Throughout the war , Greeley played with ideas as to how to settle it . In 1862 , Greeley had approached the French minister to Washington , Henri Mercier , to discuss a mediated settlement . However , Seward rejected such talks and the prospect of European intervention receded after the bloody Union victory at Antietam in September 1862 . In July 1864 , Greeley received word that there were Confederate commissioners in Canada , empowered to offer peace . In fact , the men were in Niagara Falls , Canada to aid Peace Democrats and otherwise undermine the Union war effort. but they played along when Greeley journeyed to Niagara Falls , at Lincoln 's request : the president was willing to consider any deal that included reunion and emancipation . The Confederates had no credentials and were unwilling to accompany Greeley to Washington under safe conduct . Greeley returned to New York , and the episode , when it became public , embarrassed the administration . Lincoln said nothing publicly concerning Greeley 's credulous conduct , but privately indicated that he had no confidence in him anymore .
Greeley did not initially support Lincoln for nomination in 1864 , casting about for other candidates . In February , he wrote in the Tribune that Lincoln could not be elected to a second term . Nevertheless , no candidate made a serious challenge to Lincoln , who was nominated in June , which the Tribune applauded slightly . In August , fearing a Democratic victory and acceptance of the Confederacy , Greeley engaged in a plot to get a new convention to nominate another candidate , with Lincoln withdrawing . The plot came to nothing . Once Atlanta was taken by Union forces on September 3 , Greeley became a fervent supporter of Lincoln . Greeley was gratified both by Lincoln 's re @-@ election and continued Union victories .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
As the war drew to a close in April 1865 , Greeley and the Tribune urged magnanimity towards the defeated Confederates , arguing that making martyrs of Confederate leaders would only inspire future rebels . This talk of moderation ceased when Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth . Many concluded that Lincoln had fallen as the result of a final rebel plot , and the new president , Andrew Johnson , offered $ 100 @,@ 000 for the capture of fugitive Confederate president Jefferson Davis . After the rebel leader was caught , Greeley initially advocated that " punishment be meted out in accord with a just verdict " .
Through 1866 , Greeley editorialized that Davis , who was being held at Fortress Monroe , should either be set free or put on trial . Davis 's wife Varina urged Greeley to use his influence to gain her husband 's release . In May 1867 , a Richmond judge set bail for the former Confederate president at $ 100 @,@ 000 . Greeley was among those who signed the bail bond , and the two men met briefly at the courthouse . This act resulted in public anger against Greeley in the North . Sales of the second volume of his history ( published in 1866 ) declined sharply . Subscriptions to the Tribune ( especially the Weekly Tribune ) also dropped off , though they recovered during the 1868 election .
Beginning as a supporter , Greeley soon became disillusioned with President Johnson , whose Reconstruction policies allowed the quick formation of state governments without provision for suffrage for the freedman . When Congress convened and gradually took control of Reconstruction , Greeley generally supported their actions , favoring universal male suffrage and , his anger against the Confederates having cooled , amnesty . While Greeley generally supported the Radical Republicans , he did not like the harshness of Thaddeus Stevens . Greeley ran for Congress in 1866 , but lost badly , and for Senate in the legislative election held in early 1867 , to be defeated by Roscoe Conkling .
As president and Congress battled , Greeley remained firmly opposed to Johnson , and when the president was impeached in 1868 , Greeley and the Tribune strongly supported his removal , strongly attacking Johnson . Nevertheless , the president was acquitted by the Senate , much to Greeley 's disappointment . Also in 1868 , Greeley sought the Republican nomination for governor , but was frustrated by the Conkling forces . Greeley supported the successful Republican presidential nominee , General Ulysses S. Grant in the 1868 election .
= = = Grant years = = =
In 1868 , Whitelaw Reid joined the Tribune ' s staff as managing editor . In Reid , Greeley had found a reliable second @-@ in @-@ command . Also on the Tribune 's staff in the late 1860s was Mark Twain ; Henry George sometimes contributed pieces , as did Bret Harte . In 1870 , Lincoln 's assistant private secretary , John Hay , joined the staff as an editorial writer . Greeley soon pronounced Hay the most brilliant at that craft ever to write for the Tribune .
Greeley maintained his interest in associationism . Beginning in 1869 , he was heavily involved in an attempt to found a utopia on the prairie in a scheme led by Nathan Meeker . Named Greeley , Colorado Territory , its namesake served as treasurer of the town association , bought two lots there , which he inspected in 1870 , and lent Meeker money to keep the colony afloat . Greeley 's close friend P. T. Barnum also interested himself in the project , and built a hotel there . After early struggles , the colony survived under Meeker 's leadership , though adopting a normal municipal government . In 1871 , Greeley published a book What I Know About Farming , based on his childhood experience and that from his country home in Chappaqua .
Greeley continued to seek political office , running for state comptroller in 1869 and the House of Representatives in 1870 , losing both times . In 1870 , President Grant offered Greeley the post of minister to Santo Domingo ( today , the Dominican Republic ) , which he declined .
= = Presidential candidate = =
As had been the case for much of the 19th century , political parties continued to be formed and to vanish after the Civil War . In September 1871 , Missouri Senator Carl Schurz formed the Liberal Republican Party , founded on opposition to President Grant , opposition to corruption , and support of civil service reform , lower taxes , and land reform . He gathered around him an eclectic group of supporters whose only real link was their opposition to Grant , whose administration had proved increasingly corrupt . The party needed a candidate , with a presidential election upcoming . Greeley was one of the best @-@ known Americans , as well as being a perennial candidate for office . He was more minded to consider a run for the Republican nomination , fearing the effect on the Tribune should he bolt the party . Nevertheless , he wanted to be president , as a Republican if possible , if not , as a Liberal Republican .
The Liberal Republican national convention met in Cincinnati in May 1872 . Greeley was spoken of as a possible candidate , as was Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown . Schurz was ineligible as foreign @-@ born . On the first ballot , Supreme Court Justice David Davis led , but Greeley took a narrow lead on the second ballot . Former minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams took the lead , but on the sixth ballot , after a " spontaneous " demonstration staged by Reid , Greeley gained the nomination , with Brown as vice presidential candidate .
The Democrats , when they met in Baltimore in July , faced a stark choice — either nominate Greeley , long a thorn in their side , or split the anti @-@ Grant vote and go to certain defeat . They chose the former , and even adopted the Liberal Republican platform , calling for equal rights for African Americans . This was the first time one man had been nominated for president by two political parties . Greeley resigned as editor of the Tribune for the campaign , and , unusually for the time , embarked on a speaking tour to bring his message to the people . As it was more usual for candidates for major office to not actively campaign , he was attacked as a seeker after office . Nevertheless , in late July , Greeley ( and others , such as former Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes ) thought he would very likely be elected . Greeley campaigned on a platform of intersectional reconciliation , arguing that the war was over and the issue of slavery was resolved . It was time to restore normalcy and end the continuing military occupation of the South .
The Republican counterattack was well @-@ financed , accusing Greeley of support for everything from treason to the Ku Klux Klan . The anti @-@ Greeley campaign was famously and effectively summed up in the cartoons of Thomas Nast , whom Grant later credited with a major role in his re @-@ election . Nast 's cartoons showed Greeley giving bail money for Jefferson Davis , throwing mud on Grant , and shaking hands with John Wilkes Booth across Lincoln 's grave . The Crédit Mobilier scandal — corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad — broke in September , but Greeley was unable to take advantage of the Grant administration 's ties to the scandal as he had stock in the railroad himself , and some alleged it had been given him in exchange for favorable coverage .
Greeley 's wife Mary had returned ill from a trip to Europe in late June . Her condition worsened in October , and he effectively broke off campaigning after October 12 to be with her . She died on October 30 , plunging him into despair a week before the election . Poor results for the Democrats in those states that had elections for other offices in September and October presaged defeat for Greeley , and so it proved . He received 2 @,@ 834 @,@ 125 votes to 3 @,@ 597 @,@ 132 for Grant , who secured 286 electors to 66 chosen for Greeley . The editor @-@ turned @-@ candidate won only six states : Georgia , Kentucky , Maryland , Missouri , Tennessee and Texas .
= = = Final month and death = = =
Greeley resumed the editorship of the Tribune , but quickly learned there was a movement under way to unseat him . He found himself unable to sleep , and after a final visit to the Tribune on November 13 ( a week after the election ) remained under medical care . At the recommendation of a family physician , Greeley was sent to the asylum of Dr. George S. Choate at Pleasantville , New York . There , he continued to worsen , and died on November 29 , with his two surviving daughters and Whitelaw Reid at his side .
His death came before the Electoral College convened . His 66 electoral votes were divided among four others , principally Indiana governor @-@ elect Thomas A. Hendricks and Greeley 's vice presidential running mate , Benjamin Gratz Brown .
Although Greeley had requested a simple funeral , his daughters ignored his wishes and arranged a grand affair . He is buried in Brooklyn 's Green @-@ Wood Cemetery . Among the mourners were old friends , Tribune employees including Reid and Hay , his journalistic rivals , and a broad array of politicians , led by President Grant .
= = Appraisal = =
Despite the venom that had been spewed over him in the presidential campaign , Greeley 's death was publicly mourned . Harper 's Weekly , which had printed Nast 's cartoons , wrote , " Since the assassination of Mr. Lincoln , the death of no American has been so sincerely deplored as that of Horace Greeley ; and its tragical circumstances have given a peculiarly affectionate pathos to all that has been said of him . " Henry Ward Beecher wrote in the Christian Union , " when Horace Greeley died , unjust and hard judgment of him died also " . Harriett Beecher Stowe noted Greeley 's eccentric dress , " That poor white hat ! If , alas , it covered many weaknesses , it covered also much strength , much real kindness and benevolence , and much that the world will be better for " .
Greeley 's view of freedom was based in the desire that all should have the opportunity to better themselves . According to his biographer , Erik S. Lunde , " a dedicated social reformer deeply sympathetic to the treatment of poor white males , slaves , free blacks , and white women , he still espoused the virtues of self @-@ help and free enterprise " . Van Deusen stated : " His genuine human sympathies , his moral fervor , even the exhibitionism that was a part of his makeup , made it inevitable that he should crusade for a better world . He did so with apostolic zeal . "
Nevertheless , Greeley 's effectiveness as a reformer was undermined by his idiosyncrasies : according to Williams , he " must have looked like an apparition , a man of eccentric habits dressed in an old linen coat that made him look like a farmer who came into town for supplies " . Van Deusen wrote , " Greeley 's effectiveness as a crusader was limited by some of his traits and characteristics . Culturally deficient , he was to the end ignorant of his own limitations , and this ignorance was a great handicap . "
The Tribune remained under that name until 1924 , when it merged with the New York Herald to become the New York Herald @-@ Tribune , which ceased to publish in 1966 . The name survived until 2013 , when the International Herald @-@ Tribune became the International New York Times .
There is a statue of Greeley in City Hall Park in New York , donated by the Tribune Association . Cast in 1890 , it was not dedicated until 1916 . A second statue of Greeley is located in Greeley Square in Midtown Manhattan . Greeley Square , at Broadway and 33rd Street , was named by the New York City Common Council in a vote after Greeley 's death . Van Deusen concluded his biography of Greeley :
More significant still was the service that Greeley performed as a result of his faith in his country and his countrymen , his belief in infinite American progress . For all his faults and shortcomings , Greeley symbolized an America that , though often shortsighted and misled , was never suffocated by the wealth pouring from its farms and furnaces ... For through his faith in the American future , a faith expressed in his ceaseless efforts to make real the promise of America , he inspired others with hope and confidence , making them feel that their dreams also had the substance of realty . It is his faith , and theirs that has given him his place in American history . In that faith he still marches among us , scolding and benevolent , exhorting us to confidence and to victory in the great struggles of our own day .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Stede Bonnet =
Stede Bonnet ( c.1688 – 10 December 1718 ) was an early 18th @-@ century Barbadian pirate , sometimes called " The Gentleman Pirate " because he was a moderately wealthy landowner before turning to a life of crime . Bonnet was born into a wealthy English family on the island of Barbados , and inherited the family estate after his father 's death in 1694 . In 1709 , he married Mary Allamby , and engaged in some level of militia service . Because of marital problems , and despite his lack of sailing experience , Bonnet decided to turn to piracy in the summer of 1717 . He bought a sailing vessel , named it Revenge , and traveled with his paid crew along the Eastern Seaboard of what is now the United States , capturing other vessels and burning other Barbadian ships .
Bonnet set sail for Nassau , Bahamas , to the haven for pirates known as the ' Pirates ' republic ' , but he was seriously wounded en route during an encounter with a Spanish warship . After arriving in Nassau , Bonnet met Edward Teach , the infamous pirate Blackbeard . Incapable of leading his crew , Bonnet temporarily ceded his ship 's command to Blackbeard . Before separating in December 1717 , Blackbeard and Bonnet plundered and captured merchant ships along the East Coast . After Bonnet failed to capture the Protestant Caesar , his crew abandoned him to join Blackbeard aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet stayed on Blackbeard 's ship as a guest , and did not command a crew again until summer 1718 , when he was pardoned by North Carolina governor Charles Eden and received clearance to go privateering against Spanish shipping . Bonnet was tempted to resume his piracy , but did not want to lose his pardon , so he adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed his ship 's name to Royal James . He had returned to piracy by July 1718 .
In August 1718 , Bonnet anchored the Royal James on an estuary of the Cape Fear River to careen and repair the ship . In late August and September , Colonel William Rhett , with the authorisation of South Carolina governor Robert Johnson , led a naval expedition against pirates on the river . Rhett and Bonnet 's men fought each other for hours , but the outnumbered pirates ultimately surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and brought them to Charleston in early October . Bonnet escaped on 24 October , but was recaptured on Sullivan 's Island . On 10 November , Bonnet was brought to trial and charged with two acts of piracy . Judge Nicholas Trott sentenced Bonnet to death . Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson to ask for clemency , but Johnson endorsed the judge 's decision , and Bonnet was hanged in Charleston on 10 December 1718 .
= = Pre @-@ criminal life = =
Bonnet is believed to have been born in 1688 , as he was christened at Christ Church parish on 29 July 1688 . His parents , Edward and Sarah Bonnet , owned an estate of over 400 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) southeast of Bridgetown , which was bequeathed to Bonnet upon his father 's death in 1694 . It is not known where Bonnet received his education , but many who knew him described him as bookish , and Judge Nicholas Trott alluded to Bonnet 's liberal education when sentencing him . Bonnet married Mary Allamby in Bridgetown on 21 November 1709 . They had three sons — Allamby , Edward , and Stede — and a daughter , Mary . Allamby died before 1715 , while the other children survived to see their father abandon them for piracy . Edward 's granddaughter , Anne Thomasine Clarke , was the wife of General Robert Haynes , for 36 years Speaker of the Assembly of Barbados .
In A General History of the Pyrates , Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet was driven to piracy by Mary 's nagging and " [ d ] iscomforts he found in a married State . " Details of Bonnet 's military service are unclear , but he held the rank of major in the Barbados militia . The rank was probably due to his land holdings , since deterring slave revolts was an important function of the militia . Bonnet 's militia service coincided with the War of the Spanish Succession , but there is no record that he took part in the fighting .
= = Early career as a pirate = =
During the spring of 1717 , Stede Bonnet decided to become a pirate , despite having no knowledge of shipboard life . He contracted a local shipyard to build him a sixty @-@ ton sloop , which he equipped with six guns and named the Revenge . This was unusual , as most pirates seized their ships by mutiny or boarding , or else converted a privateer vessel to a pirate ship . Bonnet enlisted a crew of more than seventy men . He relied on his quartermaster and officer for their knowledge of sailing , and as a result , he was not highly respected by his crew . In another break from tradition , Bonnet paid his crew wages , not shares of plunder as most pirates did . Royal Navy intelligence reported that he departed Carlisle Bay , Barbados under cover of darkness .
Bonnet 's initial cruise took him to the coast of Virginia near the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay , where he captured and plundered four vessels , and burned the Barbadian ship Turbet to keep news of his crimes from his home island . He then sailed north to New York , taking two more ships , and picking up naval supplies and releasing captives at Gardiners Island . By August 1717 , Bonnet had returned to the Carolinas , where he attacked two more ships , a brigantine from Boston and a Barbadian sloop . He stripped the brigantine , but brought the cargo @-@ filled Barbadian sloop to an inlet off North Carolina to use for careening and repairing the Revenge . After the Barbadian sloop 's tackle was used to careen the Revenge , the ship was dismantled for timber , and the remains were then burned . In September 1717 , Bonnet set course for Nassau , which was then an infamous pirate den on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas . En route , he encountered , fought , and escaped from a Spanish man of war . The Revenge was badly damaged , Bonnet was seriously wounded , and half the crew of the sloop was killed or wounded in the encounter . Putting in at Nassau , Bonnet replaced his casualties and refitted the Revenge , increasing the sloop 's armament to twelve guns .
= = Collaboration with Blackbeard = =
While at Nassau , Bonnet met Captain Benjamin Hornigold and Edward Teach for the first time ; Teach , better known as Blackbeard , played a large role in the remainder of Bonnet 's life . Disabled by his wounds , Bonnet temporarily ceded command of the Revenge to Blackbeard , but remained aboard as a guest of the more experienced pirate captain . Blackbeard and Bonnet weighed anchor and sailed northward to Delaware Bay , where they plundered eleven ships . On 29 September 1717 , the Revenge , captained by Blackbeard , plundered the sloop Betty , which had a cargo full of Madeira wine . Captain Codd , whose merchant ship was taken on 12 October , described Bonnet as walking the deck in his nightshirt , lacking any command and still unwell from his wounds . The Revenge later captured and looted the Spofford and Sea Nymph , which were leaving Philadelphia . On 22 October , the Revenge stopped and robbed the Robert and Good Intent of their supplies .
Blackbeard and Bonnet left Delaware Bay and returned to the Caribbean in November , where they successfully continued their piracy . On 17 November , a 200 @-@ ton ship named the Concorde was attacked by two pirate craft nearly 100 miles ( 160 km ) away from the island of Martinique . The lieutenant on board described the pirate vessels as one having 12 guns and 120 men and the other having eight guns and 30 men . The crew of the Concorde put up a fight , but surrendered after the pirates bombarded them with " two volleys of cannons and musketry . " Blackbeard took the Concorde and sailed south into the Grenadines , where he renamed the ship Queen Anne 's Revenge , possibly as an insult to King George I of Great Britain . Some time after 19 December , Bonnet and Blackbeard separated . Bonnet now sailed into the western Caribbean . In March 1718 , he encountered the 400 @-@ ton merchant vessel Protestant Caesar off Honduras . The ship escaped him , and his frustrated crew became restive . When Bonnet encountered Blackbeard again shortly afterward , Bonnet 's crew deserted him to join Blackbeard . Blackbeard put a henchman named Richards in command of the Revenge . Bonnet , surprised that his colleague had betrayed him , found himself as a guest aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet confided in a few loyal crew members that he was ready to give up his criminal life if he could exile himself in Spain or Portugal . Bonnet would not exercise command again until the summer of 1718 .
Under Captain Richards , the Revenge captured a Jamaican sloop , the Adventure , captained by David Herriot . Herriot joined the pirates , and Blackbeard now possessed three ships . Bonnet accompanied Blackbeard to South Carolina , where Blackbeard 's four vessels blockaded the port of Charleston in the late spring of 1718 . Needing a place to rest and refit their vessels , Blackbeard and Bonnet headed north to Topsail Inlet , where the Queen Anne 's Revenge ran aground and was lost . Leaving the remaining three vessels at Topsail Inlet , Blackbeard and Bonnet went ashore and journeyed to Bath , which was then capital of North Carolina . Once there , both men accepted pardons from Governor Charles Eden under King George 's Act of Grace , putatively on condition of their renouncing piracy forever . While Blackbeard quietly returned to Topsail Inlet , Bonnet stayed in Bath to get a " clearance " to take the Revenge to Denmark 's Caribbean colony of St. Thomas , where he planned to buy a letter of marque and go privateering against Spanish shipping . Eden granted Bonnet this clearance .
= = Resumption of pirate command = =
Bonnet returned to Topsail Inlet to find that Blackbeard had beached the majority of their former crew , robbed the Revenge and two other vessels of the squadron of most of their supplies , and sailed away for parts unknown aboard the sloop Adventure , carrying all the loot with him . Bonnet now ( probably late June or early July 1718 ) resumed command of the Revenge . Few , if any , of his original crew from Barbados were still aboard . Bonnet reinforced the Revenge by rescuing a number of men whom Blackbeard had marooned on a sandbar in Topsail Inlet .
Shortly after Bonnet resumed command , a bumboat 's crew told him that Blackbeard was moored in Ocracoke Inlet . Bonnet set sail at once to hunt down his treacherous ex @-@ confederate , but could not find him , and Bonnet never met Blackbeard again . Although Bonnet apparently never discarded his hopes of reaching St. Thomas and getting his letter of marque , two pressing problems now tempted him back into piracy . First , Blackbeard had stolen the food and supplies he and his men needed to subsist ( one pirate testified at his trial that no more than ten or eleven barrels remained aboard the Revenge ) . Second , St. Thomas was now in the midst of the Atlantic hurricane season , which would last until autumn . However , returning to freebooting meant nullifying Bonnet 's pardon .
Hoping to preserve his pardon , Bonnet adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed the Revenge 's name to the Royal James . The name Royal James that Bonnet conferred on his sloop was presumably a reference to the younger Prince James Stuart , and may suggest that Bonnet or his men had Jacobite sympathies . One of Bonnet 's prisoners further reported witnessing Bonnet 's men drinking to the health of the Old Pretender and wishing to see him king of the English nation .
Bonnet further tried to disguise his return to piracy by engaging in a pretense of trade with the next two vessels he robbed . Soon afterward , Bonnet quit the charade of trading and reverted to naked piracy . In July 1718 , he cruised north to Delaware Bay , pillaging another eleven vessels . He took several prisoners , some of whom joined his pirate crew . While Bonnet set loose most of his prizes after looting them , he retained control of the last two ships he captured : the sloops Francis and Fortune . On 1 August 1718 , the Royal James and the two captured sloops sailed southward from Delaware Bay . The captured sloops lagged behind , and Bonnet threatened to sink them if they did not stay closer . During the passage , Bonnet and his crew divided their loot into shares of about £ 10 or £ 11 and distributed them amongst themselves . This is the only time Bonnet is known to have practiced this important pirate custom , and it suggests he had by then abandoned his unorthodox practice of paying regular wages to his crew .
Twelve days out of Delaware Bay , Bonnet entered the estuary of the Cape Fear River and anchored near the mouth of a small waterway now known as Bonnet 's Creek . The Royal James had begun to leak badly and was in need of careening . Shortly afterward , a small shallop entered the river and was captured . Bonnet had the shallop broken up to help repair the Royal James . The work of careening was done , in whole or in part , by the prisoners Bonnet had captured . Bonnet threatened at least one man with marooning if he did not work the Royal James ' pumps . Bonnet remained in the Cape Fear River for the next 45 days . According to Bonnet 's boatswain , Ignatius Pell , the pirates intended to wait out the hurricane season there .
= = Battle of Cape Fear River = =
By the end of August , news had reached Charleston that Bonnet 's vessels were moored in the Cape Fear River . Robert Johnson , governor of South Carolina , authorised Colonel William Rhett to lead a naval expedition against the pirates , even though the Cape Fear River was in North Carolina 's jurisdiction . After a false start due to the appearance of another pirate ship near Charleston , Rhett arrived at the mouth of the Cape Fear River on 26 September with two eight @-@ gun sloops , the Henry and the Sea Nymph , and a force of 130 militia men . Bonnet initially mistook Rhett 's squadron for merchantmen and sent three canoes to capture them . Unfortunately for Rhett , his flagship Henry had run aground in the river mouth , enabling Bonnet 's canoe crews to approach , recognise the heavily armed and manned sloops as hostile and return uninjured to warn Bonnet . The sun had set by the time the rising tide lifted the Henry off the river bottom .
The 46 pirates were scattered among the three sloops . During the night , Bonnet brought all of them aboard the Royal James and planned to fight his way out to sea in the morning rather than risk the Cape Fear River 's narrow channels in the dark . Bonnet also wrote a letter to Governor Johnson , threatening to burn all the ships in Charleston harbor . At daybreak , on 27 September 1718 , Bonnet set sail toward Rhett 's force , and all three sloops opened fire , initiating the Battle of Cape Fear River . The two South Carolinian sloops split up in an effort to bracket the Royal James . Bonnet tried to avoid the trap by steering the Royal James close to the river 's western shore , but ran aground in the process . Rhett 's closing sloops also ran aground , leaving only the Henry in range of the Royal James .
The battle was at a stalemate for the next five or six hours , with all the participants immobilised . Bonnet 's men had the advantage that their deck was heeled away from their opponents , giving them cover , while the Henry 's deck was tilted toward the pirates , thus exposing Rhett 's men to punishing musket volleys . Bonnet 's force suffered twelve casualties while killing ten and wounding fourteen of Rhett 's 70 @-@ man crew . Most of Bonnet 's men fought enthusiastically , challenging their enemies to board and fight hand to hand , and tying a knot in their flag as a mock signal to come aboard and render aid . Bonnet himself patrolled the deck with a pistol drawn , threatening to kill any pirate who faltered in the fight . Nevertheless , some of the prisoners who had been forced to join the pirate crew refused to fire on Rhett 's men , and one narrowly escaped death at Bonnet 's hands in the confusion of the engagement .
The battle was ultimately decided when the rising tide lifted Rhett 's sloops free while temporarily leaving the Royal James stranded . Bonnet was left helpless , watching while the enemy vessels repaired their rigging and closed to board his paralysed vessel . Outnumbered almost three to one , Bonnet 's men would have had little hope of winning a boarding action . Bonnet ordered his gunner , George Ross , to blow up the Royal James 's powder magazine . Ross apparently attempted this , but was overruled by the remainder of the crew , who surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and returned to Charleston with his prisoners on 3 October .
= = Escape , recapture , and execution = =
In Charleston , Bonnet was separated from the bulk of his crew and held for three weeks in the provost marshal 's house along with his boatswain , Ignatius Pell , and his sailing master , David Herriott . On 24 October , Bonnet and Herriott escaped , probably by colluding with local merchant Richard Tookerman . Governor Johnson at once placed a £ 700 bounty on Bonnet 's head and dispatched search teams to track him down . Bonnet and Herriott , accompanied by a slave and an Indian , obtained a boat and made for the north shore of Charleston Harbor , but foul winds and lack of supplies forced the four of them onto Sullivan 's Island . Governor Johnson sent a posse under Rhett to Sullivan 's Island to hunt for Bonnet . The posse discovered Bonnet after an extensive search , and opened fire , killing Herriott and wounding the two slaves . Bonnet surrendered and was returned to Charleston . While awaiting trial , some sort of civil uprising in his support took place within the city , an event authorities would later describe as having nearly resulted in the burning of the town and the overthrow of the government .
On 10 November 1718 , Bonnet was brought to trial before Sir Nicholas Trott , sitting in his capacity as Vice @-@ Admiralty judge . Trott had already sat in judgment on Bonnet 's crew and sentenced most of them to hang . Bonnet was formally charged with only two acts of piracy , against the Francis and the Fortune , whose commanders were on hand to testify against Bonnet in person . Ignatius Pell had turned King 's evidence in the trial of Bonnet 's crew and now testified , somewhat reluctantly , against Bonnet himself . Bonnet pleaded not guilty and conducted his own defence without assistance of counsel , cross @-@ examining the witnesses to little avail , and calling a character witness in his favor . Trott rendered a damning summation of the evidence , and the jury delivered a guilty verdict . Two days later , after treating the convicted man to a stern lecture on his violation of Christian duties , Trott sentenced Bonnet to death .
While awaiting his execution , Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson , begging abjectly for clemency and promising to have his own arms and legs cut off as assurance that he would never again commit piracy . Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet 's visibly disintegrating mind moved many Carolinians to pity , particularly the female population , and London papers later reported that the governor delayed his execution seven times . Bonnet was eventually hanged at White Point Garden , in Charleston , on 10 December 1718 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Bonnet 's authority = = =
The actual degree of authority any pirate captain exercised over his crew was questionable , as he had no access to the procedures and sanctions of admiralty law that supported legitimate captains . Many pirate captains were elected by their crews and could be deposed in the same manner . Because of his ignorance of nautical matters , Bonnet was in an even weaker position than other pirate captains , as is demonstrated by the utter domination Blackbeard exercised over him during their collaboration . During Bonnet 's early career , his crew seems to have been less than loyal to him and to have greatly preferred the more charismatic and experienced Blackbeard .
At his trial , Bonnet downplayed his own authority over his pirate crew . He told the court that his crew engaged in piracy against his will , and said he had warned them that he would leave the crew unless they stopped robbing vessels . He further stated that he had been asleep during the capture of the sloop Francis . The court did not accept these protestations . Boatswain Ignatius Pell testified that Bonnet 's quartermaster , Robert Tucker , had more power than Bonnet . A powerful quartermaster appears to have been a common feature of pirate crews in the early modern era .
Nevertheless , Bonnet 's crew represented him as being a leader , and it appears likely that , after his rescue of Blackbeard 's marooned crewmen , he became at least a co @-@ equal commander aboard the Royal James . He appears to have been entrusted with the company 's treasure , and made most major command decisions such as the direction of the ship and what vessels to attack . Most significantly , at Delaware Bay he ordered two of his crew to be flogged for breaches of discipline . Pirates did not lightly submit to flogging , as they resented the frequent use of this punishment in the naval and merchant services from which most of them came , and thus only a leader who commanded the obedience of his crew could successfully order such penalties .
= = = Bonnet 's pirate flag = = =
Bonnet 's flag is traditionally represented as a white skull above a horizontal long bone between a heart and a dagger , all on a black field . Despite the frequent appearance of this flag in modern pirate literature , no known early @-@ Georgian period source describes any such device , much less attributes it to Bonnet . This version of Bonnet 's flag is probably one of a number of pirate flags appearing on an undated manuscript with unknown provenance in Britain 's National Maritime Museum , which was donated by Dr. Philip Gosse in 1939 . Bonnet 's crew and contemporaries generally referred to him flying a " bloody flag " , which likely means a dark red flag . There is also a report from the 1718 Boston News @-@ Letter of Bonnet flying a death 's @-@ head flag during his pursuit of the Protestant Caesar , with no mention of color or of any long bone , heart , or dagger .
= = = Walking the plank = = =
Bonnet is alleged to have been one of the few pirates to make his prisoners walk the plank . No contemporary source makes any mention of Bonnet forcing prisoners to walk the plank , and modern scholars such as Marcus Rediker , Professor of History at the University of Pittsburgh , generally agree that the whole concept of pirates forcing prisoners to walk the plank belongs to a later age than Bonnet 's .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Bonnet has been portrayed several times in literature . He is a major character in Tim Powers ' On Stranger Tides , along with other famous piratical characters , particularly Blackbeard . In this novel , Bonnet takes up piracy after having been framed by Blackbeard , who has used Bonnet 's hatred for his wife ( only married two years in the novel ) against him . Kate Bonnet : The Romance of a Pirate 's Daughter , by 19th century author Frank Stockton , is a satirical novel relating the adventures of a fictional daughter of Bonnet named Kate . Portrayals of Bonnet also extend to video games , such as Sid Meier 's Pirates ! and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag
A plaque commemorating Bonnet stands near Bonnet 's Creek in Southport , North Carolina , on the Cape Fear River . The Yacht Basin Provision Company also holds an annual Stede Bonnet Regatta near Southport , commemorating the infamous pirate 's dash for the ocean .
= Henry DeWolf Smyth =
Henry DeWolf " Harry " Smyth ( / ˈhɛnri dəˈwʊlf ˈsmaɪθ / ; May 1 , 1898 – September 11 , 1986 ) was an American physicist , diplomat , and bureaucrat . He played a number of key roles in the early development of nuclear energy , as a participant in the Manhattan Project , a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , and U.S. ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) .
Educated at Princeton University and the University of Cambridge , he was a faculty member in Princeton 's Department of Physics from 1924 to 1966 . He chaired the department from 1935 to 1949 . His early research was on the ionization of gases , but his interests shifted toward nuclear physics beginning in the mid @-@ 1930s .
During World War II he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee 's Uranium Section and a consultant on the Manhattan Project . He wrote the Manhattan Project 's first public official history , which came to be known as the Smyth Report .
On the AEC from 1949 to 1954 , Smyth argued unsuccessfully against a crash course to develop the hydrogen bomb and in favor of international control of nuclear weapons . He was the sole member of the commission to vote against stripping J. Robert Oppenheimer 's security clearance . As IAEA ambassador from 1961 to 1970 he played an important role in the realization of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty .
He received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 and the U.S. State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . The American Nuclear Society 's award for " nuclear statesmanship " , of which he was the first recipient , is named in his honor .
= = Personal life = =
Smyth was born May 1 , 1898 , in Clinton , New York , to Ruth Anne Phelps and Charles Henry Smyth , Jr . , a professor of geology at Hamilton College . Woodrow Wilson , then President of Princeton University , convinced Smyth pére to join the faculty at Princeton , and in 1905 the family moved to Princeton , New Jersey .
Henry DeWolf Smyth 's elder brother , Charles Phelps Smyth , attended the same primary and secondary schools as Henry . The elder brother also received undergraduate and master 's degrees from Princeton , but in chemistry . He earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University but like Henry and their father became a faculty member at Princeton . Both brothers served in the Chemical Warfare Service in World War I and on the Manhattan Project .
Henry DeWolf Smyth married Mary de Coningh on June 30 , 1936 . He was a member of the Democratic Party .
= = Education = =
In Princeton , Smyth attended Miss Fine 's School , which later became the Princeton Day School , and the Lawrenceville School . After graduating from Lawrenceville in 1914 , he entered Princeton University , where he received a classical education and graduated first in his class in 1918 . He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi .
Smyth remained at Princeton to do graduate work ; he and Allen Shenstone were the only graduate students in the Department of Physics . Smyth earned a master 's degree and Ph.D. in physics from Princeton in 1920 and 1921 , respectively , studying under Karl Taylor Compton . The U.S. National Research Council awarded Smyth a fellowship , and he joined the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge . There he studied under Ernest Rutherford and earned a second Ph.D. in 1923 . At Cambridge he was affiliated with Caius College and formed a friendship with Pyotr Kapitsa , a Soviet physicist who would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics and work briefly on the Soviet atomic bomb project .
= = Early career = =
During World War I , Smyth worked in the Chemical Warfare Service and at the Aberdeen Proving Ground . After earning his second Ph.D. , he returned to Princeton for the last year of his NRC fellowship . During his early years on the Princeton faculty he lived in the Graduate College west of the main campus . He was appointed an instructor in 1924 , an assistant professor in 1925 , an associate professor in 1929 , and a full professor in 1936 . In 1935 he became chairman of the Department of Physics , a position he held until 1949 . During 1931 – 32 he was a Guggenheim Fellow at the University of Göttingen , where he studied the spectra of triatomic molecules , particularly carbon dioxide , with James Franck .
Smyth 's early research was in spectroscopy , focusing on ionization of gases by impact with electrons as a means to study the gases ' critical energy levels . He published his first research article , on the radiating potentials of nitrogen gas , in 1919 ; this became the basis of his first dissertation . In a 1922 article , he described a method for determining the ionization energy of a molecule using anode rays and demonstrated the method on mercury vapor . In the following year he used this same method to study nitrogen . He also published on the ionization of hydrogen , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , nitrogen dioxide , water vapor , sulfur dioxide , and carbon disulfide . As Robert H. Dicke , Val Logsdon Fitch , and Rubby Sherr wrote in 1989 , " By 1935 his 30 published papers established him as a leading experimentalist " in the field . In 1929 Kenneth Bainbridge completed his Ph.D. dissertation at Princeton working under Smyth , using anode rays to search for element 87 .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Smyth began to shift his interest to nuclear physics , inspired by James Chadwick 's discovery of the neutron , John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton splitting the atom , and Ernest Lawrence 's invention of the cyclotron . Three of his last research articles concerned detection of triatomic hydrogen and helium @-@ 3 . His appointment as department chair forced him to devote more time to administrative work , at the expense of research . As department chair , he had two cyclotrons built at Princeton , one in 1935 and the other in 1946 .
He was a member of the subcommittee on physics of the National Research Council from 1928 to 1935 . In 1936 Smyth responded to media criticism of basic science research as " useless " by suggesting that seemingly useless research could turn out to be very useful later .
= = World War II = =
During World War II , Smyth was involved in helping the United States build the atomic bomb . From 1941 – 43 he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) ' s Uranium Section charged with producing fissile material for the bomb . Smyth proposed the electromagnetic methods that were used to enrich the first large U @-@ 235 samples for the project . He also oversaw a nuclear fission @-@ related project for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) . During 1943 – 45 he was a consultant to the Manhattan Project , which built and tested the weapon , and associate director of the University of Chicago 's Metallurgical Laboratory , which contributed to the Manhattan Project . At the Metallurgical Laboratory he headed research on heavy water . He remained chairman of Princeton 's physics department throughout the war , and the attendant obligations forced him to participate less actively in the project 's later stages .
In August 1944 General Leslie Groves , director of the Manhattan Project , appointed Smyth to the Postwar Policy Committee , which was charged with proposing government policy for research and development of atomic energy after the war was over . The committee recommended that a national commission modeled on the OSRD fund and oversee continued production and fundamental research in government laboratories , universities , and the private sector .
= = = Smyth Report = = =
Smyth advocated within the NDRC for a comprehensive report to be released to the public following the weapon 's first use . Vannevar Bush , who as civilian director of the OSRD oversaw the NDRC , agreed , and selected Smyth to write the report following the recommendation of NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant . Groves granted Smyth unlimited access , waiving his usual security @-@ minded insistence on compartmentalization . Smyth wrote what became known as the Smyth Report in his office in Princeton 's Palmer Laboratory , which later became the Frist Campus Center .
The report was first released to the press on August 12 , 1945 , days after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Government Printing Office could not print enough copies to meet demand , so Smyth persuaded the director of the Princeton University Press to print more . By the end of the Press 's 1946 fiscal year it had printed 103 @,@ 000 copies . Smyth held the copyright to the work to prevent others from claiming it , but he permitted widespread reproduction , essentially releasing it into the public domain . He later reported that " my financial balance from the Smyth Report is minus two dollars , the copyright fee . "
In the report , Smyth called it " a semi @-@ technical report which it is hoped men of science in this country can use to help their fellow citizens in reaching wise decisions " in the new Atomic Age . At the urging of his superiors , he removed several discussions of the bomb 's moral implications and its creators ' unease . Rebecca Press Schwartz argues that Smyth 's academic background and his report 's security @-@ driven focus on physics at the expense of engineering caused the Smyth Report to promote a public perception of the Manhattan Project as primarily an achievement of physicists .
= = Postwar = =
Following the war , Smyth returned full @-@ time to his duties at Princeton . He continued to chair the Physics Department and was named the Joseph Henry Professor of Physics in 1946 . During this time he spoke and wrote regularly about nuclear energy and science policy and worked to expand the physics department .
In early 1949 , physicist Robert Bacher stepped down from the Atomic Energy Commission . He and AEC Chairman David Lilienthal wanted a physicist to replace Bacher , and they ultimately recommended Smyth for the position . President Harry Truman nominated Smyth to the AEC later that year , prompting Smyth resign as Physics Department chairman . ( His old colleague Allen Shenstone took up the post . ) Smyth was the commission 's only scientist . He spent his first weeks in the position attending hearings of the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy . Led by Senator Bourke Hickenlooper , the hearings inquired into a small amount of uranium that was alleged to be unaccounted for in AEC labs . Smyth later condemned the hearings as grounded in misconceptions about the work of nuclear scientists .
Following the Soviet Union 's successful nuclear test in August 1949 , the U.S. was considering a crash course to develop a hydrogen bomb . The AEC 's nine @-@ member General Advisory Committee , chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer , recommended unanimously against such a course , and Smyth was one of three of the five AEC commissioners to agree . Smyth urged Truman to endorse international control of nuclear weapons , but Truman decided instead to authorize a hydrogen bomb program . In his autobiography , Smyth 's Princeton colleague John Archibald Wheeler recalled that Smyth recruited him to the Ivy Mike hydrogen bomb project and expressed support for the project in response to the Soviet test .
In 1953 Smyth and John A. Hall served as principal advisors to President Dwight Eisenhower in preparing his Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations . The IAEA traces its origins to this speech .
In 1954 the AEC was considering rescinding Oppenheimer 's security clearance on suspicion that he was a Communist . Smyth was still the only scientist on the commission . Despite his personal dislike of Oppenheimer and pressure from the commission 's new chairman , Lewis Strauss , Smyth was the sole commissioner to vote against stripping Oppenheimer 's clearance on June 29 , 1954 . Smyth resigned from the AEC on September 30 of that year out of frustration with Strauss . Eulogizing Oppenheimer in 1967 , Smyth said of Oppenheimer 's treatment , " Such a wrong can never be righted ; such a blot on our history never erased .... We regret that his great work for his country was repaid so shabbily " .
Smyth returned to Princeton and served on several high @-@ level administrative committees . This work included advising on the construction of a particle accelerator built jointly with the University of Pennsylvania and overseeing Project Matterhorn , which became the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory . He chaired the committee that chose Robert F. Goheen to succeed Harold W. Dodds as President of Princeton . He also served as a consultant on nuclear power to Congress , the AEC , and private industry . He retired from Princeton in 1966 .
Smyth was a fellow of the American Physical Society and served as its Vice President in 1956 and its President in 1957 . He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956 . He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations .
= = IAEA representative = =
President John F. Kennedy appointed Smyth as the representative of the United States to the IAEA , a position with the rank of Ambassador . Smyth assumed the position on June 13 , 1961 , following confirmation by the U.S. Senate . Smyth shared the organization 's stated goal of developing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes . He helped develop what Glenn Seaborg later called " an unprecedented atmosphere of rapport " at the IAEA and played a crucial role in the adoption of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty in 1970 . He retired from the IAEA on August 31 , 1970 .
In September 1961 , Harlan Cleveland , then Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs , appointed Smyth to chair a committee to review U.S. policy toward the IAEA . The committee 's report affirmed the importance of civilian uses of nuclear energy . In 1962 Cleveland again tapped Smyth , this time as an adviser to the State Department on the IAEA . In this position Smyth advocated for a transfer of national nuclear safeguards to the IAEA .
In December 1965 , Smyth was elected Chairman of the Board of the Universities Research Association . During Smyth 's tenure , the URA signed a contract with the U.S. government to construct and operate the National Accelerator Laboratory , which later became known as Fermilab . Construction began , and research programs were planned . Smyth stepped down as chairman in 1970 but remained on the board . He also served on the board of Associated Universities , Inc . , which operated the Brookhaven National Laboratory and National Radio Astronomy Observatory .
Smyth received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 ( with Sigvard Eklund and Abdus Salam ) and the State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . In 1972 he became the first recipient of an award for nuclear statesmanship given jointly by the American Nuclear Society and the Nuclear Energy Institute . By 1974 , when the award was next given , it had been named the Henry DeWolf Smyth Nuclear Statesman Award .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After retiring from the IAEA , Smyth remained active . On the 40th anniversary of the Trinity test in 1985 , he denounced President Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative and called for joint arms reductions between the United States and the Soviet Union . He died September 11 , 1986 , in Princeton . The cause was cardiac arrest , though he had long battled cancer .
Smyth endowed a chair in the Physics Department in his will . The sitting Henry DeWolf Smyth Professor of Physics is Suzanne Staggs .
= Sebaceous gland =
Sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter , called sebum , to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals . In humans , they occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp , but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . The type of secretion of the sebaceous glands is referred to as holocrine .
In the eyelids , meibomian glands , also called tarsal glands , are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears . Fordyce spots are ectopic ( misplaced ) sebaceous glands found usually on the lips , gums and inner cheeks . Areolar glands surround the female nipples . Preputial glands also known as Tyson 's glands are found in the genitals of both sexes of mice and rats .
Several related medical conditions involve sebum — including acne , sebaceous cysts , hyperplasia , and sebaceous adenoma . These are usually attributable to overactive sebaceous glands , which produce excess sebum .
= = Structure = =
= = = Location = = =
The sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . There are two types of sebaceous gland , those connected to hair follicles , in pilosebaceous units , and those that exist independently .
Sebaceous glands are found in hair @-@ covered areas , where they are connected to hair follicles . One or more glands may surround each hair follicle , and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles . The glands have an acinar structure ( like a many @-@ lobed berry ) , in which multiple glands branch off a central duct . The glands deposit sebum on the hairs , and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft . The structure consisting of hair , hair follicle , arrector pili muscles , and sebaceous gland is an epidermal invagination known as a pilosebaceous unit .
Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas ( glabrous skin ) of the eyelids , nose , penis , labia minora , the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek , and nipples . Some sebaceous glands have unique names . Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek are known as Fordyce spots , and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands . Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Montgomery 's glands .
= = = Development = = =
Sebaceous glands are first visible from the 13th to the 16th week of fetal development , as bulgings off hair follicles . Sebaceous glands develop from the same tissue that gives rise to the epidermis of the skin . Overexpression of the signalling factors Wnt , Myc and SHH all increase the likelihood of sebaceous gland presence .
The sebaceous glands of a human fetus secrete a substance called vernix caseosa , a waxy , translucent white substance coating the skin of newborns . After birth , activity of the glands decreases until there is almost no activity during ages 2 – 6 years , and then increases to a peak of activity during puberty , due to heightened levels of androgens .
= = Function = =
Sebaceous glands secrete the oily , waxy substance called sebum ( Latin : fat , tallow ) that is made of triglycerides , wax esters , squalene , and metabolites of fat @-@ producing cells . Sebum waterproofs and lubricates the skin and hair of mammals . Sebaceous secretions in conjunction with apocrine glands also play an important thermoregulatory role . In hot conditions , the secretions emulsify the sweat produced by the eccrine glands and this produces a sheet of sweat that is not readily lost in drops of sweat . This is of importance in delaying dehydration . In colder conditions , the nature of sebum becomes more lipid and in coating the hair and skin , rain is effectively repelled .
Sebum is produced in a holocrine process , in which cells within the sebaceous gland rupture and disintegrate as they release the sebum and the cell remnants are secreted together with the sebum . The cells are constantly replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct .
= = = Sebum = = =
Sebum , secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans , is primarily composed of triglycerides ( ~ 41 % ) , wax esters ( ~ 26 % ) , squalene ( ~ 12 % ) , and free fatty acids ( ~ 16 % ) . The composition of sebum varies across species . Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body . Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans , and is implicated in the development of acne . Sebum is odorless , but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors .
Sex steroids are known to affect the rate of sebum secretion ; androgens such as testosterone have been shown to stimulate secretion , and estrogens have been shown to inhibit secretion . Dihydrotestosterone acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles .
= = = Immune function and nutrition = = =
Sebaceous glands are part of the body 's integumentary system and serve to protect the body against germs . Sebaceous glands secrete acids that form the acid mantle . This is a very fine , slightly acidic film on the surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to bacteria , viruses , and other potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin . The pH of the skin is between 4 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 2 , and this acidity helps to neutralise the primarily alkaline nature of contaminants .
Sebaceous lipids make an important contribution in maintaining the integrity of the skin barrier , and express both pro @-@ inflammatory and anti @-@ inflammatory properties . Sebum may act as a delivery system for antioxidants , antimicrobial lipids , pheromones , and hydration of the stratum corneum . The insoluble fatty acids contained within sebum have broad antimicrobial activity . Additionally , sebaceous gland secretion provides vitamin E to the upper layers of facial skin .
= = = Unique sebaceous glands = = =
During the last three months of fetal development , the sebaceous glands of the fetus produce vernix caseosa , a waxy white substance that coats the skin to protect it from amniotic fluid .
The areolar glands are in the areola that surrounds the nipple in the female breast . These glands secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple , and also secrete volatile compounds that are thought to serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn . During pregnancy and lactation these glands , also called Montgomery 's glands , become enlarged .
Meibomian glands , in the eyelids , secrete a form of sebum called meibum onto the eye , that slows the evaporation of tears . It also serves to create an airtight seal when the eyes are closed and its lipid quality also prevents the eyelids from sticking together . The meibomian glands are also known as tarsal glands , Zeis glands and palpebral glands . They attach directly to the follicles of the eyelashes , which are arranged vertically within the tarsal plates of the eyelids .
Fordyce spots , or Fordyce granules , are ectopic sebaceous glands found on the genitals and oral mucosa . They show themselves as yellowish @-@ white milia ( milkspots ) .
Earwax is partly composed of sebum produced by glands in the ear canal . These secretions are viscous and have a high lipid content , which provides good lubrication .
= = Clinical significance = =
Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris . In the skin pores , sebum and keratin can create a hyperkeratotic plug called a comedo .
= = = Acne = = =
Acne is a very common problem , particularly during puberty in teenagers , and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors . The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct . This can cause a comedo , ( commonly called a blackhead or a whitehead ) , which can lead to infection , particularly by the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes . This can inflame the comedones , which then change into the characteristic acne lesions . Comedones generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands , particularly the face , shoulders , upper chest and back . Comedones may be ' black ' or ' white ' depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit , or just the sebaceous duct , is blocked . Sebaceous filaments — innocuous build @-@ ups of sebum — are often mistaken for whiteheads .
There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet , to medications that include antibiotics , benzoyl peroxide , retinoids and hormonal treatments . Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands . Should the usual treatments fail , the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause .
= = = Other = = =
Other conditions that involve the sebaceous glands include :
Seborrhoea refers to overactive sebaceous glands , a cause of oily skin or hair .
Sebaceous hyperplasia , referring to excessive proliferation of the cells within the glands , and visible macroscopically as small papules on the skin , particularly on the forehead , nose and cheeks .
Seborrhoeic dermatitis , a chronic , usually mild form of dermatitis effected by changes in the sebaceous glands . In newborn infants seborrhoea dermatitis can occur as cradle cap .
Seborrheic @-@ like psoriasis ( also known as " Sebopsoriasis , " and " Seborrhiasis " ) is a skin condition characterized by psoriasis with an overlapping seborrheic dermatitis .
Sebaceous adenoma , a benign slow @-@ growing tumour — which may , however , in rare cases be a precursor to a cancer syndrome known as Muir @-@ Torre syndrome .
Sebaceous carcinoma , an uncommon and aggressive cutaneous tumour .
Sebaceous cyst is a term used to refer to both an epidermoid cyst and a pilar cyst , though neither of these contain sebum , only keratin and do not originate in the sebaceous gland and so are not true sebaceous cysts . A true sebaceous cyst is relatively rare and is known as a steatocystoma .
Phymatous rosacea is a cutaneous condition characterized by an overgrowth of sebaceous glands .
= = History = =
The word sebaceous , meaning " consisting of sebum " , was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow . Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc , who defined them as " ... the glands which separate the fat . " He describes them in the oral cavity , on the head , eyelids and ears , as " universally " acknowledged . , viii Astruc describes them being blocked by " small animals " that are " implanted " in the excretory ducts , and attributes their presence in the oral cavity to apthous ulcers , noting " these glands naturally [ secrete ] a viscous humour , which puts on various colours and consistencies ... in its natural state is very mild , balsamic , and intended to wet and lubricate the mouth " In The Principles of Physiology 1834 , A. Combe noted that the glands were not present in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet .
= = Other animals = =
The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands that produce pheromones used for territorial marking . These and the scent glands in the flanks of hamsters have a similar composition to human sebaceous glands , are androgen responsive , and have been used as a basis for study .
Sebaceous adenitis is an autoimmune disease that affects sebaceous glands . It is mainly known to occur in dogs , particularly poodles and akitas , where it is thought to be generally autosomal recessively inherited . It has also been described in cats , and one report describes this condition in a rabbit . In these animals , it causes hair loss , though the nature and distribution of the hair loss differs greatly .
= = Additional images = =
= Nansen 's Fram expedition =
Nansen 's Fram expedition was an 1893 – 1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east – west current of the Arctic Ocean . In the face of much discouragement from other polar explorers , Nansen took his ship Fram to the New Siberian Islands in the eastern Arctic Ocean , froze her into the pack ice , and waited for the drift to carry her towards the pole . Impatient with the slow speed and erratic character of the drift , after 18 months Nansen and a chosen companion , Hjalmar Johansen , left the ship with a team of dogs and sledges and made for the pole . They did not reach it , but they achieved a record Farthest North latitude of 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N before a long retreat over ice and water to reach safety in Franz Josef Land . Meanwhile , Fram continued to drift westward , finally emerging in the North Atlantic Ocean .
The idea for the expedition had arisen after items from the American vessel Jeannette , which had sunk off the north coast of Siberia in 1881 , were discovered three years later off the south @-@ west coast of Greenland . The wreckage had obviously been carried across the polar ocean , perhaps across the pole itself . Based on this and other debris recovered from the Greenland coast , the meteorologist Henrik Mohn developed a theory of transpolar drift , which led Nansen to believe that a specially designed ship could be frozen in the pack ice and follow the same track as the Jeannette wreckage , thus reaching the vicinity of the pole .
Nansen supervised the construction of a vessel with a rounded hull and other features designed to withstand prolonged pressure from ice . The ship was rarely threatened during her long imprisonment , and emerged unscathed after three years . The scientific observations carried out during this period contributed significantly to the new discipline of oceanography , which subsequently became the main focus of Nansen 's scientific work . Fram 's drift and Nansen 's sledge journey proved conclusively that there were no significant land masses between the Eurasian continents and the North Pole , and confirmed the general character of the north polar region as a deep , ice @-@ covered sea . Although Nansen retired from exploration after this expedition , the methods of travel and survival he developed with Johansen influenced all the polar expeditions , north and south , which followed in the subsequent three decades .
= = Background = =
In September 1879 the Jeannette , an ex @-@ Royal Navy gunboat converted by the US Navy for Arctic exploration , and commanded by George Washington De Long , entered the pack ice north of the Bering Strait . She remained ice @-@ bound for nearly two years , drifting to the area of the New Siberian Islands , before being crushed and sunk on 13 June 1881 . Her crew escaped in boats and made for the Siberian coast ; most , including De Long , subsequently perished either during the boat journey or in the wastelands of the Lena River delta . Three years later , relics from the Jeannette appeared on the opposite side of the world , in the vicinity of Julianehaab on the southwest coast of Greenland . These items , frozen into the drifting ice , included clothing bearing crew members ' names and documents signed by De Long ; they were indisputably genuine .
In a lecture given in 1884 to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Dr. Henrik Mohn , one of the founders of modern meteorology , argued that the finding of the Jeannette relics indicated the existence of an ocean current flowing from east to west across the entire Arctic ocean . The Danish governor of Julianehaab , writing of the find , surmised that an expedition frozen into the Siberian sea might , if its ship were to prove strong enough , cross the polar ocean and land in South Greenland . These theories were read with interest by the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Fridtjof Nansen , then working as a curator at the Bergen Museum while completing his doctoral studies . Nansen was already captivated by the frozen north ; two years earlier he had experienced a four @-@ month voyage on the sealer Viking , which had included three weeks trapped in drifting ice . An expert skier , Nansen was making plans to lead the first crossing of the Greenland icecap , an objective delayed by the demands of his academic studies , but triumphantly achieved in 1888 – 89 . Through these years Nansen remembered the east – west Arctic drift theory and its inherent possibilities for further polar exploration , and shortly after his return from Greenland he was ready to announce his plans .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Plan = = =
In February 1890 Nansen addressed a meeting of the Norwegian Geographical Society in Oslo ( then called Christiania ) . After drawing attention to the failures of the many expeditions which had approached the North Pole from the west , he considered the implications of the discovery of the Jeannette items , along with further finds of driftwood and other debris from Siberia or Alaska that had been identified along the Greenland coast . " Putting all this together , " Nansen said , " we are driven to the conclusion that a current flows ... from the Siberian Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland , " probably passing across the Pole . It seemed that the obvious thing to do was " to make our way into the current on that side of the Pole where it flows northward , and by its help to penetrate into those regions which all who have hitherto worked against [ the current ] have sought in vain to reach . "
Nansen 's plan required a small , strong and manoeuvrable ship , powered by sail and an engine , capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years . The vessel would follow Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands , and in the approximate position of Jeannette 's sinking , when ice conditions were right " we shall plough our way in amongst the ice as far as we can . " The ship would then drift with the ice towards the pole and eventually reach the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen . Should the ship founder , a possibility which Nansen thought very unlikely , the party would camp on a floe and allow itself to be carried towards safety . Nansen observed : " If the Jeannette Expedition had had sufficient provisions , and had remained on the ice @-@ floe on which the relics were found , the result would doubtless have been very different from what it was . "
When Nansen 's plans became public knowledge The New York Times was enthusiastic , deeming it " highly probable that there is a comparatively short and direct route across the Arctic Ocean by way of the North Pole , and that nature herself has supplied a means of communication across it . " However , most experienced polar hands were dismissive . The American explorer Adolphus Greely called it " an illogical scheme of self @-@ destruction " ; his assistant , Lieutenant David Brainerd , called it " one of the most ill @-@ advised schemes ever embarked on " , and predicted that it would end in disaster . Sir Allen Young , a veteran of the searches for Sir John Franklin 's lost expedition , did not believe that a ship could be built to withstand the crushing pressure of the ice : " If there is no swell the ice must go through her , whatever material she is made of . " Sir Joseph Hooker , who had sailed south with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , was of the same opinion , and thought the risks were not worth taking . However , the equally experienced Sir Leopold McClintock called Nansen 's project " the most adventurous programme ever brought under the notice of the Royal Geographical Society " . The Swedish philanthropist Oscar Dickson , who had financed Baron Nordenskiöld 's conquest of the North @-@ East Passage in 1878 – 79 , was sufficiently impressed to offer to meet Nansen 's costs . With Norwegian nationalism on the rise , however , this gesture from their union partner Sweden provoked hostility in the Norwegian press ; Nansen decided to rely solely on Norwegian support , and declined Dickson 's proposal .
= = = Finance = = =
Nansen 's original estimate for the total cost of the expedition was NOK 300 @,@ 000 . After giving a passionate speech before the Parliament of Norway ( the Storting ) , Nansen was awarded a grant of NOK 200 @,@ 000 ; the balance was raised from private contributions which included 20 @,@ 000 kroner from King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden . The Royal Geographical Society in London gave £ 300 ( about NOK 6 @,@ 000 ) . Unfortunately , Nansen had underestimated the financing required — the ship alone would cost more than the total at his disposal . A renewed plea to the Storting produced a further NOK 80 @,@ 000 , and a national appeal raised the grand total to NOK 445 @,@ 000 . According to Nansen 's own account , he made up the remaining deficiency from his own resources . His biographer Roland Huntford records that the final deficit of NOK 12 @,@ 000 was cleared by two wealthy supporters , Axel Heiberg and an English expatriate , Charles Dick .
= = = Ship = = =
To design and build his ship Nansen chose Colin Archer , Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect . Archer was well known for a particular hull design that combined seaworthiness with a shallow draught , and had pioneered the design of " double @-@ ended " craft in which the conventional stern was replaced by a point , increasing manoeuvrability . Nansen records that Archer made " plan after plan of the projected ship ; one model after another was prepared and abandoned " . Finally , agreement was reached on a design , and on 9 June 1891 the two men signed the contract .
Nansen wanted the ship in one year ; he was eager to get away before anyone else could adopt his ideas and forestall him . The ship 's most significant external feature was the roundness of the hull , designed so that there was nothing upon which the ice could get a grip . Bow , stern and keel were rounded off , and the sides smoothed so that , in Nansen 's words , the vessel would " slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice " . To give exceptional strength the hull was sheathed in South American greenheart , the hardest timber available . The three layers of wood forming the hull provided a combined thickness of between 24 and 28 inches ( 60 – 70 cm ) , increasing to around 48 inches ( 1 @.@ 25 metres ) at the bow , which was further protected by a protruding iron stem . Added strength was provided by crossbeams and braces throughout the length of the hull .
The ship was rigged as a three @-@ masted schooner , with a total sail area of 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) . Its auxiliary engine of 220 horse @-@ power was capable of speeds up to 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . However , speed and sailing qualities were secondary to the requirement of providing a safe and warm stronghold for Nansen and his crew during a drift that might extend for several years , so particular attention was paid to the insulation of the living quarters . At around 400 gross register tonnage , the ship was considerably larger than Nansen had first anticipated , with an overall length of 128 feet ( 39 m ) and a breadth of 36 feet ( 11 m ) , a ratio of just over three to one , giving her an unusually stubby appearance . This odd shape was explained by Archer : " A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [ Nansen 's ] object must differ essentially from any known vessel . " On 6 October 1892 , at Archer 's yard at Larvik , the ship was launched by Nansen 's wife Eva after a brief ceremony . The ship was named Fram , meaning " Forward " .
= = = Crew = = =
For his Greenland expedition of 1888 – 89 Nansen had departed from the traditional dependence on large @-@ scale personnel , ships and backup , relying instead on a small well @-@ trained group . Using the same principle for the Fram voyage , Nansen chose a party of just twelve from the thousands of applications that poured in from all over the world . One applicant was the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Roald Amundsen , future conqueror of the South Pole , whose mother stopped him from going . The English explorer Frederick Jackson applied , but Nansen wanted only Norwegians , so Jackson organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land .
To captain the ship and act as the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command Nansen chose Otto Sverdrup , an experienced sailor who had taken part in the Greenland crossing . Theodore Jacobsen , who had experience in the Arctic as skipper of a sloop , signed on as Fram 's mate , and a young naval lieutenant , Sigurd Scott Hansen , took charge of meteorological and magnetic observations . The ship 's doctor , and the expedition 's botanist , was Henrik Blessing , who graduated in medicine just before Fram 's sailing date . Hjalmar Johansen , an army reserve lieutenant and dog @-@ driving expert , was so determined to join the expedition that he agreed to sign on as stoker , the only position by then available . Likewise Adolf Juell , with 20 years ' experience at sea as mate and captain , took the post of cook on the Fram voyage . Ivar Mogstad was an official at Gaustad psychiatric hospital , but his technical abilities as a handyman and mechanic impressed Nansen . The oldest man in the party , at 40 , was the chief engineer , Anton Amundsen ( no relation of Roald ) . The second engineer , Lars Pettersen , kept his Swedish nationality from Nansen , and although it was soon discovered by his shipmates , he was allowed to remain with the expedition , the only non @-@ Norwegian in the party . The remaining crew members were Peter Henriksen , Bernhard Nordahl and Bernt Bentzen , the last – named joining the expedition in Tromsø at very short notice .
= = Voyage = =
= = = Journey to the ice = = =
Before the start of the voyage Nansen decided to deviate from his original plan : instead of following Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands by way of the Bering Strait , he would make a shorter journey , taking Nordenskiöld 's North @-@ East Passage along the northern coast of Siberia . Fram left Christiania on 24 June 1893 , seen on her way by a cannon salute from the fort and the cheers of thousands of well @-@ wishers . This was the first of a series of farewells as Fram sailed round the coast and moved northward , reaching Bergen on 1 July ( where there was a great banquet in Nansen 's honour ) , Trondheim on 5 July and Tromsø , north of the Arctic Circle , a week later . The last Norwegian port of call was Vardø , where Fram arrived on 18 July . After the final provisions were taken on board , Nansen , Sverdrup , Hansen and Blessing spent their last hours ashore in a sauna , being beaten with birch twigs by two young girls .
The first leg of the journey eastward took Fram across the Barents Sea towards Novaya Zemlya and then to the North Russian settlement of Khabarova where the first batch of dogs was brought on board . On 3 August Fram weighed anchor and moved cautiously eastward , entering the Kara Sea the next day . Few ships had sailed the Kara Sea before , and charts were incomplete . On 18 August , in the area of the Yenisei River delta , an uncharted island was discovered and named Sverdrup Island after Fram 's commander . Fram was now moving towards the Taimyr Peninsula and Cape Chelyuskin , the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass . Heavy ice slowed the expedition 's progress , and at the end of August it was held up for four days while the ship 's boiler was repaired and cleaned . The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon , where a ship 's forward progress is impeded by energy dissipation caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water . On 9 September a wide stretch of ice @-@ free water opened up , and next day Fram rounded Cape Chelyuskin — the second ship to do so , after Nordenskiöld 's Vega in 1878 — and entered the Laptev Sea .
After being prevented by ice from reaching the mouth of the Olenyok River , where a second batch of dogs was waiting to be picked up , Fram moved north and east towards the New Siberian Islands . Nansen 's hope was to find open water to 80 ° north latitude and then enter the pack ; however , on 20 September ice was sighted just south of 78 ° . Fram followed the line of the ice before stopping in a small bay beyond the 78 ° mark . On 28 September it became evident that the ice would not break up , and the dogs were moved from the ship to kennels on the ice . On 5 October the rudder was raised to a position of safety and the ship , in Scott Hansen 's words , was " well and truly moored for the winter " . The position was 78 ° 49 ′ N , 132 ° 53 ′ E.
= = = Drift ( first phase ) = = =
On 9 October Fram had her first experience of ice pressure . Archer 's design was quickly vindicated as the ship rose and fell , the ice being unable to grip the hull . Otherwise the first weeks in the ice were disappointing , as the unpredictable drift moved Fram in gyratory fashion , sometimes north , sometimes south ; by 19 November , after six weeks , Fram was south of the latitude at which she had entered the ice .
After the sun disappeared on 25 October the ship was lit by electric lamps from a wind @-@ powered generator . The crew settled down to a comfortable routine in which boredom and inactivity were the main enemies . Men began to irritate each other , and fights sometimes broke out . Nansen attempted to start a newspaper , but the project soon fizzled out through lack of interest . Small tasks were undertaken and scientific observations maintained , but there was no urgency . Nansen expressed his frustration in his journal : " I feel I must break through this deadness , this inertia , and find some outlet for my energies . " And later : " Can 't something happen ? Could not a hurricane come and tear up this ice ? " Only after the turn of the year , in January 1894 , did the northerly direction become generally settled . The 80 ° mark was finally passed on 22 March .
Based on the uncertain direction and slow speed of the drift , Nansen calculated that it might take the ship five years to reach the pole . In January 1894 he had first discussed with both Henriksen and Johansen the possibility of making a sledge journey with the dogs , from Fram to the pole , though they made no immediate plans . Nansen 's first attempts to master dog @-@ driving were an embarrassing failure , but he persevered and gradually achieved better results . He also discovered that the normal cross @-@ country skiing speed was the same as that of dogs pulling loaded sledges . Men could travel under their own power , skiing , rather than riding on the sledge , and loads could be correspondingly increased . This , according to biographer and historian Roland Huntford , amounted to a revolution in polar travel methods .
On 19 May , two days after the celebrations for Norway 's National Day , Fram passed 81 ° , indicating that the ship 's northerly speed was slowly increasing , though it was still barely a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) a day . With a growing conviction that a sledge journey might be necessary to reach the pole , in September Nansen decreed that everyone would practice skiing for two hours a day . On 16 November he revealed his intention to the crew : he and one companion would leave the ship and start for the pole when the 83 ° mark was passed . After reaching the pole the pair would make for Franz Josef Land , and then cross to Spitsbergen where they hoped to find a ship to take them home . Three days later Nansen asked Hjalmar Johansen , the most experienced dog @-@ driver among the crew , to join him on the polar journey .
The crew spent the following months preparing for the forthcoming dash for the pole . They built sledges that would facilitate fast travel over rough terrain and constructed kayaks on the Inuit model , for use during the expected water crossings . There were endless trials of special clothing and other gear . Violent and prolonged tremors began to shake the ship on 3 January 1895 , and two days later the crew disembarked , expecting the ship to be crushed . Instead the pressure lessened , and the crew went back on board and resumed preparations for Nansen 's journey . After the excitement it was noted that Fram had drifted beyond Greely 's Farthest North record of 83 ° 24 , and on 8 January was at 83 ° 34 ′ N.
= = = March for the Pole = = =
On 17 February 1895 Nansen began a farewell letter to his wife , Eva , writing that should he come to grief " you will know that your image will be the last I see . " He was also reading everything he could about Franz Josef Land , his intended destination after the pole . The archipelago had been discovered in 1873 by Julius Payer , and was incompletely mapped . It was , however , apparently the home of countless bears and seals , and Nansen saw it as an excellent food source on his return journey to civilization .
On 14 March , with the ship at 84 ° 4 ′ N , the pair finally began their polar march . This was their third attempt to leave the ship ; on 26 February and again on the 28th , damage to sledges had forced them to return after travelling short distances . After these mishaps Nansen thoroughly overhauled his equipment , minimised the travelling stores , recalculated weights and reduced the convoy to three sledges , before giving the order to start again . A supporting party accompanied the pair and shared the first night 's camp . The next day , Nansen and Johansen skied on alone .
The pair initially traveled mainly over flat snowfields . Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles ( 660 km ; 410 mi ) to the pole , requiring an average daily journey of seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . On 22 March a sextant observation showed that the pair had travelled 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) towards the pole at a daily average of over nine nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) . This had been achieved despite very low temperatures , typically around − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) , and small scale mishaps including the loss of the sledgemeter that recorded mileage . However , as the surfaces became uneven and made skiing more difficult , their speeds slowed . A sextant reading on 29 March of 85 ° 56 ′ N indicated that a week 's travel had brought them 47 nautical miles ( 87 km ; 54 mi ) nearer to the pole , but also showed that their average daily distances were falling . More worryingly , a theodolite reading that day suggested that they were at only 85 ° 15 ′ N , and they had no means of knowing which of the readings was correct . They realised that they were fighting a southerly drift , and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression . Johansen 's diary indicated his failing spirits : " My fingers are all destroyed . All mittens are frozen stiff ... It is becoming worse and worse ... God knows what will happen to us " .
On 3 April , after days of difficult travel , Nansen privately began to wonder if the pole might , after all , be out of reach . Unless the surface improved , their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land . The next day they calculated their position at a disappointing 86 ° 3 ' ; Nansen confided in his diary that : " I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time . " After making camp on 7 April Nansen scouted ahead on snowshoes looking for a path forward , but saw only " a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon " . He decided that they would go no further north , and would head for Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land . Nansen recorded the latitude of their final northerly camp as 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N , almost three degrees ( 169 @.@ 6 nautical miles , or 314 km ) beyond Greely 's previous Farthest North mark .
= = = Retreat to Franz Josef Land = = =
The change of direction to south @-@ west provided much better travelling conditions , probably because the course to Franz Josef Land was broadly parallel to the lines of disturbance in the ice instead of perpendicular to them . Progress was swift : " If this goes on , " Nansen recorded on 13 April , " the return journey will be quicker than I thought . " However , the same diary entry records a mishap that day : both men 's watches had stopped . Although Nansen 's journal comment is mild , the incident was potentially disastrous . Without the correct time they could not calculate their longitude and thus maintain the correct course to Franz Josef Land . They restarted the watches based on Nansen 's guesswork that their longitude was 86 ° E , but the pair were no longer certain where they were . If they were farther west than Nansen 's assumption , they might miss Franz Josef Land altogether , and head for the open Atlantic .
The direction of the drift became northerly , hampering the pair 's progress . By 18 April , after 11 days ' travel from Farthest North , they had only made 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) to the south . They now travelled over much more broken terrain with wide open leads of water . On about 20 April they were cheered by the sight of a large piece of driftwood stuck in a floe , the first object from the outside world they had seen since Fram had entered the ice . Johansen carved his and Nansen 's initials on it , with the latitude and date . A day or two later they spotted the tracks of an Arctic fox , the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since leaving Fram . Other tracks soon appeared , and Nansen began to believe that land might be near .
The latitude calculated on 9 May , 84 ° 3 ′ N , was disappointing — Nansen had hoped they were farther south . However , as May progressed they began to see bear tracks , and by the end of the month seals , gulls and whales were plentiful . By Nansen 's calculations , they had reached 82 ° 21 ′ N on 31 May , placing them only 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Cape Fligely at the northern extremity of Franz Josef Land , if his longitude estimate was accurate . In the warmer weather the ice began to break up , making travel more difficult . Since 24 April dogs had been killed at regular intervals to feed the others , and by the beginning of June only seven of the original 28 remained . On 21 June the pair jettisoned all surplus equipment and supplies , planning to travel light and live off the now plentiful supplies of seal and birds . After a day 's travel in this manner they decided to rest on a floe , waterproof the kayaks and build up their own strength for the next stage of their journey . They remained camped on the floe for a whole month .
On 23 July , the day after leaving the camp , Nansen had the first indisputable glimpse of land . He wrote : " At last the marvel has come to pass — land , land , and after we had almost given up our belief in it ! " In the succeeding days the pair struggled towards this land , which seemingly grew no nearer , although by the end of July they could hear the distant sound of breaking surf . On 4 August they survived a polar bear attack ; two days later they reached the edge of the ice , and only water lay between them and the land . On 6 August they shot the last two Samoyed dogs , converted the kayaks into a catamaran by lashing sledges and skis across them , and raised a sail .
Nansen called this first land " Hvidtenland " ( " White Island " ) . After making camp on an ice foot they ascended a slope and looked about them . It was apparent that they were in an archipelago , but what they could see bore no relation to their incomplete map of Franz Josef Land . They could only continue south in the hopes of finding a geographical feature they could pinpoint with certainty . On 16 August Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder , marked on Payer 's maps as on the western coast of Franz Josef Land . Nansen 's objective was now to reach a hut and supplies that had been left by an earlier expedition at a location known as Eira Harbour , at the southern end of the islands . However , contrary winds and loose ice made further progress in the kayak hazardous , and on 28 August Nansen decided that , with another polar winter drawing near , they should stay where they were and await the following spring .
= = = To Cape Flora = = =
As the base for their winter quarters , Nansen and Johansen found a beach in a sheltered cove on what is now called Jackson Island , with a plentiful supply of stones and moss for building materials . They excavated a hole three feet deep , raised walls around it using loose rocks and stones , and stretched walrus skins over the top to form a roof . A chimney was improvised using snow and walrus bones . This shelter , which they called " The Hole " , was finally ready on 28 September , and was to be their home for the next eight months . Their situation was uncomfortable , but not life @-@ threatening ; there was a plentiful supply of bear , walrus and seal to stock up their larder . The chief enemy was boredom ; to pass time they were reduced to reading Nansen 's sailing almanac and navigation tables by the light of their blubber lamp , and then reading them again .
At Christmas the pair celebrated with chocolate and bread from their sledging rations . On New Year 's Eve Johansen recorded that Nansen finally adopted the familiar form of address , having until then maintained formalities ( " Mr Johansen " , " Professor Nansen " ) throughout the journey . In the New Year they fashioned themselves simple outer clothing — smocks and trousers — from a discarded sleeping bag , in readiness for the resumption of their journey when the weather grew warmer . On 19 May 1896 , after weeks of preparation , they were ready . Nansen left a note in the hut to inform a possible finder : " We are going south west , along the land , to cross over to Spitsbergen " .
For more than two weeks they followed the shoreline southwards . Nothing they saw seemed to fit with their rudimentary map of Franz Josef Land , and Nansen speculated whether they were in uncharted lands between Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen . On 4 June a change in conditions allowed them to launch their kayaks for the first time since leaving their winter quarters . A week later , Nansen was forced to dive into the icy waters to rescue the kayaks which , still tied together , had drifted away after being carelessly moored . He managed to reach the craft and , with a last effort , to haul himself aboard . Despite his frozen condition he shot and retrieved two guillemots as he paddled the catamaran back .
On 13 June walruses attacked and damaged the kayaks , causing another stop for repairs . On 17 June , as they prepared to leave again , Nansen thought he heard a dog bark and went to investigate . He then heard voices , and a few minutes later encountered a human being . It was Frederick Jackson , who had organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land after being rejected by Nansen , and had based his headquarters at Cape Flora on Northbrook Island , the southernmost island of the archipelago . Jackson 's own account records that his first reaction to this sudden meeting was to assume the figure to be a shipwrecked sailor , perhaps from the expedition 's supply ship Windward which was due to call that summer . As he approached , Jackson saw " a tall man , wearing a soft felt hat , loosely made , voluminous clothes and long shaggy hair and beard , all reeking with black grease " . After a moment 's awkward hesitation , Jackson recognised his visitor : " You are Nansen , aren 't you ? " , and received the reply " Yes , I am Nansen . "
Johansen was rescued , and the pair taken to the base at Cape Flora , where they posed for photographs ( in one instance re @-@ enacting the Jackson – Nansen meeting ) before taking baths and haircuts . | Very Long | wikitext-103-excerpt |
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